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<mask> (August 24, 1886 – September 6, 1967) was an American naval architect of the mid twentieth century. Though he began his career as an attorney, after World War I, he became recognized as a skilled project manager in the restoration of a former German ocean liner for American use. In 1922, in partnership with his brother <mask>, he began the firm which would eventually become Gibbs & Cox; they were among the major designers of World War II era warships and cargo vessels, including the Liberty ships and Fletcher-class destroyers. <mask> was a pioneer in the areas of efficient hull design and propulsion, along with being an staunch advocate for high standards of fire prevention and hull integrity. Although the Liberty ships were designed with a priority of production simplicity and economy, other <mask> designs tended to be sturdy, light, fast, safe, and enduring. In the late 1940s and early 1950s the <mask> brothers were among the promoters leading the United States government and military to subsidize the cost of building the ultimate ocean liner. In the end <mask> and Cox was awarded the contract to design and supervise the building of SS United States, which entered service in 1952.While in the class of the largest liners, it was much lighter and considerably faster than contemporary vessels. It was built with a high emphasis on safety, using a minimum of flammable materials. Early years

<mask> was born in Philadelphia to financier <mask> <mask> and Frances Ayres (Johnson<mask>. He graduated from the DeLancey School in 1905 then entered Harvard College where he followed his own curriculum of science and engineering, studying plans of British battleships in his dormitory room. He left without a degree in 1910. He then attended Columbia Law School from 1911 to 1913, receiving a Bachelor of Law and Master of Arts in economics, both in 1913. At his father's request, he practiced law for the next two years.While working as a lawyer, <mask> visited the family home each weekend and, together with his brother Frederic Herbert <mask>, began designs for a  long ocean liner, each capable of producing 180,000 horsepower. The design had progressed to a point that he left the law firm in May 1915; in January 1916 the brothers presented their plans to Admiral David W. Taylor and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. The response was encouraging, and the brothers, with the financial backing of J. P. Morgan and the United States Navy, then approached the International Mercantile Marine Company (IMMC) later that year. Although a model was tested in the Experimental Model Basin at the Washington Navy Yard, World War I put an end to these early designs. <mask> became Chief of Construction for IMMC in 1919. Gibbs & Cox

In February 1922 the <mask> brothers started their own naval architecture firm, Gibbs Brothers, Inc.; their first major contract was to convert the former German liner Vaterland into the American luxury liner . When shipbuilders Blohm + Voss asked over $1 million for the original plans, <mask> decided to draw his own.Between 100 and 150 draftsmen documented the existing ship and designed its new layout. Gibbs Brothers was renamed Gibbs & Cox in 1929. The Gibbs designed a series of four trim white-hulled ocean liners for the Matson Lines service to Hawaii, starting with the design of  in 1924. Malolo was built at William Cramp & Sons under the Gibbs Brothers' exacting supervision and tolerances. At the time she was launched, Malolo was the largest and fastest passenger liner built in the United States. During sea trials in May 1927, Malolo was rammed by ; the Gibbs brothers' modern design and safety features were credited with keeping the disabled ship afloat while she was towed back to the yard. Three sister ships to Malolo would be built in the 1930s:  and  in 1931 and  in 1932.The Grace Line contracted with Gibbs & Cox for four smaller 9,000 ton ocean liners in 1930, receiving the , , , and  in 1932. Gibbs & Cox also designed the  for the United States Lines, which was completed in 1940. All nine of these ships served as U.S. troopships in the war. During the war, Gibbs & Cox created plans for thousands of American warships and cargo vessels, including destroyers, LST landing craft, minesweepers, tankers, cruisers, and Liberty ships. Between 1940 through 1946, 63 per cent of all merchant ships of 2,000 tons up and 74 per cent of all American naval vessels (destroyers, landing craft, escort carriers, etc.) were built to the designs or working plans of Gibbs & Cox. After the war, the <mask> brothers were among the promoters for the US government and military to subsidize the construction and operation of a new 1,000-foot ocean liner.After overcoming resistance in the Truman administration for government involvement and competing designs, Gibbs & Cox was awarded the contract to design and supervise the construction of the . This ship was the culmination of <mask> career, and he was fastidious in the incorporation of fire safety concepts, to the point that the United States surpassed most present day passenger ships in fire prevention and containment. The design was also revolutionary in the use of lightweight materials and construction techniques, including a welded hull and aluminum superstructure. While rivaling the largest liners for physical size, she was much lighter, enabling higher speeds. The United States entered service in 1952, after five years of design and 28 months of construction. On her maiden voyage, she won the Blue Riband as the fastest ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, averaging , and reducing the crossing time by 10 hours. Between 1952 and 1969, the ship completed 400 voyages, with an excellent safety record.She was the largest liner ever built in the United States and the fastest liner built anywhere. While fast and safe, she was panned by some passengers, as the use of exclusively fireproof materials in the décor and furnishings limited the aesthetic and luxury appeal. Later years

In 1953 <mask> was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal. In 1955 he was awarded the first Elmer A. Sperry Award. He died in New York City on September 6, 1967, two weeks after his 81st birthday. Fulton-Gibbs Hall, the marine engineering building at the United States Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York, is named in honor or <mask>, along with Robert Fulton. The Gibbs Brothers Medal, awarded by the United States National Academy of Sciences for outstanding contributions in the field of naval architecture and marine engineering, was established by a gift from <mask> and his brother.References

Further reading

1886 births
1967 deaths
Harvard College alumni
Columbia Law School alumni
Engineers from Pennsylvania
American naval architects
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute) laureates

masks:
William Francis Gibbs
Frederic Herbert Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
William Warren
Gibbs
) Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs
Gibbs


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<mask>-<mask>'Aurevilly (2 November 1808 – 23 April 1889) was a French novelist and short story writer. He specialised in mystery tales that explored hidden motivation and hinted at evil without being explicitly concerned with anything supernatural. He had a decisive influence on writers such as Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, Henry James, Leon Bloy, and Marcel Proust. Biography
<mask>-<mask> — the d'Aurevilly was a later inheritance from a childless uncle — was born at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Manche in Lower Normandy. In 1827 he went to the Collège Stanislas de Paris. After getting his baccalauréat in 1829, he went to Caen University to study law, taking his degree three years later. As a young man, he was a liberal and an atheist, and his early writings present religion as something that meddles in human affairs only to complicate and pervert matters.In the early 1840s, however, he began to frequent the Catholic and legitimist salon of Baroness Amaury de Maistre, niece of Joseph de Maistre. In 1846 he converted to Roman Catholicism. His greatest successes as a literary writer date from 1852 onwards, when he became an influential literary critic at the Bonapartist paper Le Pays, helping to rehabilitate Balzac and effectually promoting Stendhal, Flaubert, and Baudelaire. Paul Bourget describes <mask> as an idealist, who sought and found in his work a refuge from the uncongenial ordinary world. <mask>, a less sympathetic critic, thought the extraordinary crimes of his heroes and heroines, his reactionary opinions, his dandyism and snobbery were a caricature of Byronism. Beloved of fin-de-siècle decadents, <mask> d'Aurevilly remains an example of the extremes of late romanticism. <mask> d'Aurevilly held strong Catholic opinions, yet wrote about risqué subjects, a contradiction apparently more disturbing to the English than to the French themselves.<mask> d'Aurevilly was also known for having constructed his own persona as a dandy, adopting an aristocratic style and hinting at a mysterious past, though his parentage was provincial bourgeois nobility, and his youth comparatively uneventful. Inspired by the character and ambience of Valognes, he set his works in the society of Normand aristocracy. Although he himself did not use the Norman patois, his example encouraged the revival of vernacular literature in his home region. <mask> <mask> d'Aurevilly died in Paris and was buried in the cimetière du Montparnasse. During 1926 his remains were transferred to the churchyard in Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. Works

Fiction
 Le Cachet d’Onyx (1831). Léa (1832).L'Amour Impossible (1841). La Bague d’Annibal (1842). Une vieille maîtresse (A Former Mistress, 1851)
 L'Ensorcelée (The Bewitched, 1852; an episode of the royalist rising among the Norman peasants against the first republic). Le Chevalier Des Touches (1863)
 Un Prêtre Marié (1864)
 Les Diaboliques (The She-Devils, 1874; a collection of short stories, each of which relates a tale of a woman who commits an act of violence or revenge, or other crime). Une Histoire sans Nom (The Story Without a Name, 1882). Ce qui ne Meurt Pas (What Never Dies, 1884). Essays and criticism
 Á Rebours (1884), in Le Constitutionnel, 28 July 1884.(An English translation can be found in the appendix of On Huysmans' Tomb: Critical reviews of J.-K. Huysmans and À Rebours, En Rade, and Là-Bas. Portland, OR: Sunny Lou Publishing, 2021). Du Dandysme et de Georges Brummel (The Anatomy of Dandyism, 1845). Les Prophètes du Passé (1851). Les Oeuvres et les Hommes (1860–1909). Les Quarante Médaillons de l'Académie (1864). Les Ridicules du Temps (1883).Pensées Détachées (1889). Fragments sur les Femmes (1889). Polémiques d'hier (1889). Dernières Polémiques (1891). Goethe et Diderot (1913). L'Europe des Écrivains (2000). Le Traité de la Princesse ou la Princesse Maltraitée (2012).Poetry
 Ode aux Héros des Thermopyles (1825). Poussières (1854). Amaïdée (1889). Rythmes Oubliés (1897). Translated into English
 The Story without a Name. New York: Belford and Co. (1891, translated by Edgar Saltus). The Story without a Name.New York: Brentano's (1919). Of Dandyism and of George Brummell. London: J.M. Dent (1897, translated by Douglas Ainslie). Dandyism. New York: PAJ Publications (1988). Weird Women: Being a Literal Translation of "Les Diaboliques".London and Paris: Lutetian Bibliophiles' Society (2 vols., 1900). The Diaboliques. New York: A.A. Knopf (1925, translated by Ernest Boyd). "Happiness in Crime." In: Shocking Tales. New York:  A.A. Wyn Publisher (1946). The She-devils.London: Oxford University Press (1964, translated by Jean Kimber). What Never Dies: A Romance. New York: A.R. Keller (1902). What Never Dies: A Romance. London: The Fortune Press (1933). Bewitched.New York and London: Harper & brothers (1928, translated by Louise Collier Willcox). His complete works are published in two volumes of the Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. Quotations

 "Next to the wound, what women make best is the bandage." "The mortal envelope of the Middle Age has disappeared, but the essential remains. Because the temporal disguise has fallen, the dupes of history and of its dates say that the Middle Age is dead. Does one die for changing his shirt?" "In France everybody is an aristocrat, for everybody aims to be distinguished from everybody.The red cap of the Jacobins is the red heel of the aristocrats at the other extremity, but it is the same distinctive sign. Only, as they hated each other, Jacobinism placed on its head what aristocracy placed under its foot." "In the matter of literary form it is the thing poured in the vase which makes the beauty of the vase, otherwise there is nothing more than a vessel." "Books must be set against books, as poisons against poisons." "When superior men are mistaken they are superior in that as in all else. They see more falsely than small or mediocre minds." "The Orient and Greece recall to my mind the saying, so coloured and melancholic, of Richter: 'Blue is the colour of mourning in the Orient.That is why the sky of Greece is so beautiful'." "Men give their measure by their admiration, and it is by their judgements that one may judge them." "The most beautiful destiny: to have genius and be obscure." Gallery

See also
 Charles Baudelaire
 Joris-Karl Huysmans

Notes

References

Further reading

 Beyham-Edwards, Matilda (1911). "French Author and Publisher <mask> d’Aurévilly and Trebutien." In: French Men, Women and Books. Chicago: A.C. McClurg and Co., pp.95–104. Bradley, William Aspenwall (1910). "Barbey D'Aurevilly: A French Disciple of Walter Scott," The North American Review, Vol. 192, No. 659, pp. 473–485. Buckley, Thomas (1985)."The Priest or the Mob: Religious Violence in Three Novels of <mask> D'Aurevilly," Modern Language Studies, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 245–260. Chartier, Armand B. (1977). Barbey d'Aurevilly.Boston: Twayne Publishers. Eisenberg, Davina L. (1996). The Figure of the Dandy in <mask> d'Aurevilly's "Le Bonheur dans le Crime". New York: Peter Lang. France, Anatole (1922). "Barbey d’Aurevilly." In: On Life and Letters.London: John Lane, the Bodley Head, pp. 37–44. Gosse, Edmund (1905). "Barbey d’Aurevilly." In: French Profiles. London: William Heinemann, pp. 92–107.Griffiths, Richard (1966). The Reactionary Revolution: the Catholic Revival in French Literature, 1870–1914. London: Constable. Hansson, Laura Mohr (1899). "An Author on the Mystery of Woman: <mask> d'Aurevilly." In: We Women and our Authors. London: John Lane the Bodley Head, pp.197–211. Jackson, Holbrook (1914). "The New Dandyism." In: The Eighteen Nineties. London: Grant Richards Ltd., pp. 105–116. Jamieson, T. John (1985)."Conservatism's Metaphysical Vision: <mask> d'Aurevilly on Joseph de Maistre," Modern Age, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 28–37. Lowrie, Joyce O. (1974). The Violent Mystique: Thematics of Retribution and Expiation in Balzac, <mask> d'Aurevilly, Bloy and Huysmans.Genève: Droz. Menczer, Béla (1962). "The Primacy of Imagination: From Diderot to Barbey d’Aurevilly." In: Catholic Political Thought. University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 49–57. Respaut, Michèle M. (1999)."The Doctor's Discourse: Emblems of Science, Sexual Fantasy, and Myth in Barbey d'Aurevilly's 'Le Bonheur dans le Crime'," The French Review, Vol. 73, No. 1, pp. 71–80. Rogers, B. G. (1967). The Novels and Stories of Barbey d'Aurevilly. Genève: Librairie Droz.Saltus, Edgar (1919). "Introduction." In: The Story without a Name. New York: Brentano's, pp. 5–23. Scott, Malcolm (1990). The Struggle for the Soul of the French Novel: French Catholic and Realist Novelists, 1850–1970.Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. Thiollet, Jean-Pierre (2006) & (2008). Barbey d'Aurevilly ou le Triomphe de l'Écriture, with texts by Bruno Bontempelli, Jean-Louis Christ, Eugen Drewermann and Denis Lensel. Paris: H & D Editions ; Carré d'Art : <mask> d'Aurevilly, Byron, Dali, Hallier, with texts by Anne-Élisabeth Blateau and François Roboth, Paris : Anagramme Ed. Treherne, Philip (1912). "Barbey d'Aurevilly." In: Louis XVII and Other Papers.London: T. Fisher Unwin, pp. 133–146. Turquet-Milnes, G. (1913). "Barbey d'Aurevilly." In: The Influence of Baudelaire. London: Constable and Company, Ltd., pp. 135–145.Whibley, Charles (1897). "Barbey d’Aurevilly," The New Review, Vol. XVI, pp. 204–212 (rpt. in The Pageantry of Life. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1900, pp. 219–236.)Whitridge, Arnold (1922). "Barbey d’Aurevilly," The Cornhill Magazine, New Series, Vol. LIII, pp. 49–56. External links

 Works by <mask> d'Aurevilly, at Hathi Trust
 <mask> <mask> d’Aurevilly: Encyclopædia Britannica
 Jules-Amédée <mask> d’Aurevilly: Encyclopédie de L'Agora

1808 births
1889 deaths
People from Manche
French Roman Catholics
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
French fantasy writers
French literary critics
French monarchists
Writers from Normandy
Roman Catholic writers
Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni
19th-century French novelists
French male novelists
19th-century French male writers
French male non-fiction writers

masks:
Jules
Amédée Barbey d
Jules
Amédée Barbey
Barbey
Jules Lemaître
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Jules Amédée
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Barbey
Jules Amée
Barbey
Barbey


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<mask> (23 March 1918 – 5 October 2007) was a Spanish composer and painter. <mask> was born and raised in Castellón de la Plana, Valencian Community. She was married to the composer <mask> (1908–1979). She was a leading figure in promoting the culture and music of the Valencian Community. One of her most famous compositions was Homenatge a Mistral for solo guitar. <mask> died of a stroke on 5 October 2007 in her native Valencia, aged 89. Works

Piano
 1935 Campanas
 1937 Danza de la luna.(de Romance de la luna) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1937 Danza del niño mirando a la luna. (de Romance de la luna) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1946 Planyívola (Fuera de catálogo)
 1954 Judas (Fuera de catálogo)

Vocal
 1935 Canción de atardecer, para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1935 Cuentan que la rosa,  para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1935 Nana, para voz y piano. (de Vuit cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1936 El amor y la llama para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1937 Tres cançons valencianes, para voz y piano, (Existe en versión orquestral realizada por <mask>encio)
 Cançó alegre
 Cançó de recança
 Cançò d’amor (Fuera de catálogo)
 1939 Alba lírica, ciclo de canciones para voz y piano (1936–1939) (De la segunda y la tercera existe versión para voz y guitarra)
 Canción, Llanto
 Canción de cuna
 Nostalgia
 Cantar de enamorada
 Alamillos verdes
 1939 Como esa agua, para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1939 De los álamos vengo, para voz y piano.(de Tonadas Antiguas) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1939 Seis canciones españolas, ciclo de canciones para voz y piano (de la número 4 existe versión para violín y piano, y de la número 6 versión para voz y orquesta)
 Castellana
 Gallega
 Asturiana
 Andaluza
 Zamorana
 Valenciana
 1940 ¡Adiós!, para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1940 Caminante, para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1942 El padre Lucas, para voz y piano. (de Set cançons) (Fuera de catálogo)
 1942 Set cançons, ciclo para voz y piano (1935–1942), títulos ya indicados en su año de composición (Fuera de catálogo)
 1943 Una veu, para voz y piano (Fuera de catálogo)
 1945 Ai! Que no n’era, para voz y piano.

masks:
Matilde Salvador Segarra
Life Salvador
Vicente Asencio
Matilde Salvador
Vicente As


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<mask> (29 May 1783 – 16 September 1855) was an Italian gem-engraver, medallist and coin engraver, probably best known for his Saint George and the Dragon design for the British sovereign coin. <mask> was commissioned by the British government to create the large Waterloo Medal, a project which took him thirty years to complete. Born in Rome in 1783, <mask> studied briefly with other artists before striking out on his own at age 15. He became prominent as a cameo carver and was patronised by royalty. In 1815, he moved to Britain, where he would live for most of the rest of his life. His talent brought him to the attention of notables including William Wellesley-Pole, the Master of the Mint. Pole engaged <mask> to design new coinage, including the sovereign, which was first issued in 1817 to mixed reactions.Although Pole probably promised <mask> the post of Chief Engraver, the position could not be awarded as only a British subject could hold it. This slight became a long-term grievance for <mask>. Talented but temperamental, <mask> refused to copy the work of other artists. When in 1823 George IV demanded that an unflattering portrait of him on the coinage be changed with a new likeness to be based on the work of Francis Chantrey, <mask> refused and was nearly dismissed. The Mint did not dismiss him, lest the money already spent on the Waterloo Medal be wasted. <mask> kept his place with the Mint for the rest of his life, eventually completing the Waterloo Medal in 1849, though because of its great size it could not be struck. After <mask>'s death, the George and Dragon design was restored to the sovereign coin, and is still used today.Early life and career (1783–1815)
<mask> <mask> was born in Rome on 29 May 1783, second child and son of <mask>, Senior Judge of the High Criminal Court under the papal government, and Antonia (née Greco). His elder brother Filippo displayed artistic tendencies from a young age, but <mask> showed mainly a disinclination to study. <mask> wanted his sons to follow in his footsteps and sent them to Latin schools. <mask> began his education in Bologna, where the family had property, but the <mask> family was forced to move to Rome in 1794 when Napoleon invaded Italy, and the boys were enrolled in the Roman College. Napoleon had put a price on <mask>'s head, as he had prosecuted Bonapartist rebels, so the family fled Rome when the French advanced towards it, stopping in Frosinone, where the boys were again put into an academic school. Filippo satisfied his father with enough academic achievement that he was allowed to take a job with a painter named Mango. Deprived of his brother, <mask> became despondent and was eventually allowed to work at Mango's.There, he quickly displayed his artistic talent. Mango told <mask> of his brother Giuseppe Mango, a cameo engraver in Rome. With the Pope and the French having made peace, the family was able to return there, and <mask> <mask> began his training as a cameo carver. He advanced quickly, also taking lessons from Stefano Tofanelli, and soon Giuseppe Mango was selling <mask>'s carvings as his own. Realising that his works were being sold as counterfeit antiques, <mask> began placing a secret mark, the Greek letter λ (lambda) on his creations. <mask>'s obvious talent made his fellow apprentices envious, and one provoked a fight with him, stabbing him in the abdomen before <mask> fended off the attack. Recovering at home, he taught himself to model with wax.<mask> decided his son would be better off with a new master, and secured a position for him with Giuseppe Cerbara, but the boy refused, believing that he would have to work in poor conditions. A place with gem-carver Nicolo Morelli was secured, and <mask> also attended the scuola del nudo art academy at the Campidoglio, where in 1800 he took the first prize for sculpture. <mask> felt Morelli was seeking to profit from his ability while giving him little training, and left his position at the age of 15, working from the family home. He was able to pay rent, as from the beginning he had ample commissions for cameos. <mask>'s early clients included two of Rome's major art dealers, Ignazio Vescovali and Angelo Bonelli, and Napoleon's three sisters, Elisa, Pauline and Caroline. <mask> gained prominence by winning a competition to make a cameo of Elisa (the Grand Duchess of Tuscany), working nearly nonstop for eight days to complete it. The Grand Duchess was so impressed by his work that she gave him studio space at her palace.<mask> felt secure enough with this patronage that in 1802, he married Barbara Folchi, daughter of a well-to-do merchant; they had nine children together. He continued working in Rome, turning out portrait cameos and engraved gems, until 1814. Bonelli returned from a successful trip to Britain in 1814 and proposed that <mask> go back with him, arguing that the artist's future was there. <mask> was willing, and after making provision for his family left Rome with Bonelli. They first stopped in Perugia so that <mask> could say farewell to his brother Filippo, but found him willing to accompany them. By Turin, Filippo <mask> had decided that Bonelli was not to be trusted, and so informed his brother. When they reached Paris in December 1814, the brothers refused to accompany Bonelli further, and after making threats, the dealer  departed.Filippo soon returned to Italy, but <mask> <mask> found his name and art were known in Paris, and set to work. He was there when Napoleon returned from Elba, beginning the Hundred Days, but worked on, unaffected by the war. He saw Napoleon in a garden, and always having a ball of wax with him, quietly modelled the emperor, the last portrait of him done in Europe. After the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815, <mask> began preparations to move on to Britain, but it was not until 31 December that he arrived there. Rise to prominence (1815–1819)

On arrival at Dover, <mask> had difficulty with Customs, possibly caused by Bonelli's malice. Once he was able to, he journeyed to London. He had letters of introduction to several people, and Charles Konig, Keeper of Minerals at the British Museum, proved a loyal friend.Through Konig, <mask> met the famous naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, who commissioned the artist to do a portrait of him. While Banks was sitting for <mask>, the connoisseur Richard Payne Knight came by, anxious to show Sir Joseph a cameo fragment he had purchased, and which he dated to Ancient Greece. After Banks praised it highly, <mask>, on examining it, identified it as his own work, displaying the secret mark he had placed on it. The incident increased <mask>'s reputation in London. <mask> was introduced to Lord and Lady Spencer by Banks. Lady Spencer showed Pistrucci a model of Saint George and the Dragon by Nathaniel Marchant and commissioned him to reproduce it in the Greek style as part of her husband's regalia as a Knight of the Garter. <mask> had already been thinking of such a work, and he produced the cameo.The model for the saint was an Italian waiter at Brunet's Hotel in Leicester Square, where he had stayed after coming to London. Sir Joseph commissioned <mask> to craft a cameo of King George III. As the King was ill with porphyria, <mask> modelled the likeness from Marchant's three-shilling bank token, and cut it in red jasper for a fee of 50 guineas. Banks showed the cameo to William Wellesley-Pole, elder brother of the Duke of Wellington and the Master of the Mint, who was greatly impressed by the quality of what he saw. At this time, the Royal Mint was preparing to issue new gold and silver coins as part of the Great Recoinage of 1816, and in June of that year, Pole decided to hire <mask> to make models in stone for the new coinage that could be converted into steel dies by the Mint's engravers. Pole had <mask> create three portraits of the King in different sizes. Only two were used, one for the obverse of the half crown, and the other for the shilling and sixpence.Both were modified by Thomas Wyon of the Mint, who engraved the designs in steel. What was dubbed the "bull head" of the King on the 1816 half crown was disliked by the public, and it was replaced by another in 1817. The criticism incensed <mask>, who blamed Wyon for bungling the design, and who set about learning to engrave in steel himself. After completing Lady Spencer's commission, by most accounts, <mask> suggested to Pole that an appropriate subject for the sovereign, a new gold coin equal to one pound that was to be struck, would be Saint George. Until the early 20th century, gold coins were struck for circulation, rather than as bullion pieces. Kevin Clancy, in his volume on the history of the sovereign coin, doubted whether the Spencer commission was truly the inspiration for the George and Dragon design which that coin has long featured, and that the idea might not even have come from <mask>. Clancy argued that such motifs were common at the time and that the story originated with <mask>, whom he deemed an unreliable witness on his own past.For a fee of 100 guineas (£105), <mask> created the sovereign's design, engraving it himself. He depicted the saint atop a fiery steed which is trampling the wounded dragon. George has a broken spear in his hand; part is in the dragon and another fragment lies on the ground. <mask>'s original design, used for circulation in 1817–1819 and reprised by the Royal Mint in 2017, has the ribbon of the Order of the Garter surrounding the George and dragon design, with its motto HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. The design, with Saint George bearing a sword rather than a spear, is ordinarily seen on the sovereign, and was also used for the crown from 1818. Clancy noted of the design process for the crown, "what emerges is the presence of Pole at each turn. He bombarded the young artist with suggestions and instructions on how the design should be changed from the shape of the sword to the perceived ferocity of the dragon."<mask> had placed his full last name on both sides of the crown, for which he was criticised by the public, and some said the saint would surely fall off his horse with the next blow. After the death in 1817 of Thomas Wyon Sr, the father of the man who had adapted <mask>'s designs, Pole most probably offered <mask> the post of chief engraver at the Royal Mint, with a salary of £500 per annum. and a house within the grounds of the Mint. However, it soon appeared that a law passed under William III barred foreigners from the post, and so Pole left it vacant, while granting <mask> the salary and emoluments of the office. Sir John Craig wrote in his history of the Royal Mint: "The arrangement was not put into writing, and misunderstanding was easy for a foreigner. Pole categorically denied any commitment beyond the grant for the time being of a salary for coinage designs as cheaper than payment of fees. The Italian persistently contended that he was seduced into Mint service by a promise of formal appointment to the chief engravership".According to H.W.A. Linecar in his book on British coin designs and designers, "the arrangement might have worked very well, even though it was against accepted procedure, had <mask> been other than he was." In 1819, <mask> was awarded the commission to design the Waterloo Medal, a huge piece some  in diameter that the government planned to award to the victorious generals and national leaders who had defeated Napoleon. Such a medal had been proposed by the Prince Regent (later George IV) soon

masks:
Benedetto Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Pistrucci
Benedetto
Pistrucci
Federico Pistrucci
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 after the battle. <mask>'s price was £2,400, and the down payment allowed him to bring his family from Italy. The medal was originally supposed to be to a design by John Flaxman, but <mask> refused to engrave the work of another artist, and Pole allowed him to design his own medal, a decision that antagonised London's art establishment against <mask>. A gigantic undertaking, the medal would take <mask> 30 years to complete.Conflict at the Mint (1820–1836)

After the death of George III in 1820, <mask> prepared the coinage bust of the new King, George IV. The King despised <mask>'s work for its bloated expression—according to Clancy, "its full features implying something of the appetites of the monarch". The King and <mask> also came into conflict over the Coronation medal, with the King objecting to being placed on the same level as the allegorical representations of his kingdoms. <mask> stated, "I shall elevate His Majesty", and did so. The King's toupee also caused difficulty in the engraving process. On the coinage, the sovereign was modified to remove its garter, and the saint's broken spear was replaced by a sword. Thus, it became very similar to the design used on modern-day sovereigns but for the lack of a streamer on Saint George's helmet.This version of the reverse was struck from 1821 to 1825, but <mask>'s design would be thereafter absent from the sovereign from 1825 to 1874, after his death. Aware of King George's dissatisfaction at the coinage effigy, the Mint played for time. Pole's resignation in 1823 deprived <mask> of a friend and supporter at the Mint. Sculptor Francis Chantrey had prepared a bust of the King which the monarch liked, and ordered that it be placed on the coinage. <mask> would not copy the work of another artist, and refused. The new coinage of 1823–1825 was engraved by <mask>'s assistant, Jean-Baptiste Merlen, and by William Wyon; <mask> was thereafter excluded from work on the coinage. The Mint considered sacking <mask>, but realised that if it did, the £1,700 advanced for fees and expenses on the Waterloo medal would probably be wasted, and he kept his position and pay on condition he focused on the completion of the medal.Despite this, by 1826, only a portion of one side had been completed. Though the banishment of the George and Dragon design from the sovereign after 1825 was more part of a general redesign of the coinage than an attack upon <mask>, according to Clancy he "cannot have masked the sense he must have felt of tides turning against him". There was conflict at the Mint between <mask> and William Wyon, that sometimes involved Merlen. According to Graham Pollard in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, "<mask>'s temperament did not foster good relations with his colleagues at the mint; the insecurity of his position there was deepened by a spasmodic but bitter campaign conducted through the newspapers by his partisans and those of William Wyon." <mask> appealed to each new Master of the Mint for appointment to the post of chief engraver. In 1828, the incumbent Master, George Tierney, worked a compromise that satisfied no one. Wyon was appointed as chief engraver, and <mask> as chief medallist, with the salaries of the top two engraving positions divided between them.Of <mask>'s salary of £350, £50 was conditional on his training an apprentice. <mask> in succession named two of his sons, but the allowance was stopped after 1830 as it had come to light that each resided abroad, and one was not a British subject and so was ineligible for regular Mint employment. <mask>'s understanding of the arrangement was that he would create such medals as might be ordered by government departments, with each medal a separate fee in addition to the annual salary. This effectively left <mask> with little to do at the Mint. He created several medallic works, for example a small memorial medal for the King's brother, Frederick, Duke of York in 1827 that was popular, in royal circles, mounted in rings. He was asked to design the Coronation medal after King William IV came to the throne on George's death in 1830, but declined as he was asked to copy a bust by Chantrey, and the King refused to sit for him. He created, in 1830–1831, the Army Long Service and Good Conduct Medal, the first non-campaign medal of the British Army.He took twelve months to do so, a period of time Craig found unduly long. He continued to cut cameos, and to work, slowly, on the Waterloo Medal. <mask>'s biographer, Michael A. March, tied his disinclination to work on the Waterloo Medal to his unhappiness about his position at the Mint, and he may have concluded that he would be sacked if he finished the medal. In 1836, the new Master, Henry Labouchere, stated that he felt the medal could be finished in 18 months, and offered <mask> payment if he would take on four apprentices and finish it. <mask> declined. Later career and death (1837–1855)

<mask> enjoyed a friendly relationship with Princess Victoria of Kent, the niece and heiress presumptive of King William, and cut several cameos of her.After she succeeded to the throne as Queen Victoria in 1837, <mask> was selected to sculpt her Coronation medal, which he did; the Queen granted him several sittings. Although the Queen was pleased, there were mixed reviews. When questions were asked in the House of Commons, Labouchere stated that <mask> may have been ill. Joseph Hume opined that the reverse was no better done than the cheap medals sold in the streets for a penny each. In 1838, <mask> made the silver seal of the Duchy of Lancaster, using a new process by which the punch or die could be cast in metal directly from the original wax or clay mould, rather than having to be copied by hand engraving. The following year, <mask> left for Rome to take up a position as chief engraver at the papal mint, but returned to London a few months later, deeming the salary too low. By the early 1840s, the Audit Office was questioning the amount spent on Pistrucci. In 1844, the Master of the Mint, William Gladstone restored <mask>'s salary to the full £350 and offered him £400 to complete the Waterloo Medal.<mask> moved his residence from the Mint on Tower Hill to Fine Arts Cottage, Old Windsor, and set to work in full earnest. He was slowed by injuries from a fall, and it was not until the beginning of 1849 that he submitted the matrices of the medal, and was paid the remaining balance of £1,500. The matrices were so large no one at the Royal Mint was willing to take the risk of hardening them and possibly ruining three decades' work. So only soft impressions were taken, with no medals in gold, silver and bronze as intended, though replicas have since been minted from other dies. Even if the government had struck the medals, there was almost no one to present them to, for of the intended recipients, all were dead but the Duke of Wellington. The conflict between <mask> and William Wyon continued into the late 1840s, and sometimes featured in the press, contributing to the feeling that all was not well at the Mint. A Royal Commission on reform of the Royal Mint was appointed in 1848.<mask> submitted a report, in which he settled some old scores. The reforms abolished the positions of chief engraver (Wyon died in 1851) and chief medallist, with <mask> appointed a modeller and engraver to the Mint, to receive a salary in addition to payment for any work done. <mask> in 1850 moved from Old Windsor to Flora Lodge, Englefield Green, near Windsor, where he lived with his daughters Maria Elisa and Elena, both gem engravers. He continued to accept private commissions for cameos and medals. <mask> died there of "inflammation of the lungs", on 16 September 1855, and is buried  at Christ Church, Virginia Water, Surrey. Appraisal

<mask> is probably remembered most for his George and Dragon design for the sovereign. Not greatly liked at the time of its origin, it has come to be celebrated.The Deputy Master of the Mint who restored the design to the sovereign in 1871, Charles Fremantle, stated his view that "it is hardly possible to over-rate the advantages accruing to a coinage from an artistic and well-executed design". By 1893, it was on all of Britain's gold coins; The Art Journal described <mask>'s design as having "triumphantly borne the test of time". Marsh noted, "it is indeed a tribute that his wonderful design should still adorn the gold coinage of our current Queen Elizabeth II. It is one of the finest ever in our coinage history, and has certainly stood the test of time. Long may it continue." <mask>'s design has also appeared on a non-circulating £20 silver coin in 2013 and on the crown in 1818–1823, 1887–1900, 1902 and 1951. Roderick Farey, in his biographical articles on <mask>, described him as "an Italian with a fiery disposition, he had numerous arguments with the authorities but no-one could doubt his genius firstly as a cameo cutter and later as an engraver and medallist."Those disputes, and a perceived slowness to complete his works (especially the Waterloo Medal) have been sources of the criticism by later writers. Howard Linecar, in his book on British coin designs and designers, wrote, "there is little doubt that <mask> held the cutting of these dies as a bargaining counter in his relentless efforts to obtain the post of Chief Engraver at the Royal Mint ... On balance it is perhaps fair to say that <mask>, having probably been promised that which he could not have ... squeezed the last drop of blood out of the situation." According to Clancy, "With great talent can often come controversy and throughout his career <mask> was acclaimed and reviled in equal measure, maintaining a series of tense relationships with his colleagues, the most pointed of which [was] with his fellow engraver William Wyon." Craig concluded, "Apart from the George and Dragon design, which was less esteemed then than now ... this artist's Mint works, unlike his private commissions, were failures". The Waterloo Medal is regarded by many as a masterpiece on a par with his St George and the Dragon. Pollard stated that the Waterloo Medal, "shows Pistrucci's command of the types (or figures) of cameos, an understanding of the figurative language of the Roman Renaissance, and an appreciation of the antique sculptured relief—his types, none the less, were always original". Marsh also praised the medal:, "no better piece of intaglio engraving  or design has surely ever been seen before or since.It contains as much as thirty ordinary-sized medals, and this alone is more than most medalists achieved in a life time." Farey concluded his study of Pistrucci,

Gallery

Notes

References

Bibliography

Leonard Forrer. <mask> <mask>: Italian medallist & gem-engraver, 1784-1855 (Spink, 1906). Further reading
Billing, Archibald & Pistrucci, B. The science of gems, jewels, coins, and medals, ancient and modern (inc. biography of Pistrucci) (London: Bell & Daldy, 1867) pp. 135–211. Illustrated.Contains list of works as well as biography. External links

B<mask> at Artnet
Pieces by <mask> in the Royal Collection
Head of Medusa, Cameo (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Portraits by <mask> (National Portrait Gallery, London)
  <mask> <mask>, in: World of coins
Museo della Zecca di Roma page with some of <mask>'s coin and medal models (in Italian)

1783 births
1855 deaths
19th-century engravers
British engravers
Italian medallists
Artists from Rome
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
19th-century sculptors
Coin

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<mask> (18 August 1844 – 17 March 1917) was a Scottish architect. Best known for his church buildings in the Gothic revival style, <mask> was also a keen antiquarian who oversaw meticulously researched restoration projects. Early life
<mask> was born at 37 North Frederick Street in Edinburgh, third son of four children, to French parents, who ran a business on George Street importing and manufacturing ladies shoes. His father, <mask>, was from Privas in the Ardèche area of France. He met Hippolyte's mother, Sarah or  Sartia Bauress, whilst living in Dublin and moved to Edinburgh around 1840. Their firm "Madame Blanc et Fils" was at 68 George Street immediately opposite a house they moved to later in Hippolyte's life at 69 George Street. <mask> attended George Heriot's School, winning the dux medal in 1859, and was then articled to the architect David Rhind.While working for Rhind, he attended classes at the School of Art and Design, where he met Thomas Ross, and became interested in medieval architecture. In 1864, after completing his articles, he joined the Government Office of Works under Robert Matheson, where he became a senior draughtsman in 1869. He married Elizabeth Shield on 21 August 1873, and they moved to 12 St Vincent Street. They later moved to the Grange area in south Edinburgh: first to 2 Thirlestane Road and finally to 17 Strathearn Place. Architectural career
For much of his career <mask>'s office was at 40 Frederick Street, extremely close to his parental home and their shop. In 1901 the office moved to 1 Rutland Square. From the early 1870s, <mask> began to undertake private commissions.In 1875, he won his first architectural competition, for Christ Church, Morningside, and the following year won a second, for Mayfield Free Church. He left the Office of Works in 1878 to concentrate on his increasing workload, and by 1887 he had taken on a partner, James Gordon. <mask> executed numerous church buildings, including Kirkliston Free Church (1880), St Luke's, Broughty Ferry (1884), Coats Memorial Baptist Church, Paisley (1885), St Matthew's Parish Church (now Morningside Parish Church) (1888, opened 1890) and Morningside Free Church, Edinburgh (1892), now the Church Hill Theatre. He carried out restoration work to Edinburgh Castle (1886), John Knox House (1886), St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh (1892), and St Duthac's Church, Tain (1896). Secular work includes Mayville Gardens in Trinity, Edinburgh, a pleasant and quirky Victorian cul-de-sac with a low terrace of ornate houses on each side (1881). Other major commissions included houses at Eriska, Argyll, and Ferguslie Park, Paisley (1888–91), since demolished. Bangour Village Hospital, West Lothian, was a competition win in 1898, and he designed the former Bernard's Brewery buildings in Gorgie (1887).<mask> also designed several monuments. In 1912 he took his son, Frank Edward Belcombe <mask>, into partnership, and from 1913 his own architectural work drew to a close. His son continued to practice under the name Hippolyte J. Blanc & Son, until around 1950. From 1893 to 1898 his nephew, Louis David <mask> (1877-1944), also trained under him (working largely on the Coats Memorial Church in Paisley). Louis went on to specialise in department store design, being employed by Harrods as their in-house architect from around 1928. <mask>'s eldest son, <mask> <mask>, chose to be a dentist rather than an architect. Sir Frank Mears trained under Hippolyte from 1896 to 1901.Alexander Lorne Campbell trained under him in 1897. Other activities

In 1871 <mask> was elected president of the Edinburgh Architectural Association for the first of three times. He became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in 1879, a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1901, and was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy (RSA) in 1896. In addition, he was an active member of several other learned societies. He wrote and lectured extensively, largely on the subject of medieval church architecture. <mask> served as president and treasurer of the RSA from 1907–17, and was president of the Edinburgh Photographic Society from 1888 until 1892, and honorary president from 1896 until his death. In 1910 he was appointed to a Royal Commission which oversaw British involvement in International Exhibitions held in Brussels (1910), Rome (1911) and Turin (1911).He was active in encouraging the careers of younger architects, and acted as assessor on several architectural competitions. From 1913 to 1916 he served on the ruling council of the prominent Edinburgh conservationist group the Cockburn Association. Death

<mask> died from pneumonia at his home at 17 Strathearn Place, Morningside, and was buried in Warriston Cemetery in its lower section, just south of the vaults, SE of the monument to James Young Simpson.

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<mask> (born February 24, 1962) is an American businessman, lawyer, and former politician. A member of the Republican Party, <mask> served in the United States House of Representatives from 2003 to 2007, representing Indiana's 2nd congressional district. In 2002, <mask> ran for the U.S. House, defeating former Democratic congresswoman Jill Long Thompson. <mask> was a member of the Agriculture, Small Business, Transportation and Infrastructure, and Ways and Means committees. In 2004, he defeated lawyer and then-Mishawaka Marian School Board President Joe Donnelly, later losing in a rematch against Donnelly in 2006. After leaving Congress, <mask> served as president of the Club for Growth, a fiscally conservative 501(c)4 organization, from 2009 through the end of 2014. Early life, education, and career
<mask> was born in Jackson, Michigan.He grew up in Michigan, graduating from Williamston High School in 1980. He graduated in 1984 from Hillsdale College, in Hillsdale, Michigan, with a double major in business administration and political economy. While at Hillsdale College he joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. After graduation, he went to work at Society National Bank, now known as KeyBank, which had recruited him into its management program in Cleveland. At the time when he left to go to law school, he was employed as a foreign exchange trader for the bank. <mask> attended law school classes at night at Western Michigan University Cooley Law School, in Lansing, Michigan, while working as a credit manager for his family's business, Chocola Cleaning Materials. He graduated in 1988.In 1988, <mask> was hired as corporate counsel by CTB International in Milford, Indiana, a manufacturer of products for the poultry, egg, swine, and grain production industries, which his grandfather, Howard Brembeck, had founded. He initially managed all the legal aspects of the business as corporate counsel. He then held various management positions until he was named CEO in 1994. In April 1999, he left the CEO position to become chairman of the board. In August 2002, CTB International was sold to Berkshire Hathaway, the investment firm of billionaire Warren Buffett. The <mask> family received 55% of the $140 million paid to shareholders of the company. Congressional elections

2000
In the 2000 election, <mask> made an unsuccessful bid for Congress in what was then , losing to incumbent Democrat Timothy J. Roemer by a 52–47% margin.In that campaign, <mask> spent more than $1 million, including $465,000 of his own money. In the October 8, 2000, edition of the Elkhart Truth, an Elkhart, Indiana newspaper, <mask> was quoted as saying that "Bush's plan of individual investment of 2 percent of the money is a start. Eventually, I'd like to see the entire Social Security system privatized. It's not a 'risky scheme'." In late October, after Roemer had featured that statement in political ads, <mask> said, "There is no one proposing, including me, a plan of total privatization." The newspaper, saying <mask> had made his statement in meeting its editorial board, refused to retract the story. Roemer refused to stop running the ad despite <mask>'s contention that the quotation was taken out of context.2002
Roemer retired after his 2001–2003 term. In 2002, <mask> ran again for the open seat, which had been renumbered as the 2nd District after redistricting. In November, he defeated former Congresswoman Jill Long Thompson by a 51-46 margin with 188,446 votes cast, in a race that included campaign appearances by President Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, and other top Republicans, to assist his bid. 2004
In 2004, <mask> defeated Democrat Joe Donnelly by a 54–45% margin with 259,355 votes cast, in an election where Bush received 56 percent of the district's vote. In that race, <mask> outspent Donnelly $1.4 million to $700,000. <mask> was assisted by a fundraising visit from Vice President Dick Cheney during the campaign. 2006

<mask> defeated Tony Zirkle, an attorney, Navy veteran, and frequent candidate, in the Republican primary on May 2, 2006 by 70% to 30%.In the November general election, <mask> lost to Democratic candidate Joe Donnelly, whom he had defeated in 2004, by a 54–46% margin with 191,861 votes cast. House of Representatives (2003–2007)

According to a profile by the Associated Press, "<mask> is a strong supporter of President Bush". The two do differ on some positions, such as illegal immigration. <mask> has supported (against the President's position) the "tough enforcement first" House version of changes in immigration law, in opposition to the President's calls for a guest worker program. In January 2006, <mask> said that great strides were being made in transitioning Iraq from military coalition to police control. He said it was too early to predict when the job will be done. Social issues
 <mask> was a cosponsor of the Federal Marriage Amendment in 2003 and voted for that Amendment when it came to the floor in 2004.He again was a cosponsor of the Marriage Protection Amendment in 2006 (H.J. Res. 88) and voted for the amendment on July 18, 2006. He voted in 2005 for an amendment to the Constitution preventing the desecration of the American flag. Voted for the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act in July 2006, which restricts credit card companies from processing payment towards Internet gambling companies. Voted for the Pledge Protection Act in mid-July 2006, which would prevent federal courts from ruling on cases involving the Pledge of Allegiance. Voted against overriding President George W. Bush's veto of the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act in July 2006.The bill would have modified restrictions on embryonic stem cell research and allowed for federal funding of the research. Fiscal and economic issues
 Introduced a bill that would place currency manipulation tariffs on China. He later denounced this bill when he became president of the Club for Growth. Voted against increasing the Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program by $1 billion in March 2006. Voted for the Tax Relief Extension Reconciliation Act in May 2006, which extended tax cuts set to expire over the next seven (7) years. Voted for the Permanent Estate Tax Relief Act in June 2006. The bill permanently exempted personal estates of less than $5 million per spouse from estate taxes, and lowered the tax rate on larger estates.In the summer of 2006, voted for a bill that would allow private companies to drill for oil in ANWR. One of two cosponsors of HELPS Retirees Act (H.R. 2177), also known as the Healthcare Enhancement for Local Public Safety Retirees Act of 2005, which enables retired public safety officers to designate up to $5,000 per year from governmental pension or deferred compensation funds for health care premiums on a pre-tax basis. This earned <mask> an endorsement from the International Association of Fire Fighters, one of his only endorsements from organized labor. References

External links

 Collected news and commentary at The Christian Science Monitor
 Collected news and commentary at Politico
 Collected news and commentary at The Washington Times
 <mask>, 100 People to Watch This Fall, The Hill, August 7, 2013
 Campaign finance at Influence Explorer
 Column archive at Redstate.com

1962 births
Living people
Politicians from Jackson, Michigan
American Presbyterians
Indiana Republicans
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana
21st-century American businesspeople
People from Bristol, Indiana
People from Milford, Indiana
21st-century American politicians
Hillsdale College alumni
Western Michigan University Cooley Law School alumni
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana

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Joseph Christopher Chocola
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Laura-<mask> (born c. 1954) is a cognitive neuroscientist and a developmental cognitive neuroscientist known for her research and scientific discoveries involving the language capacity of chimpanzees, the biological bases of language in humans, especially early language acquisition (be it language on the hands in signed languages or on the tongue in spoken languages), early reading, and bilingualism, bilingual reading, and the bilingual brain. Significant scientific discoveries include the existence of linguistic babbling on the hands of deaf babies (“manual babbling”) and the equivalent neural processing of signed and spoken languages in the human brain. She is recognized for her contributions to the creation of the new scientific discipline, called educational neuroscience. <mask> chaired a new undergraduate department at Dartmouth College, called "Educational Neuroscience and Human Development" (2002-2007), and was a Co-Principal Investigator in the National Science Foundation and Dartmouth's Science of Learning Center, called the "Center for Cognitive and Educational Neuroscience" (2004-2007). At Gallaudet University (2011–present), <mask> led a team in the creation of the first PhD in Educational Neuroscience program in the United States. <mask> is the Co-Principal Investigator as well as Science Director of the National Science Foundation and Gallaudet University’s Science of Learning Center, called the "Visual Language and Visual Learning Center (VL2)". <mask> is also founder and Scientific Director of the Brain and Language Laboratory for Neuroimaging (“BL2”) at Gallaudet University.Biography

Education
<mask> received her Bachelor of Science degree in 1975 from Ramapo College of New Jersey while taking undergraduate classes and conducting cross-species language research with the chimpanzee "Nim Chimpsky" at Columbia University (New York City, New York). <mask> then conducted psycholinguistic research on American Sign Language (ASL) in the laboratory of  Dr. Ursula Bellugi  at The Salk Institute for Biological Studies (La Jolla, California), along with Linguist, Edward Klima, of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where <mask> began graduate study in the Department of Linguistics (1976–1977). <mask> continued graduate study at New York University (Master's degree, 1978, specializing in Rehabilitative Counseling Psychology and Deafness, 1977–1978). <mask> then researched the phonological structure of ASL in "The Linguistics Research Laboratory" of Dr. William Stokoe at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. (1978–1979). In 1979, <mask> began graduate study at Harvard University, Department of Human Development and Psychology, in its "Language & Cognition" track. While Drs. Roger Brown (primary Graduate Advisor)<ref

name=r1043 /> and Courtney Cazden (co-Advisor) were <mask>'s mentors in "Cognition," Noam Chomsky at MIT was <mask>'s mentor in "Language."<mask> first met the renowned Linguist when working with Nim Chimpsky on Project Nim in the mid 1970s and this intellectual mentorship endured throughout her Harvard graduate studies and for decades to follow.<ref

name=r1020 /> <mask> was graduated from Harvard with a master's degree in 1981, and a Doctorate/Ed.D. in March, 1984. Leaving Harvard in fall 1983 to take up her first faculty appointment in McGill University's Department of Psychology (Montreal, Quebec, Canada), <mask> also won a John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship (awarded to 10 young scientists in the USA). Commuting between McGill and Salk in her first few faculty years, <mask> studied with Dr. Ursula Bellugi and Dr. Francis Crick (Salk), and Dr. Elizabeth Bates (UCSD), intellectual mentorships that would span decades thereafter. <mask>'s McGill psychology department role expanded when she also became a research scientist at the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, and a collaborating scientist on The McDonnell-Pew Centre Grant in Cognitive Neuroscience with Drs. Brenda Milner, Michael Petrides (PIs), as well as with Dr. Robert Zatorre (1990-2001). Scientific contributions
<mask>'s research and discoveries span several scientific disciplines.Her early work with Nim Chimpsky and her later work with humans, encompasses anthropology, comparative ethology, evolutionary biology, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive science, theoretical linguistics, philosophy, psychology, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, child development, evolutionary psychology, American Sign Language, deaf studies, and bilingualism. Her overall discoveries involve:

 (1) cross-species (apes and humans) language and cognitive capacities,
 (2) the nature of early human language acquisition, structure, and representation in the human brain; especially infants’ (ages 6–12 months) peaked neural sensitivity (involving the brain's STG and associated neural networks) to maximally-contrasting, rhythmic temporal patterning that in turn permits them to discover human language phonological structure in early life, and which is key to phonetic segmentation in word learning, discerning linguistic/syntactic patterning, and phonetic decoding in early reading,
 (3) the structure, grammar, and representation of natural signed languages of Deaf people, and
 (4) the nature of bilingual infants, children, and adults' dual language and reading development, processing, and bilingual brain organization. Advancement of New Discipline: Petitto had an early role in the creation of a new scientific discipline with her colleague and husband Kevin Niall Dunbar, which they termed Educational Neuroscience. Educational Neuroscience is a sister discipline of Cognitive Neuroscience, in which basic neuroscience and behavioral science discoveries about the developing brain and the growing child are joined with their translational implications, towards the ultimate goal of solving core problems in society and the education of young children. Advancement of Technology: Petitto's science shows a history of pushing technology in new directions so as to answer previously insoluble questions in science, involving, for example, novel use of Positron Emission Technology (PET) with anatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) so as to identify the brain tissue and systems underlying human signed languages as compared with the tissue/systems underlying spoken languages; OPTOTRAK (high-speed kinetics and dynamic motion capture system) to build a device analogous to a speech spectrogram but for signed languages so as to study the fundamental frequency (fo or FF) of deaf and hearing infants’ linguistic manual babbling; and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) neuroimaging to conduct original studies comparing bilingual and monolingual adult brains. To surmount the discipline's widely known challenges of studying developing newborn brains over time with fMRI, Petitto used functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) neuroimaging to conduct among the first studies of human infant brains as they develop over time while acquiring one versus two languages (monolingual and bilingual infant brains compared). Petitto uses Eye-Tracking; and, with a team of collaborating scientists, Petitto led a research team to advance and integrate novel technology involving a Robot, an Avatar, Thermal Infrared Imaging plus fNIRS, with Eye-Tracking, and Kinect to build an artificial agent + human infant language learning tool (called RAVE) capable of socially-contingent and socially interactive communications with an infant when it is most engaged and "ready to learn."Taken together, <mask>'s research discoveries and scientific writings have offered testable hypotheses and theory regarding the neural basis for the brain's specialization for human language, the types of language features a child must minimally be exposed to (and when) in early life (sensitive or critical periods), what happens if early critical periods are missed, and how best to facilitate optimal language learning in all children acquiring all human languages be they signed or spoken. Early research
Beginning in 1973 in the Department of Psychology at Columbia University, Petitto attempted to teach signed language to a baby chimpanzee ("Project Nim Chimpsky," named after Noam Chomsky, with Professors Herbert Terrace and Thomas Bever). <mask> had a leading role on Project Nim Chimpsky as the "Primary Sign Language Teacher", "Project Coordinator", and primary "Surrogate Mother". Despite the dangers of living with a chimpanzee, Petitto lived with and cared for Nim as a child in an attempt to create a natural language, cognitive, and highly caring and rich social environment, mirroring that of a human child. Most of the chimp's scientific training and accomplishments were achieved during <mask>'s 4-year tenure on the Project as Nim's teacher and caretaker. She and her colleagues have authored several of the world's seminal scientific papers on the question of language in chimpanzees, including now classic articles on the similarities and differences between the ape and human mind. After her undergraduate work with Nim Chimpsky, <mask> went on to make discoveries about the linguistic structure, acquisition, and representation in the brain of the world's natural signed languages, especially American Sign Language (ASL).Using signed languages as a new "microscope" to discover the central/universal properties of human language in the brain (those that are distinct from the modality of language transmission and reception), Petitto focused on the following lines of research:
 (1) Universal Linguistic Structures (cross-linguistic studies of signed and spoken languages, and cross-linguistic studies of different signed languages, especially ASL and Langue des Signes Québécoise, LSQ),
 (2) Linguistic timing milestones in development (the highly similar maturational timing in the achievement of language milestones across young children acquiring spoken and signed languages),
 (3) Universal linguistic structures in development (the highly similar acquisition of specific parts of natural language structure, with similar timing and use, across signed and spoken languages). For example, similar pronouns, pronominal reference, and pronoun-reversals, across young children acquiring spoken and signed languages, despite the radically different linguistic form of pronouns in signed languages. The discovery of rhythmically alternating, phonetic-syllabic "manual babbling" on the hands in babies acquiring signed languages (be they Deaf or hearing), identical in linguistic structure, timing, and use to vocal Babbling in hearing babies acquiring spoken languages. For decades, Babbling was viewed as inextricably tied to sound and speech. However, the discovery of hand Babbling demonstrated that rather than sound being key, Babbling reflects the infant's biologically given sensitivity to highly specific patterns that are part of language structure. The discovery forced a reconceptualization of the nature of human Language by decoupling Speech and Language. The discovery of manual Babbling was featured on both the cover of Science  and the front page of the New York Times on the same day,
 (4) Distinct knowledge representation in development, e.g., domain-specific versus domain-general knowledge in child development: the difference between language versus communicative gesture in all children's development,<ref

name=r1042 >Petitto, L.A. (1994).Modularity and Constraints in Early Lexical Acquisition: Evidence from children's early language and gesture. In P. Bloom (Ed. ), Language acquisition: Core readings. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. </ref><ref

name=r1043 /><ref

name=r1034 />
 (5) Brain Tissue Dedication for Aspects of Human Language Structure and Processing (convergences of specific linguistic functions on specific brain tissue and neural systems across signed and spoken languages). For example, previously regarding spoken language, phonological processing was found to occur in the left hemisphere's (LH) Superior Temporal Gyrus (brain tissue regarded as unimodal sound processing tissue for 125 years), and the Left Inferior Frontal Cortex was regarded as the brain's site for the search and retrieval of information about word meanings (due to its proximity to LH speech production mechanisms). However, <mask>, Robert Zatorre, and team found that the same brain tissue and neural systems recruitment are used when processing the same parts of language regardless of whether the language was on the hands in signed languages or the tongue in spoken languages.<mask> is associated with advancing the  hypothesis that this brain site and systems are not neurally set to sound but to specific patterns that are universal to human language structure, which corroborated her earlier infant manual babbling discoveries and moved beyond "where" language processing occurs in the human brain to explain "why": the nature of its underlying neural basis. <mask>'s research has contributed to the body of knowledge establishing that the signed languages of deaf people around the world are real languages with the full expressive capacity as spoken languages. <mask> and colleagues were also the first to study experimentally the validity of a widely used educational practice with Deaf children in the 1970s, whereupon teachers (typically hearing) used parts of ASL signs and linguistic structure simultaneously while speaking English in the classroom, called "Simultaneous Communication" (or "Simcom"). The Petitto team's experimental study of Simcom with Deaf children demonstrated empirically that it was highly impoverished at representing either ASL or English, and, in turn, it was a non-optimal teaching method. Instead their work supported the use of a natural signed language with Deaf children from early life such as ASL, which would best provide a solid linguistic foundation upon which to learn other languages (such as English). They advanced the idea that Deaf Education would be best to move to a full Bilingual and Bicultural educational model, and that this course was most commensurate with the biological requirements in human brain development to achieve the most healthy language learning. This research had lasting implications for subsequent Deaf Education policy and practice.Current research
<mask>'s more recent studies involve the use of a combination of four disciplines:
 Genetic analyses (polymorphisms in candidate genes),
 Behavioral measures of higher cognitive processes from psycholinguistics and developmental science, combined with
 Neuroimaging from cognitive neuroscience and developmental cognitive neuroscience. <mask> and team predominately use brain imaging technology called functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)<ref

name=r1001 /> in addition to an optical neuroimaging system called NIRx, combined with eye-tracking, and thermal infrared imaging technology as pioneered by colleague Arcangelo Merla,
 Artificial Intelligence and intelligent machines in human socially contingent conversations: The Robot-Avatar-Thermal Infrared Imaging Enhanced learning tool, called "RAVE" to teach signed language to young deaf babies with "minimal language exposure" (MLE) in early life. Since 2000, <mask>'s cognitive neuroscience/educational neuroscience research program has continued. <mask> and her laboratory team are known for discovering that young bilingual children are not harmed, delayed, or confused by early dual language exposure. These children not only achieve their language milestones (in each language) on the same timetable as monolinguals, they demonstrate the same semantic and conceptual development as monolinguals, with societal implications that early-life (rather than later) bilingual and multilingual language exposure is optimal for language and reading success. <mask> and her team have also identified the mechanisms that make possible the human infant's early capacity to phonetically discriminate (segment and categorize) the constantly varying linguistic stream around them, and they have articulated the developmental conditions required for this capacity to grow most vibrantly in all children. <mask> and team have identified fundamental processes that underlie human reading and spelling in all language users and found evidence for select reading advantages in young bilingual children as compared to matched monolingual peers, termed the "bilingual reading advantage".They have further discovered surprising ways in which bilingual schooling can ameliorate the deleterious effects of low SES. They are also among the first group of researchers to compare directly adult bilingual and monolingual brains and what happens when the adult brain learns two artificial languages as a second language. She has conducted studies of how extensive training (expertise) in one domain of knowledge impacts or "transfers" to other domains of knowledge (and the extent of this transfer). Since 2014, <mask> (PI) and her team conduct behavioral, brain, and Artificial Intelligence (Robot, Avatar, Thermal Infrared Imaging) studies specifically to advance understanding of the human learning capacity across the lifespan, and especially the optimal conditions for language learning in young deaf and hearing children acquiring signed and spoken languages. Research awards
<mask> is the recipient of over twenty international prizes and awards including,

The Sin Wai-Kin Distinguished Visiting Professorship in the Humanities, University of Hong Kong (to facilitate the creation of an Educational Neuroscience Laboratory and studies), 2014–2016. The 14th Dalai Lama: Invited presentation before, and dialogue with the 14th Dalai Lama about the neuroscience of how experience can impact brain structures and functions, October 2010. Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Elected October 2008. Presented at the Fellow Forum, Chicago, 14 February 2009. Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science (APS), December 2008. The Justine and Yves Sergent International Prize in Cognitive Neuroscience, Université de Montréal Honorary Diploma, Faculty of Medicine, Quebec, Canada, 2004. Pope John Paul II: Invited presentation and expert panel member representing the newly created discipline "Educational Neuroscience" (Mind, Brain and Education) at the 400th Anniversary Celebration of Galileo Galilei's Birthday at the Pontifical Scientific Academy with an audience before Pope John Paul II, Vatican City, Italy, November 2003. Guggenheim Award (for her "unusually distinguished achievements in the past and exceptional promise for future accomplishment" in the discipline of Neuroscience), conferred Spring, 1998. Visiting Resident Scholar, Departments of Nuclear Medicine & Cognitive Science, at the Università & Ospedale Istituto San Raffaele, in Milan, Italy, 1998–1999.Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 1991–1992. Visiting Resident Scholar, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, and the Medical Research Council (Speech and Language Group), in Cambridge, England, in conjunction with the Medical Research Council (Cognitive Development Unit), in London, England, 1987–1988. American Psychological Association Boyd R. McCandless "Young Scientist Award" (for "outstanding early career contributions to, and achievements in Developmental Psychology"), conferred at the APA Convention, Atlanta, GA, 1988. American Psychological Association "Young Psychologist Award", conferred at the 24th International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, Australia, 1988. References

American psychologists
American women psychologists
Developmental psychologists
Cognitive scientists
Cognitive neuroscientists
American neuroscientists
American women neuroscientists
Developmental psycholinguists
Psycholinguists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
McGill University faculty
University of Toronto faculty
New York University alumni
Harvard University alumni
Ramapo College alumni
Dartmouth College faculty
Scientists from New York City
1950s births
Living people
American women academics
21st-century American women

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<mask> (born 1969) is a British comics artist, notable for pencilling on Midnight Nation and Supreme Power, both written by J. Michael Straczynski. He has also worked with author Peter David on The Incredible Hulk and Supergirl. He had a creator-owned series, Kin, which he wrote himself, published by Top Cow Productions in 2000. Writer Geoff Johns, who has collaborated with <mask>, has opined that <mask>'s rendition of Superman is the best of his generation and that the only other artist in the same league with <mask> in this regard is Curt Swan. Comics career

1990
<mask> began his professional career in 1991, illustrating covers and interior short stories for publications such as Doctor Who Magazine and Toxic!. This led to a stint at Marvel UK in 1992 as regular series' artist on Motormouth & Killpower. It was on that series that he began a long-running collaboration with inker Cam Smith, who would continue to ink <mask>'s work for many years.In 1992, <mask> was recruited by Marvel Comics to illustrate covers for The Incredible Hulk, beginning with issue No. 400. Shortly thereafter, he was hired as the series' ongoing artist beginning with issue No. 403 (March 1993) and ending with No. 425 (Jan. 1995). During his initial time at Marvel, <mask> contributed covers, interiors and pin-up illustrations for various series, such as X-Men Unlimited, the Sabretooth Special, X-Men Classic, X-Men Prime, and Doctor Strange, Sorcerer Supreme, among others. He drew covers for Acclaim Comics' Ninjak and Harris Comics' Vampirella.In 1996, <mask> and Smith were hired as the art team on DC Comics' new Supergirl ongoing series, which re-teamed <mask> with writer Peter David. <mask>'s run as penciller ended with issue No. 9 (May 1997), although he continued to provide covers for the series until issue No. 21. Other assignments for DC included a Birds of Prey one-shot and the DC/Marvel Amalgam Comics one-shot, Bullets and Bracelets. In 1997, <mask> and Smith moved to Image Comics, where they, along with writer John Arcudi, were hired as the new creative team on the Wildstorm title Gen¹³, beginning with the epilogue story in issue No. 25.Their run on the series was praised for its dark, realistic style in both writing and art; however, the drastic change in tone and style alienated many longtime fans who had grown accustomed to the more fantastical and cartoonish approach of the Brandon Choi/J. Scott Campbell run. The Arcudi/<mask> tenure on the series lasted two years, until issue No. 41 (July 1999). It was during this run, in 1998, that Wildstorm head Jim Lee moved his studio and all its properties to DC Comics. Therefore, issues No. 25–36 were published by Image and issues No.37–41 were published by DC/Wildstorm. 2000s
In 2000, <mask> worked on various assignments for both DC and Marvel, including issue No. 7 of Tom Strong under DC's America's Best Comics imprint and writing and penciling a two-page X-Men story in X-Men: Millennial Visions, his final collaboration to date with inker Cam Smith. Kin, a six-issue miniseries created, written and penciled by <mask>, was published under Image's Top Cow imprint. The story tells of a secret government agency named S.I.A. who discovers that a race of neanderthal men exists in the mountains of Alaska and proceed to eliminate them to obtain their technology, which developed differently from that of the rest of the world. The book's protagonist, S.I.A.agent Trey McAloon, is opposed to the agency's plans and confronts them about it, while the book's other main character, Alaskan Park Ranger Elizabeth Leaky, establishes contact with one of the neanderthals. The miniseries' conclusion was open-ended, with questions left unanswered, but so far no sequel or continuation of the story has been announced. The trade paperback collection of Kin entitled Kin: Descent of Man includes six pages of additional story that were not featured in the original issues. In 2000, <mask> began his first collaboration with J. Michael Straczynski, the television writer and creator of Babylon 5. <mask> served as penciller on Straczynski's Midnight Nation, a 12-issue limited series published by Top Cow from 2000 to 2002 under their now-defunct Joe's Comics imprint. The first issue of the series included a five-page interview with <mask> and Straczynski. One of the inkers on the series was Jon Sibal, with whom <mask> would begin a long-running artistic collaboration that continues to this day.On 16 July 2002, it was announced that <mask> had signed an exclusive contract with Marvel. His first work under this contract was a two-issue story arc on The Avengers issues No. 61–62, written by Geoff Johns and inked by Jon Sibal. In 2003, <mask> re-teamed with Straczynski on Supreme Power, a revamp of Marvel's superhero team Squadron Supreme, published under their mature-audience Marvel MAX imprint. With its realism and mature storytelling, the series became Marvel's first MAX title to sell over 100,000 copies, making it their best-selling mature-readers series of all time. The series ran for 18 issues from October 2003 to October 2005. During his run on Supreme Power, <mask> provided covers for a diverse number of Marvel series such as Silver Surfer No.7; Wolverine/Punisher No. 2; The Incredible Hulk No. 75; issues No. 4 and 6 of the Supreme Power spin-off miniseries, Doctor Spectrum; The Amazing Spider-Man No. 515 and 517; Black Panther No. 10; and numerous others, as well as two pages of interior art for the Avengers: Finale one-shot. On 10 May 2007, having worked several years on a Marvel exclusive contract, <mask> signed a new one with DC Comics.He served as the  artist on Action Comics with writer Geoff Johns. The creative team produced the "Brainiac" storyline in which Superman's adopted father Jonathan Kent was killed. <mask> and Johns continued to work on Superman in the Superman: Secret Origin six-issue mini-series. The story features what Johns and DC Executive Editor Dan DiDio called a "definitive" telling of the origin story of Superman, dealing with his life in Smallville, his first adventure with the Legion of Super-Heroes as Superboy, and his arrival in Metropolis and at the Daily Planet. 2010s
In 2012, <mask> and Johns collaborated on Batman: Earth One, an  original graphic novel set on Earth-one of the DC Multiverse. The novel is the first in a series of graphic novels that redefines Batman. Since 2017, Johns and <mask> have worked together on Doomsday Clock, a limited series featuring Superman and Doctor Manhattan.Work in other media
In 1990, prior working in the comics industry, <mask> produced a book titled Rovers: Portrait of a Football Team, which featured caricatures of a number of Bristol Rovers F.C. players from the 1989–90 season. He wrote it in conjunction with then-Rovers player Geoff Twentyman. <mask>'s artwork was featured during the finale of the TV series Smallville when the character Chloe Sullivan is shown reading a Superman comic book to her son. Bibliography
Comics work (interior pencil art) includes:

DC Comics

Action Comics #858–863, 866–870, 900, Annual #10 (2007–11)
The Batman Chronicles #10 (1997)
Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty (among other artists) (1998)
Batman: Earth One (2012)
Batman: Earth One - Volume Two (2015)
Batman: Earth One - Volume Three (2021)
Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey, one-shot (1996)
Bullets and Bracelets #1 (Amalgam Comics, 1996)
Countdown #30 (General Zod) (2007)
DC Universe: Legacies, limited series, (Blue Beetle) #10 (2011)
DC Rebirth, one shot (among other artists) (2016)
Doomsday Clock  #1–12 (2017–2019)
Gen¹³ vol. 2 #37–41 (Wildstorm (1999)
JLA #15 (1998)
Just Imagine Stan Lee With <mask> Creating Shazam (2002)
Justice League, vol. 2, (Shazam!)#7–11, No. 0, #14–16, #18–21 (2012–13)
Supergirl, vol. 4, #1–9 (1996–97)
Superman: New Krypton Special, one-shot (among other artists) (2008)
Superman: Secret Origin, miniseries, #1–6 (2009–10)
Tangent Comics: The Flash #1  (1997)
Tom Strong #7 (America's Best Comics, 2000)
War of the Supermen #0 (among other artists) (2010)
Wonder Woman Annual #1 (2007)

Marvel Comics

The Avengers vol. 3 #61–62 (2003)
Avengers Finale (among other artists) (2005)
Dark Angel #6 (1992)
Doctor Strange Sorcerer Supreme #82–83 (1995)
The Incredible Hulk, vol. 2, #403–411, 413–418, 420–423, 425 (1993–95)
The Incredible Hulk, vol. 3, #100–101, 106–107 (2007)
Motormouth #1-4 (1992)
Motormouth & Killpower #6 (1992)
Sabretooth Special # 1 (1995)
Squadron Supreme vol. 2 #1–5, 7 (2006)
Supreme Power #1–18 (2003–05)
X-Men: Prime (among other artists) (1995)

Other publishers
Gen¹³ vol.2 #25–36 (Image Comics 1997–99)
Godwheel #1 (Malibu Comics, 1995)
Kin #1–6 (Image Comics, 2000)
Midnight Nation #1–12 (Image omics, 2000–01)
Vampirella/Dracula: The Centennial (Harris Publications, 1997)

References

External links

<mask> at Mike's Amazing World of Comics
<mask> at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators
<mask> at 2000 AD online

1969 births
Artists from Bristol
British comics artists
Date of birth missing (living people)
Inkpot Award winners
Living people

masks:
Gary Frank
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Gary Frank
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Frank Smith
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