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<mask> (October 16, 1760October 9, 1824) was an American Founding Father and politician from the U.S. state of New Jersey. He was the youngest person to sign the Constitution of the United States and a member of the United States House of Representatives, serving as its third speaker, and later in the U.S. Senate. <mask> was arrested in 1807 for treason in connection with Aaron Burr's conspiracy. He was never tried, but his national political career never recovered. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in Elizabethtown (now known as Elizabeth), New Jersey. He was the son of <mask>, a merchant who was prominent in local politics and had served as a militia officer in the French and Indian War, and his wife the former Hannah Rolfe. He graduated from the local academy, run by Tapping Reeve and Francis Barber, where he was classmates with Alexander Hamilton.He then attended the College of New Jersey (now known as Princeton University). He left college in 1775 to fight in the American Revolutionary War and received an honorary degree in 1776. Soldier
<mask> was 15 at the outbreak of the war in 1775 and served under his father in the 3rd New Jersey Regiment as an ensign. On January 1, 1777, he was commissioned a lieutenant and served as paymaster. He saw service under General George Washington, fighting in the battles of Brandywine Creek and Germantown. He remained with Washington at Valley Forge and helped push the British from their position in New Jersey into the safety of New York City. In October 1780, <mask> and an uncle were captured by Loyalists, who held them captive for the winter before releasing them in the following year.<mask> again served under his father in the New Jersey Brigade. On March 30, 1780, at age 19, he was promoted to the rank of captain and transferred to the 2nd New Jersey Regiment, where he took part in the Battle of Yorktown. The Revolutionary War pension records indicate that he served as aide-de-camp to General John Sullivan on his expedition against the Indians from May 1 to November 30, 1779. At the close of the Revolutionary War, <mask> was admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of New Jersey. On July 19, 1799, <mask> was offered a commission as major general in the Provisional United States Army, but he declined. Career
After the war, <mask> studied law and created a practice, dividing his time between land speculation, law, and politics. After serving as a New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention (of which he was the youngest member, at age 26), he became a prominent Federalist legislator.He was a member of the New Jersey General Assembly in 1786–1787, and again in 1790, and served in the New Jersey Legislative Council (now the New Jersey Senate) in 1789. <mask> was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1789, but he did not take his seat until he was chosen again in 1791. He served as speaker for the Fourth and Fifth Congresses. Like most Federalists, he supported the fiscal policies of Alexander Hamilton, and he helped organize the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion. He supported the Louisiana Purchase and opposed the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. Wealthy from his heavy investments in Ohio, where the city of Dayton would later be named after him, Dayton lent money to Aaron Burr, becoming involved by association in the alleged conspiracy in which Burr was accused of intending to conquer parts of what is now the Southwestern United States. Dayton was exonerated, but his association with Burr effectively ended his political career.Late life and family
<mask> married Susan Williamson in 1779 and had two daughters. After resuming his political career in New Jersey, <mask> died on October 9, 1824, in his hometown. He was interred in an unmarked grave that is now under the St. John's Episcopal Church in Elizabeth, which replaced an original church in 1860. Shortly before Dayton's death, Lafayette visited him, as reported in an obituary in the Columbian Centinel on October 20, 1824: "In New-Jersey, Hon. JONATHAN DAYTON, formerly Speaker of the House of Representatives of Congress, and a Hero of the Revolution. When the Nation's Guest lately passed New-Jersey, he passed the night with General <mask>, and such were the exertions of this aged and distinguished federalist, to honor the Guest, and gratify the wishes of his fellow citizens to see, that he sunk under them; and expired, without regret, a few days after." Legacy
The city of Dayton, Ohio, was named after him.While he never visited the area, he was a signatory to the Constitution and, at the time the city of Dayton was established in 1796, he owned (in partnership with Arthur St. Clair, James Wilkinson and Israel Ludlow) 250,000 acres (1,011 km²) in the Great Miami River basin. The Jonathan Dayton High School in Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey, the Dayton neighborhood of Newark, New Jersey, Dayton Street in Madison, Wisconsin, and Dayton, New Jersey, are named in his honor. References

External links

 <mask> at The Political Graveyard

 The Society of the Cincinnati
 American Revolution Institute

1760 births
1824 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Continental Army officers from New Jersey
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
18th-century American politicians
Speakers of the United States House of Representatives
Signers of the United States Constitution
Princeton University alumni
Politicians from Elizabeth, New Jersey
Members of the New Jersey General Assembly
Speakers of the New Jersey General Assembly
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey
Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council
United States senators from New Jersey
New Jersey Federalists
Federalist Party United States senators
American Episcopalians
History of Dayton, Ohio
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People of colonial New Jersey
Burials in New Jersey

masks:
Jonathan Dayton
Dayton
Dayton
Elias Dayton
Dayton
Dayton
Dayton
Dayton
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Jonathan Dayton


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<mask> (born 17 November 1987) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for A-League club Macarthur FC. He has also played professional football for Plymouth Argyle, Exeter City, Brighton & Hove Albion, Cardiff City, Bolton Wanderers and Melbourne City. Early life
<mask> was born in Kirkby. He joined Liverpool when he was nine years old and was released 7 years later. He then played junior and amateur football before signing with Wrexham when he was 15. Having been released after a year there, <mask> played non-league football and went to Myerscough football college for six months. He trained as a roofer while a non-league player and in 2008 worked on an extension at Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard's house.Playing career

Non-League football
He joined Skelmersdale United as a youth team player and made his first team debut during the 2005–06 season. Noone had a trial with Belgian club Royal Antwerp in January 2007 and later that year joined Burscough, which Skelmersdale manager Tommy Lawson described as a "great opportunity" for him. Having been signed by Liam Watson, Noone played regularly in the Conference North in 2007–08. Watson left Burscough for Southport in June 2008 and Noone joined him a few days later. In August, he made his league debut before Southport received a club record offer of £110,000 for him from Plymouth Argyle. Plymouth Argyle
Noone signed a two-year contract with Argyle the next day. "I am very excited by this signing," said manager Paul Sturrock."<mask> comes to us with a glowing reputation. It is now up to him to prove that it is merited." He made his debut at the end of the month in a 0–0 draw at Burnley, and scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win at Coventry City in November. After 10 substitute appearances for Plymouth, <mask> made his first start for the club in the league match versus Southampton on Boxing Day 2008, where his team won 2–0. On 3 January 2009, <mask> made his FA Cup debut coming off the bench during a 3–1 loss to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. On 10 September 2009, after <mask> had only made two league substitute appearances so far in the 2009/10 season, Exeter City signed him on a 3-month loan deal. He made his debut against Leyton Orient and scored the equaliser in a 1–1 draw.<mask> scored in his final appearance for Exeter against Brentford before being recalled on 2 November. Brighton & Hove Albion

On 31 December 2010 it was confirmed that <mask> had transferred to Brighton & Hove Albion for an undisclosed fee. He became a fan favourite at Brighton with his pace and his unerring ability to beat the defender. He scored twice for Brighton in their League One title season, a great individual goal at home against Colchester United and a volley at home against Hartlepool United. He was part of Brighton's first match of pre-season in preparation for the 2011–2012 season against Burgess Hill. He played 45 minutes and impressed, having a long range effort well saved and he earned a penalty which he subsequently scored to make it 2–0. On 21 September 2011, <mask> was announced as the stadium sponsor's man of the match in a 1–2 defeat against his former employers and boyhood club, Liverpool, in a third round League Cup match at Falmer Stadium.The Liverpool-born player hit the crossbar from a long-range shot during the game and was praised by his boyhood hero Steven Gerrard. In January 2012, <mask> was subject to a £500,000 bid from Championship rivals Cardiff City, which was rejected by Albion. <mask> extended his contract at Brighton in March 2012, keeping him at the club until June 2015. Cardiff City
In August 2012, <mask> joined Cardiff City for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £1m, and signed a four-year contract. He made his debut in a 3–1 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers at the start of September, and scored his first goal for the club later in the month as Cardiff won 2–0 at Millwall. Two months after joining the club, <mask> scored in three consecutive games; a win against Burnley in October, and defeats at Bolton Wanderers and Charlton Athletic in November. He was sent off for two bookable offences against Derby County later that month.<mask>'s goal against Bolton in April ensured that Cardiff avoided defeat in their final home game of the season, which was followed by the club being presented with the Football League title for winning the Championship. <mask> made 32 appearances in his first season with Cardiff and scored seven goals. <mask> scored his first Premier League goal in January 2014 against Manchester City and was praised for his performance by Cardiff manager Ole Gunnar Solskjær. Cardiff however suffered relegation at the end of the season and returned to the Championship, where he only managed to find one goal in 39 appearances. The following season, <mask> started off brightly, coming on to score the equaliser against Fulham and scoring the winner against AFC Wimbledon. However, he didn't manage to find another goal until December where he scored against Sheffield Wednesday in a 2–2 draw, before scoring against Milton Keynes Dons. Bolton Wanderers

On 31 August 2017, <mask> joined Bolton Wanderers on a two-year contract.Melbourne City
On 17 June 2019, Noone signed a two-year contract with Melbourne City in the A-League. He scored his first goal on debut against Campbelltown City in the Round of 32 in the 2019 FFA Cup. Career statistics

Honours
Brighton & Hove Albion
Football League One: 2010–11
Cardiff City
Football League Championship: 2012–13
Melbourne City
A-League Premiership: 2020–21
A-League Championship: 2021
Individual
2020-21 A-League PFA Team Of The Season

References

External links

1987 births
People from Kirkby
Living people
English footballers
Association football midfielders
Skelmersdale United F.C. players
Burscough F.C. players
Southport F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Exeter City F.C.players
Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Melbourne City FC players
Northern Premier League players
National League (English football) players
English Football League players
Premier League players

masks:
Craig Stephen Noone
Noone
Noone
Craig
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
Noone
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<mask> CBE (; 8 May 1892 – 25 September 1967) was a Polish general in World War II. He fought in the Polish Campaign of 1939 and at the Battle of Arnhem (Netherlands) in 1944 as commander of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade. Early military career

Early years and studies
<mask> was born on 8 May 1892, in Stanislau (Polish: Stanisławów), in a railway workers' family. He graduated from a local gymnasium and in 1910 he was accepted as a student of the faculty of economy of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. However, the death of his father and the poor financial situation of his family forced him to abandon his studies and return to Stanislau. There he became a member of Drużyny Strzeleckie, a semi-clandestine Polish national paramilitary organisation. He was soon promoted to the head of all Polish Scouting groups in the area.World War I

In 1913, <mask> was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army. After training, he was promoted to the rank of corporal, serving in the 58th Infantry Regiment. After the outbreak of World War I he fought with his unit against the Imperial Russian Army in the battles of Rzeszów, Dukla Pass and Gorlice. For his bravery, he was awarded several medals and promoted to First Lieutenant. In 1915, he was badly wounded in action and withdrawn from the front. In November 1918, after Poland regained its independence <mask> volunteered for the newly formed Polish Army, but his wounds were still not healed and he was rejected as a front-line officer. Instead, he became a staff officer in the Ministry of War Affairs in Warsaw.Interwar period

After the Polish-Soviet War <mask> was promoted to Major and in 1922 he started his studies at the Higher Military School in Warsaw. After he finished his studies he was assigned to the Polish General Staff. Promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, in 1928 he was finally assigned to a front-line unit, the 75th Infantry Regiment, as commanding officer of a battalion. The following year he was assigned to the 3rd Podhale Rifles Regiment as its deputy commander. From 1930 he was also a professor of logistics at his alma mater. In 1937 <mask> was promoted to colonel and became the commanding officer of the 9th Polish Legions Infantry Regiment stationed in Zamość. In January 1939 he became the commander of the prestigious Warsaw-based 21st "Children of Warsaw" Infantry Regiment.Invasion of Poland 1939

According to the Polish mobilisation scheme, <mask>'s regiment was attached to the 8th Infantry Division under Col. . Shortly before the German invasion of Poland started his unit was moved from its garrison in the Warsaw Citadel to the area of Ciechanów, where it was planned as a strategic reserve of the Modlin Army. On 2 September the division was moved towards Mława and in the early morning of the following day it entered combat in the Battle of Mława. Although the 21st Regiment managed to capture Przasnysz and its secondary objectives, the rest of the division was surrounded by the Wehrmacht and destroyed. After that <mask> ordered his troops to retreat towards Warsaw. On 8 September <mask>'s unit reached the Modlin Fortress. The routed 8th Division was being reconstructed, but the 21st Regiment was attached to the corps led by general Juliusz Zulauf.After several days of defensive fights, the corps was moved to Warsaw, where it arrived on 15 September. Instantly upon arrival, <mask> was ordered to man the Grochów and the Kamionek defensive area and defend Praga, the eastern borough of Warsaw, against the German 10th Infantry Division. During the Siege of Warsaw the forces of <mask> were outmanned and outgunned, but managed to hold all their objectives. When the general assault on Praga started on 16 September, the 21st Infantry Regiment managed to repel the attacks of German 23rd Infantry Regiment and then successfully counter-attacked and destroyed the enemy unit. After this success, <mask> was assigned to command all Polish troops fighting in the area of Grochów. Despite constant bombardment and German attacks repeated every day, Sosabowski managed to hold his objectives at relatively low cost in manpower. On 26 September 1939, the forces led by Sosabowski bloodily repelled the last German attack, but two days later Warsaw capitulated.On 29 September, shortly before the Polish forces left Warsaw for German captivity, General Juliusz Rómmel awarded Col. Sosabowski and the whole 21st Infantry Regiment with the Virtuti Militari medal. France

Following the Polish surrender, <mask> was made a prisoner of war and interned at a camp near Żyrardów. However, he escaped and remained in Warsaw under a false name, where he joined the Polish resistance. He was ordered to leave Poland and reached France to report on the situation in occupied Poland. After a long trip through Hungary and Romania, he arrived in Paris, where the Polish government in exile assigned him to the Polish 4th Infantry Division as the commanding officer of infantry. Initially, the French authorities were very reluctant to hand over the badly needed equipment and armament for the Polish unit. Sosabowski's soldiers had to train with pre-World War I weapons.In April 1940, the division was moved to a training camp in Parthenay and was finally handed the weapons awaited since January, but it was already too late to organise the division. Out of more than 11,000 soldiers, only 3,150 were given arms. Knowing this, the commander of the division General  ordered his unit to withdraw towards the Atlantic coast. On 19 June 1940, <mask> with approximately 6,000 Polish soldiers arrived at La Pallice, whence they were evacuated to Great Britain. Great Britain

Upon his arrival in London, <mask> turned up at the Polish General Staff and was assigned to 4th Rifles Brigade that was to become a core of the future 4th Infantry Division. The unit was to be composed mainly of Polish Canadians, but it soon became apparent that there were not enough young Poles in Canada from which to create a division. Then, <mask> decided to transform his brigade into a Parachute Brigade, the first such unit in the Polish Army.The volunteers came from all the formations of the Polish Army. In Largo House in Fife, a training camp was built and the parachute training was started. <mask> himself passed the training and, at 49 years of age, made his first parachute jump. According to relations of <mask>'s former subordinates, the colonel was a strict yet just commander. Impulsive and harsh, Sosabowski could not stand any opposition. This made the creation of a Polish parachute brigade possible, but also made contacts with his superiors problematic. In October 1942 the Brigade was ready for combat and was named the 1st Independent Parachute Brigade.Since the Polish General Staff planned to use the Brigade to assist a national uprising in Poland, the soldiers of the 1st Polish Para were to be the first element of the Polish Army in Exile to reach their homeland. Hence the unofficial motto of the unit: the shortest way (najkrótszą drogą). In September 1943, Lieutenant-General Frederick Browning proposed that <mask> reform his unit into a division and fill the remaining posts with British troops. <mask> himself would be assigned to the newly formed division and promoted to general. However, Sosabowski refused. Nevertheless, on 15 June 1944 he was promoted to Brigadier General. Warsaw Uprising

In early August 1944, news of the Warsaw Uprising arrived in Great Britain.The Brigade was ready to be dropped by parachute into Warsaw to aid their comrades from the underground Polish Home Army, who were fighting a desperate battle against overwhelming odds. However, the distance was too great for the transport aircraft to make a round trip and access to Soviet airfields was denied. The morale of the Polish troops suffered badly and many of the units verged on mutiny. The British staff threatened its Polish counterpart with disarmament of the Brigade, but <mask> retained control of his unit. Finally, Polish Commander in Chief Kazimierz Sosnkowski put the Brigade under British command, and the plan to send it to Warsaw was abandoned. It was not until after the war that General <mask> learnt that his son, , a medic and member of the Kedyw, had lost his sight during the uprising. Battle of Arnhem

During the planning for Operation Market Garden, <mask> expressed serious concerns regarding the feasibility of the mission.Among <mask>'s concerns were the poorly conceived drop zones at Arnhem, the long distances between the landing zones and Arnhem Bridge and that the area would contain a greater German presence than British intelligence believed. Despite <mask>'s concerns and warnings from the Dutch Resistance that two SS Panzer Divisions were in the operations area, Market Garden proceeded as planned. The Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade was among the Allied forces taking part in Market Garden. Due to a shortage of transport aircraft, the brigade was split into several parts before being dropped into the battle. A small part of the brigade with <mask> was parachuted near Driel on 19 September, but the rest of the brigade arrived only on 21 September at the distant town of Grave, falling directly on the waiting guns of the Germans camped in the area. The brigade's artillery was dropped with the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General Roy Urquhart, while the howitzers were to arrive by sea, which prevented the brigade from being deployed effectively. Three times Sosabowski attempted to cross the Rhine to come to the assistance of the surrounded 1st Airborne Division.Unfortunately, the ferry they hoped to use had been sunk and the Poles attempting to cross the river in small rubber boats came under heavy fire. Even so, at least 200 men made it across the river and reinforced the embattled British paratroopers. Despite the difficult situation, at a staff meeting on 24 September, <mask> suggested that the battle could still be won. He proposed that the combined forces of XXX Corps, under Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, and the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade should start an all-out assault on the German positions and try to break through the Rhine. This plan was not accepted, and during the last phase of the battle, on 25 and 26 September, <mask> led his men southwards, shielding the retreat of the remnants of the 1st Airborne Division. Casualties among the Polish units were high, approaching 40%, and were at least in part, the result of Lieutenant-General Browning's decision to drop the paratroops 7 kilometres from the bridge at Arnhem. After the battle, on 5 October 1944, <mask> received a letter from Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, commander of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, describing the Polish soldiers as having fought bravely and offering awards to ten of his soldiers.However, on 14 October 1944, Montgomery wrote another letter, this time to the British commanders, in which he scapegoated <mask> for the failure of Market Garden. <mask> was accused of criticizing Montgomery, and the Polish General Staff was forced to remove him as the commanding officer of his brigade on 27 December 1944. At the Moscow Conference in October 1944, a turning point came in Anglo-Polish relations. On Prime Minister Churchill's request, the Polish delegation arrived in Moscow on 12 October 1944. Upon arrival, Churchill told them to be present at the discussions between himself, Joseph Stalin and the Communist Polish Lublin Committee. Consequently, Churchill coerced Polish Prime Minister <mask> Mikołajczyk into cooperating with Stalin's disciples, or else risk losing Britain's support for the remainder of the war. From the British perspective, any news that could be beneficial to their coercion tactics would be welcome.The information came on 16 October in a telegram to Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, who was present in Moscow as Churchill's military advisor. The message stated that <mask>'s brigade performed badly. Churchill could use this claim to put more pressure on Mikołajczyk to cooperate, because it could be argued that one of his most valuable assets, <mask>'s elite brigade, was no longer useful to the Allied war effort. Montgomery's telegram is exceptional to his behavior in that timeframe. Two days prior to the telegram he was praising the Polish contribution to the war, while six weeks later he awarded a Distinguished Service Order to General <mask> Maczek and decorated members of the Polish 1st Armoured Division. In addition, war correspondents spoke highly of the Polish contribution to Market Garden in the same period as Montgomery was expressing his negative experiences, via Field Marshal Brooke, to Prime Minister Churchill. <mask> was eventually made the commander of rearguard troops and was demobilized in July 1948.He was portrayed by Gene Hackman in the 1977 war film A Bridge Too Far. After the war

Shortly after the war <mask> succeeded in evacuating his wife and only son from Poland. Like many other Polish wartime officers and soldiers who were unable to return to Communist Poland he settled in West London. He found a job as a factory worker at the CAV Electrics assembly plant in Acton. He died in London on 25 September 1967. It has been suggested that until his funeral at which his rank and achievements were read out, many of his friends and workmates in England were largely unaware of his military accomplishments. In 1969, <mask>'s remains were returned to Poland, where he was reinterred at Powązki Military Cemetery in Warsaw.In The Hague, on 31 May 2006, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands awarded the Military Order of William to the 1st Independent Polish Parachute Brigade. The brigade's commander, <mask>, was posthumously awarded the "Bronze Lion". In part this was the result of a Dutch TV documentary depicting the brigade as having played a far more significant role in Market Garden than had been hitherto acknowledged. In this film by Geertjan Lassche, Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands said the Poles deserved to be honoured with at least a medal. The following day, on 1 June, a ceremony was held at Driel, the town where the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade fought. Among the speakers at the ceremony were the mayor of Overbetuwe, as well as <mask>'s grandson and great-grandson. In the summer of 2012 1st Airborne Major Tony Hibbert made a video appeal for <mask> to be pardoned and honoured.His bust was unveiled on 1 September 2013 in Kraków's Jordan Park. Sosabowski is one of many Polish historical figures honoured in the Park. Awards

He was awarded many military honours, including:

  Knight's Cross of the Virtuti Militari
  Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta (posthumously, 1988)
  Cross of Independence
  Polish Cross of Valour
  Gold Cross of Merit with Swords
  Honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire
  Bronze Lion Award for Bravery (Netherlands, posthumously, 2006)

See also
 Polish contribution to World War II
 Polish Armed Forces in the West
 Cichociemni
 Stanisław Maczek
 Western betrayal
 Władysław Sikorski

Footnotes

References

 Honor Generała – documentary TV POLONIA 2008, directed by Joanna Pieciukiewicz

External links

 History of the family Sosabowski
 A Biography
Market Garden 1944—Major Tony Hibbert’s call to honour Polish General Sosabowski Ten-minute video interview, June 2012. Major Hibbert, veteran of the Battle of Arnhem, states that, after the battle, General Sosabowski was "dismissed, and he lost also his rank in the army and his pension." Major Hibbert calls for the dismissal to be rescinded. YouTube.com
Sosabowski's wider role in the Anglo-Polish relations versus Soviet Union

1892 births
1967 deaths
People from Ivano-Frankivsk
Burials at Powązki Military Cemetery
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Polish generals
Polish Rifle Squads members
Polish military personnel of World War II
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom
Jagiellonian University alumni
Knights of the Virtuti Militari
Commanders with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Cross of Independence
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Recipients of the Cross of Merit with Swords (Poland)
Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Bronze Lion

masks:
Stanisław Franciszek Sosabowski
Stanisław Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
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Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Stanisław
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Stanisław
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski
Sosabowski


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<mask> (; ) (September 10 (O. S. August 29), 1875 in Smolensk – September 20, 1937), was a Russian Bolshevik activist and  Soviet statesman, served as the first Commissar for Food at the establishment of the Council of People's Commissars (October - November 1917). He also became a Soviet historian of the Russian revolutionary movement. Life and political career
<mask>, the son of a land-surveyor from Smolensk, was born into a family of ethnic  Polish origin. His father, two maternal uncles, and grandfather had all participated in insurrectionary activity; from this background, Teodorovich would write, he first learned to hate "tsarism, its officials, and [the] military establishment". Teodorovich spent his childhood in severe poverty: his mother, struggling to support six sons, worked as a seamstress and laundrywoman. <mask> attended Moscow State University, where he joined an early  Marxist group in 1895. From 1902 to 1903 he served as a member of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.After a series of arrests, in 1903 the tsarist authorities sent <mask> into exile in Yakutia. Escaping in 1905, he fled to Switzerland, where he made personal contact with Vladimir Lenin. In October 1905 <mask> returned to Russia and operated in Saint Petersburg; he gained promotion to become a member of the  Central Committee in 1907. In May 1909 he was arrested again and remained in custody until the February Revolution of 1917. After the February Revolution of March 1917 he left his place of exile and arrived in Petrograd in mid-March. He was a delegate to the 7th (April) All-Russian Conference (where he was elected a candidate member of the Central Committee) and to the 6th Congress of the RSDLP (B). From August 1917 he served as deputy chairman of the , then as a member of the council and special presence in food.After the October Revolution of November 1917, in the first Council of People's Commissars of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SNK) he took the post of People's Commissar for Food. Immediately after the October Revolution, <mask> became the first Commissar for Agriculture in the first Bolshevik government. In November he resigned due to political disagreement with Lenin's majority over a proposed coalition with the Mensheviks and other factions (Teodorovich supported a broad coalition, against Lenin's will). In 1920 he returned to the board of the  Commissariat for Agriculture and rose to become Deputy Commissar in May 1922; in 1928-1930 he chaired the Peasants' branch of the Comintern. As the Bolsheviks' expert on agriculture, Teodorovich delivered speeches to various councils and international forums, and authored brochures, journal and newspaper articles dealing with agriculture and agrarian policy. <mask> was a proponent of Lenin’s New Economic Policy (the NEP); he further endorsed liberal land-reforms (delegating authority over land from the state to peasants). Contrary to the Bolsheviks' platform on agrarian policy, <mask> vehemently opposed the policy of  food requisition and war communism.He supported the formation of a homogeneous socialist government with the participation of the Mensheviks and  Socialist Revolutionaries. After The Central Committee of the RSDLP (B) rejected the agreement with these parties, Teodorovich on November 4 (17), 1917 signed a statement of withdrawal from the SNK, but continued to carry out his duties until December. "(T)he disagreement concerned the question of whether our party had to start with "war communism" or whether it was possible to proceed from what was called the "new economic policy" in 1921. I held in 1917 the latter opinion .." - <mask>vich Autobiography

In articles of the 1920s, Teodorovich interpreted the NEP as a means of accumulating funds in the capitalist agrarian sector through the development of "strong" peasant farms, which was to serve as a source of funds for industrialization, including its transition to socialism. In the People's Commissariat Teodorovich supervised the work of economist N. D. Kondratiev, who led the department of agricultural economics and statistics of the Department of Agriculture and provided <mask> with a degree of protection and patronage (in particular, Kondratiev contributed in 1920 to his release from arrest). At the beginning of 1918 <mask> left for Siberia after parting ways with Lenin's first government. In 1919-1920 he was in the red partisan units in Siberia.In 1920-1928 <mask> served as a member of the College of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture of the RSFSR. From May 1922 to 1928 he was deputy of the People's Commissar of Agriculture of the RSFSR, 1926-1930 Director of the International Agrarian Institute, from March 1928 to 1930 secretary general of the Peasant International (Krestintern), 1929-1935 editor of the Publishers of the Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiled Settlers, 1929- 1935 editor of the magazine . An ordinance of the Central Committee of the VKP (b) of the Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiled Settlers closed the magazine on June 25, 1935 for factional activities. In November 1930 <mask> was condemned  as a counter-revolutionary "Kondratievist". <mask> was convicted in the trial of the so-called Moskva Center group (involving a total of 120 people). Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov sanctioned the trial on September 15, 1937. <mask> was executed five days later - a victim of Stalin's Great Purge.<mask> was posthumously rehabilitated on April 11, 1956, and is buried in the Don Cemetery in Moscow. Works

 О государственном регулировании крестьянского хозяйства. М., 1921
 Судьбы русского крестьянства, М., 1923, 1924, 1925
 К вопросу о сельскохозяйственной политике в РСФСР, М., 1923
 Уроки союза рабочих и крестьян в СССР. Доклад на 2-м съезде Международного крестьянского совета, М., 1925
 Восемь лет нашей крестьянской политике. М., 1926
 Вопросы индустриализации и сельское хозяйство. Свердловск, 1927
 Историческое значение партии «Народной воли», М., изд. Политикаторжан, 1930
 О Горьком и Чехове, М.—Л., ГИЗ, 1930
 «1 марта 1881 г.», М., 1931

Family
 Wife - Okulova-Teodorovich, Glafira Ivanovna (23.4 (6.5) .1878–19.10.1957) - Soviet politician and party leader.Son - <mask> <mask> (1907-1964) - an artist and writer

References

== External link ==
http://www.knowbysight.info/TTT/00395.asp

1875 births
1937 deaths
Comintern people
Party leaders of the Soviet Union
Great Purge victims from Russia
Old Bolsheviks
People from Smolensk
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
Russian revolutionaries
People of the Russian Empire of Polish descent
Soviet people of Polish descent
Polish people executed by the Soviet Union
Soviet politicians
Russian people of Polish descent

masks:
Ivan Adolfovich Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Ivan Teodoro
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Teodorovich
Ivan Teodorovich
Konstantin Ivanovich
Teodorovich


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<mask> "Johnny" <mask> (February 22, 1912 – September 24, 1983) was a United States Army general who served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1964 to 1968. Regarded as a premier tactician, <mask> became skeptical that the level of resources given to the Vietnam War, much of which went into 'find, fix, and destroy the big main force units' operations, could deliver victory. <mask> came to believe that the Communist forces held a trump card, because they controlled whether there were engagements with U.S. forces, giving an option to simply avoid battle  with U.S. forces if the situation warranted it. Early life
<mask> was born in Bowesmont, North Dakota, on February 22, 1912. After graduation from high school in 1929, <mask> attended the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. On June 13, 1933, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry. <mask>'s first duty assignment was with the 3rd Infantry (Old Guard) at Fort Snelling, Minnesota.Military career
In 1938, <mask> attended Infantry School at Fort Benning. Upon graduation, he was assigned to the 28th Infantry at Fort Niagara, New York. Requesting an overseas transfer, <mask> was reassigned to the 57th Infantry (Philippine Scouts) at Fort McKinley, Philippine Islands in 1940. World War II
After the Battle of Bataan, <mask> became a prisoner of war (POW) of the Japanese on 9 April 1942. Participating in the Bataan Death March, <mask> was eventually imprisoned at Camp O'Donnell, Cabanatuan and Bilibid Prison. In December 1944, the Japanese attempted to transfer <mask> and 1600 other POWs out of the Philippines. On 14 December 1944, American fighter planes sank the Japanese ship Ōryoku Maru, killing over 300 of the POWs.<mask> survived and was eventually transferred to Japan. Unwilling to give up their POWs to the advancing Allies, Japan again transferred <mask>. Finally ending up in Korea, <mask> was liberated by the 7th Infantry Division on September 7, 1945. Korean War and rise to senior command
After <mask>'s return to the United States, his first assignment was with the Ground Forces School. In August 1946, he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he remained as an instructor for another two years. <mask> next attended the Armed Forces Staff College in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1949. After graduation, he was assigned as commanding officer, 3rd Battalion, 7th Infantry at Fort Devens, Massachusetts.<mask> organized the 1st Provisional Infantry Battalion at Fort Devens and, in August 1950, he was dispatched to Korea. The battalion became the 3rd Battalion, 8th Cavalry Regiment, assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division for the defense of the Pusan Perimeter. Still with the 1st Cavalry Division, <mask> was later promoted to command the 5th and the 8th Cavalry Regiments. In February 1951, he was reassigned as Assistant Chief of Staff, G3 of I Corps. Returning to the United States, <mask> was assigned to the Office of the Chief of the Army Field Forces, Fort Monroe, Virginia. In 1952, he attended the National War College. After graduation, <mask> was assigned to the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G3, where he served first, as Chief of Joint War Plans Branch, then as the Assistant to the Chief of the Plans Division, and finally as the Executive Officer of the Assistant Chief of Staff.In January 1956, <mask> was assigned to duty as Assistant Division Commander of the 8th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado. Later in 1956, he transferred with the 8th Division to West Germany. <mask>'s next assignment was as chief of staff, Seventh Army Headquarters at Stuttgart-Vaihingen. Then in April 1959, <mask> moved to Headquarters, United States Army Europe as Assistant Chief of Staff, G3. The following December, he was appointed chief of staff, Central Army Group at NATO Headquarters concerned with planning for the employment of French, German, and American troop operations in Central Europe. Returning to the United States, <mask> was assigned as commandant, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In February 1963, he became assistant deputy chief of staff for military operations (operations and plans), Department of the Army, and in July was appointed as deputy chief of staff for military operations.Chief of Staff
On July 3, 1964, <mask> was appointed the 24th Chief of Staff of the United States Army; his reputation as an expert tactician led to him being selected over candidates with more seniority. He had told the National Guard Association that year that "military force ... should be committed with the object beyond war in mind" and "broadly speaking, the object beyond war should be the restoration of stability with the minimum of destruction, so that society and lawful government may proceed in an atmosphere of justice and order." Vietnam War
<mask> went to Vietnam in December 1965 after the Battle of Ia Drang. He "concluded that it had not been a victory at all and that Westmoreland's big-unit strategy was misconceived". However, <mask> publicly said there was no alternative to disrupting enemy main force units in the Central Highlands as preventing them from establishing base areas in the middle of the country was essential. After talking to junior officers involved in the first major actions, <mask> concluded that enemy main force units had the ability to evade engagements, giving them the option to keep casualties below an acceptable level, but they were in fact accepting the actual kill ratios being achieved, as evidenced by them attacking United States forces. <mask> started the process to have Westmoreland replaced in Vietnam, and commissioned the PROVN Study, which noted that "aerial attacks and artillery fire, applied indiscriminately, also have exacted a toll on village allegiance."There was a deep-seated reluctance among the Joint Chiefs of Staff to interfere with the command decisions of Westmoreland, but harassing artillery fire, by United States forces at least, was greatly reduced. As <mask> saw it, the communist units would always keep their casualties below what they considered a prohibitive level, and could not be swept away by US firepower. He did, however, acknowledge that the U.S. Commander in Vietnam, General William Westmoreland, had little choice but to engage the enemy's main formations, which had to be prevented from securing base areas where they could concentrate. <mask> was instrumental in altering the focus to a counterinsurgency approach, but was frustrated at the US Congress' refusal to provide the manpower necessary for successful pacification. In his later years <mask> said it had been obvious that US national mobilization was required to win in Vietnam, and he regretted not resigning in protest at the government asking the army to fight a war without hope of ultimate victory. Conditions for enlisted personnel
As Chief of Staff, one of <mask>'s noteworthy accomplishments was creating the office of the Sergeant Major of the Army to improve the quality of life for enlisted personnel.He selected Sergeant Major William O. Wooldridge to be the first to hold this post. <mask> also served as acting Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for a few months in 1967 during the convalescence of General Earle Wheeler. <mask> retired from active duty in July 1968. For three years, General <mask> headed the Freedoms Foundation at Valley Forge and afterwards worked as a banking executive until retiring for good. Final years
<mask> married Dorothy Rennix in 1935. During his term as chief of staff, he had been involved in many policy debates regarding the escalation of the Vietnam War as a proponent of full military mobilization to achieve a pacification of South Vietnam. He considered resigning in protest over President Lyndon B<mask>'s decision not to mobilize the reserves, and at the end of his life expressed regret at not doing so.He was the subject of a biography, Honorable Warrior, by Lewis Sorley. <mask> died on September 24, 1983, in Washington, D.C. <mask> came to regret not opposing the escalation of the Vietnam War, lamenting that "I am now going to my grave with that lapse in moral courage on my back." Tributes
"He had an unusual sense of loyalty to the men under him, the kind of thing ordinary soldiers notice and value when they grade an officer..."

"He was the best, someone born to lead men. I think he was always thinking about what was good for us. Nothing ever got by him." Decorations and awards

Dates of rank

References

External links

Thunderbolt by Lewis Sorley
Four Stars by Mark Perry
Army biography in Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History

Harold K. <mask> Collection US Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania

1912 births
1983 deaths
United States Army generals
United States Army Chiefs of Staff
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan
Bataan Death March prisoners
American torture victims
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Commandants of the United States Army Command and General Staff College
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
People from Pembina County, North Dakota
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

masks:
Harold Keith
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Harold Keith Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
Johnson
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Johnson
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Johnson
Johnson
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Johnson
. Johnson
Johnson
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Johnson


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Alasdair David George Murray (born 6 September 1986), professionally known as <mask>, is an Australian rapper from Frankston, Victoria. Illy first emerged onto the hip hop scene in 2009 and has released five studio albums and has won multiple ARIA Music Awards. Illy has performed at many Australian music festivals including headline spots at Groovin the Moo, Splendour in the Grass, Spilt Milk and Yours and Owls. Early life
Alasdair David George Murray was born on 6 September 1986 in Frankston, Melbourne, Australia. Career

2009–2011: Long Story Short and The Chase
Before his solo career, <mask> was a member of Crooked Eye, but opted to leave the group. Illy released his first album, Long Story Short in 2009. Long Story Short reached  No.24 on the ARIA Top 40 Urban Albums chart and the lead single, "Pictures", was placed on national rotation on Triple J. In April 2010, <mask> embarked on his first national headlining tour, playing 12 dates nationally. In September the same year, <mask> toured nationally alongside Australian rappers 360 and Skryptcha for "The Three Up Tour". <mask> featured on the track "Take It from Me" on producer M-Phazes' 2010 debut album Good Gracious. In 2010, <mask> released the singles "The Chase" and "Cigarettes" and in October 2010, released his second studio album The Chase. The Chase peaked at number 25 on the ARIA Charts. The album's third single, "It Can Wait" became Illy's first charting single on the Australian Singles Chart, peaking at number fifty-eight.In February 2011, <mask> embarked on his 14-date nationwide "The Chase Tour", with special guest M-Phazes. In October 2011, "It Can Wait" was certified Gold by ARIA after selling 35,000 copies. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2011 The Chase was nominated for the ARIA Award for Best Urban Album. 2012–15: Bring It Back and Cinematic
In May 2012, <mask> released "Heard It All", the lead single from his third studio album. In September 2012, <mask> released his third album, Bring It Back, which peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Charts. <mask> described the album as a "passion project" and a "tribute" to the Australian hip hop scene. A 24-date nationwide tour supported the release, with Australian hip-hop producer Chasm and Skryptcha as support acts.At the ARIA Music Awards of 2013, Bring It Back won Illy his first ARIA Music Award, winning ARIA Award for Best Urban Album. In September 2013, <mask> left Obese Records to set up his own label, ONETWO records, and signed South Australian hip hop artist Allday. In November 2013, Illy released his fourth studio album, Cinematic. The album debuted at number 4 on the ARIA Charts. In March 2014, the album's fourth single "Tightrope" became Illy's first top 20 single, peaking at number 18. 2016–present: Two Degrees and sixth studio album
In July 2016, Illy released "Papercuts", featuring Vera Blue, which peaked at number 2 on the ARIA charts. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2016, the song was nominated for four awards.In October 2016, <mask> released "Catch 22" featuring Anne-Marie, which peaked at number 11 on the ARIA charts. In November 2016, <mask> released his fifth studio album, Two Degrees which debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA charts. At the ARIA Music Awards of 2017, the album was nominated for three awards. "You Say When" and "Oh My" were released as singles in 2017. <mask> toured the album and won ARIA Award for Best Australian Live Act at the ARIA Music Awards of 2017. On 24 May 2019, <mask> released "Then What"; his first new release in 2 years.Singles "Codes" and "Lean on Me" followed in 2019. On 13 February 2020, Illy released "Last Laugh"

On 22 May 2020, Australian radio station Triple J premiered a new song by Illy titled "Parmas In June", created as part of a COVID-19 self-isolation musical challenge nicknamed Quarantune. Discography

 Long Story Short (2009)
 The Chase (2010)
 Bring It Back (2012)
 Cinematic (2013)
 Two Degrees (2016)
 The Space Between (2021)

Awards

AIR Awards
The Australian Independent Record Awards (commonly known informally as AIR Awards) is an annual awards night to recognise, promote and celebrate the success of Australia's Independent Music sector. |-
| rowspan="2" | AIR Awards of 2011
| "It Can Wait"
| Best Independent Single/EP
|
|-
| The Chase
| Best Independent Hip Hop/Urban Album
|
|-
| AIR Awards of 2013
|Bring it Back
| Best Independent Hip Hop/Urban Album
|
|-

APRA Awards
The Australasian Performing Right Association Awards of 2017 (generally known as APRA Awards) are an annual awards ceremony to award outstanding achievements in contemporary songwriting, composing and publishing. Illy has won three awards from eight nominations. |-
| rowspan="2"| 2014 || "On and On" || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| "Youngbloods" || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| 2015 || "Tightrope" (featuring Scarlett Stevens) || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| 2017 || "Papercuts" (featuring Vera Blue) || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2018 || "Catch 22" (featuring Anne-Marie) || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| "Oh My" (featuring Jenna McDougall) || Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2020 || "Exit Sign" (Hilltop Hoods featuring Illy and Ecca Vandal) || Most Performed Urban Work of the Year ||
|-
| "Then What" || Most Performed Urban Work of the Year ||
|-

ARIA Awards

The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987.Illy has won two trophies from nineteen nominations.

! They commenced in 2005. |-
| J Awards of 2014
|"One for the City"
| Australian Video of the Year
|

MTV Europe Music Awards
The MTV Europe Music Awards is an award presented by Viacom International Media Networks to honour artists and music in pop culture. |-
| 2017
| himself
| Best Australian Act
|
|-

References

External links

1986 births
APRA Award winners
ARIA Award winners
Australian hip hop musicians
Australian male rappers
Living people
Sony Music Australia artists

masks: Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy Illy


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<mask>, 1st Earl of Anglesey PC (10 July 16146 April 1686) was an Anglo-Irish royalist statesman. After short periods as President of the Council of State and Treasurer of the Navy, he served as Lord Privy Seal between 1673 and 1682 for Charles II. He succeeded his father as 2nd Viscount Valentia in 1660, and he was created Earl of Anglesey in 1661. Early life
Annesley was born in Dublin, Ireland to Francis Annesley, 1st Viscount Valentia, and his first wife  Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps, Bt, of Picton Castle. He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, from which he graduated in 1634 as a Bachelor of Arts; that year, he was admitted into Lincoln's Inn. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being employed by Parliament on a mission to the Duke of Ormonde, now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in concluding a treaty with him on 19 June 1647, thus securing the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons.He supported the parliamentarians against the republican or army party, and appears to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell's parliament for Member of Parliament for Dublin City, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made President of the Council of State in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for Carmarthen. The anarchy of the last months of The Protectorate converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing about the English Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgement on the regicides was on the side of leniency. He was sworn of the Privy Council on 1 June and in November he succeeded his father as Viscount Valentia in the Irish peerage. On 20 April 1661, he was created Baron Annesley, of Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and Earl of Anglesey in the Peerage of England.Anglesey supported the king's administration in parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his post of Vice-Treasurer of Ireland with Sir George Carteret for that of Treasurer of the Navy. He was elected as a Bailiff to the board of the Bedford Level Corporation in 1664 and again in 1679, a position he then held until his death. Later years

His public career was marked by great independence and fidelity to principle. On 24 July 1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill "for the encouragement of trade", on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign commodities being greater than the export of home goods, "it must necessarily follow ... that our silver will also be carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money."He especially disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure promoted by the Duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January 1667, though without success. This same year his naval accounts were subjected to an examination in consequence of his indignant refusal to take part in the attack upon Ormonde; and he was suspended from his office in 1668, no charge, however, against him being substantiated. He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671 between the two Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend money bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons (1702), in which the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673, he was appointed Lord Privy Seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining the Great Seal the same year on the removal of Lord Shaftesbury. In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is mentioned as endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. In the panic of the "Popish Plot" in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his contemporaries and a conspicuous courage.On 6 December he protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he interceded, according to his own account, with the king for him as well as for the barrister  Richard Langhorne  and Oliver Plunkett, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland. His independent attitude drew upon him an attack by  the notorious informer Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the Attorney General, Sir William Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested against the second reading of the bill for disabling the Earl of Danby. In 1681, Anglesey wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, as a rejoinder to the Earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured his conduct and that of Charles I in concluding the "Cessation", and the duke brought the matter before the council. Anglesey was by now disillusioned about the efficacy of the Council, complaining bitterly that Councillors were kept in ignorance of what passed between the King and the Secretaries of State. In 1682 he wrote The Account of <mask>, Earl of Anglesey ... of the true state of Your Majesty's Government and Kingdom, which was addressed to the king in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have been printed till 1694.In consequence he was dismissed on 9 August 1682, from the office of Lord Privy Seal. In 1683, <mask> appeared at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June 1685 he protested alone against the revision of Lord Stafford's attainder. He divided his time between his estate at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire, and his house on Drury Lane in London, where he died in 1686 from quinsy, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and business capacity, and by conspicuous courage and independence of judgement. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he had been allotted lands by Cromwell. At his death, his library of books was believed to be the largest English library not in ecclesiastical hands. He was buried at Farnborough, Hampshire. The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust and not supported by any evidence.Pepys, a far more trustworthy judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a "grave, serious man," and commends his appointment as treasurer of the navy as that of "a very notable man and understanding and will do things regular and understand them himself." That being so, his appearance was also said to be strange, even alarming: "his face long and emaciated, his complexion between purple and green." On a more intellectual point, he was a learned and cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed at his death. Many of his books have now been identified, however, including a heavily annotated copy of the Latin translation of Margaret Cavendish's Life of William Cavendish. Works
 A True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt ... the Duke of Ormond and ... the <mask> of Anglesey (1682)
 A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian (1683)
 The King's Right of Indulgence in Matters Spiritual ... asserted (1688)
 Truth Unveiled, to which is added a short Treatise on ... Transubstantiation (1676)
 The Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy (1688)
 England's Confusion (1659). Reflections on a Discourse concerning Transubstantiation

Memoirs of Lord Anglesey were published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir John Thompson, his son-in-law, in his preface to Lord <mask>'s State of the Government in 1694. The author however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords asserted (1702), while blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished papers," admits their genuineness.Marriage and legacy
Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, a baron of the Exchequer, and his first wife Margaret Skinner. They had seven sons and six daughters, including:
 James (1645–1690), who succeeded as 2nd Earl of Anglesey, married (in 1669) Elizabeth, daughter of John Manners, 8th Earl of Rutland and Frances Montagu;
 Altham, created Baron Altham;
 Richard (died 1701), served as Dean of Exeter and succeeded as 3rd Baron Altham, married Dorothy, daughter of John Davey, of Ruxford, Devon;
 <mask>;
 Charles, who married Margaret Eyre and had issue;
 Dorothy, married Richard Power, 1st Earl of Tyrone (1630–1690) in 1654;
 Elizabeth, married Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim (1615–1699);
 Frances (died 1704/5), married firstly Francis Windham, of Felbrigg, Norfolk, and secondly (in 1668) John Thompson, 1st Baron Haversham;
 Philippa (died 1714/5), married firstly Charles Mohun, 3rd Baron Mohun (their son was the duellist Charles, 4th Baron Mohun), and secondly William Coward, of Wells, Somerset; and
 Anne, married Sir Francis Wingate J.P. of Harlington Grange, Harlington. The latter arrested John Bunyan and committed him to prison. Bunyan was held overnight at Harlington Grange. James' sons succeeded as the 3rd, 4th and 5th earls. Richard's second son, Richard (died 1761), succeeded his cousin as the 6th earl, and left a son <mask> (1744–1816), whose legitimacy was doubted and his father's English titles were declared extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great Britain by a majority of one vote.He was created Earl of Mountnorris in 1793 in the Peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the 1st Earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd Earl of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin <mask> (1785–1863), who thus became 10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the 1st Viscount Valentia the father of the 1st Earl of Anglesey in the Annesley family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls Annesley in the Irish peerage. Notes

References

 . Attribution:

External links

1614 births
1686 deaths
17th-century Irish people
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Arthur
1
Peers of England created by Charles II
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1659
English MPs 1660
Fellows of the Royal Society
Infectious disease deaths in England
Irish barristers
Irish expatriates in England
Irish people of English descent
Irish writers
Lords of the Admiralty
Lords Privy Seal
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for constituencies in Wales
Members of the Privy Council of England
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Politicians from County Dublin

masks:
Arthur Annesley
Arthur
Anglesey
Earl
Anglesey
Arthur
Arthur
Arthur


text_chunks:
<mask>, born Thomas Noakes, (7 May 1860 – 24 August 1930), was an English businessman, showman and the last exhibitor of Joseph Merrick who was otherwise known as the "Elephant Man". Among his later exhibits were a troupe of midgets, a "Man in a Trance", "John Chambers the armless Carpenter", and the "World's Ugliest Woman". <mask> started his working life as a butcher in Sussex before moving to London at the age of 14 where he sought a career on the music hall stage. There, he became interested in freak shows which he attended in his spare time. After viewing an exhibition called "Electric Lady" next door to his place of work, he went into business with the exhibition's manager and began his career as a showman of human oddities. He quickly became successful, for his patter as much as his exhibits, and was called the 'Silver King' by the American showman P. T. Barnum. In 1884, <mask> took over the management of Joseph Merrick, otherwise known as the "Elephant Man", and exhibited him for a few weeks until police closed down the show.Merrick later went to live at the London Hospital under the care of Sir Frederick Treves. In his 1923 memoirs, Treves portrayed <mask> as a cruel drunk who ruthlessly exploited his acts. <mask> refuted this characterisation and said that he had provided Merrick (and his other "freaks") with a means of making money independently. <mask> continued a successful career as a showman and later became an auctioneer of novelty shows and circuses. <mask> died in 1930 and was survived by his wife and 10 children, five of whom followed him into the entertainment business. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born Thomas Noakes on 7 May 1860 in Dallington, Sussex. He was the eldest of 17 children to Thomas Noakes, a butcher and a farmer, and his wife Eliza (née Haiselden).<mask> was introduced to his father's trade at an early age and left school to work with him when he was 12. He decided to go travelling two years later to seek a career as a performer. He was unsuccessful and after a short while, he moved to London where he worked as a butcher's assistant. A keen gambler, <mask> moved to Berkshire where he took up professional gambling at Ascot Racecourse. He wound up penniless and resumed his butchery trade in London where he gained a new interest in freak show entertainment. Novelties

After his unsuccessful venture in Berkshire, <mask> returned to being a butcher, and, one day, viewed the "novelties" at a penny gaff next to his place of employment in Islington. There, Mlle Electra, "The Only Electric Lady – A Lady Born Full of Electricity" gave audience members an electrical shock via her handshake.<mask> was impressed with the exhibition, realised its lucrative potential, and left his job to enter into business with Mlle Electra's manager. He quickly discovered Electra was a fake connected to a supply of electricity. When Mlle Electra was exhibited at Kingston Fair, <mask> realised he would be better off working alone, and successfully staged his own "Electric Lady" in Hammersmith. He learned that his skills as an entertainer were as important to his success as the novelties he exhibited. At some point, he changed his birth name to <mask>, and renounced his inheritance. According to Joseph Merrick's biographers Michael Howell and Peter Ford, <mask> may have changed his name to avoid shaming his family by his "distasteful" connections to circuses and fairgrounds. Over the next few years, <mask>'s travelling exhibitions featured Eliza Jenkins, the "Skeleton Woman", a "Balloon Headed Baby" and a woman who bit off the heads of live rats—the "most gruesome" act <mask> claimed to have seen.Other acts included fleas, fat ladies, giants, dwarves and retired white seamen, painted black and speaking in an invented language, billed "savage Zulus". He displayed a "family of midgets" which in reality was composed of two men and a borrowed baby. He operated a number of shops in London and Nottingham, and exhibited travelling shows throughout the country. In 1882, <mask> gave a show at Islington's Royal Agricultural Hall. Unknown to <mask>, the show was attended by American showman P. T. Barnum. <mask> falsely claimed to his audience, as he had often done in the past, that his show had been booked to appear at Barnum's 'Greatest Show on Earth'. Barnum was much amused and afterwards, seeing <mask>'s silver necklace and noting his gift for oratory, dubbed him the 'Silver King'.With 13 shops in London alone, <mask> ran into a shortage of curiosities and travelled the country looking for new acts. He enticed human novelties into his employ with promises of generous salaries. Elephant Man

In 1884, <mask> came into contact with Joseph Merrick, a young man from Leicester who had extreme deformities. Unable to find work due to his physical appearance, Merrick ended up in the Leicester workhouse for four years. In 1884 he left the workhouse and put himself in the charge of the music hall proprietors Sam Torr and J. Ellis, and the travelling showman 'Little George' Hitchcock. Collectively, they presented Merrick as "The Elephant Man, Half-a-Man and Half-an-Elephant". They quickly realised that they would not be able to show Merrick for too long in one place, for fear of the novelty wearing off, and towards the end of 1884, Hitchcock contacted <mask>, an acquaintance of his, and transferred management of the Elephant Man to him.Merrick arrived in London and into <mask>'s care. <mask>, initially shocked by Merrick's appearance and reluctant to display him, nonetheless exhibited him at his penny gaff shop at 123 Whitechapel Road, directly across the road from the London Hospital. Because of its proximity to the hospital, the shop received medical students and doctors as visitors. One of these was the surgeon Frederick Treves who arranged to have Merrick brought into the hospital to be examined. According to <mask>'s autobiography, Merrick went to the hospital "two or three" times, but then refused to go any more, as the examinations made him feel "like an animal in a cattle market". The exhibition of the Elephant Man was reasonably successful, particularly with the added income from a printed pamphlet about Merrick's life and condition. At this time, however, public opinion about freak shows was starting to change and the display of human novelties was beginning to be viewed as distasteful.After only a few weeks with <mask>, the Elephant Man exhibition was shut down by the police, and <mask> and Merrick parted ways. Treves later arranged for Merrick to live at the London Hospital until Merrick's death in 1890. In Treves's 1923 memoir, The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences <mask> was portrayed as a drunk who cruelly exploited Merrick. <mask> counteracted these claims in a letter in the World's Fair newspaper that year, as well as his own autobiography. <mask>'s opinion was that he provided Merrick (and his other exhibits) a way of making a living and remaining independent, but that on entering the London Hospital, Merrick remained a freak on display, only with no control over how or when he was viewed. The character Bytes, portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1980 film The Elephant Man, is based on <mask>. Later life
<mask> remained a travelling showman for another 10 years following his encounter with Joseph Merrick, and exhibited, among others, a troupe of midgets, a 'Man in a Trance', John Chambers the armless Carpenter and the 'World's Ugliest Woman'.In 1893, he announced that he was leaving for Chicago and advertised his goods for sale, but in the end, he never went. He became involved with the temperance movement and was the vice-president of the Van Dwellers Protection Association (which later became the Showmen's Guild of Great Britain). He became a showman's auctioneer, auctioning novelty shows and circuses and according to the World's Fair, presided over more such sales than any other auctioneer in the country at that time. <mask> married the theatre performer Amy Rayner in 1896, and they had six sons and four daughters. The family moved to Croydon, and <mask> went into semi-retirement, selling off some of his shops. In 1905 he sold showman "Lord" George Sanger's zoo, and then all of Sanger's circus effects, an achievement <mask> called "the crowning point in my life as regards the auctioneering business". He made his comeback in 1919 with the exhibition of 'Phoebe the Strange Girl' in Birmingham and Margate.Final years and death
<mask> died of throat cancer on 24 August 1930 at Croydon Hospital, aged 70. Five of his children followed him into circus careers: George and <mask> became circus clowns while <mask> and <mask> worked in fairgrounds. Ralph Van <mask> (known professionally as Hal Denver) became a travelling Wild West performer, appearing throughout Europe and the United States. References

Bibliography

1860 births
1930 deaths
English butchers
English businesspeople
People from Rother District
Sideshows
English auctioneers

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<mask> (1344 – c. 1414), thought to be the same person named in the Malay Annals as Iskandar Shah, was the last king of Singapura and the founder of
Malacca. According to the Malay Annals, he ruled Singapura from 1389 to 1398. The king fled the island kingdom after a Majapahit naval invasion in 1398 and founded his new stronghold on the mouth of Bertam river in 1402. Within decades, the new city grew rapidly to become the capital of the Malacca Sultanate. Portuguese accounts however, written a hundred years after his death, suggest he was from Palembang in Sumatra and usurped the throne of Singapura; he was driven out, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit, and went on to found Malacca. Etymology

The name Parameswara is found in Portuguese sources such as Suma Oriental, and written Paramicura or Parimicura. Parameswara is a Hindu name derived from the Sanskrit word Parameśvara (), a concept literally meaning the "Supreme Lord".The word "parama" meaning "the supreme" is added to Ishvara as an intensifier. Parameśvara is also one of the names of Lord Shiva. However, the name Parameswara is not found in the Malay Annals, which tell a romanticized history of the kingdoms of Singapura and Malacca. It gives the name Iskandar Shah as the last ruler of Singapura and founder of Malacca. Iskandar is Persian for "Alexander", after Alexander the Great, and Shah the Persian title for a king. It has been conjectured that Iskandar Shah of the Malay Annals is the same person as Parameswara based on commonalities in their biographies. The Ming Chronicle (Ming Shilu) recorded that the consort of Parameswara known as Bā-ér-mí-sū-lǐ (八兒迷蘇里) ('Parameswari') attended a banquet together with the king Bai-li-mi-su-la ('Parameswara') in the Ming court.It is more likely that 'Parameswari' ("Supreme Lordess") referred to a title rather than a given name as evidenced by its application  in the Malay Annals to Sang Nila Utama's mother-in-law, Queen Parameswari Iskandar Shah, and is in fact still in use today in the form of "Permaisuri" ('Queen') in the Malay language. Therefore, the name Parameswara is also believed to be a small part of a longer regnal title which was something common among Malay royals until the present day. Apart from <mask> the founder of Malacca, Abu Syahid Shah, the fourth Sultan of Malacca, was also titled "Raja Sri <mask> Dewa Shah". Biography

Origin

There are differing accounts of the origin and life of Parameswara given in the Malay Annals and Portuguese sources. The Malay Annals was written during the heyday of Malacca and re-compiled in 1612 by the Johor court. It is the basis for accounts of the founding of Singapura , the succession of its rulers and its eventual decline. According to the account by the Malay Annals, Iskandar Shah (Parameswara) was a descendant of Sang Nila Utama said to have founded Singapura.However, historians cast doubts on the accuracy and historicity of the Malay Annals on its accounts of Singapura. Portuguese sources such as the Suma Oriental by Tomé Pires were written shortly after the Portuguese conquest of Malacca and they give a different account of the origin of Parameswara. Both Suma Oriental and Malay Annals do contain similar stories about a fleeing Srivijayan prince arriving in Singapura and about the last king of Singapura who fled to the west coast of Malay peninsula to found Malacca. However, both accounts differ markedly on the identity of the prince: Suma Oriental identified the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as the same person known as "Parameswara", while the more detailed Malay Annals identified the fleeing prince and the last king as completely two different persons separated by five generations (Sang Nila Utama and Iskandar Shah). Suma Oriental noted further that the fleeing Srivijayan prince usurped the throne of Singapura from a Siamese viceroy named "Temagi" sometimes around the 1390s. Portuguese accounts by Tomé Pires and João de Barros, which may have been based on a Javanese source, suggest that Parameswara was a prince from Palembang who attempted to challenge Javanese rule over Palembang sometime after 1360. In this version, the Javanese attacked and drove <mask> out of Palembang, who then escaped to Singapore.Parameswara soon assassinated the local ruler with the title Sang Aji, Sangesinga. <mask> then ruled for five years before he was driven out. The account by Pires also indicates that Iskandar Shah was the son of Parameswara who became the second ruler of Malacca. Many scholars believe that <mask> and Iskandar Shah are the same person, although some argued for Megat Iskandar Shah being the son of Parameswara. The only Chinese first-hand account of 14th century Temasek (the name used before it was changed to Singapura), Dao Yi Zhi Lue written by Wang Dayuan, indicates that Temasek was ruled by a local chief (before the time of Parameswara). However the word used by Wang indicates that the ruler of Temasek was not independent, rather he was a vassal of another more powerful state. Fall of Singapura
Based on the account from the Malay Annals, Sri Maharaja of Singapura was succeeded by his son, Iskandar Shah, in 1389.The use of the peculiar Persian name and title in the Malay Annals may suggest that he had converted to Islam. Accounts in the Malay Annals trace back the Islamic influence in Singapura to the reign of Sri Rana Wikrama, when he first established relationships with a Sumatran Muslim Kingdom, Peureulak. The Malay annals account of the fall of Singapura and the flight of its last king begins with Iskandar Shah's accusation of one of his concubines of adultery. As punishment, the king had her stripped naked in public. In revenge, the concubine's father, Sang Rajuna Tapa who was also an official in Iskandar Shah's court, secretly sent a message to Wikramawardhana of Majapahit, pledging his support should the king choose to invade Singapura. In 1398, Majapahit dispatched a fleet of three hundred large ships and hundreds of smaller vessels, carrying no less than 200,000 men. Initially, the Javanese soldiers engaged with the defenders in a battle outside the fortress, before forcing them to retreat behind the walls.The invasion force laid a siege of the city and repeatedly tried to attack the fortress. However, the fortress proved to be impregnable. After a month, food in the fortress began to run low and the defenders were on the verge of starvation. Sang Rajuna Tapa was then asked to distribute whatever grain left to the people from the royal store. Seeing this opportunity for revenge, the minister lied to the King, saying the stores were empty. The grains were not distributed and the people eventually starved. The final assault came when the gates were finally opened under the order of the treacherous minister.The Majapahit soldiers rushed into the fortress and a terrible massacre ensued. According to the Malay Annals, "blood flowed like a river" and the red stains on the laterite soil of Singapore are said to be blood from that massacre. Knowing that defeat was imminent, Iskandar Shah and his followers fled the island. Portuguese sources gave different accounts from the Malay Annals. They suggested that <mask> originated from Palembang, who escaped to Temasek that some believed to be a vassal of Siam. There he assassinated the local ruler who had welcomed Parameswara into the kingdom, and ruled there for five years. There are different suggestions as to who attacked Singapore.One indication was that the assassinated ruler of Singapura may be related by marriage to the Pattani Kingdom and the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom. João de Barros said that it was the Siamese who attacked Singapura, while Brás de Albuquerque believed that it was the Pattani Kingdom. Diogo do Couto on the other hand said it was the Majapahit, while Godinho de Erédia mentioned Pahang (by which he meant most the Malay Peninsula). Foundation of Malacca
<mask> fled north to found a new settlement. In Muar, <mask> contemplated establishing his new kingdom at either Biawak Busuk or at Kota Buruk. Finding that the Muar location was not suitable, he continued northwards. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong (former name of present-day Sungai Ujong) before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Malacca River).This evolved over time to become the location of modern-day Malacca Town. According to the Malay Annals, legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwitting his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, 'this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable; it is best that we establish a kingdom here'. Tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the mouse deer is part of modern Malacca's coat of arms. The name "Malacca" itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Malacca tree () scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica. Another account on the origin the naming of Malacca elaborates that during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1424–1444), the Arab merchants called the kingdom 'Malakat' (Arabic for 'congregation of merchants') because it was home to many trading communities.Reign in Malacca
After the foundation of the new settlement in Malacca, <mask> initiated the development of the place and ordered his men to cultivate the lands with banana, sugar cane, yam and other crops for food. Taking the advantage of the harbour that is protected by a hill and sheltered ships well from the danger of strong tides, <mask> laid the foundation of a trading port by building the

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 storage and market facilities to serve as a meeting point to exchange goods. The indigenous inhabitants of Malacca and the strait, the Orang Laut, who were also known as the loyal servants of Malay rulers since the time of Singapura and Srivijaya, were said to have been employed by Parameswara to patrol the adjacent seas, to repel other petty pirates, and to direct traders to their Malay overlords' port. Ironically, Orang Lauts themselves were known to be ferocious pirates in history. Within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world and reached as far as China. The Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty, who reigned from 1402 till 1424, sent his envoy known as Yin Qing to Malacca in 1405. Yin Qing's visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China.Chinese merchants began calling at the port of Malacca, joining other foreign traders notably the Javanese, Indians, Chinese, and Burmese who came to establish their trading bases and settle in Malacca, soaring its population to 2000 during <mask>'s reign. In 1411, <mask>, his wife, his son, and a royal party of 540 people left for China with Admiral Zheng He to pay homage to the Yongle Emperor. Yongle praised Parameswara and acknowledged him as the rightful ruler of Malacca. He then presented Parameswara with a seal, silk and a yellow umbrella as symbols of royalty and also a letter appointing <mask> as the ruler of Malacca. Malacca was then recognised as a kingdom by the Emperor of China. The envoy returned to Malacca together with a fleet led by Zheng He. The Chinese chronicles mention that in 1414, the son of the first ruler of Malacca visited Ming China to inform them that his father had died.It is generally believed that he was buried on top of a hill at Tanjung Tuan (also known as Cape Rachado), within the State of Malacca, Malaysia by which located nearby to the modern-day district of Port Dickson. <mask> was succeeded by his son, Megat Iskandar Shah who in turn ruled Malacca until 1424. There is an allegation that <mask> had also been buried at the Bukit Larangan Park, Singapore. Some other also believe that he could have been cremated based on the Hindu's ritual belief system, and there is therefore no actual burial place. Religious belief
It is believed that <mask> was a Hindu as indicated by his Hindu name. The Persian moniker Iskandar Shah used in the Malay Annals, as well as the confusion as to whether <mask> and Iskandar Shah in different sources refer to the same person, led to the conjecture that <mask> had converted to Islam and took a new name. In the year 1409, when he was sixty-five, he was said to have married a Muslim princess of Pasai, converted to Islam and adopted the Persian title Iskandar Shah.However, the 16th-century Portuguese writer Tomé Pires explicitly mentioned that <mask> was succeeded by his son, named Chaquem Daraxa or Megat Iskandar Shah, and that only the latter converted to Islam at the age of 72. The Chinese History of Ming also considers Megat Iskandar Shah to be the son of <mask>. This son is referred to in the Malay Annals only as Raja Besar Muda. According to the Malay Annals, the third king Muhammad Shah was the first Muslim ruler of Melaka, having converted after a dream. Scholars believe both <mask> and his son were given the same title, the elder called Sri Iskandar Shah and the son Megat Iskandar Shah. Based on Malay, Portuguese, and Chinese writings, Christopher Wake concludes that <mask> never adopted Islam but was posthumously given the title Iskandar Shah. While there are differing views on when the Islamisation of Melaka actually took place, it is generally agreed that Islam was firmly established in the court by the reign of Muzaffar Shah.Foreign relations with Ming China
The relation with Ming China started in the early 15th century when <mask> embarked on several voyages to visit the Yongle Emperor. In 1403, the first official Chinese trade envoy led by Admiral Yin Qing arrived in Malacca. Later, Parameśwara was escorted by Zheng He and other envoys in his successful visits. Malacca's relationships with Ming granted protection to Malacca against attacks from Siam and Majapahit and Malacca officially submitted as a protectorate of Ming China. This encouraged the development of Malacca into a major trade settlement on the trade route between China and India, Middle East, Africa and Europe. In 1411, <mask> and his wife together with 540 officials from Malacca went to China to pay homage to the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424). Upon arriving, a grand welcoming ceremony was held with sacrification of animals.The historical meeting between Parameswara and the Yongle Emperor was recorded accurately in the Ming chronicle:

Tributes that Malacca paid to Ming included: agate, carnelian, pearl, hawksbill, coral, crane beak, golden female crane beak, suit, white cloth, Western fabric, Sa-ha-la, rhino horn, ivory, black bear, black ape, white muntjac, turkey, parrot, pian-nao, rosebush dew, su-he oil, gardenia flower, wu-ye-ni, aromatic wood, incense sticks, gold silver incense sticks. Legacy

Within decades after its foundation, Malacca grew into an international trading port and heralded the golden age of Alam Melayu. 80 languages were reportedly spoken in Malacca. Malacca became an important port in the far east during the 16th century. It became so rich that the Portuguese writer and trader Tome Pires said "Whoever is lord of Malacca shall have his hands on the throat of Venice." The new Malay sultanate emerged as the primary base in continuing the historic struggles of its predecessors, Singapura and Srivijaya, against their Java-based nemeses. By the mid-15th century, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of Malacca that began to gain effective control of Malacca straits and expands its influence to Sumatra.The Malay Annals records that, at the height of its power, following the accession to the throne of Sultan Mansur Shah in 1459, Malacca's territory covered much of the Malay peninsula as well as the Riau-Lingga islands and parts of the east coast of Sumatra namely Indragiri, Kampar, Siak, Rokan, Haru and Siantan. Malacca was still looking to expand its territory as late as 1506 when it conquered Kelantan. The prosperity of Malacca as an international port changed the entire Maritime Southeast Asia and its success was admired by kings from neighbouring kingdoms. As a major entreport, Malacca attracted Muslim traders from various part of the world and became a centre of Islam, disseminating the religion throughout the Maritime Southeast Asia. The process of Islamisation in the region surrounding Malacca gradually intensified between the 15th and 16th centuries through study centres in Upeh, the district on the north bank of the Malacca River. Islam spread from Malacca to Jambi, Kampar, Bengkalis, Siak, Aru and the Karimun Islands in Sumatra, throughout much of the Malay peninsula, Java and even Philippines. The Malay Annals even reveals that the courts of Malacca and Pasai posed theological questions and problems to one another.Of the so-called Wali Sanga ('nine saints') responsible in spreading Islam on Java, at least two, Sunan Bonang and Sunan Kalijaga, are said to have studied in Malacca. The expansion of Islam into the interiors of Java in the 15th century led to the gradual decline of Malacca's long standing foe, Hindu-Majapahit, before it finally succumbed to the emerging local Muslim forces in the early 16th century. Ultimately, the period spanning from Malaccan era right until the age of effective European colonisation, saw the domination of Malay-Muslim sultanates in trade and politics that eventually contributed to the Malayisation of the region. Sources
 Malay Annals - a Malay literature compiled by Tun Sri Lanang in 1612. Suma Oriental - written by Portuguese Tom Pires after the Portuguese conquest of Malacca in the early 16th century. Other Portuguese sources such as those given by Afonso de Albuquerque also mentioned Parameswara. Ming Shilu () - also known as the Veritable Records of the Ming dynasty, has a comprehensive 150 records or more on Parameswara (Bai-li-mi-su-la 拜里迷蘇剌) and Malacca.The translation work was contributed by Dr.Geoff Wade, a senior researcher in the Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore. 28 October 1403: eunuch Yǐn Qìng 尹慶 was sent to Malacca. 3 October 1405: Bai-li-mi-su-la, the native ruler of the country of Malacca followed the Imperial envoy Yin Qing and visit the Ming court to offer tribute. 16 February 1409: envoy A-bu-la Jia-xin 阿卜剌賈信 sent by Bai-li-mi-su-la visit Ming court and offered tribute of local products. 4 August 1411: Bai-li-mi-su-la, on banquet in reward him on visit to Ming court. 14 August 1411: Bai-li-mi-su-la, and his wife, children and attendant ministers, a total of over 540 persons, visit Ming Court. 17 August 1411: A banquet was conferred upon Bai-li-mi-su-la and his consort Bā-ér-mí-sū-lǐ 八兒迷蘇里 and others in the Interpreters Institute.5 October 1414: Son of the king of the country of Malacca, Mǔ-gàn Sā-yúgān-dí ér Shā 母幹撒于干的兒沙 visit Ming court and memorialised that his father Bai-li-mi-su-la had died. And the Imperially commanded that Mǔ-gàn Sā-yúgān-dí ér Shā should inherit his father's title as king. See also
 Strait of Malacca
 Orang Laut
 Moken
 Hang Tuah

References

External links

Rajas of Singapore
Sultans of Malacca
14th-century monarchs in Asia
15th-century monarchs in Asia
Palembang
History of Singapore
History of Malacca
History of Malaysia
Hindu monarchs
Founding monarchs
1344 births
1414

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<mask>, Grand Duke of Tuscany (; 10 June 1835 – 17 January 1908) was the last Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1859 to 1860. Biography
Born at Florence, he was the son of Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Princess Maria Antonia of the Two Sicilies. He and his family were forced to flee Florence on 27 April 1859, with the outbreak of a revolution inspired by the outbreak of a war by France and Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria as part of the unification of Italy. The family took refuge in Austria. After the end of the war, Leopold II abdicated on 21 July and <mask> succeeded him as Grand Duke. <mask> proved unable to return to Florence to claim his throne, and an elected Tuscan National Assembly formally deposed him only a month later, on 16 August. <mask> still hoped to recover his throne, as both France and Austria had promised to recognize his rights to it in the Armistice of Villafranca.However, neither power was willing to take any steps to bring about his restoration; Sardinia would annex Tuscany on 22 March 1860, and with Austria recognizing the new Kingdom of Italy after the Third War of Independence in 1866, <mask>'s hopes to reclaim the throne were ended. Subsequently <mask> and his family returned to the Imperial House of Austria. While <mask> was allowed to keep the grand ducal title as a courtesy and retain his status as grand master of all Tuscan orders of chivalry for his lifetime, his descendants could only bear the title of "Archduke/Archduchess of Austria"; the right to bear the title "Prince/ss of Tuscany" became restricted solely to family members born before 1866. In 1870 <mask> relinquished all dynastic rights to the defunct Grand Duchy for himself and his future heirs in favor of his second cousin, Emperor Franz Joseph I, effectively ending the House of Habsburg-Tuscany's status as a sovereign cadet branch. <mask> died in Salzburg in 1908, after spending the rest of his life in exile. Upon his death, his descendants were barred from using their Tuscan titles by Imperial decree. Family and children
He married twice and had issue:

From his first marriage in Dresden on 24 November 1856 to Princess Anna of Saxony, (Dresden, 4 January 1836 – Naples, 10 February 1859), daughter of King John I of Saxony, was born:
 Archduchess Maria Antonietta (Florence, 10 January 1858 – Cannes, 13 April 1883).She became Princess-Abbess of the Theresian Convent in the Hradschin in Prague. Unmarried and without Issue. From his second marriage in Frohsdorf on 11 January 1868 to Princess Alice "Alix" of Bourbon-Parma (Parma, 27 December 1849 – Schwertberg, 16 November 1935), daughter of Duke Charles III of Parma:
Archduke <mask> (1868–1935). He renounced his titles on 29 December 1902 and took the name Leopold Wölfling. He married three times, without issue. Archduchess Louise (1870–1947). Married first King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and after divorcing him married second Enrico Toselli and had issue by both marriages.Archduke <mask> (1872–1942). He married, firstly, Rosa Kaltenbrunner and, after divorcing her married, secondly Gertrud Tomanek, by whom he had issue. Both marriages were morganatic. Archduke <mask>, Prince of Tuscany (1874–1948). Married Princess Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, and had issue. Archduke <mask> (1878–1969). A major general in the Austrian army, morganatically married Maria Karoline Ludescher, and had issue.She married Johannes, Prince of Hohenlohe-Bartenstein; their granddaughter married Hans Veit, Count of Toerring-Jettenbach, son of Princess Elizabeth of Greece and Denmark.

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