text_chunks:
<mask> (1796–1858) was an English travel writer known for his books on Spain. Born in Chelsea into a high-class family and educated in Oxford, he first moved to Spain in 1830, where he travelled extensively and collected notes and drawings. Upon return to England, he wrote an account of his journeys in A Handbook for Travellers in Spain, first published in 1845, described as one of masterpieces of the travel literature genre. An erudite art collector, he befriended many important art and literature figures of his time. <mask> was a skilled drawer himself, and made illustrations for his own and his friends' books. Biography
<mask> was born at 129 Sloane Street, Chelsea on 21 April 1796, the elder son of <mask> (1758–1806), MP 1789–1791, Chief Magistrate at Bow Street and knighted 1801 and his wife Marianne (1767–1849), daughter of Benjamin Booth, East India Company Director and collector of the landscape paintings of <mask>  (1713/4–1782). <mask> was educated at Winchester College and Trinity College, Oxford (B.A.1817). A lifelong Tory, in spite of joining the Whig Brooks's Club, he was a great admirer of the Duke of Wellington. He travelled on the Continent at the close of the Napoleonic Wars visiting France, Germany, Austria and Italy between 1815 and the late 1820s, latterly with his first wife, Harriet Capel, whom he married in 1824. She was an illegitimate daughter of the George Capel-Coningsby, 5th Earl of Essex, who had been a close friend of his father. <mask> entered Lincoln's Inn in 1819 and was called to the Bar in 1822, but never practised. His real interest lay in the fine arts where he collected old master prints, particularly those of Parmigianino and Andrea Meldolla (Schiavone). In 1822 and 1824 he and his wife Harriet issued their own etchings after these two masters.Between 1825 and 1832 the <mask>s has six children, the three youngest dying in infancy. By 1830 Mrs. <mask>'s health was causing concern and it was decided to visit the warmer climate of Spain. Their stay lasted from October 1830 to October 1833, Seville being their base, except for the summers of 1831 and 1833, which they spent in the Alhambra at Granada where the climate was cooler. There he wrote about the rivalry between Marie Guy-Stéphan and Maria Brambilla, specialist in Donizetti and first dancer of La Scala. In Seville he bought Spanish paintings and drawings mainly from the British Vice-Consul, Julian Benjamin Williams, who was also a dealer. These, among others, included works by Murillo, Zurbarán and Alonso Cano. Later he bought a Ribalta at Valencia.He was to send paintings to auction at Rainy's Rooms in Regent Street in 1836. Some of these were bought in. In all probability Williams was instrumental in introducing Ford to local artists José Gutiérrez de la Vega (1791–1865) and José Domínguez Bécquer (1805–1841), both of whom <mask> patronised. In his correspondence he also mentions José Maria Escacena (1800–1858), later a painter of Moroccan scenes and Antonio Maria Esquivel (1806–57). From late 1832 Ford was also to house and patronise the British artist,  John Frederick Lewis (1804/5–1876). When back in England, he befriended the Scottish artist, David Roberts, who was in Spain 1832–1833, but apparently <mask> never met him while they were both there. <mask> and his wife made many topographical drawings of Seville and its vicinity and during their wider travels in Spain.These constitute an important record of the Spain of the period as many of the buildings he drew were later to disappear. <mask> also kept detailed notebooks of what he observed. His journeys took him through Andalucia, Extremadura, Northwest Spain and several times to Madrid. Late in 1831, together with <mask>, he travelled along the Mediterranean coast to Barcelona and via Eastern Spain to Madrid. Apart from that a large part of the north and southeast of the country remained unvisited. During his stay he bought many Spanish books, particularly of literature, artistic treatises, topography, local histories and of local saints. He continued to procure such items after his return home, notably at the Heber (1834–1836), W. B. Chorley (1846) and Riego (1847) sales, which helped to augment his knowledge of those areas he did not visit.He also relied on friends such as Henry Unwin Addington, the British minister in Madrid 1829–1833 and Pascual de Gayangos, an arabist, to provide him with more recent publications. <mask>'s wife Harriet was constantly in poor health and after their return to England in 1833 the couple lived separately. <mask> went to live in Exeter and in 1835 he bought a Heavitree house close to its eastern boundary. There, he created a Spanish style garden and built a Moorish-style summer house. This interest caused him to write an article on cob walls, contributed to John Murray's Quarterly Review  (April 1837), in which he likened the local Devon cob to the Spanish tapia buildings. This proved to be the precursor of many contributions,  mainly, but not exclusively, to the Quarterly, mainly on Spanish subjects, which continued until 1857. As a result in late 1840 Murray submitted the manuscript of George Borrow's account of the Gypsies of Spain,  The Zincali,  to <mask>, who recommended publication.This resulted in a literary friendship in which <mask> did his very best to encourage the highly temperamental author and which came to an end in 1851, when <mask>, because of his own personal commitments, but also puzzlement about its content, felt unable to review Lavengro; Borrow took offence. A review of Captain Charles Rochfort Scott's excursions in the mountains of Ronda and Granada (Quarterly, April 1839) demonstrated <mask>'s topographical knowledge of the area, and this may have prompted Murray to invite <mask> to write a handbook for Spain. The first Mrs. <mask> died in May 1837 and <mask> married the Hon. Eliza Cranstoun (1808–1849) in 1838. Their daughter was born in 1840. He and his wife visited Italy in 1839–1840. <mask> began the work on his most famous work, Handbook for Travellers in Spain on their return.A first draft took until the end of 1843 to complete and was partially printed in 1844, but was finally abandoned in early 1845, because of its hostility to perceived inadequacies of Spanish government, the cult of Mariolatry (worship of the Virgin Mary), and Spanish military incompetence together with French misconduct and depredations during the Peninsular War in which Marshal Soult, who happened to be the French Head of Government at the time, was categorised as the 'plundermaster general'. A revised edition, still highly critical, if somewhat toned down, appeared in two volumes in July 1845. It remained a highly opinionated, strongly Protestant view of Spain, but nevertheless provided very detailed knowledge of the country and offered specialist information about the fine arts, including, most notably, a detailed consideration of the collections of the Prado. It is relished for its erudition, prejudice and dry wit. It remains one of the very few guide books to be regarded as a classic of travel literature in its own right. Of the 2,000 copies of this first published edition 1,800 were sold by the end of the year. Murray wanted a single-volume handbook, so Ford discarded much of the preliminary content and incorporated it with fresh material as Gatherings from Spain, issued in Murray's Home and Colonial Library at the end of 1846.The one-volume Handbook appeared in 1847. He was also helping his friends Sir Edmund Head and William Stirling (later Sir William Stirling Maxwell) write their surveys of Spanish art, both of which were published in 1848. The second Mrs. <mask> died of tuberculosis in January 1849 and in 1851 <mask> married Mary Molesworth (1816–1910) of Pencarrow, Cornwall. In 1843 <mask> had published a life of Velázquez in the Penny Cyclopaedia and in 1851 on a tour of the north of England and Scotland with Mrs <mask> 'rediscovered' the Rokeby Venus in North Yorkshire then in the possession of William J. S. Morritt (1813–1874), (now in the National Gallery). It had been known previously to very few  people and had its first public display at the 1857 Manchester  Art Treasures Exhibition. In 1855 <mask> published the third edition of the Handbook, restored to two volumes and containing much new material, but by this time his health was failing. In 1855 he also wrote "Andalucia, Ronda and Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia; the portions best suited for the invalid".He died of Bright's disease at Heavitree on 31 August 1858. His fine collection of pictures was inherited by his widow Mary. Family
In 1824 <mask> married Harriet Capel, who died in 1837. They had six children, and of those he was survived only by two daughters and a son, Sir Francis Clare <mask>. In 1837 <mask> became engaged to Eliza Cranstoun, sister of the 10th Lord Cranstoun; the marriage took place on 28 February 1838. The only child of <mask> and Eliza was Margaret 'Meta' <mask>, who was born in October 1840, married Oswald John Frederick Crawfurd, and died in 1899. <mask> died on 23 January 1849.In the summer of 1851, <mask> married his third wife, <mask>, née Molesworth, (1816–1910), who was a daughter of Sir Arscott Ourry Molesworth, 7th Baronet (1789–1823). <mask>'s niece was the archer, Cecilia Betham. Encounter with <mask> made an educational trip to Germany and Austria after leaving Trinity College in the summer of 1817, arriving in Vienna on 12 October 1817. The highlight of his stay in the city was a meeting with Ludwig van Beethoven, whom he visited on 28 November 1817. Beethoven received <mask> extremely kindly, gave him an engraved portrait of himself, and composed a short Allegretto for string quartet in B minor (WoO 210) especially for <mask> in his presence during his visit. The piece remained completely unknown the autograph came up for auction on 8 December 1999 at Sotheby's in London. It is now in the Bodmer Library in Cologny, Switzerland.Works
 <mask>,  An Historical Enquiry into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain, London, John Murray 1837
 A Handbook for Travellers in Spain. suppressed edition (1844–45). (Abandoned before publication, ends in mid-sentence at page 768. Copy in The British Library). A Handbook for Travellers in Spain, London, John Murray 1845, 2 vols., 2nd Ed., 1847, 3rd Ed., 1855, 2 vols. New Ed., ed Ian Robertson, Fontwell and London, Centaur Press 1966. 3 vols.Gatherings from Spain, London, John Murray 1846. Everyman Ed., intro Thomas Okey, (1906) and later reps., intro Brinsley <mask>, 1970, intro. and ed.Ian Robertson, London, Pallas Athene 2000. Selected bibliography
 Robertson, Ian, <mask>, Hispanophile, Connoisseur and Critic, Wymondham, Michael Russell 2004. The only detailed biography, provides a full bibliography up to 2002. Alberich, José. <mask> ó el hispanista hispanofobo, El Cateto y el Milor y otros ensayos anglohispanoles, Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla, 2001, 79-108.Barberán, F.J. Rodriguez, La Sevilla de Richard Ford 1830-1833. Exhibition Catalogue, Sevilla, Fundación El Monte 2007. <mask>. Viajes por Espaňa (1830-1833) Exhibition Catalogue, Madrid, Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, 2014. Bean, Thomas, 'Knapp and 'a Botcher George Borrow Bulletin, 2, 1991, 14-18. 'I saw the Diamond in the Mass of Rubbish', <mask> and his friendship with George Borrow, Proceedings of the George Borrow Conference 1991, ed. Gillian Fraser, Toronto 1992.<mask> as Picture Collector and Patron in Spain, Burlington Magazine, CXXXVII, February 1995, 96-107. <mask> and Gatherings from Spain. The Book Collector, 44, 1995, 67-71. The Spanish Library of <mask>, The Book Collector, 59, 2010, 369-91. Brigstocke , Hugh (Ed) The Correspondence between Edmund Head, <mask> and William Stirling,  Walpole Society, LXXVII, 2015, 379-478. Constable, Thomas, Archibald Constable and his Literary Correspondents. Edinburgh, Edmondston and Douglas, 3 vols, 1873, II, 127-142.Ford, Brinsley, J.F. Lewis and <mask> in Seville, Burlington Magazine, LXXX, 1942, 124-29. <mask>'s Articles and Reviews, Book Handbook, I, 1948, 369-80. <mask> en Sevilla, Madrid, Instituto Diego Velázquez, 1963. <mask> in Spain, Exhibition catalogue, Wildenstein, London 1974. <mask>, The Ford Collection, Walpole Society, LX, 1998, 1, 23-56. Giménez Cruz , Antonio, ¡Cosas de los Ingleses!Madrid, Editorial Complutense 997. El Espaňa Pintoresca de David Roberts, Malaga, Universidad de Malaga, 2nd Ed. 2004. Glick, Thomas, <mask> and Spanish Culture, The Texas Quarterly, 14, 1971, 67-79. Hitchcock, <mask> (Ed) <mask>: Letters to Gayangos, Exeter, University of Exeter 1974. <mask> in Sevilla, George Borrow Bulletin, 24, 2002, 69-81. Hoskins, W.G.The Finest Travel Book in English, The Listener, LX, 1958, 337-39. Howarth , David, Mr. Morritt's Venus: <mask>, Sir William Stirling-Maxwell and the 'Cosas de Espaňa'. Apollo, CI, no 452 (New Series) October 1999, 37-44. Hughes, Thomas, <mask>, In Memoriam, Fraser's Magazine, 58,1858, 422-24. Knapp, William Ireland, The Life, Writings and Correspondence of George Borrow, London, John Murray 1899, 2 vols. Medina Casado, Carmelo and Ruiz Mas, José (Eds) Las Cosas de Richard Ford, Jaen, Universidad de Jaen, 2010. Morton, H.V.A Stranger in Spain, London, Methuen 1955, 109-12. Prothero, R.E. (Ed) The Letters of <mask>, London, John Murray, 1905. Radford, Emily, '<mask> and his Handbook for Travellers in Spain.' Transactions of the Devonshire Association, XC, 1958, 146 – 66. Robertson, Ian, Los Curiosos Impertinentes, Serbal, Madrid and Barcelona, 2nd Ed. 1988
 Shorter, Clement King, George Borrow and his Circle'', London, Hodder and Stoughton 1913, 248-59.Principal Manuscript Sources of Letters in Public Collections. British Library, London. Hispanic Society of America, New York. Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston. Mitchell Library, Glasgow. National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. Norfolk and Norwich Record Office, Norwich.Most of <mask>'s letters remain unpublished. References

External links

English travel writers
1796 births
1858 deaths
British Hispanists

masks:
Richard Ford
Ford
Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Wilson
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Harriet Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Ford
Richard Ford
Ford
Richard
Richard
Ford
Eliza Ford
Richard Ford
Mary Ford
Ford
Beethoven Ford
Ford
Ford
Richard Ford
Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford
Richard Ford


text_chunks:
Nūr i Dīn Muḥammad Salīm (Persian: ), known by his imperial name, Jahāngīr (Persian: ) (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627. His imperial name (in Persian) means 'conqueror of the world', 'world-conqueror' or 'world-seizer' (Jahan: world; gir: the root of the Persian verb gereftan: to seize, to grab).Jahangir was half Jat and half Muslim. The fictitious tale of his relationship with the Mughal courtesan, Anarkali, has been widely adapted into the literature, art and cinema of India. Early life

Born on 31 August 1569, Prince Salīm, later Jahāngīr,  was the third son born to Akbar and his favorite Queen, Mariam-uz-Zamani, daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber in Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar's previous children had died in infancy and he had sought the blessing of holy men to produce a son. Salim was named for one such man, Shaikh Salim Chisti. Salim grew up fluent in Persian and premodern Hindi, with a "respectable" knowledge of Turkic, the Mughal ancestral language.Reign

Prince Salim succeeded to the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim ascended to the throne with the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi, and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36. <mask>, soon after, had to fend off his own son, Prince Khusrau Mirza, when the latter attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will to become his next heir. Khusrau Mirza was defeated in 1606 and confined in the fort of Agra. Jahangir considered his third son, Prince Khurram (reign name Shah Jahan), his favourite. As punishment, Khusrau Mirza was handed over to his younger brother and was partially blinded and killed. In 1622, Jahangir sent his son, Prince Khurram, to fight against the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.After his victory, Khurram turned against his father and made a bid for power. Khurram murdered his blind older brother, Khusrau Mirza, in order to smooth his own path to the throne. As with the insurrection of his eldest son, Khusrau Mirza, Jahangir was able to defeat the challenge from within his family and retain power. Foreign relations

The East India Company persuaded King James to send Sir Thomas Roe as a royal envoy to the Agra court of Jahangir. Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619. At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; certainly he arrived with gifts of "many crates of red wine" and explained to him "What beer was? How made?".The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Company factory at Surat. While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahingir, "Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the EIC gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus". While Roe's detailed journals are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his own voluminous diaries. In 1623, Emperor Jahangir sent his tahwildar, Khan Alam, to Safavid Persia, accompanied by 800 sepoys, scribes and scholars, along with ten howdahs well decorated in gold and silver, in order to negotiate peace with Abbas I of Persia after a brief conflict in the region around Kandahar. Khan Alam soon returned with valuable gifts and groups of Mir Shikar (Hunt Masters) from both Safavid Persia and the Khanates of Central Asia. In 1626, Jahangir began to contemplate an alliance between the Ottomans, Mughals and Uzbeks against the Safavids, who had defeated the Mughals at Kandahar. He even wrote a letter to the Ottoman Sultan, Murad IV.Jahangir's ambition did not materialise however, due to his death in 1627. Marriages
Salim was made a mansabdar of ten thousand (Das-Hazari), the highest military rank of the empire (after the emperor). He independently commanded a regiment in the Kabul campaign of 1581 when he was barely twelve. His Mansab was raised to Twelve Thousand, in 1585, at the time of his betrothal to his cousin Rajkumari Man Bai, daughter of Bhagwant Das of Amer. Bhagwant Das, was the son of Raja Bharmal and Salim's maternal uncle through Mariam-uz-Zamani. The marriage with Man Bai took place on 24 February 1585. Jahangir named her Shah Begum and she gave birth to Khusrau Mirza.Thereafter, Salim married, in quick succession, a number of accomplished girls from the aristocratic Mughal and Rajput families. One of his early favourite wives was a Rajput princess, Jagat Gosain Begum, daughter of Raja Udai Singh Rathore of Marwar. The marriage was solemnised on 11 January 1586 at the bride's residence. Jahangir named her Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani and she gave birth to Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jahan, who was Jahangir's successor to the throne. On 26 June 1586 he married a daughter of Raja Rai Singh, Maharaja of Bikaner. In July 1586, he married Malika Shikar Begum, daughter of Sultan Abu Said Khan Jagatai, Sultan of Kashghar. In 1586, he married Sahib-i-Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hassan of Herat, a cousin of Zain Khan Koka.In 1587, he married Malika Jahan Begum, daughter of Bhim Singh, Maharaja of Jaisalmer. He also married the daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas. In October 1590, he married Zohra Begum, daughter of Mirza Sanjar Hazara. He married Karamnasi Begum, daughter of Raja Kesho Das Rathore of Merta. On 11 January 1592, he married Kanwal Rani, daughter of Ali Sher Khan, by his wife, Gul Khatun. In October 1592, he married a daughter of Husain Chak of Kashmir. In January/March 1593, he married Nur un-nisa Begum, daughter of Ibrahim Husain Mirza, by his wife, Gulrukh Begum, daughter of Kamran Mirza.In September 1593, he married a daughter of Ali Khan Faruqi, Raja of Khandesh. He also married a daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch. On 28 June 1596, he married Khas Mahal Begum, daughter of Zain Khan Koka, Subadar of Kabul and Lahore. In 1608, he married Saliha Banu Begum, daughter of Qasim Khan, a senior member of the Imperial Household. On 17 June 1608, he married Koka Kumari Begum, eldest daughter of Jagat Singh, Yuvraj of Amber. On 11 January 1610, he married the daughter of Ram Chand Bundela. At some point, he had also married a daughter of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, son of Emperor Humayun.Jahangir married the extremely beautiful and intelligent Mehr-un-Nisaa (better known by her subsequent title of Nur Jahan) on 25 May 1611. She was the widow of Sher Afgan. Mehr-un-Nisaa became his indisputable chief consort and favourite wife immediately after their marriage. She was witty, intelligent and beautiful, which was what attracted Jahangir to her. Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace'). Her abilities are said to range from fashion designing to hunting. There is also a myth that she had once killed four tigers with six bullets.Nur Jahan

Mehr-Un-Nisa, or Nur Jahan, occupies an important place in the history of Jahangir. She was the widow of a rebel officer, Sher Afgan, whose actual name was Ali Quli Beg Ist'ajlu. He had earned the title "Sher Afgan" (Tiger tosser) from Emperor Akbar after throwing off a tiger that had leaped to attack Akbar on the top of an elephant in a royal hunt at Bengal and then stabbing the fallen tiger to death. Akbar was greatly affected by the bravery of the young Turkish bodyguard accompanying him and awarded him the captaincy of the Imperial Guard at Burdwan, Bengal. Sher Afgan had killed in rebellion (after having learned of Jahangir's orders to have him slain to possess his beautiful wife Mehr Un Nisaa as Jahangir yearned for her much earlier than her wedding to Sher Afgan), the governor of Bengal Qutubuddin Koka who was instructed secretly by Jahangir in his quest and who also was the emperor's foster brother and Sheikh Salim Chishti's grandson and consequently had been slain by the guards of the Governor. The widowed Mehr-Un-Nisaa was brought to Agra along with her nine-year-old daughter and placed in—or refused to be placed in—the Royal harem in 1607. Jahangir married her in 1611 and gave her the title of Nur Jahan or "Light of the World".It was rumoured that Jahangir had a hand in the death of her first husband Sher Afghan, albeit there is no recorded evidence to prove that he was guilty of that crime; in fact most travellers' reports say that he met her after Sher Afgan's death. (See Ellison Banks Findly's scholarly biography for a full discussion.) The loss of Kandahar was due to Prince Khurram's refusal to obey her orders. When the Persians besieged Kandahar, Nur Jahan was at the helm of affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but he refused to do so. There is no doubt that his refusal was due to her behaviour towards him, as she was favouring her son-in-law, Shahryar, at the expense of Khurram. Khurram suspected that in his absence, Shahryar might be given promotion and that he might die on the battlefield.This fear forced Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians, and thereby Kandahar was lost to the Persians. Nur Jahan struck coins in her own name during the last years of Jahangir's reign when he was taken ill. Under Jahangir, the empire continued to be a war state attuned to conquest and expansion. Jahangir's most irksome foe was the Rana of Mewar, Amar Singh, who finally surrendered in 1613 to Khurram's forces. In the northeast, the Mughals clashed with the Ahoms of Assam, whose guerilla tactics gave the Mughals a hard time. In Northern India, Jahangir's forces under Khurram defeated their other principal adversary, the Raja of Kangra, in 1615; in the Deccan, his victories further consolidated the empire. But in 1620, Jahangir fell sick, and so ensued the familiar quest for power.Nur Jahan married her daughter to Shahryar, Jahangir's youngest son from his other queen, in the hope of having a living male heir to the throne when Jahangir died. Conquests
In the year 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, the Emperor Akbar, alongside Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan, also known as Mirza Jafar Beg son of Mirza Ghiyas Beg Isfahani and brother of Nur Jahan, and Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, to defeat the renegade Vir Singh Deo of Bundela and capture the city of Orchha, which was considered the centre of the revolt. Jahangir arrived with a force of 12,000 after many ferocious encounters and finally subdued the Bundela and ordered Vir Singh Deo to surrender. After tremendous casualties and the start of negotiations between the two, Vir Singh Deo handed over 5000 Bundela infantry and 1000 cavalry, but he feared Mughal retaliation and remained a fugitive until his death. The victorious Jahangir, at 26 years of age, ordered the completion of the Jahangir Mahal a famous Mughal citadel in Orchha to commemorate and honour his victory. Jahangir then gathered his forces under the command of Ali Kuli Khan and fought Lakshmi Narayan of Koch Bihar. Lakshmi Narayan then accepted the Mughals as his suzerains and was given the title Nazir, later establishing a garrison at Atharokotha.In 1613, the Portuguese seized the Mughal ship Rahimi, which had set out from Surat on its way with a large cargo of 100,000 rupees and Pilgrims, who were on their way to Mecca and Medina in order to attend the annual Hajj. The Rahimi was owned by Mariam-uz-Zamani, mother of Jahangir and Akbar's favourite consort. She was bestowed the title of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' (Queen of Hindustan) by Akbar and was subsequently referred as same during Jahangir's reign. The Rahimi was the largest Indian ship sailing in the Red Sea and was known to the Europeans as the "great pilgrimage ship". When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was unusually severe. The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was none other than the revered mother of the current emperor. Jahangir himself was outraged and ordered the seizure of the Portuguese town Daman.He ordered the apprehension of all Portuguese within the Mughal Empire; he further confiscated churches that belonged to the Jesuits. This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent. Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar. The campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with great loss of life and property. Jahangir posted Islam Khan I to subdue Musa Khan, an Afghan rebel in Bengal, in 1608. Jahangir also  captured Kangra Fort in 1615, whose rulers came under mughal vassalship during the reign of Akbar. Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which "resulted in the submission of the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region."The district of Kistwar, in the state of Kashmir, was also conquered. Death

Jahangir was trying to restore his health by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but decided to return to Lahore because of a severe cold. On the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, Jahangir died near Bhimber in 1627. To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried inside Baghsar Fort near Bhimber in Kashmir. The body was then conveyed by palanquin to Lahore and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city. The elegant mausoleum is today a popular tourist attraction site.Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram, who took the regnal name Shah Jahan. Issue
Jahangir's sons were:
 Khusrau Mirza (16 August 1587 – 26 January 1622) — with Shah Begum, daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber. Parviz Mirza (31 October 1589 – 28 October 1626)  — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan. Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592  – 22 January 1666) — with Bilqis Makani Begum, daughter of Udai Singh Of Marwar. Jahandar Mirza (born ) — with a concubine. Shahryar Mirza (16 January 1605 – 23 January 1628) — with a concubine. Jahangir's daughters were:
 Sultan-un-nissa Begum (25 April 1586 – 5 September 1646) — with Shah Begum, daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber.Iffat Banu Begum (born 6 April 1589) — with Malika Shikar


text_chunks:
 Begum, daughter of Said Khan Jagatai Of Kashghar. Daulat-un-nissa Begum (born 24 December 1589) — with daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas. Bahar Banu Begum (9 October 1590 – 8 September 1653) — with Karamsi Begum, daughter of Keshav Das Rathore of Mertia. Begum Sultan Begum (born 9 October 1590) — with Bilqis Makani Begum, daughter of Udai Singh Of Marwar. A daughter (born 21 January 1591) — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan. A daughter (born 14 October 1594) — with Sahib Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hasan. A daughter (born January 1595) — with daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch.A daughter (born 28 August 1595) — with Nur-un-Nissa Begum, daughter of Ibrahim Husain Mirza. Luzzat-un-Nissa Begum (born 23 September 1597) — with Bilqis Makani Begum, daughter of Udai Singh Of Marwar. Religion

Sir Thomas Roe was England's first ambassador to the Mughal court. Relations with England turned tense in 1617 when Roe warned Jahangir that if the young and charismatic Prince Shah Jahan, newly instated as the Subedar of Gujarat, turned the English out of the province, "then he must expect we would do our justice upon the seas". Shah Jahan chose to seal an official Firman allowing the English to trade in Gujarat in the year 1618. Many contemporary chroniclers were not sure how to describe Jahangir's personal belief structure. Roe labelled him an atheist, and although most others shied away from that term, they did not feel as though they could call him an orthodox Sunni.Roe believed Jahangir's religion to be of his own making, "for he envies [the Prophet] Mohammed, and wisely sees no reason why he should not be as great a prophet as he and therefore professed himself so... he hath found many disciples that flatter or follow him." At this time, one of those disciples happened to be the current English ambassador, though his initiation into Jahangir's inner circle was devoid of religious significance for Roe, as he did not understand the full extent of what he was doing. Jahangir hung "a picture of himself set in gold hanging at a wire gold chain" around Roe's neck. Roe thought it a "special favour, for all the great men that wear the King's image (which none may do but to whom it is given) receive no other than a medal of gold as big as six pence." Had Roe intentionally converted, it would have caused quite a scandal in London. But since there was no intent, there was no resultant problem. Such disciples were an elite group of imperial servants, with one of them being promoted to Chief Justice.However, it is not clear that any of those who became disciples renounced their previous religion, so it is probable to see this as a way in which the emperor strengthened the bond between himself and his nobles. Despite Roe's somewhat casual use of the term 'atheist', he could not quite put his finger on Jahangir's real beliefs. Roe lamented that the emperor was either "the most impossible man in the world to be converted, or the most easy; for he loves to hear, and hath so little religion yet, that he can well abide to have any derided." This should not imply that the multi-confessional state appealed to all, or that all Muslims were happy with the situation in India. In a book written on statecraft for Jahangir, the author advised him to direct "all his energies to understanding the counsel of the sages and to comprehending the intimations of the 'ulama.'" At the start of his regime many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant of other faiths than his father had been. At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father's chief minister and the architect of his eclectic religious stance, a powerful group of orthodox noblemen had gained increased power in the Mughal court.This included nobles especially like Shaykh Farid, Jahangir's trusted Mir Bakhshi, who held firmly the citadel of orthodoxy in Muslim India. Most notorious was the execution of the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev, whom Jahangir had had killed in prison. His lands were confiscated and his sons imprisoned as Jahangir suspected him of helping Khusrau's rebellion. It is unclear whether Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjan as a Hindu, who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners... for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm." The trigger for Guru Arjan's execution was his support for Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjan before then: "many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam." Jahangir also moved swiftly to persecute Jains. One of his court historians states, “One day at Ahmadabad it was reported that many of the infidel and superstitious sect of the Seoras [Jains] of Gujarat had made several very great and splendid temples, and having placed in them their false gods, had managed to secure a large degree of respect for themselves and that the women who went for worship in those temples were polluted by them and other people.The Emperor Jahangir ordered them banished from the country, and their temples to be demolished.”

In another story narrated by Jahangir himself in his memoir, Jahangir visited Pushkar and was shocked to find a temple of a boar like deity. He was quite taken-aback. "The worthless religion of the Hindus is this," he claimed and ordered his men to destroy the idol. He also heard about a jogi doing mysterious things and he ordered his men to evict him and have the place destroyed. There are instances of Jahangir open to multi-religious influences. Jahangir used to visit a Hindu ascetic, Jadrup Gosain. In his memoirs, he writes how the ascetic made a great impression on him due to his knowledge of Vedanta and his austere life.According to Dr. Faizan Mustafa, Jahangir also used to abstain from non-vegetarian food during the 12 days of the Jain Paryushan festival out of respect for his Jain subjects.Muqarrab Khan sent to Jahangir "a European curtain (tapestry) the like of which in beauty no other work of the Frank [European] painters has ever been seen." One of his audience halls was "adorned with European screens." Christian themes attracted Jahangir, and even merited a mention in the Tuzuk. One of his slaves gave him a piece of ivory into which had been    carved four scenes. In the last scene "there is a tree, below which the figure of the revered (hazrat) Jesus is shown. One person has placed his head at Jesus' feet, and an old man is conversing with Jesus and four others are standing by." Though Jahangir believed it to be the work of the slave who presented it to him, Sayyid Ahmad and Henry Beveridge suggest that it was of European origin and possibly showed the Transfiguration.Wherever it came from, and whatever it represented, it was clear that a European style had come to influence Mughal art, otherwise the slave would not have claimed it as his own design, nor would he have been believed by Jahangir. Art

Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture. In his autobiography, the Jahangirnama, Jahangir recorded events that occurred during his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that he encountered, and other aspects of daily life, and commissioned court painters such as Ustad Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would accompany his vivid prose. For example, in 1619, he put pen to paper in awe of a royal falcon delivered to his court from the ruler of Iran: “What can I write of the beauty of this bird’s colour? It had black markings, and every feather on its wings, back, and sides was extremely beautiful,” and then recorded his command that Ustad Mansur paint a portrait of it after it perished. Jahangir bound and displayed much of the art that he commissioned in elaborate albums of hundreds of images, sometimes organized around a theme such as zoology. Jahangir himself was far from modest in his autobiography when he stated his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting.As he said:

Jahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously. He also preserved paintings from Emperor Akbar's period. An excellent example of this is the painting done by Ustad Mansur of Musician Naubat Khan, son in law of legendary Tansen. In addition to their aesthetic qualities, paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created. In the foreword to W. M. Thackston’s translation of the Jahangirnama, Milo Cleveland Beach explains that Jahangir ruled during a time of considerably stable political control, and had the opportunity to order artists to create art to accompany his memoirs that were “in response to the emperor’s current enthusiasms”. He used his wealth and his luxury of free time to chronicle, in detail, the lush natural world that the Mughal Empire encompassed. At times, he would have artists travel with him for this purpose; when Jahangir was in Rahimabad, he had his painters on hand to capture the appearance of a specific tiger that he shot and killed, because he found it to be particularly beautiful.The Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals. They felt the Mughals were on the "verge of conversion", a notion which proved to be very false. Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for which Renaissance art was known. Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters. A classic example of this is described in Sir Thomas Roe's diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures. Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir. Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles.A collection at the British Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself. These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir's reign because faces were not drawn in full, including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are.‘’

Criticism
Jahangir is widely considered to have been a weak and incapable ruler. Orientalist Henry Beveridge (editor of the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri) compares Jahangir to the Roman emperor Claudius, for both were "weak men... in their wrong places as rulers... [and had] Jahangir been head of a Natural History Museum,... [he] would have been [a] better and happier man." Sir William Hawkins, who visited Jahangir's court in 1609, said: "In such short that what this man's father, called Ecber Padasha [Badshah Akbar], got of the Deccans, this king, Selim Sha [Jahangir] beginneth to lose." Italian writer and traveller, Niccolao Manucci, who worked under Jahangir's grandson, Dara Shikoh, began his discussion of Jahangir by saying: "It is a truth tested by experience that sons dissipate what their fathers gained in the sweat of their brow." According to John F. Richards, Jahangir's frequent withdrawal to a private sphere of life was partly reflective of his indolence, brought on by his addiction to a considerable daily dosage of wine and opium. In media

Flims and television
 In the 1939 Hindi film Pukar, Jehangir was portrayed by Chandra Mohan.In the 1953 Hindi film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Pradeep Kumar. In the 1955 Hindi film Adil-E-Jahangir, he was portrayed by D. K. Sapru. In the 1955 Telugu film Anarkali, he was portrayed by ANR. In the 1960 Hindi film Mughal-e-Azam, he was portrayed by Dilip Kumar. Jalal Agha also played the younger Jahangir at the start of the film. In the 1966 Malyalam film Anarkali, he was portrayed by Prem Nazir. In the 1979 Telugu film Akbar Salim Anarkali, he was portrayed by Balakrishna.In the 1988 Shyam Benegal's TV Series Bharat Ek Khoj, he was portrayed by Vijay Arora. Jahangirer Swarnamudra is a detective story about a missing gold coin of Jahangir written by Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray, starring his famous character Feluda. It was adapted as a television film in 1998. In the 2000 TV series Noorjahan, he was portrayed by Milnd Soman. In the 2013 Ekta Kapoor's TV Series Jodha Akbar, he was portrayed by Ravi Bhatia. Ayaan Zubair Rahmani also played young Salim initially. In the 2014 Indu Sudaresan's TV Series Siyaasat, he was portrayed by Karanvir Sharma and Later Sudhanshu Pandey.In the 2014 Indian television sitcom Har Mushkil Ka Hal Akbar Birbal, Pawan Singh portrayed the role of prince Salim. In the 2018 Colors TV series  Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali, he is portrayed by Shaheer Sheikh. In the 2020 Indian comedy television show Akbar Ka Bal Birbal, the role of the prince was again essayed by Pawan Singh. Literature
 Jahangir is a principal character in Indu Sundaresan's award winning historical novel The Twentieth Wife (2002) as well as in its sequel The Feast of Roses (2003). Jahangir is a principal character in Alex Rutherford's novel Ruler of the World (2011) as well as in its sequel The Tainted Throne (2012) of the series Empire of the Moghul. Jahangir is a character in novel Nur Jahan's Daughter (2005) written by Tanushree Poddar. Jahangir is a character in the novel Beloved Empress Mumtaz Mahal: A Historical Novel by Nina Consuelo Epton.Jahangir is a principal character in the novel Nurjahan: A historical novel by Jyoti Jafa. Jahangir is a character in the novel Taj, a Story of Mughal India by Timeri Murari. Works online

See also
 Jahangirnama
 Hiran Minar
 Sheikhupur, Badaun

References

Further reading

External links

 Jehangir and Shah Jehan
 The World Conqueror: Jahangir
 Jains and the Mughals

1569 births
1627 deaths
17th-century Indian monarchs
Mughal emperors
People from Agra
Akbar
Indian Sunni Muslims
1605 in India
16th-century men
17th-century men
17th-century


text_chunks:
<mask> (November 6, 1877 – January 9, 1975) served three terms as a U.S. Representative (March 4, 1933 – January 3, 1939) from Indiana's Sixth Congressional District. The Terre Haute, Indiana, native was the first woman from Indiana to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Alongside Kathryn O'Loughlin McCarthy, she was the second woman Representative from the Midwest and the first who was not succeeding a male relative. In 1937 she became the first American woman appointed as a U.S. delegate to the Inter-Parliamentary Union in Paris, France. The outspoken, independent-minded farmer from Vigo County was an advocate for women and became known for her support of flood control measures and repeal of Prohibition, as well as her opposition to communism. Jenckes's most significant accomplishment for her Indiana constituents was obtaining an $18 million appropriation for the Wabash River basin that eventually became law. While Jenckes broadly supported New Deal initiatives in general and voted with the majority of the Democrats in the U.S. Congress, she did not always follow the Democratic majority.During her later years, Jenckes became especially concerned about thwarting what she believed to be communist propaganda and its perceived threats, despite the public ridicule she received. After retiring from Congress in 1939, Jenckes served as an American Red Cross volunteer for more than twenty years. During the Hungarian uprising of 1956, she gained national attention for her efforts to assist five Catholic priests in their escape to the United States from Hungarian prisons. In 1969 Jenckes returned to Indiana, where she spent the final years of her life. Early life
<mask> Somes, the daughter of <mask> Somes, a pharmacist, and Mary Oliver Somes, was born in Terre Haute, Indiana, on November 6, 1877. She attended public schools in Terre Haute, including Wiley High School, where she enrolled at the age of eleven and became the youngest student in the school’s history. She left high school early to complete her formal education by taking two years of courses at Coates College for Women.In 1912, when Jencks was thirty-four, she married sixty-eight-year old Ray Greene <mask>, a Terre Haute farmer and grain dealer. Together, they managed a  farm along the Wabash River in western Indiana. After her husband's death in 1921, Jenckes inherited the farm along with his grain business and assumed sole responsibility for their management. Their only child, a daughter named <mask>, was born in 1913 and died of tuberculosis on September 18, 1936, at the age of twenty-two. Career

Early years
Jenckes, who had been involved in farming in Vigo County, Indiana, since her marriage in 1912, was well aware of the damage that frequent river flooding could do to farms. Jenckes later reported that her farm had flooded nine times in fourteen months during the 1920s. In 1926 Jenckes took a more active role in flood-control efforts after she and other local farmers organized the Wabash-Maumee Valley Improvement Association.Juncos served as the association's secretary until 1932. In 1928 Jenckes was one of two women from the Terre Haute area who traveled to the Democratic National Convention in Houston, Texas, to join others in successfully lobbying for the inclusion of one of her association's flood-control plans as a plank in the Democratic Party's national platform. Jenckes also attained national prominence in 1928 as secretary of the National Rivers and Harbors Congress. U.S. Congresswoman
In 1932 Jenckes became the first woman from Indiana to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. She was elected as a new Deal Democrat to represent Indiana's Sixth Congressional District in the Seventy-third Congress and was re-elected to the two succeeding Congresses. Jenckes served in the U.S. House of Representatives from March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1939. First term
Jenckes's first campaign for a seat in Congress began in 1932, the year after redistricting established Indiana's Sixth Congressional District, which included ten counties along the Wabash River in western Indiana.The district, a predominantly rural area of the state, extended north from Vigo County to Warren County. With her teenaged daughter as her chauffeur, the forty-four-year-old Jenckes campaigned extensively in the new district. It is estimated that she delivered more than two hundred speeches. During her campaign, Jenckes focused on repealing Prohibition, which she felt was contributing to the decline in grain prices, along with her previous record and efforts related to flood control. In order to win her first election, Jenckes had to defeat two incumbents. She beat the Democratic incumbent, Courtland C. Gillen of Greencastle, Indiana, in the party's primary in May 1932. In the general election she defeated Fred S. Purnell, an eight-term Republican congressman from Attica, Indiana, who had represented the northern counties in a district that was lost in the reorganization.Jenckes, who was one of four women in the United States who ran for a seat in Congress in 1932, easily won election in the Democrats' landslide election of 1932. Jenckes received 54 percent of the vote to Purnell's 46 percent and won in seven of the new congressional district's ten counties. Jenckes quickly distinguished herself in Congress, despite her failure to secure the assignment she wanted on the Agricultural Committee or the Rivers and Harbors Committee. Instead of membership in these more prominent committees, Jenckes was assigned to the Mines and Mining, Civil Service, and District of Columbia committees. Jenckes retained her membership in the Civil Service and District of Columbia committees throughout her congressional career, but left the Mines and Mining committee after the conclusion of the 74th Congress. An advocate of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies, including the Civilian Conservation Corps, banking regulations, economic supports for farmers, public housing, and Social security measures, Jenckes also favored the repeal of Prohibition and supported agricultural issues, especially flood control measures. During her first term in Congress, Jenckes took action on her campaign promise to repeal Prohibition by voting in support of the Cullen-Harrison Act, which allowed for the production, transportation, and sale of beer; it passed in March 1933.She also voted in favor of the Agricultural Adjustment Act and alternate legislation after the U.S. Supreme Court declared the Act was invalid. Through her work on the District of Columbia Committee, Jenckes sought to provide the city's voters "with a greater voice in their government," to reduce the workload of its firefighters, and to monitor its schools. In addition, Jenckes was as an advocate for U.S. veterans and American workers. She voted in favor of the Patman Greenback Bonus Bill, which extended a pay bonus to World War I veterans, and encouraged adoption of the Railroad Retirement Act. While Jenckes broadly supported New Deal initiatives, she did not always follow the Democratic majority and the Roosevelt administration's lead. In her first vote in Congress she expressed her independent mindedness when she voted against the Economy Act of 1933 because its cuts in government expenses would reduce veterans benefits, a move that Jenckes had promised her constituents she would not allow. Jenckes's most significant accomplishment for her constituents was to successfully obtain an $18 million appropriation for the Wabash River basin that eventually became law.Second term
Jenckes won re-election to Congress in a close race in 1934, when she once again defeated Purnell, this time by a margin of 383 votes out of a total of 135,000 that were cast. During her second term in office, Jenckes took a more active role in speaking on so-called women's issues. Two themes characterized the remainder of her congressional career: Jenckes's "self-identification as a champion of women’s interests" and presenting herself as someone who could offer a feminine perspective on legislative issues. Endorsed by the National Woman's Party during her 1934 re-election campaign, Jenckes advocated for political equality for women, although she was not a radical feminist by later-defined standards. Jenckes emphasized "traditional gender distinctions" and supported policies that would benefit women as well as consumer and business interests. As one example, Jenckes urged Congress to reduce taxes on cosmetics, although she acknowledged that drug industry members had persuaded her to support the cause. Jenckes argued that cosmetics were "necessities for many working women" and the taxes were discriminatory.Jenckes tended to favor programs that provided her constituency with economic supports and voted with the majority of the New Deal Democrats in general, even though she was ambivalent about some of these programs. For example, she voted in favor of the Social Security Act in 1935, but refused to accept Social Security benefits in her later years. Jenckes commented, "I think when you give dole to people you take away their self respect." Third term
In 1936 Jenckes won a third term in the U.S. House, largely due to Roosevelt's landslide victory, by defeating Noble J. Johnson, her Republican challenger, only a few weeks after her daughter's death from tuberculosis. Jenckes became more conservative in her later years. In 1938 she petitioned Congress to ban the Works Progress Administration from competing in construction projects because she felt the federal program "unfairly competed" with the building trades. Jenckes was also a fervent supporter of J<mask> Hoover and advocated congressional funding for the Federal Bureau of Investigation.Jenckes was vocal in her opposition to communism and especially active in efforts to eliminate what she believed to be subversive activities in America. Jenckes's American patriotism and strong interest in national symbols also led her to introduce legislation that required the American flag to be flown atop federal buildings. Jenckes publicly stated that she believed the lack of flagpoles flying American flags atop public buildings in Washington, D.C., was due to the efforts of communist propagandists and called on other Americans, especially women, to join her anticommunist crusade. These as well as other related comments subjected Jenckes to public ridicule and also helped to make her "a controversial figure" throughout her years in Congress. By the mid-1930s her intense patriotism and anticommunist views had overshadowed her advocacy of women's interests. In 1935 Jenckes supported an amendment to a Washington, D.C., appropriations bill that prohibited teaching, advocating, or mentioning communism in the city's public schools. The House repealed the amendment in 1937, but not before disagreements over the bill caused conflicts between Jenckes and other members of the District of Columbia Committee.Following re-election to her third and final term in Congress, Jenckes continued to create controversy about her anticommunist comments and ongoing distrust of Russia and Japan. In 1937, for example, she advocated for the removal of cherry trees in Washington, D.C., that Japan had given to the United States at an earlier time as a gift of friendship. Jenckes suggested that they be replaced with American cherry trees because she thought that Japan's trees represented "a symbol of traitorism and disloyalty" and a means to "open the way for their spies and propagandists." In 1937 Jenckes became the first American woman appointed as a U.S. delegate to the Inter-Parliamentary Union in Paris, France. The goal of the annual gathering, which she attended with three male U.S. senators, was to promote peace and cooperation in an effort to establish representative democracies. When Jenckes returned to the United States after the conference, she expressed her growing concern about Germany's expanding building programs and urged the U.S. government to demand repayment of loans made to European countries during World War I, a move that she thought would discourage rearmament. As an isolationist, Jenckes also supported a strong defense buildup, arguing that "a strong defense was the best way to keep the United States out of war."<mask>, a Democrat in a heavily Republican congressional district, was an unsuccessful candidate for re-election in 1938 to the Seventy-sixth Congress. While her actions generally reflected her district's conservatism, Jenckes's work on behalf of her constituents did not to save her from defeat. Jenckes ran unopposed in the Democratic primary, but Noble J. Johnson, her Republican challenger, narrowly defeated her in the general election. <mask>, who suggested her loss was the result of ballot tampering, was among the seventy Democrats in the U.S. House who were defeated for re-election that year. Later years
After retiring from the U.S. Congress in 1939, Jenckes remained in Washington, D.C., where she was a volunteer for the American Red Cross for nearly two decades As a Red Cross volunteer, Jenckes worked in the first blood bank in the United States. She also retained her anticommunist views. In 1956, when Jenckes was seventy-nine, she gained national attention for her efforts to assist five Catholic priests in their escape to the United States from prisons in Budapest, Hungary, during the Hungarian uprising.Jenckes also served as a liaison between Hungarian freedom fighters and the American government. In 1969 Jenckes came home to Indiana. She lived in Indianapolis for two years before returning to Terre Haute  in 1971. Death and legacy
After fracturing her pelvis, Jenckes was moved from her home in Terre Haute, Indiana, to a local nursing facility, where she died on January 9, 1975, at that age of ninety-seven. She was interred in Terre Haute's Highland Lawn Cemetery. Jenckes, who represented "populism" and American "patriotism," was among the "more colorful" politicians in Congress during the New Deal-era. An outspoken congressional leader whose conservatism increased over time, she also remained a staunch anticommunist, despite the public ridicule she received.It has been said that Jenckes was "a Cold War warrior even before, officially, there was a Cold War." See also
 Women in the United States House of Representatives

Notes

References
 Bellamy, Suzanne S., "<mask> Ellis Jenckes," in

External links
 Virginia Ellis Jenckes Papers, Manuscript Division, Indiana State Library, Indianapolis

1877 births
1975 deaths
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana
Indiana Democrats
Female members of the United States House of Representatives
Women in Indiana politics
Politicians from Terre Haute, Indiana
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
American anti-communists

masks:
Virginia Ellis Jenckes
Virginia Ellis
James Ellis
Jenckes
Virginia
. Edgar
Jenckes
Jenckes
Virginia


text_chunks:
<mask> (; March 24, 1855 – August 26, 1937), sometimes A.W., was an American banker, businessman, industrialist, philanthropist, art collector, and politician. From the wealthy <mask> family of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he established a vast business empire before moving into politics. He served as United States Secretary of the Treasury from March 9, 1921, to February 12, 1932, presiding over the boom years of the 1920s and the Wall Street crash of 1929. A conservative Republican, <mask> favored policies that reduced taxation and the national debt in the aftermath of World War I.

<mask>'s father, <mask>, rose to prominence in Pittsburgh as a banker and attorney. <mask> began working at his father's bank, T. Mellon & Sons, in the early 1870s, eventually becoming the leading figure in the institution. He later renamed T. Mellon & Sons as Mellon National Bank and established another financial institution, the Union Trust Company. By the end of 1913, Mellon National Bank held more money in deposits than any other bank in Pittsburgh, and the second-largest bank in the region was controlled by Union Trust.In the course of his business career, <mask> owned or helped finance large companies including Alcoa, the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Old Overholt whiskey, Standard Steel Car Company, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Koppers, the Pittsburgh Coal Company, the Carborundum Company, Union Steel Company, the McClintic-Marshall Construction Company, Gulf Oil, and numerous others. He was also an influential donor to the Republican Party during the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era. In 1921, newly elected president Warren G. Harding chose <mask> as his Secretary of the Treasury. <mask> would remain in office until 1932, serving under Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, all three of whom were members of the Republican Party. <mask> sought to reform federal taxation in the aftermath of World War I. He argued cutting tax rates on top earners would generate more tax revenue for the government, but otherwise left in place a progressive income tax. Some of <mask>'s proposals were enacted by the Revenue Act of 1921 and the Revenue Act of 1924, but it was not until the passage of the Revenue Act of 1926 that the "<mask> plan" was fully realized.He also presided over a reduction in the national debt, which dropped substantially in the 1920s. <mask>'s influence in state and national politics reached its zenith during Coolidge's presidency. Journalist William Allen White noted that "so completely did <mask> dominate the White House in the days when the Coolidge administration was at its zenith that it would be fair to call the administration the reign of Coolidge and <mask>." <mask>'s national reputation collapsed following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. <mask> participated in various efforts by the Hoover administration to revive the economy and maintain the international economic order, but he opposed direct government intervention in the economy. After Congress began impeachment proceedings against <mask>, President Hoover shifted <mask> to the position of United States ambassador to the United Kingdom. <mask> returned to private life after Hoover's defeat in the 1932 presidential election by Franklin D. Roosevelt.Beginning in 1933, the federal government launched a tax fraud investigation on <mask>, leading to a high-profile case that ended with <mask>'s estate paying significant sums to settle the matter. Shortly before his death, in 1937, <mask> helped establish the National Gallery of Art. His philanthropic efforts also played a major role in the later establishment of Carnegie Mellon University and the National Portrait Gallery. Early life and ancestry

<mask>'s paternal grandparents, both of whom were Ulster Scots, migrated to the United States from County Tyrone, Ireland, in 1818. With their son, <mask>, they settled in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania. <mask> established a successful legal practice in Pittsburgh, and in 1843 he married Sarah Jane Negley, an heiress descended from some of the first settlers of Pittsburgh. Thomas became a wealthy landowner and real estate speculator, and he and his wife had eight children, five of whom survived to adulthood.<mask>, the fourth son and sixth child of Thomas and Sarah, was born in 1855. Though he lacked strong convictions about slavery, <mask> became a prominent member of the local Republican Party, and in 1859 he won election to a position on the Pennsylvania court of common pleas. Because Thomas was suspicious of both private and public schools, he built a schoolhouse for his children and hired a teacher; <mask> attended this school beginning at age five. In 1869, after leaving his judicial position, <mask> established T. Mellon & Sons, a bank located in Pittsburgh. <mask> joined his father at the bank, quickly becoming a valued employee despite being in his early teens. <mask> also attended Western University (which was later renamed the University of Pittsburgh), but he never graduated. After leaving Western University, <mask> briefly worked at a lumber and coal business before joining T. Mellon & Sons as a full-time employee in 1873.That same year, the Panic of 1873 devastated the local and national economy, wiping out a portion of the <mask> fortune. With <mask> taking a leading role at T. Mellon & Sons, the bank quickly recovered, and by late 1874 the bank's deposits had reached the level they had been at before the onset of the Panic. Business career, 1873–1920

Business career, 1873–1898

<mask>'s role at T. Mellon & Sons continued to grow after 1873, and in 1876 he was given power of attorney to direct the operations of the bank. That same year, Thomas introduced his son to Henry Clay Frick, a customer of the bank who would become one of Mellons's closest friends. In 1882, Thomas turned over full ownership of the bank to his son, but Thomas continued to be involved in the bank's activities. Five years later, <mask>'s younger brother, Richard B<mask>, joined T. Mellon & Sons as a co-owner and vice president. During the 1880s, <mask> began to expand the bank's activities.Along with Frick, <mask> gained control of the Pittsburgh National Bank of Commerce, a national bank that was authorized to print banknotes. <mask> also acquired or helped found the Union Insurance Company, City Deposit Bank, the Fidelity Title and Trust Company, and the Union Trust Company. He branched out into industrial concerns, becoming a director of the Pittsburgh Petroleum Exchange and a co-founder of two natural gas companies that collectively controlled 35,000 acres of gas lands in the late 1880s. In 1890, <mask> transferred his properties to <mask>, who would manage the properties on behalf of himself, his parents, and his brothers. In late 1894, Thomas transferred all of his remaining assets to <mask>. Despite the large sums entrusted to <mask>, the businesses he ran were still fairly small in the 1890s; T. Mellon & Sons employed seven individuals in 1895. In 1889, <mask> agreed to loan $25,000 to the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, a fledgling operation seeking to become the first successful industrial producer of aluminum.<mask> became a director of the company in 1891, and he and Richard played a major role in the establishment of aluminum factories in New Kensington, Pennsylvania, and Niagara Falls, New York. The company would emerge as one of the most profitable ventures invested in by the <mask>s, and in 1907 it was renamed Alcoa. Moving into the petroleum industry, the <mask> family also established the Crescent Oil Company, the Crescent Pipeline Company, and the Bear Creek refinery. By 1894, the <mask> family's vertically integrated companies produced ten percent of the oil exported by the United States. Partly due to the difficult economic conditions caused by the onset of the Panic of 1893, in 1895 the <mask>s sold their oil interests to Standard Oil. At roughly the same time they were selling their oil concerns, <mask> and Richard invested in the Carborundum Company, a producer of silicon carbide. The brothers gained majority ownership of the Carborundum Company in 1898 and replaced the company's founder and president, Edward Goodrich Acheson, with a Carnegie protege, Frank W. Haskell.<mask> also invested in mining concerns, becoming vice president of the Trade Dollar Consolidated Mining Company. <mask> and Henry Clay Frick enjoyed a long-lasting business and social relationship, and Frick frequently hosted <mask>, attorney Philander C. Knox, inventor George Westinghouse, and others for poker games. Frick and <mask> both joined the Duquesne Club and, after Frick established the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, <mask> became one of that club's first members. The South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club built the South Fork Dam, which supported an artificial lake that the club used for boating and fishing. In 1889, the dam broke, causing the Johnstown Flood, which killed 2,000 people and destroyed 1,600 homes. In the aftermath of the flood, Knox led a legal defense that successfully argued that the club bore no legal responsibility for the flood. <mask> did not publicly comment on the flood, though he did donate $1,000 to a relief fund.Business career, 1898–1920

By the late 1890s, <mask> had amassed a substantial fortune, but his wealth paled in comparison to that of better-known business leaders such as John D. Rockefeller. In the late 1890s, the Union Trust Company emerged for the first time as one of Mellon's most important and profitable holdings after <mask> broadened the company's activities to include commercial banking. With an infusion of capital from Union Trust, <mask> underwrote the capitalization of National Glass and several other companies. He also became a co-owner of the McClintic-Marshall Construction Company and established Crucible Steel Company, the Pittsburgh Coal Company, and the Monongahela River Coal Company; the two coal companies collectively contributed 11 percent of the coal production of the United States. With Frick, <mask>, and William Donner, <mask> co-founded Union Steel Company, which specialized in the production of nails and barbed wire. Though Frick had fallen out with steel magnate and long-time business partner <mask>, <mask> received Carnegie's consent to venture into the steel industry. Responding to the growing emphasis on naval power in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War, Mellon and Frick also became major shareholders in the New York Shipbuilding Corporation.In 1902, <mask> reorganized T. Mellon & Sons as the Mellon National Bank, a federally chartered National Bank. <mask> Mellon, <mask>, and Frick drew up a new business arrangement in which the three of them jointly controlled the Union Trust Company, which in turn controlled Mellon National Bank. They also established Union Savings Bank, which accepted deposits by mail, and the Mellon banks flourished in the first years of the 20th century. While <mask>'s financial empire prospered, his investments in other areas, including Pittsburgh's streetcar network, the Union Steel Company (which was bought out by U.S. Steel), and the Carborundum Company, also paid off handsomely. Another successful Mellon investment, the Standard Steel Car Company, was created in partnership with three former U.S. Steel executives. As part of the Texas oil boom, the Mellons also helped J. M. Guffey establish the Guffey Company. The Mellons later removed Guffey as the head of his company, and in 1907 they reorganized the Guffey Company as Gulf Oil and installed William Larimer <mask>. (a son of <mask>'s older brother, James Ross <mask>) as the head of Gulf Oil.The success of <mask>'s financial empire and his varied investments made him, according to biographer David Cannadine, the "single most significant individual in the economic life and progress of western Pennsylvania" in the first decade of the 20th century. The Panic of 1907 devastated several companies based in Pittsburgh, ending a period of strong growth. Some of Mellon's investments experienced a sustained down period after 1907, but most experienced a quick recovery. <mask> also became an investor in George Westinghouse's Westinghouse Electric Corporation after he helped prevent the company from going into bankruptcy. By the end of 1913, Mellon National Bank held more money in deposits than any other bank in Pittsburgh, and the Farmer's Deposit National Bank, which held the second-largest amount of deposits, was controlled by Mellon's Union Trust Company. In 1914, Mellon became a co-owner of Koppers, which produced a more sophisticated coking oven than the one that had earlier been pioneered by Frick. He also served as a director of various other companies, including the Pennsylvania Railroad and the American Locomotive Company.<mask> was deeply involved in the financing of World War I, as the Union Trust Company and other Mellon institutions provided millions of dollars in loans to the United Kingdom and France, and <mask> himself invested in Liberty bonds. Old Overholt whiskey

In 1887, Frick, <mask>, and <mask> and <mask> removed their names from the distilling license but retained ownership in the company. It is believed that Mellon's connections in the Treasury Department are what allowed the company to secure a medicinal permit during Prohibition. This permit allowed Overholt to sell existing whiskey stocks to druggists for medicinal use. When Frick died in December 1919, he left his share to Mellon.In 1925, under pressure from prohibitionists, <mask> sold his share of the company to a New York grocer. Early involvement in politics

Like his father, <mask> consistently supported the Republican Party, and he frequently donated to state and local party leaders. Through state party boss Matthew Quay, <mask> influenced legislators to place high tariffs on aluminum products in the McKinley Tariff of 1890. During the early 20th century, <mask> was dismayed by the rise of progressivism and the antitrust actions pursued by the presidential administrations of Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. He especially opposed the Taft administration's investigations into Alcoa, which in 1912 signed a consent decree rather than going to trial. In the aftermath of World War I, he provided financial support to Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans in their successful campaign to prevent ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. <mask> attended the 1920 Republican National Convention as a nominal supporter of Pennsylvania Governor William Cameron Sproul (<mask> hoped Senator Philander Knox would win the nomination), but the

masks:
Andrew William Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Thomas Mellon
Andrew
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Andrew Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Thomas Mellon
Thomas Mellon
Andrew Mellon
Thomas Mellon
Andrew
Thomas Mellon
Andrew
Andrew
Andrew
Mellon
Andrew
Mellon
Mellon
. Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Thomas Mellon
Andrew
Andrew
Andrew
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Andrew
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Richard Mellon
Mellon
Andrew Carnegie
Mellon
Mellon
Andrew
Richard Mellon
Mellon
Mellon Sr
Andrew Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Andrew
Richard Mellonick
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon


text_chunks:
 convention chose Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as the party's presidential nominee.<mask> strongly approved of the party's conservative platform, and he served as a key fundraiser for Harding during the presidential campaign. Political career, 1921–1933

Harding administration

Following Harding's victory in the 1920 presidential election, Harding considered various candidates for Secretary of the Treasury, including Frank Lowden, John W. Weeks, Charles Dawes, and, at the urging of Senator Knox, <mask>. By 1920, <mask> was little-known outside of banking circles, but his potential appointment to the cabinet received strong support from bankers and Pennsylvania Republican leaders like Knox, Senator Boies Penrose, and Governor Sproul. <mask> was reluctant to enter public life due to concerns about privacy and a belief that his ownership of various businesses, including Old Overholt distillery, would be a political liability. But <mask> also wanted to retire from active participation in business, and he saw a cabinet position as a prestigious capstone to his career. <mask> agreed to accept appointment as Secretary of the Treasury in February 1921, and his nomination was quickly confirmed by the United States Senate. Though <mask>'s supporters believed that he was highly qualified to address the economic issues facing the country, critics of the Harding administration saw the <mask> appointment as a sign that Harding would "reseat the power of special privileged interests, the powers of avarice and greed, the powers that seek self-aggrandizement at the expense of the general public".Harding paired the nomination of <mask> with that of Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, who was distrusted by many of the same Senate Republicans who favored <mask>'s candidacy. Before joining the cabinet, <mask> sold his banking stock to his brother, Richard, but he continued to hold his non-banking stock. Through Richard and other business associates, <mask> continued to be involved with the major decisions of the <mask> business empire during his time in public service, and he occasionally lobbied congressmen on behalf of his businesses. His fortune continued to grow, and at one point in the 1920s he paid more in federal income tax than any other individual save John Rockefeller and Henry Ford. As Treasury Secretary, <mask> focused on balancing the budget and paying off World War I debts in the midst of the Depression of 1920–21; he was largely unconcerned with international affairs and economic matters such as the unemployment rate. To <mask>'s chagrin, his department was charged with enforcing Prohibition; he did not believe in teetotaling himself and viewed the law as unenforceable. Aside from balancing the budget, <mask>'s top priority was an overhaul of the federal tax code.The income tax had become a major part of the federal government's revenue system with the passage of the Revenue Act of 1913, and federal taxation on income had increased during World War I to provide funding for the war effort. According to M. Susan Murnane, major reforms to the federal income tax in the aftermath of World War I were "inevitable", but the exact nature of the tax system in the 1920s was debated by conservatives and progressives within the Republican Party. Unlike the progressives in his party, <mask> rejected the redistributive nature of the taxation system that had been left in place by the Wilson administration. Owing in part to the high debts left over from the war, <mask> did not join with some conservatives in the party, who favored the virtual abolition of the income tax in favor of high tariff rates, excise taxes, a national sales tax, or some combination thereof. <mask> instead advocated for the retention of a progressive income tax that would serve as an important, but not primary, source of revenue for the federal government. His so-called "scientific taxation" was designed to maximize federal revenue while minimizing the impact on business and industry. The central tenet of <mask>'s tax plan was a reduction of the surtax, a progressive tax that affected only high-income earners.<mask> argued that such a reduction would minimize tax avoidance and would not affect federal revenue because it would lead to greater economic growth. He hoped that tax reform would encourage high earners to move their savings from tax-exempt state and municipal bonds to taxable, higher yield industrial stocks. Though much of the tax plan that he proposed had been developed by former Wilson administration officials Russell Cornell Leffingwell and Seymour Parker Gilbert, the press generally referred to it as the "Mellon Plan". The Revenue Act of 1918 had set a top marginal income tax rate of 73% and a corporate tax of approximately 10%. Due in part to the size of the U.S. public debt, which had grown from $1 billion before the war to $24 billion in 1921, the provisions of the Revenue Act of 1918 remained in place when Harding took office. In 1921, the Treasury Department and the House Ways and Means Committee jointly prepared a bill setting the top marginal rate at the level advocated by <mask>, but opposition in the Senate from progressives like Senator Robert M. La Follette limited the size of the tax cuts. In November 1921, Congress passed and Harding signed the Revenue Act of 1921, which raised personal tax exemptions and lowered the top marginal tax rate to 58%.Because it differed from his original proposals, <mask> was displeased by the bill. He also strongly disapproved of a "Bonus Bill" passed by Congress that would provide for additional compensation to veterans of World War I, partly because he feared it would interfere with his plans to reduce debt and taxes. With <mask>'s support, Harding vetoed the bill, and Congress failed to override the veto. Coolidge administration

As the economy recovered from recession and began to experience the prosperity of the Roaring Twenties, <mask> emerged as one of the most renowned figures in the Harding administration. One admiring congressman referred to <mask> as the "greatest Secretary of the Treasury since Alexander Hamilton". Harding died after suffering a stroke in August 1923, and he was succeeded by Vice President Calvin Coolidge. <mask> enjoyed closer relations with President Coolidge than he had with President Harding, and Coolidge and <mask> shared similar views on most major issues, including the necessity for further tax cuts.William Allen White, a contemporary journalist, stated that "so completely did <mask> dominate the White House in the days when the Coolidge administration was at its zenith that it would be fair to call the administration the reign of Coolidge and <mask>." Coolidge, <mask>, business organizations, and administration allies conducted a publicity campaign designed to convince wavering congressmen to support <mask>'s tax plan. Their efforts were opposed by the coalition of Democrats and progressive Republicans that exercised effective control over the 68th Congress. In February 1924, the House Ways and Means Committee approved of a bill based on <mask>'s plan, but an alliance of progressive Republicans and Democrats engineered passage of an alternative tax bill written by Democrat John Nance Garner; Garner's plan also reduced income taxes but set the top marginal tax rate at 46% rather than <mask>'s preferred 33%. In June 1924, Coolidge signed the Revenue Act of 1924, which contained the income tax rates of Garner's bill and also increased the estate tax. Coolidge signed the bill but simultaneously called for further tax cuts. Congress also rejected <mask>'s proposed constitutional amendment that would have barred the issuance of tax-exempt securities and, over Coolidge's veto, authorized a bonus to World War I veterans.<mask> did, however, win one legislative victory, as he convinced Congress to create the Board of Tax Appeals to adjudicate disputes between taxpayers and the government. <mask> had originally planned to retire after one presidential term but decided to remain in the cabinet in the hope of presiding over the full enactment of his taxation proposals. In the 1924 presidential election, the Republicans campaigned on further tax cuts, while both the Democrats and third-party candidate Robert La Follette denounced <mask>'s tax proposals as "a device to relieve multi-millionaires at the expense of other taxpayers". Buoyed by the strong economy, and overcoming the scandals of the Harding years, Coolidge won re-election by a decisive margin. Coolidge saw his victory as a mandate to pursue his favored economic policies, including further tax cuts. When Congress reconvened after the 1924 elections, it immediately began working on another bill designed to lower tax rates on the highest earners. In February 1926, Coolidge signed the Revenue Act of 1926, which reduced the top marginal rate to 25%.<mask> was extremely pleased by the passage of the act, because, unlike the Revenue Act of 1921 and the Revenue Act of 1924, the Revenue Act of 1926 closely reflected <mask>'s proposals. In addition to cutting tax rates on top earners, the act also raised the personal exemption for federal income taxes, abolished the gift tax, reduced the estate tax rate, and repealed a provision that had required the public disclosure of federal income tax returns. Meanwhile, the booming economy fostered a $400 million budget surplus in 1926, and the country's national debt dropped from $24 billion in early 1921 to $19.6 billion at the end of fiscal year 1926. Government revenues increased considerably under <mask>'s plan, largely collected from higher-income earners. With his top priority of tax reform accomplished, <mask> increasingly turned over management of the Treasury Department to his deputy, Ogden L. Mills. After the 1926 elections, <mask> and Mills sought to cut the corporate tax and fully repeal the estate tax. The Revenue Act of 1928 did indeed cut the corporate tax, but the estate tax was left unchanged.<mask> also focused on the construction of new federal buildings, and his efforts led to the construction of several buildings in the Federal Triangle. In 1928, <mask> stated that "in no other nation, and at no other time in the history of the world, have so many people enjoyed such a high degree of prosperity or maintained a standard of living comparable to that which prevails throughout this country today." Responsibility for foreign relations lay with the State Department rather than the Treasury Department, and Benjamin Strong Jr. and other central bankers took the lead with regard to international monetary policy, but <mask> nonetheless exercised some influence in foreign affairs. He strongly opposed the cancellation of European debts from World War I but recognized that Britain and other countries would be unable to pay those debts without a renegotiation of terms. In 1923, <mask> and British Chancellor of the Exchequer Stanley Baldwin negotiated an agreement in which Britain promised to pay off the debts over a 62-year period. After the adoption of the Dawes Plan, <mask> reached debt settlements with several other European countries. After protracted negotiations, the United States and France agreed to the Mellon-Berenger Agreement, which reduced France's debt and set terms for repayment.Hoover administration

1928 election

Coolidge surprised many observers by announcing that he would not seek another term in August 1927. The decision left Hoover as the presumed front-runner for the 1928 presidential election, but many conservatives within the party opposed Hoover's candidacy. The conservative resistance to Hoover centered around <mask>, who controlled Pennsylvania's delegation at the 1928 Republican National Convention and was influential with Republicans throughout the country. Though they had maintained an amicable relationship in public, <mask> privately distrusted Hoover, resented Hoover's engagement in the affairs of other cabinet departments, and feared that a President Hoover would move away from <mask>'s tax policies. Several Republicans urged <mask> to run for president, but <mask> believed that he was too old to seek the presidency. <mask> attempted to convince Coolidge or Charles Evans Hughes to run, but neither heeded his appeals. In the months before the 1928 Republican Convention, <mask> maintained his neutrality in the presidential race, but with no compelling alternative Republican candidate willing to run, <mask> finally threw his support behind Hoover.With <mask>'s backing, Hoover won the Republican nomination on the first ballot of the convention, and he went on to defeat Al Smith in the 1928 presidential election. Defying widespread expectations that he would retire, <mask> chose to stay on as Secretary of the Treasury. Along with Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson and Secretary of Labor James J. Davis, <mask> is one of only three cabinet members to serve in the same post under three consecutive presidents. Great Depression

Secretary <mask> had helped persuade the Federal Reserve Board to lower interest rates in 1921 and 1924; lower interest rates contributed to a booming economy, but they also encouraged stock market speculation. In 1928, responding to increasing fears of the dangers of speculation and a booming stock market, the Federal Reserve Board began raising interest rates. <mask> favored another interest rate increase in 1929, and in August 1929 the Federal Reserve Board raised the discount rate to six percent. The higher rate failed to curb speculation, and the activity on the stock market continued to grow.In October 1929, the New York Stock Exchange suffered the worst crash in its history in what was called "Black Tuesday". As the vast majority of Americans did not own shares in the stock market, the crash did not immediately have disastrous effects on the U.S. economy as a whole. <mask> had little sympathy for the speculators who lost their money, and he was philosophically opposed to an interventionist economic policy designed to address the stock market crash. Nonetheless, <mask> immediately began calling for cuts to the discount rate, which would reach two percent in mid-1930, and successfully urged Congress to pass a bill providing for temporary, across-the-board tax cuts. <mask> supported the idea of asset liquidation to balance budgets, even if it meant shutting down entire industries. By mid-1930, many, including <mask>, believed that the economy had already experienced the worst effects of the stock market crash. He did not object to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act, which raised tariff rates to one of the highest levels in U.S. history.Despite the optimism of Hoover and <mask>,

masks:
Mellon
Andrew Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Andrew Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon
Mellon