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<mask><mask>. (born January 15, 1974) is an American lawyer and politician serving as Vermont Attorney General since 2017. He was first elected in 2016 with over 66 percent of the vote. He previously served for ten years as State's Attorney of Chittenden County, the most populous county in Vermont. <mask> is known for starting the Rapid Intervention Community Court (RICC) in Chittenden County, a criminal justice program made available to non-violent offenders whose crimes have been driven by addiction or mental illness. During his first month in office, Attorney General <mask> joined sixteen other states in an amicus brief in the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. The brief opposes President <mask>'s executive order banning on immigrants from certain Muslim countries. <mask> also joined Republican Governor Phil Scott in proposing legislation to require the governor's approval before state and local police could conduct federal immigration enforcement work.A member of the Democratic Party, <mask> challenged incumbent Vermont attorney general William Sorrell for the Democratic nomination to become the Vermont Attorney General in the elections of 2012. His campaign that year was centered on the prescription drug abuse epidemic throughout Vermont, and resulted in a very narrow primary defeat. In 2014, he ran for re-election as state's attorney of Chittenden County, choosing not to challenge Sorrell a second time. Early life and family
<mask> was born in Burlington, Vermont in 1974. He is one of six children born to attorney <mask><mask> (deceased) and <mask>h Leddy <mask>, a member of the Vermont House of Representatives. He is the grandson of <mask> Leddy (March 18, 1910 – January 9, 1972) a United States federal judge. <mask> graduated from Burlington High School in 1992 and attended Merrimack College, graduating with a degree in political science in 1996.He graduated from Suffolk Law School in 2000. <mask> is married to <mask>. The couple has two children. During his 2012 campaign for Vermont Attorney General, <mask> acknowledged his arrest for assault as a teenager. In a plea bargain, the charge was reduced to a misdemeanor, and <mask> received a deferred sentence. His record was expunged after he completed the terms of his plea agreement. <mask> pointed to this experience as a critical moment in his personal development, when began to act more maturely and think about his future.He also detailed the advantages he had in dealing with the criminal justice system as the son of an attorney, which might not have been available to a similarly situated teenager living in poverty with fewer personal, professional, and political connections. He described this incident as instructive, stating that it guided him to a sense of empathy and obligation to help others navigate the criminal justice system and receive a second chance when circumstances warrant. Early career
<mask> began his legal career in the District Attorney's Office of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as a criminal prosecutor. <mask> returned to Vermont in 2002, working as a Deputy State's Attorney in Chittenden County. He left to become an associate at the Burlington law firm of Jarvis & Kaplan, where he focused on criminal defense, civil litigation, and family matters. In 2006, after winning a three-way Democratic primary, <mask> was elected Chittenden County State's Attorney. The Chittenden County State's Attorney's Office is the busiest county prosecutor's office in the state of Vermont, handling over 5000 criminal cases and 300 Family Court cases annually.There, <mask> led a staff of 28, including, attorneys, victim advocates, and administrative assistants. <mask> was re-elected in 2010 and 2014. In 2010, <mask> started the Rapid Intervention Community Court ("RICC"), an award-winning criminal justice program made available to non-violent offenders whose crimes have been driven by addiction or mental illness. He is co-chair of former Vermont governor Peter Shumlin's Criminal Justice and Substance Abuse Cabinet. Political career

In 2012, <mask> challenged incumbent Vermont Attorney General William Sorrell in the Democratic Party primary. <mask> campaigned, among other things, for access under the Access to Public Records Act to police investigations and the decriminalization of small amounts of marijuana. One of his focuses in the campaign was to highlight the opioid epidemic afflicting Vermont communities.<mask> lost the hotly contested primary by 714 votes, with Sorrell receiving 21,124 votes to <mask>'s 20,410. During the last weeks of the primary, a super PAC with unknown donors ran advertisements for the incumbent narrated by former Governor Howard Dean. Several of the principal issues that <mask> advocated in the 2012 campaign were enacted into law in the next Legislative session, including access to records of police investigations, a Good Samaritan law to help prevent fatal opiate overdoses and decriminalization of small amounts of marijuana. In March 2014, <mask> was reelected as Chittenden County State's Attorney, running unopposed. While his office prosecuted many violent felonies, he also worked to reduce recidivism and, where appropriate, utilized a collaborative approach to addressing criminality. In February 2015, <mask> announced a traffic-ticket amnesty program to allow persons with suspended licenses to pay each unpaid traffic ticket for $20 in a one-day trial. On March 20, 2015, more than a thousand people lined up outside the Edward Costello Courthouse in Burlington to recover their driver's licenses.A similar program was offered in other counties and, in 2016, the legislature passed a law to allow such programs statewide. On October 15, 2015, <mask> announced his candidacy for Vermont Attorney General in the 2016 election. He won the November 2016 general election by defeating Republican nominee Deborah Bucknam. On July 23, 2019 he officially endorsed Bernie Sanders' presidential campaign. Political positions
While <mask> has focused on prosecuting serious crime, and particularly violent crime, he has attempted an innovative approach to persons struggling with addiction and poverty who end up in the criminal justice system. <mask> has focused on ultimate outcomes not only for the victims of crime but for the perpetrators in order to reduce recidivism and rehabilitate offenders. <mask> often summarized his approach by stating he believes that "the best form of public safety is a good job."In his October 2015 announcement for the Democratic Party nomination for Vermont Attorney General, <mask> called for the abolition of the use of private prisons in Vermont. He stated, "No more private prisons. End the contracts with the for-profit companies ... and bring the Vermonters home. This is a moral test of our generation in this state." As of that time, approximately 271 male incarcerated persons from Vermont were housed in a private prison in Baldwin, Michigan, operated by GEO, Inc.  A month later, the Vermont Commissioner of Corrections Lisa Menard said that she wanted to "substantially reduce, hopefully eliminate, usage of out-of-state beds. That keeps Vermont inmates and Vermont dollars in Vermont." <mask> has worked to reduce recidivism on lesser crimes by trying to address the causes of criminality, prevention and collaborative solutions.For Vermonters struggling with drug addiction, he has sought alternatives to incarceration, noting that Vermont spends more on incarceration than on higher education, and that housing is a major problem. His efforts include advocating for medical treatment on demand for drug addiction, alternatives to incarceration and vigorous enforcement coupled with meaningful intervention and effective prevention strategies. <mask> has also sought to enhance communication among law enforcement and the mental health community. He advocated for passage of "ban the box" legislation to prevent employers from inquiring about criminal history on initial job applications. After passing the legislature with overwhelming support, Vermont governor Peter Shumlin signed the bill into law on May 3, 2016. Electoral history

References

External links

Government website
Campaign website

1974 births
Living people
Merrimack College alumni
Lawyers from Philadelphia
Politicians from Burlington, Vermont
Suffolk University Law School alumni
State's attorneys in Vermont
Vermont Attorneys General
Vermont Democrats
Vermont lawyers

masks:
Thomas J
. Donovan Jr
Donovan
Donovan
Trump
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Thomas J
. Donovan
Johanna
Donovan
Bernard Joseph
Donovan
Donovan
Jessica McCloud
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
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Donovan
Donovan
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Donovan
Donovan
Donovan
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<mask><mask> (born 1957 in Frankfurt, Germany) is an American political candidate from Maine. Elected as a Democrat to the state legislature, she left the party in 2006 to become an independent candidate for Governor of Maine. <mask> lost to Democratic incumbent John Baldacci who was elected to a second term. She finished in third-place receiving 118,715 votes, or about 21% of all votes cast. <mask> furthered her legal career by working for the Maine law firm Verrill Dana before opening her own legal practice with husband, <mask>. Early and childhood years
<mask> was born as <mask> in a U.S. Army hospital in Frankfurt, Germany in 1957. Her father, Charles Butler, was a West Point graduate who served in the Korean War, rose to the rank of Lt.Colonel, and was killed in Vietnam when <mask> was a freshman in high school. Growing up, she lived in Mississippi, Florida, North Carolina, Virginia and Brazil. Her family moved to Maine in time for her to attend Waterville High School and the University of Maine, where she earned a law degree. After working for the law firm of Verrill Dana, she opened her own practice with her husband, <mask>. With Philip, she has two children, Nicholas and Jacqueline. In her practice, she became a lobbyist, working mainly for non-profit organizations, before the state legislature. Political career

State representative
In 2004, she ran as a Democrat for the Maine House of Representatives in Appleton.She won the general election with over 60% of the vote. After a year and a half as a Democratic member of the legislature, she authored the book Setting the Maine Course: We Can Get There from Here, in which she advocated a variety of new policies, including eliminating both the corporate income tax and economic development tax breaks, dedicating the sales tax to funding public education, having the state pay for teacher pay, increasing environmental regulation, decreasing all other regulation, establishing a "rainy day fund" to cover budget deficits, and fighting urban sprawl. She says that she wants Maine to be known as "the Free Enterprise State." Campaign for governor
On January 3, 2006, <mask> announced that she was changing her voter registration to "unenrolled," the Maine equivalent of Independent, and leaving the Democratic caucus. This temporarily threw the House into turmoil, as the two major parties became tied in number of members, until Rep. Joanne Twomey, who had left the Democrats the previous November, returned to them, ensuring they would retain a majority. A few days later, in a speech delivered in front of the Charles Butler Army Reserve Center in Saco, Maine, <mask> announced that she would be an Independent candidate for Governor. On May 31, she submitted more than 4,000 valid signatures to the Maine Secretary of State, ensuring that she will receive a place on the ballot.The next day, she submitted proof that she had received 2800 $5 contributions to the Maine Clean Elections Fund, thus qualifying her campaign for partial public funding. During the general election campaign period large expenditures were made by the Republican and Democratic Governors Association: $714,500 by the Republicans to support State Senator Woodcock, the Republican nominee, and $550,000 by the Democrats to support Democrat Baldacci in his reelection bid. Green candidate LaMarche  challenged these expenditures as not truly “independent” in a case before the Maine Supreme Court heard on October 31, 2006. The court did not grant LaMarche’s claim. In a related claim, <mask> challenged the "independence" of consultant services benefiting the Baldacci campaign before the Maine Commission on Governmental Ethics in a hearing held on October 31, 2006. The Commission did not support <mask>’s claim. With total campaign expenditures of $915,000, <mask> received 21.5% of the general election vote.Baldacci was reelected with 38.11% of the vote after spending $1,313,000 in addition to the independent expenditures discussed above. Republican Woodcock received 30.21% of the vote after expending $1,325,000 in addition to independent expenditures. Green candidate LaMarche received 9.5% of the vote after expending $1,127,000. After the election a routine audit of the <mask> campaign raised a question as to whether the <mask> campaign had a conflict of interest and violated the law in hiring the candidate’s husband, <mask>, to produce media and the media buy for the campaign. The issue was addressed at a meeting of the Commission on Governmental Ethics and Election Practices held on July 16, 2007. The Chair, Michael Friedman, Esq, the only non-party member of the Commission, spoke for the majority when he found that “the conflict of interest issue did not have merit.”  He said “everyone also seems to agree that the <mask> campaign did not violate any law or rule.” Friedman found the <mask> was a qualified professional and was paid a reasonable sum for his services. Friedman concluded “there was nothing before the Commission in this case that was illegal or unethical.”

In the next legislative session, the Maine legislature considered legislation to prohibit hiring members of the candidate’s household to work in Maine campaigns.The Ethics Panel did not support the legislation. The legislature did not pass the ban. Instead the Maine legislature enacted a law requiring that any family member hired by a campaign must be a professional at what they were hired to do and that they could only be paid a reasonable sum for their services. 2007 Chapter Law Chapter 567 Passed in April 2008 amending MRSA Title 21-A Section 1125 sub-sec6-B. The Commission had expressly found the <mask> campaign’s hiring of <mask> met both of these conditions in July 2007

Professional career

<mask> is a veteran advocate for disability-related issues. In 2002, <mask> became the first Executive Director of the Maine Association for Community Service Providers. Then in 2008, <mask> became the Director of Government Relations for the MENTOR Network, a national network of community health and human services providers headquartered in Boston.Beginning in 2012 <mask> was named the Vice President of Public Policy for ANCOR (American Network of Community Options and Resources). ANCOR is a national, nonprofit trade association representing more than 800 private community providers of services to people with disabilities. <mask> is currently the Chief Executive Officer of ANCOR. References

1957 births
Living people
Maine Democrats
Maine Independents
Members of the Maine House of Representatives
Politicians from Waterville, Maine
Women state legislators in Maine
People from Knox County, Maine
21st-century American women

masks:
Barbara E
. Merrill
Merrill
Merrill
Phil Merrill
Merrill
Barbara Butler
Merrill
Phil Merrill
Merrill
Merrill
Barbara Merrill
Merrill
Barbara Merrill
Merrill
Merrill
Philip Merrill
Merrill
Philip Merrill
Merrill
Philip Merrill
Barbara Merrill
Merrill
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<mask>  <mask> (1927–2017) was a Prisoner of Zion who survived the Holocaust and later the Gulags. Born in Minsk, he survived the German invasion of the USSR, narrowly escaping the liquidation of Minsk Ghetto. After the war he spent six years imprisoned in Siberian gulags for distributing books sympathetic to Zionism. After being under investigation by the KGB for spreading Zionist ideas, he immigrated to Israel in 1969. Once there, he campaigned for the Israeli government to assist others who wished to emigrate from the USSR to Israel. He also published memoirs of his earlier experiences. He died in Jerusalem in 2017.Biography
<mask> (Yitzhak) <mask> was born in Minsk, Byelorussia (later Belarus). His father was religiously observant, and his mother maintained some traditions out of respect for him. <mask> was more attracted to Russian role models than  Jewish ones. In the summer of 1941, when the Wehrmacht invaded the Soviet Union by way of Minsk, <mask> was forced to join the stream of refugees fleeing deeper into Russia, and was strafed by the Luftwaffe. After two days, he reached the town of Smilovichi, some  from Minsk. There he was reunited with his aunt and her young son. The three of them remained with a Jewish blacksmith, until the Germans occupied the town, preventing their plans to move farther east.They were forced to return to occupied Minsk, where they found a second aunt along with his mother and two sisters. <mask>'s father was at work away from home when the invasion occurred. Upon his return to Minsk, he was told his family had fled towards Moscow. He was later murdered by bandits while searching for his family. In Minsk, as part of the German invasion, Nazi legislation caused displacement of Jews into the Minsk ghetto. <mask>'s family lived with two other families in two small rooms. They obtained their daily necessities at great risk from German sentries by bartering their aunt's belongings through the ghetto fence.Their situation was alleviated by his sister Tamara, whose Aryan looks allowed her to pass as a non-Jew. In November 1941, the Germans began the liquidation of the ghetto. The residents, his family among them, were marched off to the killing pit. However, <mask> and his older sister Tamara managed to escape. Tamara joined the partisans and he fled to the 'Aryan' part of the town where, beset by the hatred and physical abuse by the locals, he tried to survive. In the end, he returned to the ghetto, where he lived at first with aunts and worked on forced labor crews. In March 1942, as his labor crew was filing back into the ghetto they were halted by SS men who were implementing a round of selektion He was narrowly able to escape back to the ghetto where some of the remaining residents provided a cellar for him to hide in.The next day, he returned to his own house. By day, he continued to work on the forced labor crews, since laborers were fed 30 grams of bread and a ladle of soup for their efforts. By July 1942, the majority of the ghetto's Jews had been murdered. Before the ghetto was finally liquidated on 21 October 1943,  a German woman who had worked as a maid at his school smuggled <mask> out to relatives of her husband in an outlying village. He succeeded by using Aryan papers that he had received from another friend, also a local ethnic German. <mask> was now able to live and work in the village as a non-Jew, doing farm work and cow-herding. Partisans, suspecting he was a German spy, almost killed him.In the spring of 1944, the Red Army liberated his village. He destroyed his Russian papers and returned to Minsk, where he discovered that not a single member of his family remained alive. His attempts to enlist in the Red Army were refused on the grounds of him being underage. Instead he enrolled in a trade school, which provided  bed, board and employment. First incarceration

<mask> was sent by the local boxing federation to take part in a national exhibition of physical culture in Red Square in Moscow. On his return (14 November 1946), he was arrested and jailed for abandoning a military facility. A military court sentenced him to five years 're-education' `in a labor camp for his 'nationalist' (i.e.Jewish) views, his unhealthy opinions about the Soviet regime, and his destructive influence on local youth. Life in prison was oppressive. There was a significant class-gap between the 'regular' and the criminal prisoners. The latter carried on their own terror regime, and effectively ruled prison life. <mask> instigated an uprising against them. He was transferred to a labor camp. The regime at these camps was a combination of hunger, physical abuse and hard forced labor.A niece heard of his imprisonment and sought his release. She eventually reached a top-ranking general who ordered a review of his case. His sentence was changed to a twelve-month probation. Back in Minsk, he entered The Institute of Physical Culture, which provided generous stipends, larger food rations and even an array of sportswear. His boxing studies were successful. He won fight after fight and steadily built up his physical strength, further motivated by the fact that he could now effectively defend himself against anti-Semitic attacks, which came from many directions. Awakening of national identity
The ongoing anti-Semitism <mask> encountered from local Russians steadily fashioned his Jewishness.He came to understand that he was unwelcome in Russia, and if he was ever to have a home it could only be in the State of Israel. He now devoted all of his energy and resources toward that goal. In 1955, while in Riga for a boxing tournament, he first encountered Jews who observed Jewish customs, holidays and traditions. As Soviet rule in Latvia only dated from the Second World War, Jewish activists, especially in Beitar, were still open and active. Well-stocked Jewish libraries were also available. Determined to expand his Jewish knowledge upon his return, he discovered written material of Jewish interest in the central library. He studied and began to openly refer to material in his conversations concerning the ubiquitous Russian hatred of Jews.Young Minsk Jews were also interested in Gromyko's and Cherepakhin's speeches about the establishment of the new state of Israel, with which Russia then enjoyed warm relations. <mask> would push to awaken their interest in Jewish life and in the State of Israel. In 1956 he first encountered foreign tourists. He also described to them what it was like to be a Jew in the USSR, with its constant waves of anti-Semitism. He asked them to relay this to the United States and Israel. All of these conversations were recorded by the KGB. In 1957, a World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Moscow.<mask>, along with Jews from throughout Russia, approached the Israeli delegation. These Soviet Jews surrounded the Israelis and could not stop asking them questions. He himself photographed the delegation and the Israeli flag. <mask> met the delegation head to obtain material for the Jewish youth in Minsk. Since the delegation was being monitored by the KGB, the exchange of material could not take place. He still managed to accumulate a significant quantity of literature, which he used extensively in Minsk. His enthusiasm for Jewish things led him to ignore the rules of caution.Interrogation, investigation and trial
The KGB was closing in, and he was arrested. He refused to incriminate those who shared in his Jewish activities, and he managed to dispose of secret information that was on his person. At interrogation it became apparent that the KGB had amassed detailed and accurate information on him and on his friends and relatives. (After his trial, one of his relatives told him that a listening device had been hidden in the attic above his apartment.) Evidence obtained by bugging and photographing was not admissible in a court of law, and he believed that this legality would be observed. Yet, the greater part of the charges brought against him were based precisely on this "inadmissible evidence". Despite the various 'methods' of interrogation employed against him, <mask> did not reveal information.The official list of the charges was treason, attempted assassination of a senior party leader and government minister, (in this case, the Soviet premier, Nikita Khrushchev), anti-Soviet propaganda, dissemination of Zionist literature, ties with the Israeli embassy and the inflaming nationalist passions. Two weeks into his interrogation a new investigator arrived whose assignment was to persuade <mask> to denounce Israeli embassy staff for conducting subversive activities under the guise of diplomatic activity. <mask> refused and no further attempt was ever made to recruit him. Two others had been arrested along with <mask>. One was the wrestling champion of the Minsk republic, to whom Jewish refugees from Minsk had given Israeli literature, along with a sealed package to take back to <mask>. The wrestler did as he was asked, without checking to see what he was carrying. Both <mask> and the wrestler told this to the interrogators, even though they had not coordinated their testimony.<mask>'s second co-accused was a doctor, the son of a veteran communist with long years of underground activity to his credit, including interest in Zionism. <mask> had viewed him as a potential ally and gave him material which the doctor distributed. Once arrested, he broke immediately, writing a letter of confession and penitence, and placed all the blame on <mask>. <mask> accepted all responsibility for acts which had been proved against the doctor. He explained that he adopted this course of action, because in his eyes the issue was not his own actions but his conviction that all three of the accused were perceived to be representatives of Zionist Jewry. For this reason, he declared it was important to him that he retain his dignity, proving once and for all that Jews were people of steadfast principle, and neither cowards nor traitors. The most dangerous of the charges against him was that of attempted assassination of Premier Khrushchev, since that carried the death penalty.He was endlessly questioned on this point, and had persisted in his absolute denials. He refused to accept the court-appointed defense lawyer to defend him, preferring to defend himself. Nevertheless, the court appointed a defense attorney, the chairman of the Byelorussian bar. The trial lasted five months, four of which he was held in solitary confinement. (The treason charge was dropped during the interrogation.) The proceedings were carried out behind closed doors to prevent them from being used by <mask> for advancement of his ideas. He pleaded not guilty to all the charges  (in contrast with his co-defendants, who immediately pleaded guilty).He admitted that the literature found in his possession was his, however, he asserted that he did not regard the materials as being anti-Soviet. His court appointed lawyer admitted that he was guilty of grave crimes, although he endeavored to mitigate the verdict by recounting his life history: that during the war he had been held in a ghetto and orphaned at the age of 13; that the anti-Semitic Nazis had slaughtered his whole family, which accounted for his adult sensitivity to anti-Semitism; that brushes with a few anti-Semitic hooligans since then had left him over-sensitive, which Zionist propaganda had then exploited. Twenty witnesses testified at the trial. In his closing remarks, the prosecutor asked that <mask> be sentenced to five years re-education in a labor camp as the organizer of a criminal cell. The doctor was sentenced to two years and expulsion from the Communist Party and the wrestler to six months. The trial lasted six months, until 29 April 1959; the KGB's file No.19121-s about the trial and the sentence is in Minsk. In his closing remarks, <mask> defended his actions, highlighted state-sanctioned anti-Semitism and the suppression of the Jews' national life.He declared his goal to leave for his homeland, Israel. His defense lawyer had assumed that he would not get more than three years. However, after <mask>'s speech, the judges reconsidered and sentenced him to six

masks: Anatoly Rubin Anatoly Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin


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 years; the KGB's file on this case is in Moscow. Return to the gulag
The KGB had spread the word that <mask> had planned to blow up the Minsk hotel; that he had been caught in the company of an agent who had given him information to take to the West; and that a half million rubles in foreign currency were found in his possession. Everything about the gulags was familiar there from his ten years before, except the majority of prisoners were now political internees. He was first sent to Lagpunkt 11, next to the Yaya train station. The inmate population was mostly Nazi war criminals ( e.g.Gestapo investigators). When asked what they were in for, their inevitable answer was, "Because of the Yids". During the last three years of his sentence (1962–1965), he was interned at Lagpunkt 10 where all prisoners wore striped overalls, were held in cells after work, and denied the 'privilege' of walking around the camp grounds. The rations were also several grades severer than in other camps. Ten percent of the camp was composed of Jews, some of whom had been convicted of Zionist activism. They came from every corner of the Soviet Union. <mask> had thought that he was alone but, under his leadership, all the Jews in the camp were united and of one mind on Israel.They met to exchange information. Veteran Zionists shared history, culture and traditions. Some knew Hebrew and began giving lessons. They compiled their own small dictionaries by taking Russian primers and writing the Hebrew for each Russian word above it. They composed and learned by heart frequently used sentences. They celebrated every Jewish holiday. For this activity, which was forbidden both within the camp and in the USSR generally, they would gather in one of the clothing storerooms to hear one of the older inmates recite the prayers.As far as was possible they observed the commandments, and on Yom Kippur every one fasted, religious and secular alike. For them this was not only a religious observance, but a demonstration of national unity. They fashioned old silver coins into Magen David pendants, which they wore under their shirts. Collaboration was not tolerated. Among the Jewish political inmates there was an unwritten, iron-clad law that no one was to join any officially organized structure in any way. Anyone who did so was immediately totally ostracized. Circumstances offered a prospect for his early release.The camp commandant informed him that as commandant, he had to draw up a prisoner assessment and he was included in a list of inmates who were willing to undertake "public activity". Upon hearing this, <mask> angrily demanded that his name be removed from this "blacklist". Two weeks later, the Prosecutor General informed him that he would never be eligible for commutation of his sentence. The KGB's file about those six years is in Moscow. Leon Uris' Exodus
Prisoners made great efforts to obtain reading materials. One of the prisoners  was a well-known writer who was allowed to receive books. He was friendly with many Jewish inmates and defended them against anti-Semitic assaults.He told <mask> that he had received a book in English called Exodus that he might find interesting. Other Jewish inmates immediately organized a group reading. <mask> had the book disguised as a Soviet textbook. The book was passed from hand to hand, and smuggled by <mask> in the transfers to other camps. In one of these camps, a Jew undertook its translation into Russian. Immediately upon its completion, <mask> had it smuggled out to the world beyond the camps. There, in samizdat form, it fulfilled a critical and formative role in the awakening the national consciousness of Soviet Jewry.Release from the Gulag and return to Minsk
As the prospect of his release came closer, his health began to fail as a result of the endless stress of hunger rations, physical strain, and inhuman conditions. Throughout the spring of 1964, the inmates worked standing in pools of freezing melt-water, as a result, pain in his feet and legs built up until he could hardly sleep at night. His release date had been set for Tuesday, 8 December 1964. The camp authorities offered him an early release on condition that he sign an application for a pardon, which was effectively an admission of guilt, which he declined. Upon his release, he later said, "I was stepping out into the biggest prison camp of them all—the Soviet Union itself". <mask> had friends in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Riga and elsewhere. Friends introduced him into their circles.After four days in Moscow, he traveled to Minsk and then to Riga. He met with youth, attended the synagogue and visited Rumbula ravine where the Jews of Riga had been massacred during the Holocaust. When he left for the station, it was clear that the KGB was shadowing him. He boarded one coach and moved to another, certain that the KGB would be waiting for him in Minsk. The agent did not find him and decided that <mask> had eluded him. When he arrived at his Minsk apartment, a police agent appeared to record his address. Zionist activity in Minsk and departure from Russia
Upon returning to Minsk, <mask> found himself unemployable.A month later, he was informed that the charges against him had been unfounded and he was fully rehabilitated. This was apparently a result of the fall of Khrushchev in October 1964. He was soon employed by the Minsk Municipal Hospital as a senior physical exercise teacher. At the same time, he set up activities to teach the city's Jews about Judaism and the State of Israel. Soon he had created a cadre committed to Jewish national revival. Knowing that he was a KGB target, he was careful not to endanger them. He compartmentalized all those involved, and the lines of distribution of material.Several times it happened that someone would approach him and suggest, in absolute secrecy, that he give him a booklet to read that he himself had put into circulation. Ze'ev Jabotinsky's writings were especially popular. <mask> himself translated them into Russian and ensured there was a wide circulation

To obtain material, <mask> traveled to other towns, where he had friends from the camps. To justify these visits, he took advantage of Soviet regulations that allowed anyone who donated blood to receive two days vacation. <mask> combined these with his regular, weekly day of rest, resulting in three-day trips away from Minsk. On a trip to Riga, he learned that the KGB was investigating him. He warned his contacts to dispose of anything incriminating.Almost every friend and contact of <mask>'s was detained and questioned by the KGB. Finally, his own turn came. He decided to deny everything, because in Russia a 'no' always remained a 'no'. He was interrogated for five days, from morning to evening. On the sixth day, the agents confronted him with a friend, who it emerged had revealed everything he knew. <mask> violated the rules of interrogation by jumping up and declaring that everything was a lie. Faced with his refusal to admit anything, the chief interrogator closed the investigation against him.Soon after, the authorities in Riga started issuing exit permits for Israel to selected Jews. He traveled to Riga and asked friends who had received permits to try to obtain an official invitation for him to immigrate once they reached Israel. Such an invitation did arrive and the OBIR registered the invitation. <mask> was summoned to OBIR and informed by its director: "You have been granted a travel permit. It's better you go to this Israel of yours than stay here poisoning the minds of Soviet youth." <mask> was the first Jew from Minsk to receive an emigration permit after the Six Day War. He was given twelve days to leave, during which time he traveled to bid farewell to friends.A large crowd came to the train station to see him off in person. There were speeches, and Israeli songs and dances. Many Jews sent him their names and addresses, asking that they too be sent an official invitation to make aliyah. They sent the message that Israel do all in its power to help them leave the Soviet Union. Immigration to Israel

<mask> landed in Israel on 1 May 1969, and was sent to an absorption center in the northern town of Carmiel. There he found a large group of Russian Zionist activists who felt the time had come for open and public action against attempts to halt emigration from the USSR. He and his friends, Joseph Khrul and Joseph Schneider, wrote to the prime minister, Golda Meir, who invited them to her office.An 18-member group from Georgia had also been invited, along with attorney Lidia Slovina and her husband, Zionist activists from Riga. The attendees all wanted to know why more was not being done to get Russian Jews out of the USSR. The Prime Minister explained that Israeli policy was to maintain public silence. Upon emerging from the meeting, the attendees concluded that they would have to take action themselves. Two of them flew to the United States to arouse public opinion there. At the same time, NATIV (a department of Israel's Foreign Ministry that was tasked with fostering Jewish education and awareness behind the Iron Curtain, and in facilitating emigration to Israel) sent two representatives  to America to do the same, Joseph Khrul and then <mask>. At the time, the media was prohibited from publishing the names of those who had left the USSR.One American journalist had not heard of the prohibition and published <mask>'s name and everything he told them. When Russian Aliyah activists failed to persuade either Nativ or the Israeli Government to do more, they declared a hunger strike in front of the Wailing Wall. Nativ strongly opposed this move but it became the crucial push that set the movement to 'Let my People Go' in motion. <mask>, Khrul, Joseph Schneider and Asher Blank were enlisted by Nativ  as advisers. In the camps, <mask> had felt a painful sense of aloneness and despair at the lack of outside support. He never forgot the activists' plea to him that Israel not remain silent, but rather do all in its power to help them get out. In 1972, <mask> married Karny Jabotinsky <mask>, daughter of Eri Jabotinsky and grand daughter of Ze’ev Jabotinsky, psychiatrist and former ombudsman to the National Health Law (1996-2006).They had two children, Eri and Tamar, and later three grandchildren, Yoav, Maya-Shai and Itamar. Previously, in 1969, after he immigrated to Israel his daughter Ilona was born in the USSR and later had 2 grandchildren. The family lives in Atlanta, USA. In Israel, <mask> began teaching physical education, at first in schools and then at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The link between physical fitness and national pride continued to drive him. To ensure that his experiences in the Holocaust and the gulags were not forgotten, he wrote his memoirs, first in Russian, a work  My Path to the Land of Israel for which he shared first prize in a nationwide competition, which he was awarded in 1975, by Israeli President Ephraim Katzir. The book was then translated into Hebrew and published in 1977 by Dvir Publishing, under the name Brown Boots, Red Boots: From the Minsk Ghetto to the Siberian Labor Camps.After his death, Israeli author Galila Ron-Feder Amit reworked the translation. In 2004, she had written about <mask> in her book Prisoner of Zion, a Journey to the USSR of the Early Sixties and Prisoner of Zion <mask> <mask>, the 26th volume of the Time Tunnel series. In 1989, <mask> was sent by Nativ to the USSR to encourage Aliyah. Over the next two years many Minsk and Leningrad Jews followed him to Israel. <mask> died on 16 January 2017, and was buried in the Kiryat Anavim cemetery, near Jerusalem. Awards and recognition
In 2012, he was honored to light one of the six memorial torches at the National Observance of Holocaust Memorial Day at Yad VaShem in Jerusalem. Published works
 The following publication by <mask> <mask> is referenced in this article.Notes

References

Further reading

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 Arkady Vaksberg (1994). Stalin Against The Jews, tr. Antonina Bouis. Louis Rapoport (1990). Stalin's War Against the Jews. 1927 births
2017 deaths
Gulag detainees
Minsk Ghetto inmates
Belarusian Jews
Soviet emigrants to

masks: Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Rubin Anatoly Rubin Rubin Rubin Anatoly Rubin


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<mask> (born <mask>; 27 June 1936) is an English actress who has performed on stage, film and television since 1955, prominent during the British New Wave. Early life

Broomfield was born in Forest Gate, London. She was the third of four children, with two elder sisters and a younger brother, Earnest "Guy" Broomfield (c. 1938–1999). Her brother was murdered, in 1999, by Harry Dalsey, the son of Adrian Dalsey. At the age of six, <mask> was placed in the National Children's Home at Edgworth, near Bolton, Lancashire and four years later was moved to another children's home in Blackburn, where she attended Blakey Moor School for Girls. She subsequently returned to Edgworth until she was 15, when she moved to a children's home hostel in London, training as a typist while still attending school. Acting career

Early roles
After a course at the Lucie Clayton School and Model Agency, she became a photographic model for pin-up magazines like Reveille and Titbits.She was subsequently spotted by Bill Watts, who ran a theatrical agency and obtained for her roles in late 1950s British films, usually uncredited. Her first appearance in a film was as an extra in Simon and Laura (1955). She had small parts in All for Mary (1955), Lost (1956), Yield to the Night (1956) (directed by J. Lee Thompson), It's Never Too Late (1956), It's a Wonderful World (1956), The Weapon (1956), Loser Takes All (1956), The Silken Affair (1956), Dry Rot (1956), The Good Companions (1957) (again for Thompson), Seven Thunders (1957), and The Flesh Is Weak (1957). She was in episodes of The New Adventures of Martin Kane (1957) and International Detective. <mask>'s first sizeable film role was in Horrors of the Black Museum (1959). She had minor parts in Once More, with Feeling! (1960) and And the Same to You (1960).<mask> had a larger role in the controversial Peeping Tom (1960). She appeared on stage in The Lily White Boys with Albert Finney. Stardom

<mask>'s breakthrough came in 1960 when she was chosen by Tony Richardson to play the role of model Tina Lapford in The Entertainer (1960), starring Laurence Olivier, distributed by Bryanston Films. "It was Tony Richardson I owe it all to," she said later. She had a support part in Beat Girl (1960) then appeared in probably her best known role as Doreen, the would-be girlfriend of rebellious Arthur Seaton (played by Albert Finney), in the New Wave film for Bryanston, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960). Director, Karel Reisz, described her as "difficult to play with". Co-star Finney had previously had a small role in The Entertainer.The film was a huge hit. <mask> starred alongside Kenneth More in Man in the Moon (1960). With those three big film starring roles in 1960, she became one of the very few actors ever to have their name above the titles in all the major cinemas around Leicester Square simultaneously. <mask> was offered a role in A Kind of Loving but turned it down to play the female lead in a Hollywood financed film, The War Lover (1962) with Steve McQueen. "It was the stuff dreams are made of, but I didn't get to enjoy it like I should have," she said later. "When I arrived I was so panicked and tired and the sun was just too yellow and the orange juice too orange. It was very stressful and I had a headache all the time.I just wasn't used to it. I didn't have anyone to look after me." In England she had the lead in Lunch Hour (1962) which was one of her favourite movies. For Hammer films she starred in The Damned (1963) directed by Joseph Losey. She went to Hollywood to play the female lead in an epic directed by J. Lee Thompson, Kings of the Sun (1963). Thompson had her under personal contract at this stage. She says she turned down roles in a James Bond movie and an Elvis Presley movie.<mask> went to Italy to appear in The Wedding March (1966) then back in England made Doctor in Clover (1966) and Alfie (1966). She had a support part in Hell Is Empty (1967). Later career
She starred in With Love in Mind (1970) and A Touch of the Other (1970), then made House of the Living Dead (1974). By the late 1970s <mask> was more commonly seen on TV, in shows such as Centre Play, Shoestring, Buccaneer, Never the Twain and a long run on Santa Barbara as well as TV movies like Two by Forsyth. She had a notable role in films like My Beautiful Laundrette (1985), Shag (1989), Getting It Right (1989), The Rachel Papers (1989), Hear My Song (1991), UFO (1993), Taking Liberty (1993), Loving Deadly (1994), and At Risk (1994). Later TV included Anna Lee: Headcase (1993), Murder She Wrote, Lady Chatterly, Rumble, Bramwell, Barbara, Madson, Dalziel and Pascoe, The Bill, Where the Heart Is, Waking the Dead, Monarch of the Glen, Last of the Summer Wine, Doctors. Her most recent films are The Kid, The Power of Three and Beautiful Relics.Personal life
She married the aristocratic RAF pilot and racing driver Charles Crichton-Stuart (1939–2001) on 7 July 1967 and they had a daughter, Nicola Crichton-Stuart, who was born in 1969. The marriage ended in divorce during the late 1970s. Her autobiography, A Time for Love, was published in 1991. On 14 November 1993, <mask> appeared on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs, talking to Sue Lawley about her upbringing in different children's homes in Northern England and her success as an actress in the 1960s. She also reminisced about her friendship with John F. Kennedy and an ill-fated date with Frank Sinatra. Her record choices included Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major and pieces by Rachmaninov, Elvis Presley and the Carpenters.In the September 2009 issue of Cinema Retro, there was a long interview with <mask>, where she candidly talked about her childhood and the making of Peeping Tom, The Entertainer, Beat Girl and The War Lover. Filmography

 Lost (1955) as Taxi driver's daughter (uncredited)
 Dry Rot (1956) as Waitress in Cafe (uncredited)
 Loser Takes All (1956) as Girl at Roulette Table
 It's a Wonderful World (1956) as Pretty Girl
 The Flesh Is Weak (1957) as Susan
 The Good Companions (1957) as Redhead
 Horrors of the Black Museum (1959) as Angela Banks
 Upstairs and Downstairs (1959)
 Jungle Street (later renamed Jungle Street Girls) (1960) as Jaqui
 Man in the Moon (1960) as Polly
 Beat Girl (1960) as Dodo
 Once More, with Feeling!

masks:
Shirley Anne Field
Shirley Broomfield
Shirley
Field
Field
Field
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<mask> (née <mask>; November 23, 1798 – May 11, 1883) was the mother of Ulysses S<mask>, the famous Union general in the American Civil War and the 18th president of the United States. She married <mask> in Point Pleasant, Ohio, and was the mother of six children. Little is known about her private life, other than what can be discerned from general and public information. She rarely discussed her son with anyone while he was a general and a president, especially not the press. She was a devoutly religious woman, always reserved and unpretentious in her manner, and she is often considered by historians and others to have had a strong influence on her son Ulysses who shared similar qualities in character. Ancestry and early life

<mask> was born on her parents' farm on November 23, 1798, in Horsham, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, where she grew up. From a family of four siblings, she was the second daughter and third child of <mask>, Jr. and <mask> who came from the <mask> family of Scottish Protestants.Her grandfather came to Philadelphia in 1762 and established a farm not far from the city. He fought with George Washington during the American Revolutionary War. He had a son, <mask>'s father, who sold the farm in 1817 and moved to Ohio and bought a farm near the Ohio River, not far from Point Pleasant. <mask> was described by friends as slender, above average height, handsome, but not beautiful, with a serious, reserved and steadfast personality. Mother of a general and president

<mask> married Jesse Root <mask> on June 25, 1821, and settled into a modest, though attractive, house near the Ohio River in Point Pleasant, Ohio. They were much admired by the townspeople there. Together they had six children – three boys and three girls.She gave birth to the first of her children, Ulysses, on April 27, 1822, about ten months after she was married. As firstborn children were traditionally received with wide family fanfare, deciding a name for her firstborn child became an involved family advent for <mask>. Her husband, Jesse, and other family members all had enthusiastic ideas for a suitable name, and subsequently weeks elapsed before a name was chosen. It was finally decided that a name would be chosen by means of a ballot, i.e.by placing names in a hat, a method that <mask> was not very comfortable with. Realizing, however, that her son would likely return home with out a name otherwise, <mask> acquiesced to the procedure. <mask>, being a loyal Democrat, suggested the name of Albert, after Albert Gallatin from her home state of Pennsylvania. <mask>'s mother opted for Ulysses, after an ancient Greek hero, which Jesse seconded.<mask>'s step-grandmother <mask>, an educated woman who read French classical literature, also favored the name Ulysses. Finally, at a family gathering, the name Ulysses, was drawn from ballots placed in a hat. Jesse, wanting to honor his wife's father, declared the name for his son would thus be Hiram Ulysses, though he would always refer to him as Ulysses. When Ulysses was eighteen months old, the family moved to Georgetown, Ohio. Here <mask> gave birth to five more siblings: <mask>, Clara, Orvil, Virginia (known as Jennie), and Mary. In character, Ulysses was said to have resembled his mother more so than his father, deriving his good nature and calm disposition from her. However, <mask>, though always supportive, was not known as someone for a young boy to turn to for compassionate counsel in times of trouble, usually keeping her affections withdrawn.<mask> and her husband helped to found the Georgetown Methodist Church, which began holding services in 1827. <mask> earnestly had her family attend this church every Sunday. She was never known to argue or boast, and never gossiped about her neighbors or others. Her husband Jesse once bore testimony to her noble-like character, and said of her, "Her steadiness, strength of character have been the stay of the family through life". During the Civil War her son Ulysses was sometimes criticized for his costly war-time tactics. While her husband Jesse often responded angrily with newspaper editorials, a devoutly religious <mask> remained calm and was confident with the idea that her son was protected by God in the business of saving the Union from what she regarded as a "terrible war". When Ulysses was elected president in 1868, <mask>, not liking publicity and praise, was not present when Ulysses was sworn in as the 18th president of United States, and never visited the White House during his two terms as president.As she came from a family of Jacksonian Democrats, there was much political speculation about her noted absence. There is only one known interview of her. During the presidency of her son Ulysses, she lived a detached life from him, though she was not estranged from him, as many had assumed. <mask>'s husband, Jesse, died on June 29, 1873, four years after their son Ulysses was sworn in as president in 1869. Often met with inquiries about her famous son, <mask> remained virtually silent about anything to do with Ulysses or the family for the duration of her life. Final days

When <mask>'s husband, Jesse, died in 1873, she moved in with her daughter, Virginia, wife of Abel Corbin. There is only one known news interview of <mask> which occurred in Jersey City sometime after President <mask>'s term in office.In response to an inquiry about when she expected to see her son, Ulysses, again, she replied, "Indeed, the newspapers seem to know more about it than we do; at least, so Mrs. Corbin says. For myself, I never read any paper but the Christian Advocate, published in Cincinnati." Some ten years later <mask> died on May 11, 1883, at the age of 84, at 12:30 in the afternoon, at her home at 582 Pavonia Ave in Jersey City. Up until that time she was considered in good health and her death came unexpectedly. On the morning of her death she was going about her usual business around the house, had read the newspaper and had conversations with her daughter, Mrs. <mask> Corbin, the only other person in the house. At about noon, <mask> began to feel weak and faint and retired to her bed for rest. She continued to grow weak at an alarming rate, where her daughter, not knowing the seriousness of <mask>'s condition, went for help a block away, and then sent a telegram notifying her sister, in Philadelphia.When she returned to the house, <mask> was incoherent and within minutes had stopped breathing. News of her death was telegraphed to General <mask>, who made the necessary arrangements for her funeral. The funeral was held in <mask>'s home with the Reverend Richard from the Simpson Methodist Church conducting the service. At <mask>'s funeral, not wanting to overshadow her memory with his fame, Ulysses advised the pastor that he should "speak of her only as a pure-minded simple-hearted, earnest, Methodist Christian ...", asking him to speak of her only, and to make no reference to himself, asserting his request by maintaining that <mask> had gained nothing by any position he had ever held. See also
 Ulysses S<mask> Home

Notes

References

Bibliography

  online free

1798 births
1883 deaths
People from Horsham Township, Pennsylvania
19th-century American women
<mask> family
Mothers of presidents of the United States
Ulysses S<mask>

masks:
Hannah Grant
Hannah Simpson
. Grant
Jesse Root Grant
Hannah Simpson
John Simpson
Rebecca Simpson
Simpson
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Grant
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Grant
Sarah Simpson
Hannah
Simpson
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
Hannah
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Hannah
Grant
Hannah
Virginia Grant
Hannah
Hannah
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<mask> (January 9, 1907 – April 4, 2013) was the patriarch to the church of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1947 to 1979. From 1979 to his death he was the patriarch emeritus of the church. He was the oldest and longest-serving general authority in the history of the church, although he had not been active in that capacity from 1979 to his death. Early life and education
<mask>'s father was Hyrum G<mask>, the presiding patriarch of the LDS Church from 1912 to 1932. The younger <mask> graduated from LDS High School in Salt Lake City and later the University of Utah. He was trained and worked as an engineer, registered several patents, and enjoyed building and repairing clocks. From 1926 to 1929, he served as a LDS Church missionary in the Swiss-German Mission.<mask> later served in several church positions, including high councilor and bishop of the 20th North Ward in Salt Lake City. From 1944 to 1946, <mask> lived in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, while working on the Manhattan Project and served as president of the church's branch in Oak Ridge. LDS Church service
At the time of <mask>'s birth, a new presiding patriarch was usually chosen based on the principle of patrilineal succession. The 25-year-old was unmarried and without a college degree when his father died in 1932, however. Believing that he was not ready, church president Heber J<mask> left the position vacant, and later appointed Eldred <mask>'s cousin, Joseph Fielding <mask>, to be presiding patriarch in 1942. Joseph Fielding <mask>'s request to be released was granted by church president <mask> <mask>d <mask> was selected as the next presiding patriarch in 1947, marking the return of the office to the line of eldest sons descending from Hyrum <mask>. By then he had married, started a family, and worked at several professions including cleaning and painting the ceiling of the Salt Lake Tabernacle. <mask> later said of his first days as patriarch: "There is no way to prepare for it, no instructions, no counsel. When I was first ordained, I went into my office, closed the door and didn’t come out for two weeks. Then a young man came to the door asking for a blessing and so I gave it to him." During his tenure as presiding patriarch, <mask>'s primary duty was to travel to areas of the world where there were no patriarchs in order to bestow patriarchal blessings upon worthy Latter-day Saints. For example, he gave 139 blessings in 16 days in Australia in 1966.<mask> regularly spoke in the church's general conferences, but was only rarely assigned to visit local stakes of the church. In 1979, <mask> G<mask> as a Patriarch Emeritus, which means that he is honorably relieved of all duties and responsibilities pertaining to the office of Patriarch to the Church." As evident in the video archive of the conference and as noted in other sources, the exact wording in the conference itself was that <mask> was "honorably relieved—not released—of all duties and responsibilities..." After his release <mask> often spoke at firesides, where he displayed artifacts from Joseph and Hyrum <mask>'s lives. <mask> was considered an emeritus general authority of the church after he was relieved of his duties. He remained an ordained patriarch and was still permitted to give patriarchal blessings. Throughout his life, he gave almost 20,000 patriarchal blessings.However, he was no longer sustained by the church as a "prophet, seer, and revelator" as he was from 1947 to 1979. He was sustained simply as "patriarch emeritus" in the October 1979 and April 1980 general conferences, and mentioned only with several other men as "emeritus General Authorities" during the sustaining in the October 1980 conference. Following the October 1980 sustainings (the transcript of which notes "a call of 'no' from several in the congregation" in opposition to the sustaining of Spencer W. Kimball as church president), the practice of sustaining the church's highest officers at every conference was temporarily abandoned, replaced instead with specific mention of only those offices that had changed since the last conference. This pattern was largely followed until the April 1985 conference, at which the sustainings returned to the previous form of presenting the president of the church, First Presidency, and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles for sustaining whether or not a change in membership had occurred. At this point, <mask> was not mentioned specifically, but included with "All other members of the First Quorum of the Seventy and the emeritus Brethren as at present constituted." His death was not mentioned during the April 2013 general conference, which took place just days later, but was mentioned in the church's May 2013 Ensign and Liahona magazines. On January 9, 2007, <mask> celebrated his 100th birthday.He was the second general authority in the history of the church to reach the age of 100, the first being Joseph Anderson, who died in 1992 at the age of 102. The LDS Church has not stated directly whether it will appoint a new presiding patriarch, but after <mask>'s death an official magazine of the church, Liahona, described him as "the last person to hold the position." Similarly, an official Church News article published shortly after <mask>'s death described him as the "Final Church Patriarch," as well as "the seventh and final Patriarch to the Church" (phrasing which is also notable since <mask> was generally considered the eighth man to officially hold the office). He was survived by, among others, his eldest son, Eldred <mask>, who would possibly have inherited the patriarchal office had it not been discontinued, and who co-wrote a scholarly history of the office of presiding patriarch. <mask> was born in Lehi, Utah. He and his wife, Jeanne Ness, were the parents of five children. After his wife's death, <mask> married the widow Hortense Hogan Child in 1977.<mask> died at his home in Salt Lake City, Utah, at 106. He was the oldest and longest-serving general authority in church history, although not active as such for many years, and the oldest living man in Utah prior to his death. See also
 Patriarchal Priesthood

Notes

References

External links
 <mask>pa Bill's G.A. Pages: Eldred G. <mask>

1907 births
2013 deaths
20th-century Mormon missionaries
American Mormon missionaries in Germany
American Mormon missionaries in Switzerland
American centenarians
American general authorities (LDS Church)
Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery
Latter Day Saints from Tennessee
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Men centenarians
People from Lehi, Utah
People from Salt Lake City
Presiding Patriarchs (LDS Church)
<mask> family (Latter Day Saints)
University of Utah alumni

masks:
Eldred Gee Smith
Smith
. Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
. Grant
Smith
Smith
Smith
George Albert
Smithdre
Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
Smithdred
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Smith
Smith
Smith
Smith
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Gary Smith
Personal Smith
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<mask> (; 1 April 1776 – 27 June 1831) was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. Despite initial opposition from her parents and difficulties presented by society, she gained education from books in her father's library, including ones by Leonhard Euler, and from correspondence with famous mathematicians such as Lagrange, Legendre, and Gauss (under the pseudonym of  «Monsieur LeBlanc»). One of the pioneers of elasticity theory, she won the grand prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her essay on the subject. Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem provided a foundation for mathematicians exploring the subject for hundreds of years after. Because of prejudice against her sex, she was unable to make a career out of mathematics, but she worked independently throughout her life. Before her death, Gauss had recommended that she be awarded an honorary degree, but that never occurred. On 27 June 1831, she died from breast cancer.At the centenary of her life, a street and a girls’ school were named after her. The Academy of Sciences established the <mask> Germain Prize in her honor. Early life

Family
<mask> <mask> was born on April 1, 1776, in Paris, France, in a house on Rue Saint-Denis. According to most sources, her father, Ambroise-François, was a wealthy silk merchant, though some believe he was a goldsmith. In 1789, he was elected as a representative of the bourgeoisie to the États-Généraux, which he saw change into the Constitutional Assembly. It is therefore assumed that <mask> witnessed many discussions between her father and his friends on politics and philosophy. Gray proposes that after his political career, Ambroise-François became the director of a bank; in any case, the family remained well-off enough to support <mask> throughout her adult life.<mask> had one younger sister, named Angélique-Ambroise, and one older sister, named Marie-Madeline. Her mother was also named Marie-Madeline, and this plethora of "Maries" may have been the reason she went by <mask>. <mask>'s nephew Armand-Jacques Lherbette, Marie-Madeline's son, published some of <mask>'s work after she died (see Work in Philosophy). Introduction to mathematics
When <mask> was 13, the Bastille fell, and the revolutionary atmosphere of the city forced her to stay inside. For entertainment, she turned to her father's library. Here she found J. E. Montucla's L'Histoire des Mathématiques, and his story of the death of Archimedes intrigued her. <mask> thought that if the geometry method, which at that time referred to all of pure mathematics, could hold such fascination for Archimedes, it was a subject worthy of study.So she pored over every book on mathematics in her father's library, even teaching herself Latin and Greek, so she could read works like those of Sir Isaac Newton and Leonhard Euler. She also enjoyed  by Étienne Bézout and  by Jacques Antoine-Joseph Cousin. Later, Cousin visited <mask> at home, encouraging her in her studies. <mask>'s parents did not at all approve of her sudden fascination with mathematics, which was then thought inappropriate for a woman. When night came, they would deny her warm clothes and a fire for her bedroom to try to keep her from studying, but after they left, she would take out candles, wrap herself in quilts and do mathematics. After some time, her mother even secretly supported her. École Polytechnique

In 1794, when <mask> was 18, the École Polytechnique opened.As a woman, <mask> was barred from attending, but the new system of education made the "lecture notes available to all who asked". The new method also required the students to "submit written observations". <mask> obtained the lecture notes and began sending her work to Joseph Louis Lagrange, a faculty member. She used the name of a former student Monsieur Antoine-Auguste Le Blanc, "fearing", as she later explained to Gauss, "the ridicule attached to a female scientist". When Lagrange saw the intelligence of M. Le Blanc, he requested a meeting, and thus <mask> was forced to disclose her true identity. Fortunately, Lagrange did not mind that <mask> was a woman, and he became her mentor. Early work in number theory

Correspondence with Legendre
<mask> first became interested in number theory in 1798 when Adrien-Marie Legendre published .After studying the work, she opened correspondence with him on number theory, and later, elasticity. Legendre showed some of <mask>'s work in the  to his second edition of the , where he calls it  ("very ingenious"). See also Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem below. Correspondence with Gauss

<mask>'s interest in number theory was renewed when she read Carl Friedrich Gauss' monumental work . After three years of working through the exercises and trying her own proofs for some of the theorems, she wrote, again under the pseudonym of M. Le Blanc, to the author himself, who was one year younger than she. The first letter, dated 21 November 1804, discussed Gauss'  and presented some of <mask>'s work on Fermat's Last Theorem. In the letter, <mask> claimed to have proved the theorem for n = p − 1, where p is a prime number of the form p = 8k + 7.However, her proof contained a weak assumption, and Gauss' reply did not comment on <mask>'s proof. Around 1807 (sources differ), during the Napoleonic wars, the French were occupying the German town of Braunschweig, where Gauss lived. <mask>, concerned that he might suffer the fate of Archimedes, wrote to General Pernety (), a family friend, requesting that he ensure Gauss' safety. General Pernety sent the chief of a battalion to meet with Gauss personally to see that he was safe. As it turned out, Gauss was fine, but he was confused by the mention of <mask>'s name. Three months after the incident, <mask> disclosed her true identity to Gauss. He replied:
How can I describe my astonishment and admiration on seeing my esteemed correspondent M. Le Blanc metamorphosed into this celebrated person ... when a woman, because of her sex, our customs and prejudices, encounters infinitely more obstacles than men in familiarising herself with [number theory's] knotty problems, yet overcomes these fetters and penetrates that which is most hidden, she doubtless has the noblest courage, extraordinary talent, and superior genius.Gauss' letters to Olbers show that his praise for <mask> was sincere. In the same 1807 letter, <mask> claimed that if  is of the form , then  is also of that form. Gauss replied with a counterexample:  can be written as , but  cannot. Although Gauss thought well of <mask>, his replies to her letters were often delayed, and he generally did not review her work. Eventually his interests turned away from number theory, and in 1809 the letters ceased. Despite the friendship of <mask> and Gauss, they never met. Work in elasticity

<mask>'s first attempt for the Academy Prize

When <mask>'s correspondence with Gauss ceased, she took interest in a contest sponsored by the Paris Academy of Sciences concerning Ernst Chladni's experiments with vibrating metal plates.The object of the competition, as stated by the Academy, was "to give the mathematical theory of the vibration of an elastic surface and to compare the theory to experimental evidence". Lagrange's comment that a solution to the problem would require the invention of a new branch of analysis deterred all but two contestants, Denis Poisson and <mask>. Then Poisson was elected to the Academy, thus becoming a judge instead of a contestant, and leaving <mask> as the only entrant to the competition. In 1809 <mask> began work. Legendre assisted by giving her equations, references, and current research. She submitted her paper early in the fall of 1811 and did not win the prize. The judging commission felt that "the true equations of the movement were not established", even though "the experiments presented ingenious results".Lagrange was able to use <mask>'s work to derive an equation that was "correct under special assumptions". Subsequent attempts for the Prize
The contest was extended by two years, and <mask> decided to try again for the prize. At first Legendre continued to offer support, but then he refused all help. <mask>'s anonymous 1813 submission was still littered with mathematical errors, especially involving double integrals, and it received only an honorable mention because "the fundamental base of the theory [of elastic surfaces] was not established". The contest was extended once more, and <mask> began work on her third attempt. This time she consulted with Poisson. In 1814 he published his own work on elasticity and did not acknowledge <mask>'s help (although he had worked with her on the subject and, as a judge on the Academy commission, had had access to her work).<mask> submitted her third paper, "", under her own name, and on 8 January 1816 she became the first woman to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences. She did not appear at the ceremony to receive her award. Although <mask> had at last been awarded the , the Academy was still not fully satisfied. <mask> had derived the correct differential equation (a special case of the Kirchhoff–Love equation), but her method did not predict experimental results with great accuracy, as she had relied on an incorrect equation from Euler, which led to incorrect boundary conditions. Here is <mask>'s final equation for the vibration of a plane lamina:

where N2 is a constant. After winning the Academy contest, she was still not able to attend its sessions because of the Academy's tradition of excluding women other than the wives of members. Seven years later this situation was transformed, when she made friends with Joseph Fourier, a secretary of the Academy, who obtained tickets to the sessions for her.Later work in elasticity

<mask> published her prize-winning essay at her own expense in 1821, mostly because she wanted to present her work in opposition to that of Poisson. In the essay she pointed out some of the errors in her method. In 1826 she submitted a revised version of her 1821 essay to the Academy. According to Andrea Del Centina, the revision included attempts to clarify her work by "introducing certain simplifying hypotheses". This put the Academy in an awkward

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 position, as they felt the paper to be "inadequate and trivial", but they did not want to "treat her as a professional colleague, as they would any man, by simply rejecting the work". So Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who had been appointed to review her work, recommended her to publish it, and she followed his advice. One further work of <mask>'s on elasticity was published posthumously in 1831, her "".She used the mean curvature in her research (see Honors in number theory). Later work in number theory

Renewed interest
<mask>'s best work was in number theory, and her most significant contribution to number theory dealt with Fermat's Last Theorem. In 1815, after the elasticity contest, the Academy offered a prize for a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem. It reawakened <mask>'s interest in number theory, and she wrote to Gauss again after ten years of no correspondence. In the letter, <mask> said that number theory was her preferred field and that it was in her mind all the time she was studying elasticity. She outlined a strategy for a general proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, including a proof for a special case. <mask>'s letter to Gauss contained her substantial progress toward a proof.She asked Gauss whether her approach to the theorem was worth pursuing. Gauss never answered. Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem

Fermat's Last Theorem can be divided into two cases. Case 1 involves all powers p that do not divide any of x, y, or z. Case 2 includes all p that divide at least one of x, y, or z. <mask> proposed the following, commonly called "<mask>'s theorem":
Let p be an odd prime. If there exists an auxiliary prime P = 2Np + 1 (N is any positive integer not divisible by 3) such that:
 if xp + yp + zp ≡ 0 (mod P), then P divides xyz, and
 p is not a p-th power residue (mod P). Then the first case of Fermat's Last Theorem holds true for p.

<mask> used this result to prove the first case of Fermat's Last Theorem for all odd primes p < 100, but according to Andrea Del Centina, "she had actually shown that it holds for every exponent p < 197".L. E. Dickson later used <mask>'s theorem to prove the first case of Fermat's Last Theorem for odd primes less than 1700. In an unpublished manuscript titled , <mask> showed that any counterexamples to Fermat's theorem for p > 5 must be numbers "whose size frightens the imagination", around 40 digits long. <mask> did not publish this work. Her brilliant theorem is known only because of the footnote in Legendre's treatise on number theory, where he used it to prove Fermat's Last Theorem for p = 5 (see Correspondence with Legendre). <mask> also proved or nearly proved several results that were attributed to Lagrange or were rediscovered years later. Del Centina states that "after almost two hundred years her ideas were still central", but ultimately her method did not work. Work in philosophy
In addition to mathematics, <mask> studied philosophy and psychology.She wanted to classify facts and generalize them into laws that could form a system of psychology and sociology, which were then just coming into existence. Her philosophy was highly praised by Auguste Comte. Two of her philosophical works,  and , were published, both posthumously. This was due in part to the efforts of Lherbette, her nephew, who collected her philosophical writings and published them. is a history of science and mathematics with <mask>'s commentary. In , the work admired by Comte, <mask> argues that there are no differences between the sciences and the humanities. Final years
In 1829 <mask> learned that she had breast cancer.Despite the pain, she continued to work. In 1831 Crelle's Journal published her paper on the curvature of elastic surfaces and "a note about finding  and  in ". Mary Gray records: "She also published in  an examination of principles which led to the discovery of the laws of equilibrium and movement of elastic solids." On 27 June 1831, she died in the house at 13 rue de Savoie. Despite <mask>'s intellectual achievements, her death certificate lists her as a "" (property holder), not a "". But her work was not unappreciated by everyone. When the matter of honorary degrees came up at the University of Göttingen in 1837—six years after <mask>'s death—Gauss lamented: "she [<mask>] proved to the world that even a woman can accomplish something worthwhile in the most rigorous and abstract of the sciences and for that reason would well have deserved an honorary degree".Honors

Memorials

<mask>'s resting place in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris is marked by a gravestone. At the centennial celebration of her life, a street and a girls' school were named after her, and a plaque was placed at the house where she died. The school houses a bust commissioned by the Paris City Council. In January 2020, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite named in honor of <mask>. Honors in number theory
E. Dubouis defined a sophien of a prime  to be a prime  where , for such  that yield  such that  has no solutions when  and  are prime to . A <mask> Germain prime is a prime  such that  is also prime. The <mask> curvature (also called mean curvature) is , where  and  are the maximum and minimum values of the normal curvature.<mask>'s identity states that for any ,

Criticisms

Contemporary praise and criticisms
Vesna Petrovich found that the educated world's response to the publication in 1821 of <mask>'s prize-winning essay "ranged from polite to indifferent". Yet, some critics had high praise for it. Of her essay in 1821, Cauchy said: "[it] was a work for which the name of its author and the importance of the subject both deserved the attention of mathematicians". <mask> was also included in H. J. Mozans' book "Woman in Science", although Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie claims that the biography "is inaccurate and the notes and bibliography are unreliable". Nevertheless, it quotes the mathematician Claude-Louis Navier as saying that "it is a work which few men are able to read and which only one woman was able to write". <mask>'s contemporaries also had good things to say relating to her work in mathematics. Gauss certainly thought highly of her and recognized that European culture presented special difficulties to a woman in mathematics (see Correspondence with Gauss).Modern praise and criticisms
The modern view generally acknowledges that although <mask> had great talent as a mathematician, her haphazard education had left her without the strong base she needed to truly excel. As explained by Gray, "<mask>'s work in elasticity suffered generally from an absence of rigor, which might be attributed to her lack of formal training in the rudiments of analysis." Petrovich adds: "This proved to be a major handicap when she could no longer be regarded as a young prodigy to be admired but was judged by her peer mathematicians." Notwithstanding the problems with <mask>'s theory of vibrations, Gray states that "<mask>'s work was fundamental in the development of a general theory of elasticity." Mozans writes, however, that when the Eiffel tower was built and the architects inscribed the names of 72 great French scientists, <mask>'s name was not among them, despite the salience of her work to the tower's construction. Mozans asked: "Was she excluded from this list ... because she was a woman? It would seem so."Concerning her early work in number theory, J. H. Sampson states: "She was clever with formal algebraic manipulations; but there is little evidence that she really understood the , and her work of that period that has come down to us seems to touch only on rather superficial matters." Gray adds that "The inclination of sympathetic mathematicians to praise her work rather than to provide substantive criticism from which she might learn was crippling to her mathematical development." Yet Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie recognizes that "<mask>'s creativity manifested itself in pure and applied mathematics ... [she] provided imaginative and provocative solutions to several important problems", and, as Petrovich proposes, it may have been her very lack of training that gave her unique insights and approaches. Louis Bucciarelli and Nancy Dworsky, <mask>'s biographers, summarize as follows: "All the evidence argues that <mask> had a mathematical brilliance that never reached fruition due to a lack of rigorous training available only to men." <mask> in popular culture
<mask> was referenced and quoted in David Auburn's 2001 play Proof. The protagonist is a young struggling female mathematician, Catherine, who found great inspiration in the work of <mask>. <mask> was also mentioned in John Madden's film adaptation of the same name in a conversation between Catherine (Gwyneth Paltrow) and Hal (Jake Gyllenhaal).In the fictional work "The Last Theorem" by Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl, <mask> was credited with inspiring the central character, Ranjit Subramanian, to solve Fermat's Last Theorem. A new musical about <mask>'s life, entitled The Limit, premiered at VAULT Festival in London, 2019. <mask> Germain Prize

The Sophie Germain Prize (), awarded annually by the Foundation Sophie Germain, is conferred by the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Its purpose is to honour a French mathematician for research in the foundations of mathematics. This award, in the amount of €8,000, was established in 2003, under the auspices of the Institut de France. See also
Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for specific exponents
<mask> Counter Mode
<mask> prime
<mask> Prize
<mask>'s theorem
Timeline of women in science

Citations

References

  reprinted as
Bucciarelli, Louis L; Dworsky, Nancy (1980). <mask>: An Essay in the History of the Theory of Elasticity, D. Reidel:Holland

  Reprinted as
  Reprinted as

External links

Sheroes of History; <mask>
Sophie <mask> in the illustrated story at the Kids Love Science project

1776 births
1831 deaths
19th-century French mathematicians
18th-century French women scientists
19th-century French women scientists
French women mathematicians
Number theorists
Deaths from breast cancer
Deaths from cancer in France
French physicists
French women physicists
French women

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<mask><mask>. (February 15, 1917 – March 2, 1971) was an American businessman, a major owner in Thoroughbred horse racing, and a candidate in the 1955 New Jersey State Senate Elections. He controlled an international mining and metals conglomerate, Engelhard, founded by his father

<mask> made his fortune in the precious metals industry, where he operated a company founded by his father, <mask>. During World War II, he served with the United States Army Air Forces and, in 1947, <mask> married the widow Jane Mannheimer. <mask> would adopt Mannheimer's daughter, Anne France Mannheimer, and eventually have four more daughters with his wife. Shortly before his death in 1971, <mask> disposed of most of his South African businesses, selling them to Anglo-American companies. Politics
<mask> was a major contributor to the United States Democratic Party and in the 1960 presidential election organized the National Committee of Business and Professional Men and Women for Kennedy and Johnson. In 1955, he ran for New Jersey State Senate against Malcolm Forbes in the "Battle of the Billionaires", but lost 19,981 to 19,611. <mask> represented John F. Kennedy at the coronation of Pope Paul VI.Business
As a young man, <mask> worked in a metals processing business which had been founded in 1902 by his German American father, <mask> Sr., dealing in platinum, gold, and silver. Upon the death of his father in 1950, <mask> inherited the family business. He substantially expanded operations to South Africa, South America and Europe and built it into one of the world's leading refiners of precious metals. In 1958, he consolidated the various operating companies into Engelhard Corporation and issued a public share offering on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1961, Time described him as, "one of the most powerful businessmen in South Africa". As a result of his company's need for gold acquisitions from South African suppliers, <mask> became a major investor in the country, acquiring gold, copper and coal mining ventures as well as investing in industrial concerns. He set up a publicly-traded holding company in the U.S. that raised capital for investments in South African business.The company made investments alone and in conjunction with South African business tycoon, Harry Oppenheimer whose Anglo American plc dominated the South African mining industry. <mask> maintained a residence in South Africa and was elected to Anglo American's Board of Directors. At home, some criticized him for indirectly supporting the country's apartheid regime. Retrospectively summing up <mask>'s impact on the country, Anglo American stated that: "In difficult times, when South Africa was badly in need of capital, <mask> played a vital and significant role in helping to bring it from abroad. He thus not only restored confidence in the country's economy, but actively assisted in boosting it." Engelhard Minerals had dealings with the silver empire of Nelson Bunker Hunt and W. Herbert Hunt and Japanese trading companies Mitsui and Mitsubishi through its trading arm Phillipp Brothers. The company remained very sizable for many years after his death.Philanthropy
<mask>hard Dam on the Letaba River in Kruger National Park is named in his honor in gratitude for donations to the South African National Parks Board. The Charles Engelhard Foundation, headed by his wife after his death and by their children following her death in 2004, provides funding to a wide range of causes including education, medical research, cultural institutions, and wildlife and conservation organizations. It has made major donations to the Metropolitan Museum of Art where the Charles Engelhard Court can be found in its American Wing, built the library at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government, and has been a generous supporter of a number of University of Montana academic programs. In 1967, he and his wife donated an elaborate 18th-century Neapolitan crêche to the White House. Cragwood Stables
Engelhard developed a love of Thoroughbred horse racing and would become a major force in the industry with racing stables in England and South Africa, plus in Aiken, South Carolina where his Cragwood Stables was named for his estate in Far Hills, New Jersey. Primarily trained by future U.S.Racing Hall of Fame inductee, MacKenzie Miller in the U.S., he raced notable horses such as Red Reality, Assagai, Tentam, Alley Fighter, and the U.S. Champion sire, Halo. His best known South African horse was Hawaii who won a number of important races in that country until being brought to compete in the U.S. in 1969 where he won several Grade 1 stakes and was voted the 1969 Eclipse Award for Outstanding Male Turf Horse. Following his death, his widow donated a large collection of racing trophies that were won by Cragwood horses in the U.S. between 1962 and 1976. Nijinsky
While <mask> was very successful racing Thoroughbreds in the United States, he and his wife also maintained a residence in London and it was in England where he had his greatest achievements in racing. His horses won British Classic Races six times including the St. Leger Stakes in 1964, 1967, 1968 and again in 1970 when he won it for the fourth time with the horse that brought him international fame and who would make him that year's British flat racing Champion Owner. Purchased at Windfields Farm's annual yearling sale in Ontario, Canada, Nijinsky would be sent to Ireland to be conditioned by Vincent O'Brien. The colt would earn Champion Two-Year-Old honors for his undefeated 1969 racing campaign.The next year, en route to being voted European Horse of the Year, Nijinsky won the 2,000 Guineas, The Derby, and the St. Leger Stakes to become the first horse in thirty-five years to win the English Triple Crown, and only narrowly failed to win the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe by a short head to Sassafras. A 1970 motion picture was made about the colt titled A Horse Called Nijinsky and a 2000 Sun newspaper poll voted him Britain's Horse of the Millennium. <mask> died in 1971 in Boca Grande, Florida. His funeral mass was held on March 5 at Mary's Abbey Church at the Delbarton School in Morris County, New Jersey. Former president Lyndon Johnson acted as an honorary pall-bearer. Also in attendance were US senators Hubert Humphrey, Ted Kennedy, Mike Mansfield and Harrison A<mask> Jr., and former governors Robert B. Meyner and Richard J. Hughes. Inspiration for Goldfinger
<mask> is reported by numerous sources, including Forbes and  The New York Times, to have been the inspiration for the fictional character Auric Goldfinger in the Ian Fleming novel Goldfinger and the subsequent motion picture.According to the Times, <mask> was a close acquaintance of Fleming and delighted in the characterization. References

1917 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
Businesspeople in metals
American racehorse owners and breeders
Owners of Epsom Derby winners
United States Army personnel of World War II
New Jersey Democrats
People from Far Hills, New Jersey
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
20th-century American philanthropists

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<mask> (June 26, 1940 – January 9, 2009) was an American astronomer and author specializing in celestial mechanics. <mask>n had a career as a professional scientist, but was noted as an outspoken proponent of certain fringe views in astronomy, physics, and extra-terrestrial life. He also published the non-mainstream Meta Research Bulletin. Biography

<mask> was the first child of Robert F<mask>, a police officer, and Anna Mary Haley. His father left the family when <mask>  was 5. His mother died when he was 16; he and his siblings then lived with their grandmother, Margery Jobe, until he went to college. He graduated from Saint Ignatius High School in Cleveland.While there, he helped start the Cleveland branch of Operation Moonwatch, an amateur science program initiated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory to track satellites. He also helped found a Moonwatchers team while studying at Xavier University; this team broke a tracking record in 1961. <mask>n graduated from Xavier University with a B.S. in mathematics (cum laude) in 1962 and was awarded a teaching fellowship at Georgetown University. He attended Yale University on a scholarship sponsored by the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO), joining USNO in 1963. In 1969, he received a Ph.D. in astronomy from Yale after completing his dissertation on lunar occultations.<mask>n worked at the USNO until 1983, first becoming Chief of the Research Branch and later becoming Chief of the Celestial Mechanics Branch of the Nautical Almanac Office. His espousal of highly non-mainstream beliefs, particularly the exploded planet hypothesis, eventually led to his separation from the USNO. He later said, "This forced me to the 'fringes,' areas of astronomy not accepted as credible by experts of the field". Following his separation from the USNO, <mask>n started a business organizing eclipse viewing expeditions, and promoting his non-mainstream views in a newsletter and web site. Shortly after his death in 2009, the asteroid 52266 <mask>landern was named in his honor because of his prediction and analysis of lunar occultations at the U.S. Naval Observatory and publications of papers on the dynamics of binary minor planets. He married Barbara Ann Weber (1942-2018) in 1963 in Kentucky, and they had 3 sons, Michael, Brian, and Kevin, and a daughter, Connie.The couple moved to Sequim, Washington from the East Coast in 2005 to be closer to their children and grandchildren. <mask> Flandern died of colon cancer in Seattle, Washington. Mainstream scientific work

During the mid-1970s, <mask>n believed that lunar observations gave evidence of variation in Newton's gravitational constant (G), consistent with a speculative idea that had been put forward by Paul Dirac. In 1974, his essay "A Determination of the Rate of Change of G" was awarded second place by the Gravity Research Foundation. However, in later years, with new data available, <mask>n himself admitted his findings were flawed, and the conclusions were contradicted by more accurate findings based on radio measurements with the Viking landers. <mask> and Henry Fliegel developed a compact algorithm to calculate a Julian date from a Gregorian date that would fit on a single IBM card. They described this in a letter to the editor of a computing magazine in 1968.This was available for use in business applications. With Kenneth Pulkkinen, he published "Low precision formulae for planetary positions", in the Astrophysical Journal Supplement in 1979. The paper set a record for the number of reprints requested from that journal. Non-mainstream science and beliefs
<mask>n described in his 1993 book Dark Matter, Missing Planets, New Comets how he had become increasingly dissatisfied with the mainstream views of science by the early 1980s. He wrote:

"Events in my life caused me to start questioning my goals and the correctness of everything I had learned. In matters of religion, medicine, biology, physics, and other fields, I came to discover that reality differed seriously from what I had been taught." In his book, on blogs, lectures, newsletters and websites, <mask>n focused on problems in cosmology and physics.He alleged that when experimental evidence is incompatible with mainstream scientific theories, mainstream scientists refuse to acknowledge this to avoid jeopardizing their funding. Minor-planet satellites
Following claims by David Dunham in 1978 to have detected satellites for some asteroids (notably 532 Herculina) by examining the light patterns during stellar occultations, <mask>n and others began to report similar observations. His non-mainstream 1978 prediction that some asteroids have natural satellites, which was almost universally rejected at the time, was later proven correct when the Galileo spacecraft photographed Dactyl, a satellite of 243 Ida, during its flyby in 1993. Exploding planets
In 1976, while <mask>n was employed by the USNO, he began to promote the belief that major planets sometimes explode. <mask>n also speculated that the origin of the human species may well have been on the planet Mars, which he believed was once a moon of a now-exploded "Planet V". Le Sage's theory of gravitation and the speed of gravity
<mask>n supported Georges-Louis Le Sage's theory of gravitation, according to which gravity is the result of a flux of invisible "ultra-mundane corpuscles" impinging on all objects from all directions at superluminal speeds. He gave public lectures in which he claimed that these particles could be used as a limitless source of free energy, and to provide superluminal propulsion for spacecraft.In 1998 <mask>n wrote a paper asserting that astronomical observations imply that gravity propagates at least twenty billion times faster than light, or even infinitely fast. Gerald E. Marsh, Charles Nissim-Sabat and Steve Carlip demonstrated that <mask>n's argument was fallacious. Face on Mars
<mask>n was a prominent advocate of the belief that certain geological features seen on Mars, especially the "face at Cydonia", are not of natural origin, but were produced by intelligent extraterrestrial life, probably the inhabitants of a major planet once located where the asteroid belt presently exists, and which <mask>n believed had exploded 3.2 million years ago. The claimed artificiality of the "face" was also the topic of a chapter of his 1993 book. Rejection of Big Bang cosmology
<mask>n was a vocal opponent of the Big Bang model in cosmology, and supported instead a static universe. In 2008 he was an organizer of a conference of individuals who opposed the Big Bang cosmological models. References

External links
Archived: Biography at Meta Research site
Archived: Salon story about relativity dissidents including <mask>n (archived)

1940 births
2009 deaths
American astronomers
Pseudoscientific physicists
Relativity critics

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