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 pictorial experience into his own painting. He identified the symbols, signs, and figures of cave painting as components of a valid archaic pictorial language that he used in his works. These included his increasing number of paintings in "oil on sand on canvas" that, in their materials, also approached the cave painting that Baumeister so admired (beg. ca. 1933). He himself collected examples of prehistoric findings, small sculptures, and tools, and occupied himself with cliff drawings that had been discovered in Rhodesia. This experience was undoubtedly important for <mask>’s artistic disposition since he, evidently inspired by this rich store of prehistoric works, ultimately used extraordinarily reduced organic shapes for his "ideograms" (beg.ca. 1937). In these works he used a unique world of signs, which he saw as symbols for the laws of nature, their evolution, and human existence. <mask>’s artistic development was not interrupted when he lost his professorship at the Städel in Frankfurt in 1933. He continued to paint despite political persecution and economic difficulties. His work and its development are correspondingly diverse, even for the period after 1941, when he banned from exhibiting. He was the employed by the Dr. Kurt Herberts & Co. varnish factory in Wuppertal to research antique and modern painting techniques.This protected him politically and also  gave him the opportunity to explore the fundamentals of painting. In this way he furthered his knowledge on prehistoric cave painting techniques. At the same time, he looked into Goethe’s theory of plant morphology. Out of this study this "eidos pictures" (eidos: idea) emerged: paintings that, unlike <mask>’s ideograms, are rich in their variety and coloration. Moreover, these forms are organic, but seem rather than being symbols or signs, are images of simple plantlike and animal life forms. The pictures bear titles such as Rock Garden, Eidos, or Primordial Vegetable. As an indefatigable researcher and collector, <mask> also owned examples of African sculpture, in which he, as in the case of the prehistorical artifacts, saw universal images for life, development, and human existence.Correspondingly, their formal language entered <mask>’s work in the early 1940s—highly abstracted, at first chromatically restrained (African Tale, 1942), and with time, became increasingly colorful and in part very complex in their formal design (Owambo 1944–1948). Both the titles and formal language reveal <mask>’s preoccupation with other old (Latin American) cultures (Peruvian Wall, 1946, and Aztec Couple, 1948). Another example of his search for the “foundations of art” is <mask>’s transposition of the Gilgamesh Epic, one of the oldest surviving literary works. Therefore, Baumeister used his personal pictorial and sign language in his illustration of the narrative (beg. 1943), which resulted in an astonishingly unified cycle, which  with his pictorial language came strikingly close to depicting the literary and linguistic effects(impression) of the epic. He also produced illustrations to texts from the Bible—Saul, Esther, Salome—as well as to <mask>’s The Tempest. In this way, Baumeister single-mindedly and successfully developed a very personal and impressive visual language that was and still is unique in the German art immediately after 1945.The national and international recognition that <mask> <mask> received in the postwar period was correspondingly high. But his artistic development did not stop there. On the one hand, he developed his painting further in a virtuosic manner and, what is more, combined the variety of his formation phases in many other pictures—in part into "overalls structures" that nonetheless still possessed a fundamental that was reminiscent of landscape imageries (Blue Movement, 1950). On the other hand, Baumeister also produced densely packed abstractions that, proceeding from a central form, characterized him as an outstanding "nonrepresentationalist." These paintings became quite possibly the most famous of his works, and were immediately associated by a broad public with Baumeister (e.g. ARU 2, 1955). Even so, Baumeister did not limit himself to this late "trademark."Multiform and multicoloured pictures emerged as well in the year of his death. Critical reception
Today, <mask>’s work still attracts a lot of attention, particularly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. In contrast to the "French classics" of Modernism, or the important American artists of the second half of the twentieth century, <mask> receives only a scant amount of attention in the Anglo-Saxon world. The quality of his work is undisputed. It is clear that while working in "domestic emigration" during the Nazi dictatorship, he had no influence on the vital artistic environment. After 1945 <mask> played an important role in the development of German and European art. Among the German painters who remained in the country despite the persecution by the National Socialists from 1933 to 1945, only a few succeeded in achieving such pioneering strides toward new contents and forms.Following World War II, he became a spokesman in the debate on Modernism. Regarded as an advocate of "abstract" painting, he was highly regarded by some, while strongly condemned by others. An important collection of <mask>’s works is preserved in the Willi Baumeister Archive, which is part of the Kunstmuseum Stuttgart, and in the Sammlung Domnick (Domnick Collection) in Nürtingen. <mask> <mask>. Tenerife: Ediciones Gaceta de Arte, 1934
 <mask>, <mask>. Das Unbekannte in der Kunst. Stuttgart, 1947; 2d ed.Cologne (Köln), 1960; 3d ed. Cologne, 1974; 4th ed. Cologne, 1988. (English: The Unknown in Art. Translated by Joann M. Skrypzak and with an essay by Tobias Hoffmann. Willi Baumeister Stiftung, Stuttgart, 2013
 Grohmann, Will. <mask> <mask>: Leben und Werk.Cologne [Köln], 1963. 1988 [1965, 1966??] Kermer, Wolfgang: Einige Aspekte der Kunstlehre Willi <mask>s. In: 175 Jahre Friedrich-Eugens-Gymnasium Stuttgart. Stuttgart: Belser, 1971, p. 126-152
 Haftmann, Werner. "Gilgamesch - Einführung." In: <mask> <mask>, Gilgamesch, 5-15.Cologne [Köln], 1976. Kermer, Wolfgang: Hommage à Baumeister: Klaus Bendixen, Karl Bohrmann, Peter Brüning, Bruno Diemer, Peter Grau, Klaus Jürgen-Fischer, Emil Kiess, Eduard Micus, Herbert Schneider, Peter Schubert, Friedrich Seitz, Ludwig Wilding. Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 1979
 Kermer, Wolfgang: Zur Kunstlehre Baumeisters: ein Vorschlag Baumeisters zur Reform des künstlerischen Elementarunterrichts aus dem Jahre 1949. Die Studierenden Willi Baumeisters an der Staatlichen Akademie der bildenden Künste Stuttgart 1946–1955. Verzeichnis der ″Didaktischen Tafeln″.Exhib. cat. <mask> <mask>: 1945–1955, Württembergischer Kunstverein Stuttgart, Cantz, Stuttgart 1979, pp 129–134, 147. Ponert, Dietmar J. <mask> Baumeister - Werkverzeichnis der Zeichnungen, Gouachen und Collagen. Dietmar J. Ponert in collaboration with Felicitas Karg-<mask>. Cologne [Köln]: DuMont, 1988. *
 Kermer, Wolfgang: <mask> <mask> - Typographie und Reklamegestaltung.Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Edition Cantz, 1989
 <mask>, Schlemmer und die Üecht-Gruppe: Stuttgarter Avantgarde 1919. Exh. cat. Stuttgart: Hugo Matthaes, 1989. <mask> <mask>, Lithographien / Serigraphien: 55 Werke der Zeit 1919 bis 1964.Galerie Schlichtenmaier, cat. no. 109. Grafenau: Galerie Schlichtenmaier, 1991
 Bruns, Jörg Heiko Willi Baumeister. Dresden: Verlag der Kunst, 1991. Kermer, Wolfgang: Der schöpferische Winkel: <mask> <mask>s pädagogische Tätigkeit. Ostfildern-Ruit: Edition Cantz, 1992 ( / ed.Wolfgang Kermer; 7)
 Boehm, Gottfried. <mask> <mask>. Stuttgart: Hatje, 1995
 Kermer, Wolfgang (ed. ): Aus Willi Baumeisters Tagebüchern: Erinnerungen an Otto Meyer-Amden, Adolf Hölzel, Paul Klee, Karl Konrad Düssel und Oskar Schlemmer. Mit ergänzenden Schriften und Briefen von <mask> <mask>. Ostfildern-Ruit: Edition Cantz, 1996 (Beiträge zur Geschichte der Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart / ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 8)
 Beye, Peter, and Felicitas <mask>.<mask> <mask>: Werkkatalog der Gemälde. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2002. Kermer, Wolfgang. <mask> <mask> und die Werkbund-Ausstellung "Die Wohnung" Stuttgart 1927. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 2003 (Beiträge zur Geschichte der Staatlichen Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart / ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 11)
 Spielmann, Heinz, and Felicitas <mask>. <mask> <mask>: Werkkatalog der Druckgraphik.Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005. <mask> <mask>: Figuren und Zeichen. Exh. cat. Hamburg, Münster, Wuppertal: Hatje Cantz, 2005. Schürle, Wolfgang, and Nicholas J. Conard, eds. Zwei Weltalter.Eiszeitkunst und die Bildwelt Willi Baumeisters. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005. Kermer, Wolfgang (ed. ): Über Baumeister: der Künstler und Lehrer im Urteil seiner Schüler. Stuttgart: Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart, 2006  / [Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden Künste Stuttgart], ed. Wolfgang Kermer; 15)
 Im Rampenlicht: Baumeister als Bühnenbildner. Exh.cat. Munich and Berlin: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2007,
Chametzky, Peter. Objects as History in Twentieth-Century German Art: Beckmann to Beuys. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. Quotations about <mask> <mask>

 "In my eyes, the name Baumeister takes an extremely important place among those of modern German artists." (Fernand Léger, 1949)
 "He was the most European of German painters." (Will Grohmann, 1959)
 "<mask> <mask>'s art belongs to the healthy, natural, appealing appearances."(Wassily Kandinsky, 1935)
 "You are going to have a future, with certainty." (Le Corbusier to Baumeister, 1931)

See also
 List of German painters

Sources
 Grohmann, Will. <mask> <mask>: Leben und Werk. 1963. Cologne [Köln]: DuMont. <mask> <mask>: Figuren und Zeichen. Exh.cat. Hamburg, Münster, Wuppertal. Stuttgart: Hatje Cantz, 2005. References

External links
 official <mask> Baumeister Website of the Baumeister Archive and Family, Stuttgart (in English, German, Spanish, Italian, and French) - includes numerous illustrations and photographs
 Stuttgart Art museum (in German)
 LEMO Biography (in German)
 Baumeister and Stuttgart (in German)
 Works at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

20th-century German painters
20th-century male artists
German male painters
Abstract painters
German scenic designers
German typographers and type designers
German art educators
German military personnel of World War I
Artists from Stuttgart
1889 births
1955 deaths
Olympic competitors in art competitions
German abstract

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<mask> (; ; born Rubén Zaldívar, January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who served as the elected president of Cuba from 1940 to 1944 and as its U.S.-backed military dictator from 1952 to 1959 before being overthrown during the Cuban Revolution. <mask> initially rose to power as part of the 1933 Revolt of the Sergeants, which overthrew the provisional government of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada. He then appointed himself chief of the armed forces, with the rank of colonel and effectively controlled the five-member "pentarchy" that functioned as the collective head of state. He maintained this control through a string of puppet presidents until 1940, when he was himself elected President of Cuba on a populist platform. He then instated the 1940 Constitution of Cuba and served until 1944. After finishing his term, <mask> moved to Florida, returning to Cuba to run for president in 1952. Facing certain electoral defeat, he led a military coup against President Carlos Prío Socarrás that pre-empted the election.Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the United States government, <mask> suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. As such, <mask>'s repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships both with the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—<mask> established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialist ideas became more influential. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed.Catalyzing the resistance to such tactics, for two years (December 1956 – December 1958) Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement and other rebelling elements led an urban- and rural-based guerrilla uprising against <mask>'s government, which culminated in his eventual defeat by rebels under the command of Che Guevara at the Battle of Santa Clara on New Year's Day 1959. <mask> immediately fled the island with an amassed personal fortune to the Dominican Republic, where strongman and previous military ally Rafael Trujillo held power. <mask> eventually found political asylum in Oliveira Salazar's Portugal, where he first lived on the island of Madeira and then in Estoril. He was involved in business activities in Spain and was staying there in Guadalmina at the time of his death from a heart attack on August 6, 1973. Early life

<mask> was born in the town of Veguita, located in the municipality of Banes, Cuba in 1901 to Belisario <mask> Palermo and Carmela Zaldívar González, who had fought in the Cuban War of Independence. He was of Spanish, African, Chinese, and possibly some Taíno descent. His mother named him Rubén and gave him her last name, Zaldívar.His father did not want to register him as a <mask>. In the registration records of the Banes courthouse, he was legally Rubén Zaldívar until 1939, when, as <mask> <mask>, he became a presidential candidate and it was discovered that this name did not exist in the birth certificates; he thus had to postpone the presentation of his candidacy and pay 15,000 pesos to the local judge. Both <mask>'s parents are believed to have been of mixed race and one may have had Indigenous Caribbean blood. <mask> was initially educated at a public school in Banes and later attended night classes at an American Quaker school. He left home at age 14, after the death of his mother. Coming from a humble background, he earned a living as a laborer in the cane fields, docks, and railroads. He was a tailor, mechanic, charcoal vendor and fruit peddler.In 1921, he traveled to Havana, and in April joined the army as a private. After learning shorthand and typing, <mask> left the army in 1923, working briefly as a teacher of stenography before enlisting in the Guardia Rural (rural police). He transferred back to the army as a corporal, becoming secretary to a regimental colonel. In September 1933, he held the rank of sergeant stenographer and as such acted as the secretary of a group of non-commissioned officers who led a "sergeants' conspiracy" for better conditions and improved prospects of promotion. 1933 coup

In 1933, <mask> led an uprising called the Sergeants' Revolt, as part of the coup that overthrew the government of Gerardo Machado. Machado was succeeded by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, who lacked a political coalition that could sustain him and was soon replaced. A short-lived five-member presidency, known as the Pentarchy of 1933, was established.The Pentarchy included a representative from each anti-Machado faction. <mask> was not a member, but controlled Cuba's armed forces. Within days, the representative for the students and professors of the University of Havana, Ramón Grau San Martín, was made president—and <mask> became the Army Chief of Staff, with the rank of colonel, effectively putting him in control of the presidency. The majority of the commissioned officer corps were forced to retire or, some speculate, were killed. Grau remained president for just over 100 days before <mask>, conspiring with the U.S. envoy Sumner Welles, forced him to resign in January 1934. Grau was replaced by Carlos Mendieta, and within five days the U.S. recognized Cuba's new government, which lasted eleven months. <mask> then became the strongman behind a succession of puppet presidents until he was elected president in 1940.After Mendieta, succeeding governments were led by José Agripino Barnet (five months) and Miguel Mariano Gómez (seven months) before Federico Laredo Brú ruled from December 1936 to October 1940. First presidency (1940–1944)

<mask>, supported by the Democratic Socialist Coalition which included Julio Antonio Mella's Communist Party, defeated Grau in the first presidential election under the new Cuban constitution in the 1940 election, and served a four-year term as President of Cuba, the first and to this day only, non-white Cuban in that office. <mask> was endorsed by the original Communist Party of Cuba (later known as the Popular Socialist Party), which at the time had little significance and no probability of an electoral victory. This support was primarily due to <mask>'s labor laws and his support for labor unions, with which the Communists had close ties. In fact, Communists attacked the anti-<mask> opposition, saying Grau and others were "fascists" and "reactionaries." During this term in office, <mask> carried out major social reforms and established numerous economic regulations and pro-union policies. Cuba entered World War II on the side of the Allies on December 9, 1941, declaring war on Japan two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor.On December 11, the <mask> government declared war on Germany and Italy. In December 1942, after a friendly visit to Washington, <mask> said Latin America would applaud if the Declaration by United Nations called for war with Francisco Franco's Spain,  calling the regime "fascist". Post-presidency
In 1944, <mask>'s handpicked successor, Carlos Saladrigas Zayas, was defeated by Grau. In the final months of his presidency, <mask> sought to handicap the incoming Grau administration. In a July 17, 1944, dispatch to the U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Ambassador Spruille Braden wrote:

Shortly after, <mask> left Cuba for the United States. "I just felt safer there," he said.He divorced his wife, Elisa, and married Marta Fernández <mask> in 1945. Two of their four children were born in the United States. For the next eight years, <mask> remained in the background, spending time in the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City and a home in Daytona Beach, Florida. He continued to participate in Cuban politics, and was elected to the Cuban Senate in absentia in 1948. Returning to Cuba, he decided to run for president and received permission from President Grau, whereupon he formed the United Action Party. On taking power he founded the Progressive Action Party, but he never regained his former popular support, though the unions supported him until the end. Military coup and second presidency (1952–1959)

In 1952, <mask> again ran for president.In a three-way race, Roberto Agramonte of the Orthodox Party led in all the polls, followed by Carlos Hevia of the Authentic Party. <mask>'s United Action coalition was running a distant third. On March 10, 1952, three months before the elections, <mask>, with army backing, staged a coup and seized power. He ousted outgoing President Carlos Prío Socarrás, canceled the elections and took control of the government as a provisional president. The United States recognized his government on March 27. When asked by the U.S. government to analyze <mask>'s Cuba, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. said

The corruption of the Government, the brutality of the police, the government's indifference to the needs of the people for education, medical care, housing, for social justice and economic justice ... is an open invitation to revolution. Economy of Cuba
Upon his seizure of power, <mask> inherited a country that was relatively prosperous for Latin America.According to <mask>'s government, although a third of Cubans still lived in poverty, Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in the region. In the 1950s, Cuba's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was roughly equal to that of Italy at the time, although still only a sixth of that of the United States. Moreover, although corruption and inequality were rife under <mask>, Cuban industrial workers' wages rose significantly. In 1953, the average Cuban family only had an income of $6.00 a week, 15% to 20% of the labor force was chronically unemployed, and only a third of the homes had running water.. Despite this, according to the International Labour Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba became the world's eighth-highest in 1958, and the average agricultural wage was higher than some European nations. Relationship with organized crime

Throughout the 1950s, Havana served as "a hedonistic playground for the world's elite", producing sizable gambling, prostitution and drug profits for the American mafia, corrupt law-enforcement officials, and their politically elected cronies. In the assessment of the Cuban-American historian Louis Perez, "Havana was then what Las Vegas has become."Relatedly, it is estimated that by the end of the 1950s the city of Havana had 270 brothels. In addition, drugs, be it marijuana or cocaine, were so plentiful at the time that one American magazine in 1950 proclaimed "Narcotics are hardly more difficult to obtain in Cuba than a shot of rum. And only slightly more expensive." As a result, the playwright Arthur Miller described <mask>'s Cuba in The Nation as "hopelessly corrupt, a Mafia playground, (and) a bordello for Americans and other foreigners." In a bid to profit from such an environment, <mask> established lasting relationships with organized crime, notably with American mobsters Meyer Lansky and Lucky Luciano, and under his rule Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas". <mask> and Lansky formed a friendship and business relationship that flourished for a decade. During a stay at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York in the late 1940s, it was mutually agreed that, in return for kickbacks, <mask> would give Lansky and the Mafia control of Havana's racetracks and casinos.After World War II, Luciano was paroled from prison on the condition that he permanently return to Sicily. Luciano secretly moved to Cuba, where he worked to resume control over American Mafia operations. Luciano also ran a number of casinos in Cuba with the sanction of <mask>, though the American government eventually succeeded in pressuring the <mask> government to deport him. <mask> encouraged large-scale gambling in Havana. In 1955, he announced that Cuba would grant a gaming license to anyone who invested US$1 million in a hotel or $200,000 in a new nightclub—and that the government would provide matching public funds for construction, a 10-year tax exemption, and waive duties on imported equipment and furnishings for new hotels. Each casino would pay the government $250,000 for the license, plus a percentage of the profits. The policy omitted background checks, as required for casino operations in the United States, which opened the door for casino investors with illegally obtained funds.Cuban contractors with the right connections made windfalls by importing, duty-free, more materials than needed for new hotels and selling the surplus to others. It was rumored that, besides the $250,000 to obtain a license, an additional "under the table" fee was sometimes required. Lansky became a prominent figure in Cuba's gambling operations, and exerted influence over <mask>'s casino policies. The Mafia's Havana Conference was held on December 22, 1946, at the Hotel Nacional de Cuba; this was the first full-scale meeting of American underworld leaders since the Chicago meeting in 1932. Lansky set about cleaning up the games at the Montmartre Club, which soon became the "place to be" in Havana. He also wanted to open a casino in the Hotel Nacional, the most elegant hotel in Havana. <mask> endorsed Lansky's idea over the objections of American expatriates such as Ernest Hemingway, and the renovated casino wing opened for business in 1955 with a show by Eartha Kitt.The casino was an immediate success. As the new hotels, nightclubs, and casinos opened, <mask> collected his share of the profits. Nightly, the "bagman" for his wife collected 10% of the profits at Santo Trafficante's casinos, the Sans Souci cabaret, and the casinos in the hotels Sevilla-Biltmore, Commodoro, Deauville, and Capri (partly owned by the actor George Raft). His take from the Lansky casinos—his prized Habana Riviera, the Hotel Nacional, the Montmartre Club, and others—was said to be 30%. Lansky was said to have personally contributed millions of

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 dollars per year to Batista's Swiss bank accounts. Support of U.S. business and government

In a manner that antagonized the Cuban people, the U.S. government used its influence to advance the interests of and increase the profits of the private American companies, which "dominated the island's economy". By the late 1950s, U.S. financial interests owned 90% of Cuban mines, 80% of its public utilities, 50% of its railways, 40% of its sugar production and 25% of its bank deposits—some $1 billion in total.According to historian Louis A. Pérez Jr., author of the book On Becoming Cuban, "Daily life had developed into a relentless degradation, with the complicity of political leaders and public officials who operated at the behest of American interests." As a symbol of this relationship, ITT Corporation, an American-owned multinational telephone company, presented <mask> with a Golden Telephone, as an "expression of gratitude" for the "excessive telephone rate increase", at least according to Senator John F. Kennedy, that <mask> granted at the urging of the U.S. government. Earl E.T. Smith, former U.S. Ambassador to Cuba, testified to the U.S. Senate in 1960 that, "Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president." In addition, nearly "all aid" from the U.S. to <mask>'s government was in the "form of weapons assistance", which "merely strengthened the <mask> dictatorship" and "completely failed to advance the economic welfare of the Cuban people". Such actions later "enabled Castro and the Communists to encourage the growing belief that America was indifferent to Cuban aspirations for a decent life."According to historian and author James S. Olson, the U.S. government essentially became a "co-conspirator" in the arrangement because of <mask>'s strong opposition to communism, which, in the rhetoric of the Cold War, seemed to maintain business stability and a pro-U.S. posture on the island. Thus, in the view of Olson, "The U.S. government had no difficulty in dealing with him, even if he was a hopeless despot." On October 6, 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy, in the midst of his campaign for the U.S. presidency, decried <mask>'s relationship with the U.S. government and criticized the Eisenhower administration for supporting him:

<mask> <mask> murdered 20,000 Cubans in seven years ... and he turned Democratic Cuba into a complete police state—destroying every individual liberty. Yet our aid to his regime, and the ineptness of our policies, enabled <mask> to invoke the name of the United States in support of his reign of terror. Administration spokesmen publicly praised <mask>—hailed him as a staunch ally and a good friend—at a time when <mask> was murdering thousands, destroying the last vestiges of freedom, and stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from the Cuban people, and we failed to press for free elections. <mask>, Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution

On July 26, 1953, just over a year after <mask>'s second coup, a small group of revolutionaries attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago. Government forces easily defeated the assault and jailed its leaders, while many others fled the country.The primary leader of the attack, Fidel Castro, was a young attorney who had run for parliament in the canceled 1952 elections. Although Castro was never officially nominated, he felt that <mask>'s coup had sidetracked what would have been a promising political career for him. In the wake of the Moncada assault, <mask> suspended constitutional guarantees and increasingly relied on police tactics in an attempt to "frighten the population through open displays of brutality." <mask> held an election in 1954, running as the candidate of a political coalition that included the Progressive Action Party, the Radical Union Party and the Liberal Party. The opposition divided into abstentionists and electoralists. The abstentionists favored boycotting the elections regardless of the circumstances in which they were held, whereas the electoralists sought certain rights and guarantees to participate. The CIA had predicted that <mask> would use any means necessary to ensure he won the election.<mask> lived up to their expectations, utilizing fraud and intimidation to secure his presidency. This led most of the other parties to boycott the elections. Former President Ramón Grau San Martín, leading the electoralist factions of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, participated through the political campaign but withdrew from the campaign days before election day, charging that his supporters had been terrorized. Thus <mask> was elected president with the support of 45.6% of registered voters. Despite the boycott, Grau received the support of 6.8% of those who voted. The remaining voters abstained. By late 1955, student riots and anti-Batista demonstrations had become frequent, and unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.These were dealt with through increasing repression. All youth were seen as suspected revolutionaries. Due to its continued opposition to Batista and the large amount of revolutionary activity taking place on its campus, the University of Havana was temporarily closed on November 30, 1956 (it did not reopen until 1959 under the first revolutionary government). On March 13, 1957, student leader José Antonio Echeverría was killed by police outside Radio Reloj in Havana after announcing that <mask> had been killed in a student attack on the Presidential Palace. In reality, <mask> survived, and the students of the Federation of University Students (FEU) and the Directorio (DR) who led the attack were killed in the response by the military and police. Castro quickly condemned the attack, since July 26 Movement had not participated in it. In April 1956, <mask> called popular military leader Col. Ramón Barquín back to Cuba from his post as military attaché to the United States.Believing Barquín would support his rule, <mask> promoted him to General. However, Barquín's Conspiración de los Puros (Conspiracy of the Pure) was already underway and had already progressed too far. On April 6, 1956, Barquín led hundreds of career officers in a coup attempt, but was frustrated by Lieutenant Ríos Morejón, who betrayed the plan. Barquín was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years on the Isle of Pines, while some officers were sentenced to death for treason. Many others were allowed to remain in the military without reprimand. The purge of the officer corps contributed to the inability of the Cuban army to successfully combat Castro and his guerrillas. <mask>'s police responded to increasing popular unrest by torturing and killing young men in the cities.However, his army was ineffective against the rebels based in the Sierra Maestra and Escambray Mountains. Another possible explanation for the failure to crush the rebellion was offered by author Carlos Alberto Montaner: "<mask> does not finish Fidel out of greed ... His is a government of thieves. To have this small guerrilla band in the mountains is to his advantage, so that he can order special defense expenditures that they can steal." <mask>'s rule became increasingly unpopular among the population, and the Soviet Union began to secretly support Castro. Some of <mask>'s generals also criticized him in later years, saying that <mask>'s excessive interference in his generals' military plans to defeat the rebels hampered Army morale and rendered all operations ineffective. In an effort to gather information about Castro's army, <mask>'s secret police pulled in people for questioning. Many innocent people were tortured by <mask>'s police, while suspects, including youth, were publicly executed as a warning to others who were considering joining the insurgency.Additionally, "Hundreds of mangled bodies were left hanging from lamp posts or dumped in the streets in a grotesque variation of the Spanish colonial practice of public executions." The brutal behavior backfired and increased support for the guerrillas. In 1958, 45 organizations signed an open letter supporting July 26 Movement, among them national bodies representing lawyers, architects, dentists, accountants, and social workers. Castro, who had originally relied on the support of the poor, was now gaining the backing of the influential middle classes. The United States supplied <mask> with planes, ships, tanks and the latest technology, such as napalm, which he used against the insurgency. However, in March 1958, the U.S. announced it would stop selling arms to the Cuban government. Soon after, the U.S. imposed an arms embargo, further weakening the government's position, although land owners and others who benefited from the government continued to support <mask>.Elections were scheduled for June 1958, as required by the Constitution, but were delayed until November 1958, when Castro and the revolutionaries called for a general strike and placed several bombs in civilian areas of the country. Three main candidates ran in the elections: Carlos Márquez Sterling of the Party of the Free People, former President Ramón Grau San Martín of the Cuban Revolutionary Party-Authentic, and Andrés Rivero Agüero of the government coalition. According to Carlos Márquez Sterling, all three were threatened by Castro, and several assassination attempts were made on both Ramón Grau San Martín and Carlos Márquez Sterling. On Election Day, estimates on the turnout range from 30 to 50% in the areas where voting took place, which did not include parts of Las Villas and Oriente, which were controlled by Castro. Márquez Sterling also stated that the initial results were favorable to him, but the military ordered the counting to stop as they changed the actual ballots for fraudulent ones. However, Grau San Martín, as he had previously done in the 1954 elections, withdrew his candidacy within a few hours of the election day. <mask> declared Rivero Agüero the winner.On December 11, 1958, U.S. Ambassador Earl Smith visited <mask> at his hacienda, Kuquine. There, Smith informed him that the United States could no longer support his government. <mask> asked if he could go to his house in Daytona Beach. The ambassador denied the request and suggested that he seek asylum in Spain instead. On December 31, 1958, at a New Year's Eve party, <mask> told his cabinet and top officials that he was leaving the country. After seven years, <mask> knew his presidency was over, and he fled the island in the early morning.At 3:00 a.m. on January 1, 1959, <mask> boarded a plane at Camp Columbia with 40 of his supporters and immediate family members and flew to Ciudad Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. A second plane flew out of Havana later in the night, carrying ministers, officers and the Governor of Havana. <mask> took along a personal fortune of more than $300 million that he had amassed through graft and payoffs. Critics accused <mask> and his supporters of taking as much as $700 million in fine art and cash with them as they fled into exile. As news of the fall of <mask>'s government spread through Havana, The New York Times described jubilant crowds pouring into the streets and automobile horns honking. The black and red flag of July 26 Movement waved on cars and buildings. The atmosphere was chaotic.On January 8, 1959, Castro and his army rolled victoriously into Havana. Already denied entry to the United States, <mask> sought asylum in Mexico, which also refused him. Portugal's leader António Salazar allowed him to settle there on the condition that he completely abstain from politics. Historians and primary documents estimate between hundreds and 20,000 Cubans were killed under the <mask> regime. Personal life

Marriages and children
<mask> married Elisa Godínez y Gómez (1900–1993) on July 10, 1926. They had three children: Mirta Caridad (1927–2010), Elisa Aleida (born 1933), and <mask> Rubén <mask> Godínez (1933–2007). By all accounts, she was devoted to him and their children throughout their marriage, and their daughter remembered them as a "happy, young couple" until their sudden divorce.Much to her surprise, he divorced her in October 1945 against her will in order to marry his longtime mistress Marta Fernandez Miranda. He married Marta Fernández Miranda (1923–2006) on November 28, 1945, shortly after his divorce became final, and they had five children: Jorge Luis (born 1942), Roberto Francisco (born 1947), Carlos Manuel (1950–1969), <mask> José (born 1953) and Marta María <mask> Fernández (born 1957). Extramarital affairs
<mask> was an inveterate philanderer who engaged in numerous extramarital affairs throughout his first marriage. He cheated on his first wife with multiple women, and his children eventually became aware of his relationships. His first wife, who supported her husband throughout his political career and found his philandering humiliating, never considered divorce and tolerated his multiple affairs. However, <mask> became enamored with a teenage schoolgirl, Marta Fernandez Miranda, who became his longtime mistress. He filed divorce papers shortly before his first grandchild was born.His first wife and their children were astounded and devastated by the divorce. In 1935, he fathered an illegitimate daughter, Fermina Lázara <mask> Estévez, whom he supported financially. Biographers suggest that <mask> may have fathered several more children out of wedlock. Death
After he fled to Portugal, <mask> lived in Madeira, then later in Estoril. He died of a heart attack on August 6, 1973, at Guadalmina, Spain, two days before a team of assassins from Castro's Cuba allegedly were planning to assassinate him. Marta Fernández Miranda de <mask>, <mask>'s widow, died on October 2, 2006. <mask>, her son, says that she died at her home in West Palm Beach, Florida.She had suffered from Alzheimer's disease. She was buried with her husband and son in the Cementerio Sacramental de San Isidro in Madrid. In popular culture
Actors who have portrayed <mask> in film include Tito Alba in The Godfather Part II (1974), Wolfe Morris in Cuba (1979) and Juan Fernández de Alarcón in The Lost City (2005). In literature and movies, <mask>'s regime is commonly referred to as the "greens" (opposite the Communist "reds"), because of the green uniforms his soldiers wore. In Cuban post-revolution books, documentaries and movies <mask>'s troops were are also referred to as the "helmets" or "casquitos" (in Spanish), because of the helmets they used. In Ubisoft's “Far Cry 6” it has been confirmed that  the antagonist dictator “El Presidente” Antón Castillo was heavily based on

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<mask> (, September 21, 1876 – August 31, 1935) was an American journalist, poet, novelist, playwright, translator, Jewish activist, and diplomat. He was the United States Ambassador to Albania and was the founder of Der Tog, the Jewish daily newspaper. Biography
<mask> was born in Vladislavov, Russian Empire (today in Lithuania). <mask>'s parents were David and <mask>. His brother was a writer, Hillel, or <mask>. He also had two older sisters named Helen and Flora. When he was 6 years old, his parents moved to Mohilev, on the Dnieper river in present-day Belarus.<mask> emigrated to the United States in 1893 first arriving in Chicago. His father, a Talmudic scholar, became sick with tuberculosis shortly after they arrived in the United States. This illness required <mask> and his siblings to work in sweatshops to support the family. He married Sophie Friedman in 1901. They had four children together, <mask> Willheim, <mask> Gitlin, <mask> Nash, and <mask>. In 1893, he emigrated with his family to the United States, where he completed his education. He married Sophie Friedman on December 31, 1901.They had three daughters, <mask> Gitlin, <mask> Nash, <mask> Willheim; and a son <mask>, who became a long-time newspaper editor in Binghamton, New York. <mask> covered the Russian Revolution in 1917 for the New York Herald, which led him to both Siberia and Japan with the American Expeditionary Forces. He covered the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 for the same newspaper. <mask> died in Sheffield, Massachusetts on August 31, 1935. He was survived by his wife Sophie, and his brother the writer Hillel <mask>. Legacy
Descendants include Peter Nash, a physician and poet; Joyce Gitlin (Sartwell) Abell, a teacher and farmer; Crispin Sartwell, a philosophy professor and journalist; Boaz Nash, a physicist; and Joan Weber, a visual artist. Journalism
<mask> was prolific as a journalist throughout his life, with his first stories published in 1900.He contributed, among others, to the New York Evening Post, The Nation, The Independent, and Ainslee's Magazine. He was the founder and editor of The Day and an editor of The Jewish Tribune and of the Jewish Daily Bulletin. As a correspondent of the New York Times, <mask> regularly travelled to Europe. In 1915, he went to Europe to document the situation of Jews in the war zones. Victoria Woeste writes:
<mask>, a novelist and poet of some repute, won acclaim for his accomplishments in investigative journalism in the 1910s. He was driven 'to lay bare the operations of Russian totalitarianism, whether Czarist or Bolshevist, especially in so far as it affected the fate of Russian Jews.' His reporting revealed 'the involvement of the Russian secret police in the case of Mendel Beilis, the Jew wrongfully accused of the ritual murder of a gentile boy' in 1911, and he also documented social and political conditions in Russia before and after the Communist Revolution.<mask> later translated Beilis's Story of My Sufferings (see translations, below). In the 1920s <mask> wrote for the New York American and the Brooklyn Eagle, often reporting from Europe and writing frequently about Russia. Secret correspondence between the Kaiser and the Tsar
In 1918, <mask> revealed a secret correspondence  between Tsar Nicholas II and Kaiser Wilhelm II and published it in a book, The Willy-Nicky Correspondence, published by Knopf with a foreword by Theodore Roosevelt. <mask> summarized the contents as follows:

During my recent stay in Russia I learned that shortly after the Tsar had been deposed, a series of intimate, secret telegrams were discovered in the secret archives of Nicholas Romanoff at Tsarskoye Selo. . . The complete correspondence, consisting of sixty-five telegrams exchanged between the Emperors during the years 1904, 1905, 1906 and 1907, forms an amazing picture of international diplomacy of duplicity and violence, painted by the men responsible for the greatest war in the world's history. The documents, not intended for the eyes of even the Secretaries of State of the two Emperors, constitute the most remarkable indictment of the system of governments headed by these imperial correspondents.He remarked that "the Kaiser is exposed as a master intriguer and Mephistophelian plotter for German domination of the world. The former Tsar is revealed as a capricious weakling, a characterless, colourless nonentity." The two, <mask> wrote, "both talked for peace and plotted against it." In 1915, <mask> published a book, La Rekta Gibulo, in the so-called universal language Esperanto. It is a translation of the story "The Straight Hunchback" which comes from <mask>'s In the Gates of Israel. Interviews
<mask> interviewed many of the most eminent people of his time, including Leo Tolstoy, Bernard Shaw, Auguste Rodin, Henri Bergson, Pope Benedict XV, Peter Kropotkin, Arthur Schnitzler, Leon Trotsky, Chaim Weizmann, Havelock Ellis, Romain Rolland, Albert Einstein, and Woodrow Wilson. These interviews were gathered in several books, including With Master Minds: Interviews by <mask> and Celebrities of Our Times.Translations, poetry, plays, short stories
<mask> translated a number of important literary works, by figures such as Maxim Gorky, Leonid Andreyev, Leo Tolstoy, and Ivan Turgenev, from Russian to English. His own plays The Mandarin and The Right to Kill, were presented on Broadway. In addition, he published poems (including those collected in The Flight of Time and Other Poems [1899]), short stories (including those collected in In the Gates of Israel: Stories of the Jews [1902]), and a novel (Contrite Hearts, 1903). Politics and diplomacy
In the early 1910s, <mask> advocated liberal immigration policies and was a member of the Democratic National Committee, working to elect Woodrow Wilson in 1912. <mask> met Herbert Hoover at the Paris Peace Conference and supported his bid for the presidency in 1928. Soon thereafter, <mask> published Herbert Hoover: The Man Who Brought America to The World. In 1930 Hoover appointed <mask> as the United States minister to Albania, a position he held until 1933.During this appointment, he helped put into place several treaties between the U.S. and Albania, and received an award from King Zog for his service to Albania, the Grand Cordon of the Order of Skanderbeg. Refutation of the Protocols and lawsuit against Henry Ford
In 1921, responding to Henry Ford's printing of 500,000 copies of the notorious anti-Semitic forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as well as a series of anti-Semitic articles under the title The International Jew in Ford's newspaper The Dearborn Independent, <mask> published the book History of a Lie, a demonstration of The Protocols' spurious origins. At the same time Ford was being lauded as an anti-Semite hero in Europe, he was confronted with another lawsuit in America. This one came from <mask>, the same man who had helped to expose The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion as a forgery. In the August 20, 1921 issue of the Independent, <mask> had been identified as the source . . . who revealed to Ford the supposed worldwide Jewish conspiracy. "He told me most of the things that I have printed," Ford claimed in the article, which labeled <mask> "the messenger boy of international Jewry."An outraged <mask> denied the allegations and, in 1923, sued Ford for $200,000. He told the press that he was doing a public service by allowing the American people to get a "true picture" of Ford's "diseased imagination." <mask> was represented by Samuel Untermyer. The suit languished because <mask> and his representatives were never able to serve Ford with a subpoena; Ford had many allies among the political and law enforcement officials of Michigan and elsewhere, as well as a large private security force. <mask> and Untermeyer did, however, succeed in getting New York state officials to agree to impound any copies of The Independent that entered the state. The extent to which this was enforced is not clear. Other libel suits against Ford were pursued by Louis Marshall and Aaron Sapiro, though there was tension among these figures over which suit was most viable.In response to the suits, as well as the fear that the negative publicity was hurting automobile sales, Ford issued an 'Apology to Jews,' the sincerity of which is a matter of controversy. These cases are significant in the history of the jurisprudence pertaining to group libel and hate speech. In 1935, the Nazi Party consolidated power in Germany and revived The Protocols yet again - and requiring all German schoolchildren to read it. <mask> published another and more elaborate refutation, The Truth About the 'Protocols of Zion' - A Complete Exposure. <mask> died later that year. Correspondence
<mask>'s correspondence, housed at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research at the Center for Jewish History in New York, includes letters to and from many of the most eminent people of that period in various walks of life, including Mark Twain Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain), Sholem Aleichem, Andrew Carnegie, Leo Tolstoy, William Howard Taft, George Bernard Shaw, Max Nordau, Louis Brandeis, John D. Rockefeller, Louis Marshall, Israel Zangwill, Henri Bergson, Arthur Brisbane, Mordecai Kaplan, Henry Morgenthau, Sr., Gifford Pinchot, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franz Oppenheimer, Felix Frankfurter, Warren G. Harding, William Randolph Hearst, Herbert Hoover, Constantin Stanislavski, Leon Trotsky, Arthur Balfour, Thomas Edison, Albert Einstein, Henry Ford, Arthur Goldberg, Adolph Ochs, Romain Rolland, Julius Rosenwald, Benjamin Cardozo,  Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn, and Franklin Roosevelt. Jewish activism
<mask> worked with organizations such as ORT, the Central Relief Committee, the American Jewish Relief Committee, and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee to improve conditions for Jews in Europe.He also served as secretary of the American Jewish Committee, and as an officer of the Zionist Organization of America. <mask> advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine and wrote about the politics of the Middle East and the settlement of Palestine. Bibliography
Books by <mask> -
 The Flight of Time and Other Poems (1899)
 In the Gates of Israel: Stories of the Jews (short stories) (New York: Taylor, 1902)
 Contrite Hearts (novel) (New York: A. Wessels Company, 1903)
 With Master Minds: Interviews by <mask> (New York: Universal Series Publishing, 1913)
 La rekta Gibulo (book in Esperanto), (Stanyan, Presanto [Montpelier, VT], 1915)
 The Willy-Nicky Correspondence: Being the Secret and Intimate Telegrams Exchanged Between the Kaiser and the Tsar (reportage; with a foreword by Theodore Roosevelt) (New York: Knopf, 1918)
 Celebrities of Our Time (interviews) (New York: Joseph Lawren, 1924)
 History of a Lie (New York: Ogilvie, 1921)
 Twenty-Five Years (1925)
 The Road to Peace: Interviews With Famous Americans and Europeans (New York: Frank-Maurice, 1926)
 Herbert Hoover: The Man Who Brought America to the World (Herald-Nathan Press, 1928)
 Can We Abolish War? (New York: Broadview, 1935)
 The Truth About the 'Protocols of Zion' - A Complete Exposure (New York: Covici Friede, 1935)
 The League of Men (listed by WorldCat as '1930s')

Translations -
 Leonid Andreyev, The Seven Who Were Hanged  (J.G. Ogilvie, 1909)
 Leonid Andreyev, Anathema (Macmillan, 1910)
 Leonid Andreyev, The Crushed Flower and Other Stories (Knopf, 1916)
 Leonid Andreyev, The Waltz of the Dogs (J.G. Little and Ives, 1922)
 Leonid Andreyev, Samson in Chains (Brentano's, 1923)
 Leonid Andreyev, Katerina (Brentano's, 1922)
 Leonid Andreyev, Satan's Diary (Boni and Liveright, 1920)
 Leonid Andreyev, The Sorrows of Belgium (Macmillan, 1922)
 Mendel Beilis, The Story of My Sufferings (1926)
 Maxim Gorky, The Man Who Was Afraid (Foma Gordayev) (Bee De Pub. Co., 1928)
 Fritz Gotwald, Salto mortale : A play in three acts (1929)
 N N Evreinov, The Chief Thing; a Comedy for Some, a Drama for Others (Pub.for the Theatre guild by Doubleday, Page & Co., 1926)
 Georg Kaiser, The Phantom Lover (Brentano's, 1928)
 Ludwig Thoma, Morality: a Comedy in Three Acts (1905)
 Leo Tolstoy, The Forged Coupon and Other Stories (J.S. Ogilvie, 1912)
 Lev Urvantsov, Vera, a Drama in Four Acts (1922)
 Nikolai Nikolayevich Yevreinov, The Radio kiss; A Comedy of Tomorrow in Three Acts (no date)

References

External links

 Note: two personalities were evidently interconnected in IBDb. This <mask> is related only to the records about stagings in 1911 – 1929. Books authored and translated by <mask> at Google Play
 <mask> at Jewish Enclyclopedia website
 More about Neustadt-Schirwindt where <mask> was born
 Papers at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research

1876 births
1935 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to Albania
American newspaper editors
American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
American reporters and correspondents
American translators
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Jewish American writers
Lithuanian Jews
People from Kudirkos Naumiestis
People from Suwałki Governorate
Protocols of the Elders of Zion
Russian–English translators
State Political Directorate
Zionist activists
Yiddish-language writers
20th-century American diplomats

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<mask> (born <mask> and also known as <mask>.; December 7, 1888 – January 18, 1991) was a soldier and Republican politician from New York State. Born into a family long active in the state, he served in the United States House of Representatives from 1920 to 1945 and during that time was a prominent opponent of United States intervention in foreign affairs and was a critic of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. When <mask> celebrated his 102nd birthday in 1990, he was the oldest living American who had served in Congress. Family and early life

<mask> was born in Garrison, New York, to the former Republican U.S. Representative <mask> and the former Emily Mann. His paternal grandfather, <mask>, was United States Secretary of State under the Republican President Ulysses S. Grant. The father of the first <mask>, <mask> (born 1758), was an officer in the Continental Army and was later appointed adjutant general of New York by Governor George Clinton. The wife of <mask> was Elizabeth Stuyvesant, a descendant of Peter Stuyvesant, who was the Dutch colonial governor of New York.Through his mother, Emily Mann, <mask> <mask> was also a descendant of Thomas Hooker, who settled Hartford, Connecticut, in 1636. <mask>'s uncle Elias Mann was a judge and three-term mayor of Troy, New York. <mask>'s great-grandmother, Susan Livingston, married Count Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz in 1800 after the death of her husband, John Kean (who had been a delegate to the Continental Congress from South Carolina.) A soldier and statesman, Niemcewicz was credited with writing the Polish Constitution of 1791. John Kean and Susan Livingston's great-grandson, and thus a relative of <mask>, was Thomas Kean, who was elected governor of New Jersey in 1982. A cousin of <mask> <mask> (also named <mask>) was a sergeant in Company L of Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders", and the first American soldier killed in action during the Spanish–American War. <mask> II had his ten-year-old son's name legally changed from <mask> <mask> to just <mask> to honor his fallen cousin (he and <mask> <mask> never met).<mask> was married in 1921 to Grace Chapin Rogers (1885–1960), daughter of onetime Brooklyn Mayor Alfred C. Chapin (1848–1936). Their son, <mask> IV, was a thirteen-term U.S. Representative from New York, holding office from 1969 to 1995. The <mask>es' daughter Lillian Veronica <mask> married David Whitmire Hearst, son of William Randolph Hearst. Education
During his childhood, <mask> attended Chateau de Lancy, a Swiss school near Geneva, which his father also attended in 1860; there, the younger <mask> learned French and played soccer. He spent summers with his family in Bavaria. He began his U.S. boarding school education at Fay School in Southborough, Massachusetts, and he later attended St. Mark's School, a preparatory school also in Southborough. <mask> later described himself as a "B student" but successful in several different sports.Graduating from St. Mark's in 1906, <mask> went on to attend Harvard College, class of 1910. There, he played on Harvard's football team as a tackle and was a member of the Porcellian Club. Standing  and weighing , "Ham" <mask> was highly successful as a football player; he was twice an All-America and in 1954 was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He was the only Harvard man on Yale graduate Walter Camp's "All time" "All America" team. After graduating from Harvard, <mask> continued his involvement in football. He donated $5000 for several awards to Harvard football players; and organized the Harvard Law School football team, which played exhibition games with other colleges around the country. In 1909, at 20, <mask> graduated early from Harvard with a cum laude degree in history and government.He declined an offer to teach history at Harvard and instead attended Harvard Law School. He left law school before graduating, and took a job in a New York City insurance office. <mask> was a Progressive member of the New York State Assembly (Putnam Co.) in 1914, 1915 and 1916. Military service

Prior to the United States entering the First World War, <mask> was captain of Company K, 15th New York Infantry. When the 15th was mobilized for Federal service, <mask> accepted an offer from Col. William Hayward to retain his position in the 369th Infantry (as the 15th New York was re-designated following mobilization). The 369th was a unit of African American enlisted men with white officers (and a few African American officers at the start of the war) which came to be known as the "Harlem Hellfighters." The 369th Infantry was assigned to the 93d Division.The summer after President Wilson's declaration of war against Germany (in April 1917), <mask> and about two thousand soldiers began training at Camp Whitman (in New York). In October 1917, the unit was ordered to Camp Wadsworth (in South Carolina) for further training. In November 1917, the regiment boarded the USS Pocahontas, destined for France, although shortly thereafter the ship returned to shore due to engine problems. After another aborted departure, the ship left on December 13, 1917. Despite colliding with another ship and not having a destroyer escort to protect against German submarines, the regiment reached France. (<mask> complained to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt about the lack of an escort.) <mask> and his unit landed in Brest, France on December 26; the 369th Infantry was placed under the control of the French army by U.S. General John J. Pershing.Altogether, the 369th Infantry spent 191 days on the front lines, which was the longest of any American regiment. It was also the first Allied regiment to reach the Rhine River. <mask> received the Silver Star and the French War Cross 1914–1918. In addition, <mask> and his sister Janet, who had been a nurse near the front lines, were both later inducted into the French Legion of Honor for their wartime service. <mask> was promoted to major on March 13, 1919, and returned to the United States on April 25 of the same year. He was discharged from the Army on May 14, 1919. He continued as a member of the Officers' Reserve Corps until the 1940s, and attained the rank of colonel.Service in the U.S. Congress

First elected to fill the vacancy caused by Edmund Platt's resignation, <mask> was a member of the US House of Representatives from November 2, 1920, to January 3, 1945, having been defeated for re-election in 1944. In nearly 25 years as a US Representative, <mask> would become known as a strong anticommunist and an acerbic critic of Franklin Roosevelt, which raised his profile and made him an ally of the anti-Roosevelt members of Congress. He was opposed to Roosevelt's New Deal. A non-interventionist until after the attack on Pearl Harbor, <mask> was also responsible for a number of legislative and diplomatic moves aimed at helping Jews out of Adolf Hitler's Germany. On December 8, 1941, he made the first speech in Congress asking for a declaration of war against Japan, but later said he never would have asked for it had he been aware of what Roosevelt did to provoke Japan into the attack. His unapologetic opposition to the New Deal provoked Roosevelt into including him with two other Capitol Hill opponents in a rollicking taunt that became a staple of Roosevelt's 1940 re-election campaign: "Martin, Barton and <mask>." Finally, in part under the influence of New York Governor Thomas Dewey, <mask>'s congressional career ended when he won the Republican Party primary in his district but lost the general election in 1944.Upon his 1944 defeat, after 26 years in Congress, <mask> stated, "I particularly wanted to be elected to serve as chairman of the rules committee to stop the march toward communism and totalitarianism in America. I have no regrets whatever, as I waged the strongest possible fight that I knew how." In 1936 <mask> succeeded his father as an hereditary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. Unknown Soldier of World War I and Tomb of the Unknowns
On December 21, 1920, <mask> introduced Resolution 67 of the 66th Congress, which provided for the return to the United States the remains of an unknown American soldier killed in France during World War I and for interment of his remains in a hallowed tomb to be constructed outside the Memorial Amphitheater in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, across the Potomac River from the nation's capital. Congress approved the resolution on March 4, 1921. On October 23, 1921, at Châlons-sur-Marne, France, about 90 miles from Paris, remains of an unknown soldier were selected from among four caskets containing remains of unknown American soldiers killed in France. The selected remains were returned to the United States and interred at the tomb site in Arlington on November 11, 1921, in solemn ceremony following a state funeral procession from the US Capitol building, where the World War I Unknown had lain in state.The tomb, completed in 1937, came to be known as the Tomb of the Unknowns (Soldiers), which is today guarded around the clock daily by elite sentries of the US Army's historic ceremonial but combat-ready 3rd Infantry Regiment—"The Old Guard." The tomb and the unknown soldiers of three US wars interred there today is thought to be the most hallowed military site in the United States and may well be <mask>'s greatest legacy to the nation. Lodge-Fish Resolution
In June 1922, he introduced the Lodge-Fish Resolution to illustrate American support for the British policy in Palestine per the 1917 Balfour Declaration. Fish Committee
<mask> was a fervent anticommunist; in a 1931 article, he described communism as "the most important, the most vital, the most far-reaching, and the most dangerous issue in the world" and believed that there was extensive communist influence in the United States. On May 5, 1930, he introduced House Resolution 180, which proposed to establish a committee to investigate communist activities in the United States; the resulting committee, commonly known as the Fish Committee, undertook extensive investigations of people and organizations suspected of being involved with or supporting communist activities in the United States. Among the committee's targets were the American Civil Liberties Union and Communist Party presidential candidate William Z. Foster.The committee recommended granting the US Department of Justice more authority to investigate communists and the strengthening of immigration and deportation laws to keep communists out of the United States. In 1933, <mask> was on a committee that sponsored the publication in the United States of a translation of a Nazi book called Communism in Germany, by Adolf Ehrt. In the prefatory note, the committee said it they did not publish it as a defense of anti-Semitism or the Nazi regime but because it believed that the struggle between Nazis and communists in Germany provided a lesson about using "effective measures" to defend against communism. The book claimed that Jews were responsible for communism in Germany and that only Adolf Hitler could stop it. Under

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 pressure from American Jewish and liberal groups, <mask> and the other committee members disavowed the book. <mask> also distributed the long-debunked Protocols of the Elders of Zion from his congressional office. Isolationism
<mask> was touted by the Germans as a friendly American ally.Time magazine once termed him "the Nation's No. 1 isolationist." On August 14, 1939, <mask>, president of the US delegation to the Interparliamentary Union Congress conference in Oslo, Norway, met with Joachim Ribbentrop. <mask> flew to Oslo in Ribbentrop's private plane. <mask>, a staunch opponent of Roosevelt, advocated better relations with Nazi Germany and hoped to solve the "Danzig question" during the conference in Norway. "Stepping out of Joachim von Ribbentrop's plane in 1939, <mask> opined that Germany's claims were 'just. <mask> and his faction of the Republican Party received material support from the Germans to promote isolationism and non-interventionism in the United States, particularly at the 1940 Republican National Convention

In 1940, just after the presidential election, <mask> sent a telegram to Roosevelt which read: "Congratulations.I pledge my support for national defense ... and to keep America out of foreign wars." In 1941, a judiciary panel investigating the activities of Nazi agents in the US, sent officers to the Washington headquarters of an anti-British organization, the Islands for War Debts Committee, to seize eight bags of franked congressional mail containing speeches by isolationist members of Congress. George Hill, <mask>'s chief of staff, had the mail taken to <mask>'s office storeroom just prior to their arrival. A grand jury was convened and summoned Hill to explain why he had been so solicitous about the Islands for War Debts Committee's mail and his close association with George Sylvester Viereck, a Nazi propaganda agent. (Viereck would later be convicted of violating the Foreign Agents Registration Act and for having subsidized the Islands for War Debts Committee.) Hill said that he had not sent for the mail and did not know Viereck. The jury promptly indicted Hill for perjury.Shortly after the indictment, <mask> defended Hill claiming, "George Hill is 100% O.K., and I'll back George Hill to the limit on anything." During the trial, Hill had explained that Viereck visited Capitol Hill in 1940 and arranged for wholesale distribution of congressional speeches attacking the administration's foreign policy. After hearing that a jury had reached its verdict and anticipating a conviction, <mask> issued a statement: "I am very sorry to learn that George Hill, a disabled, decorated veteran of the World War and a clerk in my office, has been convicted of perjury.... Mr. Hill is of English ancestry.... He had an obsession against our involvement in war." Twenty hours later, the jury convicted Hill. Less than two weeks before the 1942 midterm congressional election, columnist Drew Pearson's nationally syndicated column (Washington Merry-Go-Round) described in detail how in 1939, <mask> had received over $3,100 in cash from a source with German ties. Civil rights
<mask> continued to argue for civil rights of African Americans, particularly in the military.Three times (1922, 1937, and 1940), <mask> joined with other Republicans and northern Democrats to pass anti-lynching bills. Each time, the bills passed the House, but Southern Democrats in the Senate blocked their passage and prevented them from becoming law. In 1940, he succeeded in adding an amendment to the Military Appropriations Bill of 1941. The law included funding for increased manpower, equipment, and training as the United States prepared for possible entry into World War II. <mask>'s amendment banned racial discrimination in the selection and training of military personnel and was later seen as an important step leading to desegregation of the military. Roosevelt articulated the Four Freedoms in his 1941 State of the Union speech. In 1944, <mask> recalled his own World War I experiences and Roosevelt's Four Freedoms remarks in advocating for equal treatment of African Americans in the military: "Fourteen millions of loyal Americans have the right to expect that in a war for the advancement of the 'Four Freedoms' their sons be given the same right as any other American to train, to serve, and to fight in combat units in defense of the United States in this greatest war in its history."Britain's campaign to defeat <mask>
The British Security Coordination (BSC) focused a great deal of effort attempting to influence US Representatives through front groups, campaigning, and agents of influence. In 1940, BSC agents ran the Nonpartisan Committee to Defeat <mask> to "put the fear of God into every isolationist senator and congressman." The committee raised substantial sums of money for <mask>'s opponent, co-ordinated several media attacks, created false charges of wrongdoing just before elections, and helped to distribute books that charged <mask> with disloyalty. The committee as much as possible tried to make attacks on <mask> appear to originate from his district, but historical documents indicate that most attacks originated outside of his district. <mask> survived the attack in 1940 but won his election with less than half the margin of victory that he had earned two years earlier. Wartime elections
In the 1942 election, <mask>, like other former isolationists, was considered vulnerable. The Orange and Putnam district, which <mask> represented, had begun to turn against him.Polls predicted, incorrectly, that <mask> would not even win the Republican primary. For the first time in his 22 years of political campaigning, he opened campaign headquarters. Soon thereafter, he was repudiated by the popular Republican gubernatorial candidate, Thomas Dewey. However, the November 1942 election occurred when voters were impatient for the battlefield victories that would later come, and <mask> defeated his Democratic opponent by 4,000 votes. However, reapportionment, which took effect in 1944, fragmented what had been his 26th District. That year, he ran in the 29th District, which no longer included his home county of Putnam but included one county (Orange) from his previous district and three new counties. Augustus W. Bennet defeated <mask> by approximately 5,000 votes.As Time magazine reported, "In New York, to the nation's delight, down went rabid anti-Roosevelt isolationist <mask>, after 24 years in Congress. His successor: liberal Augustus W. Bennet, Newburgh lawyer." About his exit from Congress, <mask> said in his election-night concession speech that "my defeat should be largely credited to Communistic and Red forces from New York City backed by a large slush fund probably exceeding $250,000." In a farewell speech before the house on December 11, 1944, he stated, "It took most of the New Deal Administration, half of Moscow, $400,000, and Governor Dewey to defeat me." Embittered by his defeat, <mask> promptly sued Robert F. Cutler, the executive secretary of the group Good Government Committee for libel, seeking $250,000 in damages for advertisements depicting <mask> as a Nazi sympathizer. The ads also depicted <mask> associating with the "American Führer," Fritz Kuhn. He would later discontinue the lawsuit without a settlement.Later life
Although he pledged in Congress on December 8, 1941, that he would volunteer to serve in the Army, "preferably with colored troops," to avenge the attack on Pearl Harbor,

<mask> was one of the witnesses who appeared in the 1981 Warren Beatty film Reds, which depicts the life of journalist John Reed and his experiences during Russia's 1917 October Revolution, which led to the creation of a communist state in Russia and the Soviet Union. As part of producing the film, the crew interviewed in the 1970s several individuals who had witnessed the events of 1917. The interviews were used throughout the film to describe places and events and to bridge transitions between the scenes. Death and burial
<mask> died in Cold Spring, New York, on January 18, 1991. He was buried at Saint Philip's Church Cemetery in Garrison, New York. Ancestors and descendants
Although he was the third <mask> in direct line in his family, like his father and his son, he was known as <mask> Jr. during his time in Congress. His grandson has also been known as <mask> <mask>, and was publisher of the liberal magazine The Nation before making his own unsuccessful run for Congress as "<mask> Jr." in 1994.This grandson is also referred to as <mask> V. <mask> <mask> married his fourth and last wife, Lydia Ambrogio <mask> on September 9, 1988, and they remained married until his death. She died in Port Jervis on January 12, 2015. Works
Books
 George Washington in the Highlands, or Some Unwritten History. Newburgh, NY: Newburgh News, 1932. The Red Plotters. New York: Domestic and Foreign Affairs Publishers, 1947. The Challenge of World Communism.Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1946. FDR: The Other Side of the Coin: How We Were Tricked Into World War II. New York: Vantage Press, 1976. .
 Lafayette in America During and After the Revolutionary War and Other Essays on Franco-American Relations. New York: Vantage Press, 1976. / . New York State: The Battleground of the Revolutionary War. New York: Vantage Press, 1976./ . Tragic Deception: FDR and America's Involvement in World War II. Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair, 1983. / . <mask>: Memoir of an American Patriot. Chicago: Regnery Publishing, 1991. / .Public addresses
 "The Republican Party Keeps Faith With Lincoln." February 13, 1928. Address at Lincoln Club of St. Paul, Minnesota. Further reading
 <mask>, Stuyvesant. Ancestors of <mask> and Julia Ursin Niemcewicz Kean, his wife. New York: The Evening Post, 1929. See also
 List of members of the American Legion
 List of centenarians (politicians and civil servants)

References

External links

Interview for The Great Depression, 1990.Washington University Libraries, Film and Media Archive, Henry Hampton Collection. |-

1888 births
1991 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Activists for African-American civil rights
All-American college football players
American anti-war activists
American centenarians
American football tackles
United States Army personnel of World War I
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Fay School alumni
<mask> III
Founders of lineage societies
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Crimson football players
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Members of the New York State Assembly
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
Men centenarians
Military personnel from New York (state)
New York (state) Progressives (1912)
New York (state) Republicans
Non-interventionism
Old Right (United States)
Politicians from Putnam County, New York
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Silver Star
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
St. Mark's School (Massachusetts) alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army

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<mask> (1843 – 12 March 1911), also known as Jacob to his contemporaries, was a successful businessman and prominent Roman Catholic Church philanthropist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Singapore, Thailand (then called Siam) and China. He played a major role in financing the construction of major Roman Catholic infrastructure in Singapore, Bangkok and China, which is still in use today. Life

<mask> was born in the South Chinese Guangdong province coastal town of Shantou (formerly Swatow) in 1843 in a Teochew family. Due to financial difficulties his family sent 2 sons to Singapore in search of work. <mask>, arriving in Singapore as a 16-year-old in 1859, had originally worked as a cook, and later as a clerical assistant at the French Roman Catholic religious order Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP) headquarters in Oxley Road, Singapore, from the 1850s. It was during his employ as a young man that the residing parish priest Fr Patria recognised promise in <mask> and advised the young man to relocate to Bangkok in Siam to start up a business venture. According to family sources the Roman Catholic Church extended a generous loan to <mask> in order for him to see the plan through.By 1872, <mask> established the retail/import-export firm  Kiam Hoa Heng  along the east bank of the Chao Phraya river in Bangkok. He did so with a childhood friend and now business partner Mr. Joseph Chan Teck Hee (1845–1930). It was from their import-export business based in Bangkok,  Kiam Hoa Heng  and in 1883  Buan Hoa Seng  in Singapore were set up. The Singapore side of this operation was overseen by Mr. John Goh Ah Seng (1851–1916). In the 1880s, Kiam Hoa Heng received royal Siamese patronage from King Chulalongkorn himself. The story goes that one day a man walked into his shop with an entourage of people. No one knew who he was but one employee did recognise this person as the King.<mask> was at the local church for his daily afternoon prays and so missed this visit. After the visit the owner was invited to the royal palace to receive a plaque signifying royal patronage. According to the Miramar shipping index website, <mask> commissioned a 1,100 ton powered ship, the 'Ban Hong Liong' in 1906. The ship was later sold and played a prominent role as a transport and logistics ship for British forces during the second World War. <mask> <mask> died on 12 March 1911 from complications arising from blood poisoning due to an infection. His body was transported via steam ship from Bangkok to Singapore for burial. He was buried in a cemetery behind Singapore's Presidential Istana (Palace) which was exhumed in 1970 to make way for a park.His marble tombstone and body are now interred at the Choa Chu Kang Cemetery in Singapore. By the second decade of the 20th century, the <mask> family network began linking up with other prominent Roman Catholic Chinese philanthropist families such as the Wee (Ng) family, headed by David Wee Cheng Soon (1875–1944), who contributed heavily to the construction of the Church of St Theresa in 1929 (Singapore), the St Anthony's Church in 1927 (Singapore) and other Roman Catholic infrastructure such as the school hall of St Joseph's Institution in 1911 (see photo). Wee ran a large construction company based in Stamford Road, Singapore city. Wee's company also constructed the Majestic Hotel (1932) now the National Art Gallery in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and Singapore's first airport runway at the former Kallang Airport. Immediate descendants live in Singapore, Thailand, the Netherlands, Spain, Australia, Italy and the UK. Contributing to Roman Catholic expansion in Singapore, Bangkok and China

After having attained financial success, Jacobe <mask> donated large amounts of capital needed for the construction of local Chinese parishes and mission schools in Singapore, Bangkok and in Swatow China, especially between the mid-1890s to 1910. There is, however, no evidence to show if the Roman Catholic Church had a direct say in the use of Mr. <mask>'s business profits.From interviews with descendants in the 1970s and 1980s, it appears the reasons for doing so were totally personal. This wealthy patronage did not go unnoticed by some in the rival Protestant churches. Rev. J. A. Bethune Cook accused the Roman Catholic Church in 1907 of conducting 'ordinary business houses in the name of Chinese traders and others.' Much of <mask>'s contributions were directed to the Catholic Church and its various instruments. In the late 19th century, <mask> single-handedly paid for restoration of damaged roofs at the Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus in the Singapore city precinct.His family and firm contributed several thousand dollars to Singapore's St Joseph's Institution. Kiam Hoa Heng also paid for refurbishments in the form of three large stained glass windows behind the altar, at the St Peter and Pauls Church in Queen Street, Singapore. In addition to this he gave large tracts of land and city-based properties to the Catholic Church in Bangkok. Around 1902, he paid for the construction of a church in his birthplace Shantou (formerly Swatow), in China, and during the Churches recent centennial celebrations, descendants of the <mask> family from London, Singapore and Bangkok were invited to the celebration there. The largest project funded by <mask> was the grand French Romanesque-revivalist Bangkok Roman Catholic Assumption Cathedral which still stands today. According to his daughter <mask> (b. April 1888 d. 4 Jan 1976), he was the primary financial sponsor to this Church, to a point where members of the <mask> family took on large cuts to their financial allowances. The cathedral was completed in 1909.His last project was the modest Church of the Sacred Heart in Tank Road, Singapore completed in 1910, one year before his death. References

Chinese Roman Catholics
Low Kiok Chiang
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Singaporean people of Teochew descent
Chinese emigrants to Singapore
Low Kiok Chiang
People from Shantou
Catholic Church in China
Catholic Church in Singapore
Catholic Church in Thailand
1911 deaths
1843 births

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