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<mask> (March 21, 1878 – October 9, 1963) was an American composer, known primarily for his song "By the Waters of Minnetonka". He is frequently categorized with a number of his contemporaries, including Charles Wakefield Cadman, Arthur Nevin, Charles Sanford Skilton, Preston Ware Orem, and Arthur Farwell, as a member of the Indianist movement in American music. <mask> was born in Oskaloosa, Iowa, but his family relocated to Kansas when he was very young. Little is recorded about his early education; it is known that his father encouraged him to be a pharmacist, but that he preferred instead to follow a career in music. Upon the outbreak of the Spanish–American War he enlisted as a musician. With the cessation of hostilities, he moved to Ohio and enrolled in the Cincinnati College of Music, studying there until his savings from military service ran out. He was able to continue studying with Herman Bellstedt, a cornetist and bandmaster under John Philip Sousa.During his time at the Cincinnati College of Music, he studied theory, orchestration, harmony and arranging. In 1900 he sang with the chorus of Castle Square Garden Opera Company to learn of opera and its production. Around 1905, <mask> joined the Chautauqua Society, working in traveling tent schools teaching music to American Indians. The contacts he made through this position led to an interest in Indian culture; he began to try to transcribe the songs that he heard, and began to teach himself the craft of making traditional Native American flutes. At about this time polio left Lieurance disabled; though he had very little use of his legs he was quite vigorous and mobile. Around 1909, <mask> acquired a portable cylinder recording device from Edison Records, and carried it with him whenever he went to visit Indian performers. In October 1911 he recorded a Crow (Apsalooke) (maybe Oglala Lakota Sioux) singer, Sitting Eagle, also known as Mortimer Dreamer, then living on the Crow Reservation in Montana.From this recording he took the melody for his song "By the Waters of the Minnetonka". He set it to a harp-like accompaniment, and it was published by Theodore Presser in 1913 as "an Indian love song" with words by J. M. Cavanass, becoming an instant success and going through several editions; it was also frequently recorded in the years before 1950. The early editions of the published arrangements in 1915, 1917, and 1921 called for a violin or flute to echo the vocal melody, playing either a provided melody or ad lib. Possibly because of this, the melody is often played on the Native American flute. The performance notes from Lieurance's 1921 edition suggest:

A violin typifies the wind, if you choose, echoes the soft harmonies of the accompaniment which rocks to and fro on harp chords, between the major key and its relative minor, in and out of that singular domain musicians know as the “added Sixth” chord and its derivatives. A typewritten note found among the composer's papers describes the legend behind the song:Moon Deer, daughter of the Moon Clan, loved Sun Deer of the Sun Clan. Tribal law forbade marriage between the two clans.It was decreed that daughters of the Moon Clan must marry into the Eagle Clan. The two lovers, in tears, ran away far to the east and north. They came to a beautiful lake called Minnetonka (Minne means water; Tonka means large and round). Their happiness was disturbed because their traditional enemies, the Chippewa, lived on the north shore of this lake. They feared to return home and be separated, and finally in desperation they decided to end it all. The legend states that they disappeared beneath the waves and were no more. The waves moaned a rhythmic sound and the pines crooned their love song.Many moons afterwards the warriors of the Sioux drove the Chippewa north to Lake Superior. One night while they were camped on the shores of Lake Minnetonka, they heard the waters singing a weird melody and, in the moon-path on the waters, two lilies appeared and grew to the skies. The lilies were the spirits of Moon Deer and Sun Deer. <mask> himself recognized how important to his career the song had been, later saying that That night marked an epoch in my life, opened to me a new world. What work I have since done has been due chiefly to that song. Thousands of people have heard it, clothed with the harmonizing which our ears demand; it is lying upon music Tables all over the land, has been sung by many of the world's famous singers, including Schuman-Heink, Julia Culp and Alice Nielson. <mask> married, in 1917, Edna Woolley, and she took part in his recital tours thereafter.She would wear an Indian costume and play the part of "". Such was the success of these recitals that <mask> was able to return to school in Cincinnati, finally gaining his degree there in 1924. The couple retired from concertizing in 1926 and settled into teaching positions, working briefly at the University of Nebraska before coming to the University of Wichita. <mask> eventually became the school's Dean of Fine Arts. The couple retired from the university in 1945. <mask> and his wife were invited by Theodore Presser to travel to Europe in the early 1930s. Upon their return, the composer was given support for his research into Native American music when he received a grant from the Scientific Research Society of America.Later in the decade, he helped to found the Minisa Symphony Orchestra in Wichita; most of his orchestral music was written for this group. Upon retirement, <mask> and his wife moved to Neosho Falls, Kansas. Their house there was destroyed by flood in 1952, and the couple moved to Boulder, Colorado, where <mask> died in 1963. Today the couple's papers may be found in the music library of Wichita State University, which has been named for the composer. Much of <mask>'s research collection is housed in the Smithsonian Institution. Music
Apart from "By the Waters of Minnetonka", <mask> wrote over 300 works, his first composition was entitled "A Prayer". Included in his works were a number of orchestral pieces, with titles such as Trails Southwest, The Conquistadors, and Sad Moon on Falling Leaf.Much of the rest of his output consisted of songs and works for choir, but he also composed an opera, The Drama of Yellowstone. Notes and references

External links
Musical scores by <mask> Lieurance – Nebraska Memories

1878 births
1963 deaths
American male composers
American composers
American musicologists
Songwriters from Iowa
Songwriters from Kansas
People from Oskaloosa, Iowa
American people of the Spanish–American War
University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music alumni
University of Nebraska faculty
Wichita State University faculty
Musicians from Iowa
American male songwriters

masks:
Thurlow Weed Lieurance
Life Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Lieurance
Thurlow


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<mask> (29 October 1826  26 December 1903) was an Italian jurist and political figure. He served as the Prime Minister of Italy from 15 February 1901 to 3 November 1903. An eloquent orator, he was also a Grand Master freemason. Zanardelli, representing the bourgeoisie from Lombardy, personified the classical 19th-century liberalism, committed to suffrage expansion, anticlericalism, civil liberties, free trade and laissez-faire economics. Throughout his long political career, he was among the most ardent advocates of freedom of conscience and divorce. Early life

<mask> was born in Brescia (Lombardy) on 29 October 1826. He was a combatant in the volunteer corps during the First Italian War of Independence of 1848 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia, within the era of Italian unification (Risorgimento).After the lost battle of Novara he went to Pisa to study law, and he returned to Brescia to become a barrister. For a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian articles to the press. In 1859 he was forced to flee to Switzerland. He moved to Lugano, but returned in time to organize the insurrection of Brescia in the Second Italian War of Independence and welcomed <mask> in the city. Enlisted in the Cacciatori delle Alpi (Hunters of the Alps), he remained in the area until the armistice of Villafranca. With the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont, he was elected to Parliament in Turin. Elected deputy in 1859, he received various administrative appointments, but only attained a political office in 1876 when the Left, of which he had been a prominent and influential member, came into power.<mask> became a freemason in 1860; he was initiated in the Lodge "Propaganda" of Rome. In government
In 1876 he became Minister of Public Works in the first government of Agostino Depretis, and Minister of the Interior in the government of Benedetto Cairoli in 1878. In the latter capacity, he drafted the franchise reform, but created dissatisfaction by the indecision of his administrative acts, particularly in regard to the Irredentist agitation, and by his theory of repressing and not in any way preventing crime, which led for a time to an epidemic of murders. Overthrown with Cairoli in December 1878, he returned to power as Minister of Justice in 1881 with the Depretis government, and succeeded in completing the commercial code. He also was the architect of the electoral reform in 1892 which lowered the voting age from 25 to 21, and reduced the minimum tax threshold for voting or allowed an elementary school certificate. Abandoned awhile by Depretis in 1883, he remained in opposition until 1887, when he again joined Depretis as Minister of Justice, retaining his portfolio throughout the ensuing government of Francesco Crispi, until 31 January 1891. During this period he began the reform of the magistracy and promulgated a new penal code, which unified penal legislation in Italy, abolished capital punishment and recognised the workers right to strike.The code was regarded as a great work by contemporary European jurists. After the fall of the government of Giovanni Giolitti in 1893, Zanardelli made a strenuous but unsuccessful attempt to form an administration. Elected president of the chamber in 1894 and 1896, he exercised that office with ability until, in December 1897, he accepted the Ministry of Justice in the government of Antonio di Rudinì, only to resign in the following spring on account of dissensions with his colleague, Emilio, marquis Visconti-Venosta, over the measures necessary to prevent a recurrence of the Bava-Beccaris massacre of May 1898. Prime minister
Returning to the presidency of the chamber, he again abandoned his post in order to associate himself with the obstructionist campaign against the Public Safety Bill (1899–1900) restricting political activity and free speech, which was introduced by the government of general Luigi Pelloux. He was rewarded by being enabled to form an administration with the support of the Extreme Left upon the fall of the government of <mask> in February 1901. Giolitti became Minister of the Interior in the administration of <mask>, and became its real head. Zanardelli focused his attention on the issue of the South: in September 1902 he undertook a journey through Basilicata, as one of the poorest regions in Italy, to see for himself the problems in the Mezzogiorno.<mask> was unable to achieve much during his last term of office, as his health was greatly impaired. His proposed Divorce Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be withdrawn on account of the strong opposition of the country. He retired from the administration on 21 October 1903, and Giolitti succeeded him as Prime Minister. Tired and ill, he died in Maderno on 26 December 1903. In popular culture
On 15 September 1902, Zanardelli stayed at the Imperial Hotel Tramontano, owned by the Commendator Guglielmo Baron Tramontano of Sorrento, who was also the mayor of the city Sorrento. Baron Guglielmo Tramontano asked the musician brothers Giambattista and Ernesto De Curtis to compose and write a song in honour of Zanardelli, and the result became the famous Neapolitan song "Torna a Surriento" (Come Back to Sorrento). Honours
 : Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle – August 1902 – during the visit to Germany of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.: Grand Cordon of the Order of Osmanieh – September 1902 – during the visit to Constantinople of an Italian Regia Marina squadron. : Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur – November 1902 – ″in testimony of the good relations between France and Italy″. References

Sources:
 De Grand, Alexander J. (2001). The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882–1922, Greenwood. Sarti, Roland (2004). Italy: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present, New York: Facts on File Inc.,
 Seton-Watson, Christopher (1967).Italy from liberalism to fascism, 1870–1925, New York: Taylor & Francis,

External links

1826 births
1903 deaths
People from Brescia
Historical Left politicians
Dissident Left politicians
Prime Ministers of Italy
Zanardelli Cabinet
Italian Ministers of the Interior
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
Deputies of Legislature VIII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature IX of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature X of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XI of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XIII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XIV of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XV of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XVI of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XVII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XVIII of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XIX of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XX of the Kingdom of Italy
Deputies of Legislature XXI of the Kingdom of Italy
Politicians of Lombardy
Italian Freemasons
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order

masks:
Giuseppe Zanardelli
Giuseppe Zanardelli
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Zanardelli
Giuseppe Saracco
Zanardelli
Zanardelli


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Sergeant Major <mask> (ca. 1752– 30 September 1798) was a Revolutionary War senior enlisted soldier in the Continental Army who became a double agent in a failed attempt to capture the American traitor General Benedict Arnold (1741-1801). Biography
Champe was born about 1752 near what is now Aldie in Loudoun County, Virginia. Champe enlisted in the Virginia Cavalry from Loudoun County in 1776 and was made sergeant major in "Lee's Legin", a unit commanded by (then Major) Henry Lee III, later and better known as Colonel "Light-horse Harry" Lee (and father of Gen. Robert E. Lee). Champe's family was said to be well known to Major Lee. A plan was formulated to kidnap the defecting General Benedict Arnold and bring him back to American lines to face court martial. A key motivation for the operation was to obtain information as to the possibility of other high-ranking American officers being involved in the treasonous Arnold's activities.Handpicked by George Washington and Lee for the spy mission, in 1780 <mask> "defected" to the British side where he was introduced to Arnold and soon gathered intelligence that established that there were no other American generals involved with Arnold. Champe formulated a plot to capture Arnold on his regular evening stroll, but before he could act the entire British unit, Champe included, embarked in New York on the Virginia Campaign of 1780-81. Thus, the whole endeavor had to be called off. After the failed attempt, Champe served in the British army for many months before finding a way to escape back to the Continental Army. Upon rejoining the Americans, Champe voiced a desire to continue his service fighting the British, but Lee dissuaded him from it — pointing out that if captured, he could now be hanged as a spy. Nevertheless, Lee believed that Champe had acquitted himself well and had him discharged honorably from the Continental Army. According to Legends of Loudoun: An Account of the History and Homes of a Border County of Virginia's Northern Neck (1938) by Harrison Williams:

...after the war, it is said on the personal recommendation of General Washington, Sergeant <mask> was appointed to the position of doorkeeper or sergeant-of-arms of the Continental Congress, then meeting at Philadelphia, but obliged, on account of rioting, to remove to Trenton.His name appears on the rolls of 25th August 1783 as holding that position. Soon afterwards, he returned to Loudoun County, married and acquired a small holding near what is now Dover, between the later towns of Aldie and Middleburg, close to the present Little River Turnpike. Champe may also have spent time in Kentucky. He and his wife had seven children. Champe then moved to Augusta (now Pendleton) County, then in Virginia, today in West Virginia. A local tradition, maintained by Champe's descendants, is that he had been promised a grant of lands in the area, but never received it. He died in poverty, unable to care for two of his sons, <mask> and Thomas, who as teenagers were apprenticed to a tannery at Mouth of Seneca.Champe died on 30 September 1798 while staying at Prickett's Fort — near what is now Fairmont, West Virginia — on a trip to (according to different accounts) consider a land purchase or visit one of his children. He was buried near the fort, but the exact location of his grave remains unknown. Legacy

Family
Champe's wife was Phebe Susan Barnard who, beginning in 1831 and then living in Ohio, received a pension of $120 annually based upon her husband's war service. Family Tree

|-
|style="text-align: left;"|Notes:

 MARY CHAMP KEYS DIED APRIL OF 1846 IN RAINSVILLE,  WARREN COUNTY, INDIANA. PER HER HUSBAND SAMUEL KEYS ESTATE. SAMUEL DIED IN 1845 ,  RAINSVILLE WARREN COUNTY,  INDIANA. WE DO NOT KNOW MARY'S EXACT DATE OF BIRTH BUT WITH ALL OF THE DOCUMENTED SOURCES WE KNOW SHE IS DAUGHTET OF SARGENT MAJOR JOHN CHAMPE !Namesakes
In the American Civil War, the Confederate rifle company from Aldie, Virginia, "Champe's Rifles", named themselves in honor of Champe. Namesake for new <mask>mpe High School in Aldie, VA
Champe's Ford Road, a mile or two west of Aldie, Virginia, is named for <mask>'s family. Monuments
Historical  markers to Sergeant <mask> have been erected in at least three places:
Near Aldie in Loudoun County, Virginia, where he was born. In 1934, a marker was placed by U.S. Highway 15 (now U.S. 50) at a lay-by close to the few stones that remained from Champe's home. About 100 yards off US 50, an obelisk built in 1939 from the stones also stands nearby. It bears the inscription:
"Here was the house of Sergeant <mask>, Continental Army, who risked the inglorious death of a spy for the independence of his country." At Champe Rocks, Pendleton County, West Virginia, where he settled after the War.(A reference to his gravesite here is an error.) At Prickett's Fort, Marion County, West Virginia, near where he died and was buried. The marker here is not at his grave, but was placed on 22 April 2001, in a ceremony with full military honors. Media
<mask> is a character in season four of the AMC television show Turn: Washington's Spies. See also
Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War
Intelligence operations in the American Revolutionary War
Jane Tuers
Three Pigeons

Notes

Further reading
  McGroarty, William Buckner 1937. "Sergeant <mask> and Certain of His Contemporaries." The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol.17, No. 2 (Apr., 1937), pp. 145–175. Hall, Wilbur C 1938. "Sergeant Champe's Adventure." The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.3 (Jul., 1938), pp. 322–342. Rose, Alexander 2007. Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring. New York: Bantam Dell. McBurney, Christian 2016. Abductions in the American Revolution: Attempts to Kidnap George Washington, Benedict Arnold and Other Military and Civilian Leaders.Jefferson NC: McFarland. Online Link
 <mask> at Find a grave
Cenopath memorial to <mask> in Michigan

1752 births
1798 deaths
Virginia colonial people
Continental Army soldiers
Continental Army officers from Virginia
People from Aldie, Virginia
People from Pendleton County, West Virginia
Benedict Arnold
American spies during the American Revolution

masks:
John Champe
Champe
Champe
John
John Cha
John Champe
Champe
John Champe
Champe
John Champe
John Champe
John Champe


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<mask> (; 9 August 1874 – 28 January 1947) was a Venezuelan-born French composer, conductor, music critic, and singer. He is best known for his songs – mélodies – of which he wrote more than 100. <mask> was born in Caracas but his family moved to Paris when he was a child, and he lived most of his life there. Following the success of his song "Si mes vers avaient des ailes" (If my verses had wings), written when he was aged 14, he became a prominent member of fin de siècle French society. Among his closest friends were Sarah Bernhardt and Marcel Proust. After the First World War, in which he served in the army, <mask> adapted to new musical and theatrical trends and enjoyed successes with his first opérette, Ciboulette (1923) and a collaboration with Sacha Guitry, the musical comedy Mozart (1926). During the Second World War <mask>, who was of Jewish descent, took refuge in Monaco, returning to Paris in 1945 where he was appointed director of the Opéra.He died in Paris in 1947, aged 72. <mask> was a prolific composer. His vocal works include secular and sacred pieces, lyric scenes, cantatas, oratorios, operas, comic operas, and operettas. Orchestral works include concertos ballets, tone poems, incidental music for plays and films. He wrote a range of chamber music, and piano works. He sang as well as played his own songs, and made recordings as a soloist and accompanying other performers. After his death his music was neglected but from the late 20th century onward increasing interest has led to frequent performances of many of his works and recordings of all his songs and piano work, much of his orchestral music and some of his stage works.Life and career

Early years
<mask> was born in Caracas, Venezuela, on 9 August 1874, the youngest child of Carlos (né Karl) <mask> (1822–1897) and his wife Elena María née de Echenagucia (1831–1912). <mask>, the eldest son of a Jewish family in Hamburg, emigrated to Venezuela in 1845 at the age of twenty-two, making a highly successful business career there. He converted to Roman Catholicism to marry Elena de Echenagucia; she was of Spanish descent on her father's side and Dutch-English on her mother's. When his friend and associate Antonio Guzmán Blanco became president of the country in 1877, Carlos became Blanco's financial adviser. The <mask>s had eleven or twelve children, nine of whom lived to adulthood. <mask>, known as "Nano", was the youngest, twenty years younger than his eldest brother. He was brought up speaking fluent German, Spanish and (having a British nanny) English.When Blanco's first term of office came to an end in 1877, the <mask> family left Venezuela and settled in Paris, where they had relations and well-connected friends. It was France that, as a 21st-century writer put it, would "determine and define <mask>'s musical identity in later life". Among the family's Parisian friends was Princess Mathilde, niece of Napoleon I; the young <mask> sang for her, and made his public debut at the age of six, at a musical soirée in her drawing room. He began composition lessons with an Italian teacher when he was eight. In 1885, aged eleven, <mask> was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire's preparatory course. He went on to study piano with Émile Decombes (in the same class as Maurice Ravel and Alfred Cortot), harmony with Albert Lavignac and Théodore Dubois, and composition with Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. The last became <mask>'s lifelong friend and mentor.As a young man Massenet had won France's top musical scholarship, the Prix de Rome, but <mask> could not emulate him: only French nationals were eligible, and the <mask>s had not taken French citizenship. Besides, Massenet counselled, with rich parents <mask> did not need the scholarship as his less affluent colleagues did. Through Massenet, <mask> met Camille Saint-Saëns, with whom he studied privately in addition to his Conservatoire lessons. While still a student <mask> had an early success with his mélodie "Si mes vers avaient des ailes" (If my verses had wings) to a poem by Victor Hugo. The song was among a set of <mask>'s mélodies published by the leading music publisher Hartmann et Cie in 1890. Le Figaro took it up – "We feel we must reproduce this graceful piece which obviously denotes a delicate and original musician" – and devoted half a broadsheet page to printing the words and music. <mask> dedicated "Si mes vers avaient des ailes" to his sister Maria, who had married the painter Raimundo de Madrazo y Garreta.At their house <mask> met many of the leading figures in the arts, including Alphonse Daudet, for whose play L'obstacle the teenaged <mask> composed incidental music. The play was presented at the Théâtre du Gymnase on December 1890. Daudet called <mask>'s music his "chère musique preferée". At the Daudets' house in 1893 the singer Sybil Sanderson premiered <mask>'s Chansons grises, settings of poems by Paul Verlaine. The poet was present and was moved to tears by <mask>'s settings of his verse. Stéphane Mallarmé was also present, and wrote:

Le pleur qui chante au langage
Du poète, <mask>
<mask> tendrement le dégage
Comme en l'allée un jet d'eau. The weeping that sings in the words
Of the poet, <mask>
<mask> tenderly releases it
Like a fountain on the pathway.In the early 1890s <mask> worked on his first opera L'île du rêve, a "a Polynesian idyll", written at Massenet's behest. During this period he met Marcel Proust for the first time, at Madeleine Lemaire's salon on 22 May 1894. As far as is known, the 19-year-old <mask>'s romantic attachments before then had been intimate but platonic relationships with the famous Parisienne beauties Cléo de Mérode and Liane de Pougy. Until this point, he had been uneasy to the point of hostility about homosexuality and homosexuals, but the two men quickly began an intense love affair, Proust's only real liaison. Their affair lasted for little more than two years, but it evolved into a lifetime's close friendship. Proust wrote, "Everything I have ever done has always been thanks to Reynaldo". The music scholar James Harding notes, "It was <mask> who suggested to Proust the famous petite phrase which recurs symbolically throughout À la recherche du temps perdu and which is none other than a haunting theme from Saint-Saëns's D minor violin sonata".<mask> completed his studies at the Conservatoire satisfactorily but "without producing sparks in examinations and competitions", as his biographer Jacques Depaulis puts it. Massenet resigned from the faculty in May 1896, and <mask> left at the same time as his mentor. 1896 to 1913
In 1896 Proust wrote the words and <mask> the music for Portraits de peintres for reciter and piano, premiered at the house of Madeleine Lemaire, where they had met. Later in that year <mask> formed another of his closest friendships: he had long admired the actress Sarah Bernhardt, and at the end of 1896 he met her and quickly became part of her inner circle of friends and helpers. He frequently visited her in her dressing room during and after performances, lunched with her at her Paris townhouse, travelled with her to London and on tour, and composed music for her productions. L'île du rêve was premiered in 1898, when thanks to Massenet's influence the Opéra-Comique staged the piece, with a fine cast, conducted by André Messager. The press notices were hostile, and the piece was withdrawn after seven performances.While it was in rehearsal Paris was agog at the Zola trial in the continuing Dreyfus affair. The affair sharply divided French opinion; <mask>, like Proust and Bernhardt, was in the Dreyfusard camp. The antisemitic overtones of the anti-Dreyfusard campaign disturbed him deeply, but his devotion to France was unshaken. In 1898, following the success of his first set of 20 mélodies, published two years earlier, <mask> began composing a second set. which he worked on for more than 20 years. In the same year he started work on 12 "Rondels" for soloists, chorus and piano, completed the following year. In 1899, following the long tradition of French composers supplementing their income by writing music reviews, he became critic for La Presse.In December 1902 <mask>'s second opera, La Carmélite, described as "a musical comedy", with a libretto by Catulle Mendès, was premiered at the Opéra-Comique. Emma Calvé played the main role of Louise de La Vallière, Messager was once again the conductor, and the piece was lavishly mounted, but it was received politely rather than with enthusiasm, and did not gain a place in the operatic repertoire. Its prospects were not helped by the Opéra-Comique's decision to yield to religious lobbyists and cut the climactic scene in which Louise takes the veil; that scene won critical praise as "inspired", whereas the rest of the score was thought to be skilful, pretty and spirited but lacking in character. Following this disappointment, <mask> turned his attention away from opera. In 1905 he composed one of his most popular works, the suite for chamber ensemble Le Bal de Béatrice d'Este; in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Patrick O'Connor observes that this work, "conceived merely as a divertissement", has remained one of the composer's best-known and most frequently performed. <mask> began to attract notice as a conductor. Performances of Don Giovanni under his baton in 1903 were praised for his "flexible and light touch" and for his scholarly – and at the time unusual – fidelity to Mozart's score.In 1906 he and Gustav Mahler were the conductors for the two operas given at the Salzburg Festival, celebrating Mozart's 150th anniversary. Mahler conducted The Marriage of Figaro; <mask> conducted Don Giovanni with the Vienna Philharmonic and a cast including Lilli Lehmann and Geraldine Farrar. In December 1907 <mask> became a naturalised French citizen. In that year he composed his set of six Songs and Madrigals, setting words by medieval and Renaissance French poets in which he incorporated music in the style of Antoine Boësset, court composer to Louis XIII. <mask> followed the dances of Le Bal de Béatrice d'Este with two complete ballet scores, La Fête chez Thérèse (1910) and Le Dieu bleu (1912). The latter was the first ballet with a score by a French composer presented by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets russes; the premiere went well but the piece was overshadowed by two other ballets with French scores presented later in the season: Debussy's L'Après-midi d'un faune and Ravel's Daphnis et Chloé. 1914 to 1929
At the outbreak of war in 1914 <mask>, who was over the official age limit for conscription, volunteered for the army as a private.For most of the war he served as an adjutant's clerk, working near the front, under frequent bombardment. When possible he continued to compose, writing music for his regiment, contributing to revues for the troops, and working on two new operas, one based on the Odyssey and the other on The Merchant of Venice. He set five verses by Robert Louis Stevenson as a song cycle for children. In 1917 he was promoted to corporal as a despatch rider, and in the last year of the war he was posted to the Ministry of War in Paris as a cipher clerk. For his wartime services he was awarded the Croix de guerre and appointed to the Legion of Honour. When <mask> returned to civilian life, Cortot, director of the newly founded École Normale de Musique de Paris, appointed him professor of interpretation and singing. <mask> was known for the high standards he expected of singers, and published articles and a book, Du chant (1921), on interpretation and singing technique.In 1919 he met the tenor Guy Ferrant, with whom he began a lifelong and happy personal partnership. In 1921 <mask> was invited by an old friend, the playwright Robert de Flers, to compose the music for an operetta for which Flers and his collaborator Francis de Croisset had written the libretto. <mask> had reservations: the piece was set in the market of Les Halles, which was the setting for Charles Lecocq's opéra comique La fille de Madame Angot, written fifty years earlier but still immensely popular. Furthermore, the heroine was called Ciboulette, meaning "chives", which <mask> thought unromantic, and the most interesting character was neither the heroine nor the hero, but their mentor, "a sort of elderly Rodolfo out of La bohème". Nonetheless, <mask> accepted the invitation. Between the start of work on Ciboulette and its premiere, <mask> lost his two closest friends. Proust died in November 1922 and Bernhardt the following March.He pressed on with work, and in April 1923 Ciboulette opened at the Théâtre des Variétés. It was well reviewed and was an enormous box office success. It was revived in Paris several times during <mask>'s lifetime, and has remained in the repertoire in France, with 21st-century revivals at the Opéra-Comique and elsewhere. In 1924 <mask> was promoted to officer in the Legion of Honour. The following year he had the second big success of his theatrical career. The actor and playwright Sacha Guitry invited him to write the music for a new comédie musicale called Mozart. The piece was loosely based on the early life of the composer, and was to star Guitry and his wife, Yvonne Printemps, the latter en travesti as the young Mozart.<mask> agreed, and composed a score incorporating various extracts from Mozart's works along with his own original music. The show opened in December 1925 at the Théâtre Édouard VII, receiving enthusiastic reviews: Messager, writing in Le Figaro called it "a piece of rare quality", and commented that the score was so good that it was hard to detect where Mozart's music ended and <mask>'s began: this, he said, was the highest possible praise. The show was a popular success in Paris, with, for the time, an excellent run of seven months. The Guitrys then took the production to London in 1926, where it was well received. At the end of that year there were two versions running on Broadway: the Guitry company played the French original for a limited season, and an English translation ran at another theatre, starring Frank Cellier and Irene Bordoni. 1930 to 1947
In 1930 <mask> composed a piano concerto, premiered in February 1931 with its dedicatee, Magda Tagliaferro, as soloist and the composer conducting; according to Grove it became <mask>'s best-known concert work. Tagliaferro and <mask> later recorded the work for the gramophone; the recording has been reissued on CD.In 1931 <mask> wrote the music for the opérette Brummell. In 1933 he became Le Figaro'''s music critic. In the same year, Ciboulette was filmed for the cinema. The young director Claude Autant-Lara made a fairly free adaptation of the stage work, with Simone Berriau in the title role; it opened in Paris in November 1933, and was well received. <mask>'s only major commission for the Paris Opéra was the work based on The Merchant of Venice that he had begun composing during the war. Le marchand de Venise, with a verse libretto by Miguel Zamacoïs, premiered in March 1935. It was received with enthusiasm, and although it was not revived in Paris during <mask>'s lifetime it had several new productions later.Guitry and <mask> worked together on another show, O mon bel inconnu (O My Beautiful Stranger, 1933), starring Arletty. The reviewer in Lyrica commented "Is it operetta? No; comic opera? Not that, either; vaudeville? Not in the least. So what is it? I don't know, but it is unpretentious and it is charming".He added, "Neither of the two authors, so admirably gifted, gave the best of themselves, but the crumbs they nonchalantly let fall from their table are still enough to compose a nice meal". <mask> composed the music for two other musical comedies during the 1930s as well as a considerable quantity of incidental music for plays and films. In the second half of the decade <mask> was again prominent as a conductor, directing performances of The Magic Flute, The Seraglio and The Marriage of Figaro. His fidelity to Mozart was remarked on in the press: after years of productions at the Opéra-Comique in which the composer's recitatives in Figaro were replaced by spoken dialogue, <mask> used a new, more scholarly text edited by Adolphe Boschot. In the concert hall he formed musical partnerships with younger performers; in addition to Tagliafero, he regularly accompanied Ferrant and the soprano Ninon Vallin. When the Germans

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 occupied Paris in 1940, <mask> left for the south of France and then for neutral Monaco. He was less at risk there from Nazi anti-Semitic persecution, but narrowly avoided being killed by the explosion of a stray shell from a British submarine aimed at a German warship moored near his rooms on the front at Monte Carlo.He returned to Paris in February 1945, and was elected to the Institut de France's Académie des Beaux-Arts, and appointed director of the Paris Opéra. His last concert work, the Concerto provençal, was premiered in a broadcast by Radiodiffusion Française on 30 July 1945 and given in concert the following April. In 1946, together with Tagliafero and Vallin, <mask> made a concert tour, performing in London, Geneva, Brussels, Marseilles and Toulon. He was taken ill and an operation was performed to treat a brain tumour, which his doctors believed might have been caused by the explosion in Monte Carlo. <mask> died in Paris on 28 January 1947, at the age of 72. He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery, near the grave of Proust. Works

Graham Johnson writes that <mask> "was never truly of the twentieth century"; he was for many years regarded chiefly as evoking the spirit of fin de siècle Paris.He was not in sympathy with the more obviously modern music of the early decades of the 20th century, but he moved with the times. According to a 2020 analysis:

<mask>'s biographer Jacques Depaulis writing in 2006, comments that many composers suffer a period of neglect after their deaths and are then rediscovered, a process known in France as "la traversée du désert" – crossing the desert. In 1947 a British newspaper remarked that <mask> "is hardly remembered today outside the boundaries of France". In 1961, 14 years after the composer's death, the musicologist Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt dismissed <mask> as "a talented gossip who had a gift for grinding out operettas and little, tastefully performed ballads in limitless quantities". {{refn|Lionel Salter pointed out in Gramophone that as to "limitless quantities", <mask> wrote about the same number of mélodies as Debussy, and far fewer than Fauré.<ref>Salter, Lionel. "Hahn Songs", Gramophone", August 1988</ref>|group=n}} In the last decades of the 20th century there was a revival in interest in <mask>'s music: Johnson (2002) refers to "an ever-widening range of his mélodies to be heard regularly on the concert platform". Mélodies
<mask> is best known for his songs.He wrote just over 100; most were composed in the thirty-year period from 1888 to the end of the First World War, after which the demand for songs with piano accompaniment diminished and he turned to other forms. His style, in his early songs, reflects the influence of Massenet, but he regarded Gabriel Fauré as the supreme master of the mélodie, and favoured some of Fauré's chosen poets, including Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier and Paul Verlaine. He was only thirteen when he wrote the Hugo setting "Si mes vers avaient des ailes", later included in his first collection of 20 Mélodies (1895). Johnson writes that the song displays all the distinguishing marks of the composer's style:

His first published set of songs was Chansons grises (Songs in Grey, 1890), which included a setting of Verlaine's "La bonne chanson" that the poet preferred to Fauré's well known version of it. The commentator James Day observes that the songs in the set display "a maturity quite remarkable in a sixteen-year-old – and an empathy with the poet quite unexpected in a musician of any age". After Chansons grises <mask> composed further song cycles over the next 25 years. Rondels (1898–99), with words by Charles d'Orléans, Théodore de Banville and Catulle Mendès, was an example of the composer's fascination with the past, setting original and modern versions of the old rondel verse form.In Études latines (1900) <mask> set ten verses by Leconte de Lisle, evoking Graeco-Roman antiquity. In three of the songs the soloist and pianist are joined by a chorus. <mask> again experimented with combinations of voices in Venezia (1901), a set of six lyrics in Venetian dialect, in which the final song is a duet for tenor and soprano with chorus. For Les feuilles blessés (The Injured Leaves, 1901–1906) <mask> turned to a contemporary poet, Jean Moréas, known for his symbolist verse. In 1907 <mask> returned to older forms with Chansons et madrigaux, setting words by d'Orléans, Jean-Antoine de Baïf and others, in a cycle of six songs for four voices. Love Without Wings (1911) is a set of three verses in English by Mary Robinson, and <mask> again set English texts in Five Little Songs (1915), with verses by Robert Louis Stevenson. Grove lists a final cycle, Chansons espagnoles (1947).In addition to the song cycles, two collections of <mask>'s mélodies, comprising twenty songs each, were published during his lifetime. Both sets include some songs previously published individually, and there were twelve other songs not part of a cycle or included in a published collection. Operas, opérettes and musical comedies
<mask> completed five operas, and left an incomplete one. The first, L'Île du rêve, an "idylle polynésienne" in three acts, has a libretto by André Alexandre and Georges Hartmann, adapted from Pierre Loti's semi-autobiographical 1880 novel Rarahu or Le Mariage de Loti set in Tahiti. It ran for seven performances in 1898, and was revived at Cannes in 1942, conducted by the composer, but was not seen again in Paris until 2016, when a production from the Théâtre de la Coupe d'Or, Rochefort was presented at the Théâtre de l'Athénée. Henri Büsser considered the work "charming … very musical";  it is through-composed and there are no set-piece numbers. <mask> makes use of leitmotifs, following the example of Massenet.La Carmélite (1902), a period piece set in the reign of Louix XIV, made little impact, although its conductor, Messager, who was musical director at Covent Garden as well as at the Opéra Comique, considered staging it in London;  the idea was not realised. Neither of <mask>'s next two operas – Nausicaa (1919, libretto by René Fauchois) and La Colombe de Bouddha (Buddha's Dove, 1921), a one-act work with words by André Alexandre – was written for Paris, and neither was staged there. The former was given at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo, and the latter at the Théâtre du Casino municipal de Cannes, where <mask> conducted frequently. Le Marchand de Venise (1935) was the most successful of <mask>'s serious operas. It was well received; Büsser wrote:

Other critics noted the Mozartian lightness of the score, and <mask>'s view of Shakespeare's drama as a comedy rather than a tragedy. After the opera had its American premiere, the critic Herbert Kupferberg described it as "charming and dramatic", and called for a recording. The piece has been revived by the Opéra-Comique (1979) and at the Grand Théâtre Massenet, Saint-Étienne (2015).<mask> left an unfinished opera, Le Oui des jeunes filles (The Maidens' Consent), which Büsser completed; it was given by the Opéra-Comique company in June 1949. Ciboulette, <mask>'s first venture into opérette, was his most successful and enduring. In a study of opérette, James Harding writes that <mask>'s score, though in the tradition of earlier composers, specifically Lecocq, "rejuvenates the old technique with a singular brightness of melody and adroit combinations of voice and instrument". After the initial run in 1923, there were revivals in Paris in 1926, 1931 and 1935, and after <mask>'s death there were revivals at the Opéra-Comique in 1953, 2013 and 2014. When the work was first given in London, eighty years after the Paris premiere, the critic Michael Kennedy wrote, "I cannot imagine why it is not in the regular international repertoire, for in many respects it is the equal of Fledermaus and The Merry Widow … there is not a weak number in the piece". <mask> wrote two more opérettes, which were well received without rivalling the success of Ciboulette: Brummell (1931) and Malvina (1935). Next to Ciboulette, <mask>'s biggest box-office success was the "comédie musicale" Mozart, written with Sacha Guitry.Harding describes the piece as "a slim tracery of eighteenth-century allusion gilded by Sacha's unerring wit". Printemps had a great success in the title role, but the piece was successfully revived later with other stars: 1951 with Jeanne Boitel, 1952 with Graziella Sciutti and 2009 and 2011 with Sophie Haudebourg. Further musical comedies followed: Le Temps d'aimer (1926), Ô mon bel inconnu (1933, with Guitry), and Beaucoup de bruit pour rien (Much Ado About Nothing, 1936), a "comédie musicale shakespearienne". Orchestral and concertante
Among the best known of <mask>'s orchestral works is the suite Le Bal de Béatrice d'Este (1905), for a small ensemble of wind instruments, harps, piano and percussion. Evoking a 15th-century Italian court entertainment it displays <mask>'s abilities as a pasticheur. Grove describes it as a divertissement, and a later work by <mask> is specifically so labelled, the Divertissement pour une fête de nuit, for wind instruments (including saxophone), piano, string quartet and orchestra (1931). <mask> wrote two concertos for soloist and conventional orchestral forces.The Violin Concerto (1928) is the larger-scale of the two. The opening movement, marked "Décidé", is richly scored, moving between strongly rhythmical and lyrical passages. The central movement, "Chant d'amour", subtitled "Souvenir de Tunis" evokes the heat and languor of North Africa. In 2002 a Gramophone reviewer wrote that it "hovers between dance and delirium". The finale opens gently, before accelerating into a lively concluding dance. Reviewing the first performance, Paul Bertrand wrote in Le Ménestrel, "This Concerto is, in fact, from a purely musical point of view, a miracle of taste, of delicacy, and it is at the same time marvellously suited to highlighting all the qualities of the performer and to earning him the greatest success". The Piano Concerto (1931) is a lighter-weight piece; the second movement lasts less than three minutes.The concerto is described in The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music as "a charming work" with an opening theme that has "an English flavour, easily lyrical" leading to variations "full of sharp, sparkling contrasts … although no deep emotions are touched this is a delightful piece". For the theatre, <mask> composed incidental music for more than 20 productions between 1890 and 1939, employing a variety of forces, from mezzo-soprano and children's chorus or soloists and two pianos to full orchestra. Playwrights ranged from Daudet and Hugo to Racine, and Miguel Zamacois. In 1934 he wrote scores for a film adaptation of La Dame aux Camélias and Léonce Perret's Sapho. As well as the 1912 Diaghilev ballet Le Dieu bleu, he supplied original ballet or other dance scores for five other theatrical productions between 1892 and 1939. Chamber and solo piano

<mask>, whose musical outlook was shaped in the 19th century, regarded Fauré as the last great composer, and musical analysts have noted the older composer's influence in several of <mask>'s chamber works. In the Piano Quintet (written in 1922 and published the following year) there are stylistic and thematic echoes of Fauré, particularly in the C-sharp minor slow movement, although in a 2001 analysis Francis Pott also notes the influence of Dvořák.In the Violin Sonata (1926) there are further echoes of Faure's music in the opening movement ("imbued with Gallic restraint and supple expressivity" according to the commentator Jeremy Filsell), but <mask> departs from convention by making much of the last movement gentle and melancholic, rather than boisterous. The Piano Quartet (1946), a late work, is in three movements, and alternates serene passages and more turbulent sections. Like the Violin Sonata, it is a concise work, taking a little over 20 minutes in performance. Most of <mask>'s works for solo piano come from the first half of his career. Some are in conventional forms, including a set of ten waltzes (1896), a sonatine (1907), Thème varié sur le nom de Haydn (1910) and two études (1927, his only post-war piano works). The sonatine is a full-scale piano sonata but, like Ravel, <mask> was daunted by any possible comparison with Beethoven's late piano sonatas, and preferred the more modest title. Other solo piano works are in unusual forms, such as the Portraits de peintres (1894), written to be played between spoken verses, or Le Rossignol éperdu (The Distraught Nightingale), <mask>'s most extensive piano work, composed between 1902 and 1910 and published in 1913, consisting of 53 short pieces, grouped into four sections.<mask> wrote five works for piano four hands and four for two-piano duet. Recordings
During the composer's lifetime there were many recordings, especially of his most popular mélodies, which, according to Depaulis, almost all the great recital singers enjoyed performing. <mask> made numerous recordings, singing and accompanying himself not only in his own songs, but also numbers by Mozart, Gounod, Chabrier, Massenet, Bizet and Offenbach. In the mid-20th-century, singers who made recordings of numerous <mask> songs included Jacques Jansen and Géori Boué. Since interest in <mask>'s works revived in the late 20th century recordings of a substantial part of his oeuvre have been released. In 2006 Depaulis listed recordings of <mask> mélodies by, among others, the sopranos Mady Mesplé and Felicity Lott, the mezzo-sopranos Susan Graham, Marie-Nicole Lemieux and Anne-Sofie von Otter, the tenors Martyn Hill and Ian Bostridge and the baritones Didier Henry and Stephen Varcoe. Since then issues have included a 2019 four-disc CD set from the Centre de musique romantique française, "Reynaldo <mask>: Complete Songs", comprising 107 songs, sung by Tassis Christoyannis, accompanied by Jeff Cohen.<mask>'s complete piano music for two players has been recorded by Kun-Woo Paik and Hüseyin Sermet. In the 21st century Earl Wild's complete set of Le Rossignol éperdu (2001), has been followed by further such sets from Cristina Ariagno (2011), Billy Eidi (2015) and Yoonjung Han (2019). In 2015 a four-disc CD set entitled "<mask>: Intégrale Piano Music", played by Alessandro Deljavan was released on the Aevea label. Of <mask>'s stage works, Ciboulette was recorded by EMI in 1983, with a cast headed by Mesplé in the title role, and José van Dam (Duparquet) and Nicolai Gedda (Antonin). The work was recorded again in 2013 at the Opéra-Comique, conducted by Laurence Equilbey; audio and video versions were published. In 2020 Hervé Niquet conducted the first recording of L'île du rêve, released on the Bru Zane label. Yvonne Printemps recorded excerpts from Mozart in 1925 with an orchestra conducted by Marcel Cariven; among later recordings of music from the piece, the complete score was recorded by RTF Radio Lyrique in 1959, with a cast headed by Boué, conducted by Pierre-Michel Le Conte.A recording of a 1963 broadcast of Brummell conducted by Cariven was released as a CD set in 2018. A recording of a 1971 ORTF broadcast of O mon bel inconnu was issued on CD, and a new recording starring Véronique Gens was released by Bru Zane in February 2021. Notes, references and sources

Notes

References

Sources

Books

Journals

External links

 Association Reynaldo Hahn
 Le Amis de la musique française
 Biography, Musicologie.org

1874 births
1947 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century conductors (music)
19th-century French composers
19th-century male conductors (music)
20th-century classical composers
20th-century French composers
20th-century French conductors (music)
20th-century French male musicians
Academics of the École Normale de Musique de Paris
Ballets Russes composers
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Child classical musicians
Directors of the Paris Opera
French ballet composers
French male classical composers
French male conductors (music)
French music critics
French opera composers
French operetta composers
French people of Basque descent
French people of German-Jewish descent
French Romantic composers
LGBT classical composers
LGBT classical musicians
LGBT singers from France
LGBT musicians from Venezuela
Male opera composers
Musicians from Caracas
Naturalized citizens of France
Venezuelan classical composers
Venezuelan emigrants to

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<mask>  (born 1959) is an American folk blues guitarist and music historian. He is a 2002 Grammy Award winner for his liner notes to The Arhoolie Records 40th Anniversary Box: The Journey of Chris Strachwitz. <mask> was born in 1959 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His parents were <mask> (co-recipient of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) and Ruth Hubbard, a biologist, with whom <mask> co-authored Exploding the Gene Myth. At age 18, <mask> departed for Europe to try to make a living as a folk-blues guitarist. For approximately the next 12 years, he traveled the world. He fronted a blues band in Seville, Spain, a swing trio in Antwerp, Belgium, and a rock band in Colombo, Sri Lanka, and studied with Congolese guitarist Jean-Bosco Mwenda.Returning to the United States, he played in "low dives and honky-tonks", and recorded two albums: the LP Songster, Fingerpicker, Shirtmaker on his and Bill Morrissey's short-lived label Reckless Records and the CD Street Corner Cowboys (Black Rose Records, 2000). He also arranged and played guitar on one track of Dave Van Ronk's album of Bertolt Brecht songs, and performed as a sideman with Eric Von Schmidt and for several years with the legendary black string band leader Howard Armstrong. For many years he wrote for the Boston Globe on "roots music" and "world music"; he also wrote on American and international music for various magazines. In 2000, he was one of many freelancers who left the Globe in a dispute over reprint rights. By the time he and the Globe parted ways, he was already becoming an increasingly established writer. He had been a major collaborator in the Smithsonian Institution's multimedia project River of Song, a survey of contemporary music along the Mississippi River, and had just finished Josh White: Society Blues, a biography of the folk-blues singer Josh White. Since 2000, he has written numerous books; several of them had CDs as companion pieces.His subject matter has included Mexican corridos and narcocorridos, hitchhiking, the blues musician Robert Johnson and, in How the Beatles Destroyed Rock 'n' Roll, American popular music for roughly the first three-quarters of the 20th century. He co-authored Dave Van Ronk's posthumously published memoir, The Mayor of MacDougal Street (the main inspiration for the Coen Brothers movie Inside Llewyn Davis), wrote the Grammy-winning liner notes for The Arhoolie Records 40th Anniversary Box: The Journey of Chris Strachwitz, made an instructional DVD for guitarists on the music of Joseph Spence (part of a series issued by Stefan Grossman), and has curated and/or written liner notes for numerous CD compilations and re-releases. After teaching on and off in the musicology department of the University of California Los Angeles for several years, he moved back to the Boston area and got a doctorate in ethnomusicology and sociolinguistics from Tufts University. He now lives in  Philadelphia with his wife, ceramic artist Sandrine Sheon. Confronting myths
A recurring theme in <mask>'s work is to identify and confront myths, especially but not exclusively those that have come to surround prominent figures in popular music. "Myths", <mask> remarked in 2002, "are marvelous things, the keys to understanding a culture. Indeed, his first book was a collaboration with his biologist mother entitled Exploding the Gene Myth, in which they wrote that "The myth of the all-powerful gene is based on flawed science that discounts the environment in which we and our genes exist.""There are no definitive histories," he would come to write in How the Beatles Destroyed Rock 'n' Roll (2009) "because the past keeps looking different as the present changes." Bibliography

Books
 Dylan Goes Electric! Newport, Seeger, Dylan, and the Night That Split the Sixties, 2015, . The Dozens: A History of Rap's Mama, Oxford University Press, 2012, . The Blues: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2010, . How the Beatles Destroyed Rock 'n' Roll: An Alternative History of American Popular Music, Oxford University Press, 2009, . Global Minstrels: Voices of World Music, Routledge, 2006, .Riding With Strangers: A Hitchhiker's Journey, Chicago Review Press, 2006, . Dave Van Ronk: The Mayor of MacDougal Street (with Van Ronk), Da Capo, 2005, . Escaping the Delta: Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues, Amistad, 2005, . Narcocorrido: A Journey into the Music of Drugs, Guns and Guerrillas, HarperCollins, 2002, , also published in Spanish as Narcocorrido: Un viaje dentro de la música de drogas, armas, y guerrilleros, Rayo, 2001, . Josh White: Society Blues, University of Massachusetts Press, 2000, . River of Song: A Musical Journey Down the Mississippi (co-authored with John Junkerman), St. Martin's Press, 1998, . Exploding the Gene Myth: How Genetic Information Is Produced and Manipulated by Scientists, Physicians, Employers, Insurance Companies, Educators, and Law Enforcers (with Ruth Hubbard), Beacon Press, 1993, 1997, 1999; 1999 edition .Discography
 Street Corner Cowboys (CD, Black Rose Records, 2000)
 Dominic Kakolobango, African Acoustic (CD, Africassette, 2001); producer, acoustic guitar, liner notes
 <mask>: Songster, Fingerpicker, Shirtmaker (LP, Reckless)

Liner notes, curatorship, etc. This is a very partial list. Segment about Dave Van Ronk begins at 00:06:00, including interview of <mask> by Megan Sukys, 00:07:30–00:26:30. Escaping the Delta, KUOW-FM, 2004-02-10. Interview of <mask> by Dave Beck about Robert Johnson, 00:01:30–00:20:00. A Hitchhiker's Guide to America, Talk of the Nation, NPR, 2006-07-06. Interview of <mask> by Neal Conan; page also includes an excerpt from <mask>'s Riding with Strangers: A Hitchhiker's Journey.Living people
1959 births
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Musicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
American music historians
American acoustic guitarists
American male guitarists
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Jewish American musicians
UCLA Herb Alpert School of Music faculty
American music journalists
Guitarists from Massachusetts
Record producers from Massachusetts
20th-century American guitarists
Historians from Massachusetts
20th-century American male musicians
Tufts University alumni
Historians from California
21st-century American Jews

masks:
Elijah Wald
Life Wald
George Wald
Elijah
Wald
Wald
Wald
Elijah Wald
Wald
Wald
Wald
Wald


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<mask> (October 16, 1758 – February 18, 1818) was an American militiaman from the state of New York during the American Revolution. In 1780, he was one of three men who captured Major <mask>, a British spy associated with the treason of Continental general and commandant of West Point Benedict Arnold. Andre was convicted and hanged. American Revolution
While visiting his future wife, Sarah Tidd, Paulding was captured by Tories, or Loyalists, led by his future brother-in-law. He was held in the notorious "Sugar House" prison in New York City in 1780, then occupied by  British forces. He escaped by jumping from a window. He went to the livery stable of a friend and acquired a German military Jäger or Hessian coat, green with red trim, associated with the British mercenaries, which he wore to evade notice.As part of an armed patrol in Westchester County, with fellow militiamen David Williams and Isaac Van Wart, Paulding seized British Major <mask>, who had left Benedict Arnold after discussing the latter's defection to the British and betrayal of the patriots. This site is now commemorated as Patriot's Park in Tarrytown, New York. André, seeing Paulding's Hessian coat, may have assumed him to be a member of the "cowboys," or pro-British marauders who raided the Neutral Ground for cattle and supplies. Searching André for valuables, they discovered documents of his secret communication with Benedict Arnold. The militiamen, all local yeomen farmers, refused André's attempt to bribe them, and delivered the officer to the Continental Army. Arnold's plans to surrender West Point to the British were revealed and foiled, and André was convicted and hanged as a spy. With George Washington's personal recommendation, the United States Congress awarded Paulding, Williams, and Van Wart the first military decoration of the United States, the silver medal known as the Fidelity Medallion.Each of the three also received federal pensions of $200 a year. New York State granted them each lands for farms. The celebrated trio were commemorated far and wide as popular heroes after the patriots won the war. By an act of Congress, the new state of Ohio (1803) included the counties named Paulding, Van Wert (anglicized spelling), and Williams. Paulding was held in particularly high regard by early American historians, as the standard 19th-century accounts credited him with the decision-making and initiative at the scene. Though hailed as national heroes, Paulding and the others also received criticism. The divisions in society continued after the war.At his trial André insisted the men were mere brigands; sympathy for Andre remained among some more elite American quarters, which included some Loyalists. (André's reputation was high in England, where his body was returned and he was buried in Westminster Abbey). Representative Benjamin Tallmadge of Connecticut, who had been present as an American officer in Westchester County in 1780 and had a low opinion of the three common militiamen, had accepted André's account of his capture and search. Tallmadge argued in Congress for the rejection of  a requested pension increase in 1817 for Paulding. He assailed the credibility and motivations of the three captors. Despite this slight, the men's popular acclaim generally increased throughout the 19th century, although opinion on their motives and actions remained divided. Some modern scholars have interpreted the episode as a major event in early American cultural development, representing the apotheosis of the "common man" in the new democratic society.Personal life
Paulding was born on October 16, 1758, at the Paulding homestead near Tarrytown in Peekskill in the Province of New York in what was then British America. He was the son of <mask>. Paulding was a self-sufficient yeoman farmer and was described as a strong, sturdy man, standing more than six feet tall, unusual for the era. Paulding married three times in his life, and lost two wives to death. In total he had nineteen children by them. On April 21, 1781, he was married to Sarah Tidd (1767–1789) of Salem, New York. After Sarah's death on October 23, 1789, he remarried to Esther Ward (1768–1804) on November 18, 1790.Esther was the daughter of Caleb Ward and Mary (née Drake) Ward. Together, they were the parents of:

 Hiram <mask> (1797–1878), a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, who served from the War of 1812 until after the Civil War

Esther died in 1804 and in 1806, he married for the third time to Hester Denike (d. 1855), the daughter of Isaac Denike of Peekskill. He died in 1818 at Staatsburg, Dutchess County, New York of natural causes. His last words were reported to be: "I die a true republican." He was buried in the cemetery of Old Saint Peter's Church in Van Cortlandtville, Cortlandt Manor. Descendants
<mask>'s descendants are numerous but perhaps the best-known of them is his son Hiram <mask> (b.1797 - d.1878), who served in the War of 1812 and fought in the Battle of Lake Champlain; he rose to become a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy and retired only after the end of the American Civil War. Relations
Among his extended family were cousins James Kirke <mask>, the U.S. Secretary of the Navy under President Martin Van Buren; <mask> Jr., who served as mayor of New York City, a U.S. Representative and the Adjutant General of New York; and <mask>, who married U.S. Representative William Irving (brother of author and diplomat Washington Irving).Legacy

Paulding's grave is marked by a large marble monument with the epitaph:

FIDELITY - On the morning of the 23rd of September 1780, accompanied by two young farmers of the county of West Chester, he intercepted the British spy, André. Poor himself, he disdained to acquire wealth by the sacrifice of his country. Rejecting the temptation of great rewards, he conveyed his prisoner to the American camp and, by this noble act of self-denial, the treason of Arnold was detected; the designs of the enemy baffled; West Point and the American Army saved; and these United States, now by the grace of God Free and Independent, rescued from most imminent peril. In 1853, a monument was erected at the site of André's capture in Tarrytown. On the event's centenary in 1880, it was topped with the statue of a minuteman. Carved by the sculptor William Rudolf O'Donovan (1844–1920), the statue is reputedly in the likeness of Paulding himself. It is located in Patriot's Park, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.A street called Paulding Drive in Chappaqua, New York was named in his honor. According to Marcius D. Raymond, several villages and counties are named in his honor: Paulding County, Ohio; Paulding County, Georgia; Paulding, Michigan (site of the mysterious Paulding Light); Paulding, New Jersey; and Paulding, Mississippi. Additionally, the villages of Tarrytown (where there is  a <mask>ding Elementary School), Cold Spring and Elmsford, along with the cities of Peekskill and White Plains, all in New York, each have a street named for Paulding (as well as ones for Williams and Van Wart). The Fire Department of Sparkill, New York, maintains the John Paulding Engine Co., founded in 1901. References

External link

1758 births
1818 deaths
Continental Army soldiers
New York (state) militiamen in the American Revolution
People from Staatsburg, New York
Paulding County, Georgia
Paulding County, Ohio
People from Cortlandt Manor, New York
People of colonial New York
Burials in New York (state)

masks:
John Paulding
John André
John André
Joseph Paulding
Paulding
Paulding
Paulding
Paulding
William Paulding
Julia Paulding
John Paul


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<mask>-<mask>iner genannt <mask> (12 December 1880 – 22 May 1963) was a German Staff Officer of the Luftwaffe during World War II. He is best known today for having been the commandant of Stalag Luft III, which is famous for the 'great escape' which took place in 1944. Military career
<mask>iner genannt <mask> was born at Glatz (Kłodzko, Poland) in 1880. He entered the 3. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß as a second lieutenant on graduating from the Corps of Cadets on 15 March 1898. On 1 May 1902 he left the Prussian Army and the following day entered the Schutztruppe for German East Africa. Here, <mask> served as the Adjutant of <mask>, the Governor of German East Africa, from 20 June to 13 September 1905 and as the Headquarters Adjutant of the Schutztruppe for German East Africa from 7 September to 11 October 1906.Von Lindeiner was awarded the Pour le Mérite medal, the "Blue Max", and the Prussian Order of the Crown for his role in helping to put down  the Maji Maji Rebellion against the German colonalists. He left Schutztruppe service on 31 July 1908 and rejoined the Prussian Army on 1 August 1908 with a simultaneous promotion to Oberleutnant and was assigned to the 4. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß. On 20 July 1912, on promotion to captain, <mask>-Wildau was assigned as the Commander of the 11th company of 1. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß. World War I
On 10 August 1914, he was assigned as the Commander of the Infanterie-Stabswache ("Infantry Staff Guard") at the Kaiser's General Field Headquarters. On 19 September he returned to his regiment as Commander of the 11th company, where he was wounded during the First Battle of Ypres on 17 November 1914.Returning to duty on 13 April 1915 he assumed command of the regiment's 5th company, and then of its second battalion on 27 May 1915. He was again wounded during the pursuit between the Bug River and Jasiolda on 29 August 1915. On returning to duty <mask>-Wildau assumed command of the Füsilier battalion of 1. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß and was again severely wounded on 5 December 1915 in fighting around Roye-Noyon. On 24 September 1914 <mask>-Wildau was assigned to Etappen-Inspektion 5 (Lines of Communication Inspectorate) and on 4 October 1916 he was assigned as the Personal Adjutant of Prince Joachim of Prussia. After his return to his Regiment on 30 October 1917 he became the Adjutant to the Governor of Riga-Dünamünde. Appointed as Adjutant to the Garde-Reserve-Korps on 23 April 1918 he was promoted to Major on 15 July 1918.His final wartime appointment was as Adjutant of the 4th Army, a post he assumed on 8 November 1918. World War II
Following the Armistice <mask>-Wildau was leader of the collecting point in Potsdam of the Volunteer Border Protection Unit East and Upper East (Grenzschutz Ost/Oberost) from 18 January 1919. He retired on 20 September 1919 with permission to wear the uniform of the 1. Garde-Regiment zu Fuß. He worked in several civilian posts, and married a Dutch baroness. He spent several years in business, and travelled extensively around Europe and the Americas. As he was based in the Netherlands, <mask> was able to watch the growth of Nazism from afar, and he had little time for it.When he and his wife moved to Germany in 1932, they refused to join the Nazi Party, despite the deleterious effect this had on his business and social connections. Von Lindener was a staunch supporter of Germany but held anti-Nazi views. Nevertheless, despite his manifest anti-Nazism, <mask> felt obliged to accept a position in the Luftwaffe in 1937 as one of Hermann Göring’s personal staff. He unsuccessfully tried to retire on the grounds of ill health, and his appointment to be the Kommandant of Stalag Luft III at Sagan (today Żagań in Poland) in the spring of 1942 during World War II therefore represented an opportunity to serve his country without directly serving the regime he so despised. He installed himself and his family at the Jeschkendorf Manor, some 3 miles west of Sagan. Deputy Commandant Major Gustav Simoleit described <mask> as an "honest, open-minded, liberal man [who] influenced and formed with his plans, ideas and orders the whole spirit in the relations between the prisoners and the German personnel". He was universally respected by both his staff and the POWs.There were rumours that German captives were being mistreated by the Allies, and there was an appetite for reprisal. One day, <mask> summoned Simoleit for a confidential discussion. Lindeiner said, "Major Simoleit, you know our last information about bad treatment and even killing of German soldiers in England. We have to face a grave situation. What have we do if Hitler wants more reprisals and sends us a strict order to shoot a number of our prisoners?" Simoleit answered immediately, "If I should receive such a dreadful order I would refuse to obey. I prefer in this case to be excuted myself for military insubordination and would not try to save my miserable life by obeying."Von Lindeiner shook Simoleit's hand, "We both know what we have to do." The Gestapo investigated the escape and, whilst this uncovered no significant new information, <mask> was removed and threatened with court martial. He feigned mental illness to avoid imprisonment. In February 1945, he was wounded by Russian troops advancing towards Berlin while acting as second in command of an infantry unit defending Sagan. He later surrendered to advancing British forces as the war ended. Von Lindener donated material and a stone for the memorial to the murdered fifty escapees down the road toward Żagań. Von Lindener was imprisoned for two years at the British prisoner of war camp known as the "London Cage".He testified during the British SIB investigation concerning the Stalag Luft III murders. Allied former prisoners at Stalag Luft III testified that he had followed the Geneva Conventions concerning the treatment of POWs and had won the respect of the senior prisoners. He was repatriated in 1947. He died in 1963 at the age of 82, less than two months before the film The Great Escape was released. Awards

<mask> Lindeiner-Wildau received the Prussian Order of the Crown 4th Class with Swords for the brutal fighting in the German East Africa campaign of 1905–07. He was also awarded the Colonial Medal with that bar. During World War I he was also awarded the Saxe-Ernestine House Order – Knight 1st Class with Swords (1 May 1918) as Hauptmann and 1st Adjutant of the Government of Riga and the Mouth of the Düna, and the House Order of Hohenzollern Honor Cross 3b with Swords on 5 February 1915.He was also awarded the Iron Cross First and Second Class. Legacy
Von Lindener was the basis for the character "Colonel <mask>" in the film The Great Escape, played by actor Hannes Messemer. He has been portrayed by Manfred Andrae in the made-for-TV film The Great Escape II: The Untold Story (1988). He is depicted as being executed by firing squad for his failure to prevent the breakout. References

External links
 Kozak-Holland, Mark Project Lessons from the Great Escape (Stalag Luft III) Multi-Media Publications Inc (2007) Google Books

1880 births
1963 deaths
People from Kłodzko
People from the Province of Silesia
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class
Luftwaffe personnel of World War II
Prussian Army personnel
Colonial people of German East Africa
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom

masks: Wilhelm Franz Max Erdmann Gustav von Linde


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Jean-<mask>ts (15 February 1755 – 18 September 1821) was a French physician. Born in the village of Dricourt (now in Ardennes), <mask> studied from 1777 at the Ecole de Médecine in Paris, later qualifying as docteur régent of the Faculté de Paris (1782). In 1797, <mask> began to teach at the Collège de France, where he gained a reputation as an expert in cardiology. Among his students were René Laennec, Guillaume Dupuytren, Xavier Bichat and Pierre Bretonneau. <mask> resurrected percussion during the French Revolution after it had fallen out of fashion. He emphasized the study of symptoms and examined postmortem evidence as well. In 1808 <mask>'s translation of Leopold von Auenbrugg's Inventum Novum from Latin into French was published.<mask> was especially fond of Auenbrugg's use of chest percussion as a diagnostic tool, and began to perfect the technique. In the meantime, <mask> had become since 1804 the primary physician of Napoléon Bonaparte, who he would continue to attend to until Bonaparte's exile to St. Helena Island, October 1815. In 1820 he was made a member of Académie Nationale de Médecine. He died the following year at Courbevoie. Early life and education
Jean-<mask> was born on February 15, 1755, in the French village of Dricourt, Ardennes. His father, <mask>, was an attorney for the Parliament of Paris. He moved to Dricourt when the Parliament dissolved, but returned to Paris after the birth of his son, who he destined to be a fellow lawyer.At the age of 12, at his fathers wish, Jean-Nicolas Corvisart entered the prestigious college of Sainte-Barbe. A mediocre student, Corvisart spent most of his time playing outdoor sports, giving no indication of the bright future his father dreamt. However, one day, after listening to anatomy professor, Antoine Petit, and visiting medical clinics in Paris, Corvisart became fascinated in medicine. He convinced his father and quit pursuing law to pursue a medical profession. <mask> immediately obtained a position at the Hotel-Dieu as a male nurse. He later attended medical school at the Faculte de Medicine, where he was an outstanding student, known for his work ethic, observation skills, and independent spirit. To his peers, Corvisart was known to be stocky in stature, vigorous in manner, outspoken, honest, generous to the poor, and not afraid to defy tradition.<mask> had the option of choosing between medicine and surgery, and decided he preferred and was more attracted towards medicine. While in medical school, <mask> studied and closely followed the likes of Debois de Rochefort, Busquet Halle, Pelletan Roger, Vicq d'Azyr and was a favorite pupil of Antoine Petit and Pierre-Joseph Desault. Even as the youngest member of his class, <mask> was at the top of his class. He presented his inaugural thesis on September 2, 1782, and graduated from medical school that same year. Early practice and lecturing
Unfortunately, his defiance to tradition ultimately led to his failure in finding work after graduation. He had applied to the Hosipital of Paroisses, which was founded by Madam Necker, but was denied of working there as a physician by Necker because he refused to wear the powdered wig required for the position. Thus, <mask> started his practice as a doctor in the poor neighborhoods of Saint Sulpice in Paris.<mask> soon became distinguished for not only his skills as a clinician, but also for his personality. He slowly became more and more well known, climbing up the ranks, and eventually, in 1783, was appointed to teach physiology, surgery, and obstetrics to medical school. Eventually, in 1786, he became the professor of clinical pathology. <mask> also worked closely with Debois de Rochfort at the Charite Hospital in Paris. Upon Rochfort's death, <mask> succeeded Rochfort and worked as a physician at the hospital. Once again, <mask> excelled and his reputation spread across the hospital and the city. By 1795, <mask> was elected to be the Chair of Clinical Medicine of what was a newly formed medical school at the Charite Hospital in Paris and took over the clinical teaching.Corvisart innovated new methods in treating patients, focusing not on researching diseases in cadavers, but on recognizing particular diseases based on signs and symptoms given off by the patient. Consequently, this new method was taught to the entire hospital, thus adopting a new method of treating patients that is still used today. Patients were divided into different categories of diseases, and an assistant would have daily observations of the patient, and present the observation and heath status of the patient to the respective physician. Physician of Napoleon
In 1799, <mask> and fellow French physician Paul Joseph Barthez were appointed by the French government as 'physicians of the Government'. In 1801, one of <mask>'s first patients, Barras, invited Corvisart to a reception, where he was introduced to General Napoleon Bonaparte and his wife Josephine. Napoleon was said to be a 'difficult' person to treat in the clinical setting, as he demanded a full explanation for each aspect of the ailments he experienced. Napoleon often refused to take prescribed medicine and was skeptical as to the practice and application of medical treatment, save that suggested by <mask>, who he deemed as both competent and reliable.In August 1803, Napoleon sent for <mask> due to chest pain and a sudden cough. Napoleon had been characterized as reluctant to access his physicians, including <mask> at first. <mask> quickly diagnosed Napoleon with a pulmonary congestion, which he did not disclose to the emperor out of regard for his well-being. Instead, he treated the condition with a vesicant, which proved to be effective in countering the pain and congestion. In retrospect of the successful and tactful treatment, Napoleon was quoted as saying, "I saw that Corvisart understood my system, and that he was the doctor who suited me, so I attached him to myself". <mask>'s treatment of Napoleon included a strict regimen of hygiene. Corvisart instructed Napoleon to take a hot bath daily, which Napoleon adhered to.By 1806, <mask> published his manuscript entitled Essai sur les maladies et les lésions organiques du cæur et des gros vaisseaux, which many consider to be the first writings of modern cardiology. By this time, <mask> had become one of the most reputable and cleverest physician of his day, working as head of the greatest hospital in Paris. His reputation impressed Napoleon so much, he hired <mask> to be his personal physician. Thus, when Barthez died in 1806, <mask> was given the title of 'chief physician' and attended to Napoleon and his family, consisting of the Empress as well as the Imperial House and court. Napoleon was also said to have suffered from breathing difficulties and respiratory issues, which Corvisart treated to the best of his abilities. Napoleon was also said to have contracted a violent case of the scabies, which Corvisart was able to effectively treat with a concoction of ointments and salves containing olive oil, alcohol, and 'powdered cevilla'. Upon <mask>'s death, a marked difference was noted in efficacy of care and treatment style among the doctors who assumed <mask>'s post.Corvisart also treated Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais, attempting to cure her sterility. When this treatment failed and Napoleon divorced Empress Josephine, Corvisart alienated Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma with his brash and frank mannerisms, leading to his disaffection from Napoleon. As such, Corvisart and Napoleon's relationship is said to have spanned from 1804 to 1815. Corvisart acted as more than just an appointed physician to Napoleon. Corvisart also acted as a liaison between Napoleon and Edward Jenner in releasing English prisoners of war in June 1806. The prisoners, Mr. William Thomas Williams and Dr. Wickham, were friends of Jenner, and Jenner held esteem for them as educated men. In this capacity Corvisart was given a copy of the letter Jenner had written to Napoleon, entreating his release of the British prisoners in July 1806.<mask> addressed Mr. Williams and relayed Napoleon's decision—that he and Dr. Wickham were to be allowed to return to their native England, as Napoleon could not refuse a request from Dr. Jenner. <mask> was remarked to be "exceedingly punctual in making all Jenner's requests known to His Majesty". Jenner also entreated the release of prisoners named Mr. Gold and Mr. Garland, and again went through <mask> to ask the favor of Napoleon. However, due to a 'subordinate' official, the release command from Napoleon and passed through Corvisart that would have freed Mr. Gold was lost, leading to an additional three years of imprisonment from 1809 to 1812, at which point the release order was recovered. In return for the liberation of Jenner's companions, <mask> asked for Jenner's assistance in freeing a French officer, Captain Husson, who was captured after a tactical defeat. Jenner was unable to influence the English government into releasing Husson, to <mask>'s dismay. Additionally, <mask> was said to have feuded with Antoine Portal over treatment of Napoleon.As Portal became more influential in the French medical scene, he attracted the attention of <mask>, who would not permit him to engage with the Imperial family, out of a deep dislike. In December 1808, Napoleon granted <mask> the title of 'Baron' in recognition of his services and dillegence as Napoleon's physician. Napoleon also awarded <mask> with the title of 'Officer of the Legion of Honour', leading to <mask>'s admittance into the Academy of Sciences in 1811. Final years and death
At age 60, <mask> retired. He was made a member of Académie Nationale de Médecine in 1820. He died on September 15, 1821 after a third attack of apoplexy, which caused a hemiplegia, 4 months after Napoleon died. Legacy
<mask> contributed heavily to the field of pathological anatomy, by advocating for the understanding that the uniqueness of each body and its organs affect the nature of disease.Within this time period, medical practitioners commonly believed the natural state of the human body was consistent health, unless faced with an unknown catalyst. It was thought that the body naturally should be in a healthy state and that an unhealthy body was a result of either an imbalance or a pathogenic cause. <mask>'s belief in individual variation challenged this assumption. He postulated that the reason for disease was due to the body's individuality, rather than its generalized consistency. The irregularity or variability of the body was at fault for pathogenic infection. Instead, the natural body was too weak to heal against threatening disease. The individual's susceptibility to pathogen was "an outcome of heredity and prenatal development", and uncontrollable by regimented living.While his attention to patient-specific diagnosis was already a part of Paris medicine, <mask>'s approach accepted varied clusters of symptoms for any disease, rather than a set checklist determining how the disease must manifest. Furthermore, <mask> championed the view that disease was "organic", which means that disease causes a constitutional change to organs. A disease could be asymptomatic, but the presence of structural change indicated illness regardless of whether the patient manifested symptoms or not. This medical understanding was supplemented by "lesions" found in the organs of asymptomatic corpses during anatomical dissection. Either acute or chronic illnesses were caused by the body's constitutional make-up and its weakened ability to fight against the specific disease. In essence, disease was caused by an organ's weakness. Corvisart attention to pathological anatomy and belief in organic disease shifted the focus of medicine away from observation of the patient and the patient's symptoms.Autopsy became a strong force in Paris medical know-how. Physical examination began to take precedence, although internal examinations were impossible. Although the aforementioned lesions were common in most corpses, <mask> and his contemporaries shifted medicine towards the clinical and physical ways that disease affects the body and away from the patient narrative. This change also represented a segue from therapeutic medicine to diagnostic medicine, which banked on the premise that a cure would always be present for whatever diagnosis was available. As one of his publications, <mask>'s translation of Leopold Auenbrugger's Inventum novum in 1808 further expanded the field of auscultation through providing a text for physicians to learn how to percuss patients' chests for diagnostic purposes. His commentary on Auenbrugger's original text extended its length four times. This method of percussion had a resurgence under <mask>'s translation and became an intrinsic aspect of clinical medicine.In particular, <mask> attentively focused on the heart and lungs as sources of lesions. His studies with these lesions led to him percussing the chest of his patients to find such wounds inside the body, studying the "organic diseases of the heart". <mask> is also linked to Reneé Laennec, the physician who invented the stethoscope for auscultation several years later. Laennec learned of percussion from <mask>'s translation of Auenbrugger's book. <mask>, Laennec and others also headed the so-called "Paris school" that developed new methods of medicine in the twenty hospitals of Paris. By establishing a monetary clinical teaching school at Hôpital de la Charité, <mask> and his peers codified a current institution of medical training. <mask>'s original work consists of Essai sur les maladies du cœur (1806), and has many other commentaries on other medical tracts.In addition to his medical contributions, <mask> was featured on a French Red Cross Fund stamp on December 12, 1964. The stamp depicts a picture of the heart and blood flow, which <mask> is acknowledged for examining. It also has the name of his book, Essai sur les maladies du cœur published in 1806. This dedicatory stamp exhibits <mask>'s lasting contributions in Paris medicine and medicine internationally. He has been called "the true promoter of clinical medicine in France" for diverting the focus of observational diagnosis to the physical examination. Selected writings
 Cours élémentaire de matière médicale: suivi d'un précis de l'art de formuler, Volume 1 (with Louis Desbois de Rochefort) 1793 - Basic course of materia medica. Essai sur les maladies et les lésions organiques du cœur et des gros vaisseaux, 1806 (with C. E. Horeau), translated into English by Jacob Gates as " An essay on the organic diseases and lesions of the heart and great vessels" (1812).Nouvelle methode pour reconnaitre les maladies internes de la poitrine par la percussion de cette cavité, 1808 - New method to recognize diseases of the internal chest by percussion of the cavity, (French translation of Leopold Auenbrugger's Latin book on medical percussion). See also
 History of medicine in France

Notes

References

External links
 Journal List >Heart >v.78(1); Jul 1997 >PMC484851 Jean Nicolas <mask> (1755–1821). M. K. Davies and A. Hollman
Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850/C

1755 births
1821 deaths
People from Ardennes (department)
First French Empire
19th-century French physicians
18th-century French physicians
Collège de France faculty

masks:
Nicolas Corvisart Desmare
Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
Nicolas Corvisart
Pierre Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
Corvisart
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Corvisart
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