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 rejected him, including Columbia, Pye, Philips, Oriole, and most notoriously Decca. On 13 December 1961, at Epstein's invitation, Mike Smith of Decca travelled from London to Liverpool to watch the group at the Cavern, which led to an audition in London on 1 January 1962 (see The Beatles' Decca audition). Decca informed <mask> one month later that the audition tapes had been rejected.The Beatles later found out that <mask> had paid Decca producer Tony Meehan (ex-drummer of the Shadows) to produce the studio recordings. While <mask> was negotiating with Decca he also approached Ron White, an EMI marketing executive, who contacted EMI producers Norrie Paramor, Walter Ridley, and Norman Newell, but they all declined to record the group. White could not contact EMI's fourth staff producer George Martin, as he was on holiday. On 8 May 1962, <mask> visited the HMV store (owned by EMI) in 363 Oxford Street, London to have the Decca tape transferred to 78 rpm acetates. An HMV disc-cutter named Jim Foy liked the recordings, suggesting that <mask> should contact Sid Coleman, the head of EMI's record publishing division, which controlled the publishing company Ardmore & Beechwood. Coleman liked the recordings and sent Epstein to Martin, the A&R manager of Parlophone. On the next day, 9 May 1962, <mask> met Martin at EMI's Abbey Road Studios.Supposedly, Martin had no intention of signing the Beatles after listening to the Decca recordings, but he offered a contract after learning that <mask> would cancel all his substantial NEMS business with EMI. Martin denied this account by saying that <mask>'s conviction that the Beatles would become internationally famous finally convinced him to offer a recording contract. He also later admitted that EMI had "nothing to lose" by signing a contract with the Beatles, as the terms of payment were negligible. At this point, almost every other British record company had rejected the group, and Martin had never heard the group live. The Beatles were eventually signed to EMI's small Parlophone label, which had very little experience with pop or rock artists. Upon signing the contract, <mask> immediately sent a telegram to the Beatles (who were in Hamburg) and to the Mersey Beat music journal in Liverpool. The recording contract gave the Beatles one penny (1d) for each record sold, which was split among the four members, meaning that each earned one farthing per copy.The royalty rate was further reduced for singles sold outside the UK; the group received half of one penny per single, which was again split amongst the whole group. Martin scheduled the first recording session to be on 6 June 1962 at Abbey Road Studios. <mask> later  renegotiated EMI's royalty rate and, on 27 January 1967 the Beatles signed a new nine-year contract with EMI. The contract stipulated that 25 per cent would be paid to NEMS for the full nine years even if the Beatles decided not to renew their management contract with <mask>, which was up for renewal later that year. Dismissal of Pete Best

After the first recording session on 6 June 1962 Martin had one reservation, as he felt that using an experienced studio session drummer rather than Pete Best would improve the recording (this was in accordance with normal practice at the time). Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison asked <mask> to sack Best when they learned that Martin wanted to replace him on their recordings. <mask> agonised about the decision, asking the Cavern's disc jockey Bob Wooler if it were a good idea.Wooler replied that Best was "very popular with the fans," who would not like it at all. <mask> dismissed Best on 16 August, over two and half months after the first recording session at EMI studios. Best was never given an explanation for his dismissal. <mask> initially offered the vacant position to Johnny Hutchinson of the Big Three, a group that <mask> managed at that time as well. Hutchinson turned down the offer, saying, "Pete Best is a very good friend of mine. I couldn't do the dirty on him"—although Hutchinson did play for The Beatles at short notice when Best did not turn up on the evening of his dismissal and for two subsequent bookings, until Ringo Starr was able to join. Starr was well known to the group, as he was then playing with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes, the resident group at Butlins' holiday complex in Skegness.He had also occasionally replaced Best when the drummer was ill, and had performed at a recording session with Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison in Hamburg. Beatles last official live appearance in the UK
The Beatles made their last official live appearance in Britain on 1 May 1966, at the NME Annual Poll-Winners' All-Star Concert at the Empire Pool, Wembley Park. Although the concert was televised, the cameras were switched off while the Beatles played, because <mask> and ABC TV had failed to agree over terms. They were filmed receiving their awards, however. After Candlestick Park

The Beatles' hectic schedule kept <mask> very busy between 1963 and 1965 with touring plus television and film work. Their last live concert was at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on 29 August 1966, and <mask>'s management duties then changed to reflect the changing nature of their career. He pressured them to continue touring, but they steadfastly refused.Business dealings

<mask> once offered all four Beatles a fixed wage of £50 a week for life (). Harrison remembered that he was earning £25 a week at the time (), which was more than the £10 a week that his father was earning (). The group declined <mask>'s offer, believing that they were worth much more than £50 a week. NEMS had a staff of twenty-five at the time of its move from Liverpool to London in 1964. NEMS booked the Beatles' concerts, and it also presented groups as an opening act. It accrued money as promoter, booking agent, and manager for all concerts. The Beatles were constantly in demand by concert promoters, and <mask> took advantage of the situation to avoid paying some taxes by accepting "hidden" fees on the night of a performance, which he always kept in a brown paper bag.<mask> also successfully managed Gerry and the Pacemakers, Billy J. Kramer and the Dakotas (who had four hits with Lennon–McCartney songs), the Fourmost (Lennon wrote their first two singles), the Cyrkle (Epstein's first American group), and Cilla Black (who was <mask>'s only female artist), as well as Tommy Quickly and Sounds Incorporated (later known as Sounds Inc.). He sent his roster of artists on "package tours" around the UK, a common practice at the time. This involved short sets by each act, alternating with a compère or a comedian. <mask> once revealed that even though he was entitled to be reimbursed by acts for expenses incurred, he paid for his own flights to and from the United States, as he did not see himself as being part of a touring group. Photographs, transport, and international telephone calls were paid from his own 25 percent share in profits. The Beatles toured the Philippines in July 1966, playing two shows at the Rizal Memorial Football Stadium in Manila. <mask> unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady Imelda Marcos when presented with an invitation to a breakfast party.He had politely declined on behalf of the group, as it was their policy never to accept such official invitations. The Beatles and their entourage were ejected from their hotel on the same day and given a police escort to the airport, even though <mask> had publicly apologised for the misunderstanding in a televised statement, which was not seen or heard because of static. The entourage boarded the plane for home, but <mask> and Beatles' assistant Mal Evans were ordered off, both believing that they would not be allowed back on the plane. <mask> was forced to give the tax authorities £6,800 worth of Philippine peso notes earned from the Manila shows and to sign a tax bond verifying the exchange before being allowed back on the plane with Evans. <mask> added the Vic Lewis Organisation to NEMS in 1966, and later brought impresario Robert Stigwood in as a manager. He once offered to sell the control of NEMS to Stigwood, without telling any of his artists about the offer. McCartney was taking a more active interest in NEMS' finances, as it became known that some artists with more ruthless managers claimed to be benefiting from more commercially advantageous terms, such as the Rolling Stones under the management of Allen Klein.After <mask>'s death, <mask> assumed control of NEMS as the company's second-largest shareholder. Stigwood then tried to take over management of NEMS but all four Beatles vigorously objected, with Lennon saying, "We don't know you. Why would we do this?" McCartney admitted that they had always signed all the contracts that <mask> presented to them without reading them first, but after <mask>'s death Lennon complained, "Well, he was alright. I've found out since, of course, that he wasn't quite as honest to us as he made out." Despite this, other interviews with Lennon report him as being loyal to <mask>'s memory: "We had complete faith in him when he was running us. To us, he was the expert."When asked in 1964 about his standing as a manager or businessman, <mask> replied, "Fair, as a businessman, fair. I've got a business background, and probably a reasonable business brain. I'm no, sort of, genius [laughter]." Asked about his deficiencies, <mask> replied, "I'm probably too conscious of ideas, rather than finance behind ideas." Merchandising

Before the Beatles achieved nationwide success in Britain, <mask> had permitted a company (run by his cousins and initially catering to fan club members), to produce Beatles sweaters for 30 shillings (£1.50) and badges for 6 pence (6d) (2½p). It sold 15,000 sweaters and 50,000 badges as the group's popularity grew. When Beatlemania swept the UK in November 1963, <mask> was besieged by novelty-goods companies desperate to use the Beatles name on plastic guitars, drums, disc racks, badges, belts and other merchandise.<mask> refused to allow the Beatles to endorse any product directly, but through NEMS Enterprises he granted discretionary licences to companies who were able to produce good-quality products at a fair price, even though many companies were already selling products without a licence. During the first Beatles trip to the United States, merchandisers pitched many products to <mask>, including Beatles clocks, pens, cigarette lighters, plastic wigs, bracelets, games, etc., but he rejected them all. This was because he had already allowed David Jacobs, the lawyer for NEMS, to give away 90 per cent of merchandising rights to one Nicky Byrne, in the UK. This was later deemed to be a disastrous mistake, as it left only 10 per cent for <mask>, NEMS and the Beatles. Byrne then took over Epstein's Stramsact merchandising in the UK and set up Seltaeb (Beatles spelled backwards) in the United States. While the Beatles were ensconced in the Plaza Hotel in New York City, Epstein was further besieged by calls and visits from promoters, retailers, television commentators and hustlers. Mindful of the number of records the group was selling in the United States, Capitol Records sent a well-spoken Yorkshire woman, Wendy Hanson, to the Plaza Hotel to act as <mask>'s secretary and to filter his calls.Hanson later worked solely with <mask> in his Albemarle Street office in London, which was separate from the NEMS office. Lennon later said, "On the business end he [<mask>] ripped us off on the Seltaeb thing." McCartney said years later, "He [<mask>] looked to his dad for business advice, and his dad knew how to run a furniture store in Liverpool." Lenmac

Epstein asked chartered accountant James Trevor Isherwood to set up a company to collect Lennon and McCartney's PRS payments—called Lenmac—which he did on 12 May 1964. When he first visited <mask>'s office, Isherwood was surprised to learn that <mask> took 25 per cent of the gross income, and not the 10 per cent that he believed most other managers received at that time. All of <mask>'s expenses were deducted from his artists' gross income, including office rental, staff wages, travel, telephone costs, and entertaining expenses. Before his death, <mask> knew that the renegotiation of his management contract (up for renewal on 30 September 1967) would lower his management fee from 25 to 10 per cent, and that NEMS would no longer receive a share of the Beatles' performance fees, reducing its revenues still further.Publishing

The Beatles entered into a publishing agreement with Dick James Music (DJM), so James set up a company called Northern Songs. James and his financial partner and accountant, Charles Silver, would each receive 25 per cent of the shares. Lennon and McCartney received 20 per cent each, with <mask> receiving the remaining 10 per cent. The Beatles' PRS income increased rapidly, so <mask> asked Isherwood to devise a way of avoiding the tax that Lennon and McCartney would owe. Isherwood suggested a stock market flotation for Northern Songs. He also suggested to <mask> that during the flotation Lennon and McCartney should move to houses near Isherwood's own in Esher. Lennon, Harrison and Starr agreed, while <mask> and McCartney remained in London.Promoter and presenter

After settling in London in 1965, <mask> rented an office in Monmouth Street, and later bought the lease of the Saville Theatre on Shaftesbury Avenue. He promoted new works by writers such as Arnold Wesker in productions that occasionally fell foul of the Lord Chamberlain for including "obscene" content or nudity. In 1966 <mask> reinvented it as a music venue featuring various US acts. On 20 February 1967 <mask> sacked the manager of the theatre, Michael Bullock, for lowering the safety curtain the previous day shortly before the end of a Chuck Berry concert that <mask> was attending with Lennon and Starr. Two fans had climbed onto the stage to dance, the curtain came down, and they were pushed from the stage. Although Bullock had not given the order, he was held responsible. In the wake of the Beatles' success <mask> was asked to appear on several music-based TV programmes in Britain.He also hosted a regular part of the US television show Hullabaloo, filming his appearances in the UK. Personal life

Throughout <mask>'s life he was known to be kind and caring to his family, friends of his family, and business colleagues. When Lennon married Cynthia Powell, on 23 August 1962, <mask> served as best man and paid for the couple's celebratory lunch afterwards. During Cynthia's pregnancy <mask> paid for a private room in a hospital and offered the Lennons the sole use of his flat at 36 Falkner Street, Liverpool, when they needed a home. He also agreed to be godfather to Lennon's son Julian. Sexual orientation

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 homosexuality was not publicly known until some years after his death, although it had been an open secret among his friends and business associates. While Epstein was in the British Army, he commissioned a tailor to make him an officer's uniform.He wore the uniform when cruising the bars of London, but was arrested one night at the Army and Navy Club in Piccadilly by the military police for impersonating an officer. <mask> managed to avoid a court martial by agreeing to see an army psychiatrist, who learned of <mask>'s sexuality. After ten months he was discharged from the army on medical grounds for being "emotionally and mentally unfit". <mask> later stated that his first homosexual experience was when he returned to Liverpool after being discharged. <mask> spent a year studying acting at RADA, but dropped out shortly after his arrest for "persistent importuning" outside a men's public toilet in Swiss Cottage, London. Cottaging, as it was called, was one of the few public ways that gay and bisexual men could meet at the time, especially if they were closeted. When <mask> first saw the Beatles perform he noticed their stage attire first, saying, "They were rather scruffily dressed, in the nicest possible way, or I should say in the most attractive way—black leather jackets, jeans, long hair of course."McCartney said that when <mask> started to manage the Beatles they knew that he was homosexual but did not care, because he encouraged them professionally and offered them access to previously "off-limits" social circles. Although Lennon often made sarcastic comments about <mask>'s homosexuality to friends and to <mask> personally, no one outside the group's inner circle was allowed to comment. Ian Sharp, one of Lennon's art-school friends, once made a sarcastic remark about <mask>, saying, "Which one of you [Beatles] does he fancy?" Sharp was sent a letter by <mask>'s office within 48 hours that demanded a complete apology. Sharp apologised, but was then completely ostracised. McCartney sent him a letter directing him to have no contact with any of them in the future. Epstein went on holiday to places such as Amsterdam, Torremolinos and Barcelona or Manchester at weekends, as the attitude towards homosexuals there was more tolerant than in Liverpool, even though Liverpool did have several gay bars.In his autobiography, Pete Best stated that <mask> drove them both to Blackpool one evening where <mask> expressed his "very fond admiration." <mask> then supposedly said, "Would you find it embarrassing if I ask you to stay in a hotel overnight?" Best replied that he was not interested, and the two never mentioned the incident again. There were reports of a brief sexual encounter between Lennon and <mask> during a four-day holiday in Barcelona in April 1963. Lennon always denied the rumours, telling Playboy in 1980: "Well, it was almost a love affair, but not quite. It was never consummated ... but we did have a pretty intense relationship." Lennon's first wife Cynthia also maintained that Lennon's relationship with <mask> was platonic.A fictionalised account of the Spanish holiday is featured in the 1991 film The Hours and Times. Drug use

After the start of his management career, <mask> started taking stimulants, usually Preludin, which did not require a prescription at the time. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr had also taken it since their days in Hamburg. <mask> explained his use of the drug as the only means of staying awake at night during numerous concert tours. In 1964 Peter Brown suspected that <mask> was taking too many pills, as he would often cough at parties, which Brown realised was <mask>'s way of secretly putting pills into his mouth without anyone noticing. McCartney often met <mask> at late night clubs in London, and remembered that <mask> would often grind his jaws (possibly due to bruxism), once saying to him, "Ugghhh, the pills". Epstein also developed dependencies on the drug carbromal, a barbiturate-like sedative/hypnotic drug.In 1964, after having been introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan in New York, <mask> was observed by McCartney standing in front of a mirror, pointing at himself and repeatedly saying "Jew! ", while laughing loudly, which McCartney found hilarious and "very liberating". <mask> later became heavily involved in the 1960s drug scene. During the four months when the Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper was being recorded, <mask> spent his time on holiday, or at the Priory Clinic in Putney, where he tried unsuccessfully to curb his drug use. He left the Priory to attend the Sgt. Pepper launch party at his house on 24 Chapel Street, but returned to the Priory immediately after.<mask> added his name to an advertisement that appeared in The Times on 24 July 1967, which called for the legalisation of cannabis, the release of all prisoners imprisoned because of possession, and research into marijuana's medical uses. The advertisement was sponsored by a group called Soma and was signed by sixty-five people, including the Beatles, Scottish psychiatrist R. D. Laing, sixteen doctors, and two members of parliament. <mask> responded to questions about the advertisement by saying, "My opinion is that pot smoking is definitely less harmful than drinking alcohol. I am not addicted to either, but I have been very drunk and very 'high'." In June 1967, after McCartney had admitted to LSD use, <mask> defended him to the media, stating that he too had taken the drug. Gambling

In August 1965, the Beatles and <mask> visited Elvis Presley at his house in Perugia Way in Los Angeles, where Elvis's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, set up a roulette wheel and several packs of playing cards. <mask> immediately asked to play, as he was known for his love of gambling.McCartney frequently visited gambling clubs in London, such as <mask>'s favourite club Curzon House, where he often ran into <mask>. He once saw <mask> put a Dunhill lighter worth £100 () on the table, then lose it during a game of cards. <mask> often lost thousands of pounds by playing baccarat or chemin de fer (the original version of baccarat when it was introduced in France), but would stay at Curzon House the whole evening, eating an expensive meal and drinking fine wines. The club never presented <mask> with a bill, as they knew he lost so much in the casino. Death

<mask> attended a traditional shiva in Liverpool after his father died, having just come out of the Priory clinic where he had been trying to cure his acute insomnia and addiction to amphetamines. A few days before his death he made his last visit to a Beatles recording session on 23 August 1967, at the Chappell Recording Studios on Maddox Street in Mayfair, London. On 24 August, <mask> asked Peter Brown and Geoffrey Ellis down to Kingsley Hill for the bank holiday weekend.Approximately 50 miles from his home in Chapel Street, Kingsley Hill was <mask>'s country home in Warbleton, Sussex. After they arrived, <mask> decided to drive back to London alone because an expected group of friends he had invited failed to arrive, although they did turn up after <mask> left. <mask> phoned Brown at 5 p.m. the next day from his Chapel Street house in London. Brown thought that <mask> sounded "very groggy" and suggested he take a train back down to the nearest railway station, in Uckfield, instead of driving under the influence of Tuinal. <mask> replied that he would eat something, read his mail, and watch Juke Box Jury before phoning Brown to tell him which train to meet. He never called again. <mask> died of an overdose of Carbrital, a hypnotic preparation combining the barbiturate pentobarbital with the bromide carbromal, in his locked bedroom on 27 August 1967.He was discovered after his butler who, having been unable to rouse <mask> via his locked bedroom door, called <mask>'s PA, Joanne Petersen. She attended and failing to rouse <mask> called his doctor who, along with the butler, broke down the door and found <mask> in his bed, appearing to be asleep, a book opened near his hand and some digestive biscuits on the nightstand. On realising he was deceased, staff swept the house for contraband and then called the police. <mask> was found on a single bed, dressed in pyjamas, with various correspondence spread over a second single bed. At the statutory inquest his death was officially ruled an accident, caused by a gradual buildup of Carbrital combined with alcohol in his system. It was revealed that he had taken six Carbrital pills to sleep, which was probably normal for him, but in combination with alcohol they reduced his tolerance. The Beatles were on a retreat in Bangor in northern Wales at the time, with the Indian guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.<mask> had previously agreed to travel to Bangor after the August Bank Holiday. The second of two shows by Jimi Hendrix at <mask>'s Saville Theatre was cancelled on the evening of <mask>'s death. Peter Brown wrote in his memoir, The Love You Make: An Insider's Story of the Beatles, that he had once found a suicide note written by <mask> and had spoken with him about it. According to Brown the note read in part, "This is all too much and I can't take it any more." Brown had also found a will in which <mask> left his house and money to his mother and his brother, with Brown also being named as a minor beneficiary. When confronted with the notes, <mask> told Brown that he would be grateful if Brown did not tell anyone, and that he was sorry he had made Brown worry. He explained that when he wrote the note and composed the will he had simply taken one pill too many, and that he had no intention of overdosing, promising to be more careful in the future.Brown later wrote that he wondered if he had done the right thing by not showing the note to <mask>'s doctor, Norman Cowan, who would have stopped prescribing drugs. The coroner, Gavin Thurston, told the Westminster inquest that <mask>'s death was caused by an overdose of Carbrital and ruled it as an accidental death. The pathologist, Dr Donald Teare, stated that <mask> had been taking bromide in the form of Carbrital for some time, and that the barbiturate level in <mask>'s blood was a "low fatal level". The Beatles did not attend <mask>'s funeral, both to allow his family some privacy and to avoid attracting fans and the media. According to Geoffrey Ellis, chief executive of NEMS Enterprises, the day before the funeral George Harrison had given Nat Weiss, <mask>'s good friend and confidant, a single flower (Ellis remembers it as a chrysanthemum) wrapped in a newspaper on behalf of all four Beatles, with instructions to place the flower on <mask>'s coffin as a final farewell. However, flowers are forbidden at Jewish funerals and burials. Weiss and Ellis discussed this dilemma while walking back to the grave, where they observed two men beginning to shovel dirt onto the casket.Ellis later wrote: "Nat, who himself was Jewish, cast the newspaper package unopened onto <mask>'s coffin, where it was swiftly covered by earth." <mask> was buried in section A grave H12, in the Long Lane Jewish Cemetery, Aintree, Liverpool. The service at the graveside was held by Rabbi Dr Norman Solomon, who said, disparagingly, that <mask> was "a symbol of the malaise of our generation". A few weeks later, on 17 October, all four Beatles attended a memorial service for <mask> at the New London Synagogue in St John's Wood (near Abbey Road Studios), which was officiated by Rabbi Louis Jacobs. The Bee Gees' 1968 song "In the Summer of His Years" was written and recorded as a tribute to <mask>. Legacy

<mask> was upset that he was not honoured along with Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr when they received the MBE in 1965, though Harrison once said that the MBE stood for "Mister <mask>tein"; The Beatles were among the earliest entrants into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but Epstein was not included in the Hall's "Non-Performers' Section" until 2014, and not without controversy as he was inducted alongside Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham who refused to attend, in part in protest at what he perceived as the indignity of a joint induction. Martin Lewis, previously Taylor's assistant, created the official <mask> website, which included a petition that <mask> be inducted into the Hall of Fame.Lewis also organised the 1998 re-publication, in the United States, of <mask>'s 1964 autobiography A Cellarful of Noise. McCartney summarised the importance of <mask> when he was interviewed in 1997 for a BBC documentary about <mask>, saying, "If anyone was the Fifth Beatle, it was <mask>." In his 1970 Rolling Stone interview, Lennon commented that <mask>'s death marked the beginning of the end for the group: "I knew that we were in trouble then ... I thought, 'We've f**king had it now.'" In 2006 Cynthia Lennon said: "I think <mask>'s one of the forgotten people. It's almost as if he's been written out of the [Beatles] story. I don't think they'd have got anywhere without <mask>."The first contract between the Beatles and <mask> was auctioned in London in 2008, fetching £240,000. <mask>'s influence on the Beatles and his complicated personal life continue to provoke controversy. In 2013 author Vivek Tiwary released the graphic novel The Fifth Beatle: The <mask> Story. A film of the same name was scheduled for release in 2014, originally to be produced by Bruce Cohen and directed by Peyton Reed. Tiwary said about that project that the film would "be less a music bio and more of an inspirational human-interest story about an outsider". Tiwary and named co-producers Stuart Ford and Simon Cowell originally set the film for release in 2016, but in March 2016 it was announced that the project would be a television series. <mask> was once asked about the future of the Beatles and their "fresh honesty" (as he put it), which the interviewer thought could be "corrupted by time".He replied by saying, "I think they will go in the reverse direction, and become more honest." Notes

References

External links

 <mask> biography and sound clips

 "The Fifth Beatle" Website (A website about a proposed movie about <mask>)
 Fyne Times — <mask>tein
 BBC Archive interview with <mask>
 Lasting Legacy: Beatle Number Five article

1934 births
1967 deaths
Alcohol-related deaths in England
Accidental deaths in London
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Businesspeople from Liverpool
Drug-related deaths in England
People from Childwall
English Ashkenazi Jews
English music managers
English people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
English people of Russian-Jewish descent
LGBT businesspeople from the United Kingdom
LGBT Jews
English gamblers
LGBT people from England
People educated at Clayesmore School
People educated at Wrekin College
Royal Army Service Corps soldiers
The Beatles
Gay men
People from Warbleton
20th-century English

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Quintus <mask>  (before 103 BC or c. 100 BC – 59 BC), a member of the powerful Caecilius Metellus family (plebeian nobility, not patrician) who were at their zenith during <mask>'s lifetime. A son of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, or, according to some, the son of tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus <mask> while the latter is the son of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, was an ancient Roman statesman and general during the First Century BC. He became consul in 60 BC and previously he held the offices of praetor (63 BC) and augur. During the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC) against Mithridates VI of Pontus and Tigranes the Great of Armenia, <mask> was a lieutenant (legate) of Pompey during his eastern campaigns (66-63 BC). In the winter of 66 BC Oroeses, king of the Caucasian Albanians attacked the forces of Pompey while they were celebrating the festival of the Saturnalia in their winter quarters in Lesser Armenia. Pompey had split his army into three divisions. <mask> was in charge of one of them and custodian of Tigranes the Younger of Armenia.Metellus vigorously repulsed Oroeses while Flaccus and Pompey, who were in charge of the other two divisions, defeated the other Albanians. During <mask> <mask>'s praetorship in 63 BC, Titus Labienus indicted an old backbench Optimate senator, Gaius Rabirius, for the murder of Lucius Appuleius Saturninus thirty-six years earlier. Saturninus had been opposed by the consuls of the time at the direction of the senate. Thus, with the proposed trial the senate would lose the authority to enforce its decrees. Acts which had received the approval of the senate and had been committed many years earlier tended to give immunity to those who tried to repeat the conduct of Saturninus and make punishment of such acts ineffective. The senate was outraged that an innocent elderly man of senatorial rank was attacked and that the tribunes were entrusted with the control of affairs. There were pro- and anti-prosecution factions.The former won through the support of Julius Caesar, who was the judge together with Lucius Julius Caesar, and Rabirius was charged. The judges had been unlawfully chosen by the urban praetor, Lentulus Sura, instead of the people. Rabirius appealed and would have been convicted by the people, but this was prevented by Metellus by obstructing the meeting of the assembly of the people. In 63 BC, when the Catilinarian Conspiracy was discovered, Catiline, its leader, was indicted for violence. He went to stay at the house of Metellus <mask> to allay suspicions as Metellus was the praetor, but was unsuccessful. Metellus then brought several conspirators to trial by virtue of a decree of the senate and imprisoned them. Cicero entrusted matters outside Rome to Metellus <mask>.He was sent to the district of Pisa (in Etruria) with three legions. On learning that the rebels were advancing towards Pistoia to flee to Cisalpine Gaul (in northern Italy) he encamped at the foot of the mountain from which they had to descend for their passage to Cisalpine Gaul, while the consul Antonius had his troops at their rear. He besieged Faesulae (Fiesole), the base of Catiline, together with Antonius. The two men were encamped in two different places. Catiline attacked Antonius instead of Metellus, even through the former had a larger army. References to Metellus <mask> during the conspiracy were also made by Cicero and Valerius Maximus. In 62 BC <mask>'s brother, <mask> <mask> Nepos, challenged the legality of Cicero's actions in dealing with the Catiline conspiracy.<mask>, who was serving as governor of Cisalpine Gaul, wrote in support of Cicero. The charge was dismissed. When he was consul in 60 BC Metellus <mask> sided with the Optimates and vigorously opposed Pompey in everything because he had divorced his sister. Together with Cato the Younger he was the main opponent of the ratification of the acts Pompey had made with the cities and kingdoms in Asia as a result of the Mithridatic War. He also opposed an agrarian bill proposed by Flavius, a plebeian tribune, which Pompey sponsored and which was intended to give land grants to Pompey's discharged soldiers which they were entitled to. Metellus led the opposition to the agrarian bill. He contested every point of Flavius' bill and attacked him so persistently that the plebeian tribune had him put in prison.Metellus wanted to convene the senate there and Flavius sat at the entrance of the cell to prevent this. Metellus had the wall cut through to let them in. When Pompey heard this he was afraid of the reaction of the people and told Flavius to desist. Metellus did not consent when the other plebeian tribunes wanted to set him free. In 59 BC <mask> <mask> and Cato the Younger for a time refused to swear obedience to the agrarian law of Julius Caesar, who was consul in that year. Eventually they complied. <mask> <mask> was married to his cousin Clodia Quadrantaria, the daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher and sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher.They had a daughter named Caecilia Metella, like all the women in the family of the Caecilii Metelli. <mask>'s reputation was dogged by the scandals attached to Clodia. A contemporary poem by Catullus "may refer to Celer's marital ineffectiveness and obtuseness". The couple were known for their blazing public rows. <mask> Caecilius Metellus <mask> died suddenly in 59 BC—according to some poisoned by his wife, who was notoriously debauched, reputed to be the incestuous lover of her brother Clodius, of Caelius, possibly of the great lyric poet Catullus (most authorities identify her as the subject of his Lesbia), and many others. Notes

References
Primary sources
 Cassius Dio, Roman History, Vol. 3, Books 36–40, Loeb Classical Library, Loeb, 1989;
 Henry G. Hohn, The Life and Letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero, London, England, 1848, pg.334. Sallust, Catiline's Conspiracy, The Jugurthine War, Histories, Oxford World's Classics, Oxford University Press, 2010;

Secondary Sources
 T. P. Wiseman, "Celer and Nepos", Classical Quarterly vol. 1 (1971), p. 180—182
 Peter V. Jones and Kenneth C. Sidwell, The World of Rome: an introduction to Roman culture, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 104. Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, University of California Press, 1995, pp. 58, 130. 100s BC births
59 BC deaths
1st-century BC Roman augurs
1st-century BC Roman consuls
1st-century BC Roman praetors
<mask>, Quintus
Optimates
Year of birth uncertain

masks:
Caelius Metellus Celer
Celer
Celer
Metellus Celer
Metellus Celer
Metellus
Celer
Celer
Celer
Celer
Celer
Quintus
Metellus
Celer
Celer
Metellus
Celer
Metellus
Celer
Celer
Quintus
Celer
Celer


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<mask>. (born February 10, 1967) is an American writer, producer, and director. He is known for his television work, specifically as creator, head writer, executive producer, and director of AMC's Breaking Bad (2008–2013) and its spin-off Better Call Saul (2015–present). He was a writer and producer for The X-Files (1993–2002; 2016–2018) and was the co-creator of its spin-off, The Lone Gunmen (2001). <mask> has won four Primetime Emmy Awards, six Writers Guild of America Awards, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, two Producers Guild of America Awards, a Directors Guild of America Award, and a BAFTA Television Award. Outside of television, he co-wrote the screenplay for the 2008 film Hancock and wrote and directed the Breaking Bad sequel film, El Camino, released on October 11, 2019. Early life

<mask> was born on February 10, 1967 in Richmond, Virginia, the son of Gail, a grade school teacher, and <mask>., an insurance claims adjuster. His parents divorced in 1974.He and his younger brother, Patrick, were raised in Farmville and Chesterfield County, and attended J.P. Wynne Campus School, the laboratory school run by Longwood College, where his mother also taught; <mask> would later use the name J.P. Wynne for the fictional high school where Walter White teaches in Breaking Bad. Growing up, <mask> became best friends with future film editor and film title designer Angus Wall. His interest in film began when Wall's mother, Jackie, who also taught alongside <mask>'s mother at J.P. Wynne, would lend her Super 8 film cameras to him. He used the camera to make science fiction films with Patrick. One of his first films was entitled Space Wreck, starring his brother in the lead role. One year later, he won first prize for his age group in a film competition at the University of Virginia. Jackie would take Wall and <mask> to Richmond and drop them off at Cloverleaf Mall to see films, and encourage both of them to pursue a career in the arts."I wouldn't be where I am today if it weren't for Jackie. She was a wonderful lady and a real inspiration," he recalls. <mask> was recognized for his talents and creativity at an early age. George Sr. described him as a "kind of a studious-type young man, and he liked to read, and he had a vivid imagination". He introduced <mask> to film noir classics, as well as John Wayne and Clint Eastwood Westerns on late-night television. <mask> won a scholarship to attend the prestigious Interlochen Center for the Arts. After eighth grade, he moved back to Chesterfield to attend high school.Education
After graduating from Lloyd C. Bird High School in 1985, <mask> went on to attend NYU's Tisch School of the Arts on a scholarship, receiving a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film production. While at NYU, he wrote the screenplay for Home Fries; <mask> received the Virginia Governor's Screenwriting Award in 1989 for the screenplay which was later turned into a film. One of the judges of the competition was Mark Johnson, a film producer. He was impressed by <mask>, saying he "was the most imaginative writer I'd ever read". Career

The X-Files and The Lone Gunmen

<mask>'s big break came when he joined the Fox television drama The X-Files. <mask> was a fan of the show, and submitted a script to Fox which became the second-season episode "Soft Light". He went on to write 29 more episodes, in addition to being co-executive producer of 44 episodes, executive producer of 40, co-producer of 24, and supervising producer of 20.He also co-created and became executive producer of The X-Files spin-off series The Lone Gunmen. The series only ran for one season of 13 episodes. Breaking Bad and Better Call Saul

<mask> created, wrote, directed, and produced the AMC drama series Breaking Bad. He created the series with the premise that the hero would become the villain. "Television is historically good at keeping its characters in a self-imposed stasis so that shows can go on for years or even decades," he said. "When I realized this, the logical next step was to think, how can I do a show in which the fundamental drive is toward change?" He added that his goal with Walter White was to turn him from "Mr. Chips into Scarface".While pitching the show to studios, <mask> was initially discouraged when he learned of the existing series Weeds and its similarities to the premise of Breaking Bad. While his producers convinced him that the show was different enough to still be successful, he later stated that he would not have gone forward with the idea had he known about Weeds earlier. Breaking Bad received widespread critical acclaim and has been praised by many critics as being among the greatest television dramas of all time. <mask> has been awarded numerous times for writing, directing, and producing the series. The Writers Guild of America has awarded him four times in straight succession, from 2012 to 2014; three as a part of the Breaking Bad writing team and one individually for writing the episode "Box Cutter". He also received two Primetime Emmys in 2013 and 2014 for producing the show. In 2014, he won the Directors Guild of America Award for directing the finale of Breaking Bad, "Felina".In September 2013, Sony Pictures Television announced a deal with AMC to produce a Breaking Bad spin-off prequel entitled Better Call Saul, to focus on character Saul Goodman from the original series, before he became Walter Whites lawyer, and to star Bob Odenkirk reprising his role as the title character. <mask> co-created the series with Breaking Bad writer Peter Gould, with both of them acting as showrunners. The first episode, which <mask> directed and co-wrote, premiered on February 8, 2015. In July 2018, it was announced that <mask> had agreed to stay with Sony TV on a new three-year deal. His deal via his High Bridge Productions company was renewed more recently. In November 2018, <mask> confirmed that he was working on a Breaking Bad movie titled El Camino: A Breaking Bad Movie. Other work
<mask> first had a screenplay produced in 1993 for the romantic comedy film, Wilder Napalm.While working on The X-Files, one of <mask>'s early screenplays was produced as a film, Home Fries, which starred Drew Barrymore and Luke Wilson. <mask> was hired by The X-Files creator Chris Carter to be a consulting producer on his new series Harsh Realm. After The X-Files, <mask> wrote three episodes of the short lived police procedural series Robbery Homicide Division and an episode of the ABC series Night Stalker. In 2007, <mask> and fellow The X-Files producer Frank Spotnitz wrote a sci-fi pilot entitled A.M.P.E.D., which was not picked up for a full series. He also rewrote the screenplay for the 2008 Will Smith film Hancock, which was originally written by <mask>o. <mask> made his acting debut in 2014 in "VCR Maintenance and Educational Publishing", the ninth episode of the fifth season of NBC's comedy series Community. He plays a cheesy actor hosting "Pile of Bullets", a fictional 1990s VCR-based video game.In September 2013, Sony announced that it struck a deal with CBS to produce a new television series created by <mask> and David Shore entitled Battle Creek. Based on a script written by Gilligan ten years prior, the show follows the partnership of two police detectives who must compete with a seemingly-perfect FBI agent. <mask> co-wrote the first episode with Shore, the showrunner of the series. CBS ordered thirteen episodes and the series aired on CBS starting March 1, 2015. CBS decided not to renew the series for a second season. Personal life
<mask> has been with his girlfriend, Holly Rice, since 1991. In an interview in 2011, <mask> stated that he was raised Catholic, but added, "I'm pretty much agnostic at this point in my life.But I find atheism just as hard to get my head around as I find fundamental Christianity. Because if there is no such thing as cosmic justice, what is the point of being good?" He further stated his philosophy as: "I feel some sort of need for biblical atonement, or justice, or something. I like to believe there is some comeuppance, that karma kicks in at some point, even if it takes years or decades to happen. My girlfriend says this great thing that's become my philosophy as well. 'I want to believe there's a heaven. But I can't not believe there's a hell.'"Filmography

Film

Television

Writer

Acting

Awards and nominations

References

External links

 <mask> at amctv.com

1967 births
21st-century American writers
American agnostics
American crime fiction writers
American male screenwriters
American male television writers
American television writers
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Former Roman Catholics
Golden Globe Award-winning producers
Living people
People from Chesterfield County, Virginia
People from Farmville, Virginia
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Screenwriters from Virginia
Showrunners
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
Western (genre) writers
Writers Guild of America Award winners
Television producers from Virginia

masks:
George Vincent Gilligan Jr
Gilligan
Vince Gilligan
George Vincent Gilligan Sr
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Vincent Ng
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Gilligan
Vince Gilligan


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<mask> (; 17December 1905 1April 2002), often referred to by his nickname, The White Death, was a Finnish military sniper in World War II during the 1939–1940 Winter War against the Soviet Union. He used a Finnish-produced M/28-30, a variant of the Mosin–Nagant rifle. Häyhä had also used a submachine gun, the Suomi KP/-31. He is believed to have killed over 500 men during the Winter War, the highest number of sniper kills in any major war. Häyhä estimated in his private war memoir that he shot around 500 enemy soldiers. The memoir, titled "Sotamuistoja" (War memoirs), was written in 1940, a few months after he was wounded, and described his experiences in the Winter War from 30 November 1939 to 13 March 1940. Hidden for decades, his memoir was discovered in 2017.Early life and youth

<mask> <mask> was born in the Kiiskinen hamlet of the Rautjärvi municipality in the Viipuri Province of southern Finland near the border with Russia. He was the seventh of eight children in a Lutheran family of farmers; his father, Juho Häyhä, was the owner of the Mattila farm while <mask>'s mother, Katriina (née Vilkko) was a loving and hard-working farmer's wife. He attended school in the village of Miettilä in Kivennapa parish and cultivated his home farm together with his eldest brother. He was a farmer, hunter, and skier prior to his military service. Militia and military service

Häyhä joined the Finnish voluntary militia Civil Guard (Suojeluskunta) at the age of 17. He was successful in shooting competitions in the Viipuri Province; his home was reportedly full of trophies for marksmanship. He was not keen to hog the spotlight, and correspondingly in the group photos of his youth he usually stood at the back, until his later success started to force him to take centre place.In 1925, at the age of 19, Häyhä began his 15-month compulsory military service in the Bicycle Battalion 2 in Raivola, Viipuri Province. He attended the Non-Commissioned Officer School and served as a conscript officer in the Bicycle Battalion 1 in Terijoki. However, he did not get sniper training until a year before the war in 1938 at a training centre in Utti. According to Major Tapio Saarelainen—who met Häyhä several times and has written five books about him, including his biography—Häyhä was able to estimate distances with an accuracy of 1 metre (3.3 ft) up to 150 metres (500 ft). Saarelainen notes that during his Civil Guard training, Häyhä once hit a target 16 times from 150 metres away in just one minute. "This was an unbelievable accomplishment with a bolt action rifle, considering that each cartridge had to be manually fed with a fixed magazine that held together five cartridges." Winter War service

Häyhä served as a sniper in the Finnish Army during the 1939–40 Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union, under Lieutenant Aarne Juutilainen in the 6th Company of Infantry Regiment 34 (Jalkaväkirykmentti 34, or JR 34) during the Battle of Kollaa in temperatures between −40 and −20 °C ( to ).He was dressed completely in white camouflage; Soviet troops were not issued camouflage uniforms for most of the war, making them easily visible to snipers in winter conditions. Joseph Stalin had purged military experts in the late 1930s as part of the Great Purge, and the Red Army was consequently highly disorganized. Finnish sources state that Häyhä was nicknamed "The White Death" by the Red Army (, ; ; ). The name "White Death" has been suggested to originate entirely in Finnish propaganda, rather than having been given to Häyhä by the Russians; according to information from prisoners, to the Russians "White Death" referred to a severe frost in the deep forest. Häyhä having the nickname "White Death" first appeared in the Finnish Winter War literature of the late 1980s. During the war, the "White Death" was one of the leading themes of Finnish propaganda. Finnish newspapers frequently featured the invisible Finnish soldier, thus creating a hero of mythical proportions.To add to the myth, he was also nicknamed "The Magic Shooter" (, in close reference to the Finnish word for "sniper"; ) among Finns. <mask>'s war memoir states that they captured a Soviet soldier, blindfolded him, spun him around until he was disoriented, and then took him to a party in the tent of Häyhä's company Lieutenant Aarne "The Terror of Morocco" Juutilainen. The Soviet soldier was overjoyed by the carousing and was disappointed when he was released. Achievements as a sniper

All of Häyhä's kills were accomplished in less than 100 days, an average of five per day at a time of year with very few daylight hours. His kill count as a sniper was based on his own reporting, with the confirmation of his comrades, and only those who were verified to be dead were counted. No count was taken when several snipers shot at the same target. Men killed with a submachine gun with Häyhä as a group leader were not counted.Häyhä's division commander Antero Svensson credited him with 219 confirmed kills with a rifle and an equal number of kills by submachine gun, when he awarded Häyhä with an honorary rifle on 17 February 1940. On 21 December 1939, Häyhä achieved his highest daily count of 25 kills. In his diary, military chaplain Antti Rantamaa reported 259 confirmed kills made by rifle and an equal number of kills by submachine gun from the beginning of the war until 7 March 1940, one day after Häyhä was severely wounded. Later in his book, Rantamaa credited Häyhä with a total of 542 kills. Some of Häyhä's figures are from a Finnish Army document, counted from the beginning of the war, 30 November 1939:

 22 December 1939: 138 sniper kills in 22 days
 26 January 1940: 199 sniper kills (61 in 35 days)
 17 February 1940: 219 sniper kills (20 in 22 days)
 7 March 1940 (one day after he was wounded): total of 259 sniper kills (40 in 18 days)

Häyhä never discussed it publicly, but his own private memoir, discovered in 2017, states a number. He begins by stating that "this is his sin list", and estimates the total number shot by him to be around 500. Finnish historian Risto Marjomaa questions the large number, as confirmation of casualties was difficult due to the absence of the bodies.In his article, published by the National Biography of Finland, Marjomaa credited Häyhä with the total number of "more than two hundred" kills. Complicating matters further is the use of Häyhä's achievements as a tool of propaganda: the Finnish press built a hero's myth around Häyhä at the early stage of the war. Firearms and tactics

Häyhä used his issued Civil Guard rifle, an early series SAKO M/28-30, serial number 35281, Civil Guard number S60974. It was a Finnish Civil Guard variant of the Mosin–Nagant rifle known as "Pystykorva" ( due to the front sight's resemblance to the head of a spitz-type dog) chambered in the Finnish-designed Mosin–Nagant cartridge 7.62×54R. When fighting as a group leader with the rest of his unit, he used a Suomi KP/-31 submachine gun. Häyhä preferred iron sights over telescopic sights, as they enable a sniper to present a smaller target for the enemy (a sniper must raise his head a few centimetres higher when using a telescopic sight), can be relied on even in extreme cold, unlike telescopic sights which tend to cloud up in cold weather, and are easier to conceal; sunlight can reflect off a telescopic sight's lenses and reveal the sniper's position. He also did not have prior training with scoped rifles, and therefore preferred not to switch to the Soviet scoped rifle (M/91-30 PE or PEM).Häyhä dealt with the intense cold by dressing properly with multiple layers of clothing. He kept sugar and bread in his pockets, consuming them for the calories necessary to keep his body warm. His slight stature of  assisted him in disguising his position. Hidden in a snow pit, he could lie still and observe the enemy for long periods of time. It was Häyhä's custom to move, well before daybreak, to the position he had prepared, and stay there until after sunset. He would frequently pack dense mounds of snow in front of his position to conceal himself, provide padding for his rifle, and reduce the characteristic puff of snow stirred up by the muzzle blast. He was known to keep snow in his mouth while sniping to prevent his breath in the cold air from giving away his position.Wounding

On 6 March 1940, Häyhä was severely wounded after an explosive bullet fired by a Red Army soldier hit his lower left jaw. After the battle, as he appeared to be dead, he was placed on a pile of dead bodies. A fellow soldier, under orders from his commanding officer, searched for Häyhä, noticed a leg twitching among the pile and found Häyhä alive, although unconscious. He was evacuated by fellow soldiers who said that "half his face was missing". The bullet had removed his upper jaw, most of his lower jaw, and most of his left cheek. Rumours of Häyhä's death spread around in Finland and the Soviet Union. He regained consciousness a week later on 13 March, the day that peace was declared.He read about his own death in a newspaper, and sent a letter to the paper to correct the misunderstanding. He spent 14 months recovering from his wounds and endured 26 surgeries. After he had recovered, <mask> wanted to serve in the Continuation War (1941–44). However, he was excused due to the severity of his (facial) injuries. Honours

<mask> was awarded the First and Second class Medals of Liberty, as well as the Third and Fourth class Crosses of Liberty. The latter two were normally granted to only commissioned officers. As an additional honour, on 17 February 1940, he received a nameplated SAKO M/28-30 “Pystykorva” Honorary  Rifle (serial number 100 781), donated by Eugen Johansson, a Swedish businessman and supporter of Finland.According to an unofficial count, he had shot 219 Red Army soldiers at the time. He later donated the rifle to the Karelia Jaeger Battalion's Heritage Room, from where it was transferred to the Finnish Military Museum's collection after the dissolution of the North Karelia Brigade in 2013. Shortly after the Winter War, on 28 August 1940, Finnish Field Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim promoted <mask> straight from alikersantti (the lowest military rank of a non-commissioned officer) to vänrikki (the first military rank of an officer). In 1941, <mask> was also nominated as a Knight of the Mannerheim Cross, the most distinguished Finnish military honour. However, the nomination remained "under consideration". He also received the Kollaa fighters' medal, the silver version of the Cross of Kollaa Battle, number 4. Post-war life

It took several years for Häyhä to recuperate from his wound which required lengthy treatments and several surgeries.Although his face remained disfigured for the rest of his life, he otherwise made a full recovery and after the Second World War was given his own farm in Valkjärvi ("Whitelake"), Ruokolahti, a small municipality located in southeastern Finland near the Russian border. He became a successful moose hunter and dog breeder; he even hunted with the President of Finland, Urho Kekkonen. However, he was also met with hate and even death threats; some people did not accept his actions during the Winter War. Häyhä was known as a modest man who never boasted of his wartime merits. He rarely spoke of the war and his experiences. He was asked in 1998 how he had become such a good sniper: "Practice". In an Independence Day interview with Helsingin Sanomat in December 2001, shortly before his 96th birthday, Häyhä opened up about his war experiences.He was asked if he felt remorse for having killed so many people. He replied, "I did what I was told to do, as well as I could. There would be no Finland unless everyone else had done the same". Häyhä spent his last years in a war veterans' nursing home in Hamina, where he died in 2002 at the age of 96. He was buried in his home town of Ruokolahti. He never married and had no children. In popular culture

Swedish heavy metal band Sabaton composed the song "White Death" in honor of Häyhä, which was released in 2010 on their album Coat of Arms.In 2011, Philip Kaufman began filming HBO's Hemingway & Gellhorn (first airdate 28 May 2012), which features Martha Gellhorn (played by Nicole Kidman) reporting from Finland during the Winter War. In this section, Steven Wiig portrays Häyhä, leading a group of Finnish soldiers to shelter. A film about Häyhä called The White Death has been planned since 2017. The film is directed by David McElroy and written by James Poirier. American author Arna Bontemps Hemenway has written a short story about Häyhä, called "Wolves of Karelia", which was published in the August 2019 issue of The Atlantic magazine. Häyhä has been made into a manga called The White Witch (, Shiroi Majo) by Nagakawa Naruki, where the main character's sex has changed to a woman. He also appears in the manga Record of Ragnarok (, Shūmatsu no Warukyūre) by Shinya Umemura and Takumi Fukui, in which he is depicted as a fighter for humanity.References

Further reading

 P. Sarjanen, . .
 Tapio A. M. Saarelainen, . .
 Tapio A. M. Saarelainen, . .
 William R. Trotter, 'Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939/40', Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2000. .
 Adrian Gilbert, Tom C. McKenney, Dan Mills, Roger Moorhouse, Charles Sasser, Tim Newark, 'The Sniper Anthology: Snipers of the Second World War', Pelican Publishing Company, 2012. . External links

 Kollaa and Simo Häyhä Museum
 Meeting a Legend: Simo Häyhä (John Mitchell, mosinnagant.net, 2002; archived 2004)
 Simo Häyhä – The Deadliest Sniper In History (Forces.net, 2020)

1905 births
2002 deaths
Finnish military personnel of World War II
Finnish military snipers
Winter War
People from Rautjärvi
People from Viipuri Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Liberty, 3rd Class

masks:
Simo Häyhä
Simo
Häyhä
Simo
Häyhä
Häyhä
Häyhä
Häyhä
Häyhä


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<mask> (born 10 April 1990) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Wigan Athletic. Born in Macclesfield, Cheshire, <mask> began his career with Crewe Alexandra's youth academy, but joined Manchester United at the age of 11. He has also played for Bolton Wanderers and has spent time on loan at Peterborough United, Molde, and Oldham Athletic. Additionally, <mask> is an England youth international, having represented his country at every level from Under-16 to Under-21. Club career

Crewe Alexandra
<mask> was born in Macclesfield, Cheshire and was a member of the Crewe Alexandra academy until he was released at the age of 10. While at Crewe, he also played for another local team, Bollington United, as a centre midfielder. One year later, <mask> was playing for his local team against the team at the top of the table, and they needed to win the match to win the league.<mask>' team's goalkeeper was injured during the game, and as the tallest on the team, <mask> was put in goal; however, he had also been the team's regular penalty taker all season, so when they were awarded a penalty, he went all the way up the pitch to take the kick. He scored, and his team went on to win the game 3–2, together with the league title. After the game, his parents told him that a Manchester United scout had been watching him and that he had been invited for trials. <mask> joined Manchester United at the age of 11. Manchester United
In his first season at Manchester United, <mask> became a regular starter for the club's Under-13 team, playing in 19 out of 27 matches in the 2001–02 season. <mask> was named as an unused substitute for the Under-18 side for the first time on 8 January 2005, for a league game against Manchester City. His first appearance for the Under-18s came exactly nine months later, on 8 October 2005, coming on as a substitute for Danny Rose after starting goalkeeper Ron-Robert Zieler was sent off in a 2–0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers.He was regularly named as an unused substitute during the 2005–06 season – including for two reserve team matches – but became a frequent starter for the Under-18s in 2006–07 after signing a trainee contract in July 2006. However, he missed the final of the 2006–07 FA Youth Cup with a dislocated shoulder. He retained his place in the Under-18 team for 2007–08, in addition to making his debut for the reserve team against Wigan Athletic on 7 November 2007, and during the season he impressed enough to be selected to go on the first-team's 2008 summer tour of South Africa. <mask> was named as a substitute for all three matches of the tour, but did not play. En route back from South Africa, United stopped off in Nigeria to play against Portsmouth on 27 July 2008, with <mask> replacing Tomasz Kuszczak after 76 minutes. He made his competitive first-team debut on 23 September 2008 in a 3–1 win at home to Middlesbrough in the third round of the League Cup. On 14 December 2008, <mask> travelled to Japan with the Manchester United squad for the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup, having been called up as a late replacement for <mask>, who had suffered a hand injury while training.Loans to Peterborough and Molde
On 29 October 2009, <mask> signed for the Championship team Peterborough United on a month's loan as cover for Peterborough's suspended first-choice goalkeeper Joe Lewis. He made his only appearance on 31 October in a 2–1 defeat against Barnsley. After returning to Manchester United, <mask> was again sent out on loan in March 2010, this time to Norwegian side Molde FK, where he remained on loan until 30 June 2010. Return to Manchester United
Following the departure of <mask> from Manchester United to Birmingham City, United manager Alex Ferguson declared that <mask> would be Manchester United's third-choice goalkeeper for the 2010–11 season behind Edwin van der Sar and Tomasz Kuszczak. He made his first appearance of the season on 26 October 2010, starting in goal for United's 3–2 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers in the fourth round of the League Cup. In United's final Champions League group match on 7 December 2010, <mask> was picked to start against Valencia at Old Trafford. Pablo Hernández scored Valencia's only goal past him after 32 minutes of the match – the first goal United had conceded in the Champions League that season – as the two sides played out a 1–1 draw.Loan to Oldham Athletic
With the signing of Danish goalkeeper Anders Lindegaard, Manchester United allowed <mask> to join Oldham Athletic on loan for the remainder of the season on 7 January 2011, although he would continue to train with Manchester United once a week. He made his debut against Swindon Town the next day and kept a clean sheet. However, three days later, he conceded all six goals in a 6–0 defeat at home to Southampton; he allowed Adam Lallana's 20-yard shot underneath his body for the second goal, and he was rounded by Lee Barnard for the sixth. On 15 March 2011, Lindegaard was ruled out for five weeks following a knee injury, so <mask> was recalled from Oldham to cover for Edwin van der Sar and Tomasz Kuszczak. Return to Manchester United

<mask> made his first start of the 2011–12 season in a third round League Cup tie at Elland Road against Leeds United. He kept a clean sheet as United cruised through to the next round winning 3–0. He played again in the following round away at Aldershot Town, a game which United also won 3–0 and advanced to the quarter finals.He was in goal again for United's League Cup game in a defeat against Championship club Crystal Palace on 30 November. It also seemed that he had moved above last season's second choice Tomasz Kuszczak in the pecking order, but was now third choice behind Anders Lindegaard and David de Gea. He made his first Premier League start in a 2–0 home win against Stoke City on 31 January 2012, keeping a clean sheet on his debut. On 30 May 2012, <mask> signed a three-year contract extension with Manchester United, which kept him at the club until 2015. Loan to Hull City

On 31 July 2012, <mask> joined Championship team Hull City on a season-long loan from Manchester United. Before the loan deal was completed, he had joined Hull on their pre-season training camp in Portugal. He made his debut on 11 August 2012 in 7–6 penalty shoot-out victory over Rotherham United in the first round of the 2012–13 Football League Cup.However, after 19 appearances, including two in the League Cup, <mask> returned to Manchester United on 3 January 2013. Loan to Carlisle United
On 15 November 2013, <mask> joined League One team Carlisle United on a month-long loan from Manchester United. Loan to Bolton Wanderers
On 30 January 2015 he joined Championship club Bolton Wanderers on a month's loan to provide competition for Andy Lonergan after Ádám Bogdán was ruled out with an ankle injury picked up in training. On 21 February 2015 he made his Bolton debut as a substitute for the injured Lonergan as Wanderers lost 4–1 to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground. He played nine Championship games for Bolton before his loan expired on 4 April. Return to Manchester United
<mask> returned to Manchester United after his loan spell at Bolton Wanderers, but on 10 June 2015, it was announced on Manchester United website that <mask> has been released from the club along with four other players. Bolton Wanderers
On 1 July 2015, <mask> returned to Bolton Wanderers following his release from Manchester United, signing a four-year contract with the club.He returned to the starting line up for Bolton on the opening day against Derby County. He went onto make 44 appearances as Bolton were relegated to third tier. Loan to Cardiff City
After finding himself second choice behind summer signing, Mark Howard, <mask> signed a season long loan at Championship side, Cardiff City on 26 August. He was kept out of the starting line-up by <mask>, until 17 September, where he made his debut against Leeds United. He remained first choice until December, eventually losing his place in the side to loanee Allan McGregor. Loan to Charlton Athletic
On 29 July 2017, <mask> joined League One side Charlton Athletic on loan for the 2017–18 season. Loan to Millwall
On 13 July 2018, <mask> was signed by Championship side Millwall, joining the club for the 2018–19 season.Charlton Athletic
On 15 July 2019, <mask> returned to Charlton Athletic on a two-year deal. In his first season, <mask> was limited to one League Cup appearance, as he was second choice behind Dillon Phillips. After Phillips was sold to Cardiff, <mask> played every minute of every league game for Charlton in their 2020/21 League One campaign, as they narrowly missed out on the play-offs. <mask> kept 17 clean sheets across the season. Wigan Athletic
Having been out of contract at Charlton, <mask> agreed a two-year deal at Wigan Athletic on 28 June 2021.

International career
<mask> is an England youth international, having played for his country at the Under-16, Under-17, Under-18, Under-19, Under-20 and Under-21 levels. He was called up to the Under-21 squad in 2011 for their friendly match against Iceland, but he was an unused substitute. <mask> was included on the 80-man shortlist for the Great Britain Olympic football team squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics, but did not make the final 18.Personal life
<mask> attended Fallibroome High School, where he earned 11 GCSEs at grade C or above. Career statistics

Honours
Manchester United
FIFA Club World Cup: 2008
League Cup: 2008-09

References

External links

Profile at StretfordEnd.co.uk

1990 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Macclesfield
English footballers
England youth international footballers
England under-21 international footballers
Association football goalkeepers
Crewe Alexandra F.C. players
Manchester United F.C. players
Peterborough United F.C. players
Molde FK players
Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
Carlisle United F.C.players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Millwall F.C. players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Eliteserien players
English expatriate footballers
Expatriate footballers in Norway

masks:
Benjamin Paul Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Ben Foster
Amos
Amos
Ben Foster
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Ben Amos
Ben Amos
Amos
Amos
Ben Wilson
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos
Amos


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<mask> (December 12, 1926 – September 17, 2012) was a Canadian filmmaker who was known as an early practitioner of cinéma vérité, as co-founder of IMAX, and as creator of the Sandde hand-drawn stereoscopic animation system. He was also the original inspiration for the Force, popularized in the Star Wars series. He studied philosophy and psychology at the University of Manitoba and then worked for the National Film Board of Canada, first as a production assistant and then as a film editor. He directed his first film, Rescue Party in 1949. He wrote the NFB animated short It's A Crime (1957), produced Propaganda Message (1974), and produced and directed In the Labyrinth, released as a theatrical film in 1979. On September 17, 2012, he died of a heart attack at the age of 85. Early influence of the cinéma vérité style
Between 1958 and 1961 Kroitor co-directed, with Wolf Koenig, the Candid Eye direct cinema documentary series for the National Film Board.One of those films became the highly influential cinéma vérité-style documentary about singer Paul Anka: Lonely Boy. This film's use of portable film and sound gear, with lack of a voice over narration, would influence later documentaries like  D.A. Pennebaker's 1967 Bob Dylan feature Dont Look Back and even more closely the Peter Watkins 1967 film Privilege. Lonely Boy was one of the earliest examples of a rockumentary and was parodied in the comedy This Is Spinal Tap. Other notable films Kroitor directed or co-directed in the cinema verite style included Glenn Gould: On the Record, Glenn Gould:Off the Record, Stravinsky, among many others. Founder of IMAX
Kroitor exhibited a large-scale multi-screen work, Labyrinth, at Expo 67 in Montreal. In the same year he co-founded the Multiscreen Corporation, which later became the IMAX Corporation.The Multivision process, which was a response to <mask>'s experiences at Expo 67, was developed for the Osaka Expo '70 and involved 70mm film projected horizontally rather than vertically. Each frame was as large as a postcard, with 15 sprocket-holes. He produced the first IMAX film, Tiger Child, in 1970 (dir. Donald Brittain), and in 1990 he co-directed the first IMAX feature film, Rolling Stones: At the Max. He also produced the first IMAX stereoscopic (S3D) film, We Are Born of Stars, anaglyph, 1985, and co-produced the first full-color OMNIMAX (IMAX Dome) S3D film, Echoes of the Sun, alternate-eye, 1990. Creator of hand-drawn stereoscopic animation
While working to create traditional (actuality) and early CG films in a stereoscopic format, Kroitor became frustrated due to the lack of direct interaction between the desires of the (right-brained) artists and the results on film, because at the time everything had to pass through the (left-brained) mathematicians and programmers. He conceived of SANDDE as a way to allow the artists to directly draw, in full stereoscopic 3D, what they wanted the audience to see.Originator of "The Force"
<mask> was credited by George Lucas, creator of the Star Wars films, as being the origin of the concept of the Force, an important thematic element tying together all the Star Wars films. "One of the audio sources Lipsett sampled for 21-87 [a film that had a great influence on Lucas] was a conversation between artificial intelligence pioneer Warren S. McCulloch and <mask>, a cinematographer who went on to develop IMAX. In the face of McCulloch's arguments that living beings are nothing but highly complex machines, Kroitor insists that there is something more: 'Many people feel that in the contemplation of nature and in communication with other living things, they become aware of some kind of force, or something, behind this apparent mask which we see in front of us, and they call it God.'" "When asked if this was the source of 'the Force,' Lucas confirms that his use of the term in Star Wars was 'an echo of that phrase in 21-87.'" Awards
 BAFTA: Universe (Best Animated Film, 1961). Canadian Film Awards: Universe (Film of the Year and Special Mention, 1961); Lonely Boy (Film of the Year and Best General Information Film, 1962); Above the Horizon (Best Children’s Film, 1964); Stravinsky (Best TV Information film, 1965).

masks:
Roman Kroitor
Kroitor
Roman Kroitor
Roman Kroitor


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<mask> (also <mask>) (1755 – 24 August 1802) was a Danish historian, journalist and pamphleteer. <mask> was known for his extensive authorship that was extremely critical of the Danish society and institutions. He was influenced by the radical enlightenment ideas of the French and English thinkers. The American historian H. Arnold Barton has characterised Riegels, along with Michael Gottlieb Birckner, as being one of "the most original thinkers" of the radical group of authors in Denmark in this period. Biography
The father of <mask>, <mask>, was a learned merchant who had traveled widely and had a degree in philology. His mother, Bodil Birgitte Flindt, hailed from a family of landed proprietors. After having been home tutored by his father, who himself had unfulfilled dreams of a professorship, <mask> went to the University of Copenhagen in 1770.At Copenhagen, Riegels studied theology, and he was known amongst his professors as having a rebellious and inquisitive mind. Despite several years of study, some of them spent at the University of Göttingen and University of Kiel, he never achieved his degree. Instead, he concentrated on the study of church history and published several small tracts in Latin before finally undertaking the task of writing an authoritative history of the church in Danish, of which the first volume was published in 1781. Perhaps on account of this, he was hired as tutor of the pages at the court of Queen dowager Juliane Maria. In this position he clandestinely participated in the coup against the ruling faction, one of whom was the Queen dowager herself. The coup was affected 14 April 1784, with the Crown Prince Frederick taking power alongside the Foreign minister Andreas Peter Bernstorff. Riegels was dismissed with a handsome pension of 1200 Danish rigsdaler for his efforts in the coup, yet he soon became a bitter opponent of the new government, mainly because he was not selected for the post of royal historiographer.From then on, he turned his authorship into a  weapon against the ruling circles and everything connected to them. Despite the royal pension that he continued to receive until his death, he did not feel any obligations towards the new rule. He published a stream of pamphlets, books, journals and articles, most of these containing unrelenting criticism of the aristocracy, the church, the academic world and a wide variety of matters concerning how the government handled affairs. Writings
The beginning of Riegels' critical authorship can be traced to the third volume of his Fuldstændig Kirkehistorie ("Complete History of the Church, 1781–86) from 1786. Whereas the preceding volumes conformed to the official interpretation of the Scriptures, the third volume changed considerably in tone. It was a defense of Arianism and other heretical sects that had been suppressed during the late antiquity, creating parallels to contemporary times and how Riegels perceived the lack of tolerance in the Danish church. Many of Riegels' works were published anonymously, including the journal Kiøbenhavns Skilderie ("Image of Copenhagen", 1786–1790), which contained vivid eyewitness accounts of the sordid conditions of the inmates of the penitentiaries, poor houses and insane asylums of Copenhagen.From these experiences he campaigned for a reform of the insane asylum called Pesthuset (later St Hans), with the effect that the donations poured in, though the needed reforms did not take place until long after <mask>' death. Thanks to the deliberate laxity of the post-1784 government, the restrictive censorship laws of Ove Høegh-Guldberg were rarely enforced; yet, one exception was in 1790 when <mask> was fined 200 rigsdaler for his Julemærker fra Landet og Byen ("Weather forecast from the Country and from the City") which had in effect called for an institution of a General Assembly of the Estates. <mask> had meanwhile moved to Falster where he had married and bought a farmstead. Since his university days, he had shown an interest in the natural sciences, which amongst other things led to him writing "Forsøg til chirurgiens historie" ("An attempt at the History of Surgery", 1786. Latin version in 1788 De Fatis faustis et infaustis Chirurgiae for which he received honorary medals from Catherine II of Russia, Gustav III of Sweden and the Prussian minister Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg). He had also begun studying animal anatomy, an interest he pursued by dissecting various farm animals as well as practicing as an unofficial veterinary. He published several Latin papers on his findings and corresponded with physicians around the world, among others the American Founding Father Benjamin Rush.He had not, however, relinquished his critical authorship. The 1790s saw the publication of several voluminous historical works, amongst them Forsøg til Femte Christians Historie ("An attempt at the History of Christian V of Denmark", 1792), Udkast til Fierde Friederichs Historie efter Høyer ("Outline of the History of Frederick IV of Denmark according to Andreas Hojer", 2 vols., 1795–1800) and Smaa historiske Skrifter ("Minor Historical Works", 3 vols, 1796–1798, containing "A Life of Christian VI of Denmark") which was as critical as his earlier works. Another interest of Riegels' was the theory of education. He wrote a series of articles on this subject around 1788-1789, inspired by John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau among others. In 1800, he moved to Sorø where he opened a school based on these theories, and died 2 years later aged 47 of a seizure in 1802. References

Sources
 H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era 1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press, 1986. .
 Morten Petersen, Oplysningens Gale Hund - en biografi om Niels Ditlev Riegels, Aschehoug, 2003. . External links
 Assorted writings of <mask> <mask> Riegels at Danish Wikisource

Danish male writers
18th-century Danish historians
Danish journalists
1755 births
1802 deaths
18th-century Danish people
18th-century male writers

masks:
Niels Ditlev Riegels
Riegelsen
Niels Ditlev Riegels
Niels Ditlev Riegels
Hans Riegelsen
Niels Ditlev Riegels
Riegels
Riegels
Riegels
Niels
Ditlev


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<mask> (May 1, 1910 – April 27, 1986) was an American astronomer, professor, and ufologist. He is perhaps best remembered for his UFO research. Hynek acted as scientific advisor to UFO studies undertaken by the U.S. Air Force under three projects: Project Sign (1947–1949), Project Grudge (1949–1951) and Project Blue Book (1952–1969). In later years, he conducted his own independent UFO research, developing the "Close Encounter" classification system. He was among the first people to conduct scientific analysis of reports and especially of trace evidence purportedly left by UFOs. Early life

<mask> was born in Chicago to Czech parents. In 1931, <mask> received a B.S.from the University of Chicago. In 1935, he completed his Ph.D. in astrophysics at Yerkes Observatory. He joined the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Ohio State University in 1936. He specialized in the study of stellar evolution and in the identification of spectroscopic binary stars. Career
During World War II, <mask> was a civilian scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, where he helped to develop the United States Navy's radio proximity fuze. After the war, <mask> returned to the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Ohio State, rising to full professor in 1950. In 1953, Hynek submitted a report on the fluctuations in the brightness and color of starlight and daylight, with an emphasis on daytime observations.In 1956, he left to join Professor Fred Whipple, the Harvard astronomer, at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which had combined with the Harvard Observatory at Harvard. Hynek had the assignment of directing the tracking of an American space satellite, a project for the International Geophysical Year in 1956 and thereafter. In addition to over 200 teams of amateur scientists around the world that were part of Operation Moonwatch, there were also 12 photographic Baker-Nunn stations. A special camera was devised for the task and a prototype was built and tested and then stripped apart again when, on Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched its first satellite, Sputnik 1. After completing his work on the satellite program, <mask> went back to teaching, taking the position of professor and chairman of the astronomy department at Northwestern University in 1960. Evolution of opinion on UFOs

Skepticism
In response to numerous reports of "flying saucers", the United States Air Force established Project Sign in 1948 to examine sightings of unidentified flying objects. <mask> was contacted to act as a scientific consultant to Project Sign.He studied UFO reports and decided whether the phenomena described therein suggested known astronomical objects. When Project Sign hired <mask>, he was skeptical of UFO reports. Hynek suspected that they were made by unreliable witnesses, or by persons who had misidentified man-made or natural objects. In 1948, Hynek said that "the whole subject seems utterly ridiculous," and described it as a fad that would soon pass. In his 1977 book, Hynek said that he enjoyed his role as a debunker for the Air Force. He also said that debunking was what the Air Force expected of him. Change of opinion
In April 1953, <mask> wrote a report for the Journal of the Optical Society of America titled "Unusual Aerial Phenomena," which contained one of his best-known statements:
Ridicule is not part of the scientific method, and people should not be taught that it is.The steady flow of reports, often made in concert by reliable observers, raises questions of scientific obligation and responsibility. Is there ... any residue that is worthy of scientific attention? Or, if there isn't, does not an obligation exist to say so to the public—not in words of open ridicule but seriously, to keep faith with the trust the public places in science and scientists? In 1953, <mask> was an associate member of the Robertson Panel, which concluded that there was nothing anomalous about UFOs, and that a public relations campaign should be undertaken to debunk the subject and reduce public interest. <mask> would later lament that the Robertson Panel had helped make UFOs a disreputable field of study. As UFO reports continued to be made, some of the testimonies, especially by military pilots and police officers, were deeply puzzling to Hynek. He once said, "As a scientist I must be mindful of the lessons of the past; all too often it has happened that matters of great value to science were overlooked because the new phenomenon did not fit the accepted scientific outlook of the time."In a 1985 interview, when asked what caused his change of opinion, Hynek responded, "Two things, really. One was the completely negative and unyielding attitude of the Air Force. They wouldn't give UFOs the chance of existing, even if they were flying up and down the street in broad daylight. Everything had to have an explanation. I began to resent that, even though I basically felt the same way, because I still thought they weren't going about it in the right way. You can't assume that everything is black no matter what. Secondly, the caliber of the witnesses began to trouble me.Quite a few instances were reported by military pilots, for example, and I knew them to be fairly well-trained, so this is when I first began to think that, well, maybe there was something to all this." Hynek remained with Project Sign after it became Project Grudge (though he was far less involved in Grudge than he had been in Sign). Project Grudge was replaced with Project Blue Book in early 1952, and Hynek remained as scientific consultant. Air Force Captain Edward J. Ruppelt, Blue Book's first director, held Hynek in high regard: "Dr. Hynek was one of the most impressive scientists I met while working on the UFO project, and I met a good many. He didn't do two things that some of them did: give you the answer before he knew the question; or immediately begin to expound on his accomplishments in the field of science." Though Hynek thought Ruppelt was a capable director who steered Project Blue Book in the right direction, Ruppelt headed Blue Book for only a few years. <mask> has also stated his opinion that after Ruppelt's departure, Project Blue Book was little more than a public relations exercise, further noting that little or no research was undertaken using the scientific method.Turnaround
<mask> began occasionally disagreeing publicly with the conclusions of Blue Book. By the early 1960s—after about a decade and a half of study—Clark writes that "Hynek's apparent turnaround on the UFO question was an open secret." Only after Blue Book was formally dissolved did Hynek speak more openly about his "turnaround". Hynek speculated that his personality was a factor in the Air Force keeping him on as a consultant for over two decades. Some other ufologists thought that Hynek was being disingenuous or even duplicitous in his turnaround. Physicist <mask>. McDonald, for example, wrote to Hynek in 1970, castigating him for what McDonald saw as his lapses, and suggesting that, when evaluated by later generations, retired Marine Corps Major Donald E. Keyhoe would be regarded as a more objective, honest, and scientific ufologist. It was during the late stages of Blue Book in the 1960s that Hynek began speaking openly about his disagreements and disappointments with the Air Force.Among the cases about which he openly dissented with the Air Force were the highly publicized Portage County UFO chase, in which several police officers chased a UFO for half an hour, and the encounter of Lonnie Zamora, a police officer who reported an encounter with a metallic, egg-shaped aircraft near Socorro, New Mexico. In late March 1966 in Dexter, Michigan, two days of mass UFO sightings were reported, and received significant publicity. After studying the reports, Hynek offered a provisional hypothesis for some of the sightings: a few of about 100 witnesses had mistaken swamp gas for something more spectacular. At the press conference where he made his announcement, Hynek repeatedly and strenuously stated that swamp gas was a plausible explanation for only a portion of the Michigan UFO reports, and certainly not for UFO reports in general. But much to his chagrin, Hynek's qualifications of his hypothesis were largely overlooked, and the term swamp gas was repeated ad infinitum in relation to UFO reports. The explanation was subject to national derision. In his reply dated October 7, 1968, to a request for scientific recommendations regarding Blue Book from Colonel Raymond Sleeper, commander of the USAF Foreign Technology Division, Hynek noted that Blue Book suffered from numerous procedural problems and a lack of resources, which rendered its efforts "totally inadequate".Hynek also noted that one wag had bestowed upon Blue Book the epithet of "Society for the Explanation of the Uninvestigated". Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS)

<mask> was the founder and first head of the Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS). Founded in 1973 in Evanston, Illinois (but now based in Chicago), CUFOS advocates for scientific analysis of UFO cases. CUFOS's extensive archives include valuable files from civilian research groups such as NICAP, one of the most popular UFO research groups of the 1950s and 1960s. Speech before the United Nations
In November 1978, <mask> presented a statement on UFOs before the United Nations General Assembly's Special Political Committee on behalf of himself, <mask>e, and Claude Poher. The speech was prepared and approved by the three authors. Their objective was to initiate a centralized, United Nations authority on UFOs.UFO origin hypotheses
At the MUFON annual symposium in 1973, held in Akron, Ohio, Hynek first expressed his doubts regarding the extraterrestrial (formerly interplanetary or intergalactic) hypothesis, in a speech titled "The Embarrassment of the Riches". He was aware that the number of UFO sightings was much higher than was reflected in the Project Blue Book statistics. "A few good sightings a year, over the world, would bolster the extraterrestrial hypothesis—but many thousands every year? From remote regions of space? And to what purpose? To scare us by stopping cars, and disturbing animals, and puzzling us with their seemingly pointless antics?" In a paper presented to the Joint Symposium of the American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics in Los Angeles in 1975, he wrote, "If you object, I ask you to explain—quantitatively, not qualitatively—the reported phenomena of materialization and dematerialization, of shape changes, of the noiseless hovering in the Earth's gravitational field, accelerations that—for an appreciable mass—require energy sources far beyond present capabilities—even theoretical capabilities, the well-known and often reported E-M (electro-magnetic interference) effect, the psychic effects on percipients, including purported telepathic communications."In 1977, at the First International UFO Congress in Chicago, <mask> presented his thoughts in his speech "What I Really Believe About UFOs". "I do believe", he said, "that the UFO phenomenon as a whole is real, but I do not mean necessarily that it's just one thing. We must ask whether the diversity of observed UFOs ... all spring from the same basic source, as do weather phenomena, which all originate in the atmosphere", or whether they differ "as a rain shower differs from a meteor, which in turn differs from a cosmic-ray shower." We must not ask, Hynek said, simply which hypothesis can explain the most facts, but rather which hypothesis can explain the most puzzling facts. Regarding hypotheses of extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) and extradimensional intelligence (EDI), <mask> continued, "There is sufficient evidence to defend both". As evidence for the ETI hypothesis, he mentioned the cases involving radar as good evidence of something solid, as well as the cases of physical evidence. Then he turned to defending the EDI hypothesis: in addition to the observations of materialization and dematerialization, he cited the "poltergeist" phenomenon experienced by some people after a close encounter; the photographs of UFOs, sometimes in only one frame, and not seen by witnesses; the changing of form in front of witnesses; the puzzling question of telepathic communication; that in close encounters of the third kind, the creatures seem to be at home in Earth's gravity and atmosphere; the sudden stillness in the presence of the craft; levitation of cars or people; and the development by some of psychic abilities after an encounter."Do we have two aspects of one phenomenon or two different sets of phenomena?" Hynek asked. Finally, he introduced a third hypothesis. "I hold it entirely possible", he said, "that a technology exists, which encompasses both the physical and the psychic, the material and the mental. There are stars that are millions of years older than the sun. There may be a civilization that is millions of years more advanced than man's. We have gone from Kitty Hawk to the moon in some seventy years, but it's possible that a million-year-old civilization may know something that we don't ...I hypothesize an 'M&M' technology encompassing the mental and material realms. The psychic realms, so mysterious to us today, may be an ordinary part of an advanced technology." In <mask> and Vallee's 1975 book The Edge of Reality, Hynek published a stereoscopic photograph of a UFO he took during a flight. According to the book, the object stayed in sight long enough for Hynek to unpack his camera from his luggage and take two exposures. UFO researcher Robert Sheaffer writes in his book Psychic Vibrations that Hynek seemed to have forgotten the photographs when he later told a reporter for The Globe and Mail that he had never seen a UFO. The article states that in all the years he had been looking upward, Hynek "has never seen 'what I would so dearly love to see. Oh, the subject has been so ridiculed that I would never report a UFO even if I did see one—not without a witness'".Close encounter
In his first book, Hynek published the "Close Encounter" scale that he had developed to better catalog UFO reports. <mask> was later a consultant to Columbia Pictures and Steven Spielberg for the popular 1977 UFO movie Close Encounters of the Third Kind, named after a level of Hynek's scale. He made a cameo appearance in the film. At the end of the film, after the aliens disembark from the "mother ship", he can be seen, bearded and with pipe in mouth, stepping forward to view the spectacle. Personal life
<mask> and his wife, Miriam (Curtis) had five children. <mask>'s son <mask> is an Oscar-winning visual effects supervisor. He oversaw the design of the camouflage effect for the movie Predator, and won the Best Visual Effects Oscar for his work on What Dreams May Come.DocuSeries based on his life
In 2019, The History Channel created and aired a highly-fictionalized TV show based on his UFO research and the organization he worked for dubbed Project Blue Book. Death
On April 27, 1986, Hynek died of a malignant brain tumor, at Memorial Hospital in Scottsdale, Arizona. He was 75 years old, and was survived by his wife Mimi, children Scott, Roxane, <mask>, Paul, and Ross, and his grandchildren. Books
 The UFO Experience: A scientific inquiry (1972)
 The Edge of Reality: A progress report on the unidentified flying objects, with <mask>e (1975)
 The Hynek UFO Report (1977)
 Night Siege – The Hudson Valley UFO Sightings, with Philip Imbrogno and Bob Pratt (1987)
 UFO Fact or Fiction – circa 1970

References

External links
 Our Speaker Tonight: <mask> Hynek at Saturday Night Uforia
 J. Allen Hynek Papers, 1925–1988, Northwestern University Archives, Evanston, Illinois
 J. <mask>ynek: The Pied Piper of Ufology? (archived link)
 Interview with J. <mask> by Ian Ridpath (New Scientist, 1973 May 17)
 J. <mask>ynek 1985 interview
 French biography on J. <mask>k
 J. <mask>ynek's statement before the committee on science and astronautics, July 1968
 J. <mask>'s biography at Ufopsi
 J. <mask>'s biography in Spanish
 Historical Documents from the Phillip Klass collection of Robert Sheaffer concerning Hynek
https://www.harpercollins.com/9780062484178/the-close-encounters-man/
History Channel DocuSeries based on Hynek's work with Project Blue Book

1910 births
1986 deaths
American astronomers
Ufologists
American UFO writers
American people of Czech descent
20th-century American non-fiction writers

masks:
Josef Allen Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
James E
Hynek
Hynek
Jacques Vallé
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Hynek
Joel
Joel
Jacques Vallé
Josef Allen
Allen H
Allen Hynek
Allen H
Allen Hyne
Allen H
Allen Hynek
Allen Hynek