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<mask> (born 16 March 1990) is an Brazilian mixed martial artist who competes in the Flyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Mixed martial arts career

Early career
Starting his career in 2011, <mask> racked up a 7–2–1 record in his native Brazil before trying out for The Ultimate Fighter: Brazil 4 in late 2014. TUF Brazil 4
In the preliminary bout for the season, <mask> faced <mask>. <mask> won the fight via first-round technical knockout due to a jaw injury Sedório suffered. In the quarterfinals <mask> faced Dileno Lopes. <mask> lost the bout via first-round submission and was eliminated from the tournament. Post-TUF career
After the season <mask> moved to Arizona in 2015 in order to train at Fight Ready MMA.He competed mostly in United States, racking up 3–1–1 with his most memorable fights being winning the World Fighting Federation Flyweight title and also a draw against fellow future UFC fighter, Casey Kenney at LFA 11. Ultimate Fighting Championship
<mask> was scheduled to face Khalid Taha on September 7, 2019 at UFC 242. However, on August 21, it was reported that the bout was moved to UFC 243. He lost the fight via submission in round three. On December 23, 2019 Taha received a one year USADA suspension for tested positive for  furosemide (diuretics} in an in-competition urine sample provided on October 6, 2019 where Taha took a medicine for reducing inflammation and swelling in his eyes which contained furosemide. The fight was overturned to a no contest. <mask> was scheduled to face <mask>ji in a flyweight bout at UFC Fight Night: Lee vs. Oliveira on March 14, 2020.However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, <mask> was forced to withdraw from the event as he would not travel to prepare for the fight and was replaced by promotional newcomer David Dvořák. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. <mask> was scheduled to face Tagir Ulanbekov on September 12, 2020 at UFC Fight Night: Waterson vs. Hill. However, due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the pairing was rescheduled and took place four weeks later at UFC Fight Night: Moraes vs. Sandhagen. He lost the fight by unanimous decision. <mask> faced JP Buys on March 20, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 21. After knocking Buys down multiple times during the bout, <mask> won the bout via technical knockout in the second round.This win earned him the Performance of the Night award. <mask> signed a new, four-fight deal with the organization. <mask>, replacing Denys <mask>, faced Victor Rodriguez on May 22, 2021 at UFC Fight Night: Font vs. Garbrandt. He won the fight via knockout a minute into the first round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.

masks:
Bruno Gustavo Aparecido da Silva
Silva
Silva
Gustavo Sedório
Silva
Silva
Silva
Silva
Silva
Silva
Su Mudaer
Mudaerji
Silva
Silva
da Silva
Silva
Silva
Bondar


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<mask>, formerly known as Juka (ジュカ), is a Japanese visual kei metal singer who first became known in 2002 when he was recruited by Mana for his project Moi dix Mois. In late 2006 he joined HIZAKI's solo project, HIZAKI grace project. He then started a solo career before pausing all musical activities at the end of 2007. He returned in 2009, after changing his stage name to <mask>, as part of the duo XOVER. After his last band VII-Sense disbanded on mid-2012, in 2012, August he officially wrote on his blog that his music career is finished and there was no reason for him to get back on stage, now he took up fishing. Activities

Moi dix Mois
In 2002, Juka was recruited to join Mana's project, Moi dix Mois. Like his band colleague Kazuno he was a newcomer to the Japanese music scene.While Juka was in Moi dix Mois, they produced three singles, two albums and two live DVDs as well as countless live concerts with the band, even in Germany and France. Juka left Moi dix Mois right after the Invite to Immorality Tour Final concert on April 30, 2005. The official reason given for his departure was musical differences. As a result of lacking a vocalist, Mana's fellow band members Kazuno and Tohru also decided to leave the band soon after. From there, Moi dix Mois had to be formed completely anew. On March 20, 2013, he made an appearance as part of the encore of the final show of Moi dix Moi's Le Dixieme Anniversaire Live 2012-2013 tour performing a short set as part of a reunited original line up of the group followed by a second encore where they were joined on stage by the group's current members for a performance of the title track of the Pageant single. HIZAKI grace project
At the end of 2006, guitarist HIZAKI recruited Juka as vocalist for solo project, HIZAKI grace project.In early 2007 they released a new album named Dignity of Crest. A live DVD named Monshou was released on May 5, 2007. It contains the complete live footage of HIZAKI grace project's tour final concert on February 17. They released a second album called Ruined Kingdom on September 19 which contained some live tracks and three new songs, which are the last recordings featuring Juka. He officially left the band after the concert at Omotesandou Fab on October 5, 2007. During the "Nihon Tanbi Kakumei" tour in November 2007, Juka performed as support vocalist along with Kamijo and Kaya. Solo career
In the middle of February 2007 Juka announced the start of his solo career on Kamijo's record label Sherow Artist Society, while continuing activities with HIZAKI grace project.He also announced the release of his first maxi single "Aravesque" on March 28, 2007, which was produced by Kamijo, HIZAKI and Juka himself. The three tracks provide a large style selection. While the first song "Aravesque" is reminiscent of Moi dix Mois' gothic sound, the second track "S" leans in the direction of heavy metal music. The third track "Aimless" has much in common with a French chanson and doesn't share any kind of style with one of the first two tracks. Furthermore, all tracks are instrumental. Another release called Luxurious in the shape of a mini album was released in June 2007. He released his second single "Saint Croix" on October 31, 2007.Juka announced he would be pausing all musical activities at the end of 2007 due to personal matters; all future plans were on hold/cancelled. Node of Scherzo
In March 2007, the Node of Scherzo (ノード・オブ・スケルツォ) event took place. Juka takes the role of vocalist alongside Kamijo and Kaya while HIZAKI and Jasmine You support the three on guitar and bass. According to Kamijo, the show is supposed to be a theatrical show combined with music and illumination effects. While Juka and Jasmine You represent the dark side, Kamijo and HIZAKI form their opposite as the light side. Between them stands Kaya personifying beauty. A certain focus is cast on the tragic love story of Juka and Jasmine You.When the three vocalists performed a new specifically created song at the end of the show, the song found so much approval of the audience, that they decided after a second Node of Scherzo show in May 2007 to record this song on a CD. It was finally released on October 31, 2007. The buyers of all Halloween releases by the labels Reverie and Sherow Artist Society, which were "Carmilla" (by Kaya), "Saint Croix" (by Juka), Lyrical Sympathy (by Versailles) and the "Node of Scherzo" single, were given the possibility to obtain a special live clip DVD by sending all the coupons found on the obi slips wrapped around the CD case and five 80 Yen stamps to the label by December 12, 2007. The DVD contained a 5 minutes live clip accompanied with the Node of Scherzo song. Further performances of the song could be seen during the national tour "Nihon Tanbi Kakumei". XOVER
XOVER was a duo formed in 2009 with Kouichi (Everlasting-K, ex:Laputa), and marked Juka's return to music after changing his stage-name to <mask>. XOVER released one mini-album titled XGATE on July 22, 2009.They then released an album called Aureola on October 21. But after releasing a live DVD in November 2009, XOVER disbanded. VII-Sense
Seventh Sense was intended to be a new band by Juka and fellow ex:Moi dix Mois member Kazuno. However, due to Juka withdrawing himself from the music scene, this band was canceled and the Omnibus album that Seventh Sense would have been featured on now features Juka's song "Suimenka" instead. Juka would release a "best of" album on February 6, 2008, called Seventh Sense. In 2010 Seventh Sense was finally formed, stylized as VII-Sense. Their first release was the single "Black Bird" on March 24.The other members included guitarists Erina (ex:Dio - Distraught Overlord) and RayX, Kaz on guitar and piano, bassist Masato (ex:support for XOVER) and Mikage on drums (ex:Hizaki Grace Project, Kisaki Project). In May 2012, the band disbanded. On August 28, <mask> wrote on personal blog that he would not return to the music scene. The entry was deleted and <mask> instead wrote that he wanted to make new band. However, this entry was also deleted. Discography
Earlier activities:
see: Moi dix Mois
see: HIZAKI grace project

Solo as Juka
 "Aravesque" (March 28, 2007)
 Luxurious (June 13, 2007)
 "Suimenka" (水面華, October 5, 2007, sold only at concert at Omotesando Fab)
 "Saint Croix" (October 31, 2007)
 Ura Kizoku "Nihon Tanbi Kakumei" Tour Documentary DVD (裏貴族"日本耽美革命"ツアードキュメンタリーDVD, December 2007)
 Seventh Sense (February 6, 2008, compilation album)

XOVER
 XGATE (July 22, 2009)
 Aureola (October 21, 2009)

VII-Sense
 "Black Bird" (March 24, 2010)
 "Sexual Desire" (June 22, 2010, freely distributed at concerts only)
 "Cell Division" (July 28, 2010)
 The Reminiscence of War (April 20, 2011)

External links
 Official blog
 Juka Official webpage

 VII-Sense Official MySpace
 XOVER Official MySpace

References

Visual kei musicians
Japanese heavy metal singers
Japanese male rock singers
Musicians from Yamaguchi Prefecture
1981 births
Living people
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese male singers

masks: Shaura Shaura Shaura Shaura Shaura


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<mask> (6 January 1367 – c. 14 February 1400), also known as <mask> of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward, Prince of Wales (known to posterity as the Black Prince), and Joan, Countess of Kent. <mask>'s father died in 1376, leaving <mask> as heir apparent to his grandfather, King <mask>. Upon the death of <mask>, the 10-year-old <mask> succeeded to the throne. During <mask>'s first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of regency councils, influenced by <mask>'s uncles John of Gaunt and Thomas of Woodstock. England then faced various problems, most notably the Hundred Years' War. A major challenge of the reign was the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the successful suppression of this crisis.Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the royal prerogative, <mask> restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private retinue for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, <mask> cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. The king's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the influential, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the Lords Appellant. By 1389 <mask> had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, he took his revenge on the Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been described by historians as <mask>'s "tyranny".In 1399, after <mask> Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, he deposed <mask> and had himself crowned king. <mask> is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate. <mask>'s posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by William Shakespeare, whose play Richard II portrayed <mask>'s misrule and his deposition as responsible for the 15th-century Wars of the Roses. Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating <mask> from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, he may have had a personality disorder, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign.Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall. Early life

<mask> of Bordeaux was the younger son of Edward, Prince of Wales, and Joan, Countess of Kent. Edward, eldest son of Edward III and heir apparent to the throne of England, had distinguished himself as a military commander in the early phases of the Hundred Years' War, particularly in the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. After further military adventures, however, he contracted dysentery in Spain in 1370. He never fully recovered and had to return to England the next year. <mask> was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Bordeaux, in the English principality of Aquitaine, on 6 January 1367. According to contemporary sources, three kings, "the King of Castile, the King of Navarre and the King of Portugal", were present at his birth.This anecdote, and the fact that his birth fell on the feast of Epiphany, was later used in the religious imagery of the Wilton Diptych, where <mask> is one of three kings paying homage to the Virgin and Child. His elder brother, Edward of Angoulême, died near his sixth birthday in 1371. The Prince of Wales finally succumbed to his long illness in June 1376. The Commons in the English Parliament genuinely feared that <mask>'s uncle, John of Gaunt, would usurp the throne. For this reason, <mask> was quickly invested with the princedom of Wales and his father's other titles. On 21 June the next year, <mask>'s grandfather King <mask>, who was for some years frail and decrepit, died after a 50-year reign. This resulted in the 10-year-old <mask> succeeding to the throne.He was crowned on 16 July 1377 at Westminster Abbey. Again, fears of <mask> Gaunt's ambitions influenced political decisions, and a regency led by the king's uncles was avoided. Instead, the king was nominally to exercise kingship with the help of a series of "continual councils", from which Gaunt was excluded. Gaunt, together with his younger brother Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham, still held great informal influence over the business of government, but the king's councillors and friends, particularly Sir Simon de Burley and Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford, increasingly gained control of royal affairs. In a matter of three years, these councillors earned the mistrust of the Commons to the point that the councils were discontinued in 1380. Contributing to discontent was an increasingly heavy burden of taxation levied through three poll taxes between 1377 and 1381 that were spent on unsuccessful military expeditions on the continent. By 1381, there was a deep-felt resentment against the governing classes in the lower levels of English society.Early reign

Peasants' Revolt

Whereas the poll tax of 1381 was the spark of the Peasants' Revolt, the root of the conflict lay in tensions between peasants and landowners precipitated by the economic and demographic consequences of the Black Death and subsequent outbreaks of the plague. The rebellion started in Kent and Essex in late May, and on 12 June, bands of peasants gathered at Blackheath near London under the leaders Wat Tyler, John Ball, and Jack Straw. John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace was burnt down. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Sudbury, who was also Lord Chancellor, and Lord High Treasurer Robert Hales were both killed by the rebels, who were demanding the complete abolition of serfdom. The king, sheltered within the Tower of London with his councillors, agreed that the Crown did not have the forces to disperse the rebels and that the only feasible option was to negotiate. It is unclear how much <mask>, who was still only fourteen years old, was involved in these deliberations, although historians have suggested that he was among the proponents of negotiations. The king set out by the River Thames on 13 June, but the large number of people thronging the banks at Greenwich made it impossible for him to land, forcing him to return to the Tower.The next day, Friday, 14 June, he set out by horse and met the rebels at Mile End. He agreed to the rebels' demands, but this move only emboldened them; they continued their looting and killings. <mask> met Wat Tyler again the next day at Smithfield and reiterated that the demands would be met, but the rebel leader was not convinced of the king's sincerity. The king's men grew restive, an altercation broke out, and William Walworth, the Lord Mayor of London, pulled Tyler down from his horse and killed him. The situation became tense once the rebels realised what had happened, but the king acted with calm resolve and, saying "I am your captain, follow me! ", he led the mob away from the scene. Walworth meanwhile gathered a force to surround the peasant army, but the king granted clemency and allowed the rebels to disperse and return to their homes.The king soon revoked the charters of freedom and pardon that he had granted, and as disturbances continued in other parts of the country, he personally went into Essex to suppress the rebellion. On 28 June at Billericay, he defeated the last rebels in a small skirmish and effectively ended the Peasants' Revolt. Despite his young age, <mask> had shown great courage and determination in his handling of the rebellion. It is likely, though, that the events impressed upon him the dangers of disobedience and threats to royal authority, and helped shape the absolutist attitudes to kingship that would later prove fatal to his reign. Coming of age

It is only with the Peasants' Revolt that <mask> starts to emerge clearly in the annals. One of his first significant acts after the rebellion was to marry Anne of Bohemia, daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, on 20 January 1382. It had diplomatic significance; in the division of Europe caused by the Western Schism, Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire were seen as potential allies against France in the ongoing Hundred Years' War.Nonetheless, the marriage was not popular in England. Despite great sums of money awarded to the Empire, the political alliance never resulted in any military victories. Furthermore, the marriage was childless. Anne died from plague in 1394, greatly mourned by her husband. Michael de la Pole had been instrumental in the marriage negotiations; he had the king's confidence and gradually became more involved at court and in government as <mask> came of age. De la Pole came from an upstart merchant family. When <mask> made him chancellor in 1383, and created him Earl of Suffolk two years later, this antagonised the more established nobility.Another member of the close circle around the king was Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, who in this period emerged as the king's favourite. <mask>'s close friendship to de Vere was also disagreeable to the political establishment. This displeasure was exacerbated by the earl's elevation to the new title of Duke of Ireland in 1386. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham suggested the relationship between the king and de Vere was of a homosexual nature, due to a resentment Walsingham had toward the king. Tensions came to a head over the approach to the war in France. While the court party preferred negotiations, Gaunt and Buckingham urged a large-scale campaign to protect English possessions. Instead, a so-called crusade led by Henry le Despenser, Bishop of Norwich, was dispatched, which failed miserably.Faced with this setback on the continent, <mask> turned his attention instead towards France's ally, the Kingdom of Scotland. In 1385, the king himself led a punitive expedition to the north, but the effort came to nothing, and the army had to return without ever engaging the Scots in battle. Meanwhile, only an uprising in Ghent prevented a French invasion of southern England. The relationship between <mask> and his uncle <mask> Gaunt deteriorated further with military failure, and Gaunt left England to pursue his claim to the throne of Castile in 1386 amid rumours of a plot against his person. With Gaunt gone, the unofficial leadership of the growing dissent against the king and his courtiers passed to Buckinghamwho had by now been created Duke of Gloucesterand <mask>, 4th Earl of Arundel. First crisis of 1386–88

The threat of a French invasion did not subside, but instead grew stronger into 1386. At the parliament of October that year, Michael de la Polein his capacity of chancellorrequested taxation of an unprecedented level for the defence of the realm.Rather than consenting, the parliament responded by refusing to consider any request until the chancellor was removed. The parliament (later known as the Wonderful Parliament) was presumably working with the support of Gloucester and Arundel. The king famously responded that he would not dismiss as much as a scullion from his kitchen at parliament's request. Only when threatened with deposition was <mask> forced to give in and let de la Pole go. A commission was set up to review and control royal finances for a year. <mask> was deeply perturbed by this affront to his royal prerogative, and from February to November 1387 went on a "gyration" (tour) of the country to muster support for his cause. By installing de Vere as Justice of Chester, he began the work of creating a loyal military power base in Cheshire.He also secured a legal ruling from Chief Justice Robert Tresilian that parliament's conduct had been unlawful and treasonable. On his return to London, the king was confronted by Gloucester, Arundel and Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, who brought an appeal of treason against de la Pole, de Vere, Tresilian, and two other loyalists: the mayor of London, Nicholas Brembre, and Alexander Neville, the Archbishop of York. <mask> stalled the negotiations to gain time, as he was expecting de Vere to arrive from Cheshire with military reinforcements. The three peers then joined forces with Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, and Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottinghamthe group known to history as the Lords Appellant. On 20 December 1387 they intercepted de Vere at Radcot Bridge, where he and his forces were routed and he was obliged to flee the country. <mask> now had no choice but to comply with the appellants' demands; Brembre and Tresilian were condemned and executed, while de Vere and de la Polewho had by now also left the countrywere sentenced to death in absentia at the Merciless Parliament in February 1388. The proceedings went further, and a number of <mask>'s chamber knights were also executed, among these Burley.The appellants had now succeeded completely in breaking up the circle of favourites around the king. Later reign

A fragile peace

<mask> gradually re-established royal authority in the months after the deliberations of the Merciless Parliament. The aggressive foreign policy of the Lords Appellant failed when their efforts to build a wide, anti-French coalition came to nothing, and the north of England fell victim to a Scottish incursion. <mask> was now over twenty-one years old and could with confidence claim the right to govern in his own name. Furthermore, John of Gaunt returned to England in 1389 and settled his differences with the king, after which the old statesman acted as a moderating influence on English politics. <mask> assumed full control of the government on 3 May 1389, claiming that the difficulties of the past years had been due solely to bad councillors. He outlined a foreign policy that reversed the actions of the appellants by seeking peace and reconciliation with France, and promised to lessen the burden of taxation on the people significantly.<mask> ruled peacefully for the next eight years, having reconciled with his former adversaries. Still, later events would show that he had not forgotten the indignities he perceived. In particular, the execution of his former teacher Sir Simon de Burley was an insult not easily forgotten. With national stability secured, <mask> began negotiating a permanent peace with France. A proposal put forward in 1393 would have greatly expanded the territory of Aquitaine possessed by the English Crown. However, the plan failed because it included a requirement that the English king pay homage to the King of Francea condition that proved unacceptable to the English public. Instead, in 1396, a truce was agreed to, which was to last 28 years.As part of the truce, <mask> agreed to marry Isabella, daughter of Charles VI of France, when she came of age. There were some misgivings about the betrothal, in particular because the princess was then only six years old, and thus would not be able to produce an heir to the throne of England for many years. Although <mask> sought peace with France, he took a different approach to the situation in Ireland. The English lordships in Ireland were in danger of being overrun by the Gaelic Irish kingdoms, and the Anglo-Irish lords were pleading for the king to intervene. In the autumn of 1394, <mask> left for Ireland, where he remained until May 1395. His army of more than 8,000 men was the largest force brought to the island during the late Middle Ages. The invasion was a success, and a number of Irish chieftains submitted to English overlordship.It was one of the most successful achievements of <mask>'s reign, and strengthened his support at home, although the consolidation of the English position in Ireland proved to be short-lived. Second crisis of 1397–99
The period that historians refer to as the "tyranny" of <mask> began towards the end of the 1390s. The king had Gloucester, Arundel and Warwick arrested in July 1397. The timing of these arrests and <mask>'s motivation are not entirely clear. Although one chronicle suggested that a plot was being planned against the king, there is no evidence that this was the case. It is more likely that <mask> had simply come to feel strong enough to safely retaliate against these three men for their role in events of 1386–88 and eliminate them as threats to his power. Arundel was the first of the three to be brought to trial, at the parliament of September 1397.After a heated quarrel with the king, he was condemned and executed. Gloucester was being held prisoner by the Earl of Nottingham at Calais while awaiting his trial. As the time for the trial drew near, Nottingham brought news that Gloucester was dead. It is thought likely that the king had ordered him to be killed to avoid the disgrace of executing a prince of the blood. Warwick was also condemned to death, but his life was spared and his sentence reduced to life imprisonment. Arundel's brother Thomas Arundel, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was exiled for life. <mask> then took his persecution of adversaries to the localities.While recruiting retainers for himself in various counties, he prosecuted local men who had been loyal to the appellants. The fines levied on these men brought great revenues to the crown, although contemporary chroniclers raised questions about the legality of the proceedings. These actions were made possible primarily through the collusion of John of Gaunt, but with the support of a large group of other magnates, many of whom were rewarded with new titles, who were disparagingly referred to as <mask>'s "duketti". These included the former Appellants Henry Bolingbroke, Earl of Derby, who was made Duke of Hereford, and Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham, who was created Duke of Norfolk. Also among them were John and Thomas Holland, the king's half-brother and nephew, who were promoted from earls of Huntingdon and Kent to dukes of Exeter and Surrey respectively; the king's cousin Edward of Norwich, Earl of Rutland, who received Gloucester's French title of Duke of Aumale; Gaunt's son John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, who was made Marquess of Somerset and Marquess of Dorset; John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury; and Lord Thomas le Despenser, who became Earl of Gloucester. With the

masks:
Richard II
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Edward III
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
John of
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Richard
John of
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
John of
Richard Fitzalan
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard II
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard


text_chunks:
 forfeited lands of the convicted appellants, the king could reward these men with lands suited to their new ranks. A threat to <mask>'s authority still existed, however, in the form of the House of Lancaster, represented by John of Gaunt and his son Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford.The House of Lancaster not only possessed greater wealth than any other family in England, they were of royal descent and, as such, likely candidates to succeed the childless <mask>. Discord broke out in the inner circles of court in December 1397, when Bolingbroke and Mowbray became embroiled in a quarrel. According to Bolingbroke, Mowbray had claimed that the two, as former Lords Appellant, were next in line for royal retribution. Mowbray vehemently denied these charges, as such a claim would have amounted to treason. A parliamentary committee decided that the two should settle the matter by battle, but at the last moment <mask> exiled the two dukes instead: Mowbray for life, Bolingbroke for ten years. On 3 February 1399, John of Gaunt died. Rather than allowing Bolingbroke to succeed, <mask> extended the term of his exile to life and expropriated his properties.The king felt safe from Bolingbroke, who was residing in Paris, since the French had little interest in any challenge to <mask> and his peace policy. <mask> left the country in May for another expedition in Ireland. In 1398 <mask> summoned the Parliament of Shrewsbury, which declared all the acts of the Merciless Parliament to be null and void, and announced that no restraint could legally be put on the king. It delegated all parliamentary power to a committee of twelve lords and six commoners chosen from the king's friends, making <mask> an absolute ruler unbound by the necessity of gathering a Parliament again. Court culture

In the last years of <mask>'s reign, and particularly in the months after the suppression of the appellants in 1397, the king enjoyed a virtual monopoly on power in the country, a relatively uncommon situation in medieval England. In this period a particular court culture was allowed to emerge, one that differed sharply from that of earlier times. A new form of address developed; where the king previously had been addressed simply as "highness", now "royal majesty", or "high majesty" were often used.It was said that on solemn festivals <mask> would sit on his throne in the royal hall for hours without speaking, and anyone on whom his eyes fell had to bow his knees to the king. The inspiration for this new sumptuousness and emphasis on dignity came from the courts on the continent, not only the French and Bohemian courts that had been the homes of <mask>'s two wives, but also the court that his father had maintained while residing in Aquitaine. <mask>'s approach to kingship was rooted in his strong belief in the royal prerogative, the inspiration of which can be found in his early youth, when his authority was challenged first by the Peasants' Revolts and then by the Lords Appellant. <mask> rejected the approach his grandfather <mask> had taken to the nobility. Edward's court had been a martial one, based on the interdependence between the king and his most trusted noblemen as military captains. In <mask>'s view, this put a dangerous amount of power in the hands of the baronage. To avoid dependence on the nobility for military recruitment, he pursued a policy of peace towards France.At the same time, he developed his own private military retinue, larger than that of any English king before him, and gave them livery badges with his White Hart. He was then free to develop a courtly atmosphere in which the king was a distant, venerated figure, and art and culture, rather than warfare, were at the centre. Patronage and the arts
As part of <mask>'s programme of asserting his authority, he also tried to cultivate the royal image. Unlike any other English king before him, he had himself portrayed in panel paintings of elevated majesty, of which two survive: an over life-size Westminster Abbey portrait (c. 1390), and the Wilton Diptych (1394–99), a portable work probably intended to accompany <mask> on his Irish campaign. It is one of the few surviving English examples of the courtly International Gothic style of painting that was developed in the courts of the Continent, especially Prague and Paris. <mask>'s expenditure on jewellery, rich textiles and metalwork was far higher than on paintings, but as with his illuminated manuscripts, there are hardly any surviving works that can be connected with him, except for a crown, "one of the finest achievements of the Gothic goldsmith", that probably belonged to his wife Anne. Among <mask>'s grandest projects in the field of architecture was Westminster Hall, which was extensively rebuilt during his reign, perhaps spurred on by the completion in 1391 of <mask> Gaunt's magnificent hall at Kenilworth Castle.Fifteen life-size statues of kings were placed in niches on the walls, and the hammer-beam roof by the royal carpenter Hugh Herland, "the greatest creation of medieval timber architecture", allowed the original three Romanesque aisles to be replaced with a single huge open space, with a dais at the end for <mask> to sit in solitary state. The rebuilding had been begun by <mask> in 1245, but had by <mask>'s time been dormant for over a century. The court's patronage of literature is especially important, because this was the period in which the English language took shape as a literary language. There is little evidence to tie <mask> directly to patronage of poetry, but it was nevertheless within his court that this culture was allowed to thrive. The greatest poet of the age, <mask>, served the king as a diplomat, a customs official and a clerk of The King's Works while producing some of his best-known work. Chaucer was also in the service of John of Gaunt, and wrote The Book of the Duchess as a eulogy to Gaunt's wife Blanche. Chaucer's colleague and friend John Gower wrote his Confessio Amantis on a direct commission from <mask>, although he later grew disenchanted with the king.Downfall

Deposition

In June 1399, Louis I, Duke of Orléans, gained control of the court of the insane Charles VI of France. The policy of rapprochement with the English crown did not suit Louis's political ambitions, and for this reason he found it opportune to allow Henry Bolingbroke to leave for England. With a small group of followers, Bolingbroke landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire towards the end of June 1399. Men from all over the country soon rallied around him. Meeting with Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, who had his own misgivings about the king, Bolingbroke insisted that his only object was to regain his own patrimony. Percy took him at his word and declined to interfere. The king had taken most of his household knights and the loyal members of his nobility with him to Ireland, so Bolingbroke experienced little resistance as he moved south.Keeper of the Realm Edmund, Duke of York, had little choice but to side with Bolingbroke. Meanwhile, <mask> was delayed in his return from Ireland and did not land in Wales until 24 July. He made his way to Conwy, where on 12 August he met with the Earl of Northumberland for negotiations. On 19 August, <mask> surrendered to Henry Bolingbroke at Flint Castle, promising to abdicate if his life were spared. Both men then returned to London, the indignant king riding all the way behind Henry. On arrival, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London on 1 September. Henry was by now fully determined to take the throne, but presenting a rationale for this action proved a dilemma.It was argued that <mask>, through his tyranny and misgovernment, had rendered himself unworthy of being king. However, Henry was not next in line to the throne; the heir presumptive was Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, great-grandson of <mask>'s second surviving son, Lionel, Duke of Clarence. Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt, was Edward's third son to survive to adulthood. The problem was solved by emphasising Henry's descent in a direct male line, whereas March's descent was through his grandmother, Philippa of Clarence. According to the official record, read by the Archbishop of Canterbury during an assembly of lords and commons at Westminster Hall on Tuesday 30 September, <mask> gave up his crown willingly and ratified his deposition citing as a reason his own unworthiness as a monarch. On the other hand, the Traison et Mort Chronicle suggests otherwise. It describes a meeting between <mask> and Henry that took place one day before the parliament's session.The king succumbed to blind rage, ordered his own release from the Tower, called his cousin a traitor, demanded to see his wife, and swore revenge, throwing down his bonnet, while Henry refused to do anything without parliamentary approval. When parliament met to discuss <mask>'s fate, John Trevor, Bishop of St Asaph, read thirty-three articles of deposition that were unanimously accepted by lords and commons. On 1 October 1399, <mask> was formally deposed. On 13 October, the feast day of Edward the Confessor, Henry Bolingbroke was crowned king. Death
Henry had agreed to let <mask> live after his abdication. This all changed when it was revealed that the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and Salisbury, and Lord Despenser, and possibly also the Earl of Rutlandall now demoted from the ranks they had been given by <mask>were planning to murder the new king and restore <mask> in the Epiphany Rising. Although averted, the plot highlighted the danger of allowing <mask> to live.He is thought to have been starved to death in captivity in Pontefract Castle on or around 14 February 1400, although there is some question over the date and manner of his death. His body was taken south from Pontefract and displayed in St Paul's Cathedral on 17 February before burial in King's Langley Priory on 6 March. Rumours that <mask> was still alive persisted, but never gained much credence in England; in Scotland, however, a man identified as <mask> came into the hands of Regent Albany, lodged in Stirling Castle, and serving as the notionaland perhaps reluctantfigurehead of various anti-Lancastrian and Lollard intrigues in England. Henry IV's government dismissed him as an impostor, and several sources from both sides of the border suggest the man had a mental illness, one also describing him as a "beggar" by the time of his death in 1419, but he was buried as a king in the local Dominican friary in Stirling. Meanwhile, in 1413, Henry Vin an effort both to atone for his father's act of murder and to silence the rumours of <mask>'s survivalhad decided to have the body at King's Langley moved to its final resting place in Westminster Abbey. Here <mask> himself had prepared an elaborate tomb, where the remains of his wife Anne were already entombed. Character and assessment
Contemporary writers, even those less sympathetic to the king, agreed that <mask> was a "most beautiful king", though with a "face which was white, rounded and feminine", implying he lacked manliness.He was athletic and tall; when his tomb was opened in 1871 he was found to be six feet (1.82 m) tall. He was also intelligent and well read, and when agitated he had a tendency to stammer. While the Westminster Abbey portrait probably shows a good similarity of the king, the Wilton Diptych portrays him as significantly younger than he was at the time; it must be assumed that he had a beard by this point. Religiously, he was orthodox, and particularly towards the end of his reign he became a strong opponent of the Lollard heresy. He was particularly devoted to the cult of Edward the Confessor, and around 1395 he had his own coat of arms impaled with the mythical arms of the Confessor. Though not a warrior king like his grandfather, <mask> nevertheless enjoyed tournaments, as well as hunting. The popular view of <mask> has more than anything been influenced by Shakespeare's play about the king, Richard II.Shakespeare's <mask> was a cruel, vindictive and irresponsible king, who attained a semblance of greatness only after his fall from power. Writing a work of fiction, however, Shakespeare took many liberties and made great omissions, basing his play on works by writers such as Edward Hall and Samuel Daniel, who in turn based their writings on contemporary chroniclers such as Thomas Walsingham. Hall and Daniel were part of Tudor historiography, which was highly unsympathetic to <mask>. The Tudor orthodoxy, reinforced by Shakespeare, saw a continuity in civil discord starting with <mask>'s misrule that did not end until <mask>'s accession in 1485. The idea that <mask> was to blame for the later-15th century Wars of the Roses was prevalent as late as the 19th century, but came to be challenged in the 20th. Some recent historians prefer to look at the Wars of the Roses in isolation from the reign of <mask> II. <mask>'s mental state has been a major issue of historical debate since the first academic historians started treating the subject in the 19th century.One of the first modern historians to deal with <mask> II as a king and as a person was Bishop Stubbs. Stubbs argued that towards the end of his reign, <mask>'s mind "was losing its balance altogether". Historian Anthony Steel, who wrote a full-scale biography of the king in 1941, took a psychiatric approach to the issue, and concluded that <mask> had schizophrenia. This was challenged by V. H. Galbraith, who argued that there was no historical basis for such a diagnosis, a line that has also been followed by later historians of the period, such as Anthony Goodman and Anthony Tuck. Nigel Saul, who wrote the most recent academic biography on <mask>, concedes thateven though there is no basis for assuming the king had a mental illnesshe showed clear signs of a narcissistic personality, and towards the end of his reign "<mask>'s grasp on reality was becoming weaker". One of the primary historiographical questions surrounding <mask> concerns his political agenda and the reasons for its failure. His kingship was thought to contain elements of the early modern absolute monarchy as exemplified by the Tudor dynasty.More recently, <mask>'s concept of kingship has been seen by some as not so different from that of his antecedents, and that it was exactly by staying within the framework of traditional monarchy that he was able to achieve as much as he did. Yet his actions were too extreme, and too abrupt. For one, the absence of war was meant to reduce the burden of taxation, and so help <mask>'s popularity with the Commons in parliament. However, this promise was never fulfilled, as the cost of the royal retinue, the opulence of court and <mask>'s lavish patronage of his favourites proved as expensive as war had been, without offering commensurate benefits. As for his policy of military retaining, this was later emulated by Edward IV and <mask>, but <mask> II's exclusive reliance on the county of Cheshire hurt his support from the rest of the country. As Simon Walker concludes: "What he sought was, in contemporary terms, neither unjustified nor unattainable; it was the manner of his seeking that betrayed him." Family tree

See also
 Cultural depictions of <mask> II of England
 List of earls in the reign of <mask> II of England

Notes

a. John of Gaunt's brother Edmund of Langley was only one year younger, but it has been suggested that this prince was of "limited ability", and he took less part in government than Gaunt did.b. It has been speculated that the whole incident surrounding the killing of Wat Tyler was in fact planned in advance by the council, in order to end the rebellion. c. While both England and the Empire supported Pope Urban VI in Rome, the French sided with the Avignon Papacy of <mask>. d. This "appeal"which would give its name to the Lords Appellantwas not an appeal in the modern sense of an application to a higher authority. In medieval common law the appeal was criminal charge, often one of treason. e. Beaufort was the oldest of John of Gaunt's children with Katherine Swynford; illegitimate children whom <mask> had given legitimate status in 1390. He was made Marquess of Dorset; marquess being a relatively new title in England up until this point.Rutland, heir to the Duke of York, was created Duke of Aumale. Montacute had succeeded his uncle as Earl of Salisbury earlier the same year. Despenser, the great-grandson of Hugh Despenser the Younger, <mask>'s favourite who was executed for treason in 1326, was given the forfeited earldom of Gloucester. f. Though it had become established tradition for earldoms to descend in the male line, there was no such tradition for royal succession in England. The precedence could indeed be seen to invalidate the English claim to the French throne, based on succession through the female line, over which the Hundred Years' War was being fought. References

Sources

Chronicles
 (1993) Chronicles of the Revolution, 1397–1400: The Reign of Richard II, ed. Chris Given-Wilson.Manchester: Manchester University Press. .
 Froissart, Jean (1978). Chronicles, ed. <mask>. London: Penguin. .
 (1977) Historia Vitae et Regni Ricardi Secundi, ed. George B. Stow. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. .
 Knighton, Henry (1995). Knighton's Chronicle 1337–1396, ed.G. H. Martin. Oxford: Clarendon Press. .
 Walsingham, Thomas (1862–64). Historia Anglicana 2 vols., ed. Henry Thomas Riley. London: Longman, Roberts, and Green

Secondary sources
 Alexander, Jonathan; Binski, Paul (eds.) (1987). Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400.London: Royal Academy/Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Levey, Michael (1971). Painting at Court. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. External links

Richard II's Treasure from the Institute of Historical Research and Royal Holloway, University of London. Richard II's Irish chancery rolls listed by year, translated, published online by CIRCLE. The Peasants' Revolt, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Miri Rubin, Caroline Barron & Alastair Dunn (In Our Time, 16 November 2006)

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1367 births
1400 deaths
14th-century English monarchs
14th-century murdered monarchs
14th-century English nobility
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Deaths by starvation
Dukes of Cornwall
English people of French descent
English pretenders to the French throne
English Roman Catholics
House of Plantagenet
Knights of the Garter
Medieval child rulers
Monarchs who abdicated
Peasants' Revolt
People from Bordeaux
Princes of Wales
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Peers created by Edward III
Children of Edward the Black

masks:
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
John of
Richard
Henry III
Richard
Richard
Geoffrey Chaucer
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Edward III
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard II
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Henry VII
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard II
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Richard
Henry VII
Richard
Richard
Richard
Clement VII
Richard
Edward II
Geoffrey Brereton


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<mask> (November 28, 1893 – March 15, 1969) was an American labor leader and president of the Building Service Employees International Union (BSEIU), the precursor to the Service Employees International Union, from 1940 to 1960. Early life and union career
<mask> was born in Chicago, Illinois, to <mask>. and Wilhelmina (Quesse) McFetridge. He had a younger sister named Dorothy. He attended public school until he was 13 years old, when he quit to become an office boy and then clerk for the Milwaukee Road railway line. McFetridge was a nephew of <mask>, the BSEIU's founding president. In time, attending night classes, he graduated from high school and earned a law degree. As a young man, McFetridge was hired by his uncle as an investigator with the Flat Janitors Local 1 in Chicago.He was elected local president in 1923, and in 1927 was elected Third Vice President of BSEIU. He rose to First Vice President in 1930. When BSEIU president Jerry Horan died in April 1937, <mask> was the most senior local union president and widely considered a front-runner for the presidency. But Thomas Burke, another Chicago local union president, had the backing of the Chicago mob. <mask>'s candidacy threatened to split the union, as several BSEIU board members were aware of Burke's extensive and close ties to organized crime. George Scalise, president of a small BSEIU local of window washers in New York City and the international's representative on the East Coast, emerged as a compromise candidate. Scalise's mob ties were strong but not as public, and he had the backing of New York City mobster Anthony Carfano.Hesitant BSEIU executive board members elected Scalise after being intimidated and coerced by members of the Nitti gang. BSEIU presidency
<mask> was elected president of the international union in 1940 after Scalise was indicted and convicted of bribery, embezzlement and labor racketeering. Once president, <mask> instituted modern financial and record-keeping practices at the international union's headquarters. He also undertook a large-scale organizing program, expanding out of the union's traditional base in apartments and office buildings and into airports, nuclear power plants, hospitals, and schools. He created research, legislative affairs, and legal departments, and began publishing a union-wide newsletter. During his tenure, the BSEIU grew from 70,000 members to 275,000 members. A long-time Democrat, <mask> became a Republican in 1948 and supported Thomas E. Dewey's run for the presidency.He later supported Dwight D. Eisenhower for president in 1952. Nevertheless, <mask> was a very close friend of Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley, and nominated him for mayor in 1954. McFetridge became one of the most important behind-the-scenes players in Chicago under Daley. In 1950, <mask> was elected a vice-president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). After the AFL and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merged in 1955, <mask> was elected a vice-president of the AFL-CIO. Although a close ally of Teamsters president Dave Beck, he was also a strong advocate of strict financial practices and worked to cleanse AFL-CIO unions of labor racketeering. Retirement and death
McFetridge retired as president of BSEIU in 1960, and was succeeded by David Sullivan.He returned to Local 1 and was elected the union's president. He continued to assert effective control over BSEIU from Local 1, however. He engaged in a long-running and vicious jurisdictional dispute with George Fairchild, president of BSEIU Local 4. <mask> was a strong advocate of the Marina City mixed-use development in Chicago, which he believed would provide numerous jobs for Local 1 members. McFetridge asked that BSEIU invest pension funds in the development, a plan which Fairchild and Sullivan opposed. Although he won BSEIU backing for the Marina City development, <mask> lost control of BSEIU to Sullivan. He retired as Local 1 president shortly thereafter.He maintained his position on the AFL-CIO Executive Council until 1965. <mask> died on March 15, 1969, at Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago. Chicago recognition
A short lakefront street in Chicago is named William E. McFetridge Drive. It separates the Museum Campus from Soldier Field, and the latter's street address was once 465 E. McFetridge (it is now 1 S. Museum Dr.). The Chicago Park District, of which <mask> was president in 1968 and vice president from 1946 to 1968, is named McFetridge Sports Complex for him . Also known as McFetridge Ice Arena, it is the home rink for the DePaul University ice hockey team. Notes

References
Beadling, Tom, et al.A Need for Valor: The Roots of the Service Employees International Union, 1902-1992. Washington, D.C.: Service Employees International Union, 1992. "Change for the Changeless." Time. December 22, 1961. Doherty, James. "State Gets Tale of Romano Link With Nitti Gang."Chicago Daily Tribune. September 12, 1940. Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press, 1984. Dwyer, Orville and Hartmann, George. "How Murderers Rode to Rule in Elevator Union."Chicago Daily Tribune. March 23, 1943. Jentz, John B. "Citizenship, Self-Respect, and Political Power: Chicago's Flat Janitors Trailblaze the Service Employees International Union, 1912–1921." Labor's Heritage. 9:1 (Summer 1997). "Law Rips Mask Off Terrorists Posing As Labor."Chicago Daily Tribune. April 28, 1940. "Scalise Hired to Loot Union, State Charges." Chicago Daily Tribune. September 13, 1940. Taylor, Elizabeth Joel, and Cohen, Adam. American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley.Boston: Back Bay Books, 2001. "W. L. M'Fetridge, Labor Leader, 75." The New York Times. March 17, 1969. Witwer, David. "The Scandal of George Scalise: A Case Study in the Rise of Labor Racketeering in the 1930s." Journal of Social History.Summer 2003. External links
SEIU Executive Office: William McFetridge Records at the Walter P. Reuther Library at Wayne State University

1893 births
1969 deaths
Trade unionists from Illinois
Presidents of the Service Employees International Union
American Federation of Labor people
Activists from Chicago

masks:
William Lane McFetridge
McFetridge
William F
William Quesse
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
McFetridge
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<mask> (c. 1716 – February 23, 1781) was an American iron master and politician who was a Founding Father of the United States and a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Pennsylvania. Today, his former home, the <mask> House in Catasauqua, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, is a National Historic Landmark owned by the Borough of Catasauqua. Early years in the Pennsylvania colony

Born in Ireland, <mask> emigrated to the American colonies at age 20, landing in Philadelphia in 1736. According to early 18th century biographies of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, he was the son of a Protestant clergyman. To pay for his passage, <mask> was indentured to Samuel Savage, Jr., who was ironmaster at Coventry Forge in Chester County northwest of Philadelphia. <mask> started as a laborer at the ironworks, but when it was discovered he had a certain degree of education, he was promoted to a position in the offices as a clerk. Meanwhile, in 1738, Savage and his mother Anna Savage Nutt built a second mill in Chester County, Warwick Furnace.Three years later, Savage died, and the following year, <mask> married Savage's widow, Ann, whose maiden name was also <mask>. Having learned the iron-making operations, <mask> became ironmaster, managing the two ironworks for the next 10 years. When Ann's son Samuel III reached legal age in 1752, the son assumed ownership of the mills in accordance with the terms of his father's will. The <mask>s continued to live at Warwick Furnace until 1755 when <mask> formed a partnership to lease the Durham Furnace in Upper Bucks County north of Philadelphia. The ironworks, built in 1727, was started by a group of investors who were among Pennsylvania's wealthiest and most influential men, including James Logan, proprietor of the Pennsylvania colony for the Penn family, and William Allen, later the colony's Chief Justice and founder of Allentown (then Northampton Town). Public life as a revolution approaches

Shortly after becoming ironmaster at Durham, <mask> entered public life for the first time, serving as a justice of the peace in Bucks County from 1757–63. When the lease for the Durham mill expired, the <mask>s relocated to Easton, the county seat of Northampton County where they purchased a stone house near the center of town and built a stable nearby.Continuing his interest in public affairs, <mask> was commissioned as a justice of the peace in Northampton County, was elected to the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly and also helped build a new county courthouse in Easton's center square. In 1767, <mask> purchased  near Allentown at Biery's Port (now part of the borough of Catasauqua). The house was completed in 1768, but shortly after the <mask>s moved in, Ann died. <mask> continued living here for the next several years, and for a time, leased half of the property for farming. In 1776, two years after moving back to Durham, he sold the estate. Two centuries later, on July 17, 1971, the <mask> House was designated as a National Historical Landmark. While still at Biery's Port, <mask> arranged another lease to operate the Durham ironworks in 1774.The ironworks had just been acquired by Joseph Galloway, a Philadelphia attorney and speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly (1766–74). After failing to gain support in the First Continental Congress for his plan to avert a break with England, Galloway resigned as speaker and refused to attend the Second Continental Congress in 1775. <mask>, meanwhile, was re-elected to the Assembly in 1775 and attended the Provincial Convention on January 23. In July, as colonial forces prepared for war, he was commissioned as a colonel in the Third Battalion of the Pennsylvania Militia. Two weeks later, on August 2, <mask> secured a contract with Pennsylvania's Committee of Safety for cannon shot. On August 25, with a shipment of 258 round balls weighing from 18 to 32 pounds each, Durham Furnace became the first ironworks in Pennsylvania to supply munitions to the Continental Army. Signer of the Declaration of Independence

In 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, July 4.Before the vote for independence, five of Pennsylvania's delegates, all loyalists, were forced to resign. On July 20, <mask> was among the replacements appointed by the Assembly. One of his first duties as a member of Congress was to affix his signature to the Declaration of Independence, which he did on August 2, along with most delegates. Of the 56 signers, he was one of only eight who were foreign born, the only one to have been indentured and the only one to hold the position of ironmaster. Final years

<mask>'s service in the Congress was brief, just under seven months. On February 17, 1777, when the Assembly appointed a new Pennsylvania delegation, <mask> was one of seven signers from Pennsylvania who were not among those re-nominated. Instead, in March, he was appointed to Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, which was formed to govern the province under its new constitution.<mask> attended all of the council's daily meetings from March 4 through April 5, but fell ill and was bedridden for more than a month. He subsequently retired from the council, calling an end to his public career. <mask> continued to oversee production of cannon shot and shells at Durham Furnace for the Continental Army and Navy. Not long after independence was declared, however, Joseph Galloway fled Philadelphia, first seeking refuge with British Gen. William Howe and later escaping to England. Galloway was subsequently convicted by the Assembly as a traitor, and his properties, including the Durham mill, were seized. <mask> filed an appeal with the Supreme Executive Council that enabled him to finish out the first five years of his lease, but in 1779, the Commissioner of Forfeited Estates sold Durham Furnace to a new owner. Forming yet another partnership, <mask> leased the Greenwich Forge in what is now Warren County, New Jersey.In failing health, however, he moved back to Easton in April 1780 and died there on February 23, 1781, at the age of 65. The <mask>s' personal lives

Almost nothing is known of <mask>'s life before his arrival in Philadelphia in 1736, although there is general agreement regarding northern Ireland (possibly Ulster) as his birthplace. <mask>'s lineage, however, is well documented. Her grandfather, <mask>, came to Pennsylvania from Wiltshire, England, in 1684 and became Surveyor General of Chester County, which then accounted for about one-third of the colony. Later, her father, <mask>, served as Chester's Deputy Surveyor General. Ann's family belonged to the Society of Friends, but she was disowned as a Quaker in 1733 for her marriage "outside the circle" to Samuel Savage, Jr.

<mask> and <mask> had two children: a daughter Ann, who was called Nancy and died sometime during childhood, and a son James, who was born at Warwick Furnace in 1746. James studied law after his parents moved to Easton in 1763.In 1767, he married Elizabeth Gordon, the 17-year-old daughter of Lewis Gordon, Easton's first resident attorney. The couple initially lived in Easton but moved to Allentown, where James practiced law until his death in 1775. James and his wife had five children: <mask>, Thomas, James, Jr., Ann and Mary. <mask>’s will and final resting place

<mask>'s will was filed in January 1781, the month before his death, and was entered into probate in Northampton County on March 10. <mask> bequeathed £500 to <mask>, his eldest grandchild, and another £500 to Naomi Smith, his housekeeper, "in Consideration of her great Care & Attendance on me for a Number of Years." The remainder of <mask>'s estate was to be divided equally between the grandchildren and five children he fathered with Naomi Smith: Sarah, Rebecca, Naomi, Elizabeth and Edward. Apparently, none of these bequests were ever fulfilled.<mask> had been experiencing financial difficulties in the last few years of his life, and legal entanglements over the Durham and Greenwich forges dragged on until 1799, at which point his estate was judged insolvent. <mask> was buried in St. John's Lutheran Church cemetery across from his residence at Fourth and Ferry Streets in Easton. The house he leased in his final days is now known as the <mask> House. It was built by Easton founder William Parsons in 1753 and is today the city's oldest house. When the church property was sold in 1870 for construction of a public school, <mask> was re-interred at Easton Cemetery. Local residents dedicated a monument there in <mask>'s honor in 1855, and his body now rests in front of the memorial. See also
 Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence

References

External links

 The <mask> House- Catasauqua
 Durham Historical Society Official Web Site
 National Historic Landmarks Program, National Park Service

 Historic Catasauqua Preservation Society
 Historical Marker database-HMdb George Taylor Marker

1716 births
1781 deaths
American Presbyterians
Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
18th-century American politicians
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Members of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly
Foundrymen
People from Lehigh County, Pennsylvania
Kingdom of Ireland emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People of colonial Pennsylvania
Presbyterians from Pennsylvania
Burials in Pennsylvania

masks:
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<mask> (born 1960) is an American aviculturist and ornithologist, and the author of books and articles about parrots. From 1989 to 1992, he was curator of birds at Loro Parque, the largest parrot park in the world. In 1996, he was convicted of conspiring to smuggle rare parrots into the United States and of tax evasion. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Cuba in 1960 and immigrated to the United States with his parents at a young age. His parents encouraged his love of birds as a hobby to keep him out of trouble, and he began studying, collecting, and breeding birds at age nine. <mask> became enamoured with parrots at age 10 when he discovered macaws at a local pet store. When he was in his teens, he became further enamoured after receiving a parakeet.<mask>'s aviary was originally financed by his father (who owned a company that manufactured television components), later supplemented by his own income from breeding parrots, judging parrot contests, and lecturing and writing about parrots. <mask> began writing articles about birds at age 16, and by age 20 he had published his first book. In 1981, <mask> received the Silver Avy Award from the American Federation of Aviculture (AFA) for being the first in the U.S. to successfully breed slender-billed conures in captivity. <mask> was self-taught and did not attend university, but by age 25 he was already regarded as an authority on parrots and was respected as a successful breeder. In 1986, <mask> became midwestern regional vice-president of the AFA. By 1987, <mask> was operating a pet shop called Tropifauna just outside of Chicago. In August 1989, <mask> became Curator of Birds at Loro Parque, Tenerife, Canary Islands, the largest parrot park in the world—a position he held until January 1992.<mask> travelled extensively to study parrots in the wild, and wrote hundreds of articles and multiple books about parrots. <mask> was well known as a conservationist: he was an outspoken opponent of poaching and smuggling, and he was involved in the early efforts to save the Spix's macaw. Although highly respected among aviculturists, he was viewed with skepticism by the scientific community. To some, <mask> was merely a popularizer of others' ideas; to others, he was a "charlatan" who promoted wildlife conservation but who was suspected of engaging in illegal wildlife trade as early as 1980. Smuggling
Shortly after <mask> started selling birds, he is believed to have begun supplementing his own birds with birds obtained on the black market, before eventually moving into smuggling. Between at least 1986 and 1991, <mask> conspired to smuggle protected birds valued at more than $1.3 million into the United States, neglecting to declare this income on his taxes. While he was working at Loro Parque, <mask>'s mother ran the smuggling operation on his behalf.Birds were provided by co-conspirators in South America and shipped to Argentina or Mexico before being offloaded and smuggled into the United States. Smuggled birds were often concealed by mixing them into a shipment of legally imported birds; <mask> and his accomplices sneaked out the smuggled birds while the shipment was awaiting quarantine inspection. Other birds were smuggled in plastic tubes, cardboard containers, and false-bottomed suitcases. Many died during transport due to lack of food, water, and fresh air, and many more are thought to have died during capture. Birds were transported to a Chicago-area motel room where they were surgically sexed and furnished with forged documents so they could be sold on the legal market. Some of the birds were publicly advertised for sale in American Cage-bird Magazine. Operation Renegade

In 1989, <mask> became a person of interest in an international probe into bird smuggling known as "Operation Renegade" led by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). <mask> had been brought to the attention of authorities when convicted drug lord Mario Tabraue turned informant, claiming that he had received a shipment of 35 smuggled hyacinth macaws from <mask>—which arrived sick and died soon thereafter. In early 1990, <mask>'s friend Jim Mackman approached authorities after discovering that <mask> had been smuggling protected birds. Between 1990 and 1992, Mackman worked as an undercover informant for USFWS, secretly recording more than 100 conversations with <mask> and his mother about their smuggling operation. A search warrant executed on 16 January 1992 resulted in the seizure of 103 parrots, some or all of which were protected or illegally imported. The search also revealed ledgers documenting illegal transactions and photographs of birds that had died en route to <mask>; prosecutors alleged that <mask> used these photographs to justify withholding payments to his supplier. Between November 1994 and April 1995, <mask> was indicted on 20 charges, including charges of conspiracy to commit wildlife smuggling, as well as charges of tax evasion and perjury.<mask> was charged with smuggling at least 186 hyacinth macaws into the United States; this comprised 5–10% of the global population. <mask> was also charged with illegally trafficking, transporting, or possessing a number of other birds such as crimson-bellied conures, Queen of Bavaria conures, vinaceous amazons, cockatoos, flamingos, and toco toucans. He was suspected of having smuggled Spix's macaws, but this could not be proven. On 30 January 1996, <mask> pleaded guilty as part of a plea bargain to one count of conspiracy to violate wildlife and customs laws and one count of filing a false income tax return. He later attempted to reverse his guilty plea, but this was not permitted by the court. On 18 November 1996, <mask> was convicted of smuggling more than 450 protected birds and seven monkeys into the United States. He was sentenced to 82 months in prison, fined $100,000, and ordered to perform 200 hours of community service during a three-year probationary term after his prison sentence.At the time, this was the severest-ever sentence for bird smuggling in the United States, imposed by the judge because of "great cruelty" inflicted upon the birds. <mask> was incarcerated at FPC Duluth. Appeals of his conviction were unsuccessful, as was an attempt to sue the U.S. government for the value of the parrots confiscated during the 1992 search. <mask> was released in May 2002. Life after prison
Despite having pleaded guilty, <mask> has publicly maintained his innocence, suggesting that he was importing birds to preserve the species rather than for financial gain. He has also questioned the credibility of the witnesses against him, and he has alleged impropriety by the U.S. government in pursuit of his conviction. As of 2016, <mask> was working for an energy company and was keeping birds as a hobby, as well as operating a rescue centre.He has continued to remain active in aviculture circles as a writer and lecturer. In 2017, <mask> and colleagues proposed a new species of parrot: the blue-winged amazon. The existence of the species has been questioned. Selected publications
This is an incomplete list of works by <mask>. Books
 <mask>, T. & Kotlar, B. (1980). Discus.Tetra Press. <mask>, T. & Kotlar, B. (1981). Breeding Lovebirds. TFH Publications. <mask>, T. & Kotlar, B. (1989).Conures. TFH Publications. <mask>, T. (1989). A Monograph of Endangered Parrots. Silvio Mattacchione & Co.
 Silva, T. (1991). Psittaculture: The Breeding, Rearing and Management of Parrots. Silvio Mattacchione & Co.
 Silva, T. (1993).A Monograph Of Macaws and Conures. Silvio Mattacchione & Co.

Peer-reviewed articles
 Jordan, R., & <mask>, T. (1991). Breeding and rearing Salvadori's fig parrot: Psittaculirostris salvadorii at Loro Parque, Tenerife, International Zoo Yearbook 30:173-177. <mask>, T. (1994). Breeding the Spix's Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) at Loro Parque, Tenerife, International Zoo Yearbook  33:176-180. <mask>, T., Guzmán, A., Urantówka, A.D., & Mackiewicz, P. (2017). A new parrot taxon from the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico—its position within genus Amazona based on morphology and molecular phylogeny.PeerJ 5: e3475. See also
 Companion parrot
 International parrot trade

References

External links

1960 births
20th-century American criminals
American ornithologists
American male criminals
American male writers
American people convicted of tax crimes
Aviculture
Criminals from Illinois
Cuban emigrants to the United States
Living people
People from Florida
American smugglers

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<mask> ( ; born June 15, 1951) is an American politician who served as the U.S. representative for  from 1995 to 2011. A member of the Republican Party, he was elected as part of the historic Republican Wave of 1994, defeating 18-year incumbent U.S. Representative Dan Glickman. He ran in 2010 for the United States Senate seat being vacated by Sam Brownback. He lost to fellow Republican U.S. Representative Jerry Moran of Hays, Kansas, 50%–45%. <mask> twice sought to regain the 4th District House seat, representing a district which encompasses eleven counties in the south central region of the state, including the City of Wichita. In 2014, he ran against incumbent Mike Pompeo in the Republican primary but was defeated. Then, in 2017, after Pompeo vacated the seat to become President Donald Trump's CIA Director, <mask> sought the Republican nomination for the special election to fill it, but came in third, losing to Kansas state treasurer Ron Estes.Early life, education and career
<mask> was born in Vermillion, South Dakota, the son of Marcine (née Steele) and Wilbur E<mask>. He attended the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology where he played football as a running back. He went on to earn a bachelor's degree from Evangel College in 1975, and received a M.B.A. from Southwest Missouri State University in 1989. He was a teacher at Kansas Newman College and Evangel College and worked for Boeing as a proposal manager. U.S. House of Representatives

Elections
Tiahrt was elected to the Kansas State Senate in 1992. After only one term, in 1994, he won the Republican nomination for the 4th Congressional District and was elected in an upset over 18-year Democratic incumbent Dan Glickman. Over 1,800 people volunteered for <mask>'s campaign which spent only $200,000, less than a quarter of Glickman's expenditures.One factor in the win was the 1990s reapportionment, in which Hutchinson and surrounding Reno County were shifted to the "Big 1st" District. Hutchinson was replaced with more reliably Republican Montgomery County. After a tough reelection bid in 1996, <mask> was reelected to the U.S. House six more times with little difficulty, before his unsuccessful U.S. Senate bid in 2010. Committee assignments
 Committee on Appropriations
 Subcommittee on Defense
 Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies (Ranking Member)
Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies (Ranking Member)
Subcommittee on Transportation, Treasury, and General Government
Subcommittee on District of Columbia
Subcommittee on Military Construction
Subcommittee on the Legislative Branch
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence

Leadership roles and Caucus memberships
 Dean of Kansas' delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives
 Founder and chairman of the House Economic Competitiveness Caucus
Deputy Majority Whip

Impeachment of Bill Clinton

In November 1997, <mask> was one of eighteen Republicans in the House to co-sponsor a resolution by Bob Barr that sought to launch an impeachment inquiry against President Bill Clinton. The resolution did not specify any charges or allegations. This was an early effort to impeach Clinton, predating the eruption of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. The eruption of that scandal would ultimately lead to a more serious effort to impeach Clinton in 1998.On October 8, 1998, Tiahrt voted in favor of legislation that was passed to open an impeachment inquiry. On December 19, 1998, Tiahrt voted in favor of all four articles of impeachment against Clinton (only two of which received the needed majority of votes). Tiahrt Amendment

Tiahrt is the author of the Tiahrt Amendment which prohibits the National Tracing Center of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) from releasing information from its firearms trace database to anyone other than a law enforcement agency or prosecutor in connection with a criminal investigation. This precludes gun trace data from being used in academic research of gun use in crime. Additionally, the law blocks any data legally released from being admissible in civil lawsuits against gun sellers or manufacturers. Some groups, including the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, believe that having further access to the ATF database would help municipal police departments track down sellers of illegal guns and curb crime. These groups are trying to undo the Tiahrt Amendment.Numerous police organizations oppose the Tiahrt Amendment, such as the Major Cities Chiefs Association (MCCA) and the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP). Conversely, the Tiahrt Amendment is supported by the National Rifle Association, and the Fraternal Order of Police (although it allows municipal police departments only limited access to ATF trace data in any criminal investigation). The NRA has claimed that undoing the Tiahrt Amendment would lead to a rash of lawsuits against gun dealers. In their 2010 letter of appreciation on behalf of the NRA Political Victory Fund and the 50,000 NRA members in Kansas, Tiahrt was honored with a 4th consecutive congressional race A+ NRA rating for his contributions to the pro-gun efforts. Tiahrt had earned the highest rating, by "voting for every pro-gun bill." This included "critical pro-gun reforms" like the 2005 Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act (PLCAA); "legislation to expand Right-to-Carry to national parks and wildlife refuges", the Tiahrt Amendment to reform the ATF, and "legislation to restore" Second Amendment rights to Washington, DC. The A+ ranking took into consideration the letter he submitted to court briefs that he signed as a "critical friend of the court briefs" in the 2008 landmark case District of Columbia v. Heller, in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Second Amendment protects an individual's right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home, and that Washington, D.C.'s handgun ban and requirement that lawfully-owned rifles and shotguns be kept "unloaded and disassembled or bound by a trigger lock" violated this guarantee.and the 2010 SC case McDonald v. Chicago which found that the right of an individual to "keep and bear arms" is protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment against the states, clearing up any uncertainty left in the wake of the Heller case. Tiahrt-Bilbray Bill Fairness for American Students Act
A bill was introduced by Tiahrt and Congressman Brian Bilbray (R-CA) called the Fairness for American Students Act that would close a loophole in current law that several states have used to provide lower-cost college tuition to illegal immigrants compared to tuition rates U.S. citizens from neighboring states have to pay. Kansas and Nebraska are two of the states that currently offer in-state tuition to illegal immigrants. Former Tiahrt Congressional Staff
Matt Schlapp is chairman of the American Conservative Union and a Fox News political commentator. Schlapp began his political career as a campaign volunteer for Tiahrt in 1994 and following Tiahrt's election in November 1994, Schlapp moved to Washington, D.C. to serve as Tiahrt's communications director and eventually chief of staff for five years. He later served as White House Political Director for President George W. Bush. Matthew Stroia serves as chief of staff to U.S. Representative Mike Kelly (R-PA).He served as a legislative counsel for Tiahrt from 2008-2011. Joel Katz currently serves as district director for U.S. Representative Andrew Clyde (R-GA). He served as legislative correspondent for Tiahrt from 2009-2011, and then went on to serve as legislative assistant for U.S. House of Representatives Majority Leader Eric Cantor, and chief of staff to U.S. Representative Doug Collins (R-GA). Jeff Kahrs began as an intern for Tiahrt in the Kansas State Senate from 1993-1994 and later served as Tiahrt's legislative director and chief of staff from 1995-2010. Kahrs currently serves as senior advisor to U.S. Representative Jake LaTurner (R-KS). Josh Bell served as a legislative correspondent and aide for Tiahrt from 2002-2011. He currently serve as chief of staff to U.S. Representative Ron Estes (R-KS).Robert Noland was the only employee of <mask>'s congressional campaign in 1994 and worked for Tiahrt throughout his tenure in the U.S. House, mostly as his district director in Wichita. Noland later served as executive director of the Kansas Family Policy Council. Political positions

Abortion and family planning
Tiahrt opposed government-funded abortions. While serving in Congress, he spoke at the annual March for Life. The "Tiahrt Amendment" of 1998, which was most recently included in the FY2020 State-Foreign Operations Appropriations Act, ensures that no government funding is used in connection with forcible sterilizations in foreign countries following media and NGO reports that some governments were offering financial incentives to meet sterilization quotas. The amendment ensures that in foreign countries where the U.S. government funds voluntary family planning projects, women are not denied the right to participate in any general welfare program or denied the right of access to health care. Further, the amendment requires that any experimental contraceptive drugs and devices and medical procedures are provided only in the context of a scientific study in which participants are advised of potential risks and benefits.Government funding for needles
Tiahrt was cited as responsible for preventing the City of Washington D.C., from spending federal or District funding on "needle exchange programs" for drug users from 1998 through 2007. Comments on the TSA
On November 23, 2010, Tiahrt spoke in Wichita against recent TSA security measures and how they affect citizens' privacy. In 2009, along with Kansas' then-U.S. Senators, he co-authored a letter to the Homeland Security Secretary expressing concerns over new rules for privately owned aircraft over 12,500 pounds, which critics feared would further burden the already hurting private aviation industry and in turn the local communities where the small aircraft are manufactured in Kansas. Stimulus spending
Tiahrt voted against the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and spoke against the stimulus in the House, planning to introduce an act to repeal the stimulus. Personal life
Tiahrt and his wife Vicki met while attending Evangel University. They have three children, Jessica, John and Luke, and five grandchildren.<mask> Healy graduated from George Mason University School of Law and is an attorney at the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association. <mask> graduated from Wichita State University. On July 24, 2004, the Tiahrts' youngest child, sixteen year-old Luke, died of an apparent suicide at the family home in Virginia. The family established the Luke Tiahrt Memorial Fund to provide grants to organizations that benefits teenagers. Electoral history
 2017 Republican Convention for Kansas 4th District
 Ron Estes, 66 votes, 2nd Ballot
 Alan Cobb, 43 votes
 <mask>, 17 votes
 2014 Republican primary race for Kansas 4th District
 Mike Pompeo (inc), 42,877 votes, 63%
 <mask>, 25,501 votes, 37%
 2010 Republican primary race for U.S.

masks:
William Todd Tiahrt
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Tiahrt
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. Tiahrt
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Jessica Tiahrt
John Tiahrt
Todd Tiahrt
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Jean-Pons-<mask> (18 November 1777 – 10 July 1868) was a French politician, playwright and poet. He was also a member of the Académie française and a prominent Freemason. His long career as a soldier then a politician, playwright and poet lasted through political revolutions and literary wars, and is full of incident and travels. He had a talent for self-promotion within many regimes and got to know all political and literary dignitaries, all the while verging on impopularity. He said "I have counted up to 500 epigrams a year against me; anyone who escapes college to join a soap-opera thinks I should have his first kick". His name was like a red rag to a bull to Republicans and Romantics, but he avenged himself on his worst enemies by fables or epithets against them. Biography

<mask> was born in Béziers.He was the son of National Convention-member Jacques Joseph Viennet and nephew of the priest Louis Esprit <mask> who, aged 40, was made curate of the église Saint-Merri in Paris and who in the early phase of the French Revolution in 1790 preached a sermon on the civil constitution of the clergy. Napoleonic Wars
After being an excellent student at the college in Béziers and presiding over the club for children of his own age during the early years of the  Revolution, he was destined by his family for a career in the church. However, at 19, he preferred to become a second lieutenant in the naval artillery. His first campaign was not a happy one. Sent to Brest, then Lorient, on 21 April 1797 he embarked on the Hercule. This ship had scarcely left harbour when it was sighted and pursued by two British cruisers, and a few artillery salvos later the Hercule had lost more than half its rigging and Viennet was taken prisoner. He then spent 7 months as a prisoner in the prison hulks at Plymouth and consoled himself by writing poetry and acting in a theatre he set up in the prison, putting on his own plays alongside tragedies and vaudevilles of the time.Returning to France in a prisoner exchange, he returned to his original corps. In 1812, he won the favour of being invited to Paris, writing many epithets, tragedies, comedies and poems. Some of his epithets won prizes at the Jeux Floraux. He was trying to have his tragedy Clovis mounted at the Théâtre-Français when he received orders to rejoin his regiment immediately on its march to Saxony. He left Paris and was a captain in the 1813 Saxony campaign, assisting at the battles of Lützen and Bautzen (at the latter he was decorated personally by Napoleon). In the disastrous battle of Leipzig, he was again taken prisoner and did not return to France until the Bourbon Restoration, becoming attached to the Bourbon monarchy. Bourbon Restoration
Viennet became aide-de-camp to général de Montélégier, himself aide-de-camp to the duc de Berry.Viennet did not return to the imperial armies during the Hundred Days and refused to vote in favour of the acte additionnel, thus forcing himself to procure a voyage to Cayenne. Only at the insistence of his father's friend Cambacérès was the order already signed by minister Denis Decrès revoked. The Bourbons fled, but Viennet did not follow the duc de Berry to Ghent, for which the duke criticised Viennet despite his refusal to go back over to Napoleon's side. Left without a job, he returned to writing and became a journalist. He collaborated on the l'Aristarque, the Journal de Paris and the Constitutionnel until he was finally admitted to the corps royal d'état-major thanks to Gouvion Saint-Cyr. His many Épîtres date to this period. On 17 July 1820, he put on his one-act opera Aspasie et Périclès at the Académie de musique but, though it ran for 16 performances it was not a success despite its masterful music thanks to an uninteresting libretto.That autumn, on 19 October, he finally found success with his tragedy Clovis, at the Théâtre-Français. He wrote other plays, mainly tragedies, which were not produced. Made chef d'escadron by seniority in 1823, he was demoted to the ranks in 1827 in the wake of the publication of his Épître aux chiffonniers in favour of the liberty of the press, a witty protest against hateful and absurd legislation. This only made him more popular and on 21 April 1828 he was elected député for the 2nd electoral arrondissement of Hérault (Béziers). He took his place among the French left of this time, supporting the parliamentary opposition which would lead to the July Revolution by his votes and sometimes by his speeches. July Monarchy
Viennet voted in favour of the adresse des 221. Re-elected on 23 June  1830 with 55% of the votes, he contributed to the establishment of the July Monarchy and it was he who on 31 July announced the nomination of Louis-Philippe, the duc d'Orléans as lieutenant général of the kingdom to the people at the Hôtel de Ville of Paris on 31 July.The new king returned Viennet to his rank as chef de bataillon. Re-elected as a député on 5 July 1831 with 65% of the vote, he sat in the ministerial majority. Dedicated to the new regime, but still with a burning and intolerant spirit, he was his party's "enfant terrible" and openly spoke in favour of its opponents' projects, hopes and watchwords. Even whilst in the Chamber of Deputies he continued to be vehemently outspoken, making sudden and biting attacks on the republicans, who he called paymasters of the counter-revolution and soon drawing scorn and whistles from them. A focus for Charivari and Caricature, he was subjected to all kinds of malignity, sarcasm and denigration. The Académie française elected him a member on 18 November 1830, in seat 22 in succession to the comte de Ségur. The Académie also provided another arena for his controversies, and within it he and Baour-Lormian were among the most opinionated leaders of the absolute resistance to any hint of Romanticism.Viennet was a particular friend of Louis-Philippe, who made him a peer of France on 7 November 1839. With continuing energy, Viennet pursued his literary works (novels, operas, tragedies, comedies, epithets and fables) as keenly as his loud political debates. However, he was not spared as a peer any more than he had been as a député, with hatred for him lasting until the February 1848, in which he lost his patron at the Palais du Luxembourg. Occupied elsewhere during 1848, the satirical journals left him free for a moment. Later, he was highly thought of for being very dignified and firm with the men on 2 December. Freemason
A Masonic dignitary in the Scottish Rite of France and its colonies, he became Grand Master of this obedience (with the title "Sovereign Grand Commander" of the "Supreme Council of France") from 1860 to 1868. He fought to maintain this rite's independence when the Second French Empire abused its authority by claiming to unite this rite with the French Rite under the direction of marshal Magnan, and recovering his youthful energy and regaining the popularity he had lost since the Restoration.Viennet wrote until his last day, dying aged 90 in Le Val-Saint-Germain. He edited his own entry in the Dictionnaire de la conversation, to which he contributed many other articles. Joseph d'Haussonville, who replaced him at the Académie française, spoke his elogy on 31 March 1870. He was buried in the cimetière du Père-Lachaise in Paris. Main works
Viennet's setbacks in the theatre never discouraged him from writing, and he continued to produce works throughout his life. The list below does not include many works rejected by the Paris Opéra or the theatres and so never produced. Aspasie et Périclès, 1-act opera, music by Joseph Daussoigne-Méhul (nephew and student of Méhul), Paris, Théâtre de l'Académie royale de musique, 17 July 1820 ;
Clovis, 5-act tragedy, Paris, Théâtre Français, 19 October 1820 ;
Promenade philosophique au cimetière du Père-Lachaise  (1824) ;
Le Siège de Damas, 5 canto poem, preceded by a preface on the classicists and the romantics (1825) ;
Sigismond de Bourgogne, 5-act tragedy, Paris, les Comédiens ordinaires du Roi, 10 September 1825 ;
Sédim, ou les Nègres, 3 canto poem (1826) ;
 la Tour de Montlhéry, histoire du XIIe siècle, novel (1833, 3 vol.), republished in the collection Romans illustrés;
Le Château Saint-Ange, novel (1834, 2 vol.) ;
Les Serments, 3-act verse comedy, Paris, Théâtre Français, 16 February 1839 ;
Fables (1843) ;
Michel Brémond, 5-act verse drama, Paris, Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 7 March 1846 ;
Épîtres et satires, suivies d'un Précis historique sur la satire chez tous les peuples (1847) ;
La Course à l'héritage, 5-act verse comedy, Paris, second Théâtre-Français (Odéon), 29 April 1847 ;
Les chêne et ses commensaux, fable (1849) ;
L'0s à ronger (1849) ;
La Jeune tante, 3-act verse comedy (1854) ;
Arbogaste, 5-act tragedy (1859) ;
Richelieu, 5-act prose drama (1859) ;
Selma, 1-act verse drama, Paris, Théâtre de l'Odéon, 14 May 1859 ;
La Franciade, 10-canto poem (1863) ;
Histoire de la puissance pontificale (1866, 2 vol. ), directed against the popes' temporal power ;
Souvenirs de la vie militaire de Jean Pons <mask>, de l'Académie française (1777-1819), prefaced and annotated by MM. Albert Depréaux and Pierre Jourda (1929) ;
Journal de Viennet, pair de France, témoin de trois règnes, 1817-1848. Foreword and afterword by the duc de La Force (1955). References

External links
Biography on the Academie francaise site

1777 births
1868 deaths
19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
19th-century French novelists
19th-century French poets
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French fabulists
French Freemasons
French military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
French opera librettists
Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the 2nd Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the 3rd Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the Académie Française
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
Orléanists
People from Béziers
Politicians from Occitania (administrative region)

masks:
Guillaume Viennet
Family Viennet
Viennet
Guillaume Viennet