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<mask> (born September 19, 1957) is an American former professional football player who was a defensive tackle for twelve seasons with the Chicago Bears from 1979 to 1990 in the National Football League (NFL). He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2002. He currently hosts the Bears postgame show on WGN Radio in Chicago. High school
The son of Robert and <mask>, he graduated from Jacksonville High School in Jacksonville, AR, in 1975. <mask> played football his junior and senior year. He suffered a disabling fall from a tree that kept him out of organized sports from grades 7-10. He participated in band, playing saxophone and five other instruments.He also played bass guitar and sang for a local band named "Sanctuary Woods." Doug Matthews of Jacksonville filled his large shoes in that band after he left. Whenever he was in town he would come to where they were playing and sit in with them. He never forgot his roots. He was always just like he had never left. Jacksonville High School coach Bill Reed is credited for "rescuing" him from the band.-
<mask> was also the bassist and vocalist for the band created by "Chicago Sports Profile Magazine" editor Lisa Levine after the success of the "Super Bowl Shuffle." The band "The Chicago Six" played "off season" from 1987-1990.The alumni from the group include Walter Payton (drums), Otis Wilson (lead vocalist), Shaun Gayle (sax & voice), Gary Nylund (guitar & voice), Curt Fraser (guitar & voice), drummers Graham Watson, Steve Cobb, and keyboardists John Redfield, Larry Harris and Jeffrey Abbott (Keytarjeff). The band also performed on both local and national television. College
Hampton played college football at Arkansas and was drafted in the first round of the 1979 NFL Draft by the Bears. He was part of a Razorback team that thumped the highly favored Oklahoma Sooners in the 1978 Orange Bowl by a score of 31-6. Several key Razorback players had been suspended for the game by Arkansas Head Coach Lou Holtz which left the team short-handed. The fired up Razorbacks charged from the locker room in a fashion that the media noticed. When asked why the team came out of the locker room in such a hurry, <mask> answered, "Coach Holtz said the first eleven out of the locker room will start."As a senior <mask> was an All-American as he logged 98 tackles (18 behind the line of scrimmage). He was also named the Southwest Conference Defensive Player of the Year in 1978. In addition, that same season, <mask> was named by the Houston Post the SWC Player of the Year. As a junior, he had 70 tackles (8 for a loss). In 1976, as a sophomore, <mask> made 48 tackles (2 for losses) and recovered two fumbles. As a freshman, he had 21 tackles (4 for a loss). In his career, he made a total of 237 tackles with 32 being behind the line of scrimmage and recovered six fumbles.He was a four-year letterman, a three-year starter at Arkansas and a two-time All-Conference selection. He was also a member of the Razorback All-Decade team of the 1970s. During his time at Arkansas <mask> played alongside Ron Calcagni, Steve Little and Ben Cowins. In 1991, he was elected to the University of Arkansas Sports Hall of Honor and the following year he was voted to the Arkansas Sports Hall of Fame. In 1994 <mask> was voted to the All-Century team of the University of Arkansas. <mask> was named one of the state of Arkansas' Top 50 greatest athletes in the 20th century. Mike Ditka remembers scouting <mask> while a member of the Dallas Cowboys coaching staff:  "I watched <mask> when he came out of Arkansas," Ditka said."I remember Coach [Tom] Landry saying what a great football player he was going to be." NFL
<mask> was drafted by the Bears in the first round of the 1979 draft and on June 27, 1979, he signed a four-year $470,000 contract with the club that included a $60,000 signing bonus. In 1979, he was voted All-Rookie by the Pro Football Writers Association. The following year, he was a Second-team All-Pro selection and was voted to his first Pro Bowl after recording 11½ sacks which lead the Bears. His fierce style of play earned him the nickname of "<mask>mal". He was selected to four Pro Bowls and was a key defensive member of the Bears' Super Bowl XX win against the New England Patriots in 1986. <mask> was a versatile defensive lineman, making All-Pro at both defensive end and defensive tackle.In all, <mask> was 1st or 2nd team All-Pro in 1980, 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, and 1988. His versatility likely cost him several post-season honors, for example, in 1986 he was an alternate for the Pro Bowl at both defensive end and defensive tackle. His playing both positions likely split the votes of his NFC peers. <mask> was also a 1st alternate for the Pro Bowl in 1988 and graded out as the top defender on the Bears that season, even though Mike Singletary was the NFL Defensive Player of the Year. During <mask>'s tenure in Chicago (1979–90), the Bears defense ranked #1 in the NFL in allowing the fewest rushing yards, the fewest rushing touchdowns, the fewest total yards, the fewest points and inflicted the most sacks. {| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:lightsteelblue; width:20em;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "A lot of times in football, it's not so much the stat, but how you play the game. If that's the measuring stick, then <mask> played the game as well as anybody."|-
| style="text-align: right;" | Coach Mike Ditka
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In 1982, he had a tremendous year while playing defensive tackle, recording 9 sacks in the 9-game, strike-shortened season. He was also named NFL defensive player of the year by Pro Football Weekly. He played out his option after that season and became a free agent. On July 15, 1983, <mask> signed a deal that made him the Bears' second highest-paid player (behind Walter Payton). <mask> signed three one-year contracts worth about $1 million (including bonuses), an average of about $333,000 per year. "<mask> will be the highest paid defensive lineman in the league this year," said Jim Steiner, <mask>'s agent. "I'm very happy," said <mask>."I'm glad to have the contract behind me so I can concentrate on training camp. I'm optimistic about this season and I didn't want to miss any of the fun." <mask> didn't miss out on the fun. He was voted the NFLPA NFC Defensive Lineman of the Year in 1984 along with being consensus All-Pro and made his third Pro Bowl. <mask> also tied his own career-best of 11½ sacks in 1984. The Bears' defense was the tops in the league and he was part of 1984 Bear defense that set the NFL record for most sacks in a season, with 72, and is the co-holder of the record for most sacks in a game with 12. The latter occurred against the Detroit Lions on December 16, 1984.Earlier in that season the Bears sacked Minnesota Viking quarterback Archie Manning 11 times, to tie the record for the second-most sacks in a game. During the middle of the Bears 1985 Super Bowl run, <mask> signed a 4-year contract extension. On November 8, 1985, he signed a
four-year deal worth $2.7 million. <mask> became the fifth highest-paid defensive lineman in the NFL when the contract began in 1986 with an estimated salary of $625,000. <mask> was making $325,000 during for the 1985 season. Also in the middle of 1985 <mask> moved from right defensive tackle to left defensive end, allowing William Perry to move into the starting lineup. Also that season, <mask>, feeling the "Bears Super Bowl Shuffle" was too cocky, declined involvement.Sports Illustrated 's Paul Zimmerman relates an anecdote that when he picked fellow Bear DT Steve McMichael for his All-Pro team in 1985 he was chided a year later by Buddy Ryan, then the head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles.Ryan told Zimmerman that he was disappointed in him and that he thought Zimmerman knew football. He then pulled out Bears films and showed Zimmerman that "<mask> was the cornerstone to our 46 defense by drawing constant double teams". That year, he also was credited for inventing the 'Gatorade dump" in which a coach is drenched with the drink after a victory, which was often credited with Harry Carson. <mask> remained at left defensive end in 1986 and was a First-team All-Pro. However, in the Bears 46 defense he would line up as a nose tackle and when the Bears lined up in a nickel defense, <mask> would play right tackle. Late in the 1987 season, Mike Ditka moved <mask> back to defensive tackle (where he played from 1982–1984), where he remained throughout the rest of his career. In his 1987 book "Fatso" Hall of Fame defensive tackle Art Donovan called <mask> the best defensive lineman in the NFL and "the closest thing to Gino Marchetti I've seen".<mask>'s play also caught the eye of John Madden, who named <mask> to his All-Madden team six times and to the 10th Anniversary All-Madden team. Injuries
During his football career <mask> endured 10 knee surgeries (five on each knee) and had two more just after finishing his 12th NFL season in 1990. He is credited by the Chicago Bears as having 82 career sacks. He had a career-high of 11½ in both 1980 (as a DE) and 1984 (as DT). After his contract expired after 1989, <mask> signed a 1-year deal for $850,000 to play the 1990 season for the Bears. The final contract was incentive based, if <mask> played he got paid, if an injury forced him to the sidelines he would not. <mask> played 14 games—had he played all 16 he would have earned the full $1 million value of the contract.After the 1990 season <mask> was voted to the NFL All-Decade team of the 1980s. <mask>, who missed 23 games in his career due to severe knee injures, was a positive force on the Bear defense. From 1983-90, in games he missed the Bears only won 33% of the time. In games he played they won 75%. When he was in the lineup the Bears sacked the quarterback 3.6 times a game and only 2.3 times a game without him. When <mask> played the defense gave up an average of 14 points a game and allowed 23 points a game in the games he missed, all seemingly remarkable statistics. Retirement

<mask> retired from the Chicago Bears after the 1990 season.In 1990, he was the recipient of the George S. Halas Courage Award by the Pro Football Writers Association which is given to the player or coach who "has performed with abandon despite injury." Other winners over the years have been Robert Edwards, Dick Butkus, as well as others. <mask> was selected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2002. He was inducted with Washington Redskins head coach George Allen, Oakland Raiders tight end Dave Casper, Buffalo Bills quarterback Jim Kelly and Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver John Stallworth. Post-NFL
<mask> is a co-host for the syndicated Pro Football Weekly television show which is approaching its 20th season on the air. The show is hosted by a panel, Pro Football Weekly publisher/editor Hub Arkush as well as Chicago sportscaster Pat Boyle, and former Bear Tom Waddle. <mask> was also a color commentator for NFL games on NBC in the early 1990s, and called XFL games for the network in 2001.On May 22, 2002, <mask> was sentenced in Arkansas for his third DWI in six years. He received a sentence of one week in jail, a $1,000 fine, and was ordered to attend alcohol education courses. On November 20, 2021, <mask> was arrested in Winfield, Indiana on a charge of operating a vehicle while intoxicated. It was later reported that a toxicology report resulting from that arrest revealed a blood alcohol content of 0.189. <mask> is part of a Miller Lite and Gridiron Greats promotion to raise funds for retired NFL players in need. He also participates in "One for the Kids" Annual Golf Tournament that raises funds for various charities that support children in the Chicago area. <mask> has also been a spokesperson for companies such as Chevrolet and Firestone.<mask> is also renowned for coining various catch phrases, such as: "de facto'' cream-of-the-class, if you will," "throw it against the pallet to see what sticks," and "hit that town like Hurricane Katrina." He later apologized for his Katrina comment. References

External links

Member profile Pro Football Hall of Fame
<mask>'s Official Website

1957 births
Living people
Jacksonville High School (Arkansas) alumni
American football defensive ends
American football defensive tackles
Arkansas Razorbacks football players
Chicago Bears announcers
Chicago Bears players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
National Football League announcers
Sportspeople from Oklahoma City
Players of American football from Oklahoma
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
XFL (2001) announcers

masks:
Daniel Oliver Hampton
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<mask> was an agent with Canada's Department of Indian Affairs in the late 19th century. <mask> moved quickly up the ranks of the DIA, beginning as a clerk with family connections to prime minister John A. Macdonald. From chief civil servant to deputy superintendent, <mask> accomplished a lot when he was present. After a 3-month sick leave for a "disordered nervous system", he wasted little time picking up where he left off. <mask> was noted by many historians to be the man who cut costs on the rations the government supplied to the reserves. Despite only visiting the reserves once, where he was reluctant to socialize with the chiefs, <mask> announced his change of policy plans in Battleford shortly afterwards: Indians would only be supplied with rations if they were unable to sustain themselves. <mask>’s goals as deputy superintendent of the DIA was to keep costs to a minimum.He thought that so long as they were supplying reserve peoples with rations, they would remain dependent on the government and therefore a significant burden to their expenditures. The Department of Indian Affairs and the loss of the buffalo

Relationships between settlers and Indigenous populations shifted drastically around the same time that Plains bison (buffalo) populations disappeared from the plains. With the loss of the buffalo came the loss of the nomadic lifestyles of the indigenous peoples. Their freedom was not something that they could maintain. With the collapse in the 1870s being something that many were not expecting, the government’s ability to supply adequate food was insufficient. Lack of food on reserve land combined with close living conditions and widespread poverty brought on devastating illnesses, including tuberculosis. Many historians viewed TB as the main killer of early reserve populations despite its presence in populations beforehand.The Metis, who were the offspring of white settlers and Indigenous women, lived less nomadic lives than the Indigenous people. After many fled the Red River settlement, they began setting up permanent settlements throughout the 1870s throughout the northwest. Many forts were the result of the Catholic mission, like Fort Laurent. <mask>, chairman of the Metis Council and fellow developer of Fort Laurent, saw the opportunity to higher eager metis workers and lower standards and wages. Laws and regulations at the Fort meant a secure supply of pemmican as buffalo populations dwindled. The Metis and Indians were hunting the same buffalo and many sensed their demise. As the decline of buffalo increased, so did the Metis and Indigenous' concern for their way of life.When the Liberal government of Alexander Mackenzie came into power in 1873, they began to hesitantly prepare the west for settlement. With Fort Laurent on the proposed railway route, <mask>, the Hudson Bay Company (HBC) and the federal government authorities sought control over the buffalo and pemmican supply- wanting it out of metis hands. In the mid 1870s, <mask>, Metis council president Gabriel Dumont and the Metis people got into an affair which illegitimated the Fort Laurent law system, bringing the British law into power and the buffalo and pemmican into the hands of the HBC. Two bad years of wheat production caused by an early frost in 1883 and a wet summer in 1884 further aggravated those struggling for food and money on the plains. The Numbered Treaties: The 1870s

Treaties were decided orally and later finalized in writing. First Nations people saw oral words to be as binding as written words, however, the government saw what was written as the final. Mistranslations often meant that what First Nations agreed to was not what they received.In 1873, the government began changing how they approached the treaty making process. A new chief negotiator and crucial Metis intervention were beneficial for both parties. In 1875, Treaty Six was successfully negotiated at Fort Carlton with the presence of a police force. Big Bear, a chief of the Cree people, refused to sign- worried about a hanging in the future. He was the first major chief on the Canadian Prairies to not sign. The heart of the fertile belt could now be prepared for settlers. Cree leaders signed Treaty Six with the understanding that they would receive medical help, protection from famine and assistance converting into an agricultural lifestyle.They did not account for mistranslations in the treaty process, extinction of the bison and economic marginalization. First Nations saw treaties as government reassurance that their way of life would be protected. The decline of the buffalo, the fur trade economy, and the increasing influx of white settlers presented a challenging and changing environment. The government saw treaties as an opportunity to get First Nations off the plains and white settlers onto the plains. When John A. Macdonald's Conservatives took over in 1878, development in the west took off. The colonization company scheme and the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was seen as the key to a large influx of money. The metis were worried that they would be treated as squatters and lose the land that they were living on when settlers moved in.At the end of the 1870s, the Conservatives temporally ended the work-for-rations program upon realizing the extent to which the famine impacted the native population after the famine conference took place in Battleford. However, <mask>, then the deputy superintendent, kept a secret agenda in place which pushed agents of the Department of Indian Affairs (DIA) to continue demanding work from Indians who could work for them to earn the food that they were receiving. This was to ensure that they did not expect gift giving form the government. As life on the reserve continued to include starvation, malnutrition and illness, many Metis were caught sharing what little food they had. The head of the DIA between 1883 and 1893, Hayter Reed, discovered that even some of the police began sharing their rations. Natives in northwestern Saskatchewan and Alberta who were not part of Treaty Six asked the government for assistance. Since the northern land was not suitable for agriculture, the government did not desire the land for settlement.<mask> made his point clear alongside Macdonald, in a letter written on February 22, 1890, saying that the making of a Treaty would be postponed until settlement was required. Dewdney, Vankoughnet and the Tension of the 1880s

In 1880, Edgar Dewdney was concerned that the clothes in which the people were living in was not adequate, and after much discussion, Vankougnet agreed that the Indians would be better-abled to work if they were supplied with better clothing. Following his trip to the west in the early 1880s, <mask> cut $140,000 headed for the prairies. He stated that the staff of the Indian administration were corrupt and employee termination was required to prevent further discrepancies. When the prime minister heard this from <mask>, he insisted that immediate termination should be completed without excuses. Dewdney was not consulted before this decision was made and tension between <mask> and Dewdney grew. In 1882, the police resisted the closer of Fort Walsh because they feared that it would prolong and worsen the famine.When <mask> told the prime minister that tighter control of the police would prevent them from acting on their own accord, the police argued that they wanted to be on good terms with the Indians. In 1884, the police force was taken under control by the Department of Indian Affairs- hence marking a major shift in the relationship between the police and the northwest aboriginals. In August 1883, an island in Indonesia called Krakatoa exploded at such a magnitude that shifts in weather patterns were felt globally. As summer turned to fall, unexpected frost destroyed crops across the prairies. Hunger broke out and illness moved in as populations were weakened from growing famine. The loss of crops not only meant hunger and illness, but a season’s worth of agricultural economy was also lost. After the time of the frost, prime minister Macdonald wrote to Dewdney asking for reports on reserve settlement progress.The DIA file was subject to a Parliament session the coming winter and Macdonald was worried about the effects a bad report may bring. Dewdney recognized his Conservative leader's concern and managed to keep the report in a positive light, describing the progress of Indians as "satisfactory" and mentioning that the government had been able to lessen the number of flour rations given out. Despite Dewdney’s service to the prime minister, he recognized the reserve situation and the impractical path <mask> was leading. He wrote a letter to Macdonald voicing his concerns. Without consulting with Dewdney beforehand, <mask> ordered additional cuts, explaining to Dewdney that the "country" expected expenditure cuts and failing to do so would result in consequences within the department. Around 1883, the government began depending on bacon as the bulk of reserve rations. Due to lack of proper preservation and storage, the bacon was difficult to digest and often arrived on reserves spoiled.The spoiled bacon was fatal when ingested and the Assiniboine bands of Indian Head experienced a great tragedy in 1883 when nearly 130 people died from the rancid rations. Cree leaders Lucky Man, Big Bear and Little Pine, accompanied by thousands of followers, left their reserves to take up land around Fort Walsh in Cypress Hills, despite knowing they would receive no government help due to their unsanctioned departure. Upon the closure of Fort Walsh shortly after the Cree leaders arrived, it was planned that a Treaty 4 chief council would be held to discuss reserve conditions. The DIA refused to supply the council with rations and the Cree leaders cancelled the gathering. To add to the heightening concern, Dewdney received a 2-month leave in February 1884- giving Vankoughnet full control of the department. Furthering restraints on department expenditures saw a rise in tensions throughout the west. Several small-scale confrontations occurred, with the most significant taking place on the Sakimay (Yellow Calf) reserve in the Qu’Appelle Valley.<mask>’s orders to cut reckless spending employees saw the end of farming instructor James Setter’s career. When Setter was replaced with an inexperienced man by the name of Hilton Keith, an armed stand-off took place, which is known as the Yellow Calf Incident. 5 weeks after Setter’s replacement, Chief Sakimay and several armed men raided the ration storehouse in which Keith was guarding and stole sixty bags of flour and twelve containers of bacon. Lead by hunger and frustration, Assistant Commissioner Reed reasoned that the rations were on the reserve for the Indians to eat, regardless of when they ate it. Back in Ottawa, <mask> heard of the trouble and warned police of potential storehouse raids. In April 1884, Dewdney returned to more frustrations than he left with due to Vanoughnet’s new orders. By the time the summer came around, treaty populations were experiencing bad climate, lack of small game and department dismissals.After meeting with Cree leaders, Dewdney aimed to repair Vankoughnet’s damage by raising ration expenditures by $17,000 despite warning of Parliament criticism. Big Bear and the Metis Rebellion of 1885

The Metis rebellion was the product of years of frustration. Historians describe it as a clash of cultures and an expression of metis nationalism. The loss of the buffalo and agricultural failures meant a struggle for food, health, and economic survival. Big Bear was a big influence on the plains people. He encouraged united peace and defiance by leaving reserve lands and travelling as a group. Off reserve land, they received no rations from the government.In 1884, he organized a thirst dance at Battleford. A thirst dance was a traditional spiritual festival which involved a gathering of many Indian bands together. The government became aware of the Indian mobilization and Hayter Reed, along with the DIA and police force were present- nearly avoiding bloody confrontation. Shortly after the Thirst Dance at Battleford, Big Bear’s son and Indian chief Wandering Spirit got caught up in a fight with incomers and blood was shed against Big Bear’s wishes. The men were arrested, along with Big Bear, despite his plea for peaceful protest. Since Big Bear was not directly involved with the killings, he was tried for treason and remained in prison for nearly a year. His head was shaved, he was taught carpentry and was baptized.Big Bear was released due to poor health and died a year later. The spring of 1885 saw a series of what many historians describe as "isolated and sporadic events". Cree violence was aimed at agents who acted beyond their granted authority. Metis populations also began their insurrection in the east. Dominion authorities began their hunt for the Cree leaders responsible for the killings in the summer of 1885. They were found by troopers, starving, and were sentenced to death in Battleford. Dewdney and Reed insisted that the hangings were public and hence the end of the Cree resistance was marked.What started as a peaceful protest ended in a two-week military campaign and a loss of negotiable treaties. Louis Riel and his metis followers tried unsuccessfully to rouse Indigenous peoples and angry settlers together against the government and form their own provisional government, with Riel as the leader. Commencing on March 19, the battle of Batoche was brief. The Metis were outnumbered and under armed. The result saw the execution of Louis Riel- who was tried for treason- and stricter regulations and policy in place to control the metis and Indigenous peoples in the years to follow. Further reading
 Douglas Leighton: A Victorian Civil Servant at Work: <mask> and the Canadian Indian Department 1874-1893 in Ian A. L. Getty, Antoine S. Lussier: As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows. A Reader in Canadian Native Studies.Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press 1983, pp. 104–119

References

Canadian government officials

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Lawrence Vankoughnet
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<mask> (née Sen) (26 July 1904– 15 March 1998) was an Indian civil rights and freedom activist and Gandhian. She was born in 1904 in an upper middle class Brahmo family. She was the daughter of Barrister Kumud Nath Sen, whom she had lost when she was only two and a half years old, and Snehalata Sen, who brought her up. Early life and education
<mask>’s family originally belonged to brahmin family of Kamarakhanda in Bikrampur, Dhaka, (now in Bangladesh), but her family members had settled in Simultala, Bihar. Her maternal grandfather was Behari Lal Gupta, ICS, who became the Dewan of Baroda. Her first cousins on her mother's side of the family were Ranajit Gupta, ICS, a former Chief Secretary of West Bengal, and  Indrajit Gupta, the famous parliamentarian and former Home Minister of India. Here eldest brother, P. K. Sen Gupta, a former Income Tax Commissioner, belonged to the Indian Revenue Service, and another brother, K. P. Sen, a former Postmaster General, was from the Indian Postal Service.Being the youngest child of her parents, she was a darling of all her brothers and sister. Her mother Snehalata was a writer in her own right, and had translated some works of Tagore, as is seen from her book Jugalanjali. <mask> Choudhury adopted to a completely different life style once she joined Rabindranath Tagore's Vishva-Bharati. In an article entitled ‘Reminiscences of Santiniketan’, her mother had written: "<mask> was very happy and benefited much from her residence at Viswa-Bharati as a student. The personal influence of Gurudev and his teachings, his patriotism and idealism, have influenced and guided <mask> throughout her life." She was fortunate enough to have been deeply influenced by both Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi. It was the former at whose feet she learnt and acquired some rare values and principles of education, development, art and culture, which had been the guiding principles in her life; and it was the latter who cast a magic spell on her and at whose instance she plunged herself into the freedom struggle.<mask> came to Santiniketan in 1921, when she was only sixteen years old, and lived there for a little more than six years. In those days Santiniketan was small and beautiful. There were nine girls of her age living in the hostel called Notun Bari (New House). They were Manjushree, Surekha (who later on became her sister-in-law), Eva, Satyabati, Latika, Saraju, Tapasi, Amita (mother of Professor Amartya Sen) and herself. They attended classes in the open under trees, learnt embroidery, handicrafts, music, dancing, painting and gardening. Leonard Knight Elmhirst, an Englishman, was in charge of the Agricultural Institute at Surul in Sriniketan, and he used to encourage them to learn gardening. Mr. Pearson, another Englishman, also taught them.It was he who inspired Malati to work for the tribals. Gurudev used to take classes on Balaka, when he read poems from his book ‘Balaka’, and explained the significance of the poems to them. Miss Stella Kramisch, who came to India on Gurudev’s invitation, taught them the principles of Indian Art and dancing. <mask> and her friends spent very happy days at Santiniketan. As a young student there, she was quite famous for her outgoing personality, taking active part in Gurudev’s dance dramas and music sessions, as well as being the source of innocent mischiefs in the community. At this time, a young man, Nabakrushna Choudhuri, from a well known family of Orissa, came to Santiniketan as a student. He came from Sabarmati Ashram at the instance of the Mahatma.He had as batchmates G. Ramachandran, B. Gopala Reddy, and Syed Mujtaba Ali. <mask> got engaged to and later married Nabakrushna Choudhuri, who later became the Chief Minister of Orissa and the two left Santiniketan in 1927. This proved to be a turning point in her life. Social work and politics

After her marriage, Orissa became her home and her area of activities. The Chaudhuris settled in a small village named Anakhia, now in Jagatsinghpur District of Orissa, where her husband started improved sugarcane cultivation. Apart from agriculture, establishing rapport with the surrounding villages was their main concern. In their concept and scheme of rural reconstruction, people are at the center of activities.Their development depended on their empowerment, which was again the result of education. They started adult education work in the neighbouring villages. Soon came the Salt Satyagraha, and they jumped into the movement. As activists they used principles of education and communication in creating a conducive environment for Satyagraha. Even as prisoners, they taught fellow prisoners, organized choral singing and disseminated Gandhiji’s teachings. In February 1933 the Chaudhuris organized the Utkal Congress Samajvadi Karmi Sangh, which later became the Orissa Provincial Branch of the All India Congress Socialist Party. Proverbial courage, sheer dynamism and a strong zeal to fight for the rights of the oppressed and have-nots were the dominant features of her character.She was frank and outspoken, and was never afraid to speak up. In 1934, she had accompanied Gandhiji in his "padayatra" in Orissa. After a daylong walk, he was obviously too tired to visit a Harijan village which was in his itinerary. The villagers, who had waited long, were disappointed, but were prepared to forgive Gandhiji for the minor lapse. <mask> Choudhury did not spare Gandhiji, and told him point blank, "Bapu, you have not done the right thing." Gandhiji apologized, and cooled her down with his disarming smile. She  was arrested  several times (in 1921, 1936, 1942)  with other women independence activists  like Sarala Devi, Ramadevi Choudhury and others and was sent to jail

Even before Independence, she had established the Bajiraut Chhatravas at Angul in Orissa in 1946, and the Utkal Navajeevan Mandal, also at Angul, in 1948.The Bajiraut Chhatravas had its genesis in the Prajamandal Movement (the resistance movement organized and sustained by the people) and its initial activities were geared towards providing residential facilities and educational opportunities to the children of the freedom fighters. Over the passage of time, there was a societal demand on the Bajiraut Chhatravas to provide educational facilities to children belonging to the "Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes" and under-privileged sections of the society coming from all over Orissa. Established in the memory of a twelve-year-old boy Bajiraut, who sacrificed his life by disallowing the British forces to cross Brahmani River by boat, the Bajiraut Chhatravas has become an institution of national importance. The Utkal Navajeevan Mandal is a voluntary organization of repute, engaged in rural development and tribal welfare in the rural and tribal areas of Orissa. The State Resource Centre for Adult Education, which was established by the Government of India, under the auspices of the Utkal Navajeevan Mandal, at Angul in 1978, had done pioneering work in Adult Education. She had organized the ‘Krusaka Andolana’ (Farmers Movement) as part of the freedom struggle against the zamindars and moneylenders, who exploited the poor. She had seen and experienced the untold sufferings of the people while walking through many villages in Orissa.She had also realized that women were victims of many superstitious beliefs, and they alone were to fight against superstitions for their own empowerment. As a member of the Constituent Assembly of India, she felt restless, because she was not in tune with the views of other members; when the Mahatma's famous Noakhali yatra began, she joined it at the instance of Thakkarbappa. After independence, <mask> Choudhury, as a member of the Constituent Assembly of India, and as the President of the Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee, tried her best to emphasize the role of education, especially adult education in rural reconstruction. When Nabakrushna Choudhuri became the Chief Minister of Orissa in 1951, she highlighted the plight of the have-nots, particularly those belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Eventually, she decided not to join politics, because Gandhiji had advised that all Congress activists need not join politics, but should work for and with the people with service as their goal. A dynamic person like her did not slow down her efforts after the Bajiraut Chhatravas, Utkal Navajeevan Mandal and the Postbasic School at Champatimunda, near Angul, were established. She had joined the Bhoodan Movement of Acharya Vinoba Bhave.During the Emergency she raised her voice against the anti-people policy and oppressive measures adopted by the government and was imprisoned. <mask> Choudhury lived an eventful life and died at the age of ninety-three. Honours and awards
National Award for Child Welfare (1987)
Jamnalal Bajaj Award (1988)
Utkal Seva Sammaan (1994)
Tagore Literacy Award (1995)
Honour by the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the first sitting of the Constituent Assembly (1997)
Honour by the State Social Welfare Advisory Board (1997)
Honour by the Rajya Mahila Commission (1997)
Deshikottama (D.Litt. Honoris Causa) from Viswa-Bharati
In 1988, she refused to receive the prestigious Jamnalal Bajaj Award from the hands of the  Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, because, according to her, Rajiv Gandhi had not done anything to promote Gandhian values. References

<mask> Chaudhury by Prof Manoranjan Mohanty
Phulbani & <mask> Chaudhury
Unforgettable life in Koraput:Vishvanath Pattanayak

1904 births
1998 deaths
Brahmos
Indian civil rights activists
Indian feminists
Social workers
People associated with Santiniketan
Members of the Constituent Assembly of India
People from Bikrampur
Gandhians
Prisoners and detainees of British India
Indian independence activists from Odisha
Indian women activists
Women in Bihar politics
20th-century Indian politicians
Activists from Bihar
Indian National Congress politicians from Bihar
Women Indian independence activists
20th-century Indian women politicians
Social workers from Odisha

masks:
Malati Devi Choudhury
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati
Malati


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<mask> is a child psychiatrist, social activist, and former President of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). <mask> played a central role in the APA's 1973 decision to remove homosexuality as a diagnosis of mental illness from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. This change opened the modern era of LGBTQ rights by providing support for the overturning of laws against homosexuals and by advancing gay civil rights, including the right to marry. Early life
<mask> was born in Vienna, Austria in 1937 into a family of intellectual social reformers. <mask>'s early years were unsettled by the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany (Anschluss), and his family's consequent emigration from Vienna to Paris in 1938, to Switzerland in 1939, and to New York City in 1941. His father was <mask> (1894–1970), an internationally known psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, as well as a student and analysand of Sigmund Freud. He became widely known as an ego-psychologist and a dean of world psychoanalysis in the mid-twentieth century.His mother, Dora Karplus <mask>, M.D. (1902–1974), came from a family of lawyers and publishers. A noted mountaineer in her early life, she chose to become a pediatrician in Vienna over the objections of her father who believed that a woman's constitution was not strong enough to endure medical school. She continued her medical training in New York to become a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. Education
<mask> was educated at the Fieldston School in New York City after which he attended Harvard College, where he received a B.A. in History and Literature (magna cum laude, Phi Betta Kappa). As a Rhodes Scholar, <mask> earned two degrees in English Literature from Oxford University.He received an M.D. from Harvard Medical School and then served as an intern in pediatrics at the University of California in San Francisco. He served his residency in psychiatry (1965–1967) and a fellowship in child psychiatry (1967–1969) at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center (MMHC). Upon completion of his training, <mask> began a private practice and continued as a clinical professor of psychiatry at MMHC. Career
Following the Kent State Shootings in 1970, <mask> co-founded and chaired the Committee of Concerned Psychiatrists within the American Psychiatric Association with the goal of persuading the APA to “acknowledge and take part in social issues that affect mental health and mental illness.” The CoCP quickly expanded its involvement in social issues to include the Vietnam War and Civil Rights, as well as the newly emerging Women's Rights and Gay Rights Movements. Finding the governing structure of the APA deeply conservative and self-perpetuating, Hartmann encouraged reform-minded candidates to run for leadership positions. Two such candidates encouraged by <mask> and the CoCP were Alfred Friedman (1917–2011) who served as APA president in 1973–1974 and John Spiegel (1911–1991) who served as APA president in 1974–1975.Both of these men shared the CoCP's belief that public laws against homosexuality and prohibitions against homosexuals in psychiatry were based upon flawed studies, societal prejudice, and outdated psychoanalytic theory. <mask> and the CoCP also participated in the APA's selection of Melvin Sabshin (1925–2011), a psychiatrist and social reformer open to broader membership participation in the APA, who served as the organization's medical director from 1974 until 1997. Through his membership on the Social Issues Committee of the Northern New England Psychiatric Society (NNPS), <mask> and Richard PIllard (b.1933) who had just become one of the country's first psychiatrists to identify himself publicly as gay, drafted a position paper for the NNPS arguing that the homosexuality did not meet the scientific or clinical criteria for a diagnosis of mental illness, and that homosexuals deserved full civil rights. With minor modification, this paper was adopted by the NNPS and forwarded to the Assembly of the APA which passed a resolution drawn largely from the paper. In December 1973, the Board of Trustees of the APA voted 13-0, concurring that homosexuality was not valid as a diagnosis of mental illness. A small group of opponents attempted to reverse the Board's vote by referendum, but that effort failed, and the APA's membership affirmed the removal of homosexuality as a diagnosis of mental illness. <mask>'s activism led him to be elected a member of the APA Assembly and subsequently Speaker of the Assembly before being elected Vice President (1990) and President of the APA (1991–1992).As a member of the APA's Board of Trustees and International Affairs Committee, <mask> led and participated in human rights missions to examine mental health conditions under apartheid in the Union of South Africa and under dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet in Chile. Working closely with Melvin Sabshin, <mask> traveled to the Soviet Union to meet with dissident psychiatrists and to examine evidence of the abuse of psychiatry by the Soviet government. <mask>'s findings contributed to the successful efforts of Melvin Sabshin and the APA to persuade the World Psychiatric Association World Psychiatric Association (WPA) to establish an Ethics Committee to investigate abuses of psychiatry. The Soviet Union resigned from the WPA in protest. In 1992, <mask> led a Travelling University of Psychiatry to post-Iron-Curtain Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary under APA sponsorship. In 1996, <mask> co-founded the Committee on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity of the Boston Psychoanalytic Institute (BPSI) with Gerald Adler, M.D. psychiatrist and psychoanalyst.This work was part of a broader effort that resulted in the American Psychoanalytic Association issuing a public apology to the LGBTQ community on June 21, 2019 for its past views pathologizing homosexuality and transgender identities. In 2019, BPSI awarded Honorary Membership, to <mask> citing his role in the APA's 1973 vote and his contribution to psychoanalysis by helping “to remove homophobia from our institutional culture by organizing conferences, leading evening programs, serving as a discussant during clinical presentations, and providing mentorship for gay analytic Candidates when none existed.”

Personal life
<mask> has lived with Brian Pfeiffer, an architectural historian, in Cambridge, Massachusetts since 1973. They married in 2004 when Massachusetts became the first state in the nation to grant full civil rights for same-sex marriage. Drescher, J. An Interview with <mask>, M.D. p. 129. Boston Psychoanalytic Institute.https://bpsi.org/page-2/

Selected bibliography
 Doerr, O., <mask>, L., Lira, E. & Weinstein, E. (1992), Torture: Phenomenology and psychiatric sequelae. Psychiatry, 55(5):177-184. <mask>, L. (1973), Some Uses of Dirty Words by Children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 12(1):108-122. https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0002-7138(09)61221-8/abstract
 <mask>, L. & Hanson, G. (1986), Child psychotherapy. In: Current Psychiatric Therapies, ed. J. Masserman.New York: Grune and Stratton, pp. 29-43. Nightingale, E., <mask>, L., Hannibal, K., Geiger, J., <mask>, R. & Spurlock, J. (1990), Apartheid medicine. JAMA, 264(16):2097-2102. <mask>, L. (1991), Humane values and bio-psychosocial integration. Amer.J. Psychiatry., 148(3):1130-1134. <mask>, L. (1992a), Some social psychiatric problems in Chile, South Africa and the Soviet Union. In: Psychiatry and World Accords, ed. J. Masserman. New York, Gardner, pp. 5-15.<mask>, L. (1992b), Reflections on humane values and bio-psychosocial Integration. Amer. J. Psychiatry., 149(9):1135-1144. <mask>, L. (1994), Heinz Hartmann: A memorial tribute and filial memoir. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 49:3-12. Hanson, G. & <mask>, L. (1996), Latency development in prehomosexual boys.In: Textbook of Homosexuality and Mental Health, ed. R.P. Cabaj & T.S. Stein. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp. 253-266. <mask>, L. (1996), Foreword.In: Textbook of Homosexuality and Mental Health, ed. R.P. Cabaj & T.S. Stein. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp. xxv-xxxi. <mask>, L. (1998a), Children are left out.Amer. J. Forensic Psychiatry. 19(3):33-44. <mask>, L. (1998b), Eros in a gay dyad: A discussion. Gender & Psychoanalysis., 3(3)361-371. <mask>, L. (1998c), Physician-assisted suicide. Psychiatric Services, 49(11):1468-1474.<mask>, L. (2001), Confidentiality. In: Primer of the APA, ed. D. Langsley. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp. 39-45. <mask>, L. (2003), Too flawed. Don't publish: A commentary on Spitzer and changing sexual orientation.Archives Sexual Behavior, 32:436-438. <mask>, <mask>. "Koryagin, suspicious of glasnost, recounts ongoing Soviet abuses." Psychiatric Times, Sept. 2015, p. 52. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA431722026&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=08932905&p=AONE&sw=w
 Nightingale, Elena, MD, PhD; Hannibal, Kari, MA; Geiger, H. Jack, MD; <mask>, <mask>, MD; <mask>, Robert, MD; Spurlock, Jeanne, MD. Apartheid Medicine: Health and Human Rights in South Africa. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/383706

References

Additional references
 American Psychoanalytic Association. Press Release: APsaA Issues Overdue Apology to LGBTQ Community.June 21, 2019. https://apsa.org/content/news-apsaa-issues-overdue-apology-lgbtq-community
 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, <mask>, M.D., Life Member’s Report, June, 2012. https://www.aacap.org/aacap/Life_Members/Reports/2012/Hartmann_201206.aspx
 Bayer, R. Homosexuality and American Psychiatry: The Politics of Diagnosis. New York: Basic Books; New York, NY, USA: 1981. Drescher, J. An Interview with <mask>, M.D., Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy, Vol. 10, Issue 1, 2006. https://www.tandfonline.com/action/doSearch?AllField=Interview+with+<mask>mann&SeriesKey=wglm20
 Drescher, J. and J. P. Merlino, ed. American psychiatry and Homosexuality: An Oral History. Chapter 3: An Interview with <mask>, MD.Routledge: 2007. Drescher J., Merlino J.P., editors. American Psychiatry and Homosexuality: An Oral History. Routledge; New York, NY, USA: 2007. Levin, Aaron. Global Initiative on Psychiatry. Psychiatric News, Vol.48, Issue 3, p 12. https://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/pn.2013.48.issue-3
 Sabshin, Melvin M.D. : <mask>, M.D., One Hundred Twentieth President, 1991–1992. American Journal of Psychiatry, v 149.9, Sept., 1992. https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/ajp.149.9.1145
 Spiegel, Alix. 81 Words: The Story of how the American Psychiatric Association decided in 1973 that homosexuality was no longer a mental illness. This American Life, 204: January 18, 2002. https://www.thisamericanlife.org/204/81-words

1937 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Medical School alumni

masks:
Lawrence Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Heinz Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Lawrence Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Lawrence
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Hartmann
Lawrence
Hartmann
Lawrence
Lawrence
Lawrence Hartmann
Lawrence Hartmann
Lawrence Hart
Lawrence Hartmann
Lawrence Hartmann


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is a Japanese singer–songwriter and actor. He was a member of Jpop idol boy band KAT-TUN from their debut until September 30, 2013 when his contract with Johnny & Associates (the company that manages KAT-TUN) was terminated. When he was a member of KAT-TUN, he was recognized as the rapper in the group and has a hip-hop-influenced style. Out of the other members, <mask> was most often paired up with Yuichi Nakamaru and they even formed a comedy duo 'TaNaka'. After leaving Johnny & Associates, <mask> formed his own indie rock band called INKT. Biography

Early life

Born in Chiba, Chiba prefecture; Japan on November 5, 1985, <mask> is the second oldest of 5 siblings, all brothers and raised by their single mother. His younger brother Juri is also an actor and signed with Johnny & Associates.Juri along with <mask>'s youngest brother Subaru even appeared alongside <mask> in the first episode of the TV series Tokkyu Tanaka 3 Go in which <mask> played the lead role. His younger brother Hyouga is also an actor, and <mask>'s older brother is named Kazunaru. Before <mask> was born, his mother thought he would be a girl, so she thought of the name Maria (Saint). But he turned out to be a boy instead, so the Kanji letter of his name '聖' was kept, but its pronunciation was changed to “Kōki” (“Kōki” also means “Saint” in Japanese). Furthermore, when he was little his face was so cute and feminine that he was often mistaken for a girl. <mask> graduated from Horikoshi High School, and eventually went to study at Josai International University, but he quit halfway. He loves animals so much that he originally wanted to become a veterinarian.Career
<mask> joined Johnny & Associates in 1998 when he was only 13 years old, he once stated the reason why he applied was “My mother sent the application form behind my back. So I went to the audition without knowing anything at all. She told me it was because my cousin applied too. Therefore, we went to the audition together. But in the end, my cousin failed, while I passed.”

He became a member of Jpop idol boy band KAT-TUN from their debut in 2001 until September 30, 2013 when his contract with Johnny & Associates was terminated due to several contract violations and he left the company. In November the same year he formed his own Indie rock band called INKT and was the lead vocalist in the band, and they finally released their debut album on November 8, 2014. On September 1, 2017 it was announced on the band's website that INKT has now officially disbanded.After the band's disbandment, <mask> still continues to release music and perform in live shows as a solo artist. On January 23, 2019 <mask> released his first solo album Easter under his own record label 'Project KOKI', followed by a solo national tour in Japan from February 2 to April 6, 2019. On July 31, 2019 <mask> released his solo single Round and Round / end of begin and held a one-man solo live tour in August and a band tour in October. He then released a mini album LOUDER on October 2, 2019. On January 5, 2020 <mask> started his own official Youtube channel where he uploads original content often featuring him with his younger brother Hyouga. In 2020 <mask> announced that he would write, direct and star in his own stage show called OLD Maid-JOKER, the shows were originally scheduled to begin in June 2020 but had to be postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the shows have since been rescheduled to play from April 21–25, 2021. Since February 22, 2021 <mask> has started a radio podcast show with his brother Hyouga called Tanaka Family Raaaaadio which broadcasts shows weekly every Sundays in Japan.As an actor, <mask> has appeared in a string of Japanese TV series and movies and has won 2 awards for his acting work in My Boss My Hero. Personal life
On May 24, 2017 <mask> was arrested for marijuana possession during a traffic stop, despite claiming the cannabis in his car were not his he was tested positive to the drug and was detained for 2 weeks while investigations were ongoing. He was eventually released from jail on June 7, on June 30 it was reported that <mask> will not be prosecuted for marijuana possession charges as the police were not able to obtain enough evidence to prosecute him. On February 24, 2022, <mask> was arrested by police in Nagoya for alleged possession of methamphetamine. <mask> has denied the allegations, and was quoted as saying that he did not know anything about the drugs. <mask> can play several instruments. His main instrument is the guitar; he can also play the piano and the shamisen.He wrote most of the rap lyrics for KAT-TUN's songs and his solos, going by the pen-name of "JOKER". While in INKT, he wrote all the band's songs under his name 'KOKI'. <mask> loves to design things and is very artistic and has a talent for sewing and he designs his own apparels. Discography

INKT
Studio albums

Solo
Singles

Studio albums

Live performances

Concerts
This is a list of all the live concerts that <mask>OZA presents "Brand New Vibe Road to Zepp Divercity Special Countdown Party to 2017"
| Guest performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (December 31)
|-
|rowspan="10"|2017
|KING presents "KING OF ROCK SHOW New Year Special
| Guest performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (January 7)
|-
|L & P Attractive presents "All Happiness !! Extra edition" [Sushi Fest]
| Guest performer
| Osu RAD HALL; Nagoya (February 3)
|-
|Nagoya Large Circuit Festival RAD CREATION presents "Tora Rock Festival 2017"
| Guest performer
| this festival had several shows at various different venues in Aichi Prefecture, but INKT only guest performed at 1 show on February 4
|-
|Muscle King Party ~ MTR Birthday Festival ~
| Guest performer
| TSUTAYA O-WEST (February 16)
|-
|"Wicked!!!"live
| Guest performer
| Daikanyama LOOP; Tokyo (February 17)
|-
|Palooza presents "Bakugan Festival"
| Lead performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (February 25)
|-
|HateItOrLoveIt & Club Lizard Yokohama Presents "Rabbit's Revenge Vol.4" Club Lizard 15th Anniversary & Closure live
| Guest performer
| Club Lizard; Yokohama (March 10)
|-
|INKT Live house tour 2017
| Lead performer
| almost 50 shows held at many different venues across Japan from March 4 - July 23
|-
|PALOOZA meets WHITE SHADOW "SHADOW NET" live
| Lead performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (May 11)
|-
|Knock Out Kashiwa Idiot" live
| Lead performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (December 31)
|-
|rowspan="1"|2018
|Hide tribute 2018
| Guest performer
| Kashiwa PALOOZA (May 5 & 6)
|-
|rowspan="7"|2019
|<mask>ki presents Easter TOUR 2019
| Lead performer
| <mask> <mask>'s first national solo tour held at various venues across Japan from February 2 to April 6. |-
|The Last Day of Heisei! Epikkus FES!

masks:
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
Tanaka
TanakaO
Tanaka Ko
Koki
Tanaka


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Paul-<mask> (, ; ; 15 October 192625 June 1984) was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, political activist, and literary critic. <mask>'s theories primarily address the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a structuralist and postmodernist, <mask> rejected these labels. His thought has influenced academics, especially those working in communication studies, anthropology, psychology, sociology, criminology, cultural studies, literary theory, feminism, Marxism and critical theory. Born in Poitiers, France, into an upper-middle-class family, <mask> was educated at the Lycée Henri-IV, at the École Normale Supérieure, where he developed an interest in philosophy and came under the influence of his tutors Jean Hyppolite and Louis Althusser, and at the University of Paris (Sorbonne), where he earned degrees in philosophy and psychology. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book, The History of Madness (1961). After obtaining work between 1960 and 1966 at the University of Clermont-Ferrand, he produced The Birth of the Clinic (1963) and The Order of Things (1966), publications which displayed his increasing involvement with structuralism, from which he later distanced himself.These first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique <mask> was developing called "archaeology." From 1966 to 1968, <mask> lectured at the University of Tunis before returning to France, where he became head of the philosophy department at the new experimental university of Paris VIII. <mask> subsequently published The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969). In 1970, <mask> was admitted to the Collège de France, a membership he retained until his death. He also became active in several left-wing groups involved in campaigns against racism and human rights abuses and for penal reform. <mask> later published Discipline and Punish (1975) and The History of Sexuality (1976), in which he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role that power plays in society. <mask> died in Paris from complications of HIV/AIDS; he became the first public figure in France to die from complications of the disease.His partner Daniel Defert founded the AIDES charity in his memory. Early life

Early years: 1926–1938
<mask> <mask> was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France, as the second of three children in a prosperous, socially-conservative, upper-middle-class family. Family tradition prescribed naming him after his father, <mask> (1893–1959), but his mother insisted on the addition of <mask>; referred to as Paul at school, he expressed a preference for "<mask>" throughout his life. His father, a successful local surgeon born in Fontainebleau, moved to Poitiers, where he set up his own practice. He married Anne Malapert, the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, who owned a private practice and taught anatomy at the University of Poitiers' School of Medicine. <mask> eventually took over his father-in-law's medical practice, while Anne took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children—a girl named Francine and two boys, <mask> and Denys—who all shared the same fair hair and bright blue eyes.The children were raised to be nominal Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, and while <mask> briefly became an altar boy, none of the family was devout. In later life, <mask> revealed very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a "juvenile delinquent," he claimed his father was a "bully" who sternly punished him. In 1930, two years early, <mask> began his schooling at the local Lycée Henry-IV. There he undertook two years of elementary education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. Afterwards, he took his first four years of secondary education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin, and history, though doing poorly at mathematics, including arithmetic. Teens to young adulthood: 1939–1945
In 1939, the Second World War began, followed by Nazi Germany's occupation of France in 1940.<mask>'s parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, but did not join the Resistance. That year, <mask>'s mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Although he later described his years there as an "ordeal," <mask> excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, and literature. In 1942 he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor, the philosopher . Rejecting his father's wishes that he become a surgeon, in 1945 <mask> went to Paris, where he enrolled in one of the country's most prestigious secondary schools, which was also known as the Lycée Henri-IV. Here he studied under the philosopher Jean Hyppolite, an existentialist and expert on the work of 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.Hyppolite had devoted himself to uniting existentialist theories with the dialectical theories of Hegel and Karl Marx. These ideas influenced <mask>, who adopted Hyppolite's conviction that philosophy must develop through a study of history. University studies: 1946–1951

In autumn 1946, attaining excellent results, <mask> was admitted to the élite École Normale Supérieure (ENS), for which he undertook exams and an oral interrogation by Georges Canguilhem and Pierre-Maxime Schuhl to gain entry. Of the hundred students entering the ENS, <mask> ranked fourth based on his entry results, and encountered the highly competitive nature of the institution. Like most of his classmates, he lived in the school's communal dormitories on the Parisian Rue d'Ulm. He remained largely unpopular, spending much time alone, reading voraciously. His fellow students noted his love of violence and the macabre; he decorated his bedroom with images of torture and war drawn during the Napoleonic Wars by Spanish artist Francisco Goya, and on one occasion chased a classmate with a dagger.Prone to self-harm, in 1948 <mask> allegedly attempted suicide; his father sent him to see the psychiatrist Jean Delay at the Sainte-Anne Hospital Center. Obsessed with the idea of self-mutilation and suicide, <mask> attempted the latter several times in ensuing years, praising suicide in later writings. The ENS's doctor examined <mask>'s state of mind, suggesting that his suicidal tendencies emerged from the distress surrounding his homosexuality, because same-sex sexual activity was socially taboo in France. At the time, <mask> engaged in homosexual activity with men whom he encountered in the underground Parisian gay scene, also indulging in drug use; according to biographer James Miller, he enjoyed the thrill and sense of danger that these activities offered him. Although studying various subjects, <mask> soon gravitated towards philosophy, reading not only Hegel and Marx but also Immanuel Kant, Edmund Husserl and most significantly, Martin Heidegger. He began reading the publications of philosopher Gaston Bachelard, taking a particular interest in his work exploring the history of science. He graduated from the ENS with a B.A.(licence) in Philosophy in 1948 and a DES (, roughly equivalent to an M.A.) in Philosophy in 1949. His DES thesis under the direction of Hyppolite was titled La Constitution d'un transcendental dans La Phénoménologie de l'esprit de Hegel (The Constitution of a Historical Transcendental in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit). In 1948, the philosopher Louis Althusser became a tutor at the ENS. A Marxist, he influenced both <mask> and a number of other students, encouraging them to join the French Communist Party. <mask> did so in 1950, but never became particularly active in its activities, and never adopted an orthodox Marxist viewpoint, rejecting core Marxist tenets such as class struggle. He soon became dissatisfied with the bigotry that he experienced within the party's ranks; he personally faced homophobia and was appalled by the anti-semitism exhibited during the 1952–53 "Doctors' plot" in the Soviet Union.He left the Communist Party in 1953, but remained Althusser's friend and defender for the rest of his life. Although failing at the first attempt in 1950, he passed his agrégation in philosophy on the second try, in 1951. Excused from national service on medical grounds, he decided to start a doctorate at the Fondation Thiers in 1951, focusing on the philosophy of psychology, but he relinquished it after only one year in 1952. <mask> was also interested in psychology and he attended Daniel Lagache's lectures at the University of Paris, where he obtained a B.A. (licence) in Psychology in 1949 and a Diploma in Psychopathology (Diplôme de psychopathologie) from the University's Institute of Psychology (now ) in June 1952. Early career (1951–1960)

Over the following few years, <mask> embarked on a variety of research and teaching jobs. From 1951 to 1955, he worked as a psychology instructor at the ENS at Althusser's invitation.In Paris, he shared a flat with his brother, who was training to become a surgeon, but for three days in the week commuted to the northern town of Lille, teaching psychology at the Université de Lille from 1953 to 1954. Many of his students liked his lecturing style. Meanwhile, he continued working on his thesis, visiting the Bibliothèque Nationale every day to read the work of psychologists like Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget and Karl Jaspers. Undertaking research at the psychiatric institute of the Sainte-Anne Hospital, he became an unofficial intern, studying the relationship between doctor and patient and aiding experiments in the electroencephalographic laboratory. <mask> adopted many of the theories of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, undertaking psychoanalytical interpretation of his dreams and making friends undergo Rorschach tests. Embracing the Parisian avant-garde, <mask> entered into a romantic relationship with the serialist composer Jean Barraqué. Together, they tried to produce their greatest work, heavily used recreational drugs and engaged in sado-masochistic sexual activity.In August 1953, <mask> and Barraqué holidayed in Italy, where the philosopher immersed himself in Untimely Meditations (1873–1876), a set of four essays by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Later describing Nietzsche's work as "a revelation", he felt that reading the book deeply affected him, being a watershed moment in his life. <mask> subsequently experienced another groundbreaking self-revelation when watching a Parisian performance of Samuel Beckett's new play, Waiting for Godot, in 1953. Interested in literature, <mask> was an avid reader of the philosopher Maurice Blanchot's book reviews published in Nouvelle Revue Française. Enamoured of Blanchot's literary style and critical theories, in later works he adopted Blanchot's technique of "interviewing" himself. <mask> also came across Hermann Broch's 1945 novel The Death of Virgil, a work that obsessed both him and Barraqué. While the latter attempted to convert the work into an epic opera, <mask> admired Broch's text for its portrayal of death as an affirmation of life.The couple took a mutual interest in the work of such authors as the Marquis de Sade, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Franz Kafka and Jean Genet, all of whose works explored the themes of sex and violence. Interested in the work of Swiss psychologist Ludwig Binswanger, <mask> aided family friend Jacqueline Verdeaux in translating his works into French. <mask> was particularly interested in Binswanger's studies of Ellen West who, like himself, had a deep obsession with suicide, eventually killing herself. In 1954, <mask> authored an introduction to Binswanger's paper "Dream and Existence", in which he argued that dreams constituted "the birth of the world" or "the heart laid bare," expressing the mind's deepest desires. That same year, <mask> published his first book, Maladie mentale et personalité (Mental Illness and Personality), in which he exhibited his influence from both Marxist and Heideggerian thought, covering a wide range of subject matter from the reflex psychology of Pavlov to the classic psychoanalysis of Freud. Referencing the work of sociologists and anthropologists such as Émile Durkheim and Margaret Mead, he presented his theory that illness was culturally relative. Biographer James Miller noted that while the book exhibited "erudition and evident intelligence," it lacked the "kind of fire and flair" which <mask> exhibited in subsequent works.It was largely critically ignored, receiving only one review at the time. <mask> grew to despise it, unsuccessfully attempting to prevent its republication and translation into English. Sweden, Poland, and West Germany: 1955–1960
<mask> spent the next five years abroad, first in Sweden, working as cultural diplomat at the University of Uppsala, a job obtained through his acquaintance with historian of religion Georges Dumézil. At Uppsala he was appointed a Reader in French language and literature, while simultaneously working as director of the Maison de France, thus opening the possibility of a cultural-diplomatic career. Although finding it difficult to adjust to the "Nordic gloom" and long winters, he developed close friendships with two Frenchmen, biochemist Jean-François Miquel and physicist Jacques Papet-Lépine, and entered into romantic and sexual relationships with various men. In Uppsala he became known for his heavy alcohol consumption and reckless driving in his new Jaguar car. In spring 1956 Barraqué broke from his relationship with <mask>, announcing that he wanted to leave the "vertigo of madness".In Uppsala, <mask> spent much of his spare time in the university's Carolina Rediviva library, making use of their Bibliotheca Walleriana collection of texts on the history of medicine for his ongoing research. Finishing his doctoral thesis, <mask> hoped that Uppsala University would accept it, but Sten Lindroth, a positivistic historian of science there, remained unimpressed, asserting that it was full of speculative generalisations and was a poor work of history; he refused to allow <mask> to be awarded a doctorate at Uppsala. In part because of this rejection, <mask> left Sweden. Later, <mask> admitted that the work was a first draft with certain lack of quality. Again at Dumézil's behest, in October 1958 <mask> arrived in the capital of Polish People's Republic, Warsaw and took charge of the University of Warsaw's Centre Français. <mask> found life in Poland difficult due to the lack of material goods and services following the destruction of the Second World War. Witnessing the aftermath of the Polish October of 1956, when students had protested against the governing communist Polish United Workers' Party, he felt that most Poles despised their government as a puppet regime of the Soviet Union, and thought that the system ran "badly".Considering the university a liberal enclave, he traveled the country giving lectures; proving popular, he adopted the position of de facto cultural attaché. Like France and Sweden, Poland legally tolerated but socially frowned on homosexual activity, and <mask> undertook relationships with a number of men; one was with a Polish security agent who hoped to trap <mask> in an embarrassing situation, which therefore would reflect badly on the French embassy. Wracked in diplomatic scandal, he was ordered to leave Poland for a new destination. Various positions were available in West Germany, and so <mask> relocated to the  (where he served as director in 1958–1960), teaching the same courses he had given in Uppsala and Warsaw. Spending much time in the Reeperbahn red light district, he entered into a relationship with a transvestite. Growing career (1960–1970)

Madness and Civilization: 1960

In West Germany, <mask> completed in 1960 his primary thesis (thèse principale) for his State doctorate, titled Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (trans. "Madness and Insanity: History of Madness in the Classical Age"), a philosophical work based upon his studies into the history of medicine.The book discussed how West European society had dealt with madness, arguing that it was a social construct distinct from mental illness. <mask> traces the evolution of the concept of madness through three phases: the Renaissance, the later 17th and 18th centuries, and the modern experience. The work alludes to the work of French poet and playwright Antonin Artaud, who exerted a strong influence over <mask>'s thought at the time. Histoire de la folie was an expansive work, consisting of 943 pages of text, followed by appendices and a bibliography. <mask> submitted it at the University of Paris, although the university's regulations for awarding a State doctorate required the submission of both his main thesis and a shorter complementary thesis. Obtaining a doctorate in France at the period was a multi-step process. The first step was to obtain a rapporteur, or "sponsor" for the work: <mask> chose Georges Canguilhem.The second was to find a publisher, and as a result Folie et déraison was published in French in May 1961 by the company Plon, whom <mask> chose over Presses Universitaires de France after being rejected by Gallimard. In 1964, a heavily abridged version was published as a mass market paperback, then translated into English for publication the following year as Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Folie et déraison received a mixed reception in France and in foreign journals focusing on French affairs. Although it was critically acclaimed by Maurice Blanchot, <mask>, Roland Barthes, Gaston Bachelard, and Fernand Braudel, it was largely ignored by the leftist press, much to <mask>'s disappointment. It was notably criticised for advocating metaphysics by young philosopher Jacques Derrida in a March 1963 lecture at the University of Paris. Responding

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 with a vicious retort, <mask> criticised Derrida's interpretation of René Descartes. The two remained bitter rivals until reconciling in 1981.In the English-speaking world, the work became a significant influence on the anti-psychiatry movement during the 1960s; <mask> took a mixed approach to this, associating with a number of anti-psychiatrists but arguing that most of them misunderstood his work. <mask>'s secondary thesis (), written in Hamburg between 1959 and 1960, was a translation and commentary on German philosopher Immanuel Kant's Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798); the thesis was titled Introduction à l'Anthropologie. Largely consisting of <mask>'s discussion of textual dating—an "archaeology of the Kantian text"—he rounded off the thesis with an evocation of Nietzsche, his biggest philosophical influence. This work's rapporteur was <mask>'s old tutor and then-director of the ENS, Hyppolite, who was well acquainted with German philosophy. After both theses were championed and reviewed, he underwent his public defense of his doctoral thesis (soutenance de thèse) on 20 May 1961. The academics responsible for reviewing his work were concerned about the unconventional nature of his major thesis; reviewer Henri Gouhier noted that it was not a conventional work of history, making sweeping generalisations without sufficient particular argument, and that <mask> clearly "thinks in allegories". They all agreed however that the overall project was of merit, awarding <mask> his doctorate "despite reservations."University of Clermont-Ferrand, The Birth of the Clinic, and The Order of Things: 1960–1966
In October 1960, <mask> took a tenured post in philosophy at the University of Clermont-Ferrand, commuting to the city every week from Paris, where he lived in a high-rise block on the rue du Dr Finlay. Responsible for teaching psychology, which was subsumed within the philosophy department, he was considered a "fascinating" but "rather traditional" teacher at Clermont. The department was run by Jules Vuillemin, who soon developed a friendship with <mask>. <mask> then took Vuillemin's job when the latter was elected to the Collège de France in 1962. In this position, <mask> took a dislike to another staff member whom he considered stupid: Roger Garaudy, a senior figure in the Communist Party. <mask> made life at the university difficult for Garaudy, leading the latter to transfer to Poitiers. <mask> also caused controversy by securing a university job for his lover, the philosopher Daniel Defert, with whom he retained a non-monogamous relationship for the rest of his life.<mask> maintained a keen interest in literature, publishing reviews in literary journals, including Tel Quel and Nouvelle Revue Française, and sitting on the editorial board of Critique. In May 1963, he published a book devoted to poet, novelist, and playwright Raymond Roussel. It was written in under two months, published by Gallimard, and was described by biographer David Macey as "a very personal book" that resulted from a "love affair" with Roussel's work. It was published in English in 1983 as Death and the Labyrinth: The World of Raymond Roussel. Receiving few reviews, it was largely ignored. That same year he published a sequel to  Folie et déraison, titled Naissance de la Clinique, subsequently translated as The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception. Shorter than its predecessor, it focused on the changes that the medical establishment underwent in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Like his preceding work, Naissance de la Clinique was largely critically ignored, but later gained a cult following. It was of interest within the field of medical ethics, as it considered the ways in which the history of medicine and hospitals, and the training that those working within them receive, bring about a particular way of looking at the body: the 'medical gaze'. <mask> was also selected to be among the "Eighteen Man Commission" that assembled between November 1963 and March 1964 to discuss university reforms that were to be implemented by Christian Fouchet, the Gaullist Minister of National Education. Implemented in 1967, they brought staff strikes and student protests. In April 1966, Gallimard published <mask>'s Les Mots et les choses ('Words and Things'), later translated as The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. Exploring how man came to be an object of knowledge, it argued that all periods of history have possessed certain underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable as scientific discourse. <mask> argues that these conditions of discourse have changed over time, from one period's épistémè to another.Although designed for a specialist audience, the work gained media attention, becoming a surprise bestseller in France. Appearing at the height of interest in structuralism, <mask> was quickly grouped with scholars such as Jacques Lacan, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes, as the latest wave of thinkers set to topple the existentialism popularized by Jean-Paul Sartre. Although initially accepting this description, <mask> soon vehemently rejected it. <mask> and Sartre regularly criticised one another in the press. Both Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir attacked <mask>'s ideas as "bourgeois", while <mask> retaliated against their Marxist beliefs by proclaiming that "Marxism exists in nineteenth-century thought as a fish exists in water; that is, it ceases to breathe anywhere else." University of Tunis and Vincennes: 1966–1970

In September 1966, <mask> took a position teaching psychology at the University of Tunis in Tunisia. His decision to do so was largely because his lover, Defert, had been posted to the country as part of his national service.<mask> moved a few kilometres from Tunis, to the village of Sidi Bou Saïd, where fellow academic Gérard Deledalle lived with his wife. Soon after his arrival, <mask> announced that Tunisia was "blessed by history", a nation which "deserves to live forever because it was where Hannibal and St. Augustine lived." His lectures at the university proved very popular, and were well attended. Although many young students were enthusiastic about his teaching, they were critical of what they believed to be his right-wing political views, viewing him as a "representative of Gaullist technocracy", even though he considered himself a leftist. <mask> was in Tunis during the anti-government and pro-Palestinian riots that rocked the city in June 1967, and which continued for a year. Although highly critical of the violent, ultra-nationalistic and anti-semitic nature of many protesters, he used his status to try to prevent some of his militant leftist students from being arrested and tortured for their role in the agitation. He hid their printing press in his garden, and tried to testify on their behalf at their trials, but was prevented when the trials became closed-door events.While in Tunis, <mask> continued to write. Inspired by a correspondence with the surrealist artist René Magritte, <mask> started to write a book about the impressionist artist Édouard Manet, but never completed it. In 1968, <mask>rard. After the May 1968 student protests, Minister of Education Edgar Faure responded by founding new universities with greater autonomy. Most prominent of these was the Centre Expérimental de Vincennes in Vincennes on the outskirts of Paris. A group of prominent academics were asked to select teachers to run the centre's departments, and Canguilheim recommended <mask> as head of the Philosophy Department. Becoming a tenured professor of Vincennes, <mask>'s desire was to obtain "the best in French philosophy today" for his department, employing <mask>, Judith Miller, Alain Badiou, Jacques Rancière, François Regnault, Henri Weber, Étienne Balibar, and François Châtelet; most of them were Marxists or ultra-left activists.Lectures began at the university in January 1969, and straight away its students and staff, including <mask>, were involved in occupations and clashes with police, resulting in arrests. In February, <mask> gave a speech denouncing police provocation to protesters at the Maison de la Mutualité. Such actions marked <mask>'s embrace of the ultra-left, undoubtedly influenced by Defert, who had gained a job at Vincennes' sociology department and who had become a Maoist. Most of the courses at <mask>'s philosophy department were Marxist–Leninist oriented, although <mask> himself gave courses on Nietzsche, "The end of Metaphysics", and "The Discourse of Sexuality", which were highly popular and over-subscribed. While the right-wing press was heavily critical of this new institution, new Minister of Education Olivier Guichard was angered by its ideological bent and the lack of exams, with students being awarded degrees in a haphazard manner. He refused national accreditation of the department's degrees, resulting in a public rebuttal from Foucault. Later life (1970–1984)

Collège de France and Discipline and Punish: 1970–1975
Foucault desired to leave Vincennes and become a fellow of the prestigious Collège de France.He requested to join, taking up a chair in what he called the "history of systems of thought," and his request was championed by members Dumézil, Hyppolite, and Vuillemin. In November 1969, when an opening became available, <mask> was elected to the Collège, though with opposition by a large minority. He gave his inaugural lecture in December 1970, which was subsequently published as L'Ordre du discours (The Discourse of Language). He was obliged to give 12 weekly lectures a year—and did so for the rest of his life—covering the topics that he was researching at the time; these became "one of the events of Parisian intellectual life" and were repeatedly packed out events. On Mondays, he also gave seminars to a group of students; many of them became a "Foulcauldian tribe" who worked with him on his research. He enjoyed this teamwork and collective research, and together they published a number of short books. Working at the Collège allowed him to travel widely, giving lectures in Brazil, Japan, Canada, and the United States over the next 14 years.In 1970 and 1972, <mask> served as a professor in the French Department of the University at Buffalo in Buffalo, New York. In May 1971, <mask> co-founded the Groupe d'Information sur les Prisons (GIP) along with historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet and journalist Jean-Marie Domenach. The GIP aimed to investigate and expose poor conditions in prisons and give prisoners and ex-prisoners a voice in French society. It was highly critical of the penal system, believing that it converted petty criminals into hardened delinquents. The GIP gave press conferences and staged protests surrounding the events of the Toul prison riot in December 1971, alongside other prison riots that it sparked off; in doing so it faced a police crackdown and repeated arrests. The group became active across France, with 2,000 to 3,000, members, but disbanded before 1974. Also campaigning against the death penalty, <mask> co-authored a short book on the case of the convicted murderer Pierre Rivière.After his research into the penal system, <mask> published Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison (Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison) in 1975, offering a history of the system in western Europe. In it, <mask> examines the penal evolution away from corporal and capital punishment to the penitentiary system that began in Europe and the United States around the end of the 18th century. Biographer Didier Eribon described it as "perhaps the finest" of <mask>'s works, and it was well received. <mask> was also active in anti-racist campaigns; in November 1971, he was a leading figure in protests following the perceived racist killing of Arab migrant Djellali Ben Ali. In this he worked alongside his old rival Sartre, the journalist Claude Mauriac, and one of his literary heroes, Jean Genet. This campaign was formalised as the Committee for the Defence of the Rights of Immigrants, but there was tension at their meetings as <mask> opposed the anti-Israeli sentiment of many Arab workers and Maoist activists. At a December 1972 protest against the police killing of Algerian worker Mohammad Diab, both <mask> and Genet were arrested, resulting in widespread publicity.<mask> was also involved in founding the Agence de Press-Libération (APL), a group of leftist journalists who intended to cover news stories neglected by the mainstream press. In 1973, they established the daily newspaper Libération, and <mask> suggested that they establish committees across France to collect news and distribute the paper, and advocated a column known as the "Chronicle of the Workers' Memory" to allow workers to express their opinions. <mask> wanted an active journalistic role in the paper, but this proved untenable, and he soon became disillusioned with Libération, believing that it distorted the facts; he did not publish in it until 1980. In 1975 he had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade and Michael Stoneman in Death Valley, California and later wrote "it was the greatest experience of his life, and that it profoundly changed his life and his work". In front of Zabriskie Point they took LSD while listening to a well-prepared music program: Richard Strauss's Four Last Songs, followed by Charles Ives's Three Places in New England, ending with a few avant-garde pieces by Stockhausen. According to Wade, as soon as he came back to Paris, <mask> scrapped the second History of Sexuality's manuscript, and totally rethought the whole project. The History of Sexuality and Iranian Revolution: 1976–1979
In 1976, Gallimard published <mask>'s Histoire de la sexualité: la volonté de savoir (The History of Sexuality: The Will to Knowledge), a short book exploring what <mask> called the "repressive hypothesis".It revolved largely around the concept of power, rejecting both Marxist and Freudian theory. <mask> intended it as the first in a seven-volume exploration of the subject. Histoire de la sexualité was a best-seller in France and gained positive press, but lukewarm intellectual interest, something that upset <mask>, who felt that many misunderstood his hypothesis. He soon became dissatisfied with Gallimard after being offended by senior staff member Pierre Nora. Along with Paul Veyne and François Wahl, <mask> launched a new series of academic books, known as Des travaux (Some Works), through the company Seuil, which he hoped would improve the state of academic research in France. He also produced introductions for the memoirs of Herculine Barbin and My Secret Life. <mask>'s Histoire de la sexualité concentrates on the relation between truth and sex.He defines truth as a system of ordered procedures for the production, distribution, regulation, circulation, and operation of statements. Through this system of truth, power structures are created and enforced. Though <mask>'s definition of truth may differ from other sociologists before and after him, his work with truth in relation to power structures, such as sexuality, has left a profound mark on social science theory. In his work, he examines the heightened curiosity regarding sexuality that induced a "world of perversion" during the elite, capitalist 18th and 19th century in the western world. According to <mask> in History of Sexuality, society of the modern age is symbolized by the conception of sexual discourses and their union with the system of truth. In the "world of perversion", including extramarital affairs, homosexual behavior, and other such sexual promiscuities, <mask> concludes that sexual relations of the kind are constructed around producing the truth. Sex became not only a means of pleasure, but an issue of truth.Sex is what confines one to darkness, but also what brings one to light. Similarly, in The History of Sexuality, society validates and approves people based on how closely they fit the discursive mold of sexual truth. As <mask> reminds us, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Church was the epitome of power structure within society. Thus, many aligned their personal virtues with those of the Church, further internalizing their beliefs on the meaning of sex. However, those who unify their sexual relation to the truth become decreasingly obliged to share their internal views with those of the Church. They will no longer see the arrangement of societal norms as an effect of the Church's deep-seated power structure. <mask> remained a political activist, focusing on protesting government abuses of human rights around the world.He was a key player in the 1975 protests against the Spanish government who were set to execute 11 militants sentenced to death without fair trial. It was his idea to travel to Madrid with six others to give a press conference there; they were subsequently arrested and deported back to Paris. In 1977, he protested the extradition of Klaus Croissant to West Germany, and his rib was fractured during clashes with riot police. In July that year, he organised an assembly of Eastern Bloc dissidents to mark the visit of Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev to Paris. In 1979, he campaigned for Vietnamese political dissidents to be granted asylum in France. In 1977, Italian newspaper Corriere della sera asked <mask> to write a column for them. In doing so, in 1978 he travelled to Tehran in Iran, days after the Black Friday massacre.Documenting the developing Iranian Revolution, he met with opposition leaders such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari and Mehdi Bazargan, and discovered the popular support for Islamism. Returning to France, he was one of the journalists who visited the Ayatollah Khomeini, before visiting Tehran. His articles expressed awe of Khomeini's Islamist movement, for which he was widely criticised in the French press, including by Iranian expatriates. <mask>'s response was that Islamism was to become a major political force in the region, and that the West must treat it with respect rather than hostility. In April 1978, <mask> traveled to Japan, where he studied Zen Buddhism under Omori Sogen at the Seionji temple in Uenohara. Final years: 1980–1984
Although remaining critical of power relations, <mask> expressed cautious

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