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<mask> (February 11, 1971 – September 5, 2008) was an American professional mixed martial arts fighter, writer, traveler and adventurer. He was a former UFC Middleweight Champion and was the first American to win the Pancrase Neo-Blood tournament in Tokyo, Japan. <mask> won the UFC Middleweight Championship at UFC 51, stopping David Terrell with strikes in the first round. He is considered a pioneer in the sport of MMA and one of the first fighters to use elbows as an effective striking method in the ground and pound position. <mask> is considered to be somewhat of an anomaly in MMA as he began his professional career with a large degree of success despite primarily learning the sport via instructional videotape. He was also one of the first MMA fighters to use social media as a platform to connect with fans. <mask> earned notable career victories over former UFC Welterweight Champion Robbie Lawler, former King of Pancrase Middleweight and Welterweight Champion Kiuma Kunioku, Heath Herring, Paul Buentello, Phil Baroni (x2) and Ikuhisa Minowa, among others.<mask> was born in Amarillo, Texas and graduated in 1989 from Caprock High School, where he won the Texas state championship in wrestling as a junior and senior despite only entering the sport in his second year of high school. He attended Simpson College in Iowa, but dropped out when he was 19. He worked various jobs around the country as a bouncer, cable television contractor, framer building beach houses, dishwasher, baker, ditch digger and slaughterhouse worker. He attended the University of Oklahoma for one semester before returning to Amarillo, where he entered a mixed martial arts tournament. During his UFC career, <mask> lived in Portland, Oregon and Las Vegas, Nevada. In 2008, he relocated to Oceanside, California. Mixed martial arts career

Early career
<mask>, with a wrestling background, began fighting in 1997 when he was convinced by friends to enter a local MMA tournament hosted by the now defunct Unified Shoot Wrestling Federation.He won the tournament by defeating three fighters in one night, including future UFC heavyweight contender Paul Buentello. After his initial success, <mask> taught himself submission and grappling techniques using instructional videos created by the famous Gracie family. He continued to fight in local shows and tournaments in Texas and Iowa before traveling to Japan to compete in the Pancrase organization. He won five fights overseas and competed in the USWF once more before being asked to join the UFC. <mask> made his UFC debut in 1999 at UFC 18, submitting fellow Amarillo native Darrell Gholar by rear naked choke in the first round. His next UFC fight was at UFC 19 against Valerie Ignatov, who was known for leg submissions. Because of this, <mask> decided to fight barefoot for the first time in his career.<mask> fought once more in Pancrase and defended his title two more times in the USWF before deciding to take the first of multiple breaks from fighting in his career. He returned in July 2000 and remained undefeated in the USWF, successfully defending his heavyweight belt with wins against Raoul Romero and Vinny Nixon. His next appearance was at UFC 29, where he defeated Lance Gibson by TKO. A new outlook on fighting
With three victories in the UFC, <mask> received a title shot against UFC light heavyweight champion Tito Ortiz at UFC 30. He was knocked unconscious 32 seconds into the first round by a high level slam by Ortiz. <mask> was invited to compete in the −88 kg division at the 2001 ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship April 11–13, 2001 at the Abu Dhabi Combat Club in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He was defeated by Sanae Kikuta on points (6–0) in the first round.<mask> began training with Oregon-based Team Quest. He returned to the Octagon at UFC 34, defeating Homer Moore in the second round with an armbar. At UFC 36, he defeated Elvis Sinosic by TKO (cut). At UFC 38, he won a unanimous decision over Chris Haseman in an undercard bout. At UFC 42, he lost to Rich Franklin by TKO (strikes) in the first round. After his defeat by Franklin, <mask> moved to the middleweight division, where he would be more physically imposing than many of the opponents. Baroni I and II
<mask> faced Phil Baroni in consecutive fights at UFC 45 and UFC 48.In the early minutes of their fight at UFC 45, Baroni was in control, but <mask> took Baroni to the ground and landed a series of unanswered punches and elbows. After a brief verbal exchange between Baroni and referee Larry Landless, the fight was stopped and <mask> was awarded the victory. Immediately after the fight, Baroni contended that he did not submit and in the confusion struck Landless twice in the face. Baroni maintained that it was a verbal miscommunication and he never asked for the fight to be stopped. To quell the controversy, the UFC agreed to give Baroni a rematch at UFC 48, which <mask> won. Road to the UFC Middleweight title
<mask> defeated Robbie Lawler at UFC 50 in October 2004, submitting Lawler with a triangle choke. Afterwards, <mask> began training on his own.He fought for the vacant UFC middleweight championship against David Terrell at UFC 51 in February 2005. He defeated Terrell to become the first UFC middleweight champion since Murilo Bustamante held the title before leaving for PRIDE Fighting Championships in 2002. <mask> fought Franklin again at UFC 53 in June 2005. Franklin won when the fight was stopped by the ringside doctor due to multiple cuts and swelling on <mask>'s face. With the win, Franklin was named as a coach for The Ultimate Fighter 2 reality television show, along with then UFC Welterweight champion Matt Hughes. While Franklin and Hughes did not fight at the conclusion of the show, Hughes said he would have challenged <mask> for the UFC middleweight title if <mask> had been a coach on the show. After losing the title, <mask> began training with American Top Team, but lost his next fight to David Loiseau at Ultimate Fight Night 2 in October 2005.<mask> was ahead on points until the fight was stopped in the second round due to a cut received from a Loiseau elbow. Shortly after this fight, <mask> appeared as himself on an episode of Beyond the Glory on  FOX Sports  that chronicled the history of the UFC. He also became a member of the Chute Boxe team. <mask> returned to the UFC in April 2006 at UFC 59, defeating Justin Levens in what was <mask>'s last victory in MMA. Levens was a late replacement for Jeremy Horn, who was forced to withdraw after a training injury. 2006–08
On December 29, 2006, <mask> unveiled plans to set up a mixed martial arts training camp at his house in Gresham, Oregon for disadvantaged athletes and young men at risk. In February 2007, he announced that 12 athletes would reside in the house from six different weight classes.In a March 2007 interview with MMA Weekly, <mask> was asked about the possibility of fighting again, but said he wanted to focus on developing his foundation. He said he would be training year-round with the athletes he was coaching and that it might only be a matter of time before he returned. UFC president Dana White was interviewed by CBS Sportsline one week later and said <mask> would be welcomed back whenever he was ready. On May 11, 2007, further foundation development was put on hold by <mask>, citing his own training and a bad experience with the first fighter that was invited to the house. <mask> announced through his official website that he would return to active competition and attempt to regain the UFC middleweight title. Speculation arose that <mask> would return to the UFC in December 2007 at UFC 79 against Dean Lister. <mask> dismissed the report as he was battling an alcohol addiction.He left Chute Boxe and began training at Hard Knocks Kickboxing in Las Vegas. On November 8, 2007, <mask> announced the signing of a four-fight deal with the UFC. He chose to accept no corporate sponsorships and instead started "Team Tanner," an exclusive fan club for his upcoming fights. His first fight back in the UFC was at UFC 82, where he lost to Japanese fighter Yushin Okami by knockout in the second round. In what would be his final fight, <mask> lost to Kendall Grove in a split decision at The Ultimate Fighter 7 Finale on June 21, 2008, the fifth loss in his last ten fights. In a post-match interview, he said he felt "flat" throughout the fight and that he had begun wondering if his two years of serious alcohol abuse had damaged his body past the point of which he could compete at the level he once had. Death
In the summer of 2008, <mask> announced plans for a solo trip to the Imperial County, California desert.After concerns were raised, he responded on August 27, 2008. "It seems some MMA (Mixed Martial Arts) websites have reported on the story, posting up that I might die out in the desert, or that it might be my greatest opponent yet, etc. Come on, guys. It's really common down in Southern California to go out to the off-road recreation areas in the desert about an hour away from LA and San Diego. So my plan is to go out to the desert, do some camping, ride the motorcycle, and shoot some guns. Sounds like a lot of fun to me. A lot of people do it.This isn't a version of 'Into the Wild.'" He purchased a dirt bike and on September 3, 2008 rode into the desert region west of Palo Verde, California to go camping. According to his manager, John Hayner, <mask> called that afternoon to say that his bike had run out of gas and that he would walk back to his camp. This conflicted with a later report that his bike was found at his camp. He reportedly intended to refill his water bottles at Clapp Spring before heading back to his campsite, but was unaware that the spring was usually dry. Temperatures that day reached 118 °F (48 °C), but in a text message to a friend, he said he thought he could make it back to his camp if he traveled during the later hours of the evening. He told friends to contact authorities if they did not hear from him by the following morning.When friends did not hear from him the next morning, they reported <mask> missing and a search was begun. His body was discovered near Clapp Spring with empty water bottles by a Marine helicopter on September 8, 2008. The Imperial County coroner determined the time of death to be between late September 4 and early September 5, but the legal date of death was recorded as September 8, 2008. According to a military article, <mask>'s motorcycle was at his camp and within his provisions were ample supplies of water. The Imperial County sheriff's office gave an official cause of death as heat exposure. Aftermath

A celebration of life service was held in Amarillo, Texas on September 27. An informal gathering was held at a friend's house in Oceanside and attended by <mask>'s sister and close friends.At dusk, a candlelight vigil was held. The UFC honored <mask> during the Spike TV broadcast of UFC Fight Night: Diaz vs. Neer on September 17, 2008. Pancrase paid tribute to <mask> with a special ceremony during their 15th Anniversary Show on October 1, 2008. Shark Fights also honored <mask> during their inaugural event at the Amarillo National Center on October 24, 2008. The 2008 World MMA Awards show on December 31, 2008 in Las Vegas was dedicated to <mask>'s memory. A documentary about <mask>'s life, travels and philosophy, "Once I Was A Champion," was directed by Gerard Roxburgh and premiered in competition at the 2011 Los Angeles Film Festival as an official selection. It was nominated for "Best Documentary Feature" .The film was also an official selection at the 2011 Dallas Video Festival and the inaugural Arclight Documentary Film Festival in November 2011. It won the "Best Documentary Audience Award" at the 2011 Bel Air Film Festival. In March 2014, English film director and producer Bobby Razak released a documentary about <mask> titled "1" which looked at the circumstances surrounding <mask>'s death. On June 19, 2019, Variety reported that a biopic about <mask>'s life and career titled "The Power of 1" was in the works, slated to go into pre-production at the end of 2019 with principal photography planned for early 2020. David Terrell
 ESPN
A look at 100 memorable UFC fights | #41: <mask> vs. David Terrell
A look at 100 memorable UFC fights | #44: Rich Franklin vs. <mask>
A look at 100 memorable UFC fights | #58: Tito Ortiz vs. <mask>
 Yahoo Sports
UFC’s 20 greatest fighters a mix of old and new | #18: <mask>

 Wrestling Observer Newsletter
1998 Rookie of the Year Nominee
1998 Shooter of the Year Nominee
 Fight Matrix
All-Time MMA Rankings | #22 (Middleweight): <mask>

Amateur Wrestling
  Texas University Interscholastic League
 1988 UIL State Champion (167 lbs)
 1989 UIL State Champion (167 lbs)

Submission Grappling
  ADCC
 Competed in the −88 kg division at the 2001 ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship

Mixed martial arts record

| Loss
| align=center| 32–8
| Kendall Grove
| Decision (split)
| The Ultimate Fighter: Team Rampage vs. myspace.com. Retrieved on November 28, 2006.<mask>'s fight record courtesy of Sherdog. Sherdog.com. Retrieved on November 28, 2006. <mask> Fighter Info. MMAforum.com. Retrieved on November 28, 2006. <mask> Interview 6/30/06.MMA365. Retrieved on November 28, 2006. UFC Fighter Page UFC.com. Retrieved November 28, 2006. <mask> Fighter Profile. Ultimate-fighter.ca. Retrieved on November 28, 2006.<mask> Interview. ufighting.com. Retrieved on November 28, 2006. Team Quest: As Iron Sharpens Iron. Boxing Insider. Retrieved on December 3, 2006. Postal Connections: The Reason <mask> Left Team Quest.Real Fight Gear. Retrieved on December 3, 2006. <mask> Post-UFC 59 Video Interview. Sherdog. Retrieved on December 3, 2006. Sherdog.com Preview: UFC 59 "Reality Check" Part I Sherdog. Retrieved on December 3, 2006.<mask> Pays Dues to Rake in Profits Sherdog. Retrieved on December 3, 2006. From Common Competitor to Middleweight Monarch Sherdog. Retrieved on December 3, 2006. Jeff Cain. Breaking The Silence MMA Weekly. Retrieved on December 3, 2006.Marc Wickert This Fight is Wide Open Knuckle Pit. Retrieved on December 18, 2006. Marc Wickert The Desert Warrior Knuckle Pit. Retrieved on December 18, 2006. Marc Wickert UFC's Lone Wolf Knuckle Pit. Retrieved on December 18, 2006. Mick Hammond <mask> Returns With A New Vision MMA Weekly.Retrieved on March 18, 2007. Sam Caplan Five Ounces of Pain CBS Sportsline. Retrieved on March 18, 2007. Kenny and Ozone Show. Retrieved on November 8, 2007. External links
 Official Site
 Official Blog
 MySpace
 Obituary
 Official site of documentary on <mask>'s life

Accidental deaths in California
American male mixed martial artists
Middleweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing wrestling
Mixed martial artists utilizing Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Sportspeople from Amarillo, Texas
Sportspeople from Gresham, Oregon
American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Ultimate Fighting Championship male fighters
Ultimate Fighting Championship champions
American male sport wrestlers
Amateur wrestlers
Deaths from hyperthermia
1971 births
2008 deaths

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Robert P<mask> (born July 27, 1951) is an American former prosecutor who was the American Prosecuting Attorney for St. Louis County, Missouri, a post he held from 1991 until 2019. A Democrat, he historically had bipartisan support as a prosecutor and won re-election in 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2010 and 2014, often unopposed, but by wide margins when he had an opponent. <mask> held the highest paid position within St. Louis County government with an annual salary of $160,000. In 2018, he lost his bid for re-election in the Democratic primary to reformist challenger Wesley Bell by a 13.24% margin. <mask> was the chief prosecutor in office overseeing the case related to the shooting of Michael Brown, which attracted considerable controversy and media attention, both nationally and internationally. Education and early career
After attending law school at Saint Louis University, McCulloch served as a clerk for Missouri Appeals Court judge Joseph G. Stewart. McCulloch was an  Assistant Prosecuting Attorney from 1978 to 1985.He worked in private practice until 1991, when he was elected to the post of Prosecuting Attorney. <mask> was president of the Missouri Association of Prosecuting Attorneys and a board member of the National District Attorneys Association. Tenure as P.A. Just after he first took office in the early 1990s, <mask> prosecuted Axl Rose of the band Guns N’ Roses on charges related to the Riverport Riot in which 40 concert attendees and 25 police officers were injured. <mask> charged Rose with misdemeanor assault and property damage for allegedly hitting a security guard, hurting three concertgoers and damaging a dressing room at Riverport Amphitheatre. <mask> made headlines when he pursued Rose across the country to serve an arrest warrant in the case before Rose finally turned himself in and agreed to a plea deal. In 2000, in the so-called "Jack in the Box" case, two undercover officers, a police officer and a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) officer, shot and killed two unarmed black men in the parking lot of a Jack in the Box fast-food restaurant in Berkeley, Missouri.In 2001, the officers told a grand jury convened by McCulloch that the suspects tried to escape arrest and then drove toward them; the jury declined to indict. <mask> told the public that every witness had testified to confirm this version, but St. Louis Post-Dispatch journalist Michael Sorkin reviewed the previously secret grand jury tapes, released to him by <mask>, and found that <mask>'s statement was untrue: only three of 13 officers testified that the car was moving forward. A subsequent federal investigation found that the men were unarmed and that their car had not moved forward when the officers fired 21 shots; nevertheless, federal investigators decided that the shooting was justified because the officers feared for their safety. <mask> also drew controversy when he said of the victims: "These guys were bums." The two men killed,  Earl Murray and Ronald Beasley, had prior felony convictions on drug and assault charges. In 2013, <mask> publicly switched his longtime allegiance from fellow Democrat and St. Louis County Executive Charlie Dooley to support Dooley's challenger in the Democratic primary for county executive, Steve Stenger, stating that Dooley oversaw too much corruption in the county. Stenger won over Dooley in the Aug. 5, 2014 primary by a landslide.As of July 2017, <mask> still refuses to enforce fare evasion tickets issued for non-paying riders on MetroLink (St. Louis), despite growing concerns over safety and security on MetroLink and MetroBus facilities. According to <mask>, “Only peace officers are capable of writing a summons or making an arrest for a misdemeanor violation, and the MetroLink employees, no matter what they call them, are not and cannot be peace officers.” At the time it was reported that St. Louis County officers, whose tickets McCulloch would presumably enforce, had been caught neglecting assigned MetroLink patrols. In May 2018, <mask>'s office filed charges on a dismissed restraining order that was filed against a woman protesting a city police officer who she claimed had raped her. In the Democratic primary on August 7, <mask> in an upset lost handily to Wesley Bell who ran on a criminal justice reform platform. During that campaign, <mask> claimed that his office does not file bail bonds for misdemeanors; however, an ACLU of Missouri report showed this to be false. On August 16, <mask> as an invited speaker at an Oregon prosecutors conference made several remarks considered so unprofessional and characterized by some as "racially insensitive" that several walked out and subsequently boycotted a later keynote speech, including the entire staff of one district attorney office. Michael Brown case

After the August 9, 2014 shooting of Michael Brown by Ferguson, Missouri police officer Darren Wilson, <mask> announced that rather than making a decision about whether to arrest Wilson, he would bring the case before a grand jury, leaving to jurors the decision of what charges might be brought, if any.His spokesman acknowledged that it was unusual that the prosecutor was not asking the grand jury to endorse a specific charge. It was also unusual to present a case to a grand jury before the police investigation was over. Cornell Brooks, the president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), called for a special prosecutor to replace <mask> in the case, saying that was needed to restore credibility with Ferguson's black community. On , <mask> reported in a press conference that the grand jury reached a decision in the case and elected "not to indict Wilson". Immediately after the announcement, <mask> said that he appointed prosecutors in his office to handle the case, rather than himself, because "he was 'fully aware of unfounded but growing concern that the investigation might not be fair.'" In his 23 years on the job, this was the fifth time <mask> presented evidence to a grand jury in a shooting by police; in each case, the grand jury came back without an indictment. Post-case analysis
Following the grand jury result, criticism was directed at <mask> over the handling, result, and other aspects of the grand jury process, while other analysts defended his handling of the matter.Former Supreme Court clerk Eric Citron wrote on SCOTUSblog, that the grand jury investigation was atypical. Citron argues that, based on case law – a question raised in United States v. Williams – prosecutors can withhold "substantial exculpatory evidence" in order to obtain an indictment, as the role of the grand jury is not to determine guilt, but rather to decide whether there is enough evidence of a crime; exculpatory evidence can be presented at trial. Citron presented the dissent from Justice Stevens, who said that the prosecutor need not "ferret out and present all evidence that could be used at trial to create a reasonable doubt as to defendant's guilt." Citron then asserts that when a prosecutor wants an indictment, a grand jury process like what happened in Wilson's case would not be expected. Other legal experts asserted that McCulloch deflected responsibility for failing to indict Wilson, and created conditions in which the grand jury would not indict him either. Ronald S. Sullivan Jr., director of the Harvard Criminal Justice Institute at Harvard University, said that "As a strategic move, it was smart; he got what he wanted without being seen as directly responsible for the result," and called the case "the most unusual marshaling of a grand jury's resources I've seen in my 25 years as a lawyer and scholar." The New Yorker'''s legal analyst, attorney Jeffrey Toobin, criticized McCulloch for implementing "a document dump, an approach that is virtually without precedent in the law of Missouri or anywhere else", and stated that despite the effort to represent the process as "an independent evaluation of the evidence", McCulloch remained in control of the process.Toobin wrote  that in the presentation of the grand jury decision, <mask> cherry-picked the evidence that was most exculpatory of Wilson, and asserted that <mask> "gave Wilson's case special treatment". Radio talk show host and attorney Michael Smerconish wrote in The Philadelphia Inquirer that <mask> was in a no-win position and gave the case to the grand jury, despite a lack of evidence, to prove probable cause because the public would not accept a unilateral decision by <mask>. Smerconish said the grand jury proceedings were atypical because they presented all the evidence and included testimony by the subject of the investigation, Darren Wilson. Smerconish said conflicting witness statements which could support indictments were not backed up by the forensic evidence. Former United States federal judge Paul G. Cassell, writing for the Volokh Conspiracy'' blog, said that "Contrary to the complaints of some critics, the grand jury process was clearly fair." Cassell countered critics by saying that the grand jury did not deviate from the normal process, except for the prosecutor not making any particular recommendation for charges. Cassell said objections that the grand jury took too long were silent on the parallel federal investigation being run.The argument that too much evidence was presented in to the grand jury, compromising the process, was described by Cassell as an attempt to manufacture a weakness. Personal life
<mask> is the son of a St. Louis City K-9 police officer who was killed in the line of duty while searching for a fleeing kidnapper in the Pruitt-Igoe Housing Complex when <mask> was 12 years old. When he was in high school at Augustinian Academy, <mask> lost a leg to cancer. <mask> and his wife Carolyn have four children. References

Living people
Politicians from St. Louis County, Missouri
Saint Louis University School of Law alumni
Lawyers from St. Louis
Shooting of Michael Brown
Missouri Democrats
Missouri lawyers
District attorneys
1951 births
Axl Rose

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<mask> (, Pinyin: Yáng Shàohóu; 1862-1930) was a Chinese martial arts master who, along with <mask> (楊澄甫; 1883-1936), represents the third generation of Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan. Grandmaster of his generation and known for his compact "small frame" techniques, he was a ferocious fighter and a demanding teacher. Early life
<mask> began learning t'ai chi ch'uan at age 7, in Beijing under his father <mask>, his uncle <mask> (who formally adopted him), and his grandfather — the founder of Yang-style t'ai chi — <mask>. His name at birth was <mask> (楊兆熊, Pinyin: Yáng Zhàoxióng). But as was common in the era, as he reached adulthood he took the courtesy name <mask>ng (楊梦祥, Pinyin: Yáng Mèngxiáng), and after he earned a reputation he changed it to <mask>. Shaohou can be translated as "young noble", and makes use of the "hou" (侯) character from his father's and uncle's names in a reflection of respect for his lineage and his status as grandmaster of his generation. Career
Many of his contemporaries called him "Mr. Big" (大先生, Pinyin: dà xiānshēng), which can also be translated as "Mr. Eldest" or "Mr. Great" — a play on words as he was the eldest brother in his family, the senior disciple and grandmaster of his t'ai chi generation, and a great fighter who loomed large in the fears of many — while others called him "Thousand Hands Guanyin" (千手觀音, Pinyin: Qiānshǒu Guānyīn) or "Holy Hands Guanyin" (聖手觀音, Shèngshǒu Guānyīn), which was in praise of his pushing hands techniques, as unlike that deity he was not known for his compassion.<mask> had a very forceful nature, and like his uncle Banhou he was a demanding teacher, only interested in students that could stand their tough training regimes. It is said that he enforced low stance training by making students perform postures underneath food preparation tables, he preferred to demonstrate rather than explain, and he was not known for pulling his punches. Often as soon as he crossed hands with a student in push hands, he attacked suddenly with great force, and the student did not know what to do. This approach attracted few, but he in fact preferred to limit and focus his time and attention as a teacher. He taught at the Beiping Sports Research Institute  (北平體育研究社, Pinyin: Běipíng Tǐyù Yánjiūshè) as well as an associated institute and club, but preferred to give private lessons to disciples and other serious students in small groups or individual sessions. He briefly travelled to teach in Shanghai, Hangzhou, Suzhou, and Nanjing, but preferred Beijing. Everywhere he went, he earned his reputation as an indomitable fighter, but as a teacher only to a select few.He also practiced traditional Chinese medicine, treating patients with a combination of <mask> family herbal formulas and a prescription of regular t'ai chi practice. Upon curing one municipal official of a liver ailment with just such a combination, he gained a great following and 200 citizens of that town asked him to train them in t'ai chi. However he remained very selective about which students he took on — some would say impatient and irritable — and trained only the official that time, but work like this did help to establish strong ties between government officials and the <mask> family. Sixth generation Yang style Master <mask> reports family tradition describing him like this: "The spirit from his eyes would shoot out in all directions, flashing like lightning. Combined with a sneer, a sinister laugh, and the sounds of "Heng!" and "Ha! ", his imposing manner was quite threatening."Small Frame, Little Fame

Founding Generations

The t'ai chi ch'uan of <mask> and his younger brother <mask> represent the final refinement of the three founding generations of <mask> family t'ai chi ch'uan. Disciples and students of <mask> t'ai chi hold that <mask> style founder <mask>'s "old frame" (老架, Pinyin: lǎojià) t'ai chi from the beginning contained the potential for what over time was separated into the two approaches those brothers now represent, <mask>'s "small frame" (小架, Pinyin: xiǎojià) and <mask>'s "large frame" (大架, Pinyin: dàjià). Today practitioners of the small frame often call their approach the "yong jia" (用架, Pinyin: yòngjià) which can be translated as "application frame", and the large frame the "lian jia" (練架, Pinyin: liànjià) or "training frame", though in fact both include training and applications. By the third generation, the <mask> family masters tended to teach the large frame to the public, while reserving the small frame and related training for palace officials, disciples, and other serious students. The large frame can be easier to teach to a big group, with relatively wide easy-to-see movements, and can be learned for health or for martial application. The small frame with its small circles is complex and difficult to master, and the training more quickly focuses on applications. The small frame was also better suited to students wearing imperial robes.But in the first two generations, all variations retained sudden bursts of speed, high kicks, low stances, leaps, and "fa jin" (發勁; Pinyin: fājìn) or explosive energy. In the second generation the focus of two sons had already diverged as they refined their teaching methods, as would happen again in the next generation. Second generation master <mask> developed his "middle frame" (中架, Pinyin: zhōngjià) form with a focus on bringing all the benefits of t'ai chi to more people, while his older brother and the grandmaster of that generation, <mask>, concentrated on a more demanding range of training that appealed to few students. Banhou trained not only with their father Luchan but also with Wu (Hao) style founder Wu Yuxiang, building a reputation as a top fighter and accepting the most serious students only. Today some still practice Yang Banhou forms in large, medium, small, and fast frame, all very vigorous and strenuous, with such a difficult range of heights that some have called them "low frame", and he is especially known for his small frame form. Also in the second generation, Manchu military officer Wu Quanyou trained under <mask> and <mask>, and began development of the small frame Wu-style t'ai chi ch'uan for the Manchurian palace guard. As noted above, small frame t'ai chi was particularly effective for those wearing imperial robes.In the next generation, his son Wu Jianquan would join him in cofounding the Wu style. In the third generation, <mask> widely promoted the large frame, standardizing that form with all slow movements suitable for teaching a wider range of students, and seldom taught or even mentioned the small frame, middle frame, or any fast form. He and his disciples established many training classes across China and published many books, all on only the large frame slow form and its associated two-person sets and applications. This is now the most famous and most widely practiced style of t'ai chi in the world. Meanwhile <mask>, after initially teaching his father Jianhou's middle frame, dedicated himself to his uncle Banhou's approach, further refining the small frame into his signature style. Twenty-one years older than Chengfu, he was of a more traditional generation that did not reveal everything about a martial art to the general public, and he did not have the temperament for such promotion anyway. Although he taught a minimal number of public classes on the large frame at a few institutes and clubs, <mask> preferred to focus on the small frame with just a few "indoor" disciples and other serious students who had already mastered the large frame or the Wu style, in small private sessions at private homes.As a result, his art is far less famous than his brother's. Modern Lineages

<mask>'s t'ai chi is characterized by high and low postures, small complex circular movements, frequent changes of pace, and sharp crisp fa jin (發勁; Pinyin: fājìn) or "explosive energy" techniques accompanied by "heng" (哼, Pinyin: hēng) and "ha" (哈, Pinyin: hā) sounds. According to an authoritative survey published in 2006, this has come down to us through just a few small select lineages today, each with a unique approach:

<mask> → Wu Tunan (吴图南, Pinyin: Wú Túnán; 1884-1989)

The empty-hand form taught by Wu Tunan generally follows the 73 posture sequence of the old Yang style. It contains 37 core postures plus repeats and transitions, and instructors often present it in 50 to 139 moves. In a 1928 publication Wu called it the "Three Generations Seven" (三世七) form, referring to the 37 postures and perhaps also in homage to the t'ai chi of Song Shuming (宋書銘), but today it is generally referred to as simply the "small frame form" or "application form". The movements are short with small circles and clear practical application, performed vigorously and fast, in as little as two and a half minutes. Videos of Wu Tunan from the 1980s show him at around age 100 performing the form mostly at one height within a small area, but photos from the 1920s through the 1960s show him performing high kicks and extremely low postures, while his students Yu Zhijun (于志钧, Pinyin: Yú Zhìjūn) and Li Lian (李琏, Pinyin: Lǐ Liǎn) have published books demonstrating the same form with deep crouches, high kicks, and higher leaps, and in some videos Li uses a much wider area.Yu and Li are also known for their push hands and application skills, as was Wu Tunan. Yu's book on Wu Tunan and his t'ai chi includes Wu-style sword forms. Wu

masks:
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang
Yang Jianhou
Yang Banhou
Yang Luchan
Yang Zhaoxiong
Yang Mengxia
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang
Yang Jun
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang Luchan
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang
Yang Jianhou
Yang Banhou
Yang Luchan
Yang Banhou
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou


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 accepted only two disciples, Ma Youqing and Sim Pooh Ho. Li Lian was a formal disciple of Ma, but also trained directly with Wu for twenty years, and is the foremost representative of this small frame lineage in mainland China today, while Sim Pooh Ho founded a school in Singapore that has trained European instructors as well and offers a broad t'ai chi curriculum. Yu Zhijun, a university professor in the history of science, trained with Wu for forty years to a high level of mastery, and published several books on tai chi including a thorough study of Wu Tunan and his martial art. (A brief biography of Wu Tunan is in the Notable Students section below.) <mask> → Zhang Huchen (张虎臣, Pinyin: Zhāng Hǔchén; 1898-1979)

Zhang Huchen was a disciple of Xu Yusheng (許禹生, Pinyin: Xǔ Yǔshēng; 1878-1945) and also trained with <mask> and <mask>.Zhang developed a complete system of small frame fast forms, which he taught in a sports training institute Xu established in Beijing. His "Three Solo Forms" are essentially the same 225 movement form, in three levels with three intents:

The Jia Shou or family form is the foundational or original solo set, and is the training form in this system; the Zheng Lu form is the simplified set; and the Xiao She form is the application set. From these Zhang's disciple Liu Xiwen (刘习文, Pinyin: Liú Xíwén), has developed a combined form, and is also known for his push hands and application skills. <mask> → Gu Lüping (顾履平, Pinyin: Gù Lǚpíng, courtesy name 顧麗生, Gù Lìshēng, 1904-1978)

Gu Lüping trained with <mask> and <mask> in Nanjing before moving to Guizhou (贵州, Pinyin: Guìzhōu). His disciple Zhang Zhuoxing (张卓星, 1920-2001) also taught t'ai chi in Guizhou and authored books on the topic, including 太极拳锻炼要领 (Taijiquan Training Essentials), and with Gu Lüping and another teacher also 太极推手二十六式 (Tai Chi Push Hands: Twenty Six Styles). Gu's disciple Chi Qingsheng (池庆升, 1948-) brought this lineage to Hong Kong, and it has spread to Southeast Asia and the world from there. Their primary empty hand small frame solo form was originally organized into 85 postures similar to the standard <mask> pattern, yet still a different form with an "application frame" training approach including a slow-swift tempo and fa jin, and it has since been refined to 78 postures.Others

Other disciples and close students listed in the Disciples section below do not appear to have founded ongoing lineages large enough for inclusion in the 2006 survey, or they did not found lineages in only the small frame, but were active in t'ai chi and well-known during their lifetimes. Weapons

<mask> also taught at least one unique weapons form, a vigorous athletic saber (刀; Pinyin: dāo, also translated as "falchion" or "broadsword") form that includes long leaps, jump kicks, reverse spins, and challenging circles. Tung Hu Ling preserved this form as part of the Tung family t'ai chi advanced curriculum. Although <mask> undoubtedly learned other weapons forms from his father and uncle, and may have taught the more widely known Yang-style weapons forms when he deigned to teach public classes, he apparently established no specific lineage of weapons training. In fact as noted above, Yu Zhijun's thorough book on the t'ai chi of <mask> disciple Wu Tunan includes only Wu style sword forms. <mask>'s favorite weapon was an iron seal-carving stylus (鐵筆/铁笔, Pinyin: tiěbǐ), preferably one in each hand. He said weapons are just extensions of the hands, and felt he could better demonstrate t'ai chi moves while holding those small pointy tools.That potentially dangerous teaching method, along with his famously crippling empty-hand attacks, have not been included in the public curriculums of subsequent generations. Notable Students

Internationally Well-Known Students

Wu Kung-i and Wu Kung-tsao trained with <mask>, based on a tradition that required they be taught by teachers of the same lineage generation as their grandfather, Wu-style cofounder Wu Ch'uan-yu, who died while they were infants. Their father Wu Chien-ch'uan and <mask> were both famous for their "small frame" martial expertise, and this training laid a strong foundation for the Wu brothers' mastery of their family style. Wu Kung-i's famous 1954 public match in Macau against a master of Tibetan White Crane, and even more so his son Wu Ta-k'uei's reputation as a fierce brawler, might have made <mask> proud. Tung Ying-chieh trained with <mask> in Beijing while preparing to serve as <mask>'s chief assistant instructor, and later incorporated aspects of <mask>'s "small frame" and fa jin techniques into his own Tung family t'ai chi advanced fast forms. Tung taught that mastery of any size "frame" of <mask> style would enable mastery of the others, and though he felt that the <mask>fu "large frame" was the best place to start he never criticized other frames, styles, or masters. Tung Hu-ling's training also included some time with <mask>, resulting most notably in his mastery of <mask>'s unique and vigorous advanced t'ai chi saber (刀; Pinyin: dāo, also translated as "falchion" or "broadsword") form.Tung Hu-ling later taught it as part of the Tung family t'ai chi advanced curriculum, and from that form also created a double saber form and versions of both forms using sticks instead of swords. Disciples and Close Students

In martial arts circles, <mask> regarded only Xu Yusheng (許禹生, Pinyin: Xǔ Yǔshēng; 1878-1945) and Chen Weiming (陳微明, Pinyin: Chén Wēimíng; 1881–1958) as friends and confidants. He did not formally claim them as disciples, as Xu was a disciple of his father and both of them of his younger brother, yet of all his students Xu Yusheng may have acquired the most skills in Shaohou's small frame style. Xu and Chen were highly placed and influential in official education circles, they retained the <mask> brothers to teach at their institutes and clubs, and they collaborated with each other on books about <mask> t'ai chi. Both had tolerant personalities that allowed them to train most harmoniously with and befriend <mask>. <mask>ng (楊振聲, Pinyin: Yáng Zhènshēng; 1878-1939) trained to a high level of skill under his father <mask> and his uncle <mask>fu, and went on to teach t'ai chi ch'uan in Shanghai and Kunming in the 1930s. During the Japanese occupation he went missing in Hebei and was never found, but three of his sons and their many descendants have continued the <mask> family t'ai chi lineage.Wu Tunan (吴图南, Pinyin: Wú Túnán; 1884-1989) was <mask>'s last living direct disciple. Born into a prominent Mongolian warrior clan in Beijing and originally named Ulabu (烏拉布, Pinyin: Wū Lā Bù), he was not strong as a child and so his father had him trained in martial arts. Beginning at age nine he studied the Wu style under Wu Jianquan for eight years, then Yang style under <mask> for four years. As explained above, those four years were equivalent to advanced graduate training offered only to those who had already mastered the Yang large frame or the Wu style. An educator and a scholar, Wu wrote extensively on t'ai chi, founded the lineage described above, and at age 100 was still performing his small frame form for the public. In the 1980s he received awards recognizing his lifelong accomplishments, and he died in 1989 at age 105. Other disciples and close students of <mask> include the two disciples mentioned above, Gu Luping (顾履平, Gù Lǚpíng) and Zhang Huchen (张虎臣, Zhāng Hǔchén), as well as Tian Zhaolin (田兆麟 Pinyin: Tiān Zhàolín; 1891—1959; adopted by <mask>, disciple of Jianhou and Chengfu), Dong Runfang (東潤芳, Dōng Rúnfāng), You Zhixue (尤志學, Yóu Zhìxué), Ma Runzhi (馬潤之, Mǎ Rúnzhī), and Li Shou Jian (李壽箋, Lǐ Shòujiān).Final Years
<mask> found himself living in increasingly strained circumstances in Beiping after the government moved south to Nanjing in 1927. In 1928 his younger brother <mask> led a group of disciples south to establish training classes across the region, and found success. <mask> eventually accepted an invitation to teach in Nanjing arranged by a patron, the minister of transportation. But after taking up the position in the fall of 1929, he quarreled with a ministry official and left in anger. He returned to Beiping, but by that winter had traveled back to Nanjing after being unable to arrange new work. He died in January 1930, in Nanjing. According to newspaper reports at the time, he took his own life with a pair of scissors while living as a guest at the home of his patron, the transportation minister.He may have become depressed over finding himself an aging widower living in reduced circumstances, with no immediate prospects of earning a living on his own, and had been using opium. He reportedly stated he was committing suicide to protect the <mask> family reputation. His patron brought him to a hospital but was unable to save him, then raised funds to assist the family, now led by <mask>, with the funeral arrangements. <mask> was initially buried in Nanjing. But after <mask> died in 1936 due to illness, Chengfu's wife Hou Zhuqing sold all her valuables and raised additional funds from supporters to transport both brothers for burial in their hometown, Yongnian. T'ai Chi Ch'uan Lineage Tree with Yang-Style Focus

References

Bibliography

External links
Yang Style Family Tree
Yang Style Lineage Tree at Yang Family Tai Chi Chuan Association website

1862 births
1930 deaths
Chinese tai chi practitioners
Sportspeople from Hebei
1930

masks:
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang Cheng
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang
Yang Shaohou
Yang Zhenshe
Yang Shaohou
Yang Cheng
Yang
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Jianhou
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang
Yang Chengfu
Yang Shaohou
Yang Chengfu


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<mask> (), also known by his monastic name Hierotheos (Ἱερόθεος) (1657-1719), was an Ottoman Greek scholar and physician, who later in life became a monk and Eastern Orthodox metropolitan bishop of Side and Dristra. He is a descendant of the Byzantine imperial dynasty of the Komnenoi, specifically of the branch that ruled the Empire of Trebizond, and is often regarded as the last member of the family. Origin
Based on the date of his baptism (26 January 1658), <mask> was born in mid-December 1657 at Heraclea Perinthus. The Romanian scholars Nicolae Iorga and N. Vatamanu considered <mask> to hail from Lesbos, but it is securely attested that <mask> was born in Heraclea; in a work whose edition he supervised, he calls himself "Perinthian" after the city's ancient name. According to a document he commissioned from the Metropolitan of Heraclea, Neophytus III, in September 1695, <mask> was the son of Alexios Komnenos, surnamed "Molyvdos", who had been consecrated as a priest in 1656. Alexios in turn was the son of Theodore Komnenos, who died in 1637; the document traces the ancestry through four more generations to another Theodore Komnenos, who in 1480 settled with his family at Heraclea. According to the document, this Theodore was the great-grandson of the Emperor of Trebizond Basil Megas Komnenos ().Early life and career as a physician and scholar

Education
After completing his elementary education in his home town, <mask> left to attend the Patriarchal Academy in the nearby capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople. He probably attended the school in 1676–80—the exact dates are unknown—and studied theology, philosophy, grammar, and medicine. His enrollment in the school was a decisive moment in his career, as he made many acquaintances from among the circle of Ottoman Greek scholars of Constantinople, with whom he would maintain close relations in later years; among them were his teachers Sevastos Kyminitis and Antonios Spandonis, the Metropolitan of Adrianople Neophytus Filaretos, the Archbishop of Nyssa Germanus, the future Patriarch of Jerusalem Chrysanthos Notaras, and Ioannis Karyofyllis. Following his graduation, <mask> was appointed a notary to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, but soon left the city for Iași, capital of Moldavia, where in October 1683 he published his first work, a collected edition of the works of Symeon of Thessalonica, together with Markos Eugenikos' treatise Exposition of the Church's Daily Prayer. It was dedicated to the Prince of Moldavia, George Ducas, who along with Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem had sponsored the establishment of a Greek printing press in the Cetățuia Monastery in the previous year. <mask> had probably been recruited to staff the new enterprise. At the same time, he served as tutor to George Ducas' son Constantine, alongside the Phanariote scholars Azarias Kigalas and Skarlatos Spandonis.Moldavia entered a period of instability after 1683 with the fall of Ducas and a Tartar raid; the printing press seems to have suspended its operation until 1694, with the exception of a brief period in 1685 after the appointment of Constantin Cantemir to the voivodeship. <mask>'s activity during this period is unclear, but from a couple of letters to Neophytus of Adrianople it emerges that at least during the first year of Cantemir's rule he was at Iași, working as tutor to the new voivode's son Dimitrie Cantemir. Nevertheless, by the autumn of 1686 <mask> had left Moldavia and gone to Padua, to study medicine at the University of Padua, which at the time was a popular destination for Greeks wishing to pursue higher education. Although already in 1686 Germanus of Nyssa offered him the position of court doctor in the Wallachian capital, Bucharest, in succession to the retiring Iakovos Pylarinos, <mask> continued his studies at Padua despite his great financial difficulties, which were partly overcome with the financial support of the Karyofyllis family. During his studies at Padua he became a friend of the local English embassy official, as a result of which he participated in an official trip to England in early 1687. In December 1687 he succeeded in entering the Greek Palaiokapas college, and became a member of the Greek Community of Venice. Finally, on 23 January 1691, <mask> received his diploma as a "doctor-philosopher" and left Italy.Service in Russia and wanderings
From Italy, <mask> moved to Russia, responding to an invitation to work at the Tsar's court, probably through the intercession of Pylarinos, who had been chief physician there in 1690, or the Greek-born Russian envoy to Venice, Ioannikios Leichoudes. From Venice <mask> crossed the Polish Commonwealth and arrived at Kiev on 8 July 1691. His career at the Russian court is obscure, but Russian sources report that he succeeded Pylarinos as head physician when the latter left the country in 1692. During his stay in Moscow, in 1693, he translated from Latin to the vernacular Greek the medieval ecclesiastical treatise Quattor novissimom liber, and this was probably also the period when he composed four epigraphs on behalf of Tsar Peter the Great () and his brother Ivan V () for donations they made to Christian sites in the Holy Land. Despite his successful career at the Russian court, for unknown reasons <mask> was not satisfied; a letter to Kyminitis (then headmaster of the Princely Academy of Bucharest) and his subsequent career show that he had sought the (unspecified) assistance of the Prince of Wallachia Constantin Brâncoveanu (). He evidently obtained that in 1694, for in that year he was discharged from Russian service with a referral in Latin, signed by Tsar Peter himself, and by 29 September he was in Bucharest. He dedicated his next two translations into modern Greek, Diogenes Laërtius' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers and the Sayings of Kings and Commanders from Plutarch's Moralia, to Brâncoveanu.<mask> was evidently aiming for an appointment as court physician at Brâncoveanu's court, but this did not happen. A possible explanation may lie in the falling out between Brâncoveanu with <mask>'s patron, Dositheos II of Jerusalem, in the period 1692–1697. In letters of the period he inquires of his friends about the situation in Constantinople, and mentions an invitation by his former pupil, Constantine Ducas, then in his first (1693–1695) tenure as Prince of Moldavia, but <mask>'s actual whereabouts and activities until 1697 are largely unknown. If he went to Iași, he probably did not stay there long after Ducas' expulsion in December 1695 by Antioh Cantemir. During this time, he may have composed an epitaph for Theodoros Trapezountios, a professor at the Princely Academy, who died on 7 September 1695. At the same time he sought and obtained the certificate of his descent from the Komnenian emperors, and may then have gone to Constantinople, before going on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He was again at Constantinople sometime before February 1697, when Patriarch Adrian of Moscow sent letters to Chrysanthos Notaras inquiring about <mask>es brothers at the helm of the Slavic Greek Latin Academy in Moscow.Adrian also proposed to ask <mask> to supervise the establishment of a Greek printing press there, a project sponsored both by Adrian and Dositheos II of Jerusalem. <mask> was interested, but evidently troubled about the conditions prevailing in Russia, for in a letter by Dositheos to Adrian, dated 6 March 1698, Dositheos reported that <mask> was willing to accept, but only under specific conditions: that he would be allowed to exercise his medical skills alongside his scholarly duties; that he would be provided with sufficient remuneration during his stay; and that, as soon as the main task, the establishment of the Greek press, was completed, he would be allowed to leave for the Danubian Principalities. Dositheos, who may have shared in <mask>'s reservations, recommended acceptance of his terms, with a proposed contract for five years. Nothing came of this, however, especially in the tumultuous political and religious climate in Russia following Adrian's death in 1700 and the reforms of Peter the Great. Service in Wallachia

In the meantime, however, <mask> had entered the far more familiar, and lucrative, service of the Wallachian court. Already in summer 1697 his name appears in the fiscal records as a court physician, alongside Pylarinos and another Greek, Pantaleon Kalliarchis. <mask> was further assigned the duty of accompanying Wallachian troops in the field—as an Ottoman vassal, Wallachia was involved in the Great Turkish War—and equipped with a cart for carrying wounded soldiers.He remained in the Wallachian court until 1702, with an annual salary of 800 thalers initially, rising to 1,000 after autumn 1700. This period was one of the most productive in <mask>'s career: enjoying a good salary and the favour of both Brâncoveanu and his influential uncle, stolnic Constantin Cantacuzino, he was able to engage in his literary and translation activity with new vigour. In 1698, <mask> made a pilgrimage to Mount Athos, which became the source for what is perhaps his most famous work, the Pilgrim's Guidebook to the Holy Mount Athos (Προσκυνητάριον τοῦ Ἁγίου Ὄρους τοῦ Ἂθωνος), published at his own expense at the printing press of the Snagov monastery in 1701. He also participated in four other works published at Snagov, by providing epigraphs honouring the authors and/or Brâncoveanu, who funded them: a single-volume edition, published in February 1699, of Peter Mogila's Confession of Faith and Bessarion Makris' On the Three Greatest Virtues; a Greek–Arabic edition of the Three Divine Liturgies (St. James, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom), published in January 1701; an Almanac by Kyminitis, published in June 1701; and a Greek–Arabic Horologion, published in 1702. For the latter, <mask>'s previous epigraph from the Three Divine Liturgies was simply reprinted, and it was reprinted again for the 1703 Commentary and Liturgy on the Dedication of a Church, published at Bucharest by Anthimos the Iberite with funding by Brâncoveanu. Apart from contributing epigraphs, <mask> also wrote a number of original works, in line with the humanist and scholarly endeavours pursued at the Wallachian court under the patronage of Brâncoveanu and Cantacuzino.In 1699, he wrote a biography of the Byzantine emperor <mask> VI Kantakouzenos (), dedicated to Constantin Cantacuzino, whose family claimed descent from the emperor. The account is heavily fictionalized and idealized, meant to represent an ideal Christian, scholarly, and politically sage ruler rather than the historical figure, and flatter Cantacuzino as the ostensible heir and successor to his illustrious forebear. In December 1699, he composed the Prognostic Book on the Eclipse of the Sun that occurred in the Year 1699, September 13. This led some modern scholars to suggest that he was active in teaching mathematics and physics at the Princely Academy, but despite his evident interest in these subjects, this is nowhere corroborated. He also encouraged Cantacuzino and collaborated with him on the latter's map of Wallachia (1700), a work of remarkable accuracy on the political, historical, and economical geography of the country. In 1702, at Brâncoveanu's suggestion, <mask> translated into modern Greek Theophylact of Ohrid's commentary on the Four Gospels, but this work was never published due to the contrary advice of Patriarch Callinicus II of Constantinople, according to whom it was useless for the educated, and too complicated for the ordinary people. In 1702, <mask> lost his erstwhile teacher and close friend, Kyminitis, who died and was buried at Bucharest on 6 September.<mask> composed a funerary epigraph for him, which was inscribed on his tombstone. <mask> also had a major contribution in Kyminitis' final work, Doctrinal Instruction, published posthumously in 1703, through his translations from Latin. Ecclesiastical career
The Wallachian court records show that in autumn 1702, <mask> resigned as court physician, to be replaced by the Italian Bartolomeo Ferrati. Despite his successful scholarly career, and for reasons that are unknown, <mask> decided to enter the clergy. The details or time of his tonsure are unknown, but in September 1703 he is already recorded as a monk, in which capacity he participated in the boyar assembly convened at Arnavutköy to elect the successor of Constantine Ducas. In the assembly, he staunchly supported Brâncoveanu's candidate, Mihai Racoviță; Brâncoveanu's rival, Dimitrie Cantemir, credits <mask>'s speech with influencing many of the boyars towards Racoviță, who was finally elected as ruler of Moldavia. Titular bishop of Side and abbot of the Kamariotissa monastery
Following his departure from the Wallachian court, <mask> probably headed for Constantinople, where he was tonsured as a monk, assuming the monastic name "Hierotheos" (Ἱερόθεος).He enjoyed a rapid ascent, being promoted to presbyter and then titular bishop of Side by 1704. From this it appears that <mask>, as an eminent scholar and someone interested in theological matters, had maintained contacts with patriarchal circles, and had perhaps received some offer from the Patriarchate that induced him to abandon his career at the Wallachian court. <mask> was probably tonsured at the monastery of Theotokos Kamariotissa on the island of Chalke (modern Heybeliada), whose abbot he became following the death of the previous incumbent, Athanasios Malatestas, in January 1704. His residence at the monastery was at least in part for reasons of survival: as a titular bishop, he had no real source of income. He remained abbot at Kamariotissa until 1706, and was engaged in the renovation of the monastery and particularly the enrichment of its library. This period of his life is poorly documented; certainly his new duties at the monastery, but also at the patriarchal administration, forced him to suspend his literary and translation activity. In July 1705, at <mask>'s instigation, Brâncoveanu funded the construction of a well in Constantinople.In March 1706, he participated at a synod in the Patriarchate that confirmed the election of a new metropolitan bishop for Trebizond, but he was already preparing his resignation as abbot of Kamariotissa: on 13 September of the same year, he ordered a formal inventory of all items in the monastery's sacristy, and delivered it to his eventual successor, the sacristan Neophytos. It is known that he left again for Wallachia, but the reason, or the duration of his stay there, are unknown; indeed he is next mentioned only in a synod at the Patriarchate in December 1709. Metropolitan of Dristra
After December 1709, the sources are silent on <mask>'s activities until a letter sent to him by Nicholas Mavrocordatos on 27 October 1711. In this letter, he is mentioned in a new position, as metropolitan bishop of Dristra. The last reference to his predecessor Athanasios is from August 1710, meaning that <mask> was promoted to the see of Dristra sometime after that. The vicinity of Dristra to Wallachia, and <mask>'s own relations with Wallachia, was certainly a factor in his appointment there. His career as Metropolitan of Dristra is well documented, both from Church documents as well as due to the survival of a large part of <mask>'s correspondence.The main challenge he faced during his tenure was financial: due to the poverty of the local Christian population, his own reluctance to enforce payment, and the need to cover the extortionate bribes of various Ottoman officials, <mask> often not only found himself unable to pay the required sums to the Patriarchate and the Porte, but often he lacked money even for his private necessities. His correspondence during these years largely concerns pleas for assistance or intercession by his numerous acquaintances and patrons in high office. <mask> was also an active participant in the patriarchal synod in Constantinople. He played a particularly important role in the Orthodox dialogue with the English non-jurors. On the other hand, his editorial activity declined, mostly due to the political turmoil engulfing the Danubian Principalities at the time. Only during the tenures of his friend Nicholas Mavrocordatos, who provided him with financial assistance, was he able to resume some of his previous publishing activity. In 1719, following the restoration of Mavrocordatos to the throne of Wallachia, <mask> returned to Bucharest, where he translated the 15th-century treatise The Imitation of Christ into Greek.An encomiastic introduction to Mavrocordatos' Liber de Officiis, which was published in December 1719, is the last known work by <mask>, who died sometime during that year. He was probably buried in Bucharest, but the exact site remains a mystery. References

Sources

1657 births
1719 deaths
17th-century Greek physicians
17th-century Greek writers
18th-century Greek physicians
18th-century Greek writers
18th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops
Court physicians
People from Marmara Ereğlisi
University of Padua alumni
Latin–Greek translators
Translators to Greek
Tsardom of Russia people
History of Wallachia (1714–1821)
17th-century translators

masks:
John Komnenos Molyvdos
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
Johnoud
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
John
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John
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John
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John
John
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John


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<mask>'Brien (born 3 March 1947) is an Australian breaststroke swimmer of the 1960s who won the 200 metre breaststroke at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo in world record time. He won five Commonwealth Games gold medals and claimed a total of nine individual and six relay titles at the Australian Championships, before retiring at the age of 21 due to financial pressures. After showing promise at an early age, O'Brien was sent to Sydney to train under renowned coach Forbes Carlile and his breaststroke assistant Terry Gathercole. He competed in his first national championships in 1962 at the age of 15, winning the 220 yard breaststroke to gain selection for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, where he won both the 110 and  breaststroke and the 4 × 110 yd medley relay. He won both breaststroke events at the 1963 Australian Championships, repeating the feat for the next three years. In 1964, O'Brien went to the Tokyo Olympics and came from third at the 150 m mark to win the gold medal. He added a bronze in the medley relay.O'Brien successfully defended both his breaststroke titles at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica before retiring to support his family. Swimming officials persuaded him to make a comeback for the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, as Australia did not have a breaststroker, and after a crash diet, he finished sixth in the 100 m event but failed to reach the final in the 200 m event. He then retired and went into the television industry. Early years
O'Brien grew up in the rural town of Wellington, 360 kilometres (225 miles) from Sydney. Neither of his parents were skilled swimmers. His father Roy knew only one swimming stroke—the breaststroke—and his mother Thelma did not take her first swimming lesson until she was 55. O'Brien's sister Ann was a talented swimmer in her childhood years, but she preferred horseback riding.The local pool was an old-style facility that had no pump system and was only manually drained once a week. Aged four, O'Brien got his first swimming lessons from the local Learn to Swim program. There were not many non-sporting activities for children in Wellington, and O'Brien played basketball and rugby league, did athletics and swimming, and rode horses. In 1954, a chlorinated pool was built in the town, leading to the formation of Wellington Swimming Club. At the age of 10, O'Brien began competitive swimming under local coach Bert Eslick, and raced in regional country swimming carnivals at Dubbo, Bathurst and Orange. After winning all the breaststroke events at the country championships, O'Brien was taken by his father to the Ryde pool in Sydney in 1960, to be coached by Forbes Carlile and his assistant, retired world record-breaking breaststroker Terry Gathercole. Carlile was regarded as the leading swimming coach in Australia at the time.At age 13, O'Brien was already a large teenager, weighing in at 82.6 kg. He only trained with Gathercole during holidays, when his father could take him to Sydney; Jim Wilkins, a Catholic priest in Bathurst, supervised him according to Gathercole's program while he was in the countryside. Within a year, O'Brien rose from being a country carnival champion to a national-level athlete, despite the death of his father in the same year. International debut
In 1962, O'Brien gained selection for the Australian swimming team at the age of 15 when he won the 220 yard (yd) breaststroke at his first Australian Championships in the time of 2 minutes (min) 41.8 seconds (s). He added a second gold as part of the New South Wales team that won the 4 × 100 m medley relay in a time of 4 min 18.3 s. His performances gained him selection for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth. At his first international competition, he won gold in each of his three events. He competed in the  and  breaststroke, defeating fellow Australian William Burton in both events with times of 1 min 11.4s and 2 min 38.1 s, respectively.He then completed his campaign with a victory in the 4 × 110 yd medley relay, combining with Julian Carroll, Kevin Berry and David Dickson to complete the race in a time of 4 min 12.4 s.

In 1963, O'Brien captured the breaststroke double at the Australian Championships, setting personal bests in both events, and was a member of the New South Wales team that won the medley relay. His performances earned him selection for an overseas tour to Europe with the Australian team, competing in the Soviet Union, Germany and England before visiting Japan and Hong Kong. O'Brien defended his breaststroke double at the 1964 Australian Championships, lowering his times to 1 min 8.1 s and 2 min 32.6 s for the 100 metres (m) and 200 m breaststroke respectively. He capped off his campaign as well as a third consecutive medley relay triumph for New South Wales. Within a year, he had reduced his times in the two events by more than 3%. As O'Brien was widely regarded as Australia's best breaststroker, he was selected for the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. O'Brien joined the rest of the team for the national camp before the Olympics in Ayr in northern Queensland, where he trained under head coach Don Talbot.O'Brien described Talbot as a "slavedriver", but felt that the experience was invaluable. Olympic gold
Arriving in Tokyo, O'Brien was nominated in the 200 m event and the medley relay; the 100 m event was yet to be included in the Olympic program. The favourites for the 200 m breaststroke were Chet Jastremski of the United States—the world record holder—and Georgy Prokopenko of the Soviet Union. Gathercole had modelled O'Brien's technique on that of Jastremski, attempting to refine and smoothen it. Years after O'Brien retired, Harry Gallagher said that "<mask>'Brien has an almost faultless style and is a great example for Australian youngsters to copy". O'Brien was known for the strength that his torso generated, and his powerful kicks; sports science experiments showed that his vertical jump was especially strong. O'Brien was also known for his efficient start off the block.He often gained a lead of approximately a metre from his dive and underwater glide at the start, and was able to complete 50 m in 31.0 s.

During the final training sessions in Tokyo, Talbot organised time trials for the Australians, which were held in front of opposition swimmers in an attempt to intimidate them. O'Brien posted a time of 2 min 33 s, which Talbot felt had a negative psychological effect on O'Brien's opponents. When competition started, O'Brien swam an Olympic record to win the first heat by 2.0 s. He posted a time of 2 min 31.4 s, reducing the previous Olympic mark by 5.8 s, an indication of how much the world record had fallen in the preceding four years. However, in the next heat, Egon Henninger of Germany immediately lowered the mark, and by the end of the heats, O'Brien was the fourth fastest qualifier for the semifinals, with both Prokopenko and Jastremski posting faster times. O'Brien lowered Henninger's Olympic record by winning the second semifinal in a time of 2 min 28.7 s, after Jastremski had won the first semifinal in a time that was 3.4 s slower than O'Brien. This made O'Brien the fastest qualifier for the final, with a time that was 1.0 s faster than the next qualifier Prokopenko, who came second to him in the second semifinal. O'Brien planned to swim the race at an even pace and record even splits for the first and second half of the race.He was mindful of not chasing Jastremski, who was known for an aggressive opening style, which resulted in a faster first half. In the final, Jastremski attacked from the outset as expected, while O'Brien raced with a characteristically even pace. After being fourth at the halfway mark behind Jastremski, Prokopenko and Henninger, O'Brien panicked and accelerated in the third 50 m and overtook Jastremski, leaving the American in fourth place. He then moved past Henninger, before overtaking Prokopenko. O'Brien's acceleration in the third meant that he tired at the end, but he had enough energy to fend off Prokopenko in the late stages to win the gold medal in a new world record time of 2 min 27.8 s, a margin of 0.4 s, with Jastremski a further 1.4 s in arrears. O'Brien had reduced his personal best time by more than four seconds during the Olympics to claim an upset win. The Australian coaches rested O'Brien for the heats of the 4 × 100 m medley relay; Peter Tonkin swam the breaststroke leg instead.It turned out to be a close call for the Australians, as they finished fourth in their heat and qualified seventh fastest, only 1.2 s from elimination. In the final, O'Brien was brought into the team to combine with Peter Reynolds, Berry and Dickson. At the end of Reynolds' backstroke leg, Australia were sixth, 3.4 s behind the American leaders. O'Brien dived in and completed his leg in 1 min 7.8 s, a breaststroke split bettered by only Henninger and Prokopenko. This pulled Australia up to fourth position, 1.7 s in arrears of the Americans at the halfway mark. Australia progressed further to finish third behind the United States and Germany in a time of 4 min 2.3 s, missing the silver by 0.7 s.

Later career
O'Brien completed a hat-trick of breaststroke doubles at the 1965 Australian Championships, but in a year with no international competition, he swam much slower times of 1 min 11.1 s and 2 min 38.6 s respectively. He completed a fourth consecutive medley relay win with New South Wales.At the 1966 Australian Championships, his times were again slower, at 1 min 11.8 s and 2 min 41.6 s respectively, more than 4% slower than his personal bests, but it was still enough to retain his titles and qualify for the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. Critics had written him off, because just six weeks before the competition, he was 16 kg overweight. However, he returned to his peak form by the time the team reached Jamaica, where he won both breaststroke events with times of 1 min 8.2 s and 2 min 29.3 s respectively. His winning run in the 4 × 100 m medley relay came to an end when the Australians were disqualified for an illegal changeover. In 1967, O'Brien skipped the Australian Championships because he had no sponsorship and ran out of money, forcing him to seek full-time work. In 1968, despite Graham Edwards winning the National 200 m breaststroke title, the Australian Swimming Union persuaded an overweight O'Brien to make a comeback in 1968 on the grounds that Australia did not have a quality breaststroker for the Olympics. Undergoing a crash diet and fitness program, O'Brien lost 12.7 kg in twelve weeks of intense training.O'Brien was unable to reclaim either of his individual Australian titles, but New South Wales again won the medley relay. Nevertheless, he was selected for his second Olympics. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, O'Brien placed second in his heat of the 200 m breaststroke in a time of 2 min 36.8 s, which placed him 13th. He was eliminated, having been 2.9 s slower than the last-placed qualifier for the final. The eventual winner posted a time 0.9 s slower than that of O'Brien four years earlier. O'Brien did better in the newly introduced 100 m event, winning his heat in a time of 1 min 8.9 s to qualify second-fastest for the semifinals. O'Brien scraped into the final after coming second in his semifinal in a time of 1 min 9.0 s. It was the barest of margins; O'Brien was the slowest qualifier and could not be electronically separated from the ninth-fastest semifinalist, with judges being used to decide the placings.O'Brien went on to finish sixth in a time of 1 min 8.6 s.

O'Brien narrowly missed a medal in the 4 ×  100 m medley relay. Along with Michael Wenden, Robert Cusack and Karl Byrom, the Australian quartet won their heat and entered the final as the equal fifth fastest qualifier. In the final, O'Brien swam his leg in 1 min 8.6 s, which was only the fifth fastest breaststroke leg. Australia were fourth at the end of each leg, except O'Brien's, when they were third. Australia eventually missed out on the bronze by 0.1 s to the Soviet Union. O'Brien admitted that his training had been insufficient for Olympic standards, noting that "I needed to put on another thousand kilometres in training". O'Brien also rued the absence of Talbot to motivate him to work, and had a further accident at the Olympic Village when his fingers were slammed by a closing window.Under competition regulations, he was not allowed to bind his hand during competition. Out of the pool
At age 21, O'Brien retired after the 1968 Olympics, so he could concentrate solely on making a living. Since his father's death in 1962, O'Brien's swimming career had caused substantial financial stress for his family, with his mother having to sell the family home to make ends meet. O'Brien had also been forced to leave high school before he had completed his leaving certificate, so that he could support the family's income by wrapping parcels. Television and camera work had always interested O'Brien, and he secured a job as a stagehand for Channel Nine after returning from the Tokyo Olympics, which he held for more than ten years. He then worked for Channel Ten for two years, before working for an independent production company for another two years. In 1979, he started Videopak, which became one of the largest privately owned television documentary companies in Australia.Videopak's sound stages were used by public and private television companies. O'Brien was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1986. In 2000, he received an Australian Sports Medal. See also
 List of members of the International Swimming Hall of Fame
 List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)
 List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
 World record progression 200 metres breaststroke

Notes

References

1947 births
Living people
Australian male breaststroke swimmers
Olympic swimmers of Australia
Olympic gold medalists in swimming
Olympic gold medalists for Australia
Olympic bronze medalists for Australia
Swimmers at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Swimmers at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
People from the Central Tablelands

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Ian Lovett O
Ian O


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<mask> (born September 19, 1952) is an American geo-ecologist, currently working as a Professor of Geo-ecology at UC Riverside in Riverside, California. She is known for her work with stable isotope geochemistry, studying ancient climate, animal behavior, ecology, and astrobiology. <mask> has also served in many leadership roles, including Program Director at the National Science Foundation in geobiology and low-temperature geochemistry. She was the second female member of the Geophysical Laboratory and the first woman recipient of the Alfred Treibs Medal from the Geochemical Society for her work in organic geochemistry. Early life
<mask> was born on September 19, 1952 in Moorestown, New Jersey. In 1970 she enrolled at Penn State, where she majored in biology,  graduating in 1973 with a BS in biology with honors. Her research mentor, Given, helped her apply to UT-Austin for graduate school.She decided to take a gap year before starting grad school to travel Europe and start a jewelry business making pins. Academic career
At UT-Austin, <mask> worked with Drs. Chase Van Baalen, Patrick Parker, and F. Robert Tabita on her dissertation, titled “Carbon isotope fractionation by ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase from various organisms”. While in graduate school, she owned an ice cream truck to help cover expenses. She graduated in 1977 with a PhD in Botany and Marine Sciences, before continuing on to a postdoc at the Geophysical Lab at the Carnegie Institution of Washington from 1977 to 1979 under Dr. Thomas C. Hoering. Following her postdoc position, <mask> became a staff member at the Geophysical Lab in 1979 working in biogeochemistry, where she remained until 2012. She was only the second female staff member at the Geophysical Lab.While there, <mask> became a visiting scientist at Carnegie's Department of Plant Biology (1985-1986), a visiting professor at the Department of Earth Sciences at Dartmouth College (1995), a visiting professor at the Department of Geology at the University of Maryland (2003-2005), and a Smithsonian Environmental Research Center Fellow (2003-2009). In 2012, she made the move from Carnegie in Washington DC to UC Merced in Merced, California to become a Professor in the School of Natural Sciences as well as the Chair of the Life and Environmental Sciences Unit. There, she taught courses on the fundamentals of ecology, biogeochemistry, stable isotope ecology, field ecology, and the anthropocene. In 2016, she moved to UC Riverside in Riverside, California, where she now resides as a Professor of Geo-ecology in the Earth and Environmental Sciences Department, and the Director of the EDGE (Environmental Dynamics & Geo-Ecology) Institute. Her research focuses on geo-ecology. Research
Stable isotope ratios vary as a result of many biological and abiotic processes in the environment, changing over time, location, organism, and environment. The field of isotope geochemistry largely relies upon these natural variations, and can be incorporated into biological, ecological, chemical, and geological studies.Using isotope ratios, often 2H/1H, 𝛿13C, the 15N/14N ratio, and 18O/16O, <mask> has studied modern and ancient ecosystems, and has begun to apply the same techniques to study extraterrestrial material in martian meteorites, helping to advance the field of astrobiology. Paleo-ecology and climate change
<mask> uses isotope ratios in ancient sediments and fossils to trace climate, diet, and species presence over time. In one study, she and collaborators used Genyornis newtoni eggshells in Australia ranging from 100,000 to 50,000 years of age to show that their extinction 50,000 years ago was likely due to human impact rather than climate changes. 40,000 years ago, Australia went through a dry period, as recorded in emu eggshells, but the extinction of Genyornis 50,000 years ago rather than 40,000 suggests that their extinction was likely unrelated to the drying. Using stable carbon isotopes, her group determined that Genyornis consumed nearly exclusively C3 plants, and that their cranial morphology indicated a browser reliant upon shrubland. Because it seems that the Genyornis diet is fairly restrictive, it is likely that the arrival of humans around 55,000 years ago and their burning of land may have caused some megafauna extinction as it changed the flora population. She has used similar techniques to study amino acids in the elephant birds of Madagascar and measure the isotope ratios in modern ostrich eggshells as a calibration tool for paleoenvironmental studies of Africa.Isotope ratios can also indicate species and diet characteristics in fossilized specimens. A Paleozoic fossil of Prototaxites has attracted attention dating back to 1859 due to its odd tree-like trunk measuring up to 8m long. Because the Paleozoic Era was one of drastic organismal shift, and the origin of vascular plants, it was previously unclear if Prototaxites were vascular plants or fungal species. However, a team of researchers, including <mask>, found the 𝛿13C of the species to be as much as 13‰ different from contemporaneous vascular plants, suggesting that Prototaxites are in fact heterotrophs, and more likely a fungus. Using carbon isotope ratios in prehistoric human bone collagen, <mask> was able to study the diet of ancient humans. North American humans were either primarily maize eaters, which is a C4 plant, or primarily hunter-gatherers, which contains more C3 plants. Using this knowledge, <mask> measured the 𝛿13C values of essential amino acids to indicate whether the ancient human populations consumed primarily maize or were hunter-gatherers.Similarly, she was able to measure the marine nitrogen presence in human skeletons on Easter Island to establish that they consumed large amounts of marine food, and used the 15N enrichment in infants to determine the length of nursing in prehistoric populations. Modern ecosystems
Isotopic ratios are often used to trace the flow of certain elements through environmental systems. "Tagging" a molecule with an unusual isotope can allow a researcher to study a specific molecule and follow it in ecosystems, a technique known as using environmental tracers. Beyond human tagged compounds, natural isotope abnormalities occur as a result of various biotic and abiotic processes, and can often be found to vary across regions and species. <mask> has used these variations as natural ways to track animal movements, diets, and environmental shifts, and has also investigated the specific mechanisms that lead to environmental isotope fractionation. As an example of a biotic fractionation event, respiration has led to an enrichment of 18O in the atmosphere relative to 16O. The isotopic ratio of 18O/16O is +23.5‰ relative to V-SMOW, and this ratio should also be observed in oxygen's consumption ratios.In one of the first major studies of plant oxygen consumption and fractionation, Guy, <mask>, and Berry defined the oxygen fractionation effects of various plant functions. They found that plants do not fraction oxygen isotopes in the photolysis of water in spinach thylakoids, but that they did discriminate against 18O during oxygen uptake by 21.3‰ during for the oxygenation of Rubisco in spinach and by 22.7‰ during the photorespiration of phosphoglycate by glycate oxidase. The fractionation during oxygen uptake in these two processes contribute strongly to the 18O/16O of the atmosphere, which is about 1.0235 times that of seawater. When it comes to tracing isotopes through the ecosystems, carbon-13 is often used. However, because plants contain such a large portion of the biomass, this tracer relies upon the assumption that the various components of plant tissues all contain the same isotopic ratios. Benner, <mask>, and Hodson proved that this isn't the case. Lignin, the main structural polymer in plants, was found to be depleted in 13C by 2-6‰ relative to the whole plant, and by 4-7‰ relative to the cellulose in saltwater cordgrass.This discovery suggests that, when using isotope tracers in the environment, it's important to compare similar types of molecules. Animal migration patterns can be traced as the isotope ratios fluctuate depending on their location to match their intake. <mask> has used carbon, nitrogen, and strontium isotope ratios to study African elephant diet and habitat use in the Amboseli Park in Kenya. Carbon isotope ratios vary by plant type, and so a change in carbon ratio of an elephant can indicate a shift in diet from trees to grasses. Strontium isotope ratios are reflected in the geologic age of bedrock, and so can be used as a tracer of the concentration of elephants within the park. In Great Gray Owls, migration is thought to cause a large amount of nutritional stress. Tracing the 15N/14N and 𝛿13C ratios in the birds' muscle tissues along with the contents of the birds' stomachs showed that nutritionally stressed owls were too weak to hunt, and at the brink of irreversible starvation as a result of their migration.Stable isotope ratios can also reveal diet specialization and shifts as specific carbon and nitrogen ratios are often indicative of groups of organisms. Using these ratios, <mask> has worked on diet studies on California sea otters, butterflies, blue crabs, killer whales, San Joaquin kit foxes, and bald eagles. These same techniques of isotope fractionation investigations have also been used to study human environmental impacts. Because organic sewage outflow is enriched in 15N, she and her collaborators have been able to study the impacts of human sewage on coral reef systems by drawing a correlation between the 15N/14N ratio and the percentage of diseased coral species, as well as the impacts of chicken houses on nearby ecosystems. Astrobiology
As a Team Member of the NASA Astrobiology Institute from 1998 to 2010, <mask> worked on the Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition team in addition to her own collaborative research. One such project focused upon organic matter in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites where they measured the amino acid presence in three meteorites. First, to make sure that the amino acids were extraterrestrial in origin, they measured the  𝛿13C values of the amino acids in the meteorites, which turned out to be significantly higher than the  𝛿13C value of amino acids on Earth, confirming that they were not contamination from Earth (+31.6‰ to +50.5‰ in the meteorites relative to -70‰ to 11.25‰ present on Earth).The team of researchers also found that two of the meteorites had the highest ever detected amino acid abundances, which may be because carbonaceous chondrites are the most primitive and least altered meteorites. Two of the meteorites also had a similar carbon isotope value to a meteorite measured previously, which may indicate a reservoir of the amino acids in the interstellar medium. In 2012,  Steele et al. announced that ten out of the eleven measured martian meteorites contained abiotic macromolecular organic carbon in high-temperature forming minerals (igneous rocks). Organic carbon presence inside of high-temperature forming minerals indicates that the martian magmas precipitated reduced carbon species during crystallization. These results supported an idea initially postulated by Hirshmann and Withers that the martian atmosphere was formed from a reduced mantle. The reducing conditions indicated by the meterotic carbon content tentatively supports abiotic production of methane on Mars.Academic service and honors
In 2012, <mask> was elected as a Fellow to the American Association for the Advancement of Science and given the Sigma Xi Distinguished Scientist Award from the UC Merced Chapter. Also in 2013, she was awarded the Alfred Treibs Medal in the Organic Geochemistry Division from the Geochemical Society, which recognizes major achievements over a career in organic geochemistry, named for Alfred. E. Treibs, the founder of organic geochemistry. She was the first woman to win this prize. From 2015 to 2016, <mask> served as the President to the Biogeosciences Section of the American Geophysical Union, and became the Wilbur W. Mayhew Endowed Professor of Geo-Ecology at UC Riverside in 2016. <mask> served on numerous committees, including the Scientific Advisory Committee for the Jug Bay Wetlands Sanctuary from 1992 to 2005, the Committee on Origin and Evolution of Life for the Space Studies Board, National Research Council 2000–2002, the Advisory Committee for the Carnegie Institution Department of Global Ecology from 2003 to 2005, and the AGU Biogeosciences Fellows Selection Committee in 2013 and 2014. In 2003, she was elected a Fellow of the Geochemical Society and European Association of Geochemistry.She was a Fulbright Scholar to Norway in 2006, and awarded the Jubilee Medal of the Geological Society of South Africa in 2006. She served as the National Science Foundation Director of Geobiology and Low Temperature Geochemistry from 2009 to 2010. She has also received numerous fellowships including a Loeb Fellowship from 1999 to 2001, and a Mellon Fellowship from 2001 to 2003 from the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center. In 2018, <mask> was named a fellow of the American Geophysical Union. As a part of the NASA Astrobiology Institute from 1998 to 2010, she served on the Management Team (2004 to 2008) and then the Chief Scientist (2008) of the Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition (AMASE). Legacy

In June 2016, <mask> and her husband, Christopher Swarth, created the Marilyn Fogel Endowment Fund for Internships, which is geared towards providing support for young scientists to experience research for the first time. This endowment will allow high school and undergraduate students to conduct mentored internships at Carnegie's Geophysical Lab, where she worked for thirty three years, and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in Washington DC.References

1952 births
Living people
People from Moorestown, New Jersey
American geochemists
University of California, Riverside faculty
Eberly College of Science alumni
University of Texas at Austin College of Natural Sciences alumni
Biogeochemists

masks:
Marilyn Fogel
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Marilyn Fogel
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