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 Indian territory, "we will get them out, one way or the other" - meaning he did not rule out crossing the Line of Control (LoC), or was the use of nuclear weapons. After Pakistan suffered heavy losses, and with both the United States and China refusing to condone the incursion or threaten India to stop its military operations, General Pervez Musharraf was recalcitrant and Nawaz Sharif asked the remaining militants to stop and withdraw to positions along the LoC. The militants were not willing to accept orders from Sharif but the NLI soldiers withdrew. The militants were killed by the Indian army or forced to withdraw in skirmishes which continued even after the announcement of withdrawal by Pakistan.Third term: 1999–2004

1999–2002
The 1999 general elections were held in the aftermath of the Kargil operations. The BJP-led NDA won 303 seats out of the 543 seats in the Lok Sabha, securing a comfortable and stable majority. On 13 October 1999, Vajpayee took oath as the prime minister of India for the third time. A national crisis emerged in December 1999, when Indian Airlines flight IC 814 from Kathmandu to New Delhi was hijacked by five terrorists and flown to Taliban-ruled Afghanistan. The hijackers made several demands including the release of certain terrorists like Masood Azhar from prison. Under pressure, the government ultimately caved in. Jaswant Singh, the minister of external affairs at the time, flew with the terrorists to Afghanistan and exchanged them for the passengers.In March 2000, Bill Clinton, the President of the United States, paid a state visit to India. This was the first state visit to India by a U.S. president in 22 years, since President Jimmy Carter's visit in 1978. President Clinton's visit was hailed as a significant milestone in relations between the two nations. Vajpayee and Clinton had wide-ranging discussions on bilateral, regional and international developments. The visit led to expansion in trade and economic ties between India and the United States. A vision document on the future course of Indo-U.S. relations was signed during the visit. Domestically, the BJP-led government was influenced by the RSS, but owing to its dependence on coalition support, it was impossible for the BJP to push items like building the Ram Janmabhoomi temple in Ayodhya, repealing Article 370 which gave a special status to the state of Kashmir, or enacting a uniform civil code applicable to adherents of all religions.On 17 January 2000, there were reports of the RSS and some BJP hard-liners threatening to restart the Jan Sangh, the precursor to the BJP, because of their discontent over Vajpayee's rule. Former president of the Jan Sangh Balraj Madhok had written a letter to the then-RSS chief Rajendra Singh for support. The BJP was, however, accused of "saffronising" the official state education curriculum and apparatus, saffron being the colour of the RSS flag of the RSS, and a symbol of the Hindu nationalism movement. Home Minister L. K. Advani and the Human Resource Development Minister (now called Education Minister) Murli Manohar Joshi were indicted in the 1992 Babri Mosque demolition case for inciting a mob of activists. Vajpayee himself came under public scrutiny owing to his controversial speech one day prior to the mosque demolition. These years were accompanied by infighting in the administration and confusion regarding the direction of government. Vajpayee's weakening health was also a subject of public interest, and he underwent a major knee-replacement surgery at the Breach Candy Hospital in Mumbai to relieve intense pressure upon his legs.In March 2001, the Tehelka group released a sting operation video named Operation West End which showed BJP president Bangaru Laxman, senior army officers and NDA members accepting bribes from journalists posing as agents and businessmen. The Defence Minister George Fernandes was forced to resign following the Barak Missile scandal involving the botched supplies of coffins for the soldiers killed in Kargil, and the findings of an inquiry commission that the government could have prevented the Kargil invasion. Vajpayee initiated talks with Pakistan, and invited Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf to Agra for a joint summit. President Musharraf was believed to be the principal architect of the Kargil War in India. By accepting him as the President of Pakistan, Vajpayee chose to move forward leaving behind the Kargil War. But after three days of much fanfare, which included Musharraf visiting his birthplace in Delhi, the summit failed to achieve a breakthrough as President Musharraf declined to leave aside the issue of Kashmir. 2001 attack on Parliament

On 13 December 2001, a group of masked, armed men with fake IDs stormed Parliament House in Delhi.The terrorists managed to kill several security guards, but the building was sealed off swiftly and security forces cornered and killed the men who were later proven to be Pakistan nationals. Vajpayee ordered Indian troops to mobilise for war, leading to an estimated 500,000 to 750,000 Indian soldiers positioned along the international border between India and Pakistan. Pakistan responded by mobilising its own troops along the border. A terrorist attack on an army garrison in Kashmir in May 2002 further escalated the situation. As the threat of war between two nuclear capable countries and the consequent possibility of a nuclear exchange loomed large, international diplomatic mediation focused on defusing the situation. In October 2002, both India and Pakistan announced that they would withdraw their troops from the border. The <mask> administration brought in the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 2002.The act was aimed at curbing terrorist threats by strengthening powers of government authorities to investigate and act against suspects. It was passed in a joint session of the parliament, amidst concerns that the law would be misused. Another political disaster hit his government between December 2001 and March 2002: the VHP held the Government hostage in a major standoff in Ayodhya over the Ram temple. On the 10th anniversary of the destruction of the Babri mosque, the VHP wanted to perform a shila daan, or a ceremony laying the foundation stone of the cherished temple at the disputed site. Thousands of VHP activists amassed and threatened to overrun the site and forcibly perform the ceremony. A grave threat of not only communal violence, but an outright breakdown of law and order owing to the defiance of the government by a religious organisation hung over the nation. The incident, however, ended peacefully with a symbolic handover of a stone at a different location 1 km away from the disputed site.2002 Gujarat violence

In February 2002, a train filled with Hindu pilgrims returning to Gujarat from Ayodhya stopped in the town of Godhra. A scuffle broke out between Hindu activists and Muslim residents, and the train was set on fire, leading to the deaths of 59 people. The charred bodies of the victims were displayed in public in the city of Ahmedabad, and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad called for a statewide strike in Gujarat. These decisions stoked anti-Muslim sentiments. Blaming Muslims for the deaths, rampaging Hindu mobs killed thousands of Muslim men and women, destroying Muslim homes and places of worship. The violence raged for more than two months, and more than 1,000 people died. Gujarat was being ruled by a BJP government, with Narendra Modi as the chief minister.The state government was criticised for mishandling the situation. It was accused of doing little to stop the violence, and even being complicit in encouraging it. <mask> reportedly wanted to remove Modi, but was eventually prevailed upon by party members to not act against him. He travelled to Gujarat, visiting Godhra, and Ahmedabad, the site of the most violent riots. He announced financial aid for victims, and urged an end to the violence. While he condemned the violence, he did not chastise Modi directly in public. When asked as to what would be his message to the chief minister in the event of the riots having taking place, <mask> responded that Modi must follow raj dharma, Hindi for ethical governance.At the meeting of the BJP national executive in Goa in April 2002, <mask>'s speech generated controversy for its contents which included him saying: "Wherever Muslims live, they don’t like to live in co-existence with others." The Prime Minister's Office stated that these remarks had been taken out of context. <mask> was accused of doing nothing to stop the violence, and later admitted mistakes in handling the events. K. R. Narayanan, then president of India, also blamed <mask>'s government for failing to quell the violence. After the BJP's defeat in the 2004 general elections, Vajpayee admitted that not removing Modi had been a mistake. 2002–2004
In late 2002 and 2003 the government pushed through economic reforms. The country's GDP growth exceeded 7% every year from 2003 to 2007, following three years of sub-5% growth.Increasing foreign investment, modernisation of public and industrial infrastructure, the creation of jobs, a rising high-tech and IT industry and urban modernisation and expansion improved the nation's international image. Good crop harvests and strong industrial expansion also helped the economy. In May 2003, he announced before the parliament that he would make one last effort to achieve peace with Pakistan. The announcement ended a period of 16 months, following the 2001 attack on the Indian parliament, during which India had severed diplomatic ties with Pakistan. Although diplomatic relations did not pick up immediately, visits were exchanged by high-level officials and the military standoff ended. The Pakistani President and Pakistani politicians, civil and religious leaders hailed this initiative as did the leaders of the United States, Europe and much of the world. In July 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee visited China, and met with various Chinese leaders.He recognised Tibet as a part of China, which was welcomed by the Chinese leadership, and which, in the following year, recognised Sikkim as part of India. China–India relations improved greatly in the following years. Policies
Vajpayee's government introduced many domestic economic and infrastructural reforms, including encouraging the private sector and foreign investments, reducing governmental waste, encouraging research and development and privatisation of some government owned corporations. Among Vajpayee's projects were the National Highways Development Project and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana. In 2001, the Vajpayee government launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan campaign, aimed at improving the quality of education in primary and secondary schools. 2004 general election
In 2003, news reports suggested a tussle within the BJP with regard to sharing of leadership between Vajpayee and Deputy Prime Minister LK Advani. BJP president Venkaiah Naidu had suggested that Advani must lead the party politically at the 2004 general elections, referring to Vajpayee as vikas purush, Hindi for development man, and Advani as loh purush, iron man.When Vajpayee subsequently threatened retirement, Naidu backtracked, announcing that the party would contest the elections under the twin leadership of <mask> and Advani. The NDA was widely expected to retain power after the 2004 general election. It announced elections six months ahead of schedule, hoping to capitalise on economic growth, and Vajpayee's peace initiative with Pakistan. The 13th Lok Sabha was dissolved before the completion of its term. The BJP hoped to capitalise on a perceived 'feel-good factor' and BJP's recent successes in the Assembly elections in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Under the "India Shining" campaign, it released ads proclaiming the economic growth of the nation under the government. However, the BJP could only win 138 seats in the 543-seat parliament, with several prominent cabinet ministers being defeated.The NDA coalition won 185 seats. The Indian National Congress, led by Sonia Gandhi, emerged as the single largest party, winning 145 seats in the election. The Congress and its allies, comprising many smaller parties, formed the United Progressive Alliance, accounting for 220 seats in the parliament. <mask> resigned as prime minister. The UPA, with the outside support of communist parties, formed the next government with Manmohan Singh as the prime minister. Post-premiership
In December 2005, <mask> announced his retirement from active politics, declaring that he would not contest in the next general election. In a famous statement at the BJP's silver jubilee rally at Mumbai's Shivaji Park, Vajpayee announced that "Henceforth, Lal Krishna Advani and Pramod Mahajan will be the Ram-Lakshman [the two godly brothers much revered and worshipped by Hindus] of the BJP."<mask> was referred to as the Bhishma Pitamah of Indian politics by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh during a speech in the Rajya Sabha, a reference to the character in the Hindu epic Mahabharata who was held in respect by two warring sides. Vajpayee was hospitalised at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi (AIIMS) for a chest infection and fever on 6 February 2009. He was put on ventilator support as his condition worsened but he eventually recuperated and was later discharged. Unable to participate in the campaign for the 2009 general election due to his poor health, he wrote a letter urging voters to back the BJP. His protege Lalji Tandon was able to retain the Lucknow seat in that election even though the NDA

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 suffered electoral reverses all over the country. It was speculated that Vajpayee's non-partisan appeal contributed to Lalji's success in Lucknow in contrast to that BJP's poor performance elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh. Positions held

Personal life
Vajpayee remained a bachelor for his entire life.He adopted and raised Namita Bhattacharya as his own child, the daughter of longtime friend Rajkumari Kaul and her husband B. N. Kaul. His adopted family lived with him. Unlike purist Brahmins who shun meat and alcohol, Vajpayee was known to be fond of whisky and meat. He was a noted poet, writing in Hindi. His published works include Kaidi Kaviraj Ki Kundalian, a collection of poems written during the 1975–77 emergency, and Amar aag hai. With regard to his poetry he wrote, "My poetry is a declaration of war, not an exordium to defeat. It is not the defeated soldier's drumbeat of despair, but the fighting warrior's will to win.It is not the despirited voice of dejection but the stirring shout of victory." Death

Vajpayee suffered a stroke in 2009 which impaired his speech. His health had been a major source of concern; reports said he was confined to a wheelchair and failed to recognise people. He also suffered from dementia and long-term diabetes. For many years, he had not attended any public engagements and rarely ventured out of the house, except for checkups at the All India Institutes of Medical Sciences. On 11 June 2018, Vajpayee was admitted to AIIMS in critical condition following a kidney infection. He was officially declared dead there at 5:05 pm IST on 16 August 2018 at the age of 93.Some sources claim that he had died on the previous day. On the morning of 17 August, <mask>'s body, draped with the Indian flag, was taken to the Bharatiya Janata Party headquarters where party workers paid their tributes until 1 pm. Later that afternoon at 4 pm, <mask> was cremated with full state honours at Rashtriya Smriti Sthal near Raj Ghat, and his pyre was lit by his foster daughter Namita Kaul Bhattacharya. Thousands of people and many dignitaries attended his funeral procession, including Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Ram Nath Kovind. On 19 August, his ashes were immersed in Ganga river at Haridwar by Kaul. Reactions and tributes on his death
India reacted to <mask>'s death with grief and thousands of tributes poured in through social media platforms. Thousands of people paid their respects during his funeral procession.A seven-day state mourning was announced by the central government throughout India. The national flag flew half-mast during this period. : Former Afghan President Hamid Karzai was among several foreign dignitaries present at former Prime Minister <mask> <mask> Vajpayee's funeral in New Delhi. He recalled that the departed leader was "the first to offer us civilian planes, Airbuses at the time we were starting out". : Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina expressed "deep shock" at the demise of former Indian Prime Minister <mask> <mask> Vajpayee and said it is a day of great sadness for the people of Bangladesh. Paying tribute to Vajpayee, Hasina termed him as "one of the most famous sons of India" and a highly respected person in Bangladesh. : Bhutan king Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck attended the funeral ceremony in New Delhi.China: In a statement, the ministry of foreign affairs said the Indian leader was an "outstanding Indian statesman and had made outstanding contributions to the development of Sino-Indian relations". "China expresses its deep condolences on his death and sincere condolences to the Indian government and people and the relatives of Mr Vajpayee. Premier Li Keqiang has sent a condolence message to the leaders of India," the statement said. : Remembering Vajpayee's visit to Japan in 2001, the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said, "On behalf of the Government and people of Japan, I would like to convey my sincerest condolences to the Government and people of India and the bereaved family. His Excellency Vajpayee visited Japan in 2001 as the then-Prime Minister and made significant contributions to the friendship between our two countries as a good friend of Japan. It is him who established the cornerstone of Japan-India relations today". Terming Vajpayee as an eminent leader of India, Abe added, "I pray from the bottom of my heart that his soul may rest in peace".: On 17 August, the government of Mauritius announced that both Mauritian and Indian flags would fly at half mast in the honour of Vajpayee. During the World Hindi Conference in Mauritius, PM Pravind Jugnauth announced that the cyber tower towards which Vajpayee contributed to be set up in Mauritius would be henceforth named as Atal Bihari Vajpayee tower. : Pakistan's interim Minister for Law and Information Syed Ali Zafar met External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj and extended Pakistan's condolence on the death of former prime minister <mask> <mask> <mask>. Zafar was among the foreign dignitaries who attended Vajpayee's funeral in New Delhi. Former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf mourned the demise of former prime minister <mask> <mask> Vajpayee, calling him a great man. He said that Vajpayee's demise was a great loss for both India as well as Pakistan. : Russian President Vladimir Putin sent a message of condolences to President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi on the demise of Vajpayee.Putin termed the former prime minister as "outstanding statesman". "<mask> <mask> Vajpayee rightly commanded great respect around the world. He will be remembered as a politician who made a major personal contribution to the friendly relations and privileged strategic partnership between our countries. The President of Russia conveyed words of sincere sympathy and support to the family of the deceased, the Government and the people of India", the message read. : Various Sri Lankan leaders paid rich tribute to the three-time PM, hailing him as a "friend of Sri Lanka". In a tweet President Maithripala Sirisena said: "Today, we have lost a great humanist and a true friend of Sri Lanka. Former Prime Minister of India <mask> <mask> <mask> was a visionary leader and an ardent defender of democracy.My condolences to his family and millions of his admirers around the world". Leader of Opposition R. Sampanthan said that India has lost one of its "most regarded intellectual[s] and [statesmen]". "He served the great country of India with humility and honesty, and he was much loved and respected by millions of people across the world. Former three-time Prime Minister Vajpayee is also an exceptional orator and a leader with a great sense of humour, his speeches within the Indian parliament and outside will always be remembered", he said in a statement, extending his condolences on behalf of the Tamil people of Sri Lanka. : U.S. Secretary of State Michael Pompeo said Vajpayee recognised early on that the US-India partnership would contribute to the world's economic prosperity and security and the two democracies would continue to benefit from his vision. "On behalf of the people of the United States of America, I extend my heartfelt condolences to the people of India on the recent passing of former prime minister <mask> <mask> <mask>", Pompeo said in a statement yesterday. He recalled Vajpayee's address to the Congress in 2000, when he had famously characterised US-India ties as a "natural partnership of shared endeavours"."Today, our two countries and our bilateral relationship continue to benefit from Prime Minister Vajpayee vision, which helped promote expanded cooperation", Pompeo said. He said the American people stand with the people of India "as we mourn Prime Minister <mask>'s passing". Honours

National honours
:
Bharat Ratna (2015)
Padma Vibhushan (1992)

Foreign honours
:
Recipient of the Bangladesh Liberation War Honour (2016)
:
Grand Cordon of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (13 February 1999)

Other achievements
 In 2012, Vajpayee was ranked number 9 in Outlook magazine's poll of The Greatest Indian. In August 2018, Naya Raipur was renamed as Atal Nagar. In October 2018, four Himalayan peaks near Gangotri glacier named after his name. Awards
 1992, Padma Vibhushan
 1993, D. Lit. from Kanpur University
 1994, Lokmanya Tilak Award
 1994, Outstanding Parliamentarian Award
 1994, Bharat Ratna Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant Award
 2015, Bharat Ratna
 2015, Bangladesh Liberation War Honour (Bangladesh Muktijuddho Sanmanona)

Published works
Vajpayee authored several works of both prose and poetry.Some of his major publications are listed below. In addition to these, various collections were made of his speeches, articles, and slogans. Prose
 National Integration (1961)
 New Dimensions of India's Foreign Policy (1979)
 Gathbandhan Ki Rajneeti
 Kucha Lekha, Kucha Bhashana (1996)
 Bindu-Bindu Vicara (1997)
 Decisive Days (1999)
 Sankalp-Kaal (1999)
 Vicara-Bindu (Hindi Edition, 2000)
 India's Perspectives on ASEAN and the Asia-Pacific Region (2003)
 Na Dainyam Na Palayanam
 Nayi Chunouti : Naya Avasar

Poetry
 Kaidi Kaviraj Ki Kundalian
 Amar Aag Hai (1994)
 Meri Ikyaavan Kavitaen (1995) Some of these poems were set to music by Jagjit Singh for his album Samvedna. Kya Khoya Kya Paya: <mask> <mask> Vajapeyi, Vyaktitva Aur Kavitaem (1999)
 Values, Vision & Verses of Vajpayee: India's Man of Destiny (2001)
 Twenty-One Poems (2003)
 Chuni Hui Kavitayein (2012)

An English translation of a selection of some of Vajpayee's Hindi poetry was published in 2013. Legacy

The administration of Narendra Modi declared in 2014 that Vajpayee's birthday, 25 December, would be marked as Good Governance Day. The world's longest tunnel, Atal Tunnel at Rohtang, Himachal Pradesh on the Leh-Manali Highway was named after <mask> <mask> Vajpayee. The third longest cable-stayed bridge in India over the Mandovi River, Atal Setu was named in his memory.The Government of Chhattisgarh changed the name of Naya Raipur to Atal Nagar. In popular culture
The Films Division of India has produced the short documentary films Pride of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1998) and Know Your Prime Minister <mask> Behari Vajpayee (2003), both directed by Girish Vaidya, which explore different facets of his personality. Vajpayee also appears in a cameo in the 1977 Indian Hindi-language film Chala Murari Hero Banne by Asrani. In 2019 Shiva Sharma and Zeeshan Ahmad, owners of Amaash Films, acquired the official rights of the book The Untold Vajpayee written by Ullekh N P, to make a biopic based on Vajpayee's life from his childhood, college life and finally turning into a politician. Aap Ki Adalat, an Indian talk show which airs on India TV, featured an interview with Vajpayee just before the 1999 elections. Pradhanmantri (), a 2013 Indian documentary television series which aired on ABP News and covers the various policies and political tenures of Indian PMs, includes the tenureship of Vajpayee in the episodes "Atal Bihari Vajpayee's 13 days government and India during 1996-98", "Pokhran-II and Kargil War", and "2002 Gujarat Riots and Fall of Vajpayee Government". See also
 List of prime ministers of India
 List of Indian writers

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 L.K.Advani. My Country My Life. (2008). .
 M.P. Kamal. Bateshwar to Prime Minister House – An Interesting Description of Different Aspects of <mask>'s . (2003). .
 G.N.S. Raghavan.New Era in the Indian Polity, A Study of <mask> <mask> Vajpayee and the BJP. (1996). .
 P. R Trivedi. <mask> <mask> Vajpayee: The man India needs : the most appropriate leader for the twentyfirst century. (2000). .
 Sujata K. Dass. " prem k jain ". (2004). .
 Chandrika Prasad Sharma. Poet politician <mask> <mask> Vajpayee: A biography.(1998). .
 Sheila Vazirani. <mask> Bihari Vajpayee; profile & personal views (Know thy leaders). (1967). .
 C.P. Thakur. India Under <mask> Behari Vajpayee: The BJP Era. (1999). Sita Ram Sharma.Prime Minister <mask> Behari Vajpayee: Commitment to power. (1998). .
 Bhagwat S. Goyal Values, Vision & Verses of Vajpayee: India's Man of Destiny 2001 Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. .
 Darshan Singh. Atal Behari Vajpayee: The arch of India. (2001). .
 Yogesh <mask>. Mandate for political transition: Re-emergence of Vaypayee. (2000). .
 Sujata K. Das. Atal Bihari Vajpayee.(2004). External links

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<mask> (February 27, 1917 – April 22, 1974) was a United States Army soldier who received the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II. After dropping out of school and working odd jobs he joined the Army at the age of 24 and after completing training was sent to Europe during World War II to fight in the Allied invasion of Italy. He continued fighting in various locations and battles throughout Europe, receiving the Medal of Honor, Silver Star, Bronze Star and Purple Heart for his actions in combat. After he was discharged from the Army he worked at a local college before re-enlisting in the Army. He retired as a first sergeant in 1966. He was one of the six honorary pall bearers at the dedication of the Tomb of the Unknowns and was a guest of the President of the United States at the inaugurations of Presidents Eisenhower, Richard Nixon and <mask>. When he died in 1974 he was buried in Darien, Connecticut.Early life and family
Born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, <mask> grew up with a love of hunting and fishing. He left school after the eighth grade and worked odd jobs in Texas. At age 24 in 1941, he enlisted in the U.S. Army in Baton Rouge. While stationed at Camp Edwards in 1942 on Cape Cod in Massachusetts, <mask> met Madolyn DiSesa; the couple became engaged in January 1943 and married on February 12, 1945. DiSesa was from Stamford, Connecticut, and for the next 30 years they lived together in Stamford, having one child, a son Jeffrey, in 1949. Jeffrey died in 1990 at age 40. World War II service
From April to September 1943, <mask> trained with the 36th Infantry Division in North Africa.He first entered combat on September 9 during the landings at Salerno, Italy, and continued to serve in the Italian Campaign for the next year. He fought in Naples and Rome and, on January 7, 1944, earned the Silver Star. By June 14, 1944, he was serving as a staff sergeant in Company L, 142nd Infantry Regiment, 36th Infantry Division. On that day, in Magliano, Italy, <mask> carried a wounded man to safety and repeatedly went ahead of his unit to engage the German forces alone. It was for his actions during this battle that he was later awarded the Medal of Honor. Only four days after his Medal of Honor action, on June 18, he suffered a shrapnel wound to the head and was awarded a Purple Heart. Beginning in August 1944, <mask> participated in the Allied invasion of southern France.On August 16 he earned a Bronze Star and on August 22 a second Purple Heart for a bullet wound inflicted by a sniper. He was again shot by a sniper on September 22 and given a third Purple Heart for this wound. He was removed from combat in November and formally presented with the Medal of Honor by General Alexander Patch, commander of the Seventh Army, in Épinal, France. Among the other medals earned by <mask> during the war were two foreign decorations, the Italian Croce di Guerra and the French Croix de Guerre. Later life
On July 21, 1945, he received an honorable discharge from the Army. <mask> worked in Stamford, Connecticut, until 1947, when he re-enlisted in the Army and served in various recruiting and administrative roles. He was the director of Army recruiting in Stamford through 1959, interrupted by a two-year stint in Germany from 1952 to 1954.He served in France from 1961 to 1963, at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, from 1963 to 1965, and in Italy from 1965 to 1966. He retired from the military on December 21, 1966, having reached the rank of first sergeant, and returned to Stamford. He was one of six honorary pall bearers at the dedication of the Tomb of the Unknowns on May 27, 1958, presided over by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He was also a guest of the President of the United States at the inaugurations of Presidents Eisenhower, Richard Nixon and <mask>. <mask> died in Stamford at age 57 of congestive heart failure. He was buried at Saint John's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Darien, Connecticut. His widow died in 2002.Medal of Honor citation
Staff Sergeant <mask>'s official Medal of Honor citation reads:
While his platoon was pinned down by enemy small-arms fire from both flanks, he left his position of comparative safety and assisted in carrying 1 of his men, who had been seriously wounded and who lay in an exposed position, to a point where he could receive medical attention. The advance of the platoon was resumed but was again stopped by enemy frontal fire. A German officer and 2 enlisted men, armed with automatic weapons, threatened the right flank. Fearlessly exposing himself, he moved to a position from which he killed all 3 with his submachinegun. Returning to his squad, he obtained an M1 rifle and several antitank grenades, then took up a position from which he delivered accurate fire on the enemy holding up the advance. As the battalion moved forward it was again stopped by enemy frontal and flanking fire. He procured an automatic rifle and, advancing ahead of his men, neutralized an enemy machinegun with his fire.When the flanking fire became more intense he ran to a nearby tank and exposing himself on the turret, restored a jammed machinegun to operating efficiency and used it so effectively that the enemy fire from an adjacent ridge was materially reduced thus permitting the battalion to occupy its objective. Memorials
In 2008, James S. Vlasto with the assistance from Paul W. Bucha, recipient of the Medal of Honor, Vietnam 1968, and Morton Dean, former Anchor and correspondent for CBS and ABC News, formed  the Homer L. Wise Memorial Committee to raise funds and successfully erected a Bronze Statue of World War II Medal of Honor Recipient Master Sergeant <mask><mask>. The statue was dedicated on May 26, 2013, in Veterans Park in Stamford, Connecticut. There is also a small park, the "Homer Lee Wise Memorial Park" at the corner of Chester and Bedford Streets in Stamford, Connecticut. See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II

References

External links

1917 births
1974 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the War Cross for Military Valor
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
United States Army soldiers
People from Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Burials in Connecticut
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor

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Sir <mask> (c. 1539 – 9 September 1583) was an English adventurer, explorer, member of parliament and soldier who served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and was a pioneer of the English colonial empire in North America and the Plantations of Ireland. He was a maternal half-brother  of Sir Walter Raleigh and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville. Biography

Early life
<mask> was the fifth son of <mask> of Compton, Greenway and Galmpton, all in Devon, by his wife Catherine Champernowne. His brothers Sir <mask> and <mask>, and his half-brothers Carew Raleigh and Sir Walter Raleigh, were also prominent during the reigns of Queen Queen Elizabeth I and King James VI and I. Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeth's governess, who introduced her young kinsmen to the court. <mask>'s uncle, Sir Arthur Champernowne, involved him in the plantation of Ireland between 1566 and 1572. <mask>'s mentor was Sir Henry Sidney. He was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, where he learned to speak French and Spanish and studied war and navigation.He went on to reside at the Inns of Chancery in London in about 1560–1561. <mask>'s Latin mottoes, Quid Non ("Why not?") and Mutare vel Timere Sperno ("I scorn to change or to fear"), indicate his chosen philosophy. <mask> was present at the siege of Newhaven in Havre-de-Grâce (Le Havre), Normandy, where he was wounded in June 1563. By July 1566 he was serving in Ireland under the command of Sir Henry Sidney (then Lord Deputy of Ireland) against Shane O'Neill, but was sent to England later in the year with dispatches for the Queen. (See Plantations of Ireland and Tudor conquest of Ireland). At that point he took the opportunity of presenting the Queen with his A Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia (Cathay) (published in revised form in 1576), treating of the exploration of a Northwest Passage by America to China.<mask> was described as "of higher stature than of the common sort, and of complexion cholerike". Certain contemporaries speculated that he was a pederast. Military career in Ireland

After the assassination of Shane O'Neill in 1567, he was appointed Governor of Ulster and served as a member of the Irish Parliament. At about this time he petitioned William Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's principal secretary, for a recall to England citing "for the recovery of my eyes", but his ambitions still rested in Ireland, and particularly in the southern province of Munster. In April 1569 he proposed the establishment of a presidency and council for the province, and pursued the notion of an extensive settlement around Baltimore (at the southwest tip of modern County Cork), which was approved by the Dublin council. At the same time, he was involved with Sidney and Sir Thomas Smith, the Secretary of State, in planning the Enterprise of Ulster, a large settlement in the east of the northern province of Ulster, by Devonshire gentlemen. <mask>'s actions in the south of Ireland played a significant part in the outbreak of the first of the Desmond Rebellions.Sir Peter Carew (d.1575), his Devonshire kinsman, was pursuing a provocative, and somewhat far-fetched, claim to the inheritance of certain lands within the Butler territories in south Leinster. The 3rd Earl of Ormonde, a bosom companion of Queen Elizabeth's from childhood and head of the Butler dynasty, was absent in England, and the clash of Butler influence with the Carew claim created havoc. <mask> was eager to participate and, after Carew's seizure of the barony of Idrone (in modern County Carlow) in the summer of 1569, he pushed westward with his forces across the River Blackwater and joined up with his kinsman to defeat Sir Edmund Butler, the Earl of Ormond's younger brother. Violence spread in a confusion from Leinster and across the province of Munster, when the Geraldines of Desmond, led by James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, rose against the incursion. <mask> was then created Colonel by Lord Deputy Sidney and was charged with the pursuit of FitzGerald. The Geraldines were driven out of Kilmallock, but returned to lay siege to <mask>, who drove off their superior force in a sally during which his horse was shot from under him and his buckler transfixed with a spear. After that initial success, he marched unopposed through Kerry and Connello, taking 30 to 40 castles.During the three weeks of this campaign, all Irish were treated without quarter and put to the sword, including women and children. A gruesome spectacle was devised by <mask> to cow the rebel supporters, utilising the decapitated heads of his Irish enemies:

<mask> explicitly advocated the killing of Irish non-combatant women and others under the following rationale;

John Perrot used a similar practice at Kilmallock a few years later. <mask> is also said to have sent Captain Apsley into Kerry to inspire terror. <mask>'s attitude to the Irish may be captured in one quote from him, dated 13 November 1569: "These people are headstrong and if they feel the curb loosed but one link they will with bit in the teeth in one month run further out of the career of good order than they will be brought back in three months." Once Ormond had returned from England and called in his brothers, the Geraldines found themselves outgunned. In December 1569, after one of the chief rebels had surrendered, <mask> was knighted at the hands of Sidney in the ruined FitzMaurice camp, reputedly amid heaps of dead gallowglass warriors. A month after <mask>'s return to England FitzMaurice retook Kilmallock with 120 soldiers, defeating the garrison and sacking the town for three days, leaving it "the abode of wolves".Three years later FitzMaurice surrendered. Member of Parliament and adventurer

In 1570 <mask> returned to England, where he married Anne Ager, daughter of John Ager (alias Aucher, etc.) of Otterden, who bore him six sons and one daughter. In 1571 he was elected to the Parliament of England as a Member of Parliament for Plymouth, Devon, and in 1572 for Queenborough. Controversially he argued in favour of the crown prerogative in the matter of royal licenses for purveyance. In business affairs, he involved himself in an alchemical project with Smith, hoping for iron to be transmuted into copper and antimony, and lead into mercury. By 1572 <mask> had turned his attention to the Spanish Netherlands, where he fought an unsuccessful campaign in support of the Dutch Sea beggars at the head of a force of 1,500 men, many of whom had deserted from Smith's aborted plantation in the Ards of Ulster.In the period 1572–1578 <mask> settled down and devoted himself to writing. In 1573 he presented the Queen with a proposal for an academy in London, which was eventually put into effect by Sir Thomas Gresham with the establishment of Gresham College. <mask> also helped to set up the Society of the New Art with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, both of whom maintained an alchemical laboratory in Limehouse. The rest of <mask>'s life was spent in a series of failed maritime expeditions, the financing of which exhausted his family fortune. After receiving letters patent on 11 June 1578, <mask> set sail in November 1578 with a fleet of seven vessels from Plymouth in Devon for North America. The fleet was scattered by storms and forced back to port some six months later. The only vessel to have penetrated the Atlantic to any great distance was the Falcon under Raleigh's command.In the summer of 1579 William Drury, Lord Deputy of Ireland, commissioned <mask> and Raleigh to attack James FitzMaurice Fitzgerald again by sea and land and to intercept a fleet expected to arrive from Spain with aid for the Irish. At this time <mask> had three vessels under his command: the 250-ton Anne Ager (named after his wife), the Relief, and the 10-ton Squirrell, a small frigate notable for having completed the voyage to America and back within three months under the command of a captured Portuguese pilot. <mask> set sail in June 1579 after a spell of bad weather, and promptly got lost in fog and heavy rain off Land's End, Cornwall, an incident which caused the Queen to doubt his seafaring ability. His fleet was then driven into the Bay of Biscay and the Spanish soon slipped past and sailed into Dingle harbour, where they made their rendezvous with the Irish. In October <mask> put into the port of Cobh in Cork, where he delivered a terrible beating to a local gentleman, smashing him about the head with a sword. He then fell into a row with a local merchant, whom he murdered on the dockside. <mask> became one of the leading advocates for the then-mythical Northwest Passage to Cathay (China), a country written up in great detail by Marco Polo in the 13th century for its abundance of riches.<mask> made an elaborate case to counter the calls for a Northeast Passage to China. During the winter of 1566 he and his principal antagonist Anthony Jenkinson (who had sailed to Russia and crossed that country down to the Caspian Sea) argued the pivotal question of polar routes before Queen Elizabeth. <mask> claimed that any north-east passage was far too dangerous: "the air is so darkened with continual mists and fogs so near the pole that no man can well see either to guide his ship or direct his course." By logic and reason a north-west passage was assumed to exist, and Columbus had discovered America with far less evidence; it was imperative for England to catch up, to settle in new lands and thus to challenge the Iberian powers. <mask>'s contentions won support and money was raised, chiefly by the London merchant Michael Lok, for an expedition. The fearless Martin Frobisher was appointed captain and left England in June 1576, but the quest for a north-west passage failed: Frobisher returned with a cargo of a black stone – which was found to be worthless – and a native Inuit. Newfoundland and death
It was assumed that <mask> would be appointed President of Munster after the dismissal of Ormond as lord lieutenant of the province in the spring of 1581.At this time <mask> was member of parliament for Queenborough, Kent, but his attention was again drawn to North America, where he hoped to seize territory on behalf of the English crown. The six-year exploration licence <mask> had secured by letters patent from the crown in 1578 was on the point of expiring, when he succeeded in 1583 in raising significant sums from English Catholic investors. The investors were constrained by penal laws in their own country, and loath to go into exile in hostile parts of Europe; the prospect of American settlement appealed to them, especially as <mask> was proposing to seize some nine million acres (36,000 km2) around the river Norumbega, to be parcelled out under his authority (although to be held ultimately by the Crown). However, the Privy Council insisted that the investors pay recusancy fines before departing, and Catholic clergy and Spanish agents worked to dissuade them from interfering in America. Shorn of his Catholic financing, <mask> set sail with a fleet of five vessels in June 1583. One of the vessels – Bark Raleigh, owned and commanded by Raleigh – turned back owing to lack of victuals. <mask>'s crews were made up of misfits, criminals and pirates, but in spite of the many problems caused by their lawlessness, the fleet reached Newfoundland.On arriving at the port of St John's, <mask> was blockaded by the fishing fleet under the organisation of the port admiral (an Englishman) on account of piracy committed against a Portuguese vessel in 1582 by one of <mask>'s commanders. Once this resistance was overcome, <mask> waved his letters patent about and, in a formal ceremony, took possession of Newfoundland (including the lands 200 leagues to the north and south) for the English crown on 5 August 1583. This involved the cutting of turf to symbolise the transfer of possession of the soil, according to the common law of England. The locals presented him with a dog, which he named Stella after the North Star. He claimed authority over the fish stations at St John's and levied tax on the fishermen from several countries who worked this rich sea near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Within weeks his fleet departed, having made no attempt to form a settlement, due to lack of supplies. During the return voyage, <mask> insisted on sailing in his hardy old favourite, .He soon ordered a controversial change of course for the fleet. Owing to his obstinacy and disregard of the views of superior mariners, the ship Delight ran aground and soon sank with the loss of all but sixteen of its crew on one of the sandbars of Sable Island. Delight had been the largest remaining ship in the squadron (an unwise choice to lead in uncharted coastal waters) and contained most of the remaining supplies. Later in the voyage a sea monster was sighted, said to have resembled a lion with glaring eyes. After discussions with Edward Hayes and William Cox, captain and master of Golden Hind, <mask> decided on 31 August to return. The fleet made good speed, clearing Cape Race after two days, and was soon clear of land. <mask> had stepped on a nail on the Squirrel and, on 2 September, went aboard Golden Hind to have his foot bandaged and to discuss means of keeping the two little ships together on their Atlantic crossing.<mask> refused to leave Squirrel and after a strong storm they had a spell of clear weather and made fair progress. <mask> went aboard Golden Hind again, visited with Hayes, and insisted once more on returning to Squirrel, even though Hayes insisted she was over-gunned and unsafe for sailing. Nearly  away from Cape Race, near the Azores, they encountered high waves of heavy seas, "breaking short and high Pyramid wise", said Hayes. On 9 September, Squirrel was nearly overwhelmed but recovered. Despite the persuasions of others, who wished him to take to the larger vessel, <mask> stayed put and was observed sitting in the stern of his frigate, reading a book. When Golden Hind came within hailing distance, the crew heard <mask> cry out repeatedly, "We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land!" as he lifted his palm to the skies to illustrate his point.At midnight the frigate's lights were extinguished and the watch on Golden Hind cried out "the Generall was cast away". Squirrel had gone down with all hands. The frigate was devoured and swallowed up by the sea. Coincidentally, <mask>'s distant cousin Richard Grenville would also die at sea off the Azores. It is thought <mask>'s reading material was the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, which contains the following passage: "He that hathe no grave is covered with the skye: and, the way to heaven out of all places is of like length and distance." Legacy
<mask> was part of a remarkable generation of Devonshire men, who combined the roles of adventurer, writer, soldier and mariner. A. L. Rowse wrote of him as,

an interesting psychological case, with the symptoms of disturbed personality that often go with men of mark, not at all the simple Elizabethan seaman of Froude's Victorian view.He was passionate and impulsive, a nature liable to violence and cruelty – as came out in his savage repression of rebels in Ireland – but also intellectual and visionary, a questing and original mind, with the personal magnetism that went with it. People were apt to be both attracted and repelled by him, to follow his leadership and yet be mistrustful of him. He was outstanding for his initiative and originality, if not for his successes, but it is in his efforts at colonisation that he had most influence. In Ireland Ulster and Munster were forcibly colonised by the English, and the American adventure did eventually flourish. The formality of his annexation of Newfoundland eventually achieved reality in 1610. Perhaps of more significance was the issuance of a royal charter to Raleigh in 1584, based in part from <mask>'s earlier patent; with this backing he undertook the Roanoke expeditions, the first sustained attempt by the English crown to establish colonies in North America. <mask> was father to Ralegh <mask>, who was to become second in command of the failed Popham Colony in Maine.One of his later relatives was the architect C. P. H<mask>. Gilbert Sound near Greenland was named after him by John Davis. At Memorial University of Newfoundland, a court of the Burton's Pond Apartments are named "<mask> Court" in his honour. Popular culture
 Fire in the Abyss (1983) by Stuart Gordon – <mask> is the main character, and is transported four hundred years into the future
 The Gate of Time (1966) by Philip José Farmer – <mask> is not displaced forward in time but sidewise into an alternate timeline

Notes

Bibliography
Payne, Edward John. (1893, 1900). Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America. 1, 2.Ronald, Susan. (2007). The Pirate Queen: Queen Elizabeth I, her Pirate Adventurers, and the Dawn of Empire. Harper Collins: New York. . External links
 Newfoundland voyage – The Modern History Sourcebook
 Letters Patent issued to <mask> by Queen Elizabeth I, 1578
 Early Newfoundland Settlement Schemes

English explorers
Walter Raleigh
1530s births
1583 deaths
People of British North America
People of Elizabethan Ireland
English MPs 1571
English MPs 1572–1583
People educated at Eton College
People from Brixham
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Members of the Parliament of England for Plymouth
People from Marldon

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<mask> (July 20, 1843 – December 1, 1924) was a United States soldier who was recognized with his nation's highest award for valor, the U.S. Medal of Honor, for his gallantry during the American Civil War. While serving as the Chief Bugler of the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry/44th Pennsylvania Volunteers as part of the Union Army, he captured the enemy flag during the Battle of Amelia Springs at Paines Crossroads, Virginia on April 5, 1865. Formative years
Born in Mifflin County, Pennsylvania on July 20, 1843, <mask> was a son of Pennsylvania natives Martin and <mask>. Reared and educated in that county, he resided in the community of Lewistown in Derry Township in 1860 with his parents and older brother Joseph, who served as an apprentice plasterer to master plasterer and family patriarch <mask>. Civil War
On August 18, 1861, <mask> enrolled for Civil War military service at Lewistown, Pennsylvania. He then officially mustered in for duty at Washington on August 27 as a sergeant and bugler with Company C of the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry (also known as the 44th Pennsylvania Volunteers). Military records at the time described him as being an 18-year-old plasterer from Mifflin County who was 5' 9-1/2" tall with black hair, black eyes and a dark complexion.Transported with his regiment to Camp Jones near Washington, D.C. in August 1861, he and his fellow 1st Pennsylvania Cavalrymen were assigned to defensive duties there. Attached with his regiment to the Union's Army of the Potomac through April 1862 (McCall's Division through March and McDowell's I Corps through April), he and his regiment's first major engagement came in the Expedition to Dranesville beginning in late November 1861. After seeing action with the men from his company (C) and those from companies D, E, H, and I at Dranesville on December 20, he was stationed with the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry at Camp Pierpont through March 1862. Participating with his regiment in the Advance on Manassas from March 10 to 15, he then engaged in McDowell's operations in and around Falmouth from April 9 to 19 of that year. Reassigned with his regiment to Bayard's Cavalry Brigade, which was attached to the Department of the Rappahannock (until June 1862), the Army of Virginia's III Corps (to September 1862) and the Army of the Potomac to June 1863, he fought with his regiment in the battles of Cross Keys, Virginia (June 8, 1862) and Cedar Mountain (August 9); Second Battle of Bull Run (August 28–30, 1862); battles of Antietam (September 17, 1862) and Fredericksburg (August 12–15, 1862); and Stoneman's 1863 Raid (April 13 to May 10, 1863). During this latter phase of service, he was promoted from the rank of sergeant to Chief Bugler and transferred from C Company to his regiment's field and staff officers' corps on May 1, 1863. A month later, he was wounded while in service on June 9 in operations related to the Battle of Brandy Station.According to historian Samuel P. Bates:

Moving to Kelly's Ford, [the Union Army] crossed on the 9th of June, and was immediately engaged in the battle of Brandy Station.... At two P.M. the First and Fourth Divisions, under Buford, moved to Beverly Ford, and the Second and Third, under Gregg, to Kelly's Ford, where they bivouacked for the night. Crossing the river early on the following morning, Gregg moved out four miles to Stevensburg, where he left Colonel Duffy with the Second Division, to protect his flank, and proceeded with the Third Division to Brandy Station. The Second Brigade, composed of the First Pennsylvania, First New Jersey, and the First Maryland, under the command of Colonel Wyndham, took the advance.... On arriving at Brandy Station, the enemy opened with his artillery, which was promptly answered, and the first Maryland ... charged [while] Colonel Taylor led a desperate charge upon the left and rear of the foe, reaching the Barbour House, where were General Stuart, his staff, and body guard, surrounded by cavalry. Here a desperate encounter ensued, the men using the cavalrymen's true weapon, the sabre, with terrible effect. A number of prisoners were brought off.... At this point the enemy was heavily reinforced, and the command was obliged to withdraw.... The enemy failing to attack, Gregg moved toward Rappahannock Station, where he was again engaged, the First Pennsylvania supporting a battery. An artillery duel was kept up for nearly two hours, when Colonel Taylor was ordered to report, with his command, to General Buford, at Beverly Ford.Upon its arrival it was ordered to the extreme right, where it was hotly engaged.... The loss in this engagement was three killed and eleven severely wounded. Marching two days later across the former battlefield of Bull Run, his regiment clashed again with Confederates — this time at Aldie on June 22. Assigned to guard the rear of the Union Army as it marched for Pennsylvania, the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalrymen reached the battlefield at Gettysburg during the morning of July 2, and were immediately assigned to duties at the headquarters of General George Meade for the remainder of the engagement before guarding the Union's reserve artillery as it made its way back from Pennsylvania into Maryland beginning July 5, 1863. Rejoining their brigade by mid-month, they next engaged the enemy near Shepardstown before withdrawing to Bolivar Heights. Encamped near Warrenton beginning July 27, they were assigned to guard, picket and scouting duties through mid-September when they joined other Union forces in re-engaging intensely with the enemy for three hours from Muddy Run to Culpepper on September 13, after which the 1st Pennsylvanians were sent out on skirmish assignments. Their next major engagements came in the Bristoe Campaign from October through November 1863, including the Battle of Bristoe Station (October 14), and the Mine Run Campaign in late November and early December.Following the expiration of his initial term of service, he then re-enlisted on February 1, 1864 at Warrenton, Virginia. Next assigned to the Overland Campaign led by Union General Ulysses S. Grant, <mask> and his fellow 1st Pennsylvania Cavalrymen fought in the battles of Haw's Shop (May 28), Cold Harbor (May 13 to June 12) and Trevilian Station (June 11–12) before engaging in the Siege of Petersburg through March 1865, which included the battles of First Battle of Deep Bottom/Gravel Hill (July 27–29, 1864). It was during this phase of service that <mask> transferred to the 1st Pennsylvania Battery (on September 3, 1864). After engaging with his regiment in the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, 1865 as part of the Appomattox Campaign, <mask> then performed the act of gallantry for which he would later be awarded the U.S. Medal of Honor — capturing the enemy's flag while fighting with the 1st Pennsylvania in the Battle of Amelia Springs, Virginia on April 5. That act and the subsequent transfer of his captured enemy prize were briefly described by U.S. Secretary of War William C. Endicott in his February 16, 1888 report to the U.S. House of Representatives regarding the whereabouts of "flags, standards, and colors captured of the enemies of the United States":

Captured in battle at Farm's Cross Roads, April 5, 1865, by Sergeant <mask><mask>, chief bugler First Pennsylvania Cavalry. First Brigade, Second Cavalry Division, Brevet Major-General Davies, commanding. Loaned to Brevet Major-General Davies, May __, , by order of General Nichols, assistant adjutant-general.Having survived the war through the surrender of the Confederate Army by General Robert E. Lee, <mask> was finally discharged, honorably, by Special Order No. 312 on June 20, 1865. Post-war life
Following his honorable discharge from the military, <mask> returned home to Mifflin County, where he resumed his work as a plasterer and married. In 1870, he resided in Lewistown, Derry Township with his wife, Annie (born in Pennsylvania, circa 1841). Sometime around 1889, <mask> married Caroline E. (Heckman) <mask> (1845–1922), a daughter of Benjamin Heckman. In 1910, he resided with her in Derry Township, where he was employed as a watchman for a local steel plant. Described once again as a house plasterer on the 1920 federal census, he was documented as residing in Lewistown's 5th Ward that year with "Carrie".His second wife then preceded him in death, passing away in Lewistown on October 18, 1922. On October 1, 1924, he was awarded an increase in his U.S. Civil War Pension from $60 to $82 per month (made retroactive to August 1, 1923). His pension records during these years also documented that he was a Medal of Honor winner. <mask> was subsequently interred beside his wife at the Yeagertown Lutheran Cemetery in Mifflin County following his death at the age of 81 in that county's Derry Township on December 1, 1924. Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: Chief Bugler, 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry. Place and date: At Paines Crossroads, Va., April 5, 1865. Entered service at: ------.Birth: Mifflin County, Pa. Date of issue: May 3, 1865. Citation:
Capture of flag. See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
Musician (rank)
Pennsylvania in the American Civil War

References

External links
 "History of the Medal of Honor". Mt. Pleasant, South Carolina: Congressional Medal of Honor Society, retrieved online September 4, 2018. History of the First Reg't Pennsylvania Reserve Cavalry from Its Organization, August 1861, to September, 1864, with List of Names of All Officers and Enlisted Men Who Have Ever Belonged to the Regiment, and Remarks Attached to Each Name, Noting Change, &c. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: King & Baird, Printers, 1864."<mask> <mask>" (memorial and gravesite information). Salt Lake City, Utah: Find A Grave, retrieved online, March 19, 2008. 1843 births
1924 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Union Army soldiers
People from Mifflin County, Pennsylvania
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor

masks:
James Parker Landis
James Parker Landis
Mary Landis
Martin Landis
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James P
. Landis
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<mask>, 2nd Marquess of Westminster  (27 January 1795 – 31 October 1869), styled The Honourable <mask> from 1795 to 1802, Viscount Belgrave from 1802 to 1831 and Earl Grosvenor from 1831 to 1845, was an English politician, landowner, property developer and benefactor. Background and education
Grosvenor was born at Millbank House, Westminster, London, the eldest of the three sons of Robert Grosvenor, 1st Marquess of Westminster and Lady Eleanor Egerton. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford where he graduated MA. He undertook the Grand Tour in 1815. Political and public life
In 1818 Grosvenor was elected as Whig MP for Chester and was later appointed as a Justice of the Peace. In 1830 he was elected MP for Cheshire until the constituency was divided in 1832, and from then until 1834 he represented South Cheshire. He was Lord Lieutenant of Cheshire from 1845 to 1867 and Lord Steward of the Household between 1850 and 1852 in the Whig administration headed by Lord John Russell.On 22 March 1850 he was admitted to the Privy Council. He was presented with the Order of the Garter on 6 July 1857. Of his political activity it is said that "he seldom spoke in the House of Lords". Development of the estate
Grosvenor "devoted himself ... to the improvement of his London property", and added to his properties in Dorset and Cheshire; he was described as being a "model landlord". Eaton Hall, Cheshire, had been rebuilt in flamboyant Gothic style for his father by William Porden. Grosvenor commissioned the Scottish architect William Burn to make alterations to it, including raising the centre of the south front to make it look like a tower. Burn also designed Fonthill House, Wiltshire, for him in Scottish Baronial style.On his estates Grosvenor built farms, schools and "numerous" cottages. Among his schools were the Bishopsfield Schools in Hoole, Chester. He also commissioned Shaftesbury Town Hall for the people of the town. Personality and personal interests

Grosvenor continued the family interest in horse racing and, when he was living in the country estate, he spent time hunting and fishing. He gave generously to charity, and built and restored churches. He was an early patron of the Chester architect John Douglas. In 1865–66 Douglas designed St John's Church for him in his estate village of Aldford.About the same time, Grosvenor gave fields in Chester to the city council for the formation of Grosvenor Park. For this park Douglas designed a number of items, including the Entrance Lodge, the gates, and a cover for Billy Hobby's Well. In 1865 the citizens of Chester began to raise money for the erection of a statue "to mark the public and private worth of his lordship, and the high estimation in which he is held by his neighbours and tenants, as well as by all classes of the community". Over £5,000 (equivalent to £ as of ) was raised. The statue showing the marquess in his garter robes was designed by <mask>, and erected in 1869; it still stands in Grosvenor Park. Grosvenor's parents had instilled "high moral principles" in their children, and these stayed with <mask> throughout his life. He has been described as "of austere character and unswerving devotion to duty as family man, politician and landlord".His obituary in The Times says "he administered his vast estate with a combination of intelligence and generosity not often witnessed". Family
Lord Westminster married Lady Elizabeth Leveson-Gower, younger daughter of George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Marquess of Stafford (later 1st Duke of Sutherland), in 1819. Following their marriage, <mask> and his wife initially lived at Eaton Hall, Cheshire, the family's country house, with Lord and Lady Grosvenor. During the London season, from April each year, the family lived in Grosvenor House. In 1827 the couple visited Norway, Sweden and Russia and in 1835–36 they toured through Germany and Italy. When the 1st Marquess died in 1845 they followed the family tradition of using Eaton Hall as their country house and Grosvenor House as their London residence, where they entertained lavishly. Lord Westminster and his wife had thirteen children, ten of whom survived into adulthood and three of whom lived into their nineties.Their second son Hugh Lupus Grosvenor succeeded him as 3rd Marquess; he was later created Duke of Westminster. Their youngest son Lord <mask> was ennobled as Baron Stalbridge. Lady Eleanor Grosvenor (22 October 1820 – 4 May 1911); m. Algernon Percy, 4th Duke of Northumberland. Lady Mary Grosvenor (2 December 1821 – 2 January 1912); m. Thomas Parker, 6th Earl of Macclesfield. The Hon. Gilbert Grosvenor (10 April 1823 – 2 January 1824). Lady Elizabeth Grosvenor (9 July 1824 – 16 December 1899), married Beilby Lawley, 2nd Baron Wenlock.Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster (13 October 1825 – 22 December 1899). Lady Evelyn Grosvenor (16 December 1826 – 25 January 1839). Lady Caroline Grosvenor (14 June 1828 – 24 March 1906); m. William Leigh, 2nd Baron Leigh. Lady Octavia Grosvenor (22 September 1829 – 29 May 1921); m. Col. Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart, 7th Baronet. Lady Agnes Grosvenor (24 January 1831 – 22 January 1909); m. Sir Archibald Campbell, 3rd Baronet. Lord Gilbert Grosvenor (6 January 1833 – 20 March 1854). Lady Jane Grosvenor (29 August 1834 – 13 July 1921); m. firstly, Gamel Pennington, 4th Baron Muncaster; m. secondly, Hugh Lindsay.<mask> (28 January 1837 – 18 May 1912). Lady Theodora Grosvenor (7 July 1840 – 24 March 1924); writer m. Thomas Merthyr Guest. Lord Westminster died at Fonthill House, Fonthill Gifford in Wiltshire on 31 October 1869 after a short illness and was buried in the family vault in St Mary's Church, Eccleston, Cheshire. His wealth at death is recorded as being under £800,000 (equivalent to £ as of ). Lady <mask> died in 1891 and was buried in St. Mary's Churchyard in Motcombe, Dorset, England expressly stating in her will the desire to be buried there among her relatives. Memorials
Westminster Memorial Hospital, Shaftesbury, Dorset, was founded in Grosvenor's memory in 1871. Near the east end of Pimlico Road in the City of Westminster, London is a drinking fountain decorated with mosaics in his honour.References

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1795 births
1869 deaths
<mask>, 2nd Marquess of Westminster
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Cheshire
Grosvenor, <mask>, Earl
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1818–1820
UK MPs 1820–1826
UK MPs 1826–1830
UK MPs 1830–1831
UK MPs 1831–1832
UK MPs 1832–1835
Westminster, M2
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
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masks:
Richard Grosvenor
Richard Grosvenor
Thomas Thornycroft
Richard
Westminster
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Richard Grosvenorbridge
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M. R. Ry. <mask> (; 30 March 1709 – 16 January 1761) (often pronounced as <mask>) was a dubash in the service of the French East India Company. He is mainly famous for his set of private diaries from the years 1736 to 1761 which portray life in 18th century India. He is also remembered for developing the Tiruvengadam courtage strategy, a new method of courtage in India that is popularly described in several Indian economic books. As described in his journals, it consists in developing a strategy of making new fraud coins in a parallel economy. <mask> was born in Madras in a well-to-do family. At a very early age, <mask> emigrated with his father to Pondicherry where the family pursued their business interests.On his father's death in 1726, <mask> <mask> was made dubash and served in his capacity until his removal on grounds of ill-health and deteriorating performance. <mask> <mask> died in 1761 at the age of 51. <mask> <mask> was especially known for his proximity to the French Governor Joseph François Dupleix, who favored him in various appointments. <mask> <mask> <mask>'s diaries were translated in the early 20th century and bring to light life in the mid-18th century and the Anglo-French Carnatic wars. His mansion in Pondicherry has been recognized as a heritage monument. C. S. Srinivasachari, a prominent Indian historian, described <mask> <mask> <mask> as the "Samuel Pepys of French India". Early life
<mask> <mask> <mask> was born to a famous yadava Merchant Tiruvengada <mask> on 30 March 1709 in the village of Perambur on the outskirts of Madras, then, the center of Tiruvengada Pillai's business activities.In 1716, at the behest of Nainiya <mask>, brother-in-law of Tiruvengada <mask>, who then functioned as the chief Indian agent of French Pondicherry, Guillaume André d'Hébert, the territory's French Governor invited Tiruvengada <mask> and other important Indian merchants of Madras, to his city. Relying on Nainiya <mask>'s advice, Tiruvengada moved with his family and businesses to Pondicherry and settled there. Soon afterwards, Nainiya <mask> fell out of favor with the Governor and was imprisoned and later died. In contrast, Tiruvengada rapidly rose in favor with the French rulers and attained a respectable position in the city. On the arrest of Nainiya <mask>, Tiruvengada Pillai had fled to Madras fearing arrest and ill-treatment. However, De La Prévostière who succeeded D’Hébert induced Tiruvengada to return. Meanwhile, Nainiya <mask>'s son Guruva <mask> escaped to France via Madras.His charges against D’Hébert before the Duke of Orléans were responsible for the removal and replacement of Governor D’Hébert. Guruva <mask> later adopted Christianity and settled down in France, where he was admitted to the Order of Saint Michael as a chevalier. Guruva <mask> died in 1724 followed by Tiruvengada <mask> in June 1726. His name is mentioned in the history of 8th class. Early career

Pierre Christoph Le Noir who succeeded De La Prévostière had great regard for Tiruvengada <mask> and his family. Hence on Tiruvengada <mask>'s death in 1726, he gave employment to his son <mask> <mask> <mask> in the French East India Company and made him the chief of the Indian employees at the company's factory at Porto Novo. Soon, <mask> <mask> proved his worth.Large quantities of blue cloth were manufactured at Porto Novo. This was made possible mainly due to the efforts of <mask> <mask> <mask> who also established trading posts at Lalapettai and Arcot for trading Indian merchandise for European manufactures. Ananda's fortune reached greater heights during the tenure of Le Noir's successor Pierre Benoît Dumas who, too, seemed to have had a favorable opinion of him. Until his death, Guruva <mask> had functioned as the chief dubash of Pondicherry. A dubash was a merchant in service of the company who roughly performed the task of a translator and intermediary between Indian and European merchants. On Guruva's death, the chief dubashposition passed into the hands of another family as Guruva <mask>'s children had been raised as Hindus and the Chief Ecclesiastes of the Colony strongly desired that the holders of the particular office needed to be a Christian. When Dupleix became the Governor, the chief dubash was one Kanakaraya Mudali with whom <mask> <mask> <mask> had a bitter rivalry.However, Kanakaraya Mudali died in the year 1746 and in 1747, after many consultations and decision-making, <mask> <mask> <mask> was made chief dubash. Rise to power

In November 1738, the bitter rivalry that had existed between <mask> <mask> <mask> and the chief dubash Kanakaraya Mudali flared up into a conflagration. Observing that <mask> <mask> Pillai had not remitted the interest for the loan he had borrowed to pay coral merchants, Kanakaraya Mudali reported the same to the Governor. Initially, the Governor Dumas insisted upon the dubash paying the interest but later, on learning of the heavy losses that had befallen the dubash that year, he conceded and even offered to pay off <mask> <mask> <mask>'s debts. But <mask> <mask> <mask> refused. The matter was raised before the Council where <mask> <mask> had to answer for the charges brought out against him. <mask> <mask> pleaded with Mr. Golard a member of the Council explaining that he had never paid interest before.At length, the Council decided in favor of <mask> <mask> <mask> and his debt was waived. On 22 October 1739, Kanakaraya Mudali's son, Velvendra Mudali died at the age of 21. Velvendra's mother committed suicide on hearing the news. On 19 October 1741, Dumas left Pondicherry leaving charge to the Deputy Governor who ruled Pondicherry until 14 January 1742 when Joseph François Dupleix arrived from Chandannagar. During Dupleix's tenure, <mask> <mask> rose to the zenith of power and prominence in French India and exercised firm control over the internal affairs of the territory. From 1743 onwards, <mask> <mask> won the confidence of the Governor of Pondicherry and rose up the ranks. when the suburban villages of Pondicherry were leased for five years to Kumara <mask>, Vira Nayakkan, Chandramadi Pillai, and Ella Pillai, <mask> <mask> <mask> was able to offer surety for the renters for a period of five years.Nevertheless, when Kesava Aiyan died, <mask> <mask> was not able to prevent Kanakaraya Mudali from nominating his brother-in-law Gavinivasa Mudali as dubash in Kesava Aiyan's place. Kanakaraya Mudali secured his objective despite the vehement protests of <mask> <mask> Pillai. On 29 June 1744, the marriage of <mask> <mask> <mask>'s daughter Papal was conducted in regal splendor. <mask> <mask> further solidified his position by mediating in disputes such as those between Prakasa Mudali and Tiruvengada Pillai, etc. Not to be left behind, on 30 November 1745, <mask> <mask>'s great rival Kanakaraya Mudali constructed a church at Ozhukkarai and celebrated its consecration by providing a great feast. <mask> <mask> <mask>, however, reported heavy criticism from guests for inviting people of non-Christian faiths for the feast celebrating the consecration of a church. On 12 February 1746, Kanakaraya Mudali died and on his death, there was an inheritance dispute between his heirs.A Committee of 20 officials were appointed to arbitrate and <mask> <mask> <mask> led the committee. The Committee decided that Chinna Mudali, the brother of the deceased Kanakaraya Mudali was the rightful heir to his estate. However, Chinna Mudali was not satisfied and the matter dragged on until April 1746, when <mask> <mask>'s diplomacy finally sealed the matter. Apart from pleasing the Governor through his service, <mask> <mask> <mask> also incurred the Governor's wrath on certain occasions. There was at least one occasion during the period when <mask> <mask> was questioned by Dupleix regarding payment of the large sum of money he owed to the company. <mask> <mask> <mask>, however, soon cleared off his debts by paying one Suga Singh the money the Company owed him. However, still, Dupleix demanded 1,000 pagodas that Ananda Ranga Pillai owed the company.It was evident that much more than the service <mask> <mask> Pillai had rendered to the company, it was <mask> <mask> <mask>'s position as Dupleix's favorite that had helped him scale the ladder. <mask> <mask> <mask> was questioned by the Governor regarding the ill-treatment of a prisoner called Mari Chetti. Chinna Mudali was deputed to interrogate two eyewitnesses Tandavarayan and Rangan and they swore that <mask> <mask>'s conduct towards Mari Chetty was, in no way, objectionable. Based on this evidence, <mask> <mask> was acquitted. Throughout Dupleix's tenure, <mask> <mask> <mask> entertained dignitaries as the dubash of Fort St David, Indian merchants, and even Mahé de Labourdonnais. He also supervised the regular payment of revenue. Official communications to the Governor, too, was handled by him.He performed errands for the Governor and adjudicated on criminal cases. In May 1746, he interceded on behalf of one Karaikal Tiruvengadam who had been imprisoned and obtained his release. Soon after Kanakaraya Mudali's death in February 1746, his younger brother Chinna Mudali started making efforts to obtain the post of Chief Dubash which his brother had previously held. However, the property dispute he had with Kanakaraya Mudali's wife and his own lack of competence and skill soon saw him out of the race. On 12 June 1746, de Bausset, a longtime companion of <mask> <mask> <mask> urged him to campaign for Chief Dubash-ship. However, <mask> <mask> <mask> seems to have been reluctant to accept the post initially when the Governor nominated <mask> <mask> <mask> for the post. However, on the insistence of Mrs. Dupleix he accepted.At that time, he came to know that another aspirant Annapurna Aiyan had bribed the Governor and his wife for the post. However, this attempt failed as <mask> <mask> <mask> was eventually appointed chief dubash. Mrs. Dupleix allegedly demanded exorbitant bribes in order to support his candidature. As chief dubash

The official appointment of <mask> <mask> <mask> was delayed by a couple of years due to the stoppage of trade arising out of the outbreak of hostilities between the French and the British. The British responded to the French occupation of Madras by launching an invasion of Pondicherry in July 1747. This invasion launched by Admiral Boscawen ultimately failed to capture Pondicherry but hostilities soon came to an end by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. In 1748, <mask> <mask> <mask> was officially designated chief dubash of French India.Soon afterwards, hostilities with the British broke out once again. The French waged a proxy war on behalf of Chanda Sahib supporting his claim in the war of succession to the throne of Carnatic. The British felt compelled to intervene and support Muhammad Ali in order to check the rise of French influence in the Deccan. In the early stages of the war, the French gained the upper hand and by May 1751, French power in India was at its zenith. However, the arrival of Robert Clive thwarted the French attempts to win the battle for Chanda Sahib and the French eventually lost. During the later stages of the war, <mask> notes, Dupleix's temperament grew highly irritable and officers, including himself, feared to approach him. The lavishly constructed palace at Pondicherry, the Gouvernement was completed during this period.<mask> also expressed strong disapproval of some of the allegedly corrupt measures of Governor Dupleix's wife Madame Dupleix. The bitterness led to open hostilities between them. <mask> was given the charge of collecting the revenue of a few villages in Karaikal and he performed his duties satisfactorily despite the prevalence of inconsistencies and unreliability of the records kept by his subordinate agents. Following the unsuccessful bid at territorial expansion, Dupleix's fortunes declined rapidly. He fell out of favour and was replaced as Governor-General with Charles Godeheu in the year 1754. With Dupleix's departure for France, <mask>'s influence in the colony began to decline. To make matters worse, he was frequently troubled by poor health.By 1756, his health had deteriorated to such an extent that the Governor-General Georges Duval de Leyrit was obliged to remove him from service. Death and legacy

<mask>'s health worsened with the passage of time. However, he notes in his diary, the corruption and intrigues which allegedly plagued the French colony on Dupleix's departure. <mask> died on 12 January 1761 at the age of 51, just four days before Pondicherry surrendered to the troops of Colonel Coote. Pillai left behind three daughters. He also had two sons Annasamy and Ayyasamy who predeceased him. Since the discovery and translation of his diaries during the 19th and early 20th centuries, <mask> <mask> <mask> has accumulated a great deal of posthumous fame and recognition for his depiction of 18th century South India, the intrigues and deals in French Pondicherry and his description of the French conquest of Madras and the Carnatic Wars.His set of diaries have emerged as one of our primary sources of reference on the Carnatic Wars. <mask> <mask> <mask> has been referred to by V. V. S. Aiyar in his journal Balabharati and had attracted the curiosity of Subrahmanya Bharati, Aurobindo Ghosh and Mandyam Srinivasa Iyengar. C. S. Srinivasachari, a prominent Indian historian, described <mask> <mask> <mask> as "the Samuel Pepys of French India". <mask> <mask> <mask> traded in cloth, yarn, indigo and arecanut with Manila, Mocha and Mascareigne. He had his own ship, Anandappuravi, which sailed on long trading voyages on high seas. <mask> <mask> <mask>'s house in Pondicherry, which is located in a street named after the dubash,  was one of the few buildings to survive the Siege of Pondicherry in 1760. It was recently recognized as a heritage monument by the Government of Puducherry.The mansion is known for its unique blend of Indian and French architecture: the ground floor being built in Indian fashion, while the columns which supported the terrace followed the French architectural style. A diary maintained by Muthu Vijaya Tiruvengadam <mask>, grandson of <mask> <mask> <mask>, related the period from 1794 to 1796 was translated and published on 30 March 2000. Patronage of arts

<mask> <mask> Pillai patronized the Hindu religion, arts and poetry. And in return, poets praised <mask> in their works. Tamil poet Namasivaya Pulavar, who also wrote a verse in praise of <mask> <mask>'s father, Tiruvenkadam <mask>, wrote that <mask> <mask> was as learned as the thousand-headed Adisesha serpent. Madurakkavirayar wrote that when he saw <mask> <mask> Pillai, he beheld the whole town of Pondicherry in him who was generous enough to offer him all the wealth that he wanted. Kasturi <mask>n wrote an ode composed in Telugu.Tyagaraja Desikar wrote Ananda Rangan Kovai, a poem of 400 lines in praise of <mask> <mask> Pillai. This work, it is believed, took 16 years to complete and was presented to the dubash in the year 1755. In the poem, Tyagaraja venerated <mask> <mask> as the sovereign whose kingdom extended from Gingee to Vijayapuram and Delhi and praised him for the "conquest of Vanga, Kalinga and Telinga". <mask>, in turn, gifted Tyagaraja with costly ornaments, money and land. Discovery and translation of the diaries
On <mask> <mask> <mask>'s death, the diaries came into the possession of his nephew Tiruvengadam <mask> who appears to have maintained a series of records of his own until the beginning of 1770. Subsequent generations of the family had discarded it until the manuscript was recovered in a decrepit state by Gallois Montburn, the Mayor of Pondicherry, a scholar of Oriental languages, in 1846, who immediately set upon translating the manuscript to French. However, when the translated manuscript was being edited a number of gaps were discovered The gaps were supplemented when volumes one and two of <mask> <mask> <mask>'s diary were found.These were subsequently translated into French in 1870 and 1889. In 1894, Julien Vinson, Professor of the Special School of Livino-Oriental Languages at Paris who had published the second translation (which was, obviously, incomplete) published a supposed full translation of <mask> <mask> <mask>'s diaries titled Les Français dans l'Inde, In 1892, the existence of the diary was brought to the notice of Lieutenant General H. Macleod, the British Consular Agent in Pondicherry. At the direction of Lord Wenlock, the then Governor of Madras, an English translation of the diary from Montbrun's copy was attempted. This was completed in 1896. An Indian edition in 12 volumes was released by Agani Publishers of Puducherry on 5 January 2020. See also

 Pachaiyappa Mudaliar
 Pedro Kanakaraya Mudaliar
 French India

Notes

References

1709 births
1761 deaths
History of Puducherry
French India
People from Chennai
18th century in French India
18th-century diarists

masks:
Ananda Ranga Pillai
Ātarañkam Pillai
Ananda Ranga Pillai
Ananda Ranga Pillai
Ananda
Ranga
Ananda
Ranga
Ananda
Ranga
Ananda
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Pillai
Ananda
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Ananda
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<mask> ibn Mika'il (), better known as <mask> (; also spelled Toghril), was a Turkoman chieftain, who founded the Seljuk Empire, ruling from 1037 to 1063. He united many Turkmen warriors of the Central Asian steppes into a confederacy of tribes, who traced their ancestry to a single ancestor named Seljuk, and led them in conquest of eastern Iran. He would later establish the Seljuk Sultanate after conquering Iran and taking the Abbasid capital of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055. <mask> relegated the Abbasid Caliphs to state figureheads and took command of the caliphate's armies in military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids in an effort to expand his empire's borders and unite the Islamic world. Before the advent of the Seljuks, Iran was divided between several warring local powers, such as the Saffarids, Buyids, Kakuyids, and Ghaznavids. As a result, it suffered from continuous war and destruction. However, under Tughril peace and prosperity were brought to the country and to Mesopotamia, a transition that was further reinforced due to the Seljuks' assimilation to Iranian-Muslim culture.Name

"Tughril" was the Old Turkic word for a bird of prey, possibly the Crested goshawk. In early Turkic history and culture, starting from the Uyghur Khaganate and onwards, it was used as a personal name. Early life

<mask> was born in , most likely in the Central Asian steppes, where nomadic Oghuz Turks were roaming to find pasture for livestock. After the death of his father Mikail, <mask> and his brother Chaghri were reportedly raised by their grandfather Seljuk (the eponymous founder of the Seljuks) in Jand. It was seemingly during this period that the Seljuk family converted to Islam, at least nominally. In the following decades, the Seljuks were employed as mercenaries under the warring factions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm, in exchange for pasture for their herds. In the 1020s, <mask> and his other relatives were serving the Kara-Khanids of Bukhara.In 1026, the Kara-Khanids were driven out of Bukhara by the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Seljuk's son Arslan Isra'il fled to a place near Sarakhs, where he asked Mahmud for permission to settle in the area in return for military aid. Mahmud, however, had Arslan Isra'il put in prison, where the latter soon died. Meanwhile, Tughril and Chaghri remained loyal to their Kara-Khanid overlords, although there were disputes between them in 1029; in 1032, they fought alongside the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Dabusiyya. After the Kara-Khanid ruler Ali-Tegin's death, however, the Seljuks changed their allegiance to the ruler of Khwarazm, Harun, but were repelled by the Oghuz ruler Shah Malik in 1035. The Seljuks then went to the same place as Arslan Isra'il, and asked the son of Mahmud, Mas'ud I, for asylum. Mas'ud, however, considered the nomadic Turks to be dangerous and sent an army under his commander-in-chief Begtoghdi.The army was shortly defeated by the Seljuks, who forced Mas'ud to surrender Nasa, Farava and Dihistan in return for Seljuk recognition of Ghaznavid authority and protection of the region from other Turkic tribes. In 1037, the Seljuks also forced the Ghaznavids to cede them Sarakhs, Abivard and Marw. The Seljuks then slowly began to subdue the cities of Khorasan, and, when they captured Nishapur, Tughril proclaimed himself Sultan of Khorasan. Reign

Mas'ud, after having returned to Khorasan, expelled the Seljuks from Herat and Nishapur. He soon marched towards Merv to completely remove the Seljuk threat from Khorasan. His army included 50,000 men and 12 to 60 war elephants. The Battle of Dandanaqan shortly took place near Merv, where the army of Mas'ud was defeated by a much smaller army under <mask>, his brother Chaghri Beg, and the Kakuyid prince Faramurz.Mas'ud thus permanently lost control of all of western Khorasan. This victory marked the foundation of the Seljuk Empire, which was now rapidly expanding west. <mask> then installed Chagri as the governor of Khorasan and prevented a Ghaznavid reconquest, then moved on to the conquest of the Iranian plateau from 1040 to 1044; in 1041–1042, <mask> conquered Tabaristan and Gurgan, and appointed a certain Mardavij ibn Bishui as the governor of the region. In 1042/3, he conquered Ray and Qazvin, and at the same his suzerainty was acknowledged by the Justanid ruler of Daylam. The Sallarid ruler of Shamiran also shortly acknowledged his overlordship. In 1054, <mask> forced the Rawadid ruler of Azerbaijan, Abu Mansur Wahsudan, to acknowledge his authority. <mask>'s name was placed in the khutba (Friday prayer), while a son of Wahsudan, possibly Abu'l-Hayja Manuchihr, was sent as a Seljuk hostage to Khurasan.In the same year, <mask>'s forces were contending in Anatolia with the Byzantines. In 1055 he was commissioned by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im to recapture Baghdad from the Buyids. A revolt by Turcoman forces under his foster brother İbrahim Yinal and the efforts of Buyid forces led to the loss of the city to the Fatimid Caliph in 1058. Two years later <mask> crushed the rebellion, personally strangling İbrahim with his bowstring and entered Baghdad. He then married the daughter of the Abbasid Caliph near the city of Tabriz. Death and succession
<mask> died on 4 October 1063 in Ray, at the age of seventy. Having no children, he had nominated his infant nephew Sulayman (a son of Chaghri Beg) as his successor.The vizier al-Kunduri supported this choice and may have been the one to suggest it to greatly expand his authority as the regent of the child. The succession was contested by Chaghri Beg's more competent and elder son Alp Arslan, who had ruled Khurasan since his father's death in 1059. Alp Arslan quickly asserted his authority over the whole empire, becoming the first Seljuk ruler to rule over both <mask>'s and Chaghri's lands. Family
One of his wives was Altun Jan Khatun. She was a Turkic woman, probably from Khwarazm, and had been married to Khwarazm Shah Shah Malik, with whom she had a son named Anushirvan. They married in around 1043. She died in 1061.Another wife was Akka Khatun. After <mask>'s death, she married Alp Arslan. Another of his wives was the daughter of Abu Kalijar. They married in 1047–48. Another wife was the widow of his brother Chaghri Beg, and mother of his son, Suleiman. They married after Chaghri's death in 1060. Another wife was Sayida Khatun.She was the daughter of Abbasid Caliph Al-Qaim. In 1061, Tughril sent the qadi of Ray to Baghdad, to ask her hand in marriage to him. The marriage contract was concluded in August–September 1062 outside Tabriz, with a marriage proportion of one hundred thousand dinars. She was brought to the Sultan's palace in March–April 1063. After Tughril's death, Alp Arslan sent her back to Baghdad in 1064. In 1094, Caliph Al-Mustazhir compelled her to remain in her house in lest she should intrigue for his overthrow. She died on 20 October 1102.Legacy

Sultan <mask> was undoubtedly a military genius. Though his military campaigns inflicted serious damage on the productive forces of many conquered states, they paved the way for the establishment of the first powerful medieval empire of the Turks that linked "the East and the West". The formation of a vast empire objectively led to important changes in socio-economic, political and cultural life. The role of the landowning aristocracy markedly increased. Gradually, a new apparatus of state administration and an imperial system of civil and military administration took shape. <mask>'s conquests had an impact on the lives of not only the people of annexed states, but also the nomads themselves, who participated in the establishment of the new state. Noticeable changes in the life of the Oguz-Turkmen tribes occurred as they settled in Khorasan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Transcaucasia and Asia Minor.The transition of compact groups of nomads to a semi-settled and sedentary life and agriculture took place. The old tribal ties broke up; feudal relations received a new incentive for further development, although remnants of archaic institutions remained for a long time. The Seljuk nobility began to gradually merge with the feudal aristocracy of the conquered lands. References

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990 births
1063 deaths
Seljuk rulers
11th-century Turkic people
Founding monarchs
Muslim monarchs
Shahanshahs

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Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril
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