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<mask> (Valladolid circa 1520 - Ciudad Rica de La Plata 1575) was a Spanish colonial jurist, civil servant, businessman and thinker who proposed an intellectual and political vision of profound influence in the earliest troubled stage of the contact between the Hispanic and the American Indigenous world. He was born in Valladolid, when the city was the capital of the kingdom of Castile, to a prominent noble family that had strong ties to the royal family. He spent his entire adult life in South America in what is now Peru and Bolivia. He was involved in the political and economic management of the Spanish colony and based on his good knowledge of the laws as  (licentiate) acquired a deep knowledge and practical experience of the Native Americans in the southern Andes, being an encomendero,  (inspector general) and corregidor (district governor and judicial official) in the provinces of Charcas (today Bolivia) and Cusco. His administrative reports, well known and appreciated by his peers and contemporaries, have had wide repercussions in the field of Andean studies up to the present time. Biography

Family and early life
Some sources include the name Juan (John) in his Christian name, but according to recent researches his name was solely <mask>: he never used the name Juan and always signed his manuscript works as  (the licentiate <mask>). There are no documentary elements that provide the date of the birth of <mask> in the city of Valladolid, nor the years of his study at the University of Salamanca.From a testimonial statement made in March 1550, in which he stated that he was then over 30 years old, it can be inferred that he might be born around 1520 or perhaps some years earlier. He was the eldest of the seven children of Diego López <mask> Ondegardo and Jerónima <mask>rate. His father,  (nobleman) of Valladolid with Milanese ancestors, was  (receiver, administrator) of the Inquisition of Granada, that is the person who managed the incomes, taxes and other goods of any kind of the Inquisition. The <mask> León Ondegardo family was for sure an important one since the  was appointed directly by the king and acted on behalf of the crown, who was responsible for disposing of the confiscated assets of condemned persons. His mother was the daughter of Lope <mask> Zárate a court official who served as a chamber clerk (secretary) both in the  (Council of the Supreme Inquisition) and in the Council of Castile, the highest administrative and judicial body of the Spanish monarchy at that time. <mask>'s uncle (his mother's brother) was Agustin <mask>rate, fiscal auditor and general accountant of the Viceroyalty of Peru and Province of Tierra Firme and later chronicler. <mask>'s father died in 1534 while he was studying in Valladolid for his bachelorship of law which he obtained in 1538.The Zárate family took direct charge of the education of the seven Ondegardo siblings with a financial aid of 7,000 maravedís by their grandfather and when he died in 1538 his property was partitioned between his children Agustin and Jerónima (<mask>'s mother).They both received the amount of 564,525 maravedís, distributed in household furniture, silver objects and income titles in the jurisdiction of Valladolid and nearby country. Through the same will <mask> received a special grant of 90 ducats to complete his studies at the University of Salamanca. Unfortunately <mask>'s name does not appear in registers of the university which at the time were incomplete. In Salamanca, <mask> most probably attended the lessons of <mask> Vitoria, founder of the philosophy of human rights known as School of Salamanca, which supported the just titles of Castile and the legitimacy of the war against the Native Americans, called Indians at that time, but defending the rights of the natives to be free from foreign dominion, to the possession of their goods and territories and to govern themselves. In fact <mask>'s subsequent political position identified with the "intermediate" conception of the School of Salamanca, which distanced itself from the extreme positions either in favor of the Native Americans or the Spaniards. He defended the recognition of indigenous people as human beings, the preservation of their culture and traditional customs, and at the same time the promotion of evangelization by showing an attitude in favor of humanitarian principles but also in favor of the economic and political interests of the king. Peru civil war
In 1543, having already obtained the title of licentiate, <mask> joined his uncle Agustín <mask>rate, appointed general accountant of Peru and Tierra Firme, and embarked for South America, in the huge (52 ships) fleet of Blasco Núñez Vela, the newly appointed first viceroy.Núñez  was charged with the task of enforcing the New Laws aimed at removing most of the power from the conquistadors and returning it to the king. <mask> traveled in the same galleon as his brother <mask> Zárate, the judges of the new  (Royal Tribunal) to be set up in Lima and the newly appointed governor of Nicaragua <mask> Contreras (whose daughter <mask> would later marry). On that ship traveled also Diego Martín, cleric and Hernando Pizarro's butler, who was charged of the interests of his lord in Peru and who carried out propaganda action spreading a negative image of the viceroy. Through Diego Martín, <mask> became administrator of all of Hernando Pizarro's wealths. After a stop in Panama, <mask> arrived in Lima in June 1544, along with this uncle Agustín <mask>rate and the other members of his entourage. A couple of months later the uprising of the Peruvian  started against the royal authority, which led to the acceptance of Gonzalo Pizarro as governor in Lima and the deposition of the viceroy Núñez Vela by the . In 1545 <mask> was acting lawyer for the Royal Treasury in the accounting mission carried out by his uncle Zárate who, at the end of it, left for Spain, while <mask> and the other members of his entourage remained in Peru, involved in the rebellion of the .<mask> moved to the city of Cuzco, where he publicly supported the Pizarro side and in 1547 was forced by the field master <mask> Carvajal, the Demon of the Andes, to return to Lima and take charge in favor of the . In the meantime the king had named <mask> la Gasca president of the  and acting viceroy in an attempt to try a peaceful settlement of the dispute. As soon as <mask> was aware of this appointment, he changed his mind and joined the royalist troops in the Jauja Valley. On request of Agustín <mask> he wrote the  (Report of the things that happened in the alterations of Peru after Blasco Núñez Vela entered it). In April 1548, at the Battle of Jaquijahuana in today Pampa de Anta,  from Cusco, Pizarro's forces were defeated by Gasca's army. Pizarro and Carvajal were executed, while most of the pizarristas were pardoned. <mask> was dispatched to Charcas (today Bolivia) as investigating judge of those involved in the rebellion.He was also appointed as judge of residence of the public officials of Charcas and received as a grant by Gasca an  of Natives in Cochabamba. <mask> as encomendero in Charcas
While in Charcas he was charged by the local  with the task of understanding the work of indigenous workers in the silver mines in Potosí. To fulfill his task he carried out a survey with the kurakas (local indigenous governors) and indigenous workers of the Potosí mines. In order to collect the precious data he included in his manuscripts, <mask> was probably the first person to carry out inquiries with interviews to people, in what has now become a well-known anthropological technique. His inquiries were programmed with scientific meticulousness, because, in addition to asking the Natives he included the data retrieved form quipus and the other few Inca graphic documents. At the end of his task <mask> was also capable of sending more than 3,700 silver bars to the Royal Treasury. <mask> never forgot the support of the Zárate family to his studies at the University of Salamanca.There is a letter <mask> wrote in 1550 from Potosí in which he states having instituted an income for the endowment of Isabelica, daughter of his unlce Agustín <mask>rate. At the beginning of 1550 he left his office of judge in Charcas and moved to Lima becoming an advisor on government business to the newly established archbishop Jerónimo <mask>. Thanks to his good offices <mask> received from Loayza a land extension to his  in Charcas and in 1552 he eventually settled in  (today Sucre), capital of the region. In the war against the rebel <mask> Girón, <mask>, despite being a lawyer, fought as a royalist infantry captain at the Battle of Chuquinga and was seriously wounded by a harquebus to the leg in the battle of Pucara on October 8, 1554, where Girón was defeated, imprisoned and later executed. in Cusco
Polo became a very wealthy person. A document records a transaction carried out by <mask> in favor of his mother in Spain: he deposited 14,000 pesos in silver at the Royal Teasury in Peru which was exchanged for his mother with  (perpetual property right) at the Casa de la Contratación (royal office for indies) in Seville (September 20, 1556). In 1557 he received an income of 10,000 ducats from the viceroyalty of Peru, for his office as attorney.In 1558 <mask> received from the viceroy Marquis of Cañete the appointment of corregidor (district governor and judicial official) of the province of Cuzco and took possession of this office at the end of the year. In Cusco he carried out a deep inquiry on the religious practices of the natives, which led to his  (Treaty and inquiry into the errors and superstitions of the Indians). He investigated in detail the religion and society of the Andean communities and found out the location of the huacas (shrines) along the ceque system in the four suyus (regions) of the former Inca Empire. From the chroniclers either contemporary of <mask> (Pedro Sarmiento <mask>, Cristóbal <mask>) or several years later, (<mask> Acosta, <mask> la Calancha, Bernabé Cobo) it is known that he found the embalmed bodies and the representative statues ( statue, brother; called idols by the Spaniards) of several Sapa Incas and some of their wives. This achievement was notable for the church because the Incas mummified their dead rulers and continued to worship them after their death and their presence in the roundabouts of Cusco was a disturbance to the Christianization of the Natives. <mask> could achieve the finding through his personal acquaintance with the kurakas (chiefs, indigenous governors) of the royal panakas (kinships of descendants of a Sapa Inca) whose collaboration they offered after the submission pact concluded with the Inca Sayri Túpac, presumed heir to the Inca Empire throne. <mask> kept and protected the mummies in his house in Cusco and would later take them to Lima and put them on show, exclusively to Spaniards, in the in .It is Inca Garcilaso <mask> Vega that in his Comentarios Reales de los Incas (Royal Commentaries of the Incas) describes the surprise he feels when visiting <mask>'s house and meeting the mummies of his ancestors so well preserved in time. Garcilaso was in fact the natural son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, direct descendant of the Sapa Inca. The mummies disappeared from the hospital and were never discovered despite archeological investigations in the last 70 years. <mask> carried out also a significant urban work in Cusco: he contracted the construction of the cathedral, new headquarters for the city council, a hospital and shelter for orphan girls and stonework bridges. Finally he regulated the procession of the Feast of Corpus Christi which was (and still is) directly related to the Andean Quyllurit'i festival, that marks the start of the harvest, signaled by the reappearance of the Pleiades after being hidden for a 40 days period. Advisor to the Viceroy in Lima
In May 1561 <mask> left the charge of  in Cusco and went to Lima as an advisor to the viceroy <mask> Zúñiga. There he wrote for the lawyer Briviesca <mask>, one of the commissioners in charge of the  problem, his  (Report on the perpetuity of the encomiendas in Peru).The question of perpetuity of  was one of the causes of the uprising of Pizarro in 1544 and was still being debated. In principle the  should have been assigned to living persons as a reward for their offices, but many  interpreted their right as hereditary. <mask> was a very rich  and in 1562 he obtained an additional distribution of 300 Natives for the cultivation of coca in his . Nevertheless, his office imposed him to have a better understanding of the matter, so he joined an expedition directed to the southern provinces to consult the local kurakas on the question. On the way, during his stay in Huamanga he dispatched the  (Ordinances of the Huamanga mines). Around 1564 <mask> married Jerónima <mask>, with whom he had six children. She was a Creole and daughter of Rodrigo Contreras, former governor of Nicaragua who had traveled from Spain to Panama on the same ship with <mask> and after accusations of bad government had retired to Lima.At that time and for some years <mask> settled in La Plata (Sucre) where he acted as a lawyer for the . Second term as  in Cusco
In 1571 <mask> wrote the  (Account of the basic principles regarding the notable harm that results from not preserving the Indians’ laws for them). He then joined the government team of the viceroy <mask> Toledo, during his visit to the

masks:
Polo Ondegardo
Polo
Polo
Polo Ongardo
de León
de Zá
López de
Diaz de
Polo
de Zá
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Francisco de
Polo
Polo
de Zá
Polo
Diego de
Rodrigo de
Polo
Polo
Polo
de Zá
Polo
Polo
Polo
Francisco de
Pedro de
Polo
de Zárate
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
de Zá
de Loayza
Polo
Francisco Hernández
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
de Gamboa
de Molina
José de
Antonio de
Polo
Polo
de la
Polo
Polo
Polo
López de
de Muñatones
Polo
Polo
de Peñalosa
Polo
Polo
Polo
Francisco de


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 province of Cuzco, and again assumed the office of  in Cusco. The king of Spain was worried about the fact that the killing of the last Inca by Pizarro could be interpreted as a violation the European tradition of the divine right of kings, and that this might in turn endanger the legitimate right for the king to rule on the Tawantinsuyu. For this reason he had appointed <mask> Toledo as viceroy in 1569 and charged him (among other tasks) with producing the proof that the Incas were tyrants, conquered their territories by subjugation of the local people and were not legitimate rulers. In turn the viceroy ordered the contemporary chroniclers Cristobal <mask> and particularly Pedro Sarmiento <mask> to provide such proof. <mask> knew both an cooperated with them.In January 1572 Sarmiento <mask> asked <mask> for a testimonial statement in the survey on the history and genealogy of the Incas for Sarmiento's  (History of the Incas). Sarmiento had his book read in front of the kurakas form the royal panakas and a distinguished group of Spaniards in Cuzco in order to have a formal verification of his history which described the Incas as tyrants. Those present were asked to sign the manuscript. <mask>'s second term in the government of the Cusco province, from August 1571 to October 1572, was intense. He completed the reduction of the natives in parishes, supported the incorporation of the yanakunas (servants of the Inca's court) into the Spanish crown, advised on the drafting of ordinances for the government of the city and for the cultivation of coca, and was an active supporter, through supply of food and ammunitions, in the war against the Inca rebel Túpac Amaru who was defeated by the Spanish army in Vilcabamba. After the Inca was executed, <mask> quit his office as  and left Cusco together with the Viceory continuing the general visit to the Andean highland provinces. While in La Plata, <mask> assumed the office of  of Charcas.In 1574 he wrote his  (Report on the war of the Chiriguano Indians). Retirement and death
On March 18, 1575, he granted his will in La Plata, leaving his six minor children as heirs and on November 4 he died in the same city. His body was initially buried in the convent of San Francisco in La Plata. In 1592 <mask>'s remains were transferred and reburied in the  in the city of La Plata. Two years later Jerónima, <mask>'s widow, also died in her residence in La Plata, leaving to their six children a significant wealth. Works
<mask> was a civil servant and only wrote reports and letters, all of which were never published. Nevertheless, they were used by later writers and chroniclers to embed their information in the books they published.<mask> was witness of the most important issues of his time: the knowledge of indigenous customs, the debate on the perpetuity of  and those on the economy and colonial government, and he carefully reported about them in his writings. In addition to serving as reports and advice to the viceroys and ecclesiastical authorities, they were used as a primary source by various chroniclers, often without even mentioning his name. <mask>'s text were included in the works of Agustín <mask>, Hernando <mask>, <mask> Acosta, <mask> la Calancha, Buenaventura Salinas y Córdoba, Bernabé Cobo, <mask> Murúa,González Pujana, Laura (1999). Polo de Ondegardo: un cronista vallisoletano en el Perú. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid. Cristóbal <mask>laso de la Vega, <mask> Ávila and Pablo Joseph <mask> y Herrera. <mask> might have written several reports and letters but just a few of them have been recovered by scholars from the archives in Spain and Peru.His principal works are:

 [1559 / 1561?] (Treatise and inquiry into the errors and superstitions of the Indians) which deals with the Andean religion and was written at the request of the Archbishop of Lima Jerónimo <mask>, and used in the second and third Provincial Councils of Lima (1567 and 1582). Its manuscript has been lost. A summary of it was preserved as part of the  (Confessional for priests of Indians with instructions against rites and exhortations as a help to well die) written by <mask> Acosta in 1584. Here the author expresses comments on the laws, the months of the year and related festivals, on sorcery, sacrifices, fortune-tellers, cures and doctors, that allow the scholars to reconstruct the Inca past. The drafting of this treatise, when <mask> was Corregidor in Cuzco for his first term, was possible thanks to his widespread political and intellectual network. The treatise was produced at the request of the viceroy Marquis of Cañete and of Jerónimo <mask>, archbishop of Lima, in 1559.They ordered <mask> to find out about the idolatrous practices of the American Natives; in order to achieve this goal he gathered in the square of Cusco the kurakas and indigenous people of the area, summing up four hundred and seventy-five people between men and women, and subjected them to an inquiry. <mask> was one of the last chroniclers who based his reports on the data provided by the survivors of the Inca elite, including the  (quipu manager, quipu responsible) experts in reading the quipus. <mask> reported also about human sacrifices of children performed by the Incas. Several years later <mask> was harshly criticized by the Jesuit Blas Valera who questioned <mask>'s knowledge of Quechua and attributed <mask>'s statement to a misunderstanding of a quechua word: the sacrifices were of young animals and not young humans. Scholars have now confirmed, with archaeological discoveries, the existence of sacrifices of children, mostly in pair (male and female) for special purposes such as protecting against earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Moreover, the scholars, through the comparison of <mask>'s works with other linguistics sources, confirmed his good knowledge of quechua and possibly also Aymara languages. [before 1561] (Report of the shrines of the Indians in the four ceques) which is fully included into Bernabé Cobo's  (History of the New World).<mask> produced a list of the huacas that extended along the ceques starting from the Coricancha temple in Cusco towards the four directions of the four provinces of the Tawantinsuyu. Basing on the <mask>'s treatise, the Cusco ceque system was investigated in detail by R. <mask>, who confirmed his discoveries and descriptions.<mask>, Reiner Tom; Hooykaas, Eva María (1964). The ceque system of Cuzco: the social organization of the capital of the Inca - MPublishing, University of Michigan Library
 [1561] (Report to the licentiate Briviesca <mask> on the perpetuity of the encomiendas in Peru) was drawn up according to the questionnaires established in the Royal Decree of 1553. It was requested by the viceroy <mask> Zúñiga, through the commissioner Briviesca <mask>, who was part of the group of commissioners sent by the king to deal with the issue of the perpetuity of the  in South America. [1561- 1570] (Report of the lineage of the Incas and how they extended their conquests). <mask> names the Incas in a list that coincides with the one generally recorded by all the chroniclers but unfortunately does not clarify any of the many confusing points of the history of the Incas, nevertheless he refers to a previous report'' written by him on these issues, which was never retrieved but must have been very rich in data judging by what <mask> states. [1562] (Ordinances of the Huamanga mines).It was requested by the Viceroy and drafted for a mercury mine after a new method for extracting silver using mercury was proposed by a Spaniard. [1565] (Letter to doctor <mask> <mask>) was addressed to an official of the vice royal court, <mask> <mask>, who was living in Charcas and who returned to Spain, where in 1568 he presented the letter to the  (major board) which brought together high officials of the king with the objective of reorganizing the entire Spanish-American structure as far as necessary, through very specific and coherent instructions to viceroy Toledo, who would travel to the Indies to implement these provisions. In this letter <mask> proposes, on the one hand, a way to prevent the Natives from excessively addressing the courts with pleads, a custom that was born from dealing with the Spaniards, recommending that they keep their customs, and, on the other hand, he presents a series of provisions for the good government of the Natives, expressly indicating obligations to the . This letter may have been one of the bases for the initial set up of the legislation for Native Americans which was kept separate from the Spaniard's legislation. [1571] (True and legitimate dominion of the kings of Spain over Peru); a work on the presumed tyranny of the Incas, supporting the just titles of the king of Spain to rule in South America. [1571] (Account of the basic principles regarding the notable harm that results from not preserving the Indians’ laws for them). It was addressed to Viceroy <mask> Toledo who used it as a source for his ordinances when <mask> was one of his advisers.The report may have been written before Toledo's term. This report is principally a legal and economic treatise which includes valuable economic and ethnographic information for the understanding of indigenous power elites and the emerging colonial society. Moreover, it provides a model of Hispanic-indigenous relationship based on the respect for traditional indigenous local laws (). Nevertheless, this proposal was not taken into account by the different viceroys. [1574] (Report on the war of the Chiriguano Indians), written shortly before <mask>'s death. Pre-Hispanic local taxes and laws
The Castile's juridical tradition had familiarized <mask> with the coexistence of various legal systems and, most importantly, with their official recognition, such as those related to "other" religions: the Islamic and the Judaic ones, together with the respect for human dignity and cultural tolerance proposed at the Salamanca school by <mask> Vitoria and his radical follower Bartolomé <mask> Casas. With such a knowledge <mask> tried to understand and describe what he called the  (particular law, local legal system) of the southern Andean peoples.In his reports he presented to the Spanish authorities the main rites and beliefs of the Andean communities, the pre-Hispanic tax system, the distribution and use of natural resources and the administrative, economic and political complexity of the Tahuantinsuyu. <mask> believed that the best way to control Andean people was to understand their culture. He supported the idea that the old pre-Hispanic law could be used to reduce the litigations, set up a local tax system based on the Incan one and to achieve a more successful colonization. To this end he suggested that the Spaniards' interests, in most cases, lay in preserving Andean institutions as they had found them. Viceroy Toledo did not accept his view and never adopted such a proposal. Quipu
<mask> was among the first ones to recognize the value of quipus as registers. <mask> postulated the idea that the quipus represented a registration system that allowed for an easy incorporation of information, not only numbers.Moreover, the data could be retrieved so easily by a  (quipu manager, quipu responsible), that <mask> stated that the effectiveness of quipu is not only incredible but indeed wonderful. In his writings <mask> was astonished by the accuracy of the accounts kept in quipus. His conclusion was that they are instruments of all trust. He checked their accuracy by asking quipu managers to record some data and retrieved them some days later finding that they corresponded to <mask>'s own records in writing. Further reading
 González Pujana, Laura (1993). La vida y la obra del Licenciado Polo de Ondegardo. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid.(in Spanish)
 González Pujana, Laura (1999). Polo de Ondegardo: un cronista vallisoletano en el Perú. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid. (in Spanish)
 Hampe Martínez,  Teodoro (2016). El licenciado Polo Ondegardo (1520-1575). Biografía de un jurista castellano en los Andes coloniales - in XVIII Congreso Internacional de Historia del Derecho Indiano - Córdoba 2012 - Instituto Internacional de Historia del Derecho Indiano / editors:  Aspell, Marcela; Agüero Alejandro; Llamosas, Esteban <mask> -  1st edition 2016 - Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Volume II  (in Spanish)
 Velaochaga Dam, Carlos; Herrera Villagra, Alejandro; Warthon Calero, Rafael (eds.) (2017).Crónicas tempranas del siglo XVI. Tomo II. El patrimonio hegemónico de la escritura: Descripciones historiográficas del Cusco (1542-1590) - Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco – Ministerio de Cultura de Peru (in Spanish)
 Bauer, Brian S.; Smith-Oka Vania; E. Cantarutti, Gabriel (editors) (2011) Account of the Fables and Rites of the Incas by Cristóbal <mask> - With an introduction by Brian S. Bauer - University of Texas Press
 The History of the Incas by Pedro Sarmiento <mask> [1572] translated and edited by Brian S. Bauer and Vania Smith introduction by Brian S. Bauer and Jean-Jacques Decoster - University of Texas Press Austin - 2007

See also
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Inca Empire
Ceque system
Quipu
Panakas and ayllu
Agustin <mask>árate
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Francisco Pizarro
Hernando Pizarro
Gonzalo Pizarro
Blasco Núñez Vela
<mask> Toledo

References

Spanish colonial governors and administrators
16th-century South American people
1520 births
1575 deaths
Year of birth

masks:
Francisco de
de Molina
de Gamboa
Polo
de Gamboa
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo Ongardo
Polo
Polo
de Zárate
de Santillán
José de
Antonio de
Martín de
de Moci
Francisco de
de Arriaga
Polo
de Loayza
José de
Polo
de Loza
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Tom Zuidema
Zuidema
de Muñatones
López de
de Muñatones
Polo
Polo
Francisco Fernández
de Liébana
Juan Fernández
de Liébana
Polo
Francisco de
Polo
Polo
Polo
Francisco de
de las
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Polo
Federico
de Molina
de Gboa
de Z
Francisco de


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<mask> (November 1882 – December 7, 1982) was an American folk festival promoter, author and photographer who specialized in the music, crafts, and language patterns of the Appalachian region of the United States. Early life
She was born <mask>i <mask> to Mr. and Mrs. <mask> in Ashland, Kentucky in 1882. She earned the nickname "Traipsin' Woman" when, as a teenager in the 1890s, she defied convention to attend business school, learn stenography, and become a court reporter, traveling by jolt wagon to courts in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. Her travels from county to county were said to involve "considerable spells of traipsin'". Her exposure to the musical traditions, dialect, folkways, and costumes of the mountain people she encountered, combined with her later work in "show business," led to her avocation as a popularizer of mountain music and as proprietress of the American Folk Song Festival, staged in and near Ashland, Kentucky, from 1930-72. In 1900, she lived at home with her parents; her occupation was stenographer. Career

Using money saved from her court reporter wages, <mask> moved to New York City, where she took writing classes and continued to work as a stenographer.She married accountant <mask> in 1913 and moved to Logan, West Virginia, but was divorced within a year. She then held a variety of jobs, including work as a script girl for Cecil B. de Mille's film The Ten Commandments, as secretary to the owner of the Columbus Senators baseball team, and as press agent for Ruby "Texas" Guinan, the notorious entertainer and owner of prohibition-era speakeasies. During her years working in eastern Kentucky, and on subsequent visits, <mask> often carried her camera and photographed the musicians and other mountain people with whom she came in contact. She used her portable typewriter to document lyrics and tunes to ballads. In 1926, she met James William Day, a blind fiddler from Rowan County. Using the skills she had acquired as a press agent, she changed his name to Jilson Setters, secured recording contracts, and booked him (as the "Singin' Fiddler from Lost Hope Hollow") in theaters. As Jilson Setters, Day eventually played in London's Royal Albert Hall at the Festival of the English Folk Song and Dance Society, for <mask> subscribed to the belief, also held by many of her contemporaries, that in Appalachia, "the speech, song, and traditions of old England still survived" (<mask> 1940, p. 88).Day/Setters was the subject of <mask>' first book, Devil's Ditties, published in 1931; subsequent books included the semi-autobiographical The Traipsin' Woman (1933) and The Sun Shines Bright (1940). Beginning of the American Folk Song Festival

Inspired by a traditional mountain "Singin' Gatherin'" (wherein musicians got together to perform old songs) she had witnessed, <mask> staged a small folk festival for a group of invited guests at her home in September 1930. Featured performers included Setters and Dorothy Gordon, a singer from New York. <mask> incorporated the American Folk Song Society the following year to plan for an annual festival near her hometown of Ashland, Kentucky. The second American Folk Song Festival was held in 1932 on Four Mile Fork of Garner, just off the Mayo Trail, and featured eighteen acts, all of whom had learned by oral tradition, per <mask>' stipulation. The stage included a rented log cabin, because "It was my purpose to recreate as accurately as possible the original scene of the Singin' Gatherin'. That had been presented in front of a windowless cabin.But this rented cabin did have a glass window in front; so I covered it with an American flag" (<mask> 1940, p. 198). With the exception of the years 1943–1947, the American Folk Song Festival was held annually until failing health forced <mask> to retire in 1972. From 1934 to 1949, thanks to a benefactor's gift of land and a windowless log cabin, the festival took place at a site eighteen miles south of Ashland. Beginning in 1950, the festival was held in <mask>' yard in Ashland, moving to a state park in Prestonsburg in 1964, and to the Carter Caves State Park in 1966. The festival followed an unwavering script for many years, intended to show "authentic sequences in America's musical history" (<mask> 1940, p. 262). Volna Fraley or, later, his nephew, would signal the start of the performances by blowing a fox horn that had belonged to "Devil Anse" Hatfield (patriarch of the legendary feuding family of the Kentucky-West Virginia border). Next, a man, woman, and two children would arrive at the stage by covered wagon to be greeted by a woman dressed as a Cherokee Indian, as a representation of the Anglo-American settlement of the Appalachian Mountains.Traditions carried over from the British Isles would then be demonstrated by a dozen children performing an old English country dance accompanied by a piper. A woman in the role of "Narrator" (often played by <mask> herself), attended by "Ladies-in-Waiting" dressed in long black Elizabethan gowns, would read a historical prologue connecting Appalachian customs and music to Elizabethan England. The prologue would conclude with a description of the wedding of a young pioneer couple named Ephraim and Drusilla; the ensuing musical performances were set in the narrative context of their wedding reception, or "Infare." Musicians would play traditional stringed instruments such as dulcimer, fiddle, guitar, banjo, and accordion, plus recorder and mouth harp. Homemade varieties, such as fiddles constructed out of corn stalks, and banjos made from gourds, appeared alongside later models. Nostalgic for the 19th century, <mask> costumed festival performers in homespun garments evoking that era: girls wore bonnets and calico dresses; women dressed in linsey-woolsey and wrapped shawls around their shoulders; and men and boys often wore overalls. Characters bore names of people she had met long before ("Emmaline," "Little Chad," and "Little Babe"), or were invented to sound folksy.Props such as hickory chairs and egg baskets, brooms, and drinking gourds were used in photographing performers. She donated manuscript materials and her photographs to the University of Louisville in 1968. The remainder of her papers came to UofL's Dwight Anderson Music Library in 1990, and are described in an online finding aid. <mask> died in 1982 at the age of 100. Notes

References

 Davis, Stephen F. "Jilson Setters: The man of many names." The Devil's Box (Journal of the Tennessee Valley Old Time Fiddlers Association) 12, no. 1 (March 1978): 42-45.Moore, Anne. "Gift of mountain lore is presented to UofL." Courier-Journal, May 28, 1969. "Music of the Southern Appalachians lives on in Kentucky's American Folk Song Festival." Thirty-ninth Annual American Folk Song Festival program. Carter Caves State Park, Olive Hill, Carter County, Kentucky (June 7–8, 1969). Nixon, Bruce."Down from the Mountains." Louisville Eccentric Observer (LEO) 13, no. 23 (April 9, 2003): 14-16. Portnoy, Marshall A. <mask>' American Folk Song Festival: British Balladry in Eastern Kentucky. Louisville, KY: University of Louisville M.A., 1978. "Singin' Gatherin'." Time (June 20, 1938)."Singin' Gatherin'." Time (June 22, 1942). <mask>, <mask>. The Sun Shines Bright. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940. <mask>, <mask>. The Traipsin' Woman.New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1933. "Traipsin' Woman." Time (June 18, 1934). University of Louisville Dwight Anderson Music Library. "Finding Aid to the <mask> Collection." The West-Virginia Hillbilly (August 8, 1965).Wolfe, Charles K. Kentucky Country: Folk and Country Music of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 1996. External links

1882 births
1982 deaths
People from Ashland, Kentucky
American centenarians
American folk-song collectors
Music promoters
20th-century American photographers
American women photographers
Women centenarians
Women folklorists
20th-century women photographers
20th-century American women artists

masks:
Jean Bell Thomas
Jeanette Mary Francis de Assis
Aloysius Naus Garfield Bell
George Bell
Bell
Albert Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Jean Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Jean Thomas
Jean Thomas
Thomas
Jean
Thomas
Jean
Jean Thomas


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<mask> (c. 1584 – October 3, 1656) was an English military officer. He was hired as military adviser for Plymouth Colony in present-day Massachusetts, United States by the Pilgrims. <mask> accompanied the Pilgrims on the ship Mayflower and played a leading role in the administration and defense of Plymouth Colony from its foundation in 1620. On February 17, 1621, the Plymouth Colony militia elected him as its first commander and continued to re-elect him to that position for the remainder of his life. <mask> served at various times as an agent of Plymouth Colony on a return trip to England, as assistant governor of the colony, and as its treasurer. A defining characteristic of <mask>'s military leadership was his proclivity for preemptive action. He led at least two attacks or small skirmishes against Native Americans in a raid on the village of Nemasket and a conflict at Wessagusset Colony.During these actions, <mask> exhibited courage and skill as a soldier, but disturbed more moderate members of the colony due to his brutality toward Natives. <mask> led a botched expedition against French troops at Penobscot in 1635, one of his last military actions. By the 1640s, he relinquished his role as an active soldier and became a farmer in Duxbury, Massachusetts, where he was one of the first settlers. He remained nominal commander of the Pilgrim military forces in the growing colony, but acted in an advisory capacity. He died in his home in Duxbury in 1656 at age 72. <mask> supported and defended the Pilgrims' colony for much of his life, though there is no evidence to suggest that he ever joined their church. Several towns and military installations have been named after <mask>, and monuments have been built in his memory.He appears as lead character in the 1858 poem The Courtship of Miles Standish by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, a highly fictionalized account which presents him as a timid romantic. The poem was popular in the 19th century and played a role in cementing the Pilgrim story in American culture. Birthplace and early military service
Little is known of <mask>'s origin and early life: his place of birth has been debated by historians. <mask>'s will, drafted in Plymouth Colony in 1656, claims rights of inheritance to property in several locations:

I give unto my son & heire apparent <mask> all my lands as heire apparent by lawfull decent in Ormskirke [Ormskirk] Borscouge [Burscough] Wrightington Maudsley [Mawdesley] Newburrow [Newburgh] Crowston [Croston] and in the Isle of man  and given to mee as Right heire by lawfull decent but Surruptuously detained from mee My great Grandfather being a 2cond or younger brother from the house of <mask> of <mask>. All but one of the places named in <mask>'s will are in Lancashire, England, with the exception being the Isle of Man. Some historians have concluded that he was therefore born in Lancashire – possibly in the vicinity of Chorley, where a family named <mask> owned a manor called Duxbury Hall. However, there is no conclusive evidence linking <mask> <mask> to that family.A competing interpretation is that he belonged to a Manx branch of the <mask> family. No definitive documentation of his birth exists in either Lancashire or the Isle of Man. The next earliest source on <mask>'s family and early life is a short passage recorded by Nathaniel Morton, secretary of Plymouth Colony, who wrote in his New England's Memorial (published 1669) that <mask>:

was a gentleman, born in Lancashire, and was heir apparent unto a great estate of lands and livings, surreptitiously detained from him; his great grandfather being a second or younger brother from the house of <mask>. In his younger time he went over into the low countries, and was a soldier there, and came acquainted with the church at Leyden, and came over into New England, with such of them as at the first set out for the planting of the plantation of New Plymouth, and bare a deep share of their first difficulties, and was always very faithful to their interest. <mask>'s early military career in the Low Countries is unclear. At the time, the Dutch Republic was embroiled in the Eighty Years' War with Spain. Queen Elizabeth I of England supported the Protestant Dutch Republic and sent troops to fight the Spanish in the Netherlands, as part of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).Historians are divided on <mask>'s role in the English military. Nathaniel Philbrick refers to him as a "mercenary", suggesting that he was a hired soldier of fortune seeking employment in the war, but Justin Winsor claims that <mask> received a commission as a lieutenant in the English army and was later promoted to captain while in Holland. Historian Jeremy Bangs argued that <mask> likely served under Sir Horatio Vere, the general who led the English troops in the Netherlands at this time. Vere is known to have recruited soldiers for the expedition in both Lancashire and the Isle of Man, among other places. According to historian Tudor Jenks, <mask> came to the Netherlands around 1603 and may have seen service during the siege of Sluis in 1604, which involved Vere's English troops. The subsequent Treaty of London (1604) ended English involvement in the war; if <mask> was a mercenary he might have continued to serve with the Dutch until the Twelve Years' Truce brought fighting in the region to a halt in 1609. <mask>'s activities and whereabouts are unrecorded until 1620, at which point he was living with his wife Rose in Leiden, Holland and using the title of "Captain".There he was hired by a group of refugee Puritan dissenters from England who intended to form a colony in North America (the Pilgrims). <mask> was employed as their military adviser. The Puritans had previously hoped the position would be taken by Captain John Smith, who had been one of the founders of the English colony at Jamestown, Virginia and had experience exploring and mapping the American coast. The Pilgrims approached Smith and he expressed interest, but his price was too high and the Pilgrims feared that his fame and bold character might lead him to become a dictator. They appointed <mask> instead; he was apparently already known to the Pilgrims. Voyage to New Plymouth

On July 22, 1620 (Old Style date), the initial group of English Dissenters living in Leiden boarded the Speedwell, which was meant to accompany another ship to be hired in England. This initial group included the mostly Brownist congregation.<mask> and <mask> were aboard, along with the Bradfords, Winslows, Carvers, and others. The small, 60-ton pinnace sailed to Southampton with about 30 passengers, to be provisioned and join a much larger vessel for the voyage to the New World. Another 90 passengers would board the 180-ton Mayflower. The Speedwell had some significant leaks while in port that caused delays, but both vessels departed Southampton on August 5. The leaders of the colony decided to leave the smaller Speedwell behind after numerous delays caused by leaking, which had caused them to return to port twice. The Standishes and most of the Speedwell passengers crowded into the Mayflower, and the Speedwell went on to London to be resold, now with only a few passengers. The Mayflower passengers, meanwhile, sold some valuable supplies such as butter to pay the mounting port fees, and finally departed Plymouth, England, on September 6, 1620, bound for the northern part of the Virginia Colony.On November 9, 1620, lookouts spotted land, but they discovered that they were near Cape Cod and about 200 miles east-northeast of their planned destination of northern Virginia. They tried briefly to sail south, but strong seas forced them to retreat to Cape Cod to harbor near the hook of Provincetown Harbor. It became apparent that the weather would not permit the passage south, so they decided to settle near Cape Cod. Shortage of supplies (including wood and beer) and the roaring Atlantic made it too dangerous to press on for a Virginia landing. They anchored at the hook on November 11, and the leaders of the colony wrote the Mayflower Compact to ensure a degree of law and order in this place where they had not been granted a patent to settle. <mask> <mask> was one of the 41 men who signed it. Establishment of Plymouth Colony
The Mayflower was anchored off Cape Cod when <mask> urged the colony's leaders to allow him to take a party ashore to find a suitable place for settlement.On November 15, 1620, he led 16 men on foot in exploration of the northern portion of the Cape. On December 11, he led a group of 18 and made an extended exploration of the shore of Cape Cod by boat, spending their nights ashore surrounded by makeshift barricades of tree branches. They were attacked one night by a group of about 30 Indians. They panicked, but <mask> calmed them, urging them not to fire their matchlock muskets unnecessarily. The incident took place in Eastham, Massachusetts, and came to be known as the First Encounter. After further exploration, the Pilgrims chose a location in Plymouth Bay in late December 1620 as the site for their settlement. <mask> provided important counsel on the placement of a small fort in which cannon were mounted, and on the layout of the first houses for maximum defensibility.They had built only one single-room house when illness struck. Only 50 survived the first winter out of the 100 or so who arrived on the Mayflower. <mask>'s wife Rose died in January. <mask> was one of the very few who did not fall ill, and William Bradford credited him with comforting many and being a source of strength to those who suffered. <mask> tended to Bradford during his illness, and this was the beginning of a decades-long friendship. Bradford held the position of governor for most of his life and, by necessity, worked closely with <mask>. The two men were opposites in terms of character; Bradford was patient and slow to judgment, while <mask> was well known for his fiery temper.Despite their differences, the two worked well together in managing the colony and responding to dangers as they arose. Aggression in Support of Plymouth Colony
By February 1621, the colonists had sighted Indians several times, but there had been no communication. The men of the colony were anxious to prepare themselves in case of hostilities, so they formed a militia on February 17, 1621, consisting of all able-bodied men, electing <mask> as their commander. The leaders of Plymouth Colony had already hired him for that role, but this vote ratified the decision by democratic process. The men of Plymouth Colony continued to re-elect him to that position for the remainder of his life. As captain of the militia, he regularly drilled his men in the use of pikes and muskets. Contact with the Indians came in March 1621 through Samoset, an English-speaking Abenaki who arranged for the Pilgrims to meet with Massasoit, the sachem of the nearby Pokanoket tribe.On March 22, Plymouth Colony's governor John Carver signed a treaty with Massasoit, declaring an alliance between the Pokanokets and the Colonists and requiring the two parties to defend one another in times of need. Governor Carver died the same year and the responsibility of upholding the treaty fell to his successor William Bradford. Bradford and <mask> were frequently preoccupied with the complex task of reacting to threats against both the Pilgrims and the Pokanokets from tribes such as the Massachusetts and the Narragansetts. As threats arose, <mask> typically advocated intimidation to deter their rivals. Such behavior at times made Bradford uncomfortable, but he found it an expedient means of maintaining the treaty with the Pokanokets. Nemasket raid

The first challenge to the treaty came in August 1621 when a sachem named Corbitant began to undermine Massasoit's leadership. Corbitant worked to turn the people against Massasoit in the Pokanoket village of Nemasket, now the site of Middleborough, Massachusetts, about  west of Plymouth.Bradford sent two trusted interpreters to determine what was happening in Nemasket: Tisquantum (known to the English as Squanto) and Hobbamock. Tisquantum had been pivotal in providing counsel and aid to the Pilgrims, ensuring the survival of the colony. Hobbamock was another influential ally, a high-ranking advisor to Massasoit and a warrior who commanded particular respect and fear among the Indians. When Tisquantum and Hobbamock arrived in Nemasket, Corbitant took Tisquantum captive and threatened to kill him. Hobbamock escaped to warn Plymouth. Bradford and <mask> agreed that this represented a dangerous threat to the Plymouth-Pokanoket alliance and decided to act quickly. On August 14, 1621, <mask> led a group of 10 men to Nemasket, determined to kill Corbitant.They were guided by Hobbamock who quickly befriended <mask>, and the two men were close for the remainder of their lives. In his old age, Hobbamock became part of <mask>'s household in Duxbury. Reaching Nemasket, <mask> planned a night attack on the shelter in which Corbitant was believed to be sleeping. That night, he and Hobbamock burst into the shelter, shouting for Corbitant. As frightened Pokanokets attempted to escape, <mask>'s men outside fired their muskets, wounding a Pokanoket man and woman who were later taken to Plymouth to be treated. <mask> soon learned that Corbitant had already fled the village and Tisquantum was unharmed. <mask> had failed to capture Corbitant, but the raid had the desired effect.On September 13, 1621, nine sachems came to Plymouth, including Corbitant, to sign a treaty of loyalty to King James. Palisade

In November 1621, a Narragansett messenger arrived in Plymouth and delivered a bundle of arrows wrapped in a snakeskin. Tisquantum and Hobbamock told them that this was a threat and an insult from Narragansett sachem Canonicus. The Narragansetts lived west of Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island and were one of the more powerful tribes in the region. Bradford sent back the snakeskin filled with gunpowder and shot in an effort to show that they were not intimidated. Standish took the threat seriously and urged that the colonists encircle their small village with a palisade made of tall, upright logs. The proposal would require a wall more than half a mile (or 0.8 km) long.In addition, he recommended the construction of strong gates and platforms for shooting over the wall. The colony had recently been reinforced by the arrival of new colonists from the ship Fortune,

masks:
Myles Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Alexander Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Myles
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Myles
Rose Standish
Myles
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
Standish
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Standish
Standish
Standish


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 but there were still only 50 men to work on the task. Despite the challenges, the settlers constructed the palisade per <mask>'s recommendations in just three months, finishing in March 1622. <mask> divided the militia into four companies, one to man each wall, and drilled them in defending the village in the event of attack. Wessagusset
A more serious threat came from the Massachusett tribe to the north and was precipitated by the arrival of a new group of English colonists. In April 1622, the vanguard of a new colony arrived in Plymouth. They had been sent by merchant Thomas Weston to establish a new settlement somewhere near Plymouth.The men chose a site on the shore of the Fore River in Weymouth, Massachusetts, about  north of Plymouth, and they called their colony Wessagusset. The settlers of the poorly managed colony infuriated the Massachusett tribe through theft and recklessness. By March 1623, Massasoit had learned that a group of influential Massachusett warriors intended to destroy both the Wessagusset and Plymouth colonies. He warned Plymouth to strike first. One of the colonists of Wessagusset named Phineas Pratt verified that his settlement was in danger. He managed to escape to Plymouth and reported that the colonists in Wessagusset had been repeatedly threatened by the Massachusetts, that the settlement was in a state of constant watchfulness, and that men were dying at their posts from starvation. Bradford called a public meeting at which the Pilgrims decided to send <mask> and a small group of eight, including Hobbamock, to Wessagusset to kill the leaders of the plot.The mission had a personal aspect for <mask>. One of the warriors threatening Wessagusset was Wituwamat, a Neponset who had earlier insulted and threatened <mask>. <mask> arrived at Wessagusset and found that many of the colonists had gone to live with the Massachusetts, and he ordered them to be called back to Wessagusset. Pecksuot was a Massachusett warrior and leader of the group threatening Wessagusset; he came to the settlement with Wituwamat and other warriors the day after <mask>'s arrival. <mask> claimed simply to be in Wessagusset on a trading mission, but Pecksuot said to Hobbamock, "Let him begin when he dare; he shall not take us unawares." Later in the day, Pecksuot approached <mask>, looking down on him, and said, "You are a great captain, yet you are but a little man. Though I be no sachem, yet I am of great strength and courage."The next day, <mask> arranged to meet with Pecksuot over a meal in one of Wessagusset's one-room houses. Pecksuot brought Wituwamat, Wituwamat's adolescent brother, and several women. <mask> had three men of Plymouth and Hobbamock with him in the house. On an arranged signal, they shut the door of the house and <mask> attacked Pecksuot, stabbing him repeatedly with the man's own knife. Wituwamat and the third warrior were also killed. <mask> ordered two more Massachusett warriors to be put to death, then went outside the walls of Wessagusset in search of Obtakiest, a sachem of the Massachusett tribe. They soon encountered Obtakiest with a group of warriors, and a skirmish ensued during which Obtakiest escaped.Having accomplished his mission, <mask> returned to Plymouth with Wituwamat's head. The leaders of the plot to destroy the settlements had been killed and the threat removed, but the action had unexpected consequences. The settlement of Wessagusset, which <mask> had been trying to protect, was all but abandoned after the incident. Most of the settlers departed for an English fishing post on Monhegan Island. The attack also caused widespread panic among Indian tribes throughout the region. Villages were abandoned and the Pilgrims had difficulty reviving trade for some time. Pastor John Robinson was still in Leiden, but he criticized <mask> for his brutality.Bradford, too, was uncomfortable with his methods, but he defended him in a letter: "As for Capten <mask>, we leave him to answer for him selfe, but this we must say, he is as helpfull an instrument as any we have, and as carefull of the generall good." Dispersal of Merrymount settlers

In 1625, another group of English settlers established an outpost not far from the site of Wessagusset, located in Quincy, Massachusetts about  north of Plymouth. The settlement was officially known as Mount Wollaston, but soon earned the nickname "Merrymount." Their leader Thomas Morton encouraged behavior that the Pilgrims found objectionable and dangerous. The men of Merrymount built a maypole, drank liberally, refused to observe the Sabbath, and sold weapons to the Indians. Bradford found the weapons sales particularly disturbing and ordered <mask> to lead an expedition to arrest Morton in 1628. <mask> arrived with a group of men to find that the small band at Merrymount had barricaded themselves within a small building.Morton eventually decided to attack the men from Plymouth, but the Merrymount group were too drunk to handle their weapons. Morton aimed a weapon at <mask>, which the captain ripped from his hands. <mask> and his men took Morton to Plymouth and eventually sent him back to England. Later, Morton wrote the book New English Canaan in which he referred to <mask> as "Captain Shrimp" and added, "I have found the Massachusetts Indians more full of humanity than the Christians." Penobscot expedition
<mask>'s last significant known expedition was against the French who had established a trading post in 1613 on the Penobscot River in Castine, Maine. English forces captured the settlement in 1628 and turned it over to Plymouth Colony. It was a valuable source of furs and timber for the Pilgrims for seven years.However, the French mounted a small expedition in 1635 and easily reclaimed the settlement. Bradford ordered <mask> to take action, determined that the post be reclaimed in Plymouth Colony's name. This was a significantly larger proposition than the small expeditions which <mask> had previously led and, to accomplish the task, he chartered the ship Good Hope captained by a man named Girling. <mask>'s plan appears to have been to bring the Good Hope within cannon range of the trading post and to bombard the French into surrendering. Unfortunately, Girling ordered the bombardment before the ship was within range and quickly spent all the gunpowder on board. <mask> gave up the effort. By this time, the neighboring and more populous Massachusetts Bay Colony had been established.Bradford appealed to leaders of the colony in Boston for help in reclaiming the trading post, but the Bay Colony refused. The incident was indicative of the rivalry which persisted between Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies. In 1691, the two were merged to become the royal Province of Massachusetts Bay. Settlement in Duxbury

In 1625, Plymouth Colony leaders appointed <mask> to travel to London to negotiate new terms with the Merchant Adventurers. If a settlement could be reached and the Pilgrims could pay off their debt to the Adventurers, then the colonists would have new rights to allot land and settle where they pleased. <mask> was not successful in his negotiations and returned to Plymouth in April 1626. Another effort was successful later in 1626, this time negotiated by Isaac Allerton, and several leading men of Plymouth, including <mask>, ultimately paid off the colony's debt to the Adventurers.The leaders of Plymouth Colony were now free of the directives of the Merchant Adventurers, and they exerted their newfound autonomy by organizing a land division in 1627. Large farm lots were parceled out to each family in the colony along the shore of Plymouth, Kingston, Duxbury, and Marshfield, Massachusetts. <mask> received a farm of  in Duxbury, and he built a house and settled there around 1628. There are indications that <mask> began to seek a quieter life by 1635 (after the Penobscot expedition), maintaining the livestock and fields of his Duxbury farm. He was about 51 years old at that time, and he began to relinquish the responsibility of defending the colony to a younger generation. A note in the colony records of 1635 indicates that Lieutenant William Holmes was appointed to train the militia as <mask>'s immediate subordinate. When the Pequot War loomed in 1637, <mask> was appointed to a committee to raise a company of 30 men, but it was Holmes who led the company in the field.The families living in Duxbury (sometimes "Duxborough") asked to be set off from Plymouth as a separate town with their own church and minister; this request was granted in 1637. Historian Justin Winsor and others have insisted that the name of Duxbury was given by <mask> in honor of Duxbury Hall, near Chorley in Lancashire, which was owned by a branch of the <mask> family. The coincidence would suggest that he had something to do with it, though no records exist to indicate how the town was named. Last years

During the 1640s, <mask> took on an increasingly administrative role. He served as a surveyor of highways, as treasurer of the colony from 1644 to 1649, and on various committees to lay out boundaries of new towns and inspect waterways. His old friend Hobbamock had been part of his household, but he died in 1642 and was buried on <mask>'s farm in Duxbury. <mask> died on October 3, 1656, of "strangullion" or strangury, a condition often associated with kidney stones or bladder cancer.He was buried in Duxbury's Old Burying Ground, now known as the Myles Standish Cemetery. Marriages and family
<mask> <mask> married:
 Rose (1601–21) by 1618. She died the first winter. She was buried in an unmarked grave at Coles Hill Burial Ground in Plymouth, as were many others who died the first winter. She is named on the Pilgrim Memorial Tomb on Cole's Hill as "Rose, first wife of <mask> <mask>". Barbara by 1624. She had come to Plymouth in 1623 on the Anne and they were married the following spring.They had seven children. She died after October 6, 1659, and her burial place is unknown. Children of <mask> and <mask>:
 Charles (1) was born in 1624. He died between May 22, 1627 and 1635. Alexander was born about 1626 and died July 6, 1702. He was buried in Myles Standish Burying Ground in Duxbury, Massachusetts. He married Sarah Alden by 1660 and had eight children.She died before June 13, 1688. Her father was Mayflower passenger John Alden. He then married Desire (Doty) (Sherman) Holmes by 1689 and had three children. She died in Marshfield on January 22, 1731. Her father was Mayflower passenger Edward Doty. John was born about 1627. No further record exists.<mask> was born about 1629 and died at sea after March 20, 1661. His body was lost at sea. He married Sarah Winslow in Boston on July 19, 1660, but there is no record of children. Loara (Lora) was born about 1631 and died by March 7, 1655/6. She was unmarried. Josiah was born about 1633 and died in Preston, Connecticut, on March 19, 1690. His burial place is unknown.He married Mary Dingley in Marshfield on December 19, 1654, who died in Duxbury on July 1, 1655. He married Sarah Allen after 1655 and had eight children. She died after September 16, 1690. Charles (2) was born by about 1635. He was still living on March 7, 1655/6. No further record exists. Legacy

<mask>'s true-life role in defending Plymouth Colony and the sometimes brutal tactics that he employed were largely obscured by the fictionalized character created by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his narrative poem The Courtship of <mask>.Historian Tudor Jenks wrote that Longfellow's book had "no claim to be considered other than a pleasant little fairystory, and as an entirely misleading sketch of men and matters in old Plymouth." However, the book elevated <mask> to the level of folk hero in Victorian America. In late 19th century Duxbury, the book generated a movement to build monuments in <mask>'s honor, a beneficial by-product of which was increased tourism to the town. The poem was parodied, in the Warner Brothers short film The Hardship of Miles Standish. The first of these monuments was the largest. The cornerstone was laid for the Myles Standish Monument in Duxbury in 1872, with a crowd of ten thousand people attending the ceremonies. It was finished in 1898, the third tallest monument to an individual in the United States.It is surpassed only by the first dedicated Washington Monument (178 feet) in Baltimore, Maryland (finished in 1829) and the Washington Monument (555 feet) in Washington, D.C. (dedicated in 1885). The top of the monument is  overall, and at the top stands a  statue of <mask>. A second, smaller monument was placed over the alleged site of <mask>'s grave in 1893. Two exhumations of <mask>'s remains were undertaken in 1889 and 1891 to determine the location of his resting place. A third exhumation took place in 1930 to place his remains in a hermetically sealed chamber beneath the gravesite monument. His burial site is located in Myles Standish Burial Ground in Duxbury. The site of <mask>'s house reveals only a slight depression in the ground where the cellar hole was, but it is now a small park owned and maintained by the town of Duxbury.Standish, Maine is named for him, as well as the neighborhood of Standish, Minneapolis. At least two forts were named after him: an earthen fort on Plymouth's Saquish Neck built during the American Civil War, and a larger cement fort built on Lovells Island in Boston Harbor in 1895. Both forts are now abandoned. Camp <mask> Standish in nearby Taunton was also named for him. <mask> Standish State Forest is located in the towns of Plymouth and Carver in southeastern Massachusetts, approximately 45 miles (70 km) south of Boston. It is the largest publicly owned recreation area in this part of Massachusetts, and is managed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation (DCR). <mask> <mask> Hall is a dormitory at Boston University, originally constructed as the Myles Standish Hotel in 1925.In 2020, Chorley in Lancashire was due to commemorate 400 years of <mask> <mask>'s Pilgrim journey, however many elements of its planned year were postponed due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Notes

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1580s births
1656 deaths
16th-century English people
17th-century English people
Mayflower passengers
Plymouth, Massachusetts
American folklore
People from Duxbury, Massachusetts
Pequot War
Burials at Myles Standish Burial Ground
People of colonial Massachusetts
Kingdom of England emigrants to Massachusetts Bay

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<mask> (born February 23, 1965) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the 18th attorney general of Washington. A member of the Democratic Party, he was first elected in 2012 and re-elected in 2016 and 2020. Prior to serving as Attorney General, <mask> was a member of the King County Council. In 2017, <mask> was included on the annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Seattle in 1965. He is a fourth-generation Washingtonian, whose great-grandparents homesteaded on the Skagit River in the 19th century, near what is now Marblemount. He graduated from Bishop Blanchet High School in 1983 and then attended the University of Washington, where he was elected Student Body President.After college, <mask> joined Jesuit Volunteer Corps Northwest and directed an emergency services office for a year. <mask> earned a Juris Doctor from the New York University School of Law. During law school, he received a grant to provide legal assistance to the Yaqui tribe in Guadalupe, Arizona. <mask> lived in Guadalupe for a time, assisting community members on a wide range of legal matters. Career
After graduating from law school, <mask> began his legal career in Spokane, where he served as a law clerk for Chief Judge William Fremming Nielsen of the Federal District Court for Eastern Washington, who was appointed by George H. W. Bush. He then clerked for Judge Myron Bright of the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals in the Midwest, who was appointed by Lyndon Johnson. After his clerkship, <mask> returned to Seattle and joined Preston Gates & Ellis (now K&L Gates) as a litigator, a Washington Special Assistant Attorney General law firm, where he represented individuals, businesses, local governments, and Washington corporations.As an attorney, <mask> worked with the legal team that successfully defended taxpayers from paying for cost overruns associated with Safeco Field construction. He was part of the legal team that successfully challenged the constitutionality of Tim Eyman's initiatives. <mask> worked on cases involving software piracy and successfully sued companies that stole intellectual property from Washington companies. <mask> also donated hundreds of hours of free legal advice to non-profit organizations. For example, he assisted Kruckeberg Botanic Garden Foundation as legal counsel to turn a six-acre garden into a public park in Shoreline. After four years at Preston Gates & Ellis, <mask> decided to run for the King County Council. King County Council

Elections
<mask> was first elected to the King County Council in 2003 by defeating Cynthia Sullivan, a 20-year veteran of the Council.<mask> managed to outpoll Sullivan by about 500 votes. At the time, the council was elected on a partisan basis. <mask> faced no general election opponent in the heavily Democratic district. During his campaign to unseat Sullivan, <mask> knocked on 22,000 doors in the district. As a result of the council reduction, redistricting placed <mask> in the same district as another Democratic County Councilmember, Carolyn Edmonds of Shoreline. <mask> narrowly defeated Edmonds. He went on to defeat Republican challenger Steven Pyeatt in the general election, winning approximately 74% of the vote.Tenure
Before being elected attorney general, <mask> served on the King County Council, where he represented Council District 1, which includes northeast Seattle, Shoreline, Lake Forest Park, Kenmore, Bothell, Kirkland, and part of Woodinville. During his time on the Council, <mask> served as Chair of the Regional Policy and Law, Justice and Human Services Committees and twice chaired of the Council's Law and Justice Committee. In 2005, he co-sponsored legislation to place a ballot measure before the voters of King County to generate revenue to improve health services for veterans and military personnel. County residents approved the measure. In 2011, King County voters renewed the Veterans and Human Services Levy. When King County Executive's office proposed spending $6.8 million for new furniture for the new County office building, <mask> pushed the County to buy used furniture instead, saving taxpayers more than $1 million. <mask> led the effort to raise $50 million annually to assist those suffering from mental illness and chemical dependency.He received the Booth Gardner Mental Health Champion award from Sound Mental Health in 2011. <mask> successfully fought for $5 million to fund public health clinics in Northgate and Bothell that were threatened with closure. <mask> served on the Youth Justice Coordinating Council on Gangs. He pushed for civilian oversight of the King County Sheriff's office. In 2006, he helped lead the effort to create permanent oversight in the King County Sheriff's office. He sponsored the Open Space Preservation Act, which protects 100,000 acres of open space. <mask> authored legislation that prevents King County from doing business with companies known to repeatedly violate wage theft laws.In 2007, <mask> co-sponsored legislation increasing the sales tax by one tenth of one percent in order to expand mental health, chemical dependency and therapeutic court programs to reduce costly and unnecessary involvement in the criminal justice system by mentally ill and chemically dependent individuals, and to save lives. The council approved the measure on a bipartisan vote. In 2009, <mask> co-sponsored bi-partisan legislation that called on the Executive to streamline the County's procurement process. Along with Republican Kathy Lambert, <mask> co-sponsored legislation that eliminated 15 pages of paper forms required to contract with King County (Ordinance 2010-0186). <mask> also worked to reform County government by connecting workers' wages to the economy, leading the Seattle Times to write, "This is brand new, necessary stuff in a county that can ill afford the existing approach. These changes would not be possible without the hard work of Republican Kathy Lambert and Council Chairman <mask>…<mask> is taking considerable heat from labor for sticking his neck out on policies that may be anathema to his constituents. <mask>'s work should inspire other Democrats on the council to join him in moving the county forward to the 21st century."He co-sponsored legislation promoting the use of small businesses in fulfilling county contracts. (Ordinance 2007-0146). <mask> co-sponsored legislation in 2011 creating a "Small Business Accelerator" program. He declined to take a pay raise during tough economic times. <mask> also helped lead the effort for an independent audit of the county's election office. In 2010, <mask> sponsored a ballot measure that would increase the sales tax to provide additional revenues to King County. Proposition No.1 Sales and Use Tax. The measure failed 54.9% to 45.1%. He wrote the law that reformed the county's public records process to ensure that citizens can easily obtain records and monitor their government. <mask> was presented with the Landmark Deeds Award for Public Service by the Washington Trust for Historic Preservation. The Center for Human Services selected <mask> as the 2008 recipient of their annual Dorrit Pealy Award for Outstanding Community Service. Food Lifeline gave <mask> a Special Appreciation Award at its annual Ending Hunger Awards luncheon. In 2010, <mask> was selected to join the Aspen Institute-Rodel Fellowship, a program that brings together the nation's most promising political leaders.Attorney General of Washington

Elections
On November 6, 2012, <mask> defeated fellow King County Councilmember Reagan Dunn to be elected as the 18th Attorney General of Washington State. <mask> won by a margin of more than 200,000 votes, receiving 53.48% of the vote to Dunn's 46.52%. <mask> won despite an unprecedented amount being spent by an out-of-state group in Washington state Attorney General's race. During the course of the campaign, <mask> visited all 39 Washington state counties. In 2016, <mask> faced only Joshua Trumbull, a Libertarian with no political experience. <mask> spent little of the money he had raised for the campaign, and he was re-elected, 67% to 33%. He garnered the most votes of any state candidate and carried 37 of the state's 39 counties.In 2020, <mask> faced Matt Larkin, a political newcomer and strong Trump supporter, who said that <mask> was too soft on crime and criticized his legal challenges of the Trump administration. He handily won reelection, 56% to 43%. Tenure
<mask> sued the Trump administration 97 times, leading 36 of the cases, realizing victory 22 times, and losing once. Arlene's Flowers lawsuit

In April 2013 <mask> filed a consumer protection lawsuit against Barronelle Stutzman and her Richland, Washington floral shop Arlene's Flowers even without a complaint by Robert Ingersoll and his fiance Curt Freed. <mask> claimed the business violated Washington's consumer protection law after Stutzman refused to provide flowers for the couple's same sex wedding. The attorney general's office sent a letter to Stutzman informing her she was in violation of Washington State's Consumer Protection Act. A letter by <mask> called for a penalty of $2,000 and to celebrate all same sex unions.Stutzman sent back a reply that it was against her religious beliefs to do so. The attorney general's office followed up with a phone call to Stutzman, giving her an opportunity to comply with the law, head off legal action, and avoid paying fees or costs. Stutzman responded with a letter from her lawyer. The move was criticized by Stutzman's lawyer, who stated <mask> did not have the statutory authority to file the lawsuit and that it was uncertain whether or not it was a "clear case of discrimination". The engaged couple's attorneys at the American Civil Liberties Union then sued the florist for damages. The couple had been previous clients of Stutzman for nine years until they had requested her services for their wedding, which she refused to do based upon her religious view on same sex marriage. Stutzman filed a counter-suit, stating that <mask>'s lawsuit was an attempt to force her to violate her religious beliefs.Stutzman and her attorneys at the Alliance Defending Freedom requested that the lawsuit be dismissed, as they alleged that the suit didn't show that the couple had suffered any financial injury to their business or property. Judge Sal Mendoza Jr. ruled that the lawsuit could continue, as the time and travel spent traveling to Arlene's Flowers and finding another florist did count as financial injury. On February 18, 2015, Benton County Superior Court Judge Alexander Ekstrom ruled she had violated the state's anti-discrimination law. On February 19, 2015, Stutzman stated she would appeal the ruling. On March 27, 2015, Judge Ekstrom ordered Stutzman to pay a $1,000 fine, plus $1 for court costs and fees. On November 15, 2016, <mask> personally argued at the Washington Supreme Court hearing, which was held before an audience in Bellevue College's auditorium. On February 16, 2017, the Washington Supreme Court ruled unanimously against the florist.In the court's opinion, Justice Sheryl Gordon McCloud wrote neither the U.S. Constitution's Free Exercise Clause nor its Free Speech Clause gave the florist any right to refuse to participate in the wedding. On June 25, 2018 the Supreme Court of the United States vacated this decision and sent it back for rehearing in light of the Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission decision. On June 6, 2019, the Washington Supreme Court unanimously ruled against Stutzman again, finding no evidence of religious animus. Comcast lawsuit
On August 1, 2016, <mask> announced that the State of Washington would sue telecommunications company Comcast over deceptive consumer practices. The $100 million consumer protection lawsuit was filed over 1.8 million individual violations of the state's Consumer Protection Act. Executive Order 13769

President Donald Trump signed Executive Order 13769 on January 27, 2017, which effectively banned entry to the United States for ninety days for non-citizens and refugees from seven Middle Eastern countries. On January 30, <mask> and Governor Jay Inslee announced that the State would file a legal challenge against President Trump, as well as relevant administrative secretaries, to overturn the order, arguing that it was a case of religious discrimination.<mask> filed suit within 72 hours, with statements of support from Washington-based companies, including Amazon and Microsoft. In the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington on February 3, 2017, U.S. District Judge James L. Robart ruled in <mask>'s favor for a temporary restraining order on the enforcement of the travel ban nationwide. Personal life

<mask> is an enthusiastic mountain climber, backpacker, and birder, and has hiked hundreds of miles of Washington trails and climbed many of the state's highest peaks. After college, <mask> traveled around the country to see a baseball game in every major league stadium. <mask> is an internationally rated chess master. His games have appeared in local, national and international chess publications, and he has twice won the Washington State Chess Championship. In 2014, he had a 2146 rating, and currently holds a 2232 FIDE rating.He and his wife Colleen live in Seattle with their twins. Electoral history

References

External links

Office of the Attorney General government website
Campaign website

1965 births
21st-century American politicians
American chess players
King County Councillors
Living people
New York University School of Law alumni
University of Washington alumni
Washington (state) Attorneys General
Washington (state) Democrats
Bishop Blanchet High School alumni

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<mask> (born October 5, 1978) is a former co-host and senior segment producer of the G4 show X-Play. She was previously the host of the podcast WebbAlert and a monthly columnist for the United States edition of FHM, where she contributed a monthly video game column titled "Tips from the Gaming Goddess". She began working at independent game studio Bonfire Studios in March 2017 in a production role. Career
Born in Los Angeles, <mask> attended UC Berkeley from 1996 to 2000. She developed computer skills in her free time there, and after graduating from college worked for a dot-com company as a website administrator. After the company went under during the dot-com bubble burst of 2000, her friend Catherine Schwartz got her hired at TechTV in 2001, and <mask> became employed as the associate producer and web researcher for The Screen Savers. Throughout 2002 and 2003, she also regularly co-hosted TechTV's Call for Help with Chris Pirillo.In April 2003, <mask> left The Screen Savers to co-host X-Play with Adam Sessler. <mask> is one of the six TechTV personalities to survive the massive layoffs resulting from the May 2004 merger of G4 and TechTV. Only Adam Sessler and <mask> remained with the network after G4's change in format. After Sessler's employment was terminated in April 2012, <mask> was the only original TechTV personality remaining on the network. In August 2005, <mask> became a contributing game columnist for FHM, alongside her regular hosting duties on X-Play. Her monthly column was titled "Tips from the Gaming Goddess". Readers were encouraged to email <mask> their video-game-related inquiries; she would then answer one question each month.In February 2007, <mask> wrote her final column for the magazine, which discontinued its U.S. publication in March. She also hosted the short-lived Free Stuff on G4. From August 2, 2007, to January 25, 2009, <mask> had a daily video blogging initiative called WebbAlert. These videos were 5 to 6 minutes in length, and each consisted of a recap of popular technology news of the day. On occasion, <mask> departed from the regular news format in favor of an episode on one particular topic of interest. Examples included a recap of the annual TED Conference, a viral video special showcasing "future 'Darwin Award' winners", and tech-centric "Holiday Buyer's Guides". In January 2009, <mask> suspended <mask>lert indefinitely due to issues with maintaining it on a daily basis concurrently with her hosting duties on X-Play.On February 25, 2009, G4 announced that <mask> would be the host of their new show G4 Underground, a weekly series that profiles a wide range of people and topics that are of interest to the "internet generation". It premiered March 29, 2009. After airing more than 1300 episodes, X-Play aired its final episode on January 23, 2013. From June 11, 2013 through June 13, 2013, <mask> co-anchored Microsoft's nightly Xbox @ E3 Live streaming event coverage on Xbox Live, reuniting her with former G4 personalities Kevin Pereira, Blair Herter, Jessica Chobot, Blair Butler and Tina Summerford. <mask> worked as a consultant and creative advisor for Activision Blizzard, where she also produced and hosted Blizzard's now-defunct monthly World of Warcraft discussion program WoW Source. In September of 2017, <mask> announced her employment at Bonfire Studios where she helps organize the community and other various functions. Personal life
As an infant and small child, <mask> appeared in advertisements for Gerber baby food, Kenner Toys, and an ad for McDonald's, where she recited the ingredients of the Big Mac to a game of Pat-a-cake.Though <mask>'s parents refused to let her watch television, she made up for it by playing video games. She began with an Atari, primarily the game Combat, but as technology progressed, The Legend of Zelda and Phantasy Star became two of her favorite games. After <mask> graduated from high school, she left home to attend UC Berkeley. There she earned a bachelor's degree in rhetoric (with a minor in Italian) in 2000. On August 19, 2006, <mask> married Rob Reid in a service at City Hall in San Francisco, California. <mask> has joined the web-series Acquisitions Incorporated in playing several Dungeons & Dragons games at live events like PAX West. Media appearances

Throughout 2004 and beyond, <mask> was featured in numerous issues of print publications.Maxim magazine spotlighted her in their July 2004 issue. FHM featured a five-page article in their November 2004 issue, and also had her listed in three consecutive years for their annual The 100 Sexiest Women in the World article: #73 in 2005, #62 in 2006, and #51 in 2007. Other magazines have featured her as well, voted "Hottest Woman of the Year" in RTD's 2006 Top 10 countdown and in an article in the fall 2006 edition of Colleges.com U Magazine. In April 2004, <mask> was in "TechTV's Sexiest Techie" poll sponsored by Playboy magazine. TechTV viewers could vote for their favorite girl via the Playboy website. <mask> won the poll and was offered a nude photo shoot, but she refused, despite being "very flattered", citing her own personal reasons and her parents' objection to the idea. <mask> appeared in the music video "Strange New Element" from the band Low Water.She makes her appearance near the end of the video alongside other fellow TechTV personalities, including Catherine Schwartz, Sarah Lane, Laura Swisher, Chi-Lan Lieu, and Sumi Das. In addition to appearing in Low Water's music video, <mask> is featured in the artwork of the band's album Hard Words in a Speakeasy. She additionally provided her own vocals for X-Play: The Musical, which aired in February 2007. She is a frequent guest on various talk shows, including The Tyra Banks Show (in February 2008), Chelsea Lately (in early 2009), and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon (on April 15, 2009). She was also a frequent co-host on G4's Attack of the Show!. On June 17, 2009, <mask> appeared on KCRW Radio, as part of the station's Guest DJ Project. On June 21, 2008, <mask> along with her X-Play co-host Adam Sessler, participated in the 50th annual Hollywood Stars Celebrity Softball game at Dodger Stadium.A YouTube video was posted on October 7, 2013 with <mask> as the well-versed host of a "Patch 5.4 Developer Round Table" discussion with Blizzard Entertainment employees J. Allen Brack, Ion Hazzikostas, and Tom Chilton. <mask> played a minor role as Neely Lamm on the CBS TV Drama series Bull on an episode titled, "The Fall" which aired on February 7, 2017. References

External links

 <mask>'s X-Play Bio

1978 births
Living people
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X-Play
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Video game critics
People from the San Francisco Bay Area
People from Los Angeles

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<mask> (January 27, 1937 – July 21, 2015) was an American musician who is widely regarded as the world's foremost pedal steel guitarist of his day. He was inducted into the Steel Guitar Hall of Fame in 1981. Affectionately known by the nickname "Big E", <mask>' primary genre was American country music, but he also performed jazz and Western swing. He recorded with  Linda Ronstadt, Gram Parsons, The Everly Brothers, The Carpenters, Jackie DeShannon, Roger Miller,  Ernest Tubb, John Hartford, Little Jimmy Dickens, Ray Price, Judy Collins, George Strait, John Sebastian, and Ray Charles and was a widely sought session musician in Nashville and Los Angeles. <mask> made significant innovations to the steel guitar, adding two additional strings and an additional pedal, changes which have been adopted as standard in the modern-day instrument. His name is on a US patent for a  mechanism to raise and lower the pitch of a string on a steel guitar and return to the original pitch without going out of tune. He won the Academy of Country Music's "Best Steel Guitarist" nine times, beginning in 1969.In 2013, two years before his death, he was honored by the Country Music Hall of Fame in a tribute called "The Big E: Salute to <mask>" featuring testimonials and performances  by eminent musicians and hall of fame members. Early life
<mask> was born in Mishawaka, Indiana. When he was eleven years old, his father bought him a lap steel guitar and arranged for lessons at the Hawaiian Conservatory of Music in South Bend, Indiana, which he attended for about a year. He then began figuring out how to play the country music that he heard on the radio. He has said that Jerry Byrd and Herb Remington were among his first musical influences. By age fifteen, his playing had progressed considerably. In those teenage years, he started spelling his first name "Buddie" just because he wanted to have six letters each of his first and last names.This was only a temporary whim, but his name may appear in published sources spelled that way, including the song title "Buddie's Boogie". His parents bought him a triple-neck Fender Stringmaster steel guitar, and he began performing with local bands in South Bend. Bored with high school, he left at age sixteen and moved with a childhood friend to Calumet City, Illinois, where he was hired by Stony Calhoun to play in his band. He moved to Detroit to play with Casey Clark. While he was with Clark, he bought a Bigsby steel guitar with pedals similar to the pedal steel guitar that Bud Isaacs had used on the Webb Pierce song "Slowly". (The pedals on a pedal steel guitar allow the player to change the pitch of one or more strings while playing the instrument. A separate volume pedal is also used, compensating for the attack and decay of the strings for a smooth, constant or creative near-constant volume.)The next year, Little Jimmy Dickens heard <mask> playing with Casey Clark and offered him a job with his band, so at the age of 18, in July, 1955, <mask> moved to Nashville. Dickens's band was then a popular act in country music, with complex arrangements and fast twin guitar harmonies. Dickens arranged for his band to record several instrumentals on Columbia Records under the name The Country Boys. The first tunes recorded included three of <mask>'s originals, two of which, "Raising the Dickens" and "Buddie's Boogie", became steel-guitar standards. In 1956, Dickens dissolved his band to perform as a solo act. <mask> began doing recording sessions in Nashville. One of his first studio sessions resulted in Faron Young's hit version of "Sweet Dreams".Contributions to design of the steel guitar
In late 1956, <mask> contributed to the evolution of the pedal steel guitar by splitting the function of the two pedals that changed the pitch of certain strings from a tonic chord to a subdominant chord. This "split-pedal" setup is now the standard pedal arrangement in the E9 tuning, since it allows greater musical flexibility than the earlier pedal setup pioneered by Bud Isaacs. <mask> recalls that he first used this split-pedal innovation on Ernest Tubb's "Half a Mind (to Leave You)". <mask>' name is on a US patent for a mechanism to raise and lower the pitch of a string on a steel guitar and return to the original pitch without going out of tune. Prior to his invention, the problem of a string going out of tune after stretching to raise pitch, and loosening to lower the pitch had been a vexing problem in the design of the instrument. <mask> and Shot Jackson formed the Sho-Bud ("SHOt-BUDdy") Company to design and build pedal steel guitars in 1956. In 1962, <mask> added two additional strings to the upper register of the E9 neck of the pedal steel guitar.Career

In 1957, <mask> (by then nicknamed the "Big E" for both his 6-foot height and musical prowess) joined Ernest Tubb's Texas Troubadours. His first recording with Tubb, "Half a Mind (to Leave You)", became a hit record. In 1958, <mask> quit Tubb's band and moved to California. Eight months later, he returned to Nashville and rejoined the Texas Troubadours as the lead guitar player for the next five months, at which point he returned to the pedal steel guitar chair in the band. In 1962, he left Tubb to join Ray Price and the Cherokee Cowboys, replacing his long-time friend, steel-guitarist Jimmy Day. His first recording with Price in September, 1962, produced the hit song, "You Took Her Off My Hands". On this song <mask> used another of his major steel guitar innovations, adding two "chromatic" strings (F# and D#) to the E9th tuning.These "chromatic strings" have since become part of the standard 10-string pedal steel guitar tuning. Price soon appointed <mask> to be his bandleader, and <mask> created many of the arrangements on Price's recordings over the next several years. In early 1963 Price recorded Willie Nelson's song, "Night Life" as the title cut of his forthcoming album. <mask>' bluesy pedal steel intro and solo bridges on the song are now considered among the most innovative and iconic sounds in country music lore. After trying without success to get Shot Jackson interested in his new guitar design ideas, <mask> left Sho-Bud in 1963 and formed the Emmons Guitar Company. <mask> continued to record and tour with Price until 1967, and, between tours with Price, did recording session work with many Nashville artists such as George Jones and Melba Montgomery. <mask> left the Cherokee Cowboys largely due to his disenchantment with Price's growing interest in performing pop-style country with string orchestrations.Meanwhile, <mask>' long-time friend, songwriter Roger Miller, offered him a job in his band in California. <mask> moved to Los Angeles, playing bass in Roger Miller's band and doing studio work on pedal steel. <mask> returned with Peggy to Nashville in 1974, where he quickly resumed studio work with artists such as Mel Tillis, Donna Fargo, Duane Eddy and Charlie Walker. Beginning in 1974, <mask> became a regularly featured performer at the annual International Steel Guitar Convention in St. Louis, and was inducted into the Steel Guitar Hall of Fame in 1981. In 1976, <mask> recorded a highly regarded tribute to the great Western Swing artist Bob Wills, on which he sang lead vocal and played steel guitar. He continued to do session work throughout the 1980s and 1990s with artists such as John Hartford, George Strait, Gene Watson and Ricky Skaggs. In 1977, <mask> teamed with Danny Gatton for occasional gigs, and then in 1978 they toured as the band Redneck Jazz Explosion.On New Year's Eve 1978, they recorded the album Redneck Jazz Explosion (which wasn't released until 1995) live at The Cellar Door in Washington, D.C.

Also in 1977, he played steel guitar and resonator/dobro on Christian singer Don Francisco's album "Forgiven". This album was recorded in Nashville. In 1990, <mask> and Ray Pennington formed the Swing Shift Band and began producing a series of CDs that included big band swing, Western swing, and original country songs. <mask> began touring with The Everly Brothers in 1991, which continued until about 2001. He discontinued regular session work around 1998 to tour with The Everlys. Personal life
<mask>' son, Larry, from his first marriage, later became a professional musician, playing bass with Ernest Tubb. According to a 1965 interview, <mask> and his second wife, Gigi "have two children, Buddie Gene and Tami."In 1967, he married his third wife, Peggy, who brought twin girls, Debbie and Diana, from her first marriage. About 2001, <mask> began suffering from a repetitive motion injury to his right thumb and wrist, which caused him to stop playing for over a year. He did not to return to regular recording session work, but did record with some artists he had known for many years, such as Ray Price, Johnny Bush, and Willie Nelson. He continued to perform at steel guitar shows and on American Public Media's A Prairie Home Companion until his death. He struggled with alcohol and amphetamine dependency and credited his wife Peggy for aiding his recovery. <mask> has three granddaughters, Crystal, Nikia, (who died in 2004) and Brittany, and two grandsons, Levon and Buddie III. <mask>' wife Peggy often accompanied him to steel guitar shows and conventions, and helped <mask> meet fans and sell recordings and videos.She died on December 19, 2007. <mask> died of a heart attack in Nashville, Tennessee on July 21, 2015. Selected discography
 Steel Guitar Jazz,  (Mercury, 1963)
 Steel Guitar, (Flying Fish, 1975)
 <mask> Sings Bob Wills (Flying Fish, 1976)
 Buddies (Flying Fish, 1977)
 Minors Aloud, with Lenny Breau (Flying Fish, 1979)
 Christmas Sounds of the Steel Guitar (Step One, 1987)
 Swingin' from the 40s Thru the 80s with Ray Pennington (Step One, 1989)
 Swingin' by Request with Ray Pennington (Step One, 1992)

References

External links
 Official web site
 Interview with <mask> - NAMM Oral History Library (2002)

1937 births
2015 deaths
People from Mishawaka, Indiana
American musical instrument makers
American country guitarists
Pedal steel guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
Country musicians from Indiana
Flying Fish Records artists
Mercury Records artists

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