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<mask> (21 April 1900 in Bochum – 27 September 1953 in Cologne) was a senior German Nazi official, ending the war as Ministerialdirektor at the Propagandaministerium (Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda). He was the preeminent German broadcaster of his time, as part of efforts to present a more popular and entertaining side of the Nazi regime, and his voice was recognised by the majority of Germans. <mask> was present in the Berlin Führerbunker during the last days of Adolf Hitler. After Hitler's death, he went over to the Soviet lines in Berlin to offer the surrender of the city to the Red Army on 1 May 1945. He was taken prisoner. Career
<mask> was born in Bochum (a city in the Ruhr Area) to a Prussian postal clerk. He volunteered in the German Army in 1917 as a private soldier, and served in Flanders.After the war, he studied at the universities of Greifswald and Berlin, but did not graduate. He became a journalist in 1923 for the Hugenberg Press, which promoted nationalistic opinions not very different from the Nazis. In September 1932, he began his broadcasting career as head of the Drahtloser Dienst (the Wireless News service, a government agency), and started his first broadcast, a daily program called "<mask> speaks" (Es spricht <mask>). In 1929 or May 1933 he joined the Nazi Party, and later the Sturmabteilung (SA). He was also a member of the Academy for German Law. On 1 May 1933 the Wireless News service was incorporated into Joseph Goebbels' Propaganda Ministry. In 1938, <mask> became head of the Press Division.In November 1942, he became head of the Radio Division. <mask> had no involvement in creating policy. During the war, <mask> was Germany's most prominent radio commentator. In April 1945, he was present in the Berlin Führerbunker during the last days of Adolf Hitler and Goebbels. After Hitler's suicide on 30 April 1945, Goebbels assumed Hitler's role as chancellor. On 1 May, Goebbels completed his sole official act as chancellor. He dictated a letter to Soviet Army General Vasily Chuikov, requesting a temporary ceasefire and ordered German General <mask> to deliver it.Chuikov commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. After this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile. Goebbels then launched into a tirade berating the generals, reminding them Hitler forbade them to surrender. <mask> left the room to try and take matters into his own hands. He went to his nearby office on Wilhelmplatz and wrote a surrender letter addressed to Soviet Marshall Georgy Zhukov. An angry and drunk General Wilhelm Burgdorf followed <mask> to his office. There he asked <mask> if he intended to surrender Berlin.<mask> replied that he was going to do just that. Burgdorf shouted that Hitler had forbidden surrender and as a civilian he had no authority to do so. Burgdorf then pulled his pistol to shoot <mask>, but a radio technician knocked the gun and the bullet fired hit the ceiling. Several men then hustled Burgdorf out of the office and he returned to the bunker. <mask> then left his office and went over to the Soviet lines and offered to surrender the city. Military tribunal

<mask> was taken prisoner by Soviet Red Army soldiers. At first he was held prisoner in a basement and then sent to Moscow for interrogation at Lubyanka Prison where, according to his own account, three gold teeth were yanked from his mouth upon arrival.He was confined to a "standing coffin", a 3-foot-square cell where it was impossible to sleep, and placed on a bread and hot water diet. He eventually signed a confession. Later, he wrote his account of Soviet prison while on trial at Nuremberg, which was published in Switzerland. <mask> was sent to Nuremberg, and tried before the International Military Tribunal. He was charged with conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. In his positions in the propaganda apparatus of the Nazi State, <mask> played a role to further the conspiracy to commit atrocities and to launch the war of aggression. According to journalist and author William L. Shirer, it was unclear to the attendees why he was charged.Shirer remarked that "no-one in the courtroom, including <mask>, seemed to know why he was there – he was too small a fry – unless it were as a ghost for Goebbels". According to the IMT prosecution, he "incited and encouraged the commission of War Crimes by deliberately falsifying news to arouse in the German People those passions which led them to the commission of atrocities". <mask> was acquitted because the court was "not  prepared  to  hold  that  [his  broadcasts]  were  intended  to incite  the  German  people  to  commit  atrocities  on  conquered  peoples". He was one of only three defendants to be acquitted at Nuremberg (along with Hjalmar Schacht and Franz von Papen). Nuremberg prosecutor  Alexander Hardy later said that evidence not available to the prosecution at the time proved <mask> not only knew of the extermination of European Jews but also "played an important part in bringing [Nazi crimes] about," and would have resulted in his conviction. <mask> was later classified as Group I (Major Offenders) by a denazification court which gave him the maximum penalty, eight years' imprisonment. He was pardoned in September 1950.He married his second wife, Hildegard Springer, in 1950. He died of cancer in 1953. His wife died the same year. <mask> along with Speer and Schirach were eventually communed by Lutheran Pastor Henry F. Gerecke and were administered the Eucharist. Publications

 Account of the Nuremberg trials. References

Sources

Further reading

Hardy, Alexander G. (1967). Hitler's Secret Weapon: The "Managed" Press and Propaganda Machine of Nazi Germany.New York: Vantage Press. See also
Downfall, 2004 German film where he was portrayed by actor Michael Brandner
Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda

External links

1900 births
1953 deaths
Articles containing video clips
Deaths from cancer in Germany
German anti-communists
German Protestants
German radio personalities
Members of the Academy for German Law
Nazi Party politicians
Nazi propagandists
People acquitted by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
People from Bochum
People from the Province of Westphalia
Sturmabteilung personnel

masks:
August Franz Anton Hans Fritzsche
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Hans Fritzsche
Hans Fritzsche
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Fritzsche
Fritzsche
Hans Krebs
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<mask> (2 March 1882 – 14 February 1961) was an English stage and film actor. Biography
<mask> was born in Bolton, Lancashire, England, the son of <mask> (1854 - 1930), an engineer. Prior to acting, <mask> was an engineer. He began his stage career in Margate, Kent, in 1908. He moved to the United States in September 1910 and acted in numerous plays on the stage, including at the Little Theatre in Philadelphia, for years before moving on to the screen in 1932. Along with actors Franklyn Farnum and Bess Flowers, <mask> holds the record for the second most appearances in films that have won the Academy Award for Best Picture. He appeared in supporting roles in 136 films between 1931 and 1954.Five of these films won Best Picture: It Happened One Night (1934), Mutiny on the Bounty (1935), The Great Ziegfeld (1936), You Can't Take It with You (1938), and Gone with the Wind (1939). In four of these five films, <mask> was uncredited. In Mutiny on the Bounty, he is credited in the role of Morrison. <mask> had one son, <mask><mask>, Jr. He died in North Hollywood, California, USA. Selected filmography

 Elusive Isabel (1916) - Prince D'Abruzzi
 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916) - Pencroft
 Cy Whittaker's Ward (1917) - Bailey
 Hell's House (1932) - Judge Robinson
 The Final Edition (1932) - Police Commissioner Jim Conroy (uncredited)
 Alias the Doctor (1932) - Dr. Kleinschmidt (uncredited)
 Disorderly Conduct (1932) - Police Lieutenant (uncredited)
 Shopworn (1932) - Mr. Dean (uncredited)
 The Famous Ferguson Case (1932) - Lindsay Jamison (uncredited)
 Attorney for the Defense (1932) - Crowell
 My Pal, the King (1932) - Dr. Lorenz
 The Night Mayor (1932) - Crandall (uncredited)
 Okay, America! (1932) - Bit Role (uncredited)
 Big City Blues (1932) - Chief of Police (uncredited)
 The Night of June 13 (1932) - Defense Attorney (uncredited)
 Washington Merry-Go-Round (1932) - Carl Tilden (uncredited)
 Hidden Gold (1932) - Jones
 I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932) - Chicago Lawyer (uncredited)
 If I Had a Million (1932) - Mr. Monroe - Bank Executive (uncredited)
 Forbidden Trail (1932) - Cash Karger
 Call Her Savage (1932) - Detective (uncredited)
 No Man of Her Own (1932) - Thomas Laidlaw (uncredited)
 They Just Had to Get Married (1932) - Fairchilds
 Madame Butterfly (1932) - Comm.Anderson
 The Match King (1932) - Erickson's Associate (uncredited)
 Luxury Liner (1933) - Dr. Veith
 Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) - Autopsy Surgeon's Assistant (uncredited)
 42nd Street (1933) - Dr. Chadwick (uncredited)
 Private Jones (1933) - Bit Part (uncredited)
 The World Gone Mad (1933) - Dist. Atty. (1934) - Senator (uncredited)
 Fog Over Frisco (1934) - Accountant (uncredited)
 The Life of Vergie Winters (1934) - Mr. Preston
 I Give My Love (1934) - Attorney (uncredited)
 Name the Woman (1934) - Det. (1936) - Prison Warden
 Easy Money (1936) - Mr. Curtis
 Ticket to Paradise (1936) - Editor (uncredited)
 Postal Inspector (1936) - Inspector Gil Pottle
 Romeo and Juliet (1936) - Town Watch (uncredited)
 Missing Girls (1936) - Senator Benson
 Craig's Wife (1936) - Mr. Burton (uncredited)
 Adventure in Manhattan (1936) - City Editor (uncredited)
 Come Closer, Folks (1936) - Mr. Houston
 Great Guy (1936) - Joel Green
 We Who Are About to Die (1937) - Dr. Hedges (uncredited)
 Woman in Distress (1937) - Mervyn Seymour
 Criminal Lawyer (1937) - Judge - Nora James' Trial (uncredited)
 The Last of Mrs. Cheyney (1937) - George
 I Promise to Pay (1937) - B.G. Wilson
 The Jones Family in Big Business (1937) - Mr. Rodney
 Parnell (1937) - Doctor (uncredited)
 The Wildcatter (1937) - Torrance
 She Had to Eat (1937) - Ralph Wilkinson - G-Man
 The Man Who Cried Wolf (1937) - Resident Doctor (uncredited)
 Escape by Night (1937) - District Attorney Baldwin
 Trapped by G-Men (1937) - Federal Agent #1
 Dangerously Yours (1937) - Insurance Agent (uncredited)
 Big Town Girl (1937) - Garvey (uncredited)
 Rosalie (1937) - Major Prentice (uncredited)
 The Higgins Family (1938) - George W. Bradshaw
 Hunted Men (1938) - Chief of Police (uncredited)
 You Can't Take It with You (1938) - Bill Hughes (uncredited)
 Personal Secretary (1938) - Fleming (uncredited)
 Star Reporter (1939) - District Attorney William Burnette
 Blondie Meets the Boss (1939) - Henry W. Philpot (uncredited)
 I Stole a Million (1939) - Jenkins - Mgr. of Cab Installment Sales (uncredited)
 Smuggled Cargo (1939) - Dr. Hamilton
 Main Street Lawyer (1939) - Reynolds
 Allegheny Uprising (1939) - McGlashan
 Gone with the Wind (1939) - Poker-Playing Captain (uncredited)
 The Big Guy (1939) - District Attorney
 Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1940) - Politician (uncredited)
 Vigil in the Night (1940) - Mr. Peterson - Board Member (uncredited)
 And One Was Beautiful (1940) - Judge (uncredited)
 Young Bill Hickok (1940) - Senator Tucker (uncredited)
 Penny Serenade (1941) - Judge
 Murder by Invitation (1941) - Judge Moore
 Ellery Queen and the Perfect Crime (1941) - Harmon (uncredited)
 Pacific Blackout (1941) - Pompous Doctor (uncredited)
 The Remarkable Andrew (1942) - City Treasurer R.R.

masks:
Wallis Hensman Clark
Clark
William Wallis Clark
Clark
Clark
Clark
Clark
Wallis H
. Clark


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Samudragupta (Gupta script:  Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta, r. c. (350-375 CE) was a ruler of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political power. The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty, and according to his coins, remained undefeated. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played music. His expansionist policy was continued by his son Chandragupta II. Period

Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE. The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the Gupta calendar era, whose epoch is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or <mask>. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Prayag Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age.However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of <mask>'s reign is also uncertain. If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319-320 CE. On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, <mask>'s ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of king Meghavarna of Anuradhapura Kingdom, but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the traditional reckoning adopted in Sri Lanka for Buddha's death, he ruled during 304-332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as Wilhelm Geiger assigns his reign to 352-379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE.The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavatigupta is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year. Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:

 A. S. Altekar: c. 330-370 CE
 A. L. Basham: c. 335-376 CE
 S. R. Goyal: c. 350-375 CE
 Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353-373 CE

Ascension

Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta king Chandragupta I and queen Kumaradevi, who came from a Licchavi family. His fragmentary Eran stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king.According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta appointed him as the next ruler, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested. Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes who made a rival claim to the throne. If Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour. The coins of a Gupta ruler named Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings". These coins closely resemble the coins issued by Samudragupta. According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta: the king adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his territory up to the ocean.An alternatively theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne) who flourished before or after Samudragupta. Military career

The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams. The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time. The later Allahabad Pillar inscription, a panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests. It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order. It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title Prakrama (valourous).The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans". Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth (dharani-bandha), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a Chakravartin (a universal ruler). The Ashvamedha performances by the Nagas, whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia. Early victories

The early portion of the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" Achyuta, Nagasena, and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga, because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of Aryavarta (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta.These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western Uttar Pradesh (see below). According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness. It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again. Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day Punjab, where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of Shiva and his bull, have been discovered. The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa (the name Pushpa-pura referred to Pataliputra at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for Kanyakubja in the later period). Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince. An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital. It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront. Southern conquests

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region:

The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal. The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured (anugraha) them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his tributaries. M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word anugraha differently based on its occurrence in the Arthashastra; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances. Some scholars, such as J. Dubreuil and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the Krishna river, and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure. However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta.Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror (dharma-vijayi), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the covetous conqueror (lobha-vijayi), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror (asura-vijayi), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him. Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from Kalidasa's statement in Raghuvamsha that "the righteous victorious monarch (Raghu) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals. Mahendra of Kosala
 Kosala here refers to Dakshina Kosala, which includes parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha. One theory identifies Mahendra of Kosala with a Nala king named Mahendraditya. Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara
 Historian K. P. Jayaswal identifies Mahakantara (literally "great wilderness") as the Bastar-Kanker area in present-day Chhattisgarh.According to another theory, Mahakantara is same as Mahavana, a synonym used as the name for the forest region around present-day Jeypore of Odisha. Earlier historians identified Mahakantara as a region in central India, and identified Vyaghra-raja with the Vakataka feudatory Vyaghra-deva, whose inscriptions have been found at Nachna. However, this identification is now considered incorrect, as Samudragupta is not known to have fought against the Vakatakas. Mantaraja of Kurala
 The Rawan inscription of the Sharabhapuriya king Narendra, who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region, mentions an area called Mantaraja-bhukti ("the province of Mantaraja"). Therefore, some historians such as K. D. Bajpai theorize that Mantaraja was a king who ruled in the Dakshina Kosala region. Historian A. M. Shastri disputes this theory, arguing that the ruler of Kosala (that is, Dakshina Kosala) has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Lorenz Franz Kielhorn speculated that Kurala was same as Kaurala (or Kunala) mentioned in the Aihole inscription of the 7th century king Pulakeshin II, and identified it as the area around the Kolleru Lake in present-day Andhra Pradesh.H. C. Raychaudhuri disputes this identification, pointing out that this region was a part of Hastivarman's Vengi kingdom, which has been mentioned separately in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Other proposed identifications of Kurala include Kolada near Bhanjanagar (former Russelkonda) in Odisha; and Kulula, a region mentioned in the Mahendragiri inscription of the 11th century king Rajendra Chola, and identified with Cherla in present-day Telangana. Mahendragiri of Pishtapura
 Pishtapura is modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh. The word giri mentions hill in Sanskrit, and therefore, J. F. Fleet speculated that "Mahendragiri" could not have been a person's name: he suggested that the verse (Mahendragiri-Kautturaka-Svamidatta) referred to a king called "Mahendra", and a place called "Kottura on the hill" which was ruled by Svamidatta. However, Fleet's translation is incorrect: the verse clearly mentions Mahendragiri of Pishtapura and Svamidatta of Kottura as two distinct persons. G. Ramdas interpreted the verse to mean Svamidatta was the ruler of Pishtapura and "Kottura near Mahendragiri", while Bhau Daji translated it as "Svamidatta of Pishtapura, Mahendragiri and Kottura". However, these translations are also incorrect.The concern about the king's name is invalid: several historical records mention names ending in the word giri or its synonym adri. Svamidatta of Kottura
 Svamidatta was probably one of the chiefs who resisted Samudragupta's passage through the Kalinga region. Kottura has been identified with modern Kotturu (or Kothur) in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh

masks: Samudragupta Samudragupta Samudragupta


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 (near Paralakhemundi, Odisha). Alternative proposals identify it with other similarly named places in present-day Andhra Pradesh. Damana of Erandapalla
 Proposed identifications of Erandapalla include Errandapali near Srikakulam, a town near Mukhalingam, Yendipalli in Visakhapatnam district, and Endipalli in West Godavari district. Vishnugopa of Kanchi
 Vishnugopa is identified as the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram: Samudragupta's invasion probably occurred when he acted as a regent for his nephew Skandavarman III. Nilaraja of Avamukta
 The identity of Avamukta is uncertain.The Brahmanda Purana mentions an area called "Avimukta-kshetra", located on the banks of the Gautami river (that is, Godavari), which may be identified with Avamukta of Samudragupta's inscription. Some historical texts use the name Avamukta-kshetra for the region around Varanasi, but Varanasi is not located in Dakshinapatha, and therefore, was certainly not the Avamukta mentioned in the inscription. Hastivarman of Vengi
 Hastivarman was the Shalankayana king of Vengi (modern Pedavegi) in Andhra Pradesh. Ugrasena of Palakka
 J. Dubreuil identified Palakka with the place referred to as Palakkada in several Pallava inscriptions; this location was probably the headquarters of a Pallava viceroyalty. For example, the Uruvapalli grant inscription of Yuva-maharaja (Prince) Vishnugopa-varman was issued from Palakkada. G. Ramdas identified it with Pakkai located between Udayagiri and Venkatagiri in the Nellore district, and theorized that it was same as the place referred to as Paka-nadu, Panka-nadu, or Pakai-nadu in the inscriptions of the 10th century Chola king Rajaraja I.

 Kubera of Devarashtra
 According to one theory, Deva-rashtra was located in the historical Kalinga region of present-day northern Andhra Pradesh. The Srungavarapukota inscription of the Vasishtha king Anantavarman, issued from Pishtapura in this area, describes his grandfather Gunavarman as Deva-rashtradhipati ("Lord of Deva-rashtra").The Kasimkota inscription of the 10th century Vengi Chalukya king Bhima I mentions a vishaya (district) called Deva-rashtra in Kalinga. Based on this, J. Dubreuil identified Devarashtra as a location in the present-day Yelamanchili taluka of Andhra Pradesh. During Samudragupta's period, the Kalinga region appears to have been divided among several small kingdoms, which may have included Kottura, Pishtapura, and Devarashtra. Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
 B. V. Krishnarao speculated that Dhananjaya of Samudragupta's inscription may be same as the Dhananjaya from whom the chieftains of Dhanyakataka (modern Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh) claimed descent. He identified Kusthalapura with modern Kolanupaka (or Kollipak) located on the banks of the Aleru River in present-day Telangana. Another theory identifies Kusthalapura with a tract around the Kushasthali river near Dakshina Kosala. Northern conquests

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta "forcibly uprooted" the following kings of Aryavarta, the northern region:

Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire.The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant. Rudradeva
 Rudradeva may be same as a king named Rudra, whose coin has been found at Kaushambi. Another theory identifies Rudradeva with a Western Kshatrapa (Shaka) king of Ujjain, either Rudradaman II or Rudrasena III. Some earlier scholars, such as K. N. Dikshit and K. P. Jayaswal, identified Rudradeva with the Vakataka king Rudrasena I. However, this identification seems to be inaccurate, because Samudragupta's inscription explicitly mentions Rudradeva as a king of the northern region (Aryavarta), while the Vakatakas ruled in the southern region (Dakshinapatha). An argument cited in support of this identification is that Rudrasena bore the title Maharaja ("great king") as opposed to samrat ("emperor"), signifying his subordinate status to Samudragupta. However, multiple sovereign Vakataka kings bore the title Maharaja: only Pravarasena I assumed the title samrat after performing a vajapeya ritual sacrifice.An inscription of Rudrasena's descendant Prithvishena II mentions that the Vakataka kingdom had been prospering for a hundred years, suggesting that the Vakataka rule remained uninterrupted during Rudrasena's reign. Matila
 The identity of Matila is not certain. Earlier, Matila was identified with Mattila, who is known from a terracotta seal discovered at Bulandshahr. However, there is no evidence that this Mattila was a ruler, and epigraphist Jagannath Agrawal has dated the seal to the 6th century on palaeographic basis. Nagadatta
 Nagadatta is not known from any other inscriptions or coins, but his name has led to suggestions that he may have been the ruler of a Naga branch. D. C. Sircar theorized that he was an ancestor of a family of Gupta viceroys, whose names ended in -datta. Tej Ram Sharma speculates that he may have been a Naga ruler, whose successors were sent as Gupta viceroys in Bengal after the family accepted the Gupta suzerainty.Chandravarman
 Chandravarman of Samudragupta's inscription has been identified with Chandravarman, the ruler of Pushkarana (modern Pakhanna) in present-day West Bengal. P. L. Gupta and some earlier scholars have identified this ruler with another Chandravarman, who has been mentioned in an inscription discovered at Mandsaur in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Tej Ram Sharma disputes this identification, arguing that Samudragupta "exterminated" all kings of Aryavarta and annexed their territories, as suggested by the Allahabad Pillar inscription; however, Naravarman - a brother of Chandravarman of Mandsaur - is known to have been ruling as a feudatory in 404 CE. Ganapatinaga
 Ganapati-naga is identified as a Naga king. Several coins bearing the legend Ganapati have been discovered at Padmavati, Vidisha, and Mathura. Although these coins do not bear the suffix "naga", they are similar to the ones issued by the other Naga kings such as Skanda-naga, Brihaspati-naga, and Deva-naga. Since hundreds of Ganapati's coins have been found at Mathura, it appears that he was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Mathura.Nagasena
 The 7th century text Harshacharita refers to the Naga king Nagasena, who "met with his doom in Padmavati, as his secret plan was divulged by a sarika bird". Assuming this describes a historical person, it appears that Nagasena was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Padmavati in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Achyuta-nandin
 Achyuta-nandin seems to be same as Achyuta, who is mentioned earlier in the inscription; his name may have been shortened in the earlier verses for metrical purposes. An alternatively theory identifies Achyuta and Nandin as two distinct kings. Achyuta was the ruler of Ahichchhatra in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where coins attributed to him have been discovered. These coins bear the legend "Achyu", and are similar to the coins issued by the Naga rulers. This has led to suggestions that the Achyuta-nandin defeated by Samudragupta was the ruler of a Naga branch headquartered at Ahichhatra.Balavarman
 V. V. Mirashi identified Bala-varman (or Balavarma) as a ruler of the Magha dynasty of Kosambi. U. N. Roy suggested that Bala-varman may have been an ancestor of the Maukhari kings, who initially served as Gupta vassals, and whose names ended in -varman. Another theory identifies him with the successor of Shridhara-varman, the Shaka ruler of Eran. Samudragupta may have ended the dynasty of Eran, as suggested by the discovery of his inscription at Eran. K. N. Dikshit identified Balavarman with Balavarman, a ruler of the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa; however, Balavarman was not a contemporary of Samudragupta. Moreover, Kamarupa has been mentioned as a distinct frontier kingdom later on in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Conquests in the forest region

According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region (atavika) to subservience.This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the Parivrajaka dynasty, which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms. Frontier kings and tribes

The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him. The inscription explicitly describes the five kingdoms as frontier territories: the areas controlled by the tribes were also probably located at the frontier of Samudrgupta's kingdom. Historian Upinder Singh theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship". According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight. The frontier kingdoms included:

 Samatata, located in the present-day Bengal. Davaka, located in present-day Assam.Kamarupa, located in present-day Assam. Nepala, located in present-day Nepal. According to one theory, Nepala here refers to the Licchavi kingdom, whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta. Karttripura, probably located in the present-day Uttarakhand: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in  geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence. A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with Kartarpur in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by Guru Arjan. The tribal oligarchies included:

 Malavas: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered. Arjunayanas: Their coins have been found in the Mathura region.According to numismatist John Allan, the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra. Yaudheyas: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries. Madrakas: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers. Abhiras: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period. Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around Udayagiri in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory.Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the Sanchi hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions. Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the Arthashastra, but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day Narsinghpur or Narsinghgarh in Madhya Pradesh. Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue") mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in Damoh district. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region. Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly Mongols), and the Dingal-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period. There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the Puranas, as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit.However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources. Relations with other rulers

Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens); and seeking the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories. These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala". Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi

 Numismatist John Allan theorized that Daivaputra, Shahi, and Shahanushahi were three different states; or alternatively, Shahi-Shahanushahi was a single state. Historian D. R. Bhandarkar argued that Daivaputra ("a descendant of Devaputra") cannot be a stand-alone name, and identified Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi as a single ruler, possibly Kidara I, who had established a new kingdom Gandhara (present-day Afghanistan). According to historian Tej Ram Sharma, Daivaputra refers to a Kushan king (Devaputra being a Kushan title); Shahi refers to a sub-branch of the Kushans; and Shahanushahi refers to the Sasanians. These kings controlled parts of present-day Punjab and Afghanistan.Historian Ashvini Agrwal theorizes that Kidara, who initially ruled as a vassal of the Sasanian king Shapur II, may have formed an alliance with Samudragupta to overthrow his Sasanian overlord. In Raghuvamsha, the Gupta court poet Kalidasa states his hero Raghu defeated the Parasikas (Persians): Agrwal speculates that this description may be inspired from the Kidraite-Gupta victory over the Sasanians. According to Abraham Eraly and others, the expression Devaputra Shāhi Shāhānu Shāhi evidently designates the Kushan princes, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titles Devaputra, Shao and Shaonanoshao: "Son of God, King, King of Kings". This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled in Punjab, but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor. Shaka-Murundas

 Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas"


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 refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as Sten Konow assert that "Murunda" is a Shaka title meaning "lord"; the Kushans also used similar titles (for example, Kanishka is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription). Other scholars, such as K. P. Jayaswal, believe that Shakas and Murundas are two different groups of people.According to this theory, Shakas here most probably refers to the Western Kshatrapa rulers of Ujjain. Jayaswal notes that the Puranas mention the rule of 13 Murunda kings, and Hemachandra's Abhidhana-Chintamani describes Murunda as people of Lampaka (in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas". The exact location of the Shakas mentioned in Samudragupta's inscription is not certain. V. A. Smith identified them with the Western Kshatrapas, who controlled the western Malwa and Saurashtra regions. D. R. Bhandarkar alternatively identified the Shaka-Murunda ruler with Shridhara-varman, a Shaka ruler whose inscriptions have been discovered at Sanchi (Kanakerha inscription) and Eran. Eran then came under the direct control of Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription.Simhala and other islands
 According to the Chinese sources, Meghavarna, the king of Simhala (present-day Sri Lanka), sought to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya, for the convenience of the pilgrims from his kingdom. He sent rich presents for this purpose, and Samudragupta sanctioned his request to build the monastery. Using poetic exaggeration, Samudragupta's courtier Harishena appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience. Similarly, the 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang, who visited this monastery, appears to have regarded the rich presents sent by Meghavarna as tribute: he states that Meghavarna "gave in tribute to the king of India all the jewels of his country". The "other islands" may be the Indianized kingdoms of South-East Asia, but there is no evidence that their rulers were subordinate to Samudragupta. They probably sent embassies to the Gupta empire, and maintained friendly relations. The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as Tamralipti, were probably connected to these kingdoms through the marine routes.The widespread use of Sanskrit in these kingdoms may have happened as a result of Gupta influence. Extent of the empire

Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states. Historian R. C. Majumdar theorizes that Samudragupta directly controlled an area extending from the Ravi River (Punjab) in the west to the Brahmaputra River (Bengal and Assam) in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Vindhya hills in the south. The south-western boundary of his territory roughly followed an imaginary line drawn from present-day Karnal to Bhilsa. In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included Eran in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to Kanchipuram in the south.However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that a gold coin of the Gadahara tribe bears the legend Samudra, which suggests that Samudragupta's control extended up to the Chenab river in the Punjab region. Some earlier scholars, such as J. F. Fleet believed that Samudragupta had also conquered a part of Maharashtra, based on the identification of Devarashtra with Maharashtra, and Erandapalla with Erandol, where some Gupta-era remains have been found. However, this theory is no longer considered correct.Coinage

The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent. The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus. The standard coin type of Samudragupta is highly similar to the coinage of the later Kushan rulers, including the sacrificial scene over an altar, the depiction of a halo, while differences include the headdress of the ruler (a close-fitting cap instead of the Kushan pointed hat), the Garuda standard instead of the trident, and Samudragupta's jewelry, which is Indian. The following types of Samudragupta's coins, inscribed with Sanskrit language legends, have been discovered:

 Standard type
 Obverse legend: Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati. Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies [and] has continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven"; Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven". Reverse legend: Prakramah

 Archer type
 Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand. Obverse legend: Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati.Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds". Reverse legend: Apratirathah

 Battle-axe type
 Obverse legend: Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah. Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious"
 Reverse legend: Kritanta-parashuh

 Tiger-slayer type
 Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger
 Legend: Vaghra-prakramah. Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger". Lyrist type
 Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a veena that lies on his knees. Legend: the king's name

 Ashvamedha type
 Obverse legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse. Some coins have an alternative legend: Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven").Reverse legend: Ashvamedha-prakramah ("possessing the valour to perform the horse-sacrifice")

Various scholars, including numismatist John Allan, consider that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents, while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself. Inscriptions

Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered:

 Allahabad Pillar inscription
 Eran stone inscription

Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory. Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed:

 Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5
 Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9

Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after some time, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II. Eran inscription

At Eran, an inscription by Samudragupta seems to succeed that of a local Saka ruler named Sridharavarman, already known from the Kanakerha inscription at Sanchi and another inscription in Eran.Samudragupta may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman in his campaigns to the West. The Eran Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in Kolkata Indian Museum. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads:

Religion

Samudragputa's Eran inscription records the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple. The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu (parama-Bhagavata) He was also tolerant towards Buddhism, and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the Anuradhapura king Meghavarna at Bodh Gaya in his territory. The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Samudragupta was engaged in the performance of the Brahmanical ceremonies of Sattra (Soma sacrifices) and Diksha. It describes him as "the giver of many hundreds of thousands of cows".The Mathura stone inscription of his son Chandragupta II also describes him as the giver of "millions of cows and gold". It appears that Samudragupta donated these cows to the Brahmins who officiated his Sattra and Diksha ceremonies. The Eran inscription states that Samudragupta surpassed Prithu, Raghava and other legendary kings in giving gold. The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his divine kingship, comparing him to the Parama Purusha (supreme being), and also with deities such as Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna, Indra, and Antaka (Yama). The Eran inscription states that he was equal to Kubera and Yama in pleasure and anger respectively. The Mathura stone inscription similarly describes him as equal to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama. Ashvamedha

Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha ritual, which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage section) to mark this performance.The copper-plate inscriptions of Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavati-Gupta, who was a Vakataka queen, describe him as the performer of multiple horse sacrifices. According to one theory, Samudragupta indeed performed more than one horse sacrifices, as attested by the presence of two different legends on his Ashvamedha coins. Another theory dismisses the claim on Prabhavati-Gupta's inscriptions as an exaggeration or a scribal error since this claim does not appear on the inscriptions of Samudragupta or his successors. The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as "the restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice that had been long in abeyance" (Smith's translation). This claim also appears in the inscriptions of the subsequent Gupta kings, as well as the spurious Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta. However, several kings including those from Bharashiva, Vakataka, Shalankayana, and Pallava dynasties had had performed Ashvamedha in the preceding years. Different scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways: H. C. Raychaudhuri suggests that the Gupta court poet did not know about these kings.According to R. C. Majumdar, Samudragupta was the first king several centuries to perform the sacrifice in the Magadha region. Majumdar also theorizes that the Ashvamedha ceremony performed by Bharashiva, Vakataka, and other near-contemporary kings was "more of a religious nature", while Samudragupta's ceremony actually involved proving his imperial sovereignty. Similarly, scholars such as S. K. Aiyangar and D. R. Bhandarkar, theorize that unlike the other kings, Samudragupta performed a "full-fledged" Ashvamedha ceremony. Others, such as V. S. Pathak and Jagannath Agrawal, interpret the verse to mean that Samudragupta performed the horse-sacrifice that lasted for a long-time. The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the panegyrics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony. It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony.Personality

Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique. The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted". It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him. At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("Prachanda shasana"). The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets". This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive. The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician Tumburu and Narada by his lovely performances of music.Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a veena. The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect, stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is, Brihaspati) by his sharp intellect. Succession

The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II, who was his son from queen Dattadevi. Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta, who was later dethroned by Chandragupta II. References

Bibliography

External links
 Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta

 Gupta Empire
4th-century Indian


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Sir <mask>, GCB, KBE (1 July 1921 –  13 July 1980) was a Botswana politician who served as the first President of Botswana, a post he held from 1966 to his death in 1980. Born into an influential royal family of what was then the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, he was educated abroad in neighbouring country of South Africa and then in the United Kingdom. While in Britain, he married an Englishwoman named Ruth Williams, a decision opposed by the white-minority government of South Africa and which led to a controversy resulting in the British government making him stay in England in exile so as to not sour Anglo-South African relations. After the end of his exile, <mask> led his country's independence movement and transition from British rule into an independent nation. He founded the Botswana Democratic Party in 1962 and became Prime Minister in 1965. In 1966, Botswana gained independence and <mask> was elected as its first president. During his presidency, the country underwent rapid economic and social progress.Childhood and education
<mask> <mask> was born in 1921 in Serowe, in what was then the Bechuanaland Protectorate. He was the son of Queen Tebogo and Sekgoma <mask> II, the paramount chief of the Bamangwato people, and the grandson of <mask> III, their king. The name Seretse means "the clay that binds". He was named this to celebrate the recent reconciliation of his father and grandfather; this reconciliation assured Seretse's own ascension to the throne with his aged father's death in 1925. At the age of 4, Seretse became kgosi (king), with his uncle Tshekedi Khama as his regent and guardian. After being educated in his youth at the Tiger Kloof Educational Institute in South Africa, Khama attended Fort Hare University College there, graduating with a general B.A. in 1944.He travelled to the United Kingdom and studied for a year at Balliol College, Oxford. He next joined the Inner Temple in London in 1946, to study to become a barrister. Marriage and exile
In June 1947, Khama met Ruth Williams, an English clerk at Lloyd's of London. After a year of courtship, they married. The interracial marriage sparked a furore, alarming both the Union of South Africa, which had established legal  apartheid (racial segregation), and the tribal elders of the Bamangwato, who were angered he had not chosen one of their women. On being informed of the marriage, Khama's uncle Tshekedi Khama demanded his return to Bechuanaland and the annulment of the marriage. Khama did return to Serowe.After a series of kgotlas (public meetings), he was reaffirmed by the elders in his role as the kgosi in 1949. Ruth Williams Khama, travelling with her new husband, proved similarly popular. Admitting defeat, Tshekedi Khama left the Bamangwato reserve for voluntary exile in the Bakwena reserve while Khama returned to London to complete his studies. However, the international ramifications of his marriage were not so easily resolved. Having banned interracial marriage in 1949 under the apartheid system, South Africa's government opposed having an interracial couple ruling just across their northern border. The couple was banned from entering South Africa, including Mafeking, which then operated as the administrative capital of Bechuanaland. Since Bechuanaland was then a British protectorate (not a colony), the South African government immediately tried to exert pressure on the UK to have Khama removed from his chieftainship.The Attlee ministry, Britain's Labour-led government, then heavily in debt from World War II, could not afford to lose cheap South African gold and uranium supplies. They also feared that South Africa might take more direct action against Bechuanaland, either economic sanctions or a military incursion. The British government conducted a judicial enquiry into Khama's fitness for the chieftainship. The investigation did not disapprove of interracial marriage as such and reported that he was eminently fit to rule the Bamangwato, "but for his unfortunate marriage", which prevented good relations with neighbouring apartheid regimes. The government ordered that the report be suppressed (it would remain so for thirty years) and exiled Khama and his wife from Bechuanaland in 1951. Return to politics
The British government's decision concerning Khama immediately proved controversial, both in Britain and Bechuanaland. Several British newspapers made calls for the resignation of Lord Salisbury, the minister responsible for the decision
A deputation of six Bamangwato travelled to London to see the exiled Khama and Lord Salisbury, in an echo of the 1895 deputation of three Batswana kgosis to Queen Victoria, but met with no success.However, when ordered by the British High Commission to find a suitable candidate replace Khama, the Bamangwato rebuffed the order. In 1956, both Khama and his wife were allowed to return to Bechuanaland as private citizens, after he had renounced the tribal throne. Khama began an unsuccessful stint as a cattle rancher. He became involved in local politics, being elected to the tribal council in 1957 as its secretary. In the 1961 Birthday Honours, he was recognised for his services as tribal secretary by his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). In 1961, Khama returned to politics by founding the Bechuanaland Democratic Party. His exile gave him an increased credibility with an independence-minded electorate, and the BDP swept aside its Socialist and Pan-Africanist rivals to dominate the 1965 elections.As Prime Minister of Bechuanaland, Khama continued to push for Botswana's independence while based in the newly established capital of Gaborone. A 1965 constitution delineated a new Botswana government, and on 30 September 1966, Botswana gained its independence. As prescribed by the new constitution, <mask> became its first President. Ten days prior to this, Elizabeth II had promoted Khama within the Order of the British Empire, appointing him a Knight Commander (KBE). Presidency
At the time of its independence in 1966, Botswana was the world's third-poorest country, poorer than most other African countries. Its infrastructure was minimal, with only  of paved roads; and few of its people had formal education, with only 22 university graduates and 100 secondary school graduates. Khama set out on a vigorous economic programme intended to transform the nation into an export-based economy, built around beef, copper and diamonds.The 1967 discovery of Orapa's diamond deposits aided this programme. Khama instituted strong measures against corruption, the bane of so many other newly independent African nations. Unlike other countries in Africa, his administration adopted free-market-friendly policies to foster economic development. Khama promised low and stable taxes to mining companies, liberalized trade, and increased personal freedoms. He maintained low marginal income tax rates to deter tax evasion and corruption. He upheld liberal democracy and non-racism in the midst of a region embroiled in civil war, racial enmity and corruption. Khama embraced the rule of law.The small public service was transformed into an efficient and relatively corruption-free bureaucracy with workers hired based on merit. Calls to immediately "indigenize" the bureaucracy were resisted, and the government retained foreign expatriates working in the bureaucracy until suitably qualified locals could be found to replace them. <mask> and his people also drew on international advisers and consultants. Mining companies were encouraged to search the country for more resources, leading to the discovery of additional copper, nickel, and coal deposits. Between 1960 and 1980 Botswana had the fastest-growing economy in the world. This growth was primarily driven by mining, and the government acted to gain a greater percentage of its revenue. The customs union between Botswana and South Africa was renegotiated in 1969, with the government of Botswana securing for itself a greater share of the mining revenue.In 1975, after it had become clear how productive these mines were, the government again renegotiated the diamond mining agreement to guarantee itself 50% of the revenues. By the mid-1970s, Botswana had a budget surplus. The government used these revenues to heavily invest in the expansion of infrastructure, health care, and the education system, resulting in further economic development. In particular, the government invested in other sources of economic growth. The cattle industry was heavily subsidised, with the government nationalising the country's lone slaughterhouse and building two more, heavily subsidising veterinary services, vaccines, and cattle fence construction. It set up the Botswana Meat Commission as the sole seller of beef in the country, setting prices and selling beef to regional and international markets. With Khama's direct intervention, it negotiated a lucrative trade deal with the European Economic Community, gaining prices far above world levels.Khama also spearheaded a national fundraising campaign to build Botswana's first institute of higher education, which resulted in the establishment of the University of Botswana in 1982, after Khama's death. The Botswana Development Corporation was established in 1970 to attract foreign investment in crop agriculture, tourism, and the secondary sector. In 1976, the Botswana pula was introduced, replacing the South African rand as the national currency. Due to Khama's dedication to development, very little was spent on defence, and a small military police force was initially formed in place of an army. However, following repeated incursions by South African and Rhodesian forces, the Botswana Defence Force was formed in 1977 as a small professional military. On the foreign policy front, Khama was careful politically and did not allow militant groups to operate from within Botswana. According to Richard Dale,

  Shortly before his death, Khama played major roles in negotiating the end of the Rhodesian civil war and the resulting creation and independence of Zimbabwe, and the creation of the Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference.<mask> was reelected three times by virtue of the BDP easily winning the 1969, 1974 and 1979 elections. In Botswana, candidates for the National Assembly declare whom they endorse for president when they lodge their nomination papers, and the presidential candidate with a majority of endorsements is automatically elected. He governed with very large majorities for his entire tenure, never facing more than seven opposition MPs. Death

For a number of years leading up to his death, <mask>'s health deteriorated. He suffered from heart and kidney ailments. In 1960 he had been diagnosed with diabetes. In 1976, he underwent a heart operation in Johannesburg to install a pacemaker.From then on, he frequently flew to London for medical treatment. In June 1980, while receiving treatment in London, Khama was diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer. He returned home after it was determined that no cure was possible. <mask> died in his sleep on 13 July 1980 in the presence of his wife in Botswana. Legacy

Following his death, <mask> was succeeded by Vice President Quett Masire. Forty thousand people paid their respects to Khama as his body lay in state in Gaborone. He was buried in the Royal Cemetery on a hill in Serowe, Central District.Twenty eight years after Khama's death, his son Ian succeeded Festus Mogae as the fourth president of Botswana; in the 2009 general election he won a landslide victory. That year a younger son, Tshekedi <mask> II, was elected as a parliamentarian from Serowe North West. <mask> left office in 2018. Sir Seretse Khama International Airport is Botswana's main airport. It was named after Khama and opened in 1984. In 2016, the film A United Kingdom told the story of the controversies that surrounded Khama's marriage. It starred David Oyelowo as Khama and Rosamund Pike as Ruth Williams.Khama is frequently referenced in The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency books by Alexander McCall Smith. Mma Ramotswe, the series' protagonist, greatly admires him, compares him with Nelson Mandela and very much regrets the fact of his not being so well known internationally. References

Works cited

Further reading

  From the 1990 film of the same name. Williams, Susan. 2006. Colour Bar.Allen Lane. Seager, Alan. 2005. The Shadow of a Great Rock. Connah's Quay, Flintshire, England: I & D Books/ the author
 "Seretse Khama" by Neil Parsons, Willie Henderson and Thomas Tlou in 1995

External links
Penguin BooksA piece by Susan Williams, author of Colour Bar: The Triumph of <mask> <mask> and His Nation
University of Botswana History Dept: Seretse Khama 1921–1980
Royalty in Botswana

Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Presidents of Botswana
1921 births
1980 deaths
People from Serowe
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Botswana independence activists
University of Fort Hare alumni
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Botswana expatriates in South Africa
Botswana expatriates in the United Kingdom
Deaths from cancer in Botswana
Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo

masks:
Seretse Goitsebeng Maphiri Khama
Khama
Khama
Seretse
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Khama
Ian Khama
Seretse
Khama


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<mask> (, ; born 26 January 1990) is a Thai professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Thai League 1 club Port and the Thailand national team. Club career

Rajpracha
<mask> was born on 26 January 1990 in Bangkok, Thailand. He began his youth career in 2006 with Raj Pracha, making his senior debut with the team in 2007. Muangthong United
In 2008, defending Thai division 2 champions Muangthong United signed Kawin at the age of 18. In his first season with Muangthong United, he secured his first-team status and helped the club win the division 1 title that season. After Muangthong's promotion to the Thai Premier League for the 2009–2010 season, Kawin led the team to win the top division title two years in a row, 2009 and 2010. In October 2010, Bryan Robson, a Manchester United legend and Thailand's national team head coach at the time, spoke to United's goalkeeping coach, Eric Steele, suggesting he take a look at Kawin.However, Kawin broke his wrist, causing him to be out of action for months, ending his hopes of going on trial at Manchester United. At the start of the 2013 season, while competing in the 2013 Lunar New Year Cup, <mask> collided against Chris Dickson. He suffered a broken shin, which kept him out for 7 months. After returning to the pitch in the second leg of the Thai Premier League, he dislocated his shoulder and tore ligaments in a match against TOT S.C., ending his season. <mask> Darul Ta'zim in the 2016 AFC Champions League knock-out stage semifinal round. He saved all three of Johor's spot kicks in the penalty shootout. OH Leuven
In 2018, <mask> completed his move to Europe by joining OH Leuven in the Belgian First Division B on a five-year contract.The deal was formally announced on January 10, 2018. <mask>, who wore the number 16 jersey, quickly became Leuven's first-choice goalkeeper, a position previously held by Nick Gillekens. After an outstanding performance in a 1-1 draw against Beerschot Wilrijk, <mask> was named in the Proximus League's Matchday 27 team of the week along with teammate Jarno Libert. In October 2018, <mask> suffered a foot injury which has kept him on the sidelines for months, allowing Laurent Henkinet to take up the position as first-choice goalkeeper. While Gillekens' contract was not prolonged after the 2018-19 season, OH Leuven signed international goalkeeper Darren Keet, who has since become the second choice goalkeeper behind Henkinet, bumping Thamsatchanan into third. Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo
On 4 February 2020, it was announced that <mask> had joined club Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo on a season-long loan deal. He would eventually not play a single match for the team and returned to OH Leuven at the end of 2021.Return to OH Leuven
Meanwhile at OH Leuven, the goalkeeper situation had changed completely: both Laurent Henkinet and Darren Keet had left the club and two new goalkeepers had been signed mid-2020: Rafael Romo and Daniel Iversen. With Iversen returning to Leicester City due to lack of playing time, only Romo and youngster Oregan Ravet remained and <mask> was soon promoted back to second goalkeeper behind Romo. On 11 April 2021 in the penultimate game of the season, after Rafael Romo got injured during the game against Cercle Brugge, <mask> was brought on as a replacement at half-time, making him the first Thai football player to play in the Belgian highest division. It would prove to be his only match that season, as Romo returned to play the final match of the season. During the 2021 summer transfer window, OH Leuven loaned Rúnar Alex Rúnarsson, demoting <mask> back to third goalkeeper (together with Ravet). Thamsatchanan did not appear on the match sheet in any match during the first half of the 2021–22 season and being deemed surplus, he was first allowed to join the Thailand national football team to compete the AFF Championship towards the end of 2021, a tournament which was won and in which he played (part of) the first leg of the final. Subsequently, he was loaned out on 4 January 2022, when it was announced that <mask> had joined club Port on a loan deal.Return Thai league with Port
Upon joining Port, Kawin was given the shirt number 1.

International career
Kawin had debut his first senior caps in 2010 King's Cup against Singapore at Nakhon Ratchasima province. Recently, under the management of Winfried Schafer, Kawin has been dropped to a substitution of Sintaweechai Hathairattanakool. He was the starting goalkeeper of the tournament in the 2012 AFF Suzuki Cup. He represented Thailand U23 in the 2013 Southeast Asian Games. Kawin was the flag bearer for Thailand in the 2014 Asian Games, and was the captain of Thailand U23 in the tournament. Kawin was one of the overaged players playing in the 2014 Asian Games. Kawin was part of Thailand's squad that won the 2014 AFF Suzuki Cup.In December 2018, it was announced that <mask> would be part of the Thailand that would compete in the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. However, due to an injury, he sustained in October while playing for OH Leuven, Kawin was forced to withdraw just 2 weeks prior to the tournament. He came back in the drawn match against Vietnam. Personal life

He attended Assumption College Thonburi for high school and graduated from Assumption University with a bachelor in Business Administration. In September 2013, V. Vachiramethi, a famous Thai monk, advised him to add two Thai alphabets to his name, therefore <mask> decided to change his name from กวิน to กวินทร์. His new name means a great and powerful man. Despite the change of his name, the pronunciation of the word remains unchanged.Kawin is good friends with Panupong Wongsa and his idols are Oliver Kahn and former Thailand goalkeeper Sinthaweechai Hathairattanakool. Kawin is a Buddhist. Career statistics

Honours

Club
Rajpracha F.C.

masks:
Kawin Thamsatchanan
Kawin Thamsatchanan
Kawin
Kawinhor
Kawin
Kawin
Kawin
Kawin
Kawin
Thamsatchanan
Thamsatchanan
Thamsatchanan
Kawin
Kawin
Kawin


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<mask>, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow,  (24 September 1887 – 5 January 1952) was a British Unionist politician, agriculturalist, and colonial administrator. He served as Governor-General and Viceroy of India from 1936 to 1943. He was usually referred to simply as Linlithgow. He served as vice president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh and Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Early life and family
Hope was born at Hopetoun House, South Queensferry, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, on 24 September 1887. He was the eldest son of John Adrian Louis Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun, later 1st Marquess Linlithgow, and Hersey Everleigh-de-Moleyns, Countess of Hopetoun and later Marchioness of Linlithgow, daughter of the fourth Baron Ventry. His godmother was Queen <mask>.He was educated at Ludgrove School and Eton College and on 29 February 1908 succeeded his father as 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow. In 1912, aged only 25, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were William Turner, Alexander Crum Brown, Cargill Gilston Knott and James Haig Ferguson. He served as the society's vice president from 1934 to 1937. Early career
Linlithgow served as an officer on the Western Front during the First World War. Transferred from Lothians and Border Horse, he commanded a battalion of the Royal Scots. He was mentioned in dispatches and appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, ending the war with the rank of colonel.He then served in various minor roles in the Conservative governments of the 1920s and '30s. From 1922 till 1924 he served as the civil lord of the Admiralty, becoming chairman of the Unionist Party Organisation in 1924 for two years. He also served as president of the Navy League from 1924 until 1931. He was chairman of the Medical Research Council and of the governing body of the Imperial College London. Linlithgow was also chairman of the committee on the distribution and prices of agricultural produce and president of the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture until 1933. In 1926 he was chairman of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in India, which published its findings in 1928. Influenced by submissions to the Royal Commission, "a decade later, when (he) became Viceroy of India he showed a personal interest in nutrition, pushing it to the top of the research agenda".The reason for sending a Commission on Agriculture under Linlithgow was 'because constitutional reform without economic and educational reform will do nothing to ameliorate the condition of life of the mass of the population of India, and this is what matters most.' From April 1933 to November 1934 he was chairman of the Parliamentary Joint Select Committee on Indian constitutional reform, drawn up to consider the proposals for Indian self-government contained in the government's March 1933 White Paper. He agreed to take the job after Lord Salisbury declined it (although he agreed to serve on the committee) and Sidney Peel, the second choice, fell ill with phlebitis. Linlithgow told the Joint Select Committee that he would show no favouritism between the Indian factions (Hindus, Muslims and Princely States) and would be neutral just as he was between his own five children. The committee's proposals became the Government of India Act 1935. Viceroy

Having previously declined both the governorship of Madras and the governor-generalship of Australia (his father was the first Governor-General of Australia), he became the Viceroy of India, succeeding Lord Willingdon. Travelling out to India on the P&O liner RMS Strathmore, he arrived in Bombay, with his wife, daughters, and personal staff, on 17 April 1936.Linlithgow implemented the plans for local self-government embodied in the Government of India Act 1935, which led to provincial governments led by the Congress Party in five of the eleven provinces of British India, but the recalcitrance of the princes prevented the establishment of elected governments in most of the princely states. With the outbreak of the Second World War, Linlithgow's rejection of the request by the Congress for a declaration that India would be given the chance to determine its own future after the war led to the resignation of the Congress ministries. On 8 August 1940 Lord Linlithgow made a statement on behalf of the British government. It was known as the August Offer and offered greater rights in the governance of India to the Indian people. The proposal was rejected by most Indian politicians, including the Congress Party and the Muslim League. Disputes between the British administration and Congress ultimately led to massive Indian civil disobedience in the Quit India Movement. Linlithgow suppressed the disturbances and arrested the Congress leaders.He is partly blamed for the Bengal famine of 1943 which resulted in three million deaths. Retirement

His seven-year tenure as viceroy, the longest in the history of the Raj, ended in 1943. Indians were less kind in their assessments of his career. V. P. Menon in The Transfer of Power in India stated: "His 7½ year regime – longer than that of any other Viceroy – was conspicuous by its lack of positive achievement. When he left India, famine stalked portions of the countryside. There was economic distress due to the rising cost of living and the shortage of essential commodities. On the political side, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru expressed the general feeling thus: 'Today, I say, after seven years of Lord Linlithgow's administration the country is much more divided than it was when he came here'."A sincere Presbyterian, he served as Lord High Commissioner to the Church of Scotland in 1944 and 1945. He died in 1952. They had twin sons and three daughters:
Charles William Frederick Hope, 3rd Marquess of Linlithgow (7 April 1912 – 1987); succeeded to his father's marquessate
John Hope, 1st Baron Glendevon (7 April 1912 – 18 January 1996); became a Conservative statesman and married the daughter of the English novelist W. Somerset Maugham
Lady Anne Adeline (27 January 1914 – 2007)
Lady Joan Isabella (21 September 1915 – 1989)
Lady Doreen Hersey Winifred (17 June 1920 – 22 January 1997), the mother of Lucinda Green, a famous equestrian. In some circles the three girls were known as Faint Hope, Little Hope, and No Hope. References

External links

Viceroys of India
1930s in British India
1940s in British India
Lords of the Admiralty
World War II political leaders
1887 births
1952 deaths
British Army personnel of World War I
Royal Scots officers
Scottish Presbyterians
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Thistle
Lord-Lieutenants of West Lothian
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Chancellors of the University of Edinburgh
Victor
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Deputy Lieutenants of Linlithgowshire
People educated at Eton College
India in World War II
Unionist Party (Scotland) politicians
People from South Queensferry
Scottish agriculturalists
Marquesses of Linlithgow
Politicians from Edinburgh

masks:
Victor Alexander John Hope
Victoria


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<mask> (November 23, 1899 – July 16, 1974) was a civil rights attorney who worked on cases related to the Japanese American evacuation and internment. Biography

Personal life
<mask> was born in Sacramento, California, to Irish American parents, and was raised and educated in San Francisco. In 1907, <mask>' father died from tuberculosis and his mother was unable to retain custody of her two sons. As a result, <mask> spent much of his youth in an institutional home affiliated with the Swedenborgian Church in San Francisco's Potrero Hill area. While living there, he attended what is now called Lick-Wilmerding High School from which he received a diploma. <mask> enlisted in the Navy towards the end of World War I. He earned his law degree from San Francisco Law School in 1927 and opened a law office in the Mills Building complex of San Francisco's Financial District in the following year.In 1930, he was reunited with his mother and younger brother, to whom he provided financial support. In 1933, <mask> married Thelma Garrison, with whom he had two children. The family lived in an apartment in the Nob Hill neighborhood of San Francisco for a number of years, and later moved to a home on Presidio Avenue in 1950. Thelma died of cancer in 1953, and <mask> did not remarry. Legal career
In 1934, <mask> helped to establish the Northern California branch of the ACLU in response to anti-worker and anti-union campaigns of employers against protesting workers in rural California and against striking maritime workers in California. <mask>' first major case for the branch was on behalf of a nine-year old Jehovah's Witness who had been suspended from school for refusing to cite the Pledge of Allegiance based on religious grounds. He later became a leader in the legal fight against persecution of Japanese Americans, both during and after World War II.Korematsu
With Ernest Besig of the Northern California ACLU, <mask> led Fred Korematsu's constitutional challenge to the Internment of Japanese Americans beginning in 1942, and culminating in his defense of Korematsu (alongside the ACLU's Charles Horskey) before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1944. In a 6–3 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld Korematsu's conviction in Korematsu v. United States in December of that year. Nearly four decades later, in November 1983, the U.S. District Court in San Francisco formally granted the writ of coram nobis and vacated the conviction. Tule Lake and the Renunciants
In the spring of 1944, Ernest Besig became aware of a hastily constructed stockade at California's Tule Lake Segregation Center, in which Japanese American internees were routinely being brutalized and held for months without due process. Besig was forbidden by the national ACLU to intervene on behalf of the stockade prisoners or even to visit the Tule Lake camp without prior written approval from the ACLU's Roger Baldwin. Unable to help directly, Besig turned to <mask> for assistance. <mask>, using the threat of habeas corpus suits, managed to have the stockade closed down.A year later, after learning that the stockade had been reestablished, he returned to the camp and had it closed down for good. In August 1945, <mask> began advising Japanese American internees at Tule Lake who had been deceived or coerced into renouncing their American citizenship under the Renunciation Act of 1944 of their legal rights. On November 13, 1945, <mask> filed two mass class equity suits (Abo v. Clark, No. 25294 and Furuya v. Clark, No. 25295) and two mass class habeas corpus proceedings (Abo v. Williams, No. 25296 and Furuya v. Williams, No. 25297) in the U.S. District Court of San Francisco.These cases sought to determine nationality, prevent removal to Japan, end internment, and cancel renunciation. Adopting <mask>' arguments, Federal Judge Louis E. Goodman found the mass renunciations unconstitutional, stating: "It is shocking to the conscience that an American citizen be confined without authority and while so under duress and restraint for this government to accept from him a surrender of his constitutional heritage." "Not even the hysterics and exigencies of war", Goodman had warned in his opinion, "excused the government for the egregious constitutional wrongs it had committed by imprisoning citizens not charged with a crime". When the federal appeals court ruled that each renunciant's case had to be individually decided, <mask> embarked on a 23-year campaign, filing thousands of court cases to successfully recover the renunciants' citizenships. Japanese Latin American internees
<mask> represented some 3,000 Japanese Latin Americans kidnapped by the U.S. during the war to be bartered for American prisoners of war. While most were deported after the war as "undesirable aliens", <mask> successfully enabled hundreds to remain and make their homes in America. Iva Toguri

In 1949 <mask>, with Besig and Theodore Tamba, defended Iva Toguri D'Aquino against charges of treason.Through the use of perjured testimony and falsified evidence, she was convicted of being "Tokyo Rose" in the most expensive trial in American history as of that time. Following her release from prison in 1956, <mask> continued his efforts to have her name cleared. Other legal activities
In addition to his case work on behalf of Japanese Americans, <mask> performed other legal activities during the 1950s and 1960s. This included legal work on behalf of the Swedenborgian Church, the defense of some East Indian immigrants against deportation, the representation of several educators who had refused to sign California's loyalty oath, and the defense of several Berkeley Free Speech Movement leaders. Death
<mask> suffered a heart attack on a plane and died on July 16, 1974, while returning home from a business trip to Hong Kong. <mask>' son, <mask> <mask>, subsequently took on some of the cases his father was actively working on at the time of his death. This included the filing of a presidential pardon petition for Iva Toguri D'Aquino, which President Gerald R. Ford granted during his final days in office.Recognition
Although largely unknown to the general public, <mask>' relentless efforts on behalf of the Japanese Americans have been recognized in various posthumous honors and dedications. For example, the poet Hiroshi Kashiwagi dedicated his book Swimming in the American: a Memoir and Selected Writings to <mask>, saying that he "rescued me as an American and restored my faith in America". In the dedication for her influential book Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps, former internee <mask> Nishiura Weglyn wrote that <mask> "... did more to correct a democracy's mistake than any other one person". References

External links

Research resources
Guide to the <mask> M. <mask> Papers at The Bancroft Library

1899 births
1974 deaths
American people of Irish descent
People from Sacramento, California
United States Navy personnel of World War I
San Francisco Law School alumni
Lawyers from San Francisco
American civil rights lawyers
Internment of Japanese Americans
Activists from California
20th-century American lawyers

masks:
Wayne Mortimer Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Wayne Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Wayne Merrill
Collins
Collins
Collins
Michi
Collins
Wayne
Collins


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<mask> (; 25 August 1959 in Marl, North Rhine-Westphalia) is a German film director and producer. Biography
<mask>'s father was a miner. After <mask>'s A-Levels he wanted to become a professional football player and started playing with Westfalia Herne and later SpVgg Erkenschwick in the German 3rd division. After three years he gave up the idea of becoming a professional football player. One semester he studied sociology before entering the University of Television and Film Munich to study film directing. After spending some time at the London Royal College of Art he finished his career successfully. While studying, he worked as a taxi driver and actor, for example in the TV series Die glückliche Familie.His debut feature film Der bewegte Mann was released in 1994. It became one of the most successful German film of the post-war era. The Superwife (1996) was filmed, as he himself said, to prove that it is possible to make "a successful film out of a successful novel". Der Campus was more or less accomplished on the same terms, but achieved fewer viewers. Films like Mr. Bluesman and the drama film in episodes St Pauli Nacht, for which he was acclaimed by critics, turned out to be commercial failures and didn't run a long time in cinemas. <mask> shot The Hollywood Sign, based on Leon de Winter's novel "De hemel van Hollywood", in the US with a very good cast. The Hollywood Sign came out in 2004 in Germany, but didn't run long in cinemas.<mask> sees The Miracle of Bern as his greatest success, which became the most successful film in German cinemas in the year 2003. During the Confederations Cup 2005 and the Football World Cup 2006 he joined the German football team on their trip. At every match he sat on the trainer's bench and, by order and for account of national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann, he prepared films which were later shown to the players in order to prepare them for an upcoming match. The two-hour documentary film on the world cup, produced from over 100 hours of filming material, was presented to the German national football team on 14 August 2006 as a preview and premiered in cinemas on 5 December 2006 under the title Deutschland. Ein Sommermärchen. The film had more than 4 million viewers and was a big success. The net profits of the film were donated to SOS Children's Villages.In 1998 <mask> founded his own production company . From 2007 he worked on the project to adapt the novel "Pope Joan". The production was carried out by Bernd Eichinger. Initially, the female pope Johanna was going to be portrayed by Franka Potente. In Mai 2008 though, the production company announced that Johanna Wokalek was going to play the pope. The production was also conducted under Oliver Berben. In the year 2009, the film was released in cinemas.<mask> <mask> is married to the actress Cecilia Kunz and has three children. <mask> is an active member of the German authors national football team (Autonama). Wortmann also supports "DeinFussballClub" since April 2008. This club's aim is to engage over 30,000 new members every year, who pay 39.95 euros each every year. The foundation of this club was modeled after the English club Ebbsfleet United F.C. Sönke <mask> is also member of Alliance '90/The Greens political party. Awards
 1985 – Special award at the Royal College of Art in London for Nachtfahrer (Night driver)
 1988 – Kodak-Eastmann award for Drei D (Three D)
 1988 – Nomination for the Oscar category of student film for Drei D
 1988 – Filmband in gold for Noblesse oblige
 1991 – promotional award from the Hypo-Bank for the Munich Film Festival for Allein unter Frauen
 1991 – German video award for Allein unter Frauen
 1992 – Filmband in gold for Kleine Haie
 1992 – Award (Best young director) at the World Film Festival for Kleine Haie
 1992 – Award (Best film) at the film festival in Quebec for Kleine Haie
 1994 – DIVA award
 1994 – Bambi award for Der bewegte Mann
 1995 – German film award, nomination (film, director) for Der bewegte Mann
 1995 – Ernst Lubitsch award for Der bewegte Mann
 1998 – Bavarian film award for Der Campus
 2003 – Bavarian film award for The miracle of Bern
 2004 – Landesmedien award from North Rhine-Westphalia for The miracle of Bern
 2006 – Bambi for the category "Documentary" for Deutschland.Ein Sommermärchen
 2007 – Adolf-Grimme award for the category "information and culture" for Germany for Deutschland. Ein Sommermärchen
 2007 – Merrit award from North Rhine-Westphalia
 2009 – culture award from the Sparkasse culture-foundation Rhine-Westphalia
 2010 – Askania Award

Filmography

As a director
 1981: Nachtfahrer (Short)
 1984: Anderthalb (Short)
 1986: Fotofinish (Short)
 1988:
 1990: Liebesgeschichten: Die Hochzeit des Figaro (TV series episode)
 1990: Eine Wahnsinnsehe (TV film)
 1991:  (Alone Among Women)
 1992: Little Sharks
 1993:
 1994: Der bewegte Mann (Maybe, Maybe Not) — based on comic books by Ralf König
 1996: The Superwife — based on a novel by
 1996:  (TV film) — based on Charley's Aunt by Brandon Thomas
 1998: Der Campus (Campus) — based on a novel by Dietrich Schwanitz
 1999:  — based on a novel by
 2001: The Hollywood Sign — based on a novel by Leon de Winter
 2003: The Miracle of Bern
 2006: Freunde für immer – Das Leben ist rund (TV series, 2 episodes)
 2006: Deutschland. Ein Sommermärchen (Germany. A summer fairy tale)
 2009: Pope Joan — based on Pope Joan by Donna Woolfolk Cross
 2012:  (The Wedding Video)
 2014: Schoßgebete — based on a novel by Charlotte Roche
 2015: Frau Müller muss weg! — based on a play by  and
 2017: Charité (TV series, 6 episodes)
 2017:  — based on a novel by Frank Goosen
 2018:  — based on a play by  and

As a producer
 Lammbock (2001)
 The Miracle of Bern (2003)
 Arnies Welt (2005) (TV film)
 Hardcover (2008)
  (2009)
 Eine Insel namens Udo (2011)
 Lommbock (2017)

As an actor
 1987–1991: Die glückliche Familie (as Ritchie)
 1997: Knocking on Heaven's Door

Advertisements
 For Nike, Gerolsteiner, Bitburger, Sony, Air Berlin, Deutsche Bank, Prinzenrolle, Nivea, DFB, König Pilsener, Früh Kölsch
 Vodafone, Honda, Dresdner Bank, SolarWorld AG, Commerzbank AG
 HanseMerkur Versicherung, starring Mario Gómez (August 2007)
 AachenMünchener, starring Mario Adorf,
 Rewe Group 2010, starring Lukas Podolski
 Deutsche Bahn AG, in which he himself appears. Other work
 Deutschland. Ein Sommermärchen (2006) Diary of the World Cup
 Das Wunder von Bern, audiobook at Hörverlag,

External links

1959 births
Living people
People from Marl, North Rhine-Westphalia
Mass media people from North Rhine-Westphalia
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Members of the Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia
University of Television and Film Munich alumni
SC Westfalia Herne players
German footballers
SpVgg Erkenschwick players
Best Director German Film Award winners
German footballers needing infoboxes
Association football midfielders
Footballers from North Rhine-Westphalia

masks:
Sönke Wortmann
Wortmann
Wortmann
Wortmann
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Sönke
Wortmann
Wortmann
Wortmann