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<mask> (1771–1798),  was an Irish sailor, glazier, artist, and portrait painter, notorious for role as a government informer during the political turmoil of the 1790s. Shortly after joining the republican Society of United Irishmen in 1796 he offered his services to the Crown authorities. Following the publication of a confessional autobiography, in 1798 he disappeared amidst rumours of assassination. Early life
<mask> was born in Downpatrick on 29 June 1771 to parents Robert and <mask>. He was of Scottish ancestry. As a child, he was prone to misbehavior. In his youth, <mask> put up a false facade in front of his friends to hide who he really was to them.Aynsworth Pilson wrote in his memoirs, that <mask>'s parents lived in Dublin before they moved back to Downpatrick. Pilson also wrote that <mask> ran a perfumery in Dublin, and that <mask> operated a millinery business. When Newell was seventeen, his father was seriously injured in a horse accident while he was away on business. <mask>'s mother left <mask> in charge of the house while she attended to Robert. <mask> later abandoned his younger brother and the house to visit his sick father at his uncle's home. His mother, who never showed much affection for Newell, was not pleased to see her son turn up. Employment
After the falling out with his mother, he sought work.<mask> met Captain <mask>, who enlisted <mask> as a seaman. <mask> soon left port for Cadiz, Spain. For about one year, <mask> was at sea; he later described some of the hardships of that experience, including "a most dreadful storm" and living for six weeks "on raw meat, lying in wet clothes, and constantly working at our pumps." After returning home to Dublin and telling his father of his voyage, his father asked <mask> to settle down and found him employment in a painting and glazing business, which <mask> wrote that he begrudgingly followed for about a year until his "usual licentiousness occasioned a difference" with his employer. <mask> soon became a glass-stainer for the next two years, before a falling out with his employer and his father. Following an failed attempt to emigrate to America, he moved on to Limerick and Dublin, trying to find a job but never holding one down for long. He found himself in almost complete poverty, and when he asked his parents for assistance, he was denied due to his enthusiastic support of the United Irishmen.In 1796, <mask> moved to Belfast, where he started his own portrait and miniature painting business. <mask> had never attempted miniature painting before, and he had received no instruction in the vocation. Two of <mask>'s known paintings are a self-portrait that he included in his later biography, and a portrait of Betsy Gray, who fought and died at the Battle of Ballynahinch. Informer among the United Irishmen
<mask> officially joined the Society of United Irishmen in 1796. <mask> neglected his business due to his over-enthusiasm for the United Irishmen, and he quickly began to raise the movement leaders' suspicions. His younger brother, Robert (not a United Irishman), described <mask> as being "in the practice of going through the town of Belfast disguised in the dress of a light horseman, with his face blackened and accompanied by a guard of soldiers, pointing out certain individuals who have in consequence been immediately apprehended and put in prison". Through his business, he became acquainted with George Murdoch, and Newell painted the interiors and exteriors of Murdoch's house.Murdoch and <mask> were opposites politically; their association increased distrust of <mask> within the United Irishmen. <mask> hired guards to protect Murdoch's house because of their friendship. <mask> later wrote that Murdoch informed him that he know that <mask> was a rebel. However, <mask>'s 1843 biographer, Madden, wrote that "he betrayed the secrets of the United Irish Society professedly to prevent the murder of an exciseman named Murdock". Under-Secretary of State for Ireland <mask> brought <mask> to Dublin Castle to be questioned. <mask> wrote that he was given a good reception and treated well and that he was even offered wine. <mask> asked to be pardoned in exchange for his knowledge, which the Lord Lieutenant granted him in writing.Cooke initially questioned <mask> for nine hours. <mask> was examined by a secret committee of the Irish House of Commons in early 1797, where he was put on a high chair in order to be heard better by his audience. <mask> later admitted that he deliberately exaggerated and fabricated his testimony in order to scare the committee. In 1798 <mask> pretended that he showed remorse for his treachery and for making many enemies. Soon after, he told Cooke that he no longer wanted to be a spy. It was decided that he should move to Worcester under the false name of <mask>, where he would resume his painting career. Portrait of Betsy Gray

Among "Other Stories and pictures of '98", the Mourne Observer reproduces "a miniature of Betsy Gray" which was attributed (possibly apocryphally) to "Newell of Downpatrick".This miniature of Betsy Gray, which is in the possession of Mr. C. J. Robb, Spa, was first published in the 1920's in a booklet "Out in '98".It was reproduced from a painting by a man called <mask> of Downpatrick, who posed as a United Irishman prior to 1798, but who was, in fact, in the pay of the Government. According to a number of published accounts (some contemporary) and to popular ballads, Elizabeth, "Betsy" or "Bessie" Gray, was the daughter of a County Down Presbyterian farmer, and a "wondrous beauty" (the "Pride of Down"), killed by government Yeomanry following the rout of the United Irish host a Ballynahinch. She is depicted as riding into the fray carrying the green rebel flag, and being subsequently executed by "Yeos" (her "glove hand" severed, and shot through the head) alongside her brother George and "her sweetheart, Willie Boal". No connection appears to be drawn between her fate and <mask>'s treachery. In the years that followed "a rough map representing the battle scene" with Gray "mounted on a pony and bearing a green flag" was reportedly "seen hanging in many a cottage". Autobiography
Shortly after Cooke interviewed <mask> for the last time, <mask> published The Life and Confessions of <mask>, the Informer, his autobiography, which was claimed to be printed in London but was really printed in Belfast in private by printer <mask>. <mask> wrote his autobiography during his hiding-out period in Doagh, a few miles from Belfast.<mask> claimed that £2,000 was given to him as a reward for causing 227 innocent men to be confined to cells, bastilles, or tender holds, and that many of the men died in confinement. He also acknowledged that one of his victims, the Rev. Sinclair Kelburn, was barely known to Newell save for a brief conversation they had on the street. <mask>'s book was dedicated to <mask>, 1st Earl of Clare, and contained a self-portrait. <mask>'s book had a large sale and it gained much attention. Attempted escape and disappearance
<mask> began an affair with the wife of his friend George Murdoch while he was in Belfast Lough. <mask> persuaded her to leave her husband and to move near his own house.Twelve days later, <mask> found that a ship that would take him to America was nearby on the Lough, so he wrote to George Murdoch telling him his wife's whereabouts and of her decision to return to him. <mask> most likely did not move to America, as there are several differing accounts of his death in 1798 at the age of 27. These accounts of <mask>'s death all share one thing in common: that the United Irishmen assassinated him. Madden records that around 1828, partly uncovered human bones that are said to be of <mask> <mask> were found on the beach of Ballyholme, Bangor, County Down, indicating that he drowned there. References

1771 births
1798 deaths
People from Downpatrick
Irish people of Scottish descent
United Irishmen

masks:
Edward John Newell
Newell
Jane Newell
Newell
Newell
Robert Newell
Jane Newell
Newell
Edward
Newell
Newell
Johnson
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Edward Cooke
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Johnson
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
John Storey
Newell
Newell
Newell
John Fitzgion
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Newell
Edward John
Newell


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<mask> (born 26 January 1986) is a retired Brazilian international competition swimmer. One of the greatest swimmers in the history of Brazil, <mask> won the silver medal in the 400-meter individual medley at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, beating the then-current Olympic champion Michael Phelps. He also broke a world record in the short course 200-meter individual medley, and broke several South American and Brazilian records. During his career, he competed with swimming legends Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte. <mask> is a resident of Belo Horizonte, and became known as Ricardo Prado's successor in his native country after winning the silver medal in the 200-meter individual medley at the Pan American Games in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic in 2003. In 2004, he won the world title in the same event at the 2004 FINA Short Course World Championships. After that, <mask> won six gold medals at the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro, breaking the record of five gold medals won in one Pan American Games, previously held by Mark Spitz.<mask> broke the short course 200-meter individual medley world record later that same year. He represented Brazil at three consecutive Summer Olympics, starting in 2004. As of July 2015, <mask> is the Brazilian athlete with most gold medals won in Pan American Games: 15 earned in four Pan American Games. In 2015, <mask> became the athlete with the most medals in the history of Pan American Games, surpassing the Cuban gymnast Eric López, who won 22 medals between 1991 and 2003. <mask> finished Toronto with 23 total medals. Early years, clubs and personal life
<mask> started swimming at age two when his mother enrolled him in swimming school after he fell into a pool and nearly drowned. At 12, he won his first medal, a bronze in a competition in Volta Redonda, Brazil.At the same age, he won a federated championship in a competition in Valença, defending the CSN club. After several more competition wins between the ages of 13 and 16, <mask> received a proposal to join Belo Horizonte's Minas Tênis Clube in 2001, under the command of coach Fernando Vanzela. From there, <mask> became ranked among the top swimmers in Brazil and the world. <mask> trained in the United States in 2005, moving shortly after the 2004 Summer Olympics. He moved to Coral Springs, Florida, but could not adapt to the local environment, methods and customs, and returned to Belo Horizonte. In 2009, after <mask> and Vanzela analyzed his options, <mask> moved to Auburn, California and trained at University of Southern California under coach Dave Salo. He remained with USC's Trojan Swim Club for two years.In April 2010, <mask> joined the swimming team of São Paulo's Sport Club Corinthians Paulista. In August 2011, he accepted a proposal to integrate into César Cielo's project PRO 16, under the command of Brazil's national swimming team coach Albertinho Silva. In December that year, he announced that would stay in Brazil full-time, living in São Paulo to train with Silva. In 2013, he left Corinthians Paulista and PRO 16, and shortly afterwards he joined the SESI-SP club. In early 2013, <mask>  married lawyer Gabi Pauletti. In April 2015, <mask> returned to Minas Tênis Clube, his first professional club. International career

2002–04
At the age of 16, <mask> competed at the 2002 South American Games in Belém, where he won a gold medal in the 200-meter breaststroke.<mask> competed at the 2003 World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, where he finished 18th in the 200-meter individual medley, 24th in the 400-meter individual medley, and 25th in the 200-meter breaststroke. In the 200-meter individual medley, he broke the South American record for the first time, with a time of 2:02.67. At the 2003 Pan American Games in Santo Domingo, <mask> won the silver medal in the 200-meter individual medley, and a bronze medal in the 400-meter individual medley. In the 200-meter individual medley, he broke the South American record with a time of 2:02.31. In September 2003, he broke Marcelo Tomazini's South American record in the 200-meter breaststroke with a time of 2:15.63. In December 2003, <mask> won the 400-meter individual medley eventthe third event of the 2003–2004 FINA Swimming World Cup in Durban, South Africabeating the short course South American record of Colombian Alejandro Bermudez that had stood since 1998 (4:16.74), with a time of 4:10.93. In February 2004, in the last event of the 2003–2004 FINA Swimming World Cup, in Rio de Janeiro, he broke his own 55.41 second South American 100-meter individual medley record with a time of 54.95 seconds, and also broke the 200-meter individual medley record with a time of 1:58.16.In March 2004, in the 37th South American Swimming Championships in Maldonado, <mask> won the gold medal in the 200-meter individual medley, beating the South American record with a time of 2:00.19 and earning an "A" designation in Brazil's Olympic classification. He also broke the South American record two more times, with times of 1:59.92 and 1:59.48, before competing in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, becoming second in the world rankings. In May 2004, <mask> broke Ricardo Prado's long-course South American record in the 400-meter individual medley, made at the 1984 Summer Olympics, which had been 4:18.45. <mask> swam for 4:17.62 and again obtained Brazil's Olympic classification. 2004 Summer Olympics
For the first time, <mask> was ranked high enough among Brazilian athletes to compete in the 2004 Summer Olympics, where he finished fifth in the 200-meter individual medley and 17th in the 400-meter individual medley. In the 400-meter individual medley, his first Olympic event, <mask> was so anxious that he felt nauseous. His time was 4:22.06, almost five seconds slower than his South American record.He left the pool, gasping and unable speak, and subsequently vomited in the locker room. He did not reach the final, and later said, "I feel very bad". In the 200-meter individual medley, he swam close to his best time but did not beat it. The race pace was strong: <mask> would have had to break his personal best by about 0.7 seconds to win the bronze medal. 2004–08
In September 2004, at the José Finkel Trophy, he broke the short-course South American record in the 100-meter individual medley, with a time of 53.72 seconds, and the 400-meter individual medley record with a time of 4:09.10. At the 2004 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) in Indianapolis, <mask> won the gold medal in the 200-meter individual medley with a time of 1:55.78, defeating Ryan Lochte and breaking the South American record. In the 4×100-meter freestyle, he won a silver medal and he also won two bronze medals in the 100-meter individual medley and 4×200-meter freestyle, beating the South American record with a time of 7:06.64.In May 2005, <mask> dislocated the kneecap while playing soccer; his recovery took two months and did not participate in the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Montreal. At the 2005–2006 FINA Swimming World Cup in February 2006, <mask> broke the short-course South American record in the 100-meter individual medley with a time of 53.49 seconds. At the 2006 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) in Shanghai, <mask> finished 5th in the 4×200-meter freestyle with teammates César Cielo, Lucas Salatta and Rodrigo Castro, beating the South American record with a time of 7:06.09. He also finished 15th in the 200-meter individual medley  and 17th in the 200-meter freestyle. At the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Victoria, British Columbia, <mask> won a bronze medal in the 400-meter individual medley. In heats, he broke his own South American record with a time of 4:16.86. He also finished 21st in the 200-meter freestyle  and qualified for the 200-meter individual medley final in 8th place, but did not swim in the final.In September 2006, at the Brazil Trophy, he broke his South American record in the 200-meter breaststroke with a time of 2:14.64. In December 2006 at the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, he beat his South American record by more than two seconds in the 400-meter individual medley with a time of 4:14.67. At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships in Melbourne, <mask> finished 4th in the 200-meter individual medley, 8th in the 4×100-meter freestyle, 9th in the 4×100-meter medley, 11th in the 4×200-meter freestyle, 12th in the 100-meter backstroke, and was disqualified at the 400-meter individual medley. He broke the South American record in the 4×100-meter freestyle along with César Cielo, Nicolas Oliveira and Rodrigo Castro, with a time of 3:17.03. and in the 4×200-meter freestyle, with a time of 7:20.00, along with Rodrigo Castro, Nicolas Oliveira and Armando Negreiros. <mask> broke the South American record in the 200-meter individual medley three in three months with times of 1:59.19 in February, 1:58.65 in March (Melbourne heats) and 1:58.64 in May. In May 2007, he broke two South American records in long course: the 400-meter individual medley record with a time of 4:11.91 and the 200-meter breaststroke record with a time of 2:12.67, in both getting the Olympic index. At the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro, <mask> won eight medals (six gold, one silver and one bronze) and became the winner of the most medals in a single edition of the Games, equaling the Costa Rican swimmer Silvia Pollwho won eight medals at 1987 in Indianapolis.<mask> also surpassed the five gold mark that belonged to Mark Spitz in the 1967 Pan Am Games in Winnipeg. <mask> won the gold medal in the 200-meter individual medley, 400-meter individual medley, 200-meter backstroke, 200-meter breaststroke, 4×200-meter

masks:
Thiago Machado Vilela Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Thiago
Thiago
Thiago
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
Pereira
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Pereira
Pereira
Pereira


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 freestyle, and 4×100-meter freestyle by participating in heats. He also won the silver medal in the 4×100-meter medley and bronze in the 100-meter backstroke. He broke the South American record in all events in which he competed, except the 200-meter breaststroke: in the 200-meter individual medley with a time of 1:57.79, in the 400-meter individual medley with a time of 4:11.14, in the 200-meter backstroke, with a time of 1:58.42 ; in 100-meter backstroke with a time of 54.75 seconds, in the 4×200-meter freestyle with a time of 7:12.27, and in the 4×100-meter medley with a time of 3:35.81. At the 2007 FINA Swimming World Cup, <mask> made history. In the Stockholm stage, he broke the short-course South American record in the 100-meter individual medley, with a time of 52.97 seconds (his old record was 53.49 seconds from 2006), 200-meter individual medley, with a time of 1:55.08 (his old record was 1:55.78 from 2004) and the 400-meter individual medley record with a time of 4:06.30 (his old record was 4:09.10 from 2004). A few days later, in Berlin, <mask> broke the Americas record in the 100-meter individual medley in 52.42 seconds.In the 400-meter individual medley, he broke the Americas record and the Championship record, doing 4:00.63; within 26 hundredths of László Cseh's world record (4:00.37). In the 200-meter individual medley, <mask> won a gold medal with a time of 1:53.14, establishing a new World Record that stood until 13 December 2007. 2008 Summer Olympics
At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, <mask> finished 4th in the 200-meter individual medley, 8th in the 400-meter individual medley, and 19th in the 200-meter breaststroke. In the 400-meter individual medley, he qualified for the final with a time of 4:11.74, almost beating his South American record. But in the final, his time was 4 seconds slower; <mask> said that he felt tired in the change from the butterfly to the backstroke, not achieving the same efficiency as in the heats. After this, <mask> left the 4×200-meter freestyle relay team of Brazil to compete in the 200-meter breaststroke. He broke the South American record with a time of 2:11.40.His best mark in the race was 2:12.60 but his performance was not enough to advance to the semifinals. In the 200-meter individual medley, he had very similar results in the heats, semifinals and finals, all near 1:58failing to beat his record from the 2007 Pan American Games. Phelps won the gold with a time of 1:54.23, setting a world record. Cseh and Lochte swam at 1:56, winning silver and bronze. 2008–12
In March 2009, <mask> broke a bone in his left hand, which made him give up Travessia dos Fortes and compromised his training for that year's World Championships in Rome. At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in Rome, he finished 4th in the 200-meter individual medley, 4th in the 400-meter individual medley and 10th in the 4×200-meter freestyle. <mask> thrice broke the South American record in the 200-meter individual medley, in the heats (1:57.66), semifinal (1:57.35) and final (1:55.55), only 19 hundredths of a second away from winning a bronze medal and 31 hundredths away from winning a silver medal.In the 400-meter individual medley, <mask> broke his South American record by more than 2 seconds, with a time of 4:08.86, but he was still one second behind the medalists. In the 4×200-meter freestyle, he broke the South American record in the 200-meter freestyle with a time of 1:46.57, at the relay's opening, and the 4×200-meter freestyle record with a time of 7:09.71. In September 2009, at the Jose Finkel Trophy, he broke the Brazilian record in the 200-meter backstroke with a time of 1:58.36. At the 2010 South American Games in Medellín, <mask> won three gold medals in the 200-meter individual medley, 400-meter individual medley and 200-meter breaststroke. He also won three silver medals in the 200-meter backstroke, 4×100-meter and 4×200-meter freestyle. At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine, <mask> won two bronze medals in the 200-meter individual medley  and 400-meter individual medley. At the 2010 FINA Swimming World Cup, <mask> was crowned by participation the king of the competition, winning a prize of .He won, at all stages, the 400-meter individual medley race. He was the first Brazilian to reach the top of the competition, and was the swimmer who won more events in the same season in the history of the circuit  During the tournament, he broke the South American record in the 100-meter individual medley with a time of 52.35 seconds, and in the 200-meter individual medley with a time of 1:52.72. In May 2011, at the Maria Lenk Trophy, he broke the Brazilian record in the 200-meter backstroke with a time of 1:58.07. At the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai, he finished 6th in the 200-meter individual medley, 18th in the 100-meter backstroke, and dropped the 400-meter individual medley. At the 2011 Pan American Games in Guadalajara, <mask> won six gold medals, one silver medal and one bronze medal. With these achievements, <mask> reached 12 gold medals in Pan American Games, becoming the Brazilian with the most gold medals in the history of the Pan American Games, beating Hugo Hoyama. He also became the second Brazilian in total number of medals in Pan American Games, behind Gustavo Borges, who won 19 medals.<mask> won gold in the 200-meter individual medley, 400-meter individual medley, 100-meter backstroke, 200-meter backstroke, and in the 4×100-meter freestyle and 4×100-meter medley by participating in heats. He also won the silver in the  4×200-meter freestyle, and the bronze in the 200-meter breaststroke. In this competition, he broke the Pan American Games record and the Brazilian record in the 200-meter backstroke with a time of 1:57.19. 2012 Summer Olympics

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, <mask> won the silver medal in the 400-meter individual medley, defeating Michael Phelps. He also finished 4th in the 200-meter individual medley, and 15th in the 4×100-meter medley. In the 400-meter individual medley, he equaled the South American record obtained with technological suits in 2009 with a time of 4:08.86. With this, he repeated the Ricardo Prado's feat at Los Angeles 1984.In the 200-meter individual medley, although he made his best-ever time without technological suits (1:56.74), <mask> was beaten in the last 25 meters by Hungarian László Cseh. Due to that, there was a repeat of the three medalists at Beijing 2008 in the 200m medley (Phelps, Lochte and Cseh). 2012–16

In August 2012, at the Jose Finkel Trophy, he broke the short-course South American record in the 200-meter individual medley, with a time of 1:52.30. At the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, he won his first medal in World Championships, the bronze medal in the 200-meter individual medley, with a time of 1:56.30, his best time without super-suits. He was one hundredth to win the silver medal. <mask> also swam, for the first time in the World Championships, the 100-meter butterfly event, finishing in 15th place. <mask> had decided to forego the 400-meter individual medley despite being qualified for the race, but decided otherwise and entered the contest.Although he has not trained specifically for this race, he qualified for the final in eighth place, and by a few hundredths not left out. In the final, he won the bronze medal with a time of 4:09.48, his second medal at World Championships. At the 2014 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, <mask> finished 4th in the 4x100-metre medley relay, along with Guilherme Guido, Felipe França and Marcelo Chierighini, 4th in the 200-metre individual medley, 5th in the 100-metre butterfly, and 7th in the 100-metre backstroke. At the 2015 Pan American Games in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, <mask> won five medals, becoming the biggest medalist in the history of Pan American Games, surpassing the Cuban gymnast Erick Lopez, who has 22 medals between 1991 and 2003. He won a gold medal in the 4×200-metre freestyle relay, where he broke the Pan Am Games record with a time of 7:11.15, along with Luiz Altamir Melo, Nicolas Oliveira and João de Lucca. He also won more two gold medals in Brazilian relays by participating at heats, in the 4×100-metre freestyle relay, and in the 4×100-metre medley relay. He also won a silver medal in the 200 metre individual medley  and bronze in the 200 metre breaststroke.In the 400 metre individual medley, <mask> <mask> initially won, which would make it his third consecutive title along with a record 22nd Pan American medal. However, the judges dictated <mask> failed to touch the wall with both hands at the same time on one of his breaststroke turns. At the 2015 World Aquatics Championships in Kazan, in the Men's 200 metre individual medley, <mask> made his best participation in the World Championships, winning the silver medal with a time of 1:56.65, near his personal best. He also finished 15th in the Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay, along with João de Lucca, Luiz Altamir Melo and Nicolas Oliveira. 2016 Summer Olympics
At the 2016 Summer Olympics in his home country, <mask> made his 4th consecutive final in the 200 individual medley, finishing 7th. Retirement from professional swimming
He retired from professional swimming in March 2017, at the age of 31. Honors and awards
Perira has received the following awards:

World Male Swimmer of the Year, by Swimming World Magazine: 2007
Prêmio Brasil Olímpico: 2007.In 2012 he was elected best swimmer of the year, and competed for the award along with gymnast Arthur Zanetti and boxer Esquiva Falcão; Zanetti was elected the winner. In 2004 he was elected the best

masks: Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira Thiago Pereira Pereira Pereira Pereira


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<mask> (May 20, 1923September 19, 2010) was an American anthropologist. He interrupted his studies at Harvard University to serve in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. After graduation he studied for a doctorate at the  London School of Economics and afterwards carried out field work with the university and McGill University in Mauritius and the Seychelles. He joined the University of California, Berkeley, in 1968 and spent the rest of his career there, rising to dean of social sciences. He was made director of the university's Lowie Museum of Anthropology and was responsible for securing additional funding from the William Randolph Hearst Foundation. He was director when the museum was renamed after one of its founders Phoebe Apperson Hearst. After retirement in 1994 he continued to volunteer at the museum and at the Oakland Zoo.Early life
<mask> was born in Baltimore, Maryland on May 20, 1923. He was the son of a Hollywood producer and publicist. As a child <mask> had an interest in ornithology, read Shakespeare and watched many British films. He enrolled at Harvard University to study ornithology but interrupted his studies to join the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. <mask> was deployed to New Mexico, where he interacted with the Pueblo Indians, sparking an interest in anthropology. After the war he returned to Harvard and switched his focus to anthropology. Among his classmates were Gregory Bateson and Florence Rockwood (Kluckhohn).<mask> graduated with a bachelor of arts degree in anthropology 1949. African field work
After graduation <mask>, who described himself as a "terrific anglophile", went to the United Kingdom to study for a doctor of philosophy degree at the London School of Economics (LSE). While there he worked with Edmund Leach, Maurice Freedman and Raymond Firth. <mask>'s thesis was a study of  Muslim and Buddhist associations in London but he also carried out field work with the Indian community in Mauritius from 1955 to 1957, funded by the Colonial Social Science Research Council. He spent a year as a senior research fellow at the Institute of Islamic Studies of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, before returning to the LSE in 1958 as an assistant lecturer in social anthropology. <mask> visited the Seychelles in 1960 to carry out field work. He wrote the books Indians in a Plural Society (published 1961); Mauritius: the Problems of a Plural Society (1965) and People of the Seychelles (1966).Berkeley
<mask> was promoted to lecturer and then senior lecturer before leaving the LSE in 1968 to return to the United States as professor of anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley. He had worked at Berkeley as a visiting professor from 1966 to 1967. <mask> initially worked in the university's South Asian studies programme but later collaborated with William Shack and Elizabeth Colson on Berkeley's nascent British social anthropology programme. <mask> served as chair of the Department of Anthropology from 1970 to 1971 when he was appointed Berkeley's first dean of social sciences. He held the position until 1974 and during this time established the Sherwood L. Washburn laboratories for the teaching of physical anthropology. <mask> had a seat on Berkeley's budget committee from 1978 to 1981 and, during his last year, served as chair. In 1982 he co-authored Men, Women and Money in Seychelles: Two Views with his wife Marion, whom he had married in 1950.The Berkeley News described the work as "groundbreaking" in the field of ethnography and called it a must read for anthropology students. Also in 1982 he put on an exhibition at the university's Lowie Museum of Anthropology about the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition, which he described as "the last naïve view of a brighter and better world". The exhibition was one of the most successful in the museum's history and he afterwards wrote The Anthropology of World’s Fairs: San Francisco’s Panama Pacific International Exposition of 1915 (1983) which described the fair and also contained a study of all world's fairs from the 1851 Great Exhibition to the Expo '70 in Osaka, Japan. In 1984 he wrote, produced and narrated The 1915 Panama Pacific Fair which won that year's Western Heritage Award for best television documentary. Hearst museum
<mask> was appointed associate director of the museum in 1984, acting director in 1988 and director in 1989. In this role he transformed the museum, which had previously suffered from underfunding, by securing additional capital from the William Randolph Hearst Foundation. <mask> was also director when the museum was renamed the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology after Phoebe Apperson Hearst, William Randolph Hearst's mother and a 1901 founder of the museum.In 1991 he put on an exhibition about money and in the same year was awarded the Berkeley Citation, the campus' highest award. <mask> retired from the university in 1994 but continued to be involved with the museum as a volunteer museum docent. He was also a trustee of Oakland Zoo where, in 2000, he put on an exhibition on early hominids. In 2004 he taught a course on museum anthropology for the Osher Lifelong Learning Institutes. <mask> also maintained a collection of Indian and African figurines, Native American and World's Fair artifacts. Personal life
<mask> married Marion MacColl Steuber. They had two daughters, Helen and Barbara who are both also university professors and authors.He died of heart failure at his home in Berkeley on September 19, 2010. References

Alumni of the London School of Economics
1923 births
2010 deaths
Military personnel from Baltimore
Writers from Baltimore
Harvard University alumni
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
American anthropologists
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American expatriates in Mauritius
American expatriates in Seychelles
American expatriates in Canada
University of California, Berkeley faculty

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<mask> (born 18 March 1985) is a Croatian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Aris Limassol and the Croatia national team. Club career

Šibenik
Schildenfeld began playing football at his hometown club HNK Šibenik. The club's then manager Stanko Mršić gave him his senior debut at age 16 against Kamen Ingrad. In the 2005–06 season, <mask> helped Šibenik win promotion to the top flight. Dinamo Zagreb
Midway through his first season in the Croatian first division, the country's top clubs Dinamo Zagreb and Hajduk Split became interested in signing <mask> and his Šibenik teammate Ante Rukavina. It first seemed likely that <mask> and Rukavina would move to Hajduk together, but then Dinamo entered the race for the two players. In the end, on 2 January 2007, <mask> moved to Dinamo while Rukavina joined archrivals Hajduk.Despite only having five months of top-flight experience at the time, <mask> quickly managed to establish himself as a regular at Dinamo and helped the club winning both Croatian league and cup titles, also netting the crucial away goal against Slaven Belupo in the second leg of the cup final. In the first part of the 2007–08 season, <mask> was also one of the regulars in Dinamo's UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup campaign, appearing in five Champions League qualifying matches and four UEFA Cup matches before the club was knocked out of the latter competition in the group stage. <mask> became an unlucky figure in Dinamo's 2–1 defeat at Norwegian side Brann in their second match in the UEFA Cup group stage, causing a penalty and being sent off for a professional foul in the final moments of the first half. He missed the last two group matches, against Hamburger SV and Rennes, because of the red card. Beşiktaş
Although he was initially set to stay at Dinamo Zagreb, <mask> was signed by Turkish top club Beşiktaş under unexpected circumstances on 1 February 2008. Beşiktaş were actually ready to sign <mask>'s teammate Dino Drpić, but the deal fell through due to Drpić's behaviour after a Croatian league match between Dinamo and Hajduk Split almost two years earlier. <mask> made his Süper Lig debut on 9 February 2008, coming on as a late substitute in Beşiktaş's 2–0 defeat at Kayserispor.He played his first full Süper Lig match a week later as Beşiktaş beat Ankaraspor 3–2 at home. Duisburg
In September 2008, <mask> joined MSV Duisburg of the German 2. Bundesliga on loan until the end of the season. He made his league debut for the club on 16 November 2008 in a 4–3 defeat at SpVgg Greuther Fürth, entering as a substitute for Olcay Şahan in the 83rd minute. He made just four appearances for the club in the league, all of them as a substitute. Sturm Graz

In July 2009, <mask> joined Sturm Graz of the Austrian Bundesliga on a season-long loan from Beşiktaş. He made his league debut for the club on 26 July 2009 in a 3–0 win at home to Magna Wiener Neustadt, entering as a substitute for Ferdinand Feldhofer in the 89th minute.He later managed to find his place as a regular at the club, appearing in 34 league matches during the season. His only goal in the league during the season came on 27 March 2010 when he netted the opening goal in a 3–0 win at Kapfenberger SV. During his first season with Sturm Graz, he also made ten appearances for the club in the UEFA Europa League and was also a regular feature in their run to the Austrian Cup title, making six appearances in the competition. On 15 August 2009, he netted a brace against TSV St. Johann in the Austrian Cup, helping Sturm to grab a 4–2 extra-time win in the first-round match. He also completed the full 90 minutes in the Cup final on 16 May 2010, which Sturm won 1–0 against Magna Wiener Neustadt. On 8 June 2010, he signed a three-year contract with Sturm Graz. Eintracht Frankfurt
On 7 July 2011, Schildenfeld returned to the 2.Bundesliga to join Eintracht Frankfurt. He played there in his first season 33 out of 34 possible matches, helping the club earn promotion to the top-flight Bundesliga. He scored one goal during the 2011–12 campaign. Dynamo Moscow
On 11 July 2012, <mask> signed a three-year contract with Russian Premier League side Dynamo Moscow for an undisclosed fee. PAOK
After struggling to become regular starting center back in Dynamo, <mask> moved on loan to Superleague Greece side PAOK. Panathinaikos
On 2 August 2013, <mask> went on a loan to Panathinaikos. He stayed for two years being one of the most famous players of the club, winning the Greek Cup against his other Greek club PAOK.Dinamo Zagreb
In the summer of 2015, <mask> returned to Dinamo Zagreb with a contract running until summer 2018. In summer 2016 he was linked with Panathinaikos. Anorthosis Famagusta
On 6 July 2017, Anorthosis Famagusta officially announced the acquisition of the Croatian international on a year contract for an undisclosed fee. International career
On 1 March 2006, <mask> won his only international cap for the Croatia national under-21 team, coming on as a substitute in a friendly match against Denmark. <mask> went on to make his full international debut for Croatia on 14 November 2009, coming on as a substitute for Darijo Srna in the 58th minute of a friendly match against Liechtenstein in Vinkovci. In 2010, he made a total of six international appearances, of which four were in friendlies. His competitive international debut came on 9 October 2010 in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier at Israel, in which he played the full 90 minutes.In November 2011, he played the full 90 minutes in both play-off matches against Turkey, helping Croatia to qualify for the finals after a 3–0 aggregate win. He went on to play in all three Croatian matches at Euro 2012. Ten days after his 30th birthday, on 28 March 2015 coming in as a second-half substitute for midfielder Ivan Rakitić in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualification match against Norway, <mask> scored his first goal for the national side with a header off of a Darijo Srna corner kick to make the score 4–1 in the 87th minute. Croatia went on to win the match 5–1. After Euro 2016 finished, he had not received any further call ups for the national team. Personal life
<mask>'s family on his father's side is originally from Slovenia and is of Austrian origin. <mask> met his wife Christina Marsellou in 2014 in Athens.On 22 March 2017, their son Alexander Marsellos Schildenfeld was born. Two years later, on 9 September 2019, they welcomed their second child, Bella Marsellou Schildenfeld . He has two daughters (Patricia and Leila)from his previous marriage with Ivana Škugor. Career statistics

Club

International

Scores and results list Croatia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Schildenfeld goal. Honours

Club
Šibenik
Druga HNL (South): 2005–06

Dinamo Zagreb
Prva HNL: 2007–08, 2015–16
Croatian Cup: 2008, 2016

Sturm Graz
Austrian Bundesliga: 2010–11
Austrian Cup: 2010

Eintracht Frankfurt
2. Bundesliga Promotion: 2011–12

Panathinaikos
Greek Cup: 2013–14

Individual
Football Oscar: Team of the year 2016

References

External links

1985 births
Living people
Croatian footballers
Croatia international footballers
Croatian expatriate footballers
HNK Šibenik players
Beşiktaş J.K. footballers
MSV Duisburg players
SK Sturm Graz players
Eintracht Frankfurt players
FC Dynamo Moscow players
PAOK FC players
Panathinaikos F.C. players
GNK Dinamo Zagreb players
Anorthosis Famagusta FC players
Aris Limassol FC players
Croatian First Football League players
Süper Lig players
2.Bundesliga players
Austrian Football Bundesliga players
Russian Premier League players
Super League Greece players
Cypriot First Division players
UEFA Euro 2012 players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2016 players
Sportspeople from Šibenik
Croatian people of Austrian descent
Expatriate footballers in Turkey
Expatriate footballers in Germany
Expatriate footballers in Austria
Expatriate footballers in Russia
Expatriate footballers in Greece
Expatriate footballers in Cyprus
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Austria
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Russia
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Croatian expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus
Association football defenders

masks:
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<mask> (; ; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a Greek politician  and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, and was acclaimed by Thucydides, a contemporary historian, as "the first citizen of Athens". <mask> turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. The period during which he led Athens, roughly from 461 to 429 BC, is sometimes known as the "Age of Pericles", but the period thus denoted can include times as early as the Persian Wars or as late as the following century. <mask> promoted the arts and literature, and it is principally through his efforts that Athens acquired the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon. This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory and gave work to its people.<mask> also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics called him a populist. <mask> was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically-influential Alcmaeonid family. He, along with several members of his family, succumbed to the Plague of Athens in 429 BC, which weakened the city-state during a protracted conflict with Sparta. Early years

<mask> was born c. 495 BC, in Athens, Greece. He was the son of the politician Xanthippus, who, though ostracized in 485–484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. <mask>' mother, Agariste, was a member of the powerful and controversial noble family of the Alcmaeonidae, and her familial connections played a crucial role in helping start Xanthippus' political career. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, and the niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes.According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a few nights before <mask>' birth, that she had borne a lion. Legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a similar dream before the birth of his son, Alexander the Great. One interpretation of the dream treats the lion as a traditional symbol of greatness, but the story may also allude to the unusually large size of <mask>' skull, which became a popular target of contemporary comedians (who called him "Squill-head", after the squill or sea-onion). Although Plutarch claims that this deformity was the reason that <mask> was always depicted wearing a helmet, this is not the case; the helmet was actually the symbol of his official rank as strategos (general). <mask> belonged to the tribe of Acamantis (). His early years were quiet; the introverted young <mask> avoided public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies. His family's nobility and wealth allowed him to fully pursue his inclination toward education.He learned music from the masters of the time (Damon or Pythocleides could have been his teacher) and he is considered to have been the first politician to attribute importance to philosophy. He enjoyed the company of the philosophers Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras, in particular, became a close friend and influenced him greatly. <mask>' manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have possibly been in part products of Anaxagoras' emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble, and skepticism about divine phenomena. His proverbial calmness and self-control are also often regarded as products of Anaxagoras' influence. Political career until 431 BC

Entering politics

In the spring of 472 BC, <mask>lus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy, demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens. Simon Hornblower has argued that <mask>' selection of this play, which presents a nostalgic picture of Themistocles' famous victory at Salamis, shows that the young politician was supporting Themistocles against his political opponent Cimon, whose faction succeeded in having Themistocles ostracized shortly afterward.Plutarch says that <mask> stood first among the Athenians for forty years. If this was so, <mask> must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC in his early or mid-thirties. Throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. For example, he would often avoid banquets, trying to be frugal. In 463 BC, <mask> was the leading prosecutor of Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction who was accused of neglecting Athens' vital interests in Macedon. Although Cimon was acquitted, this confrontation proved that <mask>' major political opponent was vulnerable. Ostracizing Cimon
Around 461 BC, the leadership of the democratic party decided it was time to take aim at the Areopagus, a traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy, which had once been the most powerful body in the state.The leader of the party and mentor of <mask>, Ephialtes, proposed a reduction of the Areopagus' powers. The Ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) adopted Ephialtes' proposal without opposition. This reform signaled the beginning of a new era of "radical democracy". The democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politics, and <mask> seemed willing to follow a populist policy to cajole the public. According to Aristotle, <mask>' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent, Cimon, was both rich and generous, and was able to gain public favor by lavishly handing out portions of his sizable personal fortune. The historian Loren J. Samons II argues, however, that <mask> had enough resources to make a political mark by private means, had he so chosen. In 461 BC, <mask> achieved the political elimination of this opponent using ostracism.The accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city by aiding Sparta. After Cimon's ostracism, <mask> continued to promote a populist social policy. He first proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying, with the state covering the cost of their admission. With other decrees he lowered the property requirement for the archonship in 458–457 BC and bestowed generous wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia (the supreme court of Athens) some time just after 454 BC. His most controversial measure, however, was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides. Such measures impelled <mask>' critics to hold him responsible for the gradual degeneration of the Athenian democracy. Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, argues that <mask> sought for the expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions.Accordingly, he enacted legislation granting the lower classes access to the political system and the public offices, from which they had previously been barred. According to Samons, <mask> believed that it was necessary to raise the demos, in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance. (The fleet, backbone of Athenian power since the days of Themistocles, was manned almost entirely by members of the lower classes.) Cimon, in contrast, apparently believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed. He was certain that democracy had reached its peak and <mask>' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism. According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, because Athens, after <mask>' death, sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy. Paparrigopoulos maintains that an unprecedented regression descended upon the city, whose glory perished as a result of <mask>' populist policies.According to another historian, Justin Daniel King, radical democracy benefited people individually, but harmed the state. In contrast, Donald Kagan asserts that the democratic measures <mask> put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political strength. After all, Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law, after he returned from exile in 451 BC. Leading Athens
Ephialtes' murder in 461 BC paved the way for <mask> to consolidate his authority. Without opposition after the expulsion of Cimon, the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the unchallengeable ruler of Athens. He remained in power until his death in 429 BC. First Peloponnesian War

<mask> made his first military excursions during the First Peloponnesian War, which was caused in part by Athens' alliance with Megara and Argos and the subsequent reaction of Sparta.In 454 BC he attacked Sicyon and Acarnania. He then unsuccessfully tried to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf, before returning to Athens. In 451 BC, Cimon returned from exile and negotiated a five years' truce with Sparta after a proposal of <mask>, an event which indicates a shift in <mask>' political strategy. <mask> may have realized the importance of Cimon's contribution during the ongoing conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians. Anthony J. Podlecki argues, however, that <mask>' alleged change of position was invented by ancient writers to support "a tendentious view of <mask>' shiftiness". Plutarch states that Cimon struck a power-sharing deal with his opponents, according to which <mask> would carry through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army, campaigning abroad. If it were actually made, this bargain would constitute a concession on <mask>' part that he was not a great strategist.Kagan's view is that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean liberals and Cimonian conservatives. In the mid-450s the Athenians launched an unsuccessful attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia, which led to a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta. The campaign culminated in disaster; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed. In 451–450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus. Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, but died of disease in 449 BC. <mask> is said to have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus, although some researchers, such as Karl Julius Beloch, argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon's policy. Complicating the account of this period is the issue of the Peace of Callias, which allegedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians.The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed, and its particulars and negotiation are ambiguous. Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first ratified in 463 BC (making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace), and renegotiated at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus, taking force again by 449–448 BC. John Fine, in contrast, suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450–449 BC, due to <mask>' calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens' ability to spread its influence in Greece and the Aegean. Kagan believes that <mask> used Callias, a brother-in-law of Cimon, as a symbol of unity and employed him several times to negotiate important agreements. In the spring of 449 BC, <mask> proposed the Congress Decree, which led to a meeting ("Congress") of all Greek states to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians. The Congress failed because of Sparta's stance, but <mask>' intentions remain unclear. Some historians think that he wanted to prompt a confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities; others think he wanted to assert Athenian pre-eminence.According to the historian Terry Buckley the objective of the Congress Decree was a new mandate for the Delian League and for the collection of "phoros" (taxes). During the Second Sacred War <mask> led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign rights on the oracle. In 447 BC <mask> engaged in his most admired excursion, the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli, to establish Athenian colonists in the region. At this time, however, Athens was seriously challenged by a number of revolts among its subjects. In 447 BC the oligarchs of Thebes conspired against the democratic faction. The Athenians demanded their immediate surrender, but after the Battle of Coronea, <mask> was forced to concede the loss of Boeotia to recover the prisoners taken in that battle. With Boeotia in hostile hands, Phocis and Locris became untenable and quickly fell under the control of hostile oligarchs.In 446 BC, a more dangerous uprising erupted. Euboea and Megara revolted. <mask> crossed over to Euboea with his troops, but was forced to return when the Spartan army invaded Attica. Through bribery and negotiations, <mask> defused the imminent threat, and the Spartans returned home. When <mask> was later audited for the handling of public money, an expenditure of 10 talents was not sufficiently justified, since the official documents just referred that the money was spent for a "very serious purpose". Nonetheless, the "serious purpose" (namely the bribery) was so obvious to the auditors that they approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery. After the Spartan threat had been removed, <mask> crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there.He then punished the landowners of Chalcis, who lost their properties. The residents of Histiaea, meanwhile, who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers. The crisis was brought to an official end by the Thirty Years' Peace (winter of 446–445 BC), in which Athens relinquished most of the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460 BC, and both Athens and Sparta agreed not to attempt to win over the other state's allies. Final battle with the conservatives
In 444 BC, the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle. The ambitious new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides (not to be confused with the historian of the same name), accused <mask> of profligacy, criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan. Thucydides initially managed to incite the passions of the ecclesia regarding these charges in his favor. However, when <mask> took the floor, his resolute arguments put Thucydides and the conservatives firmly on the defensive.Finally, <mask> proposed to reimburse the city for all questionable expenses from his private property, with the proviso that he would make the inscriptions of dedication in his own name. His stance was greeted with applause, and Thucydides was soundly, if unexpectedly, defeated. In 442 BC, the Athenian public voted to ostracize Thucydides from the city for 10 years and <mask> was once again the unchallenged ruler of the Athenian political arena. Athens' rule over its alliance

<mask> wanted to stabilize Athens' dominance over its alliance and to enforce its pre-eminence in Greece. The process by which the Delian League transformed into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before <mask>' time, as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens instead of manning ships for the league's fleet, but the transformation was speeded and brought to its conclusion by <mask>. The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC.By 450–449 BC the revolts in Miletus and Erythrae were quelled and Athens restored its rule over its allies. Around 447 BC Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree, which imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights and measures on all of the allies. According to one of the decree's most

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 stringent provisions, surplus from a minting operation was to go into a special fund, and anyone proposing to use it otherwise was subject to the death penalty. It was from the alliance's treasury that <mask> drew the funds necessary to enable his ambitious building plan, centered on the "Periclean Acropolis", which included the Propylaea, the Parthenon and the golden statue of Athena, sculpted by <mask>' friend, Phidias. In 449 BC <mask> proposed a decree allowing the use of 9,000 talents to finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples. Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, points out the use of the alliance's treasury, initiated and executed by <mask>, as one of the largest embezzlements in human history; this misappropriation financed, however, some of the most marvellous artistic creations of the ancient world. Samian War

The Samian War was one of the last significant military events before the Peloponnesian War.After Thucydides' ostracism, <mask> was re-elected yearly to the generalship, the only office he ever officially occupied, although his influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state. In 440 BC Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians. When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration in Athens, the Samians refused. In response, <mask> passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos, "alleging against its people that, although they were ordered to break off their war against the Milesians, they were not complying". In a naval battle the Athenians led by <mask> and nine other generals defeated the forces of Samos and imposed on the island an Athenian administration. When the Samians revolted against Athenian rule, <mask> compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months, which resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors.<mask> then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and, when he returned to Athens, gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition. Between 438 and 436 BC <mask> led Athens' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of the region. <mask> focused also on internal projects, such as the fortification of Athens (the building of the "middle wall" about 440 BC), and on the creation of new cleruchies, such as Andros, Naxos and Thurii (444 BC) as well as Amphipolis (437–436 BC). Personal attacks

<mask> and his friends were never immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule. Just before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War, <mask> and two of his closest associates, Phidias and his companion, Aspasia, faced a series of personal and judicial attacks. Phidias, who had been in charge of all building projects, was first accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena and then of impiety, because, when he wrought the battle of the Amazons on the shield of Athena, he carved out a figure that suggested himself as a bald old man, and also inserted a very fine likeness of <mask> fighting with an Amazon. Aspasia, who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens to satisfy <mask>' perversions.The accusations against her were probably nothing more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was very bitter for <mask>. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of <mask>, his friend Phidias died in prison according to Plutarch; however, he is also credited with the later statue of Zeus at Olympia, therefore this is debated, and another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious beliefs. Beyond these initial prosecutions, the ecclesia attacked <mask> himself by asking him to justify his ostensible profligacy with, and maladministration of, public money. According to Plutarch, <mask> was so afraid of the oncoming trial that he did not let the Athenians yield to the Lacedaemonians. Beloch also believes that <mask> deliberately brought on the war to protect his political position at home. Thus, at the start of the Peloponnesian War, Athens found itself in the awkward position of entrusting its future to a leader whose pre-eminence had just been seriously shaken for the first time in over a decade. Peloponnesian War

The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated, but many ancient historians lay the blame on <mask> and Athens.Plutarch seems to believe that <mask> and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics "with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife". Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the reason for the war was Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth. However, as he is generally regarded as an admirer of <mask>, Thucydides has been criticized for bias against Sparta. Prelude to the war

<mask> was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not conceal its envy of Athens' pre-eminence, was inevitable if unfortunate. Therefore, he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against Corinth. In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the Battle of Potidaea; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth's lasting hatred of Athens. During the same period, <mask> proposed the Megarian decree, which resembled a modern trade embargo.According to the provisions of the decree, Megarian merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire. This ban strangled the Megarian economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara. According to George Cawkwell, a praelector in ancient history, with this decree <mask> breached the Thirty Years' Peace "but, perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse". The Athenians' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious. After consultations with its allies, Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions, such as the immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree, threatening war if the demands were not met. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between <mask> and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later. At that time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed <mask>' instructions.In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth, <mask> advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents' demands, since they were militarily stronger. <mask> was not prepared to make unilateral concessions, believing that "if Athens conceded on that issue, then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands". Consequently, <mask> asked the Spartans to offer a quid pro quo. In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree, the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory (xenelasia) and to recognize the autonomy of its allied cities, a request implying that Sparta's hegemony was also ruthless. The terms were rejected by the Spartans, and with neither side willing to back down, the two cities prepared for war. According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, "rather than to submit to coercive demands, <mask> chose war". Another consideration that may well have influenced <mask>' stance was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed itself weak.First year of the war (431 BC)

In 431 BC, while peace already was precarious, Archidamus II, Sparta's king, sent a new delegation to Athens, demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta's demands. This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens, as <mask> had already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions. The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries. With his last attempt at negotiation thus declined, Archidamus invaded Attica, but found no Athenians there; <mask>, aware that Sparta's strategy would be to invade and ravage Athenian territory, had previously arranged to evacuate the entire population of the region to within the walls of Athens. No definite record exists of how exactly <mask> managed to convince the residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas. For most, the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle. Therefore, although they agreed to leave, many rural residents were far from happy with <mask>' decision.<mask> also gave his compatriots some advice on their present affairs and reassured them that, if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the city. This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus, who was a friend of his, might pass by his estate without ravaging it, either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate <mask> from his constituents. In any case, seeing the pillage of their farms, the Athenians were outraged, and they soon began to indirectly express their discontent towards their leader, who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war. Even when in the face of mounting pressure, <mask> did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy. He also avoided convening the ecclesia, fearing that the populace, outraged by the unopposed ravaging of their farms, might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field. As meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents, the "prytanies", <mask> had no formal control over their scheduling; rather, the respect in which <mask> was held by the prytanies was apparently sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished. While the Spartan army remained in Attica, <mask> sent a fleet of 100 ships to loot the coasts of the Peloponnese and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls of the city.When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, <mask> proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval forces. According to the most stringent provision of the decree, even proposing a different use of the money or ships would entail the penalty of death. During the autumn of 431 BC, <mask> led the Athenian forces that invaded Megara and a few months later (winter of 431–430 BC) he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration, honoring the Athenians who died for their city. Last military operations and death

In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but <mask> was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy. Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him. According to Plutarch, just before the sailing of the ships an eclipse of the sun frightened the crews, but <mask> used the astronomical knowledge he had acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them. In the summer of the same year an epidemic broke out and devastated the Athenians.The exact identity of the disease is uncertain; typhus or typhoid fever are suspected, but this has been the source of much debate. In any case, the city's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and <mask> was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides. This is considered to be a monumental oration, revealing <mask>' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingratitude. Temporarily, he managed to tame the people's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies' final bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents. Ancient sources mention Cleon, a rising and dynamic protagonist of the Athenian political scene during the war, as the public prosecutor in <mask>' trial. Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC, the Athenians not only forgave <mask> but also re-elected him as strategos. He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC, having once again under his control the levers of power.In that year, however, <mask> witnessed in the epidemic the death of both Paralus and Xanthippus, his legitimate sons from his first wife. His morale undermined, overwhelmed with grief, <mask> wept copiously for his loss and not even the companionship of Aspasia could console him. He himself died of the plague later in the year. Just before his death, <mask>' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies. <mask>, though moribund, heard them and interrupted them, pointing out that they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration; "for", said he, "no living Athenian ever put on mourning because of me". <mask> lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and, according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather than useful. With these bitter comments, Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired, but he also heralds the flickering of Athens' unique glory and grandeur.Pausanias (c. 150 AD) records (I.29) seeing the tomb of <mask> along a road near the Academy. Personal life

<mask>, following Athenian custom, was first married to one of his closest relatives, with whom he had two sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, but around 445 BC, <mask> divorced his wife. He offered her to another husband, with the agreement of her male relatives. The name of his first wife is not known; the only information about her is that she was the wife of Hipponicus, before being married to <mask>, and the mother of Callias from this first marriage. After <mask> divorced his wife, he had a long-term relationship with Aspasia of Miletus, with whom he had a son, <mask> the Younger. While Aspasia was held in high regard by many of Athens' socialites, her status as a non-Athenian led many to attack their relationship. Even <mask>' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father.Nonetheless, such objections did not greatly undermine the popularity of the couple and <mask> readily fought back against accusations that his relationship with Aspasia was corrupting of Athenian society. His sister and both his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, died during the Plague of Athens. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, <mask> the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir, a striking decision considering that <mask> himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides. Assessments
<mask> marked a whole era and inspired conflicting judgments about his significant decisions. The fact that he was at the same time a vigorous statesman, general and orator only tends to make an objective assessment of his actions more difficult. Political leadership

Some contemporary scholars call <mask> a populist, a demagogue and a hawk, while other scholars admire his charismatic leadership. According to Plutarch, after assuming the leadership of Athens, "he was no longer the same man as before, nor alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the

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 breezes".It is told that when his political opponent, Thucydides, was asked by Sparta's king, Archidamus, whether he or <mask> was the better fighter, Thucydides answered without any hesitation that <mask> was better, because even when he was defeated, he managed to convince the audience that he had won. In matters of character, <mask> was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians, since "he kept himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether indifferent to money-making". Thucydides (the historian), an admirer of <mask>, maintains that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen". Through this comment, the historian illustrates what he perceives as <mask>' charisma to lead, convince and, sometimes, to manipulate. Although Thucydides mentions the fining of <mask>, he does not mention the accusations against <mask> but instead focuses on <mask>' integrity. On the other hand, in one of his dialogues, Plato rejects the glorification of <mask> and declares: "as I know, <mask> made the Athenians slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees". Plutarch mentions other criticism of <mask>' leadership: "many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands, festival-grants, and distributions of fees for public services, thereby falling into bad habits, and becoming luxurious and wanton under the influence of his public measures, instead of frugal and self-sufficing".Thucydides argues that <mask> "was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people". His judgement is not unquestioned; some 20th-century critics, such as Malcolm F. McGregor and John S. Morrison, proposed that he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on the proposals of advisors, or the people themselves. According to King, by increasing the power of the people, the Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader. During the Peloponnesian War, <mask>' dependence on popular support to govern was obvious. Military achievements

For more than 20 years <mask> led many expeditions, mainly naval ones. Being always cautious, he never undertook of his own accord a battle involving much uncertainty and peril and he did not accede to the "vain impulses of the citizens". He based his military policy on Themistocles' principle that Athens' predominance depends on its superior naval power and believed that the Peloponnesians were near-invincible on land.<mask> also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens, which, it has been suggested, radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations. During the Peloponnesian War, <mask> initiated a defensive "grand strategy" whose aim was the exhaustion of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo. According to Platias and Koliopoulos, Athens as the strongest party did not have to beat Sparta in military terms and "chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory". The two basic principles of the "Periclean Grand Strategy" were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension. According to Kagan, <mask>' vehement insistence that there should be no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from the bitter memory of the Egyptian campaign, which he had allegedly supported. His strategy is said to have been "inherently unpopular", but <mask> managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it. It is for that reason that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history.Although his countrymen engaged in several aggressive actions soon after his death, Platias and Koliopoulos argue that the Athenians remained true to the larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve, not expand, the empire, and did not depart from it until the Sicilian Expedition. For his part, Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer. Critics of <mask>' strategy, however, have been just as numerous as its supporters. A common criticism is that <mask> was always a better politician and orator than strategist. Donald Kagan called the Periclean strategy "a form of wishful thinking that failed", Barry S. Strauss and Josiah Ober have stated that "as strategist he was a failure and deserves a share of the blame for Athens' great defeat", and Victor Davis Hanson believes that <mask> had not worked out a clear strategy for an effective offensive action that could possibly force Thebes or Sparta to stop the war. Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts: first that by rejecting minor concessions it brought about war; second, that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility; third, that it was too feeble to exploit any opportunities; and fourth, that it depended on <mask> for its execution and thus was bound to be abandoned after his death. Kagan estimates <mask>' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian War to be about 2,000 talents annually, and based on this figure concludes that he would have only enough money to keep the war going for three years.He asserts that since <mask> must have known about these limitations he probably planned for a much shorter war. Others, such as Donald W. Knight, conclude that the strategy was too defensive and would not succeed. In contrast, Platias and Koliopoulos reject these criticisms and state that "the Athenians lost the war only when they dramatically reversed the Periclean grand strategy that explicitly disdained further conquests". Hanson stresses that the Periclean strategy was not innovative, but could lead to a stagnancy in favor of Athens. It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character. Oratorical skill

Modern commentators of Thucydides, with other modern historians and writers, take varying stances on the issue of how much of the speeches of <mask>, as given by this historian, do actually represent <mask>' own words and how much of them is free literary creation or paraphrase by Thucydides. Since <mask> never wrote down or distributed his orations, no historians are able to answer this with certainty; Thucydides recreated three of them from memory and, thereby, it cannot be ascertained that he did not add his own notions and thoughts.Although <mask> was a main source of his inspiration, some historians have noted that the passionate and idealistic literary style of the speeches Thucydides attributes to <mask> is completely at odds with Thucydides' own cold and analytical writing style. This might, however, be the result of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography. That is to say, Thucydides could simply have used two different writing styles for two different purposes. Ioannis Kakridis and Arnold Gomme were two scholars who debated the originality of <mask>' oratory and last speech. Kakridis believes that Thucydides altered Pericles words. Some of his strongest arguments included in the Introduction of the speech, (Thuc.11.35). Kakridis proposes that it is impossible to imagine <mask> deviating away from the expected funeral orator addressing the mourning audience of 430 after the Peloponnesian war.The two groups addressed were the ones who were prepared to believe him when he praised the dead, and the ones who did not. Gomme rejects Kakridis's position, defending the fact that "Nobody of men has ever been so conscious of envy and its workings as the Greeks, and that the Greeks and Thucydides in particular had a passion for covering all ground in their generalizations, not always relevantly." Kagan states that <mask> adopted "an elevated mode of speech, free from the vulgar and knavish tricks of mob-orators" and, according to Diodorus Siculus, he "excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory". According to Plutarch, he avoided using gimmicks in his speeches, unlike the passionate Demosthenes, and always spoke in a calm and tranquil manner. The biographer points out, however, that the poet Ion reported that <mask>' speaking style was "a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address, and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others". Gorgias, in Plato's homonymous dialogue, uses <mask> as an example of powerful oratory. In Menexenus, however, Socrates (through Plato) casts aspersions on <mask>' rhetorical fame, claiming ironically that, since <mask> was educated by Aspasia, a trainer of many orators, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon.He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of <mask>. Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that "unique as an Athenian statesman, <mask> must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator; first, because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained; secondly, because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else ever got from Athenians". Ancient Greek writers call <mask> "Olympian" and extol his talents; referring to him "thundering and lightning and exciting Greece" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating. According to Quintilian, <mask> would always prepare assiduously for his orations and, before going on the rostrum, he would always pray to the gods, so as not to utter any improper word. <mask> and the city gods
Nothing was more alien to the Greeks than the notion of a Separation between church and state. In Athens, the community provided a tight framework for religious manifestations while, symmetrically, religion was deeply embedded in civic life. Within this context, participation in the rituals was an action highly political in the broadest sense of the term.To analyze <mask>'s relations with gods, one has to position oneself at the intersection of the general and the particular, where what was personal and what was shared by the whole community came together. On the one hand, the career of the strategos will illuminate the Athenians' collective relationship to all that was divine. As a reelected strategos and a persuasive orator, <mask> was the spokesman of a civic religion that was undergoing a mutation. He was implicated in a policy of making constant offerings and of launching huge architectural religious works not only on the Acropolis but also throughout Attica; and, furthermore, he was engaged in such activities at a time when city was introducing profound changes into its religious account of its origins—that is, autochthony—within a context of strained diplomatic relations. On the other hand, the ancient sources made it possible to glimpse the personal relations that <mask> had developed with gods. These were relations of proximity in the first place: he was sometimes depicted as a protégé of goddess Athena, but in Attic comedies he was also assimilated to god Zeus, in an analogy that was in no way flattering. But then, there were also relations that emphasized distance: some philosophical accounts presented him as a man close to the sophists or even as a freethinker.Finally, there were relations involving irreverence: some later and less trustworthy sources made much of several trials for impiety in which those close to him were involved, and this raises the question of religious tolerance in fifth-century Athens and, in particular, how far individuals enjoyed freedom of thought when faced with the civic community. Legacy

<mask>' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age, much of which survive to this day. The Acropolis, though in ruins, still stands and is a symbol of modern Athens. Paparrigopoulos wrote that these masterpieces are "sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world". In politics, Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of <mask>' legacy is Athenian imperialism, which denies true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state. The promotion of such an arrogant imperialism is said to have ruined Athens. <mask> and his "expansionary" policies have been at the center of arguments promoting democracy in oppressed countries.Other analysts maintain an Athenian humanism illustrated in the Golden Age. The freedom of expression is regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period. <mask> is lauded as "the ideal type of the perfect statesman in ancient Greece" and his Funeral Oration is nowadays synonymous with the struggle for participatory democracy and civic pride. In 1932, botanist Albert Charles Smith published Periclesia, a monotypic genus of flowering plants from Ecuador belonging to the family Ericaceae and named after <mask>. In Popular Culture

 <mask> appears as one of two leaders of the Greece civilization in the Firaxis Games title Civilization VI. His unique ability is +5% culture per city-state Greece has Suzerainty over. See also

 Art in ancient Greece
 Culture of Greece
 Sculpture of ancient Greece
 Timeline of ancient Greece
 <mask>, Prince of Tyre

Notes

Citations

References

Primary sources (Greek and Roman)

 Aristophanes, The Acharnians.See original text in Perseus program (translation)
  See original text in Perseus program. Aristotle, Politika (Politics). See original text in Perseus program (translation)
 Cicero, De Oratore. See original text in Perseus program. Diodorus Siculus, Library, 12th Book. See original text in Perseus program (translation)
 Herodotus, The Histories, VI. See original text in Perseus program (translation)
 Plato, Alcibiades I.See original text in Perseus program (translation) from
 Plato, Gorgias. See original text in Perseus program, 455d, 455e, 515e (translation) from
 Plato, Menexenus. See original text in Perseus program (translation) from
 Plato, Phaedrus, See original text in Perseus program (translation) from
 Plutarch, Cimon. See original text in Perseus program (translation)
  See original text in Perseus program
 Quintilian, Institutiones. See original text in The Latin Library. , I–III. See original text in Perseus program
 Xenophon (?), Constitution of Athens. See original text in Perseus program (translation)

Secondary sources

 Beloch, K.J. (1884). Die Attische Politik seit Perikles . Leipzig (in German). Beloch, K.J. (1893).Griechische Geschichte. Volume II (in German). Delbrück, Hans (1920): History of the Art of War, University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. Volume 1. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. Volume VIII.article: The Funeral Speech over the Fallen. Volume XV. article: <mask> (in Greek). Kakridis, Ioannis Th. (1993). Interpretative Comments on the Pericles' Funeral Oration. Estia (in Greek).King, J.D. (2005).  .

 Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (Karolidis, Pavlos) (1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab). Eleftheroudakis (in Greek). {{cite book|title=The Anatomy of Error: Ancient Military Disasters and Their Lessons for Modern Strategists|last=Ober Josiah|first=Strauss Barry S.|publisher=St Martins Pr|year=1990|isbn=978-0-312-05051-1|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyoferroran00stra}}

 Vlachos, Angelos (1992). Remarks on Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Α΄-Δ΄). Volume I. Estia (in Greek). Vlachos, Angelos (1974).Thucydides' bias''. Estia (in Greek). Further reading

 Gore Vidal, Creation (novel) for a fictional account of <mask> and a Persian view of the wars. External links

Biographies
 Peck, Harry Thurston
<mask> and the Athenian democracy
 McConville, Michael. A Critical Analysis of Athenian Democracy
Further assessments about <mask> and his era
 Jebb, R.C. The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos
 Martin, Thomas R. An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander (Pericles' citizenship law)
 Muhlberger, Steve. Periclean Athens
 The Revolt of Samos (Demo Fragmentary Texts)

490s BC births
429 BC deaths
5th-century BC Athenians
Alcmaeonidae
Ancient Athenian generals
Ancient Greek statesmen
Ancient Greeks who died from disease
Athenians of the Greco-Persian Wars
Athenians of the Peloponnesian War
Greek culture
Athenian democracy
5th-century BC Ancient Greek

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