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 heroin early in their careers, and Slovak often attempted to conceal his addiction from his friends and family.The band was generally more worried about Kiedis' addiction, which was much more open and noticeable to the other members, while Slovak according to Kiedis was "much more subtle and much more cunning in his disguise." During the tour in support of Freaky Styley, Slovak's health began to deteriorate. Slovak and Flea would wrestle regularly on tour, but Slovak became too weak to participate. Kiedis commented on the situation: "I could tell that <mask> had no inner core of strength; he had been robbed by his addiction of the life force that allows you to at least defend yourself. It was a sad moment." A roadie of the band who was concerned for Slovak's health contacted his brother, James, who had been unaware that Slovak had ever used heroin. Deciding to give sobriety a chance, both Kiedis and Slovak stopped using drugs prior to their European tour in support of The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, and decided to help each other "steer clear" of heroin.An entry from Slovak's diary on January 21, 1988 discusses his attempts to "begin a new drug-free phase of life". During the tour both experienced intense heroin withdrawal, with Slovak much more unstable than Kiedis. His withdrawal symptoms took a toll on his ability to play his instrument; at one point Slovak had a mental breakdown and was unable to play a show, leaving the rest of the band to play an entire set with no guitar. He recovered a few days later, but was briefly kicked out of the band and replaced by DeWayne McKnight for a few shows. After a few days with McKnight, the band decided to give Slovak another chance, and he rejoined for the European leg of the tour. Kiedis attempted to take Slovak to drug addiction counseling, but Slovak had difficulty admitting that his addiction was serious enough to require medical help. Death

Upon returning home, Slovak isolated himself from the rest of his bandmates, and struggled to resist the drug without the support of his friends, and Kiedis in particular.He stopped painting and writing in his diary during this time, and little is known about his life during the weeks following the tour, aside from a phone call to his brother on June 24, in which Slovak told him that he was having difficulty staying clean despite his desire to stop taking heroin. A few weeks after the band returned from the tour, the members attempted to contact Slovak, but were unable to for several days. Slovak died in his Hollywood apartment on June 25, 1988. On  June 27, 1988, his autopsy confirmed, authorities determined that he died due to a heroin overdose. He is interred at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Hollywood Hills, California. Following his death Kiedis fled town and did not attend the funeral, considering the situation to be surreal. Although he found the death to be a shock, he was not initially "scared straight" and continued to use heroin.However, a few weeks later his friend convinced him both to check into rehab and visit <mask>'s grave, which inspired him to get clean. Irons was unable to cope with his death and subsequently left the band, saying that he did not want to be part of something that resulted in the death of his friend. Irons has suffered from severe depression since his death. This did not end Irons' musical career however, as he would work with Johannes on several projects including the band Eleven, and would join Pearl Jam for a period in the 1990s after initially declining to join the band upon its founding. Kiedis and Flea decided to continue making music, hoping to continue what he "helped build". They hired DeWayne McKnight and D.H. Peligro as replacements shortly, who were later replaced by Chad Smith and John Frusciante. Musical style and legacy

Slovak was primarily influenced by hard rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix, Santana, and Led Zeppelin.His playing method was markedly based on improvisation, a style commonly used in funk music. He was also noted he would often play with such force that his fingers would "come apart." Kiedis observed that his playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This?, with Slovak adopting a more fluid style featuring "sultry" elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques. On Uplift, Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal. His guitar riffs would often serve as the basis of the group's songs, with the other members writing their parts to complement his guitar work. His melodic riff featured in the song "Behind the Sun" inspired the group to create "pretty" songs with an emphasis on melody. Kiedis describes the song as "pure Hillel inspiration".Slovak also used a talk box on songs such as "Green Heaven" and "Funky Crime", in which the sounds of his amplified guitar would be played through a tube into his mouth and then back into a microphone, creating psychedelic, voice-like effects. Slovak helped to incorporate new sounds in the group's work, including adding occasional drum machines. Despite the fact that the group billed itself as "The Organic Anti-Beat Box Band", Kiedis states that Slovak showed the group that drum machines could be used as artistic instruments. Slovak's work was one of the major contributing factors to Red Hot Chili Peppers' early sound. When Kiedis and Flea were searching for a new guitarist to replace Slovak, Kiedis likened the experience to "shopping for a new Mom and Dad" because of his influence over the band. Flea, who originally listened exclusively to jazz, added that Slovak introduced him to a new genre of music, saying that "it was <mask> who first got me into hard rockin. He was also a huge influence on a young John Frusciante, who would later replace him as guitarist in the band.Frusciante based a lot of his playing style on Slovak's work, and explained, "I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying <mask>'s playing and I just took it sideways from there." Just like Slovak before him, Frusciante developed a heroin addiction. Unlike Slovak, Frusciante eventually managed to break and defeat the habit. The songs "Knock Me Down" (from Mother's Milk), "My Lovely Man" (from Blood Sugar Sex Magik), "This is the Place" (from By the Way), and "Feasting on the Flowers" (from The Getaway) were written about or as tributes to Slovak. The band's 1987 cover version of Jimi Hendrix's song "Fire", recorded with Slovak and previously only released on the "Fight Like a Brave" single and The Abbey Road EP, was included on 1989's Mother's Milk along with an image of one of Slovak's paintings inside the album's booklet. In 1999, a book titled Behind the Sun: The Diary and Art of <mask> <mask> was published. The book was authored by Slovak's brother, <mask>, and features writings from his brother's diaries, paintings, photos and hand-written notes from Kiedis and Flea.On December 7, 2011, Red Hot Chili Peppers were announced as 2012 inductees to the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame. <mask>'s brother James accepted the award on his behalf and gave a speech honoring his brother. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Kiedis expressed his excitement with <mask>'s induction, explaining "He's a beautiful person that picked up a guitar in the 1970s and didn't make it out of the 1980s, and he is getting honored for his beauty". Flea echoed those comments on the same day: "<mask> grew up loving rock and roll so much, he hasn't been here for some time, but I know how much it would mean to him. It's a powerful thing." Discography
With Addie Brik
Wattsland - EP – (1984)

With What Is This? Squeezed - EP – (1984)
What Is This – (1985)
3 Out Of 5 Live - EP – (1985)

With Red Hot Chili Peppers
The Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1984)
Co-wrote "Baby Appeal", "Get Up and Jump", "Green Heaven", "Out in L.A.", and "Police Helicopter"
Freaky Styley – (1985)
The Uplift Mofo Party Plan – (1987)
The Abbey Road E.P.– (1988)
Mother's Milk – (1989)
Performs on only one track, "Fire"
What Hits!? – (1992)
Out in L.A. – (1994)
Under the Covers: Essential Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1998)
The Best of Red Hot Chili Peppers – (1994)

References

Notes

Sources

1962 births
1988 deaths
20th-century American musicians
American funk guitarists
American male guitarists
American people of Croatian-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American rock guitarists
Israeli musicians
Israeli guitarists
Fairfax High School (Los Angeles) alumni
Israeli emigrants to the United States
Israeli people of Croatian-Jewish descent
Israeli people of Polish-Jewish descent
Jewish American musicians
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Haifa
Red Hot Chili Peppers members
Sitar players
What Is This? members
Deaths by heroin overdose in California
Burials at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery
Jews in punk rock
Jewish heavy metal musicians
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male

masks:
Hillel
Slovak
Hillel
Hillel
Hillel
Slovak
James Slovak
Slovak
Slovak
Hillel


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<mask> (Rotterdam, 1592 or 1593 – The Hague, 15 December 1650) was Griffier (Chief Clerk) of the States-General of the Netherlands, the governing body of the Dutch Republic, from 1628 till the start of the First Stadtholderless Period. He was a byword for corruption in his lifetime. Biography

Family life
<mask> was the son of Jan Jacobsz. <mask>, a rich Rotterdam herring merchant, and Maritge <mask>. Matelieff, a merchant of fishing tackle, and so rich in her own right that she was able to buy the Heerlijkheid of Waalsdorp. Lord of Waalsdorp was therefore the first aristocratic title <mask> was able to use (1635). He later also acquired other lordships: Nieuwveen (1648), Carnisse (1649) and Opvelt and Muylstede (1650).He married Elisabeth Cats, a daughter of Grand Pensionary Jacob Cats on 9 June 1636 when he was 44 and she 17. They had several daughters who married well. One was Elisabeth Maria who married the unlucky Henri de Fleury de Coulan, better known as "captain Buat", who would lose his head in a treason affair, which bears his name. Her sister Maria Elisabeth married Matthijs Pompe, lord of Slingelandt, a prominent Dordrecht Regent. A third daughter, Anna Catharina, married Carel van den Boetzelaer, also a prominent Regent. Career
After studying at the Rotterdam Latin school and Leiden University (1612), he rounded off his studies with a law degree from the University of Orléans in 1617. In the sequel of the coup d'état by stadtholder Maurice, Prince of Orange in 1618, which brought about the fall of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, he enjoyed the patronage of Francis van Aarssens (one of the main enemies of Oldenbarnevelt).He became Advocat of the States-General, to fill a vacancy after the purge of the Oldenbarnevelt adherents. Equally, after the purge of the Rotterdam vroedschap, he was appointed griffier (secretary) of that city in 1619. In 1628 he was appointed griffier of the States-General in the same resolution which appointed his predecessor Johan van Goch thesaurier-generaal (treasurer) of the Union (April 27). Later historians complain about his longhand, which is far less legible than that of Van Goch. This makes the study of the registers of the States-General unduly onerous for the years in which <mask> was chief clerk. Besides this important office on the federal level, he also acquired offices on the local level, like hoogheemraad (a member of the governing body) of the polder Delfland (1643) and groot baljuw of Het Vrije van Staats Vlaanderen (an area in present-day Zeelandic Flanders; 1645). As the salaried official of the States-General <mask> was soon able to build an informal position of power.The presidency of the States-General rotated weekly, so that presidents hardly had time to get acquainted with affairs before they were already replaced. They tended to lean heavily on the Griffier. Also, in this period the Grand Pensionaries of Holland (who would normally perform a leading role in the affairs of the States-General) were selected for their incompetence and weakness, to protect the power position of the Stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. On the other hand, <mask> became a favorite of Frederick Henry, and helped him manage the States-General. Musch also made himself useful to foreign diplomats. King Louis XIII of France acknowledged this when he created Musch an écuyer (squire) in September 1632, on the recommendation of Cardinal Richelieu, for services rendered to French diplomacy (i.e. the Dutch government had no secrets for the French one, thanks to Musch).When the Franco-Dutch alliance was renewed in 1636 all members of the commission of the States-General who negotiated the treaty received liberal gratuities from the French Crown, but <mask> received the largest: 20,000 livres. Besides state secrets, almost anything was for sale, as far as <mask> was concerned. He was accused of altering the resolutions of the States-General that he was supposed to enter in the register, presumably for a consideration. He also played a central role in the patronage system of the Republic. Offices and other favors could be obtained from the stadtholder and the States-General if <mask> received the required consideration. Such practices would be considered "corrupt" nowadays. In those days, however, they might be considered reasonable perks of the office, as long as they remained within certain bounds.By common consent, <mask> went beyond those bounds, but because he was such an important part of the Orangist regime under Frederick Henry and his son and successor William II, Prince of Orange, <mask> managed to get away with it to almost the end of his life. However, he was known to have played an important role during the coup d'état of William II against the Holland Regents in August 1650. When William suddenly died in October, <mask> was exposed to the wrath of the newly resurgent Regents, who decided to make an example of him. He was made the subject of an investigation into the coup, and of his corrupt practices. This may have convinced him to take his own life on 15 December (though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear). His motivation would have been that a conviction would have brought confiscation of his fortune, which amounted to an estimated 2,000,000 guilders at his death. Thus, he protected his heirs.After his death Joost van den Vondel wrote the following satirical epitaph:

which amounts to an elaborate play on <mask>' name () and how sparrows spoil food and dump on people's heads, while alluding to the fact that important Orangists like Van Aarsens profited from his corrupt practices. References

Sources
   (1907) "<mask> Musch en de corruptie van zijn tijd", in: De Gids, vol. 71, p. 501
   (2001) Het Haagse bureau; zeventiende-eeuwse ambtenaren tussen staatsbelang en eigenbelang, Prometheus/Bakker , pp. 123–144

External links
  Biographical details

1590s births
1650 deaths
17th-century Dutch politicians
Politicians from Rotterdam

masks:
Cornelis Musch
Cornelis Musch
Musch
Cornelisd
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Musch
Cornelis


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<mask> (born <mask>, ; 18 September 1737, Geneva – October 1784, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was a Genevan American member of the American Philosophical Society, naturalist, American patriot, and portrait painter. Du Simitiere served as the artistic consultant for the committees that designed the Great Seal of the United States, and submitted the first proposed design to include the Eye of Providence and suggested the adoption of the U.S. motto E pluribus unum ("Out of Many, One"). Biography
Born in Geneva, <mask>'s original name was <mask>-Eugène Ducimetière or <mask>-<mask>tière. After leaving the Republic of Geneva, he spent more than a decade in the West Indies before moving to New York and then Philadelphia. He spelled his name <mask>-<mask>, <mask>  or <mask>ere after settling in Philadelphia. Elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1768, he further became one of its curators (1777–1781). Du Simitiere served as the artistic consultant for the committees that designed the Great Seal of the United States, and in 1776 he submitted the first proposed design to include the Eye of Providence, which element was eventually adopted.Moreover, he suggested the adoption of the U.S. motto E pluribus unum ("Out of Many, One"). He also designed the Seal of New Jersey, of Delaware, and of Georgia. In 1779, <mask>iere painted the first known portrait of George Washington, later used for the 1791 one-cent coin. In 1781, he was conferred an honorary degree from Princeton University (which was still called College of New Jersey until 1896). Thomas Jefferson's daughter Martha took drawing lessons with <mask>iere. Du Simitiere was the translator into French for the Letters to the inhabitants of Canada from the Continental Congress designed to draw the new British subjects of Quebec into the American Revolutionary War. "His early interest in natural history had expanded to embrace geography, geology, mineralogy, archeology, numismatics, and every aspect of American history, including aboriginal, general, local, political, social, and cultural history.He collected books in English and other languages and was a bibliographer of skill and breadth. He accumulated pamphlets, newspapers, handbills, and every other kind of political publication. He strove to record the history of the Colonies, including their differences with England and their eventual struggle for independence. Perhaps oddly for a collector, he was generous in lending books and other materials from his collections. In 1781 the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) granted him an honorary degree of Master of Arts. "All the while he continued to practice his profession of artist and painter, from which he earned a precarious living. He drew designs for a variety of state, local, and institutional seals.He drew maps, frontispieces, and technical illustrations for publications. He did pencil, chalk, and water-color portraits for a fee — though he seems not to have worked in oil. He seized every opportunity to sketch from life the notables, both American and British, who came to Philadelphia; and more often than not his sketches went into his own collection. "His great personal vision embraced the founding of an American museum and the compiling of a history of the Colonies. In his efforts to achieve his objectives, he fought a constant battle with poverty and with the lack of interest of persons who might have helped him gather materials. In a measure he realized his vision briefly in his 'American Museum,' located in a house in Arch Street above 4th, which he advertised as early as September 1782. But the history was never written; he died destitute, and his collections were sold to pay his debts.He is now regarded as the founder of the first history museum in the United States." Other events

First American museum of natural history
He created the first American museum of natural history from his personal collections constituted during his travels and through his purchases. He opened it to the public in 1782, over forty years before the Charleston Museum, which is generally considered the first American museum. First coin auction sale in America
His coin collection was the first record in Early American history to serve as collateral on a loan granted to him by William Dilwyn. This collection later on was sold at public auction by Matthew Clarkson and Ebenezer Hazard, on March 19, 1785 at Philadelphia. Included in the sale as Lot #19 was "A Mahogany cabinet containing ancient and modern Gold, Silver, and Copper Coins and Medals." This sale precedes all sales in Atinelli's Numisgraphics  by 43 years and is considered to be the first known coin auction sale in America.An advertisement for this sale reposes in the Archives of the Library Company of Philadelphia. Du Simitiere has living descendants throughout Switzerland, France, and the US. In a letter to his wife on August 14, 1776, John Adams wrote
"This Mr. <mask> is a very curious Man. He has begun a Collection of Materials for an History of this Revolution. He begins with the first Advices of the Tea Ships. He cuts out of the Newspapers, every Scrap of Intelligence, and every Piece of Speculation, and pastes it upon clean Paper, arranging them under the Head of the State to which they belong and intends to bind them up in Volumes. He has a List of every Speculation and Pamphlet concerning Independence, and another of those concerning Forms of Government."Notes

References
 Orosz, Joel J., The Eagle That is Forgotten (Wolfenboro, 1988)
 Van Horne, John C., <mask> DuSimitiere: His American Museum 200 Years after (Philadelphia, 1985)

1736 births
1784 deaths
Artists from the Republic of Geneva
Scientists from the Republic of Geneva
American philosophers
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Natural history collectors
Museum founders
18th-century philanthropists

masks:
Pierre Eugene du Simitiere
Pierre Eugène Ducimetière
du Simitiere
Pierre
Pierre
Eugène du Cime
Pierre
Eugène du Simitière
Pierre Eugene du Simite
du Symiti
du Simit
du Simit
du Simitière
Pierre Eugene


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<mask> FRS (4 October 1728 – 20 February 1813) was an English physician and a co-founder of the Manchester Royal Infirmary along with local industrialist Joseph Bancroft as well as the St Mary's Hospital for Lying in Women in 1790. <mask> made significant contributions in the field of orthopaedics, surgery and obstetrics. He was a founding member of the Portico Library and of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where he was also Vice President for 23 years. Early life
<mask> was born in Manchester, England, on 4 October 1728, the only son of <mask>, a surgeon and midwife, and Rosamond Bower. After being educated by the Reverend Radcliffe Russell, <mask> joined his father's practice as an apprentice in about 1742. He was able to assist in surgery and deliveries from the young age of 14. He subsequently studied medicine in London under the anatomist and obstetrician William Hunter in 1748, being one of a small select group of students that included in his year John Hunter.The two young men became lifelong friends. After finishing his training with Dr Hunter he went to Edinburgh to further his studies before returning to Manchester in 1751. He joined his father in practice at their home in King street. After his father's death he continued his practice there until he retired to his father's country house at Sale Priory. Career

 General Surgical techniques. From the 1750s onward, <mask> became increasingly recognised as an able and innovative surgeon. He presented a paper to the Royal Society in 1760 describing his successful treatment of a fractured arm by reuniting the ends of the broken bone.In 1762, the year he became a fellow of the society, he presented another paper, on the use of sponges to stop bleeding. Most people were using a ligature which was extremely painful. the sponge was less painful and more effective than a ligature in lacerated areas and when there was much contusion. In his report to the Royal Society he recorded 13 cases which were entirely successful where all others methods had failed. he also noted that the wounds were cleaner and so later this persuaded him to use dry sponges to foul abscesses and ulcers with success. He became a member of the Company of Surgeons same year. He devised a method for reducing dislocations of the shoulder .He reported that in twenty years he had yet to fail to reduce the joint. It was even successful in a number of chronic dislocations. The method entailed the use of an iron ring in the ceiling and a pulley fixed into it, the other end fastened by bandages the forearm above the wrist. By drawing up the patient. supported by staff, he could then relocate the humerus. In 1770 he donated to his friend John Hunter an interesting specimen from a lady who had recently died in a lunatic asylum. She had had an operation for an arteriovenous aneurysm following an injury to the brachial artery during venesection some 14 years earlier.The specimen showed three inches of the artery obliterated as a result of ligation and below the aneurysm but that a perfect collateral circulation had developed. In 1768 a boy of 14 who presented with an infected osteomyelitis of the humeral head. The abscess was drained. The treatment would have routinely been an amputation of the arm. <mask> exposed the humeral head and excised it sawing off 2 inches of bone. the patient recovered and had full use of his arm and movement at the shoulder. Although he was not as has been claimed the first to excise the humeral head for disease, none the less was the pioneer in the operation of partial diaphysectomy for acute osteomyelitis.He was one of the most eminent of lithotomists of his day. Anatomy Lecturer. He and his son Thomas delivered possibly the first ever series of Lectures in the provinces at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1783. They also started instructional Anatomy lectures from his house in King Street from 1787. Obstetrics, Childbirth and the Puerperium
White will be forever remembered in Manchester as the founder of the hospital and a formidable surgeon and often acclaimed as the "father of conservative surgery" None the less it is as a man midwife that he like Dr William Hunter in London really made his mark. In this field however <mask> was unique. During much of this time he was in charge of Midwifery for the Poor of Manchester and surrounding districts.His major work a Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women, was published in 1773 and went through some five editions. It was published not only in the United Kingdom but also in the USA and then translated and printed in Germany and France. In it he suggested significant changes in the care of women in pregnancy, during childbirth and in the puerperium. Medical students today will learn of the apparently seminal work of Ignazz Semmelweis in changing the course of maternity care from 1845-1860. However almost all of the suggestions that Semmelweis was to make had been encouraged and practiced by <mask> of Manchester starting a century before and detailed in this remarkable book. In it he describes the prevailing practice. The room for a woman to deliver in was often crowded.A fire was lit, the windows were all shut, the curtains stitched. The woman was encouraged to lie flat and be completely covered by blankets. After delivery she was confined in a horizontal position for days so that the lochia tended to remain in the vagina stagnating and festering. He made a point of having the room cooled, the windows to be opened to encourage a flow of fresh air. He insisted on hygienic conditions, regular hand washing, changes of bed linen, towels and sponges and instruments. Although unaware specifically of bacteria he urged not only scrupulous cleaning but also separate bed chambers for women in labour. Where this was not possible then if any woman developed fever she should be isolated for a week or ten days to prevent spread of the fever.In such a case, after the woman had left the hospital, the room should be scrubbed including the woodwork, the curtains and floor. He even advocated where possible stoving with brimstone. He also encouraged rapid mobilisation of women after delivery in the first or second days. The normal was for them to be bed bound for days. This again was farsighted and although we would agree today even a hundred years later his advocates could not quite believe this. Puerpural Fever was a common cause of illness and mortality in women. <mask>'s practices practically eliminated this terror.He was sure that free flow of noxious fluids by gravitational drainage. For this he designed a chair to encourage such flow. Such an innovation is also often called a Fowler Chair after the American Surgeon who designed something similar a hundred years later for treatment of Peritonitis. Again <mask> is credited in being the originator by Curtis. <mask> was so successful in this that he practically eliminated Puerpural Fever from his wards. In 1789 in Vienna they appointed Professor Boer who had studied <mask>'s methods at the Lying in Hospital there. He had learned <mask>'s methods whilst in England and used them in Vienna.During his time there 65,000 women passed through the Vienna Lying In Hospital with a death rate of 1.3%. He was deposed by Professor Klein who discarded <mask>'s methods and also at the same time he brought in the practice of teaching on the cadaver to his juniors. His mortality rate increased to 7.8% in the first year and as high as 29% one year. It was into this situation that Semmelweis came and slowly brought forward his insights into the causes and prevention of Puerpural fever. He stopped the students attending cadavers in 1846 but it took him until 1861 to emphasise the importance of foul bed clothes, general cleanliness and the washing of hands of midwives etc. In almost all areas <mask>'s writings advise the same precautions as Semmelweis 75 years later. The only omission was in avoiding cadavers which was not a factor in Manchester.<mask> was first to pronounce on good care to avoid infection. His work saved thousands of lives. He was also ahead of his time in the decisions about delivery and clamping of the cord. The habit was to hurry the delivery of shoulders after the head had delivered to prevent retention of the placenta . <mask> was certain that it was better to allow a pause and restitution of the baby's body before the woman pushed to deliver the shoulders. He stated that nature knew best and insisted that it was safer to wait. Again he has been proven right.Even more impressively is his advice that in delivery the desire to cut the cord early should be resisted. Dr <mask> insisted in waiting until the cord had stopped pulsating. Even in our time there have been advocates of early clamping but it would appear that he was right as made clear by Dr Peter Dunn in his article on the safe delivery of preterm infants where he cites in detail the work of <mask> over two hundred years earlier. Early clamping has been associated not only with increased Respiratory Distress but also with Haemodynamic circulatory problems. Manchester Royal Infirmary

When he returned to Manchester in 1751, he agitated so actively for the establishment of an infirmary that the prominent local merchant Joseph Bancroft was persuaded to defray all expenses, provided Dr <mask> would give the institution his medical services. In 1752 a house was taken at No 10 Garden Street providing a hospital with 12 beds. Three years later, on 9 April 1755, the Manchester Public Infirmary was opened at new premises.He was to remain as Surgeon to the hospital for 38 years. St Mary's Hospital Manchester
After a dispute with the board of management Dr <mask>, Dr <mask> and the Drs Hall left the hospital and founded the Lying in Hospital at St Mary's in 1790. Dr <mask>, his son, died in a riding accident but he continued to serve there until after the turn of the century. Family and later life

In 1757 <mask> married Ann Bradshaw, whose father had been a high sheriff for the county of Lancaster. They had eight children, four sons and four daughters. Two of his sons had become doctors but they and his two other sons died before him. In 1803, <mask> suffered an attack of ophthalmia, which initially only affected his left eye and with difficulty he continued to work.In 1811 it affected the right eye and he soon became blind. He died at his home in Sale on 20 February 1813. He was survived by his daughters, one of whom, <mask>, married Sir Richard Clayton, to whom <mask>'s thesis on Regular Gradation of man was dedicated. Manchester Mummy

One story is that <mask> was the family physician present at the burial of John Beswick, at which a mourner noticed that John's eyelids were flickering, just as his coffin lid was about to be closed; <mask> confirmed that John was still alive. The supposed corpse regained consciousness a few days later, and lived for many more years. The incident made John's sister, Hannah Beswick, fearful that she might accidentally be buried alive. Hannah requested in her will that <mask> keep her above Ground for 100 years after her death.Following Hannah's death in 1758 <mask> had her embalmed, <mask> kept Hannah's mummified body in his museum where he had 300 other pathological specimines in this museum. When the museum was made over to the St Mary's hospital the mummy was moved to the attic at Sale Priory. Following his death in 1813 he gave the mummy to Dr Ollier, his personal physician ,who donated it on his death to the Museum of the Manchester Natural History Society, There she became known as the Manchester Mummy, or the Mummy of Birchin Bower. Her body was put on display in the museum's entrance hall, described by one visitor in 1844 as "one of the most remarkable objects in the museum". Following the museum's transfer to Manchester University in 1867, and with the permission of the Bishop of Manchester, Hannah was buried in an unmarked grave in Harpurhey Cemetery on 22 July 1868. Although this sounds odd to modern ears, Dr <mask> was following practices that were not uncommon at the time. Others physicians doing likewise included Dr John Hunter, Dr William Hunter, Dr Cruickshank and DrSheldon.Polygenism
<mask> spent much his spare time studying Anthropemetry. He examined people including sailors of a variety of ethnicities to study anatomical differences. He was influenced by work done by John Hunter which he had seen in London. Like Hunter, he described differences in skull and facial shapes and also the length of forearm and humerus and came to the incorrect conclusion that different 'races' were of separate origins. <mask>'s Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables (1799) attempted to provide empirical science for the theory of polygenism. <mask> proposed the theory of polygeny, refuting French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon's interfertility argument – the theory that only the same species can interbreed – pointing to species hybrids such as foxes, wolves and jackals, separate groups that were still able to interbreed. For <mask>, 'races' were separate species, divinely created for their own geographical regions.He concentrated on Africans' and African Americans' differences from Europeans, which led him to believe that people from these areas had derived from separate origins. Though these theories were clearly incorrect and reflected—and contributed to—the racist ideologies of the time, <mask> said that his work must never be "construed so as to give the smallest countenance to the pernicious practice of enslaving mankind, which [he wished] to see abolished throughout the world" and that he was opposed to "assigning to any one a superiority over another". References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

1728 births
1813 deaths
18th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal Society
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Physicians of the Manchester Royal Infirmary
Physicians of St Mary's Hospital, Manchester

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<mask> (born 12 September 1958) is an Australian film, television and stage actress. She is one of only two actresses to win two Australian Film Institute Awards in the same year, winning Best Actress in a Leading Role for Lantana and Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Television Drama for SeaChange in 2001. After early television roles in Australia including Prisoner (1979) and Skyways (1980), <mask> moved to the United States in 1981, where she played Ophelia in Hamlet and Isabella in Measure for Measure at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., and had a role in the soap opera Dynasty (1985–86). She returned to Australia in 1987. Her other television roles include MDA (2002–03) and Bed of Roses (2008–11). Career

Early years
<mask> appeared in both acting and presenting roles on Australian television in the 1970s and early 1980. One of her first acting roles was on television series Marion, released in March 1974.She appeared as a GTV-9 weather girl, and then in a dramatic acting role, appearing as Lynn 'Wonky' Warner, an original character in Network Ten women's prison drama Prisoner. Initially planned to last 16 episodes, the series was continued and <mask> appeared in the first 44 episodes. She then switched to another ongoing role in drama series Skyways for 49 episodes. In 1981 she co-hosted the Network Ten series Together Tonight with Greg Evans. In 1981 <mask> married rock band Australian Crawl's rhythm guitarist Brad Robinson. <mask> and Robinson co-wrote "Easy on Your Own", a track on Australian Crawl's second album Sirocco and B-side to the single "Errol". United States and Dynasty
<mask> moved to the United States in 1981, where she studied under Herbert Berghof and Uta Hagen at the HB Studio in New York City on an acting scholarship.With the studio's Playwrights Foundation, she played Juliet in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Ophelia in Hamlet, and Isabella in Measure for Measure at the Arena Stage in Washington, DC. In order to obtain residency, <mask> and Robinson agreed she would have to marry a US citizen, so they separated and she married her friend Alexander Bernstein. <mask> only had a professional arrangement with Bernstein, but her long distance from Robinson dissolved their relationship. In the US, she starred as Christine in Tom Stoppard's Dalliance at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, had an ongoing role in daytime serial One Life to Live, and became part of The Actors' Gang along with John Cusack and Tim Robbins. After working in the group's plays, <mask> appeared in seven episodes of Dynasty as Elena, Duchess of Branagh. Robbins and <mask> became romantically involved. Cusack, Robbins and <mask> auditioned for Saturday Night Live but only <mask> was offered a part, which she declined.She also guest starred in the 1984 Murder, She Wrote episode "Death Takes a Curtain Call". Australian return
In 1987, <mask> returned to Australia upon the death of her grandmother. In the early 1990s, she resumed acting in Australian television series, including Police Rescue, Ocean Girl, Come In Spinner, All Together Now and Halfway Across the Galaxy and Turn Left. In 1991 <mask> was nominated for an AFI award for Best Actress for her role in the film Hunting which was released by Paramount in the U.S. In 1998, <mask> was offered the role of Heather Jelly in the television series SeaChange, the ever-devoted but long-suffering wife of corrupt local mayor Bob (John Howard). The role won her critical acclaim and garnered several awards. When SeaChange ended in 2000, <mask> continued on with her theatre work and also appeared in Lantana, the award-winning Ray Lawrence film also starring Anthony LaPaglia, Barbara Hershey, Geoffrey Rush, Glenn Robbins and Vince Colosimo.<mask> won the Inside Film (IF) Award, Film Critics Circle of Australia Award and the AFI Award for her Lantana performance. In the same year she won another AFI award, for the final season of SeaChange, making her the second actress to win two AFI awards in one year. The first had been Sacha Horler for her 1998 Lead Role in Praise and 1999 Supporting Role in Soft Fruit awarded in 1999. In 2002, <mask> joined the cast of medico-legal drama MDA on ABC alongside Jason Donovan and Shane Bourne. However, she left the series at the end of its second season. In the series her character, Dr Ella Davis, left the firm that was the focus of the show. After MDA, <mask> appeared in films One Perfect Day, Oyster Farmer, Virus, Car Pool and Razzle Dazzle.On 10 May 2008 ABC-TV started screening a six-part series Bed of Roses with <mask> in the lead role as Louisa Atherton. In 2008 she appeared in the film Reservations. In 2010, Bed of Roses returned for a second season on the ABC followed by a third and final season in 2011. In the same year she starred in the short film, The Forgotten Men, alongside Jack Thompson and Gyton Grantley. 2016 sees <mask> return to Australian screens in the series The Wrong Girl for Network Ten. Author
<mask> wrote a self-help book, The Circles, released on 1 November 2003. She described the book as a practical exercise in empowering people.In May 2008, <mask> told the Herald Sun the book's US publisher, Beyond Words, had received a call from a large book club in the US which wanted 21,000 copies of the book. Her second book, Fool on the Hill, released in March 2006, is about the nature of personality. A travel guide, Newcomer's Handbook for New York City was co-edited with Belden Merims in 1996. Public profile
<mask> has worked with several charitable organisations including Childwise, Big hART, and Cure for Life Foundation which sponsors research into brain tumour treatments. In 2006, she represented Cure for Life in season five of Dancing with the Stars. <mask> and dance partner, Christopher Ryan, were the third couple eliminated from the show. <mask> has publicly opposed the War in Iraq, and in protest, sat on the steps of the Victorian Parliament in a purple bra to draw attention to her cause.In October 2008 <mask> appeared as the face of a "myth-busting" advertising campaign for Coca-Cola, created by the agency Singleton Ogilvy & Mather. Titled "<mask> on Motherhood and Myth Busting", the print advertisement purported to correct "myths and conjecture" about Coca-Cola drink products. Claiming her three boys called her "Mum, the myth buster", <mask> rejected suggestions that Coca-Cola "rots your teeth", "makes you fat" and is "packed with caffeine". In April 2009, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commissioner ruled that the Coca-Cola advertisements in which <mask> appeared were misleading. The ACCC's chairman, Graeme Samuel, said, "Coke's messages were totally unacceptable, creating an impression which is likely to mislead that Coca-Cola cannot contribute to weight gain, obesity and tooth decay". Personal life
<mask> was born in Melbourne in 1958. In 1981, <mask> was briefly married to Australian Crawl's rhythm guitarist Brad Robinson.Under the advice of her US agent and with Robinson's consent, she married friend, Alexander Bernstein, in order to resolve visa issues and allow her to work in the United States. In 1990, when their son was three months old, she married writer-producer Mac Gudgeon. The marriage to Gudgeon ended and in 1996 she married builder Mark Croft and they have twin sons. <mask> and Croft separated in 2001. As of 2008, she lived with her three sons in the Yarra Valley. Awards
 1991 – Nominated – Australian Film Institute (AFI) Award – Best Actress – Hunting
 2000 – Nominated – Logie Award – Outstanding Actress in TV Series – SeaChange
 2001 – Winner – Logie Award – Outstanding Actress in TV Series – SeaChange
 2001 – Winner – AFI Award – Best Actress (Television) – SeaChange
 2001 – Winner – IF Award – Best Actress – Lantana (shared with co-stars Barbara Hershey, Leah Purcell, Rachael Blake and Daniela Farinacci)
 2001 – Winner – AFI Award – Best Actress – Lantana
 2001 – Winner – Film Critics Circle of Australia Award – Best Actress – Lantana
 2002 – Nominated – AFI Award – Best Actress (Television) – MDA

Filmography

Film
2020
The Very Excellent Mr Dundee
Ella

Television

References

External links

 Profile, Marquee Management

1958 births
20th-century Australian actresses
21st-century Australian actresses
Actresses from Melbourne
Australian film actresses
Australian soap opera actresses
Best Actress AACTA Award winners
Living people
Logie Award winners
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series) participants

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<mask> (August 29, 1842 – July 8, 1911) was a businessman and politician on Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. He supervised the construction of the East Maui Irrigation System and co-founded Alexander & Baldwin, one of the "Big Five" corporations that dominated the economy of the Territory of Hawaii. <mask> was born on August 29, 1842 in Lahaina, Hawaii. His father was American Christian missionary <mask> (1798–1886), and his mother was <mask>. He was named after <mask> (1777-1836), professor at Auburn Theological Seminary, from which his father had graduated shortly before his departure to the Hawaiian Islands. He attended Punahou School in Honolulu and returned to Maui to become a farmer. First he tried to manage William DeWitt Alexander's rice plantation, but that failed.Instead by 1863 he went to work for his brother David (also called <mask>, Jr) who had started a small sugarcane farm. He hoped to earn enough money to go to medical school, but never left the sugar industry. He took a job as foreman (called luna) of the Waihee plantation, owned by Christopher H. Lewers, under the management of Samuel Thomas Alexander. In 1867, he traveled to the West Coast of the United States. In 1869, <mask> and Alexander became business partners and bought  in the eastern Maui ahupuaa (ancient land division) called Hāmākua Poko. (This is not to be confused with the Hāmākua district of Hawaii island.) In 1870, they bought another  and planted sugarcane.<mask> had gone into debt to buy the land. They lived in an area called "Sunnyside" near the small Paliuli Sugar Mill, which had been built on the edge of Rainbow Gulch  by Robert Hind. Alexander managed the larger Haiku Mill which had been constructed in 1861 by Castle & Cooke, formed by two former missionaries. Alexander had married Martha Eliza Cooke, daughter of Amos Starr Cooke, a co-founder of Castle & Cooke. On March 28, 1876, <mask> lost his right arm in an industrial accident at the Paliuli Mill. Trying to adjust the rollers, his fingers got stuck in the cane grinder, pulling in his right arm, and he almost died before it could be turned off and reversed to free him. A worker was sent to get the nearest doctor  away to do the amputation.Within weeks, he learned to write with his left hand, and continued to play organ in his church with one hand. In a month, he was riding horseback in his fields. Hamakua ditch
The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 gave freer access to market for sugar exported to the United States. Although the Hawaiian Islands have a 12-month growing season, a major problem with farming former dry forests was their wide extremes in precipitation. After a quick tropical downpour the intense sun can cause enormous growth. But there are often years with little or no rain at all in some places. <mask> said one day during a drought he knelt down in the field and prayed for rain.It came, and he promised that if he ever became successful, he would make sure he would build a suitable monument. Alexander was more practical: his father had taught at Lahainaluna School where irrigation ditches had been used for small private gardens since the times of ancient Hawaii. Alexander noticed the rainforests on the eastern (windward) side of the island and upper slopes of Haleakalā received much more rainfall. The terrain in that area was too rough to plant, but they reasoned an aqueduct could bring water to the lower, flatter area of their fields. William Harrison Rice had irrigated a small sugarcane plantation in 1856, but this system would supply . Alexander arranged a survey, worked out financing from other planters to create the Hamakua Ditch Company and negotiated a two-year lease with the government of King David Kalākaua to build the project starting September 30, 1876. With no engineering training, <mask> supervised what became known as the  Hamakua ditch while recovering from his injury.Sugar competitor Claus Spreckels had obtained another lease from the Kingdom government, so unless <mask> completed his system by September 30, 1878, the water would go to Spreckels. Besides actual ditches lined with clay, sluices and siphons were used to cross several steep canyons. <mask> would lower himself down into the gulches daily with his one remaining arm. Workers doubted that water would go down through a pipe and then go uphill on the other side. Water started to flow to the Castle & Cooke plantation in July 1877. Crossing Maliko Gulch with the pipeline was the last major milestone, since they could then irrigate their own fields. Alexander left for a trip to Europe on July 9, 1878, and left day-to-day management of Hawaiian operations to <mask>.The project was over budget, but on-time and worked. Several other projects were added through 1923 to the system. The idea was copied over the years in projects on Maui and other islands. Irish civil engineer Michael O'Shaughnessy designed the Koolau Ditch in 1904–1905 and some similar projects using technology developed for railroad tunnels. He then returned to San Francisco and applied the idea to the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct. Alexander and Baldwin consolidated these projects into their East Maui Irrigation Company. The East Maui irrigation system was declared a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2002.Growing the business

The irrigation projects became so profitable that the Alexander and Baldwin partnership was able to buy out other planters and enlarge their holdings. By 1877 <mask> had the Hamakuapoko Mill built on the southwestern side of Maliko Gulch near the irrigated fields, . The Haiku mill shut down in 1879. The Paia Mill opened in 1880,

In 1881 the Kahului Railroad allowed the sugar to travel by train to the growing port of Kahului. In 1882 Alexander moved to Oakland, California and enrolled his children in the schools there. <mask> and his family also visited California but returned in 1883 and he became manager of the Haiku plantation. He built another house near the former Haiku mill and started buying shares of the business.Spreckels used his vast financial resources to bring German Engineer Hermann Schussler to build his own irrigation system from 1878 to 1880, forming the Hawaii Commercial and Sugar Company. Spreckels also controlled the sugar refinery in California used for most Hawaiian sugar. Eventually Spreckels would sell out in 1898 and <mask> would become a partner, and merge Haiku and Paia sugar companies into it. <mask> managed HC&S personally from 1902 to 1906. In 1887 he traveled to England with brother-in-law Samuel Mills Damon to see the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. In 1888 he offered the foundation of the old Paliuli mill to his church, and a wooden frame building was built on the site where he lost his arm — his monument for answering his prayers. He also helped fund restoration of the Wainee Church of his father.In 1888, <mask> and a few businessmen from Honolulu formed the Haleakala Ranch, consisting of  on the slopes of the dormant volcano Haleakalā. Piiholo Ranch is part of that acreage, now used for tourism. <mask> hired Louis von Tempsky to manage Haleakala ranch in 1899, and Louis' daughter Armine von Tempski (1892–1943) wrote several novels and an autobiography about life on the <mask> ranch. In 1889 the McKinley Tariff act raised tariffs on sugar exported to the U.S. market, and its price dropped to two cents a pound. <mask> took advantage of the lower land prices and built an irrigation project on Kauai island called the Hanapepe ditch for the Hawaiian Sugar Company. He moved his family to Kauai for a few months before moving back to Maui in 1893. In 1894 a partnership with Alexander became agent to sell the sugar in California.In 1900, the partnership became officially incorporated as Alexander & Baldwin (A&B). With offices in both Honolulu and San Francisco, it acted as an agent for other plantations as well. Eventually A&B would evolve into a holding company for many other ventures, including shipping line Matson Navigation Company. In 1899 he supervised another irrigation project at Kihei. In 1903 he built another house called Maluhia at a higher elevation near Olinda, Hawaii surrounded by fruit trees. Keahua Ranch Company in 1909 became the Maui Pineapple Company. In 1905, he became an owner of The Maui News.His descendants continued to own the paper until 2000. Politics
After the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii raised the property-owning requirements of voters, <mask> <mask> was elected to the Kingdom House of Nobles from 1887 to 1892, and the Senate of the Republic of Hawaii and Territory of Hawaii 1895–1904. He was a member of the foreign affairs committee, and inherited his father's concern for public health, using his own money to fund better homes in the Kalaupapa Leprosy Settlement. He introduced a bill proposing to outlaw employment of children under 13, but it was defeated. He was a member of the controlling Reform Party, which evolved into the Hawaii Republican Party. He generally opposed the ruling King Kalākaua, but never expressed support for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1893. He gave the speech nominating Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaole for Congressional delegate in 1902.Family and legacy
He married Emily Whitney Alexander (1846–1943), sister of his business partner Samuel Alexander, on April 5, 1870. His sister Abigail Charlette <mask> had married Samuel's brother William DeWitt Alexander (1847–1912) in 1861. Their first son <mask> <mask> (1871–1946), known as "Harry", became manager of the Haiku Sugar Company, which was merged with other plantations to become the Maui Agricultural Company in 1921. Harry was very active in politics, including serving as delegate to the United States House of Representatives from the Territory of Hawaii. Son William Dwight <mask> was born October 25, 1873, graduated from Yale in 1897, and then Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1901. He returned in 1905 to practice medicine in Honolulu until 1914 when he became a rancher on Maui. He died October 30, 1943.Arthur Douglas <mask> was born April 8, 1876, graduated from Yale and then Harvard Law School 1898–1891 He moved to Cleveland, Ohio and practised law in his firm Garfield McGregor & Baldwin. His law partner James Rudolph Garfield was son of President James A. Garfield. He married Reba Louise Williams in 1902 and had five children. He wrote a biography of his father. He became a lieutenant of field artillery in World War I and died in 1954. Son Frank Fowler <mask> was born March 30, 1878, attended Yale but left in 1898. He started work as a field worker and eventually became President of Kahului Railroad in 1910, and of the Hawaiian Commercial Company (HC&S) when <mask> died.In 1948 Frank combined HC&S with Maui Agricultural Company for a combined . He died February 6, 1960. Daughters Maud Mansfield (<mask>) Cooke (1872–1961) and Charlotte (<mask>) Rice (1884–1938) married descendants of other missionaries, Joseph Platt Cooke (1870–1918), and Harold Waterhouse Rice, who also were in the sugar business. Cooke was grandson of Amos Starr Cooke and nephew of businessman Samuel Gardner Wilder. Youngest son Samuel Alexander <mask> was born August 30, 1885. He attended Punahou School, Oakland High School in California, and Yale in 1908. He married Katherine Smith in Honolulu, May 10, 1909.He became a champion polo player and managed Haleakala Ranch when von Tempsky retired. Samuel died July 21, 1950. In 1910 the <mask>s founded the <mask> memorial foundation in honor of their son Fred Chambers <mask> (1881–1905) who died October 11, 1905 in New York City. From 1910 through World War II it supported an elderly housing facility. Since then it has made grants to the Maui community. <mask> <mask> had an operation for appendicitis in January 1909 and traveled to California in the summer of 1911. He died a few days after returning on July 8, 1911.David Thomas Fleming (1881–1955) was manager of Baldwin's Honolua Ranch where he planted pineapple in 1912. Fleming converted the cattle ranch to a pineapple plantation. This was the beginning of Maui Land & Pineapple Company, an industry that continued until 2009. In 1913 the Old Maui High School was built on the Mahakuapoka plantation land. <mask> <mask> High School was named for him in Wailuku, Hawaii in 1934. The former superintendent's residence of a Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company sugar mill in Puunēnē is now the Alexander & Baldwin Sugar Museum. A Baldwin park is near the mill.In 1916 another new Makawao Union Church was built of concrete with stone veneer and is called the "Henry Perrine Baldwin Memorial Church". Many <mask> family members are buried in the Makawao Cemetery near him. William Hyde Rice (son of William Harrison Rice and father of Harold W. Rice who married <mask>) and <mask> <mask> were among the notable speakers. See also
 Sugar plantations in Hawaii
Alexander & Baldwin Sugar Museum

Family tree

References

Further reading

Hawaii state senators
Hawaiian Kingdom politicians
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Nobles
Businesspeople from Hawaii
1911 deaths
1842 births
People from Lahaina, Hawaii
American amputees
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American businesspeople
Hawaiian Kingdom businesspeople

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Henry Perrine Baldwin
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<mask>, (December 1, 1934 - March 15, 2020), was a historian, author, and alliance leader within the Pentecostal movement. Synan published a total of 25 books, a majority related to Holiness, Pentecostal, and Charismatic movements. He served as General Secretary of the International Pentecostal Holiness Church and later as Chair of the North American Renewal Service Committee from 1985 to 2001. From 1994 - 2006 he served as Dean of the School of Divinity at Regent University in Virginia Beach, Virginia. In 2016, Synan moved back to Tulsa, Oklahoma to re-join the faculty of Oral Roberts University as Interim Dean of the College of Theology and Ministry, where he served for two years. Following that he served as Scholar in Residence at Oral Roberts University where he worked closely with Dr. William M. Wilson, the president of ORU, the World Pentecostal Fellowship, and Empowered21. Biography
Synan, along with his twin brother Vernon, was born on December 1, 1934 in Hopewell, Virginia to Joseph Alexander and Minnis (Purdue) Synan.He was one of seven siblings. Education and career
His father, a sixteen-year-old Methodist was converted at a Pentecostal Holiness tent meeting near Fredericksburg, Virginia. He later planted five Pentecostal Holiness congregations in the Tidewater area of Virginia before serving as a bishop of the Pentecostal Holiness Church, a position he held for 24 years. Synan's formative years revolved around his Pentecostal Holiness church. His call to ministry came shortly after his conversion in 1951, while living in Memphis, Tennessee, during the time he was seeking his experience of the "second blessing" of entire sanctification. Nine months later, at the age of seventeen, he received the baptism in the <mask> Spirit. He began his preaching ministry the same year, and in 1954 was ordained in the Pentecostal Holiness Church.Synan then completed a two-year liberal arts degree from Emmanuel College in Franklin Springs, Georgia. In 1955 and after a one-year pastoral apprenticeship, he became an evangelist in the Eastern Virginia PHC Conference. Synan graduated from the University of Richmond with a B.A. in American history in 1958, and in the fall of the same year began his teaching career. From 1956 to 1962, he helped plant three churches in Virginia and from 1967 to 1974 he planted one in Georgia. From 1963 to 1975, he also taught history at his alma mater, Emmanuel College. As Synan was making preparation for his academic career, Oral Roberts, a friend of the family, offered him a full scholarship to earn a Ph.D. in theology at Harvard, Yale, or Princeton if he would return and teach at Oral Roberts University.Synan, however, declined the offer since he had already received a full scholarship with a stipend from the State of Georgia to prepare for his calling as a historian. In 1965, he completed his M.A. and in 1967 his Ph.D. from the University of Georgia in American Social and Intellectual History. In order to prepare his dissertation for publication, Synan spent the summer of 1968 reading through major Pentecostal journals. His travels took him to the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) where he met with several leaders. Significant among them was <mask> who was serving as the dean of students at Lee University. Together they discussed the possibility of a future colloquium where Pentecostal scholars could share ideas.He later met with William Menzies while reviewing the Assemblies of God archives in Springfield, MO. Following a similar conversation regarding the organization of Pentecostal scholars, Ward, Menzies, and Synan proposed their idea at the Pentecostal World Conference held in Dallas, Texas in 1970. The outcome was the birth of the Society for Pentecostal Studies. Synan was elected as the first General Secretary and served as the editor of their newsletters for several years. From 1973 to 1977, Synan served as the General Secretary for the Pentecostal Holiness Church while also teaching at Oklahoma City Southwestern College and served as the acting president in 1980. He was elected as Assistant General Superintendent of his denomination in 1977 and served until 1981 when he became the Director of Evangelism, a position which he held for the next four years. In 1977, Synan was the chairman of the Pentecostal track for the General Conference on Charismatic Renewal held in Arrow Head Stadium in Kansas City.This event packed the stadium with 50,000 charismatic worshipers and attracted attention from around the world. It also opened up many doors of ministry for Synan and he became a frequently invited guest on such television programs as The PTL Club, Trinity Broadcasting Network, and The 700 Club to discuss the Renewal that was occurring among Catholics and the exploding growth of Pentecostalism around the world. During the years of 1990 and 1994, Synan was a professor of Pentecostal and Charismatic History and served as the Director of the Holy Spirit Research Center at Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma. For twelve years, from 1994 to 2006, he served as the Dean of the Regent University School of Divinity. Under his leadership the School of Divinity implemented both a Doctorate of Ministry and a non-residential and on-line Ph.D. program in Renewal Studies, which was the first of its kind in the world. In 2006, Synan stepped down as Dean to serve part-time as Professor of Pentecostal and Charismatic History and Dean Emeritus of Regent University. In 2016, Synan moved back to Oklahoma to re-join the faculty at Oral Roberts University as a Scholar in Residence at Oral Roberts University where he worked closely with Dr. William M. Wilson, the president of ORU and global co-chair of Empowered21.Personal life
On August 13, 1960, he married Carol Lee Fuqua from Richmond, Virginia. Reflecting on the day he met her as a young evangelist preaching at a summer youth camp, he described her as "a dark-haired beauty whose smile seemed to light up the entire room." Together they had four children: Mary Carol (1961), Virginia Lee (1963), <mask> Jr. (1966), and Joseph Alexander III (1968). Synan died March 15, 2020. Writing
In 1963, Synan began his teaching career in history at Emmanuel College. It was at this time the school also asked him to write the school's official history. Synan had known G. F. Taylor, the widow of the founder of the college, when he was a student in the 1950s, and since he was a faculty member, research of the school's history was readily accessible.In 1969, the school published his research as a fundraiser for the school's 50th anniversary under the title Emmanuel College: The First Fifty Years. Synan's entire life was shaped by his involvement in the Pentecostal Holiness Church. His father became a preacher twelve years before Synan was born, served in several pastorates during Synan's early years and later served as chairman, presiding bishop and general superintendent of the church. His father was also one of the founding fathers of the National Association of Evangelicals in 1943. As a son of the denomination and a professionally trained historian, Synan was commissioned to write the official history of his PHC. The Old Time Power was published in 1973, the same year Synan assumed the position as General Secretary for his denomination. Two revisions of the book were published in 1986 and 1998 respectively.In 1972 Synan was invited by Kilian McDonnell to speak at the third annual Catholic Charismatic Conference at Notre Dame University. This was a life changing experience that marked the beginning of many years of leadership in the ecumenical movement. Because of Synan's involvement in the Charismatic movement, in 1974 he wrote Charismatic Bridges which is an overview of the history of the Pentecostal movement and served as an introduction to those outside the Pentecostal tradition. The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States published by Eerdsmans in 1971 was a result of Synan's Ph.D. dissertation. It was later revised and published under the title Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition in 1997. His central thesis was that Pentecostalism was rooted in the Holiness movement in the late 19th century. While this is a commonly held belief by many Pentecostal historians today, it was a fresh concept at that time.Prior to publishing his monograph, Synan added three chapters beyond his dissertation to include the Catholic Charismatic Movement which was at this time in full swing. Synan was concerned that including the Catholic's in his book would jeopardize his standing in the Pentecostal world since his position validated the Catholic Renewal as a genuinely Pentecostal experience. To his surprise, more Catholics purchased the book than any other group as they attempted to discover the history behind their charismatic experience. Copies were sent to the Vatican and all over Europe, and as a result, Synan became a frequent speaker at Catholic Charismatic events and was invited to participate in the Catholic-Pentecostal dialogue with David du Plessis and Kilian McDonnell. After thirty-seven years The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition, revised in 1997 under its present title, is still a popular text. Synan's book Aspects of Pentecostal-Charismatic Origins which he edited in 1975 is a compilation of articles presented at the Society for Pentecostal Studies in 1973. The

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Harold Vinson Synan
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 book offers a variety of themes related to the history of the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement.While serving as the Director of Evangelism for the Pentecostal Holiness Church, he published his seventh book In the Latter Days: The Outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the Twentieth Century in 1984. Originally written in 1974 as a series of lectures presented for the King Memorial Lectureship at Emmanuel College, Synan used the motif first described by David Wesley Myland in his book The Latter Rain Covenant and Pentecostal Power in which the Pentecostal outpouring around the start of the 20th century was recognized as the fulfillment of the Joel 2 prophecy for early and latter rain. In this book, Synan depicts the antecedents of the Pentecostal outpouring of the 20th century as the "Gathering Clouds." The chapter on the early history with Charles Parham and the Azusa Street Revival the author titles "The Rain Falls in America." The chapter "The Rain Falls Around the World" is a description of the movement's growth into Europe, Chile, Latin America, Russia, and Brazil. The two chapters "The Rain Rejected" and "The Rain Reconsidered" discusses the troubled years when Pentecostalism came under harsh criticism and then with the rise of the healing Evangelists and the Charismatic movement which began with Dennis Bennett, a more positive attitude evolved. The history of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal and the Jesus People was described as "Rain Fall" and "Cloudburst."The book closed with the three streams of Renewal coming together into one "River". He gives this opening statement in the book: "There is only one outpouring of the <mask> Spirit in the latter days, although the streams flow through channels known as 'classical Pentecostalism,' Protestant 'neo-Pentecostalism,' and the 'Catholic charismatic renewal.' In the end, it adds up to one great historical phenomenon which has had a profound effect on Christianity around the world." According to Synan, In the Latter Days has been published in more languages than any of his other books. In 1985, Synan was the founder and chairman of the North American Renewal Service Committee which resulted in the New Orleans Leaders Conference that hosted over 7,500 leaders from Pentecostal denominations and mainline churches involved in the renewal movement. In 1987, 40,000 people attended the following General Congress hosted in the New Orleans Superdome. In preparation for the conference, Synan had the opportunity to interview many of the pioneer leaders of the various charismatic renewal groups and obtain a firsthand account of their story.These conversations led him to realize there was "a great deal that remain[ed] to be told about this movement." The results of his findings were published in 1987 under the title The Twentieth-Century Pentecostal Explosion: The Exciting Growth of Pentecostal Churches and Charismatic Renewal Movements. While serving as the Director of the Holy Spirit Research Center and Professor of Pentecostal and Charismatic History at Oral Roberts University, Synan co-authored with Ralph Rath his ninth book titled Launching the Decade of Evangelization in 1990. It was during this same year he chaired the Holy Spirit Congress in Indianapolis where 25,000 gathered in the Hoosier Dome. Part three of Launching the Decade of Evangelism provided a historical background of the events which led up to the Indianapolis Renewal gathering. After this, there were two more Congresses on the Holy Spirit and World Evangelism—one in Orlando in 1995 and one in St. Louis in 2000. At the Indianapolis Congress in 1990, Demos Shakarian commissioned Synan to write Under His Banner to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International which began in 1951.By the time this book was published in 1992, this ecumenical forerunner movement had grown to over 3,000 chapters in 117 nations. His book, The Spirit Said "Grow" was the fourth in a series of books published by MARC Innovations on mission. The material for this book was originally presented as a series of lectures on "Evangelization and the Charismatic Renewal" in 1990 at the Church Growth Lectureship at the School of World Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary under the leadership of C. Peter Wagner. In this sixty-two page book, Synan cites David Barrett's statistics to provide a historical sketch of the explosive growth of Pentecostal-Charismatic Renewal around the world, employing the "Third Wave" analogy first expressed by Wagner in 1983. In a book review by <mask>, Synan's book The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of Pentecostal and Charismatic Renewal was described as "a lasting contribution to the recording of Pentecostalism," and a book that is "poised to become the standard work of reference for the historical development of the various Pentecostal and Charismatic awakenings of the twentieth century." This book, which Lederle calls Synan's "magnum opus," contains 15 chapters, seven of which were written by Synan and the remaining eight chapters by contributing authors. While the primary focus of the book is the 21st century, it also provides a brief history of the Wesleyan Holiness antecedents which begin in the early 18th century.Written at the invitation of Bert Ghezzi, a Catholic Charismatic and editor of Servant Publications, Voices of Pentecost: Testimonies of Lives Touched by the Holy Spirit is a devotional book, presenting short personal testimonies of 61 individuals throughout history, especially Pentecostals and Charismatics who, as the title suggests, have been touched and transformed by the power of the Holy Spirit. In 2003, Synan, along with three of his family members, produced The Synans of Virginia: The Story of an Irish Family in America. This two hundred forty-four page book traces the Synan bloodline back through William Synan, the Immigrant, from County Cork in southern Ireland to Virginia. Synan's 2007 publication, A Seminary to Change the World Regent University School of Divinity at 25 Years was written in honor of the 25th Anniversary of the Regent University School of Divinity. Filled with pictures, this text provides the history of a school, founded by Dr. M. G. 'Pat' Robertson, which began with 23 students on September 8, 1982 as CBN University School of Biblical Studies and has grown to become a fully accredited university recognized around the world. Throughout 2019, Synan worked on the history of the contemporary Spirit-Empowered movement, represented by Empowered21, for the Jerusalem 2020 Congress. Bibliography
Bartleman, Frank.Azusa Street: An Eyewitness Account, ed. <mask> Synan. Gainesville, FL: Bridge-Logos, 1980. Synan, Vinson. Emmanuel College: The First Fifty Years 1919-1969. Franklin Springs, GA: North Washington Press, 1968. Synan, <mask>.The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI:
Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1971. Synan, <mask>. The Old Time Power: A History of the Pentecostal Holiness Church. Franklin Springs, GA: Advocate Press, 1973. Synan, <mask>.Charismatic Bridges. Ann Arbor, MI: Word of Life, 1974. Synan, Vinson. ed., Aspects of Pentecostal-Charismatic Origins. Plainfield, NJ: Logos International, 1975. Synan, <mask>. In the Latter Days: The Outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the Twentieth Century.Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Books, 1984. Synan, <mask>. Voices of Pentecost: Testimonies of Lives Touched by the <mask> Spirit. Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Publications, 2003. Synan, <mask>. The Twentieth-Century Pentecostal Explosion. Altamonte Springs, FL: Creation House, 1987.<mask> <mask> and Ralph Rath, Launching the Decade of Evangelization. South Bend, IN: North American Renewal Services Committee, 1990. <mask>, <mask>. Under His Banner: History of Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International. Costa Mesa, CA: Gift Publications, 1992. <mask>, <mask>. The Spirit Said 'Grow''', Series editor Bryant L Myers.Monrovia, CA: MARC, 1992. Synan, <mask>. The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1997. Synan, <mask>. The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of Pentecostal and Charismatic Renewal. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2001.Synan, <mask>. Voices of Pentecost: Testimonies of Lives Touched by the Holy Spirit. Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Publications, 2003. Synan, <mask>. The Synans of Virginia: The Story of an Irish Family in America. United States: Xulon Press, 2003. Synan, <mask>.A Seminary to Change the World: 25th Anniversary History, Virginia Beach: Regent University, 2007. Synan, Vinson. An Eyewitness Remembers the Century of the Holy Spirit, Grand Rapids, MI: Chosen Books, 2010. Synan, <mask>. Spirit-Empowered Christianity in the 21st Century, Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House, 2011. Synan, <mask>. Where He Leads Me: The <mask> Story, Franklin Springs, GA: LifeSprings Resources, 2019.Synan, Vinson & Wilson, William. As the Waters Cover the Sea: The story of Empowered21 and the movement it serves'', Tulsa, OK: ORU Press, 2020. Reference

1934 births
2020 deaths
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Twin people from the United States
University of Georgia alumni
Oral Roberts University faculty
Regent University faculty
Southwestern Christian University faculty
Writers from Richmond, Virginia
Pentecostal theologians
Historians from Virginia
American male non-fiction

masks:
Holy
Henry Lederle
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Holy
Vinson
Synan
Vinson
Synan
Vinson
Synan
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinson
Vinsonn


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<mask>. was a cabinetmaker and upholsterer in 18th century London and a member of the well known France family who held the Royal Warrant for over half a century. He was the nephew of <mask>. and younger brother of <mask>, the former being cabinetmaker to the Royal Household. He was born in 1759 and died in 1838 in Boulogne, France. He was made a Freeman of Lancaster in 1785–86. Early life

<mask>. was the second son of <mask>, cabinetmaker, and nephew of <mask>. He was christened at St Martin-in-the-Fields on 14 January 1759. His elder brother <mask> was formally apprenticed to his uncle <mask>., and when he died in 1773, his younger nephew <mask>. was not left a share in the business as he was only 14 at the time.However, the business was divided between his father and brother, John and Edward and by the time they had both died in 1775 and 1777 respectively he had inherited the whole business. As he was not of full legal age trustees were appointed and Samuel Beckwith, (who had worked for Thomas Chippendale), joined the partnership which traded initially as Beckwith and France at 101 St Martins Lane. France & Beckwith

Samuel Beckwith was married to Jane Donowell, whose father was a surveyor and managed Lord Salisbury's London Estate. It was through this contact that in 1780 the partnership was appointed to supply furnishings to Hatfield House, much of which is still in the house. Lord Salisbury was appointed Lord Chamberlain in 1783 and in 1784 Beckwith and France received the Royal Warrant as cabinetmakers and upholsterers to the king, an appointment which <mask> held for the remainder of his working life. The partnership supplied a vast number of items to the royal household, not only for the use of George III but for his children, court officials and increasingly government departments. Much of this furniture, after over 200 years, has been dispersed but some items remain in the Royal Collection.In 1787 <mask> married Phillis Beckwith a cousin of Samuel Beckwith, they had seven children the eldest son <mask> <mask> was later destined to join the business. Other than the items which were supplied to the Royal Family and are recorded in the Lord Chamberlain's Bill Books, held in the National Archives, we know little of the partnership's other customers. It is known that they supplied a table to Lord Verulam and continued to work for Lord Mansfield at Kenwood and Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort acquired a set of magnificent steps for his library at Badminton House, Gloucestershire from them in 1782, but otherwise little can be attributed to them as a partnership. Samuel Beckwith died in 1804 and the business was split between <mask> and Beckwith's son Samuel who continued to trade from St Martins Lane. Whilst France, who continued to hold the Royal Warrant, moved to premises at 31 Pall Mall, convenient for St James's Palace where the Lord Chamberlain's offices were located. One of France's account books survives in the National Archives covering the years from 1804 to 1811 and gives the details of items he supplied to over 200 customers. These included The Duke of Bedford, Lord Packenham, Sir <mask>, Sir Jacob Ashley for Melton Constable, Norfolk and Lord Rivers for his house at Stratfield Saye, Hampshire.Lord Rivers later sold the property to the Duke of Wellington and some of France's furniture is still in the house. Royal funerals

Apart from being Cabinet makers and Upholsterers the France family were also the Royal undertakers and France and his successors (Bantings) organized the funerals of members of the Royal Family until the 1920s including those of George III and George IV. A list of these Royal family funerals follows. Prince Henry Duke of Cumberland (4th son of Frederick Prince of Wales) 1790
<mask> Duke of Gloucester (3rd son of Frederick Prince of Wales) 1805
Princess Amelia (daughter of George III) 1811
Princess Augusta Frederica of Great Britain the Duchess of Brunswick (sister of George III) 1813
Princess Charlotte of Wales (daughter of the then future George IV) 1817
Queen Charlotte – Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Wife of George III) 1818
King George III – 1820
King George IV – 1830 (conducted by Bantings, France & co)

An interesting note is that in the list of funeral expenses submitted to the Lord Chamberlain's office in 1820 the Royal undertakers Messrs. Banting and France submitted a bill for £49 10s 0d for ‘police officers attending at....   manufactory to keep the peace.’ Such an item became a regular feature of their expense accounts. In 1830, at the time of George IV's funeral, when they were asked to clarify this item they made it clear that.....

‘The moment it became known to the public that the works of the coffin etc. were in progress at the manufactory, the premises were beset by thousands. The preparations were all at a standstill and could not have been completed without assistance to keep them off, so great was the interest excited that it was a matter of necessity to employ persons night and day until the coffin was sent off to Windsor.What Messrs. Banting and France did not indicate to the Lord Chamberlain was that they had taken full advantage of this public interest by providing a special viewing area where a curious public (presumably future clients) might view the coffin when finished, as well as offering for sale a print of the coffin as shown in their viewing window.Lord Nelson's funeral

<mask> was also involved with the state funerals of Lord NelsonThe Sunday Reporter 5 Jan in 1806 as well as <mask> the Younger in 1807. The State Funeral of Lord Nelson was particularly notable as it was one of only a few State Funerals given to a commoner (i.e. not a member of the Royal Family) but also because of the esteem in which he was held as a National Hero by the Nation. This was a major event and as such was too large for one Funeral Director to arrange and so the duties were shared. <mask> Jr. was responsible for the construction of the Coffin and the arrangements for the lying in state in the Painted Chamber at the Royal Naval Hospital, Greenwich. The coffin was a spectacular construction containing 10,000 Gilt Brass Nails costing the magnificent sum of 10 Guineas. Some of the accounts at the time are detailed below.Adam Collingwood – Anecdotes on the Late Horatio Lord Viscount Nelson with the Funeral Ceremonies 1806The painted chamber (now Painted Hall) having been fitted up for this melancholy spectacle with particular taste and elegance by Mr France a platform was erected along the chamber, with two divisions, one for the ingress and the other for egress of the spectators.Naval Chronicle vol 15 1806This coffin which is considered as the most elegant and superb ever seen in Europe, is the production of Mr France, undertaker of Pall Mall.Richard Clarke – The Life of Horatio Lord Nelson 1813This coffin was made by Mr Chittenden under the direction of Mr France of Pall Mall.... the coffin, after being exhibited at the house of Mr France, the undertaker in Pall Mall, was conveyed to Greenwich,Sunday Reporter, 5 January 1806'''Mr France, Upholder to the King, in Pall Mall, was on Thursday so obliging to the Public that he permitted all ranks of people, without distinction, to go into his house for the purpose of having a complete and close view of the magnificent State Coffin that is prepared, as the surcoat for the remains of our most illustrious Naval Hero.''The National Archive document LC 2/38/2 'Detailed Account of Funeral Expenses Viscount Nelson 1806'. Details Mr France's expenses including:
2.5 yards black silk velvet for the lid (£3.18.3)
Covering outside coffin with office black velvet and above addition, finished with office nails ornaments and plate (£10.10.0)
Covering with Office black baize 6 trestles to support the corpse at the Painted Hall Greenwich and at the Admiralty
Making a large pall of office black velvet 7 breadths wide and 7 yards long lined with office black velvet (£2.12.6)
Covering a state canopy frame with office fine black cloth within and outside valens fringed & covering the covers and cornices over the Body in the Painted Hall (£3.15.0)
Use of 11 black ostrich plumes for the Canopy at Greenwich.5 days. (£10.10.0)
Making covers to 10 high candlesticks of office cloth

France & Banting

In 1807 <mask> <mask> joined the firm and in 1809 they started trading as <mask> and Son, however in 1812 <mask> <mask> left the business and his father replaced him with Thomas Banting and the firm's name changed to France and Banting. The business continued working for the Lord Chamberlain's office, although its style changed as new family members joined. An interesting commission was to supply furniture for Napoleon's use on St Helena, but the Emperor died before the items could be delivered and in May 1822 50 lots were sold by Christie's. Then in 1825 in consideration of a pension of £500 per annum and a partnership for his youngest son John Hale <mask>, <mask> retired and the firm traded as Banting, France and Banting. However John Hale <mask> claimed that the Bantings were excluding him from his rights under the partnership and he brought an action against them.This matter was settled but the firm traded thereafter as Banting and Son thus ending the France connection with the business. <mask> Jr. died, intestate and a widower, in 1838 in Boulogne, France aged 79, leaving an estate of under £50.

masks:
William France Jr
William France Sr
Edward France
William France Jr
John France
William France Sr
Edward France
William France Sr
William Jr
William France
William France
William Beckwith
France
William France
William Oglander
Prince William
William France
William Pitt
William France
William Beckwith
France
William France
William Beckwith
France
France
William
France
William France


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<mask> (21 December 1810 – 20 December 1877) was a Lutheran professor of systematic and historical theology. Biography
He was born on 21 December 1810 at Nuremberg, and studied theology and history at the University of Erlangen. In 1829 he went to Berlin, where he heard lectures by Schleiermacher, Hegel, Hengstenberg, Neander, and Ranke. The latter almost persuaded Hofmann to focus entirely upon secular history rather than Christian theology. Other figures who had an influence on his faith and thinking included <mask>, a Reformed pastor and associate professor of theology at Erlangen, and <mask>, a professor of natural history and pedagogics there. In 1833 Hofmann received an appointment to teach Hebrew and history in the gymnasium of Erlangen. In 1835 he became Repetent, in 1838 Privatdozent, and in 1841 professor extraordinarius in the theological faculty at Erlangen.In 1842 he became professor ordinarius at the University of Rostock, but in 1845 he returned to Erlangen as the successor to Gottlieb Christoph Adolf <mask>rless, founder of the journal Zeitschrift für Protestantismus und Kirche. Between 1846 and 1852 <mask> served as co-editor of this journal, along with J. F. Höfling (1802–1853) and Gottfried Thomasius (1802–1875). (Between 1853 and 1858 he and Thomasius were co-editors. From 1859 until his death, <mask> was the principal editor.) He died in Erlangen, on 20 December 1877. While he operated with a conservative biblical hermeneutic, he was a member of a progressive political party, and served as its representative (for Erlangen and Fürth) in the Bavarian parliament between 1863 and 1868. <mask> stood out among his Erlangen colleagues for many reasons, not least because he was the most prolific among them but also because of his progressive political views.Beyond several dozen smaller essays and editorials (that dealt with both theological and political issues), Hofmann wrote the two-volume Prophecy and Fulfillment in the Old and New Testaments, the two-volume Scriptural Proof, and an unfinished eleven-volume commentary on the whole of the New Testament. He also delivered important lectures on biblical hermeneutics, theological ethics, and theological encyclopedia, which were published posthumously by some of his students. Hofmann's contribution to the history of Christian theology resides in four main areas: his reflections on biblical hermeneutics, his understanding of the Bible as "Heilsgeschichte" or "salvation history", his understanding of the atonement, and his renewal of trinitarian theology in the wake of Schleiermacher's dogmatics. According to Matthew Becker, whose study of Hofmann's life and theology is the only comprehensive overview and analysis of this theologian's ideas in the English language, "Hofmann's Trinitarian view of God is grounded in the divine love, which is the cause of God's free decision to self-differentiate God’s self in history and give God’s self (divine kenosis or 'divine self-emptying') in history in order to realize in the human Jesus a new humanity. The focal point of Hofmann's conception of 'salvation history' (Heilsgeschichte) is his understanding of Trinitarian kenosis, that the eternal God has become historical by 'emptying' God's self into Jesus in order to reconcile the whole world to God. According to Hofmann, world history can only be understood properly within the historical self-giving of the triune God who is love. Salvation history, therefore, is not separate from history but ultimately embraces and fulfills all history within itself.Thus salvation history (Heilsgeschichte) is not a part of world-history, but rather world-history is a part of salvation history". <mask>'s Trinitarian theology of history is properly eschatological: History is given its unity and meaning by viewing it from its end—not from its beginning—though its end appears in the midst of history  and is discernible only in faith. Hofmann believed, in light of his baptismal regeneration and by faith, that God has already revealed the end or goal of history (its unity) in the event of Jesus, who is "the center of all history". In Jesus the eternal God has become temporal to give the eternal Self in love in order to restore and unite the temporal to God. <mask>'s historical perspective was tempered by his concern to take seriously the inescapable pre-understanding that every interpreter of the Bible brings to the biblical text and to reckon with the hermeneutical implications that a particular religious perspective creates for biblical interpretation. Hofmann acknowledged that the interpreter’s personal participation in his knowledge and understanding, in both its discovery and its validation, is an indispensable part of interpretation itself. According to Becker, Hofmann's hermeneutical reflections thus form an important development between the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher and later thinkers such as Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Rudolf Bultmann, and Paul Ricoeur, who have also analyzed the historicity of language and the historicality of the biblical interpreter.Works
Hofmann wrote:
De bellis ab Antiocho Epiphane adversus Ptolemaeos, Ph.D. diss., (1835)
Die siebzig Jahre des Jeremias u. die siebzig Jahrwochen des Daniel (1836)
Geschichte des Aufruhrs in den Cevennen (1837)
De argumento psalmi centesimi decimi, Th.D., diss., (1838)
Lehrbuch der Weltgeschichte fur Gymnasien (1839), which became a text-book in the Protestant gymnasia of Bavaria
Weissagung u. Erfullung im allen u. neuen Testamente (1841–1844; 2nd ed., 1857–1860)
Der Schriftbeweis (1852–1855; 2nd ed., 1857–1860)
Die heilige Schrift des neuen Testaments zusanimenhangend untersucht (1862–1878, 2nd ed., 1896)
Schutzschriften (1856–1859), in which he defends himself against the charge of teaching an unorthodox understanding of the Atonement. Die Augsburger Rechtfertigung der Augsburger Adresse (1874)
Theologische Ethik (1878)
Vermischte Aufsaetze (1878)
Encyklopaedie der Theologie (1879)
Biblische Hermeneutik (1880)
Die Offenbarung St. Johannis (1896)
In theology, as in ecclesiastical polity, Hofmann was a conservative, confessional Lutheran, although the strongly marked individuality of some of his opinions laid him open to repeated accusations of heterodoxy. He was the principal figure in what has been called the Erlangen School, although his unique theological positions frequently put him at odds with his fellow colleagues and set him apart. Elected provost of Erlangen University more times than any other professor there in the nineteenth century, he was unquestionably the leading figure on that faculty during his years of service. Notes

References

Attribution

Further reading

External links

German Lutheran theologians
1810 births
1877 deaths
People from Erlangen
University of Rostock faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
19th-century German Protestant theologians
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
Members of the Bavarian Chamber of Deputies
19th-century Lutherans

masks:
Johannes Christian Konrad von Hofmann
Christian Krafft
Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer
von Ha
Hofmann
Hofmann
Hofmann
Hofmann
Hofmann