text_chunks:
<mask> (May 8, 1928 – October 31, 2010) was an American lawyer, writer, and presidential adviser. He was a speechwriter for President John F. Kennedy, as well as one of his closest advisers. President Kennedy once called him his "intellectual blood bank". Most notably, he was generally regarded as the author of Profiles in Courage, a claim he addresses in his 2008 memoir. The book won Kennedy the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1957. <mask> helped draft Kennedy's inaugural address and was also the primary author of Kennedy's 1962 "We choose to go to the Moon" speech. Early life
<mask> was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, the son of Christian A<mask> (1890–1959), who served as Nebraska attorney general (1929–1933), and Annis (Chaikin<mask>.His father was Danish American and his mother was of Russian Jewish descent. His younger brother, Philip C<mask>, later became the lieutenant governor of Nebraska. He graduated from Lincoln High School during 1945. He earned a bachelor's degree at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, and attended University of Nebraska College of Law, graduating first in his class. During January 1953, the 24-year-old <mask> became the new Senator John F. Kennedy's chief legislative aide. He wrote many of Kennedy's articles and speeches. In his 2008 autobiography Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History, <mask> said he wrote "a first draft of most of the chapters" of John F. Kennedy's 1956 book Profiles in Courage and "helped choose the words of many of its sentences."Kennedy administration

<mask> was President Kennedy's special counsel, adviser, and primary speechwriter, the role for which he is remembered best. He helped draft the inaugural address in which Kennedy said famously, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." Although <mask> played an important part in the composition of the inaugural address, he has stated that "the speech and its famous turn of phrase that everyone remembers was written by Kennedy himself." In his 2008 memoir, Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History, <mask> claimed, "The truth is that I simply don't remember where the line came from." During the early months of the administration, <mask>'s responsibilities concerned the domestic agenda. After the Bay of Pigs debacle, Kennedy asked <mask> to participate with foreign policy discussions as well. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, <mask> served as a member of ExComm and was named by Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara as one of the "true inner circle" members who advised the president, the others being Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, General Maxwell D. Taylor (chairman of the Joint Chiefs), former ambassador to the USSR Llewellyn Thompson, and McNamara himself.<mask> played a critical role in drafting Kennedy's correspondence with Nikita Khrushchev and worked on Kennedy's first address to the nation about the crisis on October 22. <mask> was devastated by Kennedy's assassination, which he termed "the most deeply traumatic experience of my life. ... I had never considered a future without him." He later quoted a poem that he said summed up how he felt: "How could you leave us, how could you die? We are sheep without a shepherd when the snow shuts out the sky." He submitted a letter of resignation to President Johnson the day after the assassination but was persuaded to stay through the transition.<mask> drafted Johnson's first address to Congress as well as the 1964 State of the Union. He officially resigned February 29, 1964, and was the first member of the Kennedy Administration to do so. As Johnson was later to recount in his memoirs, <mask> helped in the transition to the new administration with those speeches. Prior to his resignation, <mask> stated his intent to write Kennedy's biography, calling it "the book that President Kennedy had intended to write with my help after his second term." He was not the only Kennedy aide to publish writings; Paul “Red” Fay, Jr., Kennedy’s Secretary of the Navy and a close friend of Kennedy’s from his Navy service wrote ‘’ The Pleasure Of His Company’’, David Powers and Kenneth O’Donnell, Special Assistants to the President wrote ‘’Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye’’, and historian and special assistant Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. wrote his Pulitzer Prize winning memoir A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House during the same period. <mask>'s biography, Kennedy, was published during 1965 and became an international bestseller. Politics after <mask> later joined the U.S. law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP, where he was of counsel, while still staying involved in politics.He was involved with Democratic campaigns and was a major adviser of Robert F. Kennedy in Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign. After the death of Robert Kennedy he wrote a book entitled `The Kennedy Legacy: A Peaceful Revolution For The Seventies' (1969) about the political ideals of the Kennedy brothers that could be applied to the Democratic party in particular and to America and American society in general going forward. During the next four decades, <mask> had a career as an international lawyer, advising governments around the world, as well as major international corporations. During 1970, <mask> was the Democratic party's designee for the Democratic nomination for U.S. senator from New York. He was challenged in the primary election by Richard Ottinger, Paul O'Dwyer, and Max McCarthy, and polled third. During 1977, Jimmy Carter nominated <mask> as Director of Central Intelligence (CIA), but the nomination was withdrawn before a Senate vote. <mask>'s help with explaining <mask>'s Chappaquiddick incident was cited as a factor of Senate opposition to his nomination as CIA director.<mask> in his autobiography attributed the loss of Senate approval for his nomination for CIA director to his conscientious objector status as a youth, his two failed marriages, and his writing an affidavit in defense of releasing the Pentagon Papers. <mask> was the national co-chairman for Gary Hart for the presidential election of 1984 and made several appearances on his behalf. In addition to his successful career as a lawyer, <mask> was also a frequent spokesman for liberal ideals and ideas, writing opinion-editorials and delivering speeches concerning domestic and international subjects. For several years during the 1960s, he was an editor of the Saturday Review. He was affiliated with a number of institutions, including the Council On Foreign Relations, The Century Foundation, Princeton University, and the Institute of Politics at Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government. <mask> was a board member of the International Center for Transitional Justice and an advisory board member of the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating bipartisan consensus for American national security and foreign policy. He also was chairman of the advisory board to the International Center for Ethics, Justice and Public Life at Brandeis University.<mask> also attended meetings of the Judson Welliver Society, a bipartisan social club composed of former presidential speechwriters. During 2007, a model Democratic presidential nomination acceptance speech written by <mask> was published in the Washington Monthly. The magazine had solicited him to write the speech that he would most want the 2008 Democratic nominee to give at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, without regard to the identity of the nominee. On March 9, 2007, he spoke at an event with then-senator Barack Obama at New York City's Grand Hyatt Hotel and officially endorsed him for the presidential election in 2008. Very active in his campaign, <mask> spoke early on and frequently about the similarities between Senator Barack Obama's and Senator John F. Kennedy's presidential campaigns. He also provided some assistance with President Obama's 2009 Inaugural Address. <mask> served on the advisory board of the National Security Network.In his book Let The Word Go Forth, <mask>'s selects from more than 110 speeches and writings that indicate the importance of historical insights in Kennedy's thoughts and actions. Personal life
He was married three times. His first marriage, in 1949, was to Camilla Palmer. The couple had three sons: Eric, Steven, and Phillip. They later divorced. In 1964, he married Sara Elbery. That marriage also ended in divorce.In 1969, <mask> married Gillian Martin of the United Nations Foundation. They had a daughter, <mask>, and remained married until <mask>'s death. On February 25, 2010, he received the National Humanities Medal for 2009 in a ceremony in the East Room of the White House. He was awarded the medal for "Advancing our understanding of modern American politics. As a speechwriter and adviser to President Kennedy, he helped craft messages and policies, and later gave us a window into the people and events that made history." Death
On October 31, 2010, <mask> died at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital in New York City of complications from a stroke he suffered the previous week. Publications

Portrayals in media
<mask> has been portrayed as a character in the following films and miniseries:
 The 1974 TV film The Missiles of October, by Clifford David
 The 1998 HBO mini-series From the Earth to the Moon, by Jack Gilpin
 The 2000 film Thirteen Days, by Tim Kelleher; although, in an interview after the film's release, Robert McNamara stated that the lead role of Kenneth O'Donnell (played by Kevin Costner) was modeled after Sorensen: "It was not Kenny O'Donnell who pulled us all together—it was <mask>."The 2016 film LBJ, by Brent Bailey
 The 2018 film Chappaquiddick, by Taylor Nichols

See also

"Ich bin ein Berliner"
American University speech
Profiles in Courage (1964 TV series)

References

Further reading
 ABC News online, 2008-02-08. Passing the Torch: Kennedy's Touch on Obama's Words
 Clarke, Thurston. 2005. Ask Not: The Inauguration of John F. Kennedy and the Speech That Changed America. Macmillan, 304 pp. (Originally published 2004 by Henry Holt and Co., 272 pp.) Marcus, Jacob Rader.1981. The American Jewish Woman, 1654–1980. KTAV Publishing House. 231 pp
 The New York Times, 1983-04-21. New York Day by Day; Gary Hart Opens Campaign Headquarters
 The New York Times, Sunday Book Review, 18 May 2008, review of <mask>'s Counselor. <mask>, <mask> (as Theodore C.) The New Vision. Washington Monthly, July/August 2007.<mask>, <mask>. 2008-07-23. Heir Time: Is Barack Obama The Next JFK? The New Republic
 <mask>, <mask> (as Theodore). 2007-07-25. Barack Obama: the new JFK. Guardian (London, UK)
 .Wall Street Journal, 9 May 2008, p. W3, review of <mask>'s Counselor. External links

John F. Kennedy Library and Museum: Inventory of personal papers
PBS interview with <mask>, 29 August 1996
As a ghostwriter for Kennedy
Webcast of speech at the 2005 Nuclear Non Proliferation Conference (RealPlayer)
Lincoln High School Distinguished Alumni Profile
<mask>'s Acceptance Address Prepared for the 2008 Democratic Presidential Nominee
<mask> speaks at MIT Symposium
An February 2009 interview by Thorsten Overgaard with <mask> in Stockholm on Obama and Kennedy

Booknotes interview with <mask> on Why I Am a Democrat, July 14, 1996. 1928 births
2010 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American people of Danish descent
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Speechwriters for presidents of the United States
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Kennedy administration personnel
Lawyers from New York City
Lyndon B. Johnson administration personnel
Members of the Universalist Church of America
National Humanities Medal recipients
Nebraska lawyers
Nebraska Democrats
New York (state) Democrats
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
United States presidential advisors
University of Nebraska College of Law alumni
White House Counsels
Writers from Lincoln, Nebraska
Writers from New York City
Writers from Washington, D.C.
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people
The Century Foundation
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers

masks:
Theodore Chaikin Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
. Sorensen
) Sorensen
. Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Kennedy Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Ted Kennedy
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Juliet Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Ted Sorensen
Ted Sorensen
Sorensen
Ted
Sorensen
Ted
Sorensen
Ted
Ted Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Sorensen
Ted Sorensen
Sorensen


text_chunks:
<mask><mask> ( , ; 15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as <mask>, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath, from the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence. <mask> has been called the "father" of observational astronomy, modern physics, the scientific method, and modern science. <mask> studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balances". He invented the thermoscope and various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. His contributions to observational astronomy include telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, observation of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, observation of Saturn's rings, and analysis of lunar craters and sunspots. <mask>'s championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted Holy Scripture.<mask> later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported <mask> up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier. Early life and family

<mask> was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of <mask>, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562. <mask> became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority. Three of <mask>'s five siblings survived infancy.The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who contributed to <mask>'s financial burdens for the rest of his life. Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from <mask> to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to <mask>'s early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When <mask> was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When <mask> was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini. He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence.Name
<mask> tended to refer to himself only by his given name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, <mask>, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century. <mask> was buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where about 200 years later, <mask> was also buried. When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as <mask> Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite pro-science organization in Italy. It was common for mid-sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. Hence, <mask> was not necessarily named after his ancestor <mask>.The Italian male given name "<mask>" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of Galilee", a biblically significant region in Northern Israel. Because of that region, the adjective galilaios (Greek Γαλιλαῖος, Latin Galilaeus, Italian <mask>), which means "Galilean", was used in antiquity (particularly by emperor Julian) to refer to Christ and his followers. The biblical roots of <mask>'s name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the <mask> affair, one of <mask>'s opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered against <mask> a controversial and influential sermon. In it he made a point of quoting Acts , "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?" (in the Latin version found in the Vulgate: Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in caelum?). Children

Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, <mask> fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba.They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born 1606). Due to their illegitimate birth, <mask> considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to <mask>'s previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with <mask> at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life.Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of <mask> and married Sestilia Bocchineri. Career as a scientist
Although <mask> seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.Up to this point, <mask> had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine. He created a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). <mask> also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same year, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he presented two lectures, On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, <mask> acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli.In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this period, <mask> made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical applied science (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics and astronomy. Astronomy

Kepler's supernova
Tycho Brahe and others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to <mask> brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to <mask>'s notice.<mask> observed and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, <mask> concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens. Refracting telescope

Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, <mask>, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers.His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for <mask>, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger). Moon

On 30 November 1609, <mask> aimed his telescope at the Moon. While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done it four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"), <mask> was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. <mask> is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632, although Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert might have done it before.A friend of <mask>'s, the painter Cigoli, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings, though probably used his own telescope to make the observation. Jupiter's moons

On 7 January 1610, <mask> observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, <mask> noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons. He discovered the fourth on 13 January. <mask> named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614. <mask>'s observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that <mask> could have discovered such a thing. His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611. <mask> continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible. Phases of Venus

From September 1610, <mask> observed that Venus exhibits a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar System developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun.In Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After <mask>'s telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models, each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. <mask>'s discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.Saturn and Neptune
In 1610, <mask> also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him. <mask> observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it. Sunspots

<mask> made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots.Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe. A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led <mask> to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. In the middle was Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked <mask> for his opinion. Both of them were

masks:
Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de
' Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Vincenzo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Bonaiuti
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo


text_chunks:
 unaware of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication of sunspots. Milky Way and stars
<mask> observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye.He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. In the Starry Messenger, <mask> reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter. He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of first magnitude to be no more than 5 arcseconds, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, <mask> did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, <mask>'s values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled <mask> to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable. Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument. Theory of tides

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun". <mask> considered his theory of the tides to provide such evidence. This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition. For <mask>, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. <mask> and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart.<mask> dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that <mask> developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth. <mask> also dismissed the idea, known from antiquity and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the Moon caused the tides—<mask> also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets. <mask> continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion. Controversy over comets and The Assayer
In 1619, <mask> became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time <mask> had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes <mask> as philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of <mask>'s ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, Discourse on Comets, published under the name of one of <mask>'s disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by <mask> himself. <mask> and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets, although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, <mask> and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner, and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.The Jesuits were offended, and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, purporting to be one of his own pupils. The Assayer was <mask>'s devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance. It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature, in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn. It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated. In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of <mask> and the Lincean Academy. <mask>'s dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits, and <mask> and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation, although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive. Controversy over heliocentrism

At the time of <mask>'s conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the Universe and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism.Opposition to heliocentrism and <mask>'s writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth. Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time. Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Tycho countered that since stars appear to have measurable angular size, if the stars were that distant and their apparent size is due to their physical size, they would be far larger than the Sun. In fact, it is not possible to observe the physical size of distant stars without modern telescopes. <mask> defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations of 1609.In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of <mask>'s friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth. Prompted by this incident, <mask> wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts, and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published, but circulated widely. Two years later, <mask> wrote a letter to Christina that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages. By 1615, <mask>'s writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that <mask> and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. Lorini specifically cited <mask>'s letter to Castelli. <mask> went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas.At the start of 1616, Monsignor Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with <mask>, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. <mask> later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed. Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun. The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested <mask> focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention <mask>'s biblical ideas. In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture".The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith". Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to <mask>, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, <mask> was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing." The decree of the Congregation of the Index banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works until correction. For the next decade, <mask> stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of <mask>, and had opposed the admonition of <mask> in 1616.<mask>'s resulting book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission. Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked <mask> to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although <mask> states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. Most historians agree <mask> did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.<mask> had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be charged. Throughout his trial, <mask> steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of <mask>'s rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat. The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts:
 <mask> was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment), namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture.He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition. On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future. According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, <mask> allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned <mask> apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death.Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote  "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to <mask> before his death". However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist Mario Livio has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of a 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem. After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), <mask> was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. <mask> was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing ecclesiastical permission to take it upon herself. It was while <mask> was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now

masks: Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo Galileo


text_chunks:
 called kinematics and strength of materials, published in Holland to avoid the censor.This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, <mask> is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. Dava Sobel argues that prior to <mask>'s 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of <mask> was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of <mask>. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against <mask> out of anger and fear. Mario Livio places <mask> and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts.In particular, he argues that the <mask> affair has its counterpart in science denial. Death

<mask> continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died on 8 January 1642, aged 77. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour. These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested, because <mask> had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy". He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy. He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour; during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains. These fingers are currently on exhibition at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.Scientific contributions

Scientific methods
<mask> made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. <mask>'s father, <mask>, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension. These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young <mask> could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition. <mask> was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ...It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which <mask> learned when he studied philosophy. His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, <mask> had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning. <mask> showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x).<mask> further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of air resistance or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight. Astronomy

Using his refracting telescope, <mask> observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth. Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter. Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets. In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet. <mask> made studies of sunspots, the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.Engineering

<mask> made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, <mask> devised and improved a geometric and military compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under <mask>'s direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which <mask> sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire. In 1593, <mask> constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.In 1609, <mask> was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for <mask>'s instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make <mask> a member of his Accademia dei Lincei. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. By 1624, <mask> had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi. The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for <mask>'s invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".Illustrations of insects made using one of <mask>'s microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope. In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, <mask> proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by Zebulon Pike of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison. Late in his life, when totally blind, <mask> designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock (called <mask>'s escapement), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. <mask> was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding.In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence. Physics

<mask>'s theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. <mask> conducted several experiments with pendulums. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. Later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. <mask> claimed that a simple pendulum is isochronous, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude.In fact, this is only approximately true, as was discovered by Christiaan Huygens. <mask> also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. <mask>'s son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. <mask> is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. In 1638, <mask> described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance.The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. <mask> reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously. Sometime between <mask>'s death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result. The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods. <mask> put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest.This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity. Falling bodies
A biography by <mask>'s pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that <mask> had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by <mask> himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place. An exception is Drake, who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiment described was actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot, although the building used was actually the church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and air resistance were much reduced.In any case, observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fell at the same speed is documented in works as early as those of John Philoponus in the sixth century and which <mask> was aware of. In his 1638 Discorsi, <mask>'s character Salviati, widely regarded as <mask>'s spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius and Simon Stevin. Cristiano Banti's Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar. <mask> proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2). Prior to <mask>, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had derived the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the 16th century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in <mask>'s theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as <mask> did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. <mask> expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.) He also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. <mask> stated: "Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits".But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed. This was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, <mask>'s is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to Dijksterhuis <mask>'s conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction. Mathematics
While <mask>'s application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the

masks:
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Vincenzo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo


text_chunks:
 standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion square root method passed down from Fibonacci and Archimedes. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of <mask>'s life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes. The concept now named <mask>'s paradox was not original with him.His proposed solution, that infinite numbers cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful. Legacy

Later Church reassessments
The <mask> affair was largely forgotten after <mask>'s death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting <mask>'s works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of <mask>'s complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index. Interest in the <mask> affair was revived in the early 19th century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism.Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described <mask> as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments". His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of <mask>." On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome, Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the <mask> affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today". Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of <mask> kept much more closely to reason than did <mask> himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of <mask>'s teaching too. Her verdict against <mask> was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views." On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged that the Church had erred in condemning <mask> for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned <mask> did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation." In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Nicola Cabibbo, announced a plan to honour <mask> by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls. In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of <mask>'s earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy. A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of <mask> on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.Impact on modern science

According to Stephen Hawking, <mask> probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else, and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science. <mask>'s astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by <mask> (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after <mask> including the <mask> spacecraft, the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo, which is a non-SI unit of acceleration. Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of <mask>'s first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy. A global scheme was laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also endorsed by UNESCO—the UN body responsible for educational, scientific and cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people. Planet Galileo and asteroid 697 Galilea are named in his honour.In artistic and popular media
<mask> is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody". He features prominently in the song "<mask>" performed by the Indigo Girls and Amy Grant's "Galileo" on her Heart in Motion album. Twentieth-century plays have been written on <mask>'s life, including Life of Galileo (1943) by the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, with a film adaptation (1975) of it, and Lamp at Midnight (1947) by Barrie Stavis, as well as the 2008 play "Galileo Galilei". Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel entitled <mask>'s Dream (2009), in which <mask> is brought into the future to help resolve a crisis of scientific philosophy; the story moves back and forth between <mask>'s own time and a hypothetical distant future and contains a great deal of biographical information. <mask>i was recently selected as a main motif for a high-value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of <mask>'s telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope.The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring, other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass-produced, low-cost educational  telescope with relatively high quality. Writings

<mask>'s early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass. His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his circa 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum, bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights.It also subscribed to the Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration. <mask>'s 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:
 the Galilean moons
 the roughness of the Moon's surface
 the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way
 differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light

<mask> published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, <mask> prepared a manuscript known as the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture. In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for <mask> not to hold or defend the Copernican position, <mask> wrote the "Discourse on the Tides" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of <mask>'s, published a lecture written largely by <mask> under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets. In 1623, <mask> published The Assayer—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church. Following the success of The Assayer, <mask> published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to <mask> being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, <mask> published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas.However, he continued to received visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe. With his past experience, <mask> may have feared that his collection of books and manuscripts would be seized by the authorities and burned, as no reference to such items was made in his last will and testament. An itemized inventory was only later produced after <mask>'s death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, <mask>, Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri. <mask>'s books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. Unfortunately, it was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of <mask>'s possessions were not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the National Central Library in Florence.A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of <mask> and those of his peers Evangelista Torricelli and Benedetto Castelli, were left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both <mask> and Viviani's collection began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: "My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..."

The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government.Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers were deposited with the Biblioteca Palatina in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861. See also
 Catholic Church and science
 Seconds pendulum
 Tribune of Galileo
 Villa Il Gioiello

Notes

References

Citations

General sources

  Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London). Further reading

 Drake, Stillman. Galileo (University of Toronto Press, 2017). Drake, Stillman. Essays on <mask> and the History and Philosophy of Science (U of Toronto Press, 2019).Drake, Stillman. Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device (U of Toronto Press, 2019). Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." Journal of the History of Philosophy  1.2 (1963): 223–231. online

 Koyré, Alexandre. "<mask> and Plato."Journal of the History of Ideas 4.4 (1943): 400–428. online
 Koyré, Alexandre. "<mask> and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." Philosophical Review 52.4 (1943): 333–348. online

External links

 Works in <mask>'s Personal Library at LibraryThing

16th-century Italian mathematicians
16th-century Italian writers
16th-century male writers
16th-century Italian astronomers
17th-century Italian astronomers
17th-century Italian mathematicians
17th-century Italian writers
17th-century Latin-language writers
17th-century male writers
1564 births
1642 deaths
Articles containing video clips
Ballistics experts
Blind people from Italy
Burials at Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence
Catholicism-related controversies
Christian astrologers
Copernican Revolution
Discoverers of moons
Experimental physicists
<mask> affair
Italian astrologers
16th-century Italian inventors
17th-century Italian physicists
Italian Roman Catholics
Members of the Lincean Academy
Natural philosophers
University of Padua faculty
Philosophers of science
Italian scientific instrument makers
Theoretical physicists
University of Pisa alumni
University of Pisa faculty
Writers about religion and science
17th-century Italian inventors
17th-century Italian

masks:
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo Galile
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Vincenzo Galilei
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo
Galileo


text_chunks:
<mask> (née Hall; born December 7, 1936) is an American former businesswoman and politician from the Commonwealth of Kentucky; she was elected as the state's 56th governor from 1983 to 1987, the first woman to hold the office and the only one to date. Prior to that, she served as the 48th Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, under John Y. Brown, Jr. Her election made her the highest-ranking Democratic woman in the U.S. She was considered as a possible running mate for Democratic presidential nominee Walter Mondale in the 1984 presidential election, but Mondale chose Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro instead. After graduating from the University of Kentucky, <mask> worked as a school teacher while her husband finished a degree in dentistry. She became interested in politics, and worked on both Wendell Ford's gubernatorial campaign in 1971 and Walter "Dee" Huddleston's U.S. Senate campaign in 1972. In 1975, she was chosen secretary of the state's Democratic Party and was elected clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals.During her tenure as clerk, a constitutional amendment restructured the state's judicial system, and the Court of Appeals became the Kentucky Supreme Court. <mask> continued as clerk of the renamed court and worked to educate citizens about the court's new role. <mask> was elected lieutenant governor in 1979, under Governor John Y. Brown, Jr. Brown was frequently out of the state, leaving <mask> as acting governor for more than 500 days of her four-year term. In 1983, she defeated Republican Jim Bunning to become Kentucky's first woman governor. Her administration had two primary focuses: education and economic development. After failing to secure increased funding for education in the 1984 legislative session, she conducted a statewide public awareness campaign in advance of a special legislative session the following year; the modified program was passed in that session.She successfully used economic incentives to bring a Toyota manufacturing plant to Georgetown, Kentucky in 1986. Legal challenges to the incentives – which would have cost the state the plant and its related economic benefits – were eventually dismissed by the Kentucky Supreme Court. The state experienced record economic growth under <mask>'s leadership. At the time, Kentucky governors were not eligible for reelection. <mask> taught at several universities after her four-year term as governor. From 1990 to 1996, she was the president of Saint Catharine College near Springfield, Kentucky. The 1993 conviction of <mask>'s husband, Dr. <mask>, in an influence-peddling scandal, damaged her hopes for a return to political life.Prior to her husband's conviction it had been rumored that she would be a candidate for the U.S. Senate, or would take a position in the administration of President Bill Clinton. From 1998 to 2012, <mask> served as an executive scholar-in-residence at Georgetown College. Early life
<mask> Hall was born December 7, 1936, in Bagdad, Kentucky, the only child of Everett and Mary (Taylor) Hall. When <mask> was in the sixth grade, her family moved to Shelbyville, Kentucky, and opened the Hall-Taylor Funeral Home. <mask> was involved in numerous extracurricular activities both in school and at the local Baptist church. Her parents were active in local politics, working for the campaigns of several Democratic candidates, and Hall frequently joined them, stuffing envelopes and delivering pamphlets door-to-door. <mask> attended Shelbyville High School where she was a good student and a cheerleader.She frequently competed in beauty pageants and won the title of Shelby County Tobacco Festival Queen in 1954. After high school, Hall enrolled at Lindenwood College, then an all-woman college in Saint Charles, Missouri (It is now a co-ed university). After one year at Lindenwood, she transferred to the University of Kentucky in Lexington, Kentucky. She was active in many clubs, including the Chi Omega social sorority, the Baptist Student Union, and the home economics club, and was also the president of her dormitory and vice president of the house presidents council. In 1957, Hall met Billy Louis <mask> while attending a Baptist camp in Shelby County. He was a student at Georgetown College in Georgetown, Kentucky, about 13 miles from Lexington; he and Hall dated while finishing their degrees. Hall earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Home Economics in 1959.Having won the title of Kentucky Derby Festival Queen earlier that year, she briefly considered a career in modeling. Instead, she and <mask> married shortly after her graduation. While <mask> pursued a degree in dentistry at the University of Louisville, <mask> taught at Seneca and Fairdale high schools, both located in Louisville. While living in Louisville, the couple had two children, Steve and Marla. In 1966, the <mask>es moved to Versailles, Kentucky, where <mask> taught at Woodford County Junior High School. The couple became active in several civic organizations, including the Jaycees and Jayceettes and the Young Democratic Couples Club. Through the club, they worked on behalf of Henry Ward's unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign in 1967.Early political career

By 1971, <mask> was the president of the Jayceettes; through her work there, she came to the attention of Democratic state senator Walter "Dee" Huddleston. Huddleston asked <mask> to co-chair Wendell Ford's gubernatorial campaign in the 6th District. J.R. Miller, then-chairman of the state Democratic Party, commented that "She organized that district like you wouldn't believe." After Ford's victory, he named <mask> as a Democratic National Committeewoman from Kentucky. She quit her teaching job and went to work full-time at the state Democratic Party headquarters, as secretary of the state Democratic party and as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention. The following year, she worked for Huddleston's campaign for the U.S. Senate. In 1975, <mask> won the Democratic nomination for Clerk of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in a five-way primary.In the general election, she defeated Republican Joseph E. Lambert by a vote of 382,528 to 233,442. During her term, an amendment to the state constitution changed the name of the Court of Appeals to the Kentucky Supreme Court; <mask> was the last person to hold the office of Clerk of the Court of Appeals and the first to hold the office of Clerk of the Supreme Court. As clerk, she compiled and distributed a brochure about the new role of the Supreme Court, and worked with the state department of education to create a teacher's manual for use in the public schools, detailing the changes effected in the court system as a result of the constitutional amendment. The Woodford County chapter of Business and Professional Women chose <mask> as its 1976 Woman of Achievement, and in 1977, Governor Julian Carroll named her Kentucky Executive Director of the Friendship Force. In a field that included six major candidates, <mask> secured the Democratic nomination for lieutenant governor in the 1979 primary, garnering 23 percent of the vote. She handily defeated Republican Hal Rogers in the general election 543,176 to 316,798. As lieutenant governor, she traveled the state, attending ceremonies in place of Democratic Governor John Y.Brown, Jr., who disliked such formal events and often chose not to attend. By the end of her term, she declared that she had visited all 120 counties in Kentucky. Governor Brown was frequently out of the state, leaving <mask> as acting governor for more than 500 days of her four-year term. As lieutenant governor, <mask> presided over the state Senate. Members of both major parties praised <mask> for her impartiality and knowledge of parliamentary procedure in this role. She was twice called upon to break tie votes in the Senate, once on a bill allowing the state's teachers to engage in collective bargaining and another on a bill to allow branch banking across county lines within the state; in both instances she voted in the negative, killing the bill. During her tenure, she also chaired the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors, becoming the first woman to hold that position.In 1982, she was named to the board of regents of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville. Gubernatorial election of 1983

Nearing the end of her term as lieutenant governor, <mask> announced her intent to run for governor in 1983. Her opponents for the Democratic nomination included Louisville mayor Harvey Sloane and Grady Stumbo, the former secretary of the state's Department of Human Resources. <mask> had the support of many leaders in the Democratic Party, but just before the primary, Governor Brown endorsed Stumbo, charging that both Sloane and <mask> would use their gubernatorial appointment power to dispense party patronage. Although this was a common practice at the time, Brown notably shunned it during his term. With 223,692 votes, <mask> edged out Sloane (219,160 votes) and Stumbo (199,795 votes) to secure the nomination. Sloane asked for a recanvass of the ballots, but ultimately decided it would not change the outcome and conceded defeat.In the general election, <mask> faced Republican state senator Jim Bunning, who was later elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame for his achievements as a professional pitcher . The National Organization for Women, the National Women's Campaign Fund, and the Women's Political Caucus all refused to endorse <mask>, citing her lukewarm support for the Equal Rights Amendment and her opposition to abortion except in cases of rape, incest, or when the mother's life was in danger. But, Bunning was not personable on the campaign trail and had difficulty finding issues that would draw traditionally Democratic voters to him. His Catholicism was a political liability among the majority-Protestant voters. <mask> won the election by a vote of 561,674 to 454,650, becoming the first, and to date only, woman to be elected governor of Kentucky. Following her election, <mask> donated the surplus $242,000 from her campaign coffers to the state Democratic Party. When <mask>'s husband was named state treasurer for the party – at an annual salary of $59,900 – the state press charged that the move was a plot to funnel <mask>'s campaign funds into her personal account.(The previous Democratic state treasurer had received no salary during his tenure.) Following the media criticism, Dr. <mask> resigned his post as treasurer. All of the involved individuals insisted that Governor <mask> had not been briefed on the details of her husband's appointment. The media's criticism of <mask> continued as many of the appointments to her executive cabinet went to what they characterized as inexperienced personnel who had held key positions in her past campaigns. When newly appointed Insurance Commissioner Gilbert McCarty approved a 17% rate increase requested by Blue Cross Blue Shield – a request that his predecessor had denied a few days earlier – <mask> quickly countermanded the approval pending a public hearing on the matter. Governor
In her first address to the legislature, <mask> asked for an additional $324 million from the Kentucky General Assembly, most of it allocated for education. The additional revenue was to be derived from <mask>'s proposed tax package, which included increasing the income tax on individuals making more than $15,000 annually, extending the sales tax to cover services such as auto repair and dry cleaning, and increasing the corporate licensing tax.After opposition to her proposal developed among legislators during the 1984 biennial legislative session, <mask> revised the tax package. She retained the corporate licensing tax increase, but replaced the sales tax and income tax modifications with a flat five percent personal income tax and phasing out the deductions for depreciation which corporations could claim on their state taxes. With the state still recovering from an economic recession and an election year upcoming, legislators refused to raise taxes. <mask> eventually withdrew her request and submitted a continuation budget instead. Some education proposals advocated by <mask> were passed, including mandatory kindergarten, remedial programs for elementary school children, mandatory testing and internship for teachers, and the implementation of academic receivership for underperforming schools. Among the other accomplishments of the 1984 legislative session were passage of a tougher drunk driving law, and a measure allowing state banking companies to purchase other banks within the state. Consideration for vice-president

By virtue of her election as Kentucky's governor, <mask> became the highest-ranking Democratic woman in the nation.The only two women in the U.S. Senate at the time were Republicans, and <mask> was the only woman governor of any state. Shortly after her election, she appeared on Good Morning America, where she was asked about her interest in the vice-presidency and gave a non-committal answer. Four days after her inauguration as governor, she was chosen to deliver the Democratic response to President Ronald Reagan's weekly radio address. At a news conference following her speech, <mask> was asked again if she would be willing to be considered as the Democrats' vice-presidential candidate in the upcoming election; she replied "No, not at this time." In mid-1984, the Democratic National Committee chose <mask> to preside over the 1984 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco. This engagement prevented <mask> from chairing the state delegation to the convention, as was typical of governors. The party appointed <mask>'s son, Steve as state chair.Prior to the convention, Walter Mondale, the presumptive presidential nominee, interviewed <mask> as a possible vice-presidential candidate before choosing Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate. A writer for The Miami Herald later opined, based on interviews with Mondale advisers, that <mask> was

masks:
Martha Layne Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Bill Collins
Collins
Martha Layne
Martha Layne
Martha Layne
Martha Layne
Collins
Collins
Billy Collins
Martha
Collins
Martha
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins
Collins