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<mask> ( ; born March 16, 1976) is an American financier and politician who served as the 72nd Illinois Treasurer from 2007 to 2011. A Democrat, <mask> defeated Republican candidate State Senator Christine Radogno in November 2006 with 54 percent of the vote, becoming the first Democrat to hold the office in 12 years, at the age of 30. <mask> was a candidate in the 2010 elections for the seat in the United States Senate held by Roland Burris. Burris, who was appointed by Governor Rod Blagojevich to fill the seat vacated by Barack Obama following Obama's election as President of the United States, chose not to seek election. <mask> won the Democratic primary in February 2010, and narrowly lost the general election in November 2010 to Republican Mark Kirk. Subsequently, <mask> had mostly stepped back from public life, currently serving as Senior Director of BNY Mellon Wealth Management. On June 26, 2018, he was confirmed to the Chicago Public Library Board, marking his first return to public service since leaving the Treasurer's office.<mask> is currently a candidate for Illinois secretary of state in the 2022 election. Background
<mask> was born in Chicago, to Greek immigrants. His mother, Anna, is from Chania, and his late father, <mask>, was from Kalavryta. He has two older brothers, Demetris and George. <mask> attended The Latin School of Chicago and then the University of Chicago before transferring to Boston University. <mask> graduated cum laude with a bachelor's degree in economics. He then moved to Greece to play basketball with Panionios B.C.for a year (1998–99). <mask> had played basketball at The Latin School of Chicago, and played Division III basketball at the University of Chicago. He then played Division I basketball at Boston University. After returning from Greece, <mask> attended Tulane University Law School. Upon earning his J.D. degree, <mask> returned to Chicago to help manage Broadway Bank, a community bank in Chicago's Edgewater neighborhood that was founded by his father in 1979. <mask> served on the board of directors of the Community Banker's Association of Illinois Legislative Committee, the South Side/Wabash YMCA, and the Edgewater Chamber of Commerce.<mask> also founded and chaired the AG Foundation, a not-for-profit charity that donated money to treat child-related illnesses, curb poverty and assist disaster relief organizations. 2006 campaign for Illinois State Treasurer

Although the state Democratic Party led by House Speaker Mike Madigan backed his opponent, Paul Mangieri, in the primary, <mask> was endorsed by U.S. Representatives Jan Schakowsky and Jesse Jackson, Jr. and by then-Senator Barack Obama. The Chicago Sun-Times news group also endorsed Giannoulias in the general election, arguing that he would "bring valuable private enterprise experience from banking to the job" and praising his "creative" policy proposals like a securities lending program, improving Bright Start, and promoting green energy. Running on a campaign platform that emphasized comprehensive ethics reform for the Treasurer's office, <mask> won the March 2006 primary and went on to defeat Republican candidate Christine Radogno in the general election. Actions in office

Ethics reform
On his first day as State Treasurer, Giannoulias "signed an executive order to enact the most comprehensive, widest-ranging ethics package of any elected official in the state", according to his official state website. "The order prohibits [the Treasurer] from accepting contributions from banks, Treasurer's Office employees and contractors who do business with the office."He also moved to foreclose on two debt-ridden hotels built in the 1980s by politically connected insiders in Springfield and Collinsville. Hartmarx
In 2009, <mask> worked to encourage Wells Fargo to cooperate in the sale of Chicago-based clothing manufacturer Hartmarx Corp., which was at risk of liquidation and had filed for Chapter 11 protection. The success of this sale with <mask>' support saved over 600 jobs at an Illinois Hartmarx factory that otherwise would have been closed. Wells Fargo, a primary lender for Hartmarx, is also "the money custodian for the treasurer's office, holding its cash and other financial assets." <mask> publicly challenged Wells Fargo's obstruction of the sale, stating that "[Wells Fargo's] intention to liquidate Hartmarx rather than allow a sale to buyers intent on keeping the company running will significantly jeopardize the business relationship between Wells Fargo and the state of Illinois." <mask> cited the fact Wells Fargo received over $25 billion in federal TARP bailout funds as further reason why the bank should have supported the sale of Hartmarx instead of pursuing the company's liquidation. In a public statement, <mask> said, "We expect companies that get state and federal taxpayer money to invest it in American jobs and American workers, not destroy companies that still have a chance to succeed."Green Rewards
<mask> launched the "Green Rewards" program, which gives a $1,000 rebate to Illinois residents who purchase a new hybrid or other fuel-efficient vehicle. Purchase of Israel Bonds
In January 2009, the state of Illinois purchased $10 million worth of Israel Bonds. <mask> said: "This is a good way to safely diversify our portfolio, especially during a time when some of our other investment options aren't generating as much revenue because of the market fluctuations here in the United States." According to Giannoulias, the Israel Bonds will mature in three years with a 2.43% rate of return, compared to U.S. government bonds yielding a 1.51% return during the same period. Scholarship programs
In addition to revamping the Bright Start savings program, Giannoulias created several new scholarship programs for Illinois college students. The Fallen Heroes Scholarship Program, which Giannoulias designed in a partnership with the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs, awards an initial investment of $2,500 in college savings to children who have lost a parent in military service since 2001. In 2008, Giannoulias announced the creation of the Bright Start Scholarship Program, which will award $3.5 million in need-based scholarships over 7 years, until 2015.More than 250 students received scholarships in 2008, the first year of the program. The scholarships were designed by <mask> as a public–private partnership, with the funding for the scholarships donated by a private firm at no cost to the state or taxpayers. Giannoulias also developed the Cultivate Illinois Excellence in Agriculture scholarship in 2008. This program awards ten $2,000 scholarships each year to students pursuing degrees in agriculture-related fields. Bright Start

As Illinois Treasurer, <mask> is responsible for overseeing the Illinois' Bright Start college saving program. Bright Start provides parents with the opportunity to invest in a tax-free account to save for their children's college education. Enrollees are eligible for several state tax benefits and can invest in various stock and bond options.Before <mask> took office, SavingForCollege.com ranked Bright Start 47th out of 48 in the nation. <mask> helped reform the program, and Bright Start went from being one of the worst programs in the country to one of the best. Morningstar called the transformation "a Cinderella story." In 2008, one of the twenty-one funds in Bright Start, Core Plus, began experiencing excessive losses and eventually lost 38% of its value. In the same year, the overall Bright Start program's benchmark grew by 5.4%. Within the Illinois Bright Start program, 2.5% of investors had invested their entire portfolios in Core Plus and suffered a 38% loss; others experienced smaller losses. As the Associated Press reported, "It turns out the Oppenheimer team handling Core Plus — a team the company has now fired — was putting money into risky, complicated investments that tanked in 2008 amid the general financial meltdown."In 2009, Oregon,  Nebraska,  New Mexico, Texas, Maine and Illinois all investigated OppenheimerFunds' handling of their college savings programs for impermissible investments and misconduct. Oppenheimer was selected to lead the program by <mask>' predecessor, former Illinois Treasurer Judy Baar Topinka, in December 2006, a month before <mask> took office. After the credit markets collapsed in the fall, new contributions into the fund were halted on December 4, 2008. In January 2009, the treasurer's office announced that no further contributions would be made to the Core Plus fund and that the state would be investigating the losses. According to the Associated Press, Illinois was the first state to take action. In January 2009, at the request of <mask>, the Illinois Attorney General initiated its own probe of OppenheimerFunds, issuing subpoenas on the company. At the time, the losses attributable to OppenheimerFunds' impermissible investments were estimated to be "in excess of $85 million."Despite the problem associated with OppenheimerFunds' handling of Core Plus, Bright Start remains a highly regarded 529 college savings program. In April 2009, Consumer Reports studied college savings programs across the country "to see how well they performed during last year's stock-market plunge." Consumer Reports "found five that are worthy of an A," and ranked Bright Start as one of the top five college savings programs in the nation. In April 2009, Money Magazine selected Bright Start as one of the "best low-risk 529 plans." In December 2009, Kiplingers selected Bright Start as one of the best state 529 plans in the country, choosing it as the best plan for "low fees." Morningstar, Inc., which had previously ranked Bright Start in its top 5 in 2008, has acknowledged the issues relating to Core Plus but, citing Illinois' swift action in dealing with the issue, reported in 2009 that "the plan still holds plenty of appeal." In December 2009, the Illinois Attorney General's Office and the Office of the State Treasurer announced that Illinois had reached a settlement with OppenheimerFunds.Eligible accountholders who lost money in Core Plus would receive $77 million from OppenheimerFunds. As the scope of the settlement was expanded during negotiations with OppenheimerFunds to include more accountholders, the total loss addressed by the settlement is $150 million. The payout from this settlement brings the losses for the 2.5% of Bright Start investors who were fully invested in Core Plus down to 17%. The Treasurer's Office used some of the investment fees from the Bright Start program to purchase a hybrid vehicle "so Bright Start staff have a way to travel the state and sign families up for the program" and used to promote other Treasurer's Office programs. The vehicle was never used for personal use by Giannoulias. Other efforts as Treasurer
<mask> started a pilot program in 2007 to sell the abandoned contents of safe deposit boxes on eBay, scrapping the state's annual live auctions. Broadway Bank

From 2002 to 2006, <mask> worked as a senior loan officer and vice president at Broadway Bank, a community bank founded by his father.When he left the bank in 2006, it was one of the most profitable banks in Illinois. Four years later, on January 26, 2010, Broadway Bank entered into a consent decree with the FDIC that ordered Broadway to increase its capital. Two dozen small- to medium-sized banks in Illinois and nearly 200 banks nationwide have failed since the October 2008 economic crash. Broadway Bank's struggling financial situation is due to delinquent real estate loans and foreclosed properties. From 2002 to 2006, Broadway's lending in construction and development loans increased sixfold, to $356 million. During <mask>' tenure, Broadway also increased its brokered deposits, which generally command high interest rates. When <mask> left the bank in 2006, brokered deposits made up 80% of all deposits at Broadway.When the housing market crashed in late 2008, commercial real estate loan performance deteriorated and Broadway Bank, which had focused its lending in real estate, suffered. Nine percent of the value of the bad loans originated while <mask> was chief loan officer. :1

At the end of business on Friday, , the Illinois Department of Financial and Professional Regulation, Division of Banking, seized Broadway Bank and appointed the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as receiver. The FDIC in turn named MB Financial Bank as the institution receiving Broadway Bank's deposit accounts. The FDIC announced that it and MB Financial Bank would share $878.4 million in losses, for a cost of $394.3 million to the federal Deposit Insurance Fund. Loans made by Broadway Bank

Broadway Bank made real estate development loans to Tony Rezko, a political fundraiser and real estate developer who was later convicted of fraud and money laundering. Broadway Bank made these loans before Rezko was investigated, indicted, or convicted for any crimes, but not before the criminal conduct took place.Before his conviction, Rezko also received loans from other Chicago banks, including Bank of Chicago, First Bank and Trust of Illinois, GE Capital, Harris Trust and Savings, LaSalle Bank, and Manufacturers Bank. <mask> loans. Rezko defaulted on loans made by Broadway, and, in 2006 Broadway was the first bank to foreclose on one of Rezko's delinquent loans, forcing him to declare bankruptcy. Broadway Bank also refused to cover nine bad checks written by Rezko for a total of $450,000 in early 2008

Giannoulias never accepted campaign contributions from Rezko. Broadway Bank also loaned money for real estate developments to Michael Giorango, who has been convicted for prostitution and bookmaking. <mask> has stated that he was not part of the loan committee that approved the loans to Giorango. 2010 U.S. Senate campaign

<mask> ran against Republican nominee Mark Kirk, Green Party nominee LeAlan Jones, and Libertarian nominee Mike Labno.As a candidate, <mask> pledged to create a "Senate Progressive Caucus", akin to the Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC) in the House of Representatives. On March 2, 2009, <mask> stated on CNBC that he was forming an exploratory committee in order to assess a potential candidacy for the US Senate in 2010. On July 26, 2009, he officially announced his candidacy for the United States Senate at the Hilton Chicago, the same place then-Senator Barack Obama endorsed <mask> for State Treasurer in 2006. He was introduced to the crowd by Congressman Bill Foster. <mask> was elected the Democratic nominee for US Senate in Illinois in the February 2, 2010, primary, with 39.0% of the vote. David H. Hoffman received 33.8% and Cheryle Jackson received 19.7%. Endorsements
<mask> was endorsed by Planned Parenthood, the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), AFSCME, the AFL-CIO, the League of Conservation Voters, the Human Rights Campaign, the Chicago Sun-Times, and the Sierra Club (Planned Parenthood, the League of Conservation Voters, and the Human Rights Campaign had all supported Congressman Kirk in previous races).On May 28, 2010, the Human Rights Campaign (HRC) endorsed Giannoulias, calling him "a strident supporter of LGBT equality – including supporting marriage equality, repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act, repeal of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" and supporting an inclusive Employment Non-Discrimination Act." Among his early endorsers were James Houlihan and Manny Flores. U.S. Senator Dick Durbin, the Assistant Majority Leader and second-highest ranking Democrat in the Senate, endorsed <mask> and served as the chairman of the <mask> campaign. President Obama expressed his support of <mask>' Senate bid and joined him on the campaign trail. 2022 Illinois secretary of state campaign
<mask> is a candidate for Illinois secretary of state in the 2022 election. References

External links
 Campaign website
 Alexi for Senate

 Campaign contributions at OpenSecrets.org

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1976 births
American bankers
American politicians of Greek descent
Boston University Terriers men's basketball players
Illinois Democrats
Illinois lawyers
Latin School of Chicago alumni
Living people
Schools of the Sacred Heart alumni
Panionios B.C.players
Politicians from Chicago
State treasurers of Illinois
Tulane University Law School alumni
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Illinois

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<mask> (; born 25 June 1949) is an Austrian former jurist who served as Chancellor of Austria from June 2019 to January 2020. An Independent, she was the first female Chancellor of Austria. <mask> served as the advocate general of the Procurator's Office – essentially the country's chief public prosecutor – from 1990 to 2002, as well as a member of the executive board of the International Association of Prosecutors from 2001 to 2003. In 2003, <mask> was made a member of the Constitutional Court. Between January 2018 and June 2019, she served as President of the Constitutional Court, the first woman to hold the position. Following the Ibiza affair, President Alexander Van der Bellen named <mask> Chancellor of Austria, after a parliamentary motion of no confidence dismissed the first government of Sebastian Kurz, the first successful motion of no confidence in Austrian modern history. She was the first woman to assume the role and served until the next government led by Kurz was sworn in following the legislative election which took place on 29 September 2019.Early life
<mask> <mask> was born on 25 June 1949 in Vienna during the Allied occupation of Austria. Her father was a civil servant. Her mother, trained as an artist, was a homemaker. She was educated at the Gymnasium Kundmanngasse, from which she graduated in 1967. <mask> originally wanted to study either art or architecture and came close to joining the University of Applied Arts. However, she ultimately chose to study law instead, partly on the advice of her mother and partly because she did not want to be a financial burden on her parents any longer than necessary. <mask> enrolled at the University of Vienna, receiving her doctorate of law in 1971.Judicial career
<mask> served for four years as a candidate judge, before she was officially elevated to the judiciary in 1975. She spent the next two years presiding over trial courts, first the District Court Innere Stadt () and then the District Tribunal Vienna (), a criminal court that has since been dissolved. In the former position, she mostly dealt with cases at tenancy law, an area that appears to have bored her greatly. In 1977, <mask> left the bench to join the Vienna Public Prosecutor's Office (). She was responsible for general and political criminal cases as well as for criminal cases pursuant to media law, a type of proceedings customarily handled by dedicated specialists in Austria. In 1986, <mask> was promoted to the Vienna Chief Public Prosecutor's Office (). She was now a distinguished civil servant attached to one of the country's five most senior criminal chambers.In 1987, she spent a few months working in the Department of Criminal Law in the Ministry of Justice, then returned to her position in the prosecution service. In 1990, she was appointed advocate general of the Procurator's Office, the section of the prosecution service attached directly to the Supreme Court. She was the first woman to serve in this position. The same year, <mask> became a member of the board of examiners for judges and prosecutors at the Vienna Higher Regional Court, a position she would hold until 2010. In 1995, <mask> was appointed to the executive board of the Association of Austrian Prosecutors. From 2001 to 2003, she served as the association's president. Also from 2001 to 2003, she held a seat on the executive board of the International Association of Prosecutors.In 2002, the first Schüssel government recommended <mask> for appointment as vice president of the Constitutional Court. The move was not uncontroversial at the time. <mask> had prosecuted crime with great fervor but had not distinguished herself as a legal scholar; she is in fact considered indifferent as a theorist to this day. Opposition politicians such as Josef Cap accused the government of passing over multiple more competent candidates in favor of a partisan hack. Bierlein supporters such as Maria Fekter countered that <mask>'s appointment would be an important step towards gender equality in Austria. According to the well-known Austrian law professor , <mask> owed her career at the Constitutional Court to the Austrian politician Jörg Haider and her life partner, the Austrian judge Ernest Maurer, a close friend of Jörg Haider. Assenting to the cabinet's recommendation, President Thomas Klestil appointed <mask> on 21 November 2002, the appointment to be effective 1 January 2003.Once again, <mask> was the first woman to serve in the role she was being elevated to. In fact, there had been no women at all on the Constitutional Court until 1995. <mask> took over from the president of the court, Gerhart Holzinger, when he retired from the bench effective 31 December 2017. On the initiative of the Freedom Party, the right-of-center first Kurz government moved to turn her interim position into a permanent one. President Alexander Van der Bellen confirmed <mask> as the new president of the Constitutional Court on 23 February 2018. <mask>'s previous role as vice president passed on to Supreme Court justice Christoph Grabenwarter. Wolfgang Brandstetter, who had formerly been vice chancellor and minister of justice on a People's Party ticket, was appointed to fill the vacancy of the Court.<mask> reached the mandatory retirement age of 70 in 2019. Politics
Bierlein has no political affiliation. She is seen as solidly right of centre. During her time as a prosecutor, she was noted for her hardline tough-on-crime stance, although her years on the bench have earned her a reputation for civility and for working well with ideological opponents. Commentators from both sides of the political spectrum note <mask>'s close ties to both People's Party and Freedom Party, as well as the fact that her career owes both its unexpected major breaks to right-of-centre coalition governments. <mask> herself acknowledges both her toughness as a prosecutor and her socially conservative bent in general. In response to doubts about her ability to remain above the fray as a Constitutional Court justice, she claims to be as committed to impartiality as any other professional judge and also points out that she has never actually joined any party.In December 2017 the Austrian Constitutional Court with <mask> as president ruled to introduce same-sex marriage on 1 January 2019. After the first Kurz government lost a parliamentary vote of no-confidence on 27 May 2019 following the Ibiza affair, Alexander Van der Bellen, the president of Austria, named <mask> as Kurz's successor. She became the first female chancellor of Austria and was in office until the next government was formed following the National Council elections on 29 September 2019. <mask>'s appointment was agreed with all political parties in the National Council. She became the second independent to serve as a chancellor after Johannes Schober, who was in office twice between 1921 and 1930, and the first in Austria's post-war history. Personal life
<mask> is unmarried and has no children. Her long-time partner was Ernest Maurer, a retired judge, who died in 2021.<mask> is a supporter of the arts. She owns contemporary paintings, although she does not consider herself a collector. She also attends theatre and opera performances as well as museums. She enjoys skiing and sailing. In June 2020, <mask> was pulled over on suspicion of driving while intoxicated. She was forced to surrender her driver's licence for four weeks and has since issued an apology. Honours
 Austrian honours
  Grand Decoration of Honor in Silver with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
  Grand Decoration of Honor in Gold with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (16 June 2021)

References

External links

 Brigitte BIERLEIN at the Constitutional Court homepage

1949 births
20th-century Austrian women
21st-century Austrian women
21st-century Chancellors of Austria
21st-century Austrian women politicians
Austrian jurists
Austrian prosecutors
Austrian women judges
Constitutional court women judges
Female heads of government
Living people
Politicians from Vienna
Presidents of the Constitutional Court of Austria
University of Vienna alumni
Vice presidents of the Constitutional Court of Austria

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<mask>'Culloch (1691 – 18 December 1771) was Minister of Cambuslang during the extraordinary events of the Cambuslang Work (1742) when 30,000 people gathered in the hillsides near his church for preaching and communion. Many were there struck by their own depravity and horrified at the probable punishment after death. Trembling, wailing, great pain, nose-bleeding and other strange behaviour was followed in some cases by striking conversions when they suddenly felt accepted by Christ. This gave rise to great rejoicing and singing. It was later calculated that about 400 people had been converted, though many had backslided. The Reverend M’Culloch was a strange person to be at the centre of this phenomenon — one that was being repeated in the American Colonies at the time. He was a poor preacher and claimed never to have experienced the strong feelings of sin or conversion that so many others had reported.Context — Covenanters and Patronage
He was born in 1691, the son of the schoolmaster at Whithorn, in Galloway. The late 17th century was a troubled time. Three years earlier, <mask> Orange had landed in England and was now establishing himself and his wife Mary Stuart as joint sovereigns of England and, separately, of Scotland and Ireland — replacing the Catholic King James II of England, VII of Scotland, his wife's father. One of the key issues underlying this so-called Glorious Revolution, at least in Scotland, was the structure of the Church of Scotland. King James had wanted it to be Episcopal, as the Church of England was, with bishops appointed by the King. Many in Scotland wanted a more Presbyterian type of structure, where each local church was governed by a Kirk Session of Elders, that is converted Christians. Kirk Sessions were to be responsible for the correct behaviour of everyone in their Parish and had the power to appoint suitably qualified persons as the Parish Minister.Parishes were grouped into area Presbyteries which in turn were grouped into large area Synods. The General Assembly was a representative body of all the Parishes, Presbyteries and Synods. Galloway, where <mask>’Culloch was born and received his early education, was an area of particularly fervent Presbyterianism. During the previous eighty years it has seen a great deal of support for resistance to the Scottish government, in the form of bands of Covenanters — those who wished to see the country governed by those who had experienced Christian conversion. The new King — <mask> of Scotland — was from a Dutch Presbyterian background but was wary of scope for unrest in such a structure, without some safeguards. These his successor (Queen Anne) finally introduced in 1712 by the Patronage Act. This gave the power to nominate Parish Ministers to local landowners — the Heritors.It was still up to the Kirk Session to appoint another person (with the agreement of the Presbytery), but this would be without the salary, house, etc., provided by the Heritors. This ancient power had been abolished in 1649, (during the Commonwealth), restored (with the Restoration in 1660 and abolished in the first place by <mask> in 1690 before he re-imposed it in 1712). It led to many struggles between Kirk Sessions and Heritors throughout the 18th and 19th Centuries — including the appointment of Mr M’Culloch — and finally to three secessions from the Kirk. Education and anxiety
The young <mask>’Culloch grew up in the thick of this tumult and his father noticed early on his studious and serious manner. It was decided to educate him for the church ministry. He was so much impressed by the local Minister, Mr Ker, and was persuaded to join the church formally when he was thirteen by taking communion. He then studied, first at Edinburgh University, then at Glasgow where he took his degree on 26 April 1712, just as the Patronage Act was coming into force.He was very competent in the languages of Holy Scripture — Latin, Greek and, particularly, Hebrew — but was also so skilled in Mathematics and Astronomy that he taught them to boys in Glasgow (and displaying great manual skill in producing learning materials for demonstrations). He was also very keen on the details of Calvinist theology, particularly that with regard to salvation. However, he was a painfully slow speaker, and this partly explains why it was not until ten years after graduating that he was licensed to preach by his local presbytery of Wigton. When he preached at local sacramental occasions, he was known as the "yil (ale) minister" as the congregations took his ascent into the pulpit as an opportunity to rise and go to the local alehouse "neglecting spiritual food in the search of bodily refreshment". Another reason might have been his anguished self-examination on whether he was fit to be a minister at all. These anxieties he poured out to a neighbouring minister, Mr Wodrow of Eastwood, at the time of his call to Cambuslang. He felt he was "nothing but a hollow hypocrite" because he had been preaching since his ordination on the nature of Conversion and was a "perfect stranger to it himself".He was always very serious and dutiful, and preferred the company of righteous people, but had no inward experience of conversion. He had been "haunted with atheistic thoughts and blasphemous suggestions". He was jealous and suspicious of friends (he said) and complained of his own pride and "self-carnality". He was also much depressed by conversations with ordinary people, who told him about their experiences of conversion, which "he has been a stranger to". Mr Wodrow thought him a sincere, studious and depressive sort of person, with the tendency of such people to be over-critical of themselves and rather obsessive on the details of theological study. He advised Mr M’Culloch that his obvious sincerity and great knowledge both scripture and doctrine made him a far better person to be a minister than many he knew. Mr Wodrow noted the many "bodily marks" of Mr M’Culloch’s anguish — including piercing headaches.It is obvious he was going through some sort of mental breakdown, though he did report that he got some solace from reading the Bible in extreme times, when he longed for death. Certainly, Mr M’Culloch’s talents had not been unappreciated. In 1725, he had been asked by members of the Town Council to preach the "Annual Sermon for the Reformation of Manners" and had been chaplain and tutor to the Hamilton family Aitkenhead, near Glasgow. Call to Cambuslang
The Duke of Hamilton was the Patron of Cambuslang and he wanted to nominate (or "present") another candidate, one Mr Finlater, when the Reverend Archibald Hamilton, Minister of Cambuslang, died in 1724. The Kirk Session was determined to have Mr <mask>’Culloch and a struggle lasting eight years only ended when Mr Finlater found a post elsewhere. During the interval, the parish was neglected. On 18 February 1731 Mr M’Culloch received the official call from Cambuslang was ordained by the Presbytery of Hamilton for the Church and Parish of Cambuslang on 29 April.It was at this time that he went in distress to Mr Wodrow of Eastwood and it was perhaps because of his physical and mental state that he did not fulfil his duties immediately. For three years and three months no communion services were held and the schooling was neglected. It should also be said that Mr M’Culloch’s attempts to get the (perhaps disgruntled)  Heritors to repair the dilapidated church met with little success. He therefore began preaching in a tent next to the church, using letters and printed sermons from New England detailing the extraordinary events taking place there — the so-called First Great Awakening. The lack of a minister for many years had led to a huge number of "fellowships", or praying societies, in the parish. Now Mr M’Culloch added another ingredient — the letters and sermons were supplemented by sermons on his own specialist theme "Regeneration: its nature and necessity". Mr M’Culloch’s readings from the pulpit, along with his private conversations with concerned parishioners, laid a solid foundation for the historical events that soon followed — the extraordinary events known as the Cambuslang Work — or "wark" in Scots — referring to the "work of the Lord".Later, Mr M’Culloch claimed some 400 people had been converted during the Cambuslang Work, including 70 from Cambuslang itself. It is typical of his modesty that we do not know if he himself ever eventually experienced conversion, though he did exclaim at one point during his last illness "The whole is shortly summed up in the words of Jesus Christ; ‘He that believeth and is baptised shall be saved; but he that believeth not shall be damned’"

Final years
His own fame grew. Despite his slowness of delivery, his thoughtfulness and his teachings were widely admired and he was often asked to preach in other parishes. He wrote out two sermons a week and committed them to memory. His son, Robert M’Culloch, also a minister (at Dairsie in Fife), published his father's sermons after his death. He spent a lot of his own money paying for distributing texts of Scripture and the Shorter Catechism to children in Scotland and America. He secretly gave £200 to the recently established Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge in Edinburgh.Dean Stanley in his Lectures described Mr M’Culloch as "no wild fanatic, but a learned, unostentatious scholar, a slow, cautious and prudent parish minister". Eventually, Mr M’Culloch persuaded the Heritors to repair the church and a "neat, plain edifice" was erected, a new manse following in 1756. On 29 April 1736, he married Janet Dunwoodie, and had one son, Robert. He was very ill towards the end of his life, needing the support of two helpers to lead him from the manse to the kirk on Sundays. He died on 18 December 1771 and was buried in the churchyard " amid the tears and lamentations of an affectionate people". His tombstone, now attached to the church wall, stated "He was eminently successful in preaching the Gospel". His wife died eight years later.Bibliography
 M’Culloch, Robert Posthumous collection of 13 sermons of Rev <mask>’Culloch Edinburgh  1793
 M’Culloch, Rev <mask>  A sermon against the idolatrous worship of the Church of Rome. Preach'd in the New-Church of Glasgow, the fifth of November, 1725 (The Annual Sermon For the Reformation of Manners) Glasgow 1725

References
 Fawcett, Arthur. Cambuslang revival: the Scottish Evangelical revival of the eighteenth century. 1971
 MacFarlan, Duncan    The revivals of the eighteenth century, particularly at Cambuslang, with three sermons by George Whitefield; compiled from original manuscripts and contemporary publications by D. MacFarlan    General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, [Edinburgh, 1847]
 Porter, Wm Henry Cambuslang and its Ministers (in Mitchell Library - Glasgow Collection, reference GC941.433 CAM 188520 Box 952)
 Wilson, James Alexander OBE, MD A History of Cambuslang: a Clydesdale parish. Jackson Wylie & Co Glasgow (1929)

External links
 From Dr Fawcett’s account of the Cambuslang Work

1691 births
1771 deaths
Cambuslang
18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
People from Dumfries and Galloway

masks:
William M
William of
William M
William II
William
William M
William M
William M
William


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<mask> (born 1956) is a German musicologist. Life
Born in Heilbronn, Wittmann studied musicology from 1975 to 1980 (with Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht), philosophy and history at the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität in Freiburg im Breisgau. From 1980 to 1983 and 1987 he was a scholarship holder of the German Historical Institute in Rome. In 1986 he received his doctorate in Freiburg. From 1987 to 1990 he was a scholarship holder of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. A research stay in Italy followed. Since 1991 <mask> has been a research assistant at the Musicological Institute of the Free University of Berlin.He has published works on the history of music theory in the Middle Ages, on the history of opera in the 19th and 20th centuries and on Berlin's music history. Wittmann strives for a close connection between music research and musical practice. As scientific advisor to the Berolina-Ensemble he has initiated the revival of forgotten composers such as Iwan Müller, Ernst Rudorff, Waldemar von Baußnern, Conrad Ansorge; in the same capacity Wittmann has initiated the rediscovery of operas by Saverio Mercadante, Michele Carafa and Francesco Morlacchi for the Rossini-Festival in Bad Wildbad. His editions of Otto Nicolai's previously lost operas Il templario and Die Heimkehr des Verbannten have led to a reassessment of this composer. (These and other editions have been published by the music publishing house he runs). Since 2012 he has been the publisher of the posthumous works of Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek, which are issued in the Editio Reznicek (Wedemark). Publications
 <mask>mann: Vox atque sonus.Studien zur Rezeption der Aristotelischen Schrift De anima und ihre Bedeutung für die Musiktheorie, Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus-Verlags-Gesellschaft (Musikwissenschaftliche Studien; 4), (Ph. D. dissertation, Freiburg University, 1986). Riflessioni per una rivalutazione delle composizioni operistiche di Saverio Mercadante. In Gian Luca Petrucci, Giacinto Moramarco (edd. ): Saggi su Saverio Mercadante. Cassano delle Murge, Messagi 1992, . Meyerbeer e Mercadante?The reception of Meyerbeer in Italia. In: Cambridge Opera Journal 5/2 (1993), . Das Bild der Italienischen Oper im Spiegel der Kritik der „Leipziger Allgemeinen Musikalischen Zeitung“. In Maria Teresa Muraro (ed. ): Le Parole della Musica. Studi in onore di Gianfranco Folena, Firenze 1995, S. II, 195–226. Giovanni Simone Mayr's opera Medea in Corinto im Kontext der Medea-Vertonungen des 19.Jahrhunderts. In Franz Hauk, Iris Winkler (edd. ): Werk und Leben Johann Simon Mayrs im Spiegel der Zeit, München-Salzburg, 1998, . Article Saverio Mercadante. In Stanley Sadie (ed. ): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 7th. Edition, London 2001, Vol.16, . Articles Saverio Mercadante; Elisa e Claudio; Donna Caritea; Il giuramento; La vestale; Il reggente; Orazi e Curiazi; Pelagio; Luigi Ricci; Crispino e la Comare; Giovanni Pacini; L'ultimo giorno di Pompei; Il corsaro; Saffo; Amilcare Ponchielli; I promessi sposi; La Gioconda. In Elisabeth Schmierer (ed. ): Lexikon der Oper, 2 voll., Laaber 2002. Liberalismus im antiken Gewande. Mercadantes Metastasio-Vertonungen für Lissabon (1828) im politischen Kontext ihrer Zeit. In Peter Csobàdi et al.(edd. ): Politische Mythen und nationale Identitäten im (Musik-)Theater. Vorträge und Gespräche des Salzburger Symposions 2001, Wort und Musik 54, Anif-Salzburg 2003, volume II, . Franz Xaver Scharwenka – Komponist aus Posen. In Tomi Mäkelä / Tobias Robert Klein (edd. ): Mehrsprachigkeit und regionale Bindung in Musik und Literatur, Interdisziplinäre Studien zur Musik, vol. 1, Frankfurt 2004.Article Saverio Mercadante. In Ludwig Finscher (ed. ): Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Personalteil 12, Kassel2 2004, . Der ferne Klang des Jazz – Anmerkungen zu Ernst Kreneks Zeitoper „Jonny spielt auf“. In Markus Engelhardt (ed. ): Festschrift Wolfgang Witzenmann, Analecta musicologica 36, Laaber 2005, . Das verkannte Hauptwerk?Zur Entstehung von Otto Nicolais Oper Il proscritto/ Der Verbannte (Milan 1841/ Berlin 1849). In Thomas Betzwieser et al. (edd. ): Bühnenklänge. Festschrift für Sieghart Döhring zum 65. Geburtstag, Munich 2005. Michele Carafa, I due Figaro (Milan 1820), Programmheft Bad Wildbad 2006.Saverio Mercadante, , Programmheft Bad Wildbad 2007. Ist Martinů ein tschechischer Komponist? Notwendige Anmerkungen zu einem heiklen Thema. Otto Nicolai. Il Templario (Torino 1840). Anmerkungen einer Wiederentdeckung. Programmheft Städtisches Theater Chemnitz März 2008.Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek, Benzin, Programmheft Chemnitz November 2010. Saverio Mercadante, I due Figaro, Programmheft Salzburger Festspiele, Pfingsten 2011. Otto Nicolai, Die Heimkehr des Verbannten, Donizetti Society, Newsletter 113 [2011], . Saverio Mercadante, I briganti, Programmheft Bad Wildbad 2012. Notes on the world premiere of Saverio Mercadante's opera Francesca da Rimini (Madrid 1830), Newsletter of the Friends of the Music of Gaetano Donizetti No. 01/2012 (reprinted in Festschrift Becker). Francesco Morlacchi – Ein Revisionsfall für die Musikgeschichte.In Weberiana 25, (ed. Frank Ziegler), Berlin 2015, . Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek und der Ständige Rat für internationale Zusammenarbeit der Komponisten. (Reznicek Studien 1), Wedemark 2015. Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek. Ein Forschungsbericht, Reznicek-Studien 2, Musikverlag H. M. Fehrmann, Wedemark 2015. Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek.Bausteine zu seiner Biographie, Reznicek-Studien 3, Musikverlag H. M. Fehrmann, Wedemark 2018. Anmerkungen zur modernen Erstaufführung von Saverio Mercadantes Oper Didone abbandonata, Donizetti Society Newsletter 135, London 2018, . Editions
 Klavierkonzert op 19 (1924) by Conrad Ansorge
Omaggio al immortale Rossini by Saverio Mercadante
Zwei Potpourris für Oboe und kleines Orchester by Saverio Mercadante
 Sinfonie A Rossini by Saverio Mercadante
 Il templario. Three-act opera by Otto Nicolai
 Il proscritto / Die Heimkehr des Verbannten. Three-act opera by Otto Nicolai
 Allegro alla Polacca für Streichquartett by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Das goldene Kalb Ballett in vier Bildern (1935) by Viggo Cavling. 1 (1925) by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Ruhm und Ewigkeit - Four Monologues [after Friedrich Nietzsche] for alto/baritone and orchestra by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Streichquartett No. 2 C sharp minor by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Streichquartett No.5 e-Minor by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Suite aus Die beste Polizei for string orchestra by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Valse pathétique for orchestra/salon orchestra/piano by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Vier Bet- und Bußgesänge for alto/baritone and orchestra by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Walzer-Serenade for piano trio by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Wie Till Eulenspiegel lebte by Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Zwei Balladen aus fredericianischer Zeit für Bass und Orchester von Emil Nikolaus von Reznicek
 Hymnus für Verfassungsfeiern (1928) by Waldemar von Baußnern

External links
 Nicolai-Ehrung 2010
 Franz Xaver Scharwenka – Komponist aus Posen (2002) auf der Website der Scharwenka Stiftung in Bad Saarow (PDF)

Musicologists from Berlin
20th-century musicologists
21st-century musicologists
Free University of Berlin faculty
1956 births
Living people
People from Heilbronn

masks:
Michael Wittmann
Wittmann
Michael Witt


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<mask> (, ; born 30 April 1983) is a retired Serbian footballer. He represented Serbia at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. <mask> rose to prominence in his homeland with his first club FK Zemun before moving to Red Star Belgrade where he won league and cup honours. Decorated with individual awards for his performances at Red Star, he broke into the Serbian national side in 2008. He moved to England in 2009 when he signed for Premier League side Wolverhampton Wanderers but returned to his former club three years later. Club career

<mask> began his playing career in the youth ranks of Belgrade-based FK Zemun, where he progressed through to make it into their first team in 2000. He really began to establish himself in the middle of the park during the 2001–02 season and was a vital player for the club over the following seasons.In 2005–06, he had his best goalscoring start to a season, netting eight times by Christmas. This attracted attention from the country's biggest club and local rival, Red Star Belgrade. Red Star Belgrade
Following his continually impressive form for FK Zemun, <mask> signed for Red Star Belgrade in January 2006. He ended his first season with Belgrade by winning both the Serbian Superliga and Serbian Cup with his new club. He won both trophies again with Belgrade the following season. <mask> found appearances restricted by then manager Dusan Bajević, but the arrival of Boško Djurovski as the club's new manager saw him gain more playing time and re-discover his form. He then held down a first team spot in central midfield for the following seasons, becoming a vital member of the team as they went close to more domestic honours and regularly competing in European competitions.<mask> enjoyed his best season so far in 2008–09, finishing Red Star's top goalscorer with 18 league goals, 22 goals in all competitions, making him Serbian football's leading scorer in that season. He also won the league's Most Valuable Player Award, was voted into the All Star Team, named 2008–09 Serbian Superliga Player of the Year and broke into the Serbia national football team. This form attracted attention from various clubs in Europe. Wolverhampton Wanderers
Newly promoted Premier League side Wolves signed <mask> on 15 June 2009 in a four-year deal for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around £2.6 million. He made his debut in August 2009, in the club's 2–0 opening day defeat to West Ham, in which he was voted Sky Sports' man of the match. <mask> scored his first goal for Wolves with a long distance strike to earn a 2–1 home win against Bolton in December 2009; before netting a second and final goal for the season two weeks later, against Burnley. <mask> made twenty appearances in the Premier League in the 2010–11 season, scoring twice.He also matched that tally in the League Cup, scoring two penalties, against Southend and Notts County. In a 3–3 home draw against Tottenham Hotspur, <mask> created two goals by assisting Kevin Doyle's opening goal, and then winning a penalty for a second Doyle goal. He also featured in the team's victory at Aston Villa as Wolves narrowly stayed up on the final day of the season. <mask> made only sporadic appearances during the next season, but during November and December he enjoyed a run of starts in the team. However, this was halted when he was sent off in a 1–1 draw at Arsenal for a challenge on Mikel Arteta. Wolves made an appeal to have this red card rescinded, including a unique press conference by then-manager Mick McCarthy who showed slow motion replays from a number of angles, but the appeal was unsuccessful and the three-match ban was upheld. Following this dismissal he only made a number of substitute appearances in the final months as the club were relegated under caretaker manager Terry Connor.Following the appointment of Ståle Solbakken as Wolves manager during the close season, it was announced that <mask> was available for transfer, having expressed a desire to play more regularly. On 30 August, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent to allow him to find a new club. Return to Red Star Belgrade
On 31 August 2012, one day after his departure from Wolves, <mask> rejoined his former club Red Star Belgrade when he signed a three-year deal. He scored his first goal against Radnički Kragujevac 1923 from a free kick. On 13 April 2013, he scored a hat-trick against FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda. Hebei China Fortune
On 16 February 2015, <mask> transferred to China League One side Hebei China Fortune. Nei Mongol Zhongyou
On 14 February 2016, <mask> transferred to fellow China League One side Nei Mongol Zhongyou.Red Star Belgrade
On January 31 2017, <mask> rejoined his club Red Star for a third time. An avid Red Star fan, <mask> once again proved loyalty to his club and fans. <mask> signed one and a half year deal. On May 19 2019, he played his last game for Red Star in a 3-0 win over Napredak. During his 9 years altogether in Red Star, Milijas played 170 matches, scored 49 goals and had 38 assists. He also won 4 trophies, all 4 being Serbian SuperLiga in 06/07, 13/14, 17/18 and 18/19 seasons. International career
<mask> made his full international debut for Serbia on 6 September 2008, in a 2–0 win over the Faroe Islands in a World Cup 2010 qualifier.He scored his first international goal in his fourth appearance, in a 6–1 rout of Bulgaria in a friendly on 19 November 2008, then added his first competitive goal when he netted the winner from the penalty spot to defeat Austria 1–0 on 6 June 2009. This qualification campaign ultimately saw the nation qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Finals in South Africa, with <mask> a regular in central midfield, usually paired with captain Dejan Stanković. He was subsequently selected in their final squad for the tournament, their first World Cup Finals competing as "Serbia", and played in their opening game against Ghana. He has previously represented Serbia and Montenegro at under–21 level, appearing in the side which made the semi finals of the 2006 European Under–21 Championship in Portugal. Career statistics

Club

International

International goals
Scores and results list Serbia's goal tally first. Honours
Club
 Serbian SuperLiga (5): 2005–06, 2006–07, 2013–14, 2017–18, 2018–19
 Serbian Cup (2): 2005–06, 2006–07

Individual
Serbian SuperLiga: Player of the Season 2008–09
 Serbian SuperLiga Team of the Season: 2008–09

References

External links

Player profile on Serbian National Team page

1983 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Belgrade
Serbian footballers
Serbia international footballers
Serbia and Montenegro under-21 international footballers
FK Zemun players
Red Star Belgrade footballers
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Hebei F.C.players
Inner Mongolia Zhongyou F.C. players
Serbian SuperLiga players
Premier League players
China League One players
Serbian expatriate footballers
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Turkey
Expatriate footballers in China
Association football midfielders
2010 FIFA World Cup players
Red Star Belgrade non-playing staff

masks:
Nenad Milijaš
Milijaš
Zemun Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš
Milijaš


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<mask> (died 2 February 619) was the second Archbishop of Canterbury, serving from about 604 to 619. He was a member of the Gregorian mission sent from Italy to England to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism, although the date of his arrival is disputed. He was consecrated archbishop by his predecessor, Augustine of Canterbury, during Augustine's lifetime, to ensure continuity in the office. While archbishop, he attempted unsuccessfully to resolve differences with the native British bishops by corresponding with them about points of dispute. <mask> faced a crisis following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent, when the king's successor abandoned Christianity; he eventually reconverted. <mask> was revered as a saint after his death in 619. Early life
<mask> was part of the Gregorian mission originally dispatched from Rome in 595 to convert the Anglo-Saxons from their native paganism to Christianity; he landed at Thanet, Kent, with Augustine in 597, or, as some sources state, first arrived in 601 and was not a part of the first group of missionaries.He had been a monk in Rome before his travels to England, but nothing else is known of his history or background. The medieval chronicler Bede says that  Augustine sent <mask> back to Pope Gregory I to report on the success of converting King Æthelberht of Kent and to carry a letter with questions for the pope. Accompanied by Peter of Canterbury, another missionary, he set off some time after July 598, and had returned by June 601. He brought back with him Gregory's replies to Augustine's questions, a document commonly known as the Libellus responsionum, that Bede incorporated in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. <mask> is probably the <mask> referred to in the letter from Gregory to Bertha, queen of Kent. In that letter, Gregory praises Bertha for her part in the conversion of her husband, details of which Gregory says he received from <mask> the priest. It is known that <mask> returned to England with Mellitus and others of the second group of missionaries  in the summer of 601, but there is no record of Peter being with them.Archbishop

<mask> succeeded Augustine to the see of Canterbury in about 604, and ruled until his death on 2 February 619. To secure the succession, Augustine had consecrated <mask> before he died, even though that was prohibited by canon law. Augustine was afraid though that if someone did not step into the office immediately, it would damage the missionary efforts in Britain. However, <mask> never received a pallium from Rome, so he may have been considered uncanonical by the papacy. Bede makes a point of comparing Augustine's action in consecrating <mask> to Saint Peter's action of consecrating Clement as Bishop of Rome during Peter's lifetime, which the theologian J. Robert Wright believes may be Bede's way of criticising the practices of the church in his day. In 610 <mask> received letters from Pope Boniface IV, addressed to him as archbishop and Augustine's successor. The correspondence was in response to <mask> having sent Mellitus to Rome earlier in 610, to solicit advice from the papacy on matters concerning the English Church.While in Rome Mellitus attended a synod, and brought the synodical decrees back with him to <mask>. In 613 <mask> consecrated the monastery church built by Augustine in Canterbury, and dedicated it to saints Peter and Paul; it was later re-consecrated as St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury. <mask> also wrote to the bishops in the lands held by the Scots and by the Britons, urging them to hold Easter on the day that the Roman church celebrated it, instead of their traditional date, as part of the Easter controversy. The letter is also preserved in Bede's history. <mask> in 609 stated that Dagan, a native bishop, would not eat with <mask> or share a roof with the archbishop, due to the differences between the two Churches. Pagan reaction

Æthelberht died in 616, during <mask>'s tenure; his son Eadbald abandoned Christianity in favour of Anglo-Saxon paganism, forcing  many of the Gregorian missionaries to flee the pagan backlash that followed Æthelberht's death. Among them in Gaul were Mellitus, who was Bishop of London, and Justus, who was Bishop of Rochester.Remaining in Britain, <mask> succeeded in reconverting Eadbald to Christianity. Bede relates the story that <mask> had been prepared to give up when he was visited by St Peter in a dream or vision. St Peter chastised <mask> and whipped him, and the marks of the whipping remained after the vision or dream ended. <mask> then displayed them to Eadbald, and the king was converted on the spot. Bede, however, hints that it was the death of some of the leaders of the pagan party in battle that really persuaded <mask> to stay. According to Benedicta Ward, a historian of Christianity, Bede uses the story of the whipping as an example of how suffering was a reminder of Christ's suffering for humans, and how that example could lead to conversion. Wright argues that another point Bede is making is that it is because of the intercession of St Peter  himself that the mission continued.David Farmer, in the Oxford Dictionary of Saints, suggests that the whipping story may have been a blending of the Quo Vadis story with some information given by Jerome in a letter. Modern historians have seen political overtones in the pagan reaction. The historian D. P. Kirby sees Eadbald's actions as a repudiation of his father's pro-Frankish policies. Alcuin, a later medieval writer, wrote that <mask> was "censured by apostolic authority". This may have been a letter from Pope Adeodatus I, commanding <mask> to stay in Kent. Kirby goes on to argue that it was Justus, not <mask>, who converted Eadbald, and this while Justus was archbishop, sometime around 624. Not all historians agree with this argument, however.Nicholas Brooks states that the king was converted during <mask>'s archiepiscopate, within a year of him succeeding his father. The historian Barbara Yorke argues that there were two co-rulers of Kent after Æthelberht's death, Eadbald and a Æthelwald, and that Eadbald was converted by <mask> while Æthelwald was converted by Justus after his return to Rochester. Another factor in the pagan reaction was <mask>'s objection to Eadbald's marriage to his father's widow, something that Christians considered to be unlawful. All efforts to extend the church beyond Kent encountered difficulties due to the attitude of King Rædwald of East Anglia, who had become the leading king in the south after Æthelberht's death. Rædwald was converted before the death of Æthelberht, perhaps at the urging of Æthelberht, but his kingdom was not, and Rædwald seems to have converted only to the extent of placing a Christian altar in his pagan temple. It proved impossible for Mellitus to return to London as bishop, although Justus did resume his duties at Rochester. Death and legacy

<mask> died on 2 February 619, and was buried in the abbey of St Peter and Paul in Canterbury, later renamed St Augustine's; his relics, or remains, were moved, or translated, to the new church of St Augustine's in 1091.His shrine was in the axial chapel of the abbey church, flanking the shrine of Augustine, his predecessor. <mask> came to be regarded as a saint, and was given the feast day of 3 February. The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day, along with Mellitus and Justus. A Vita (or Life) was written about the time of his translation, by Goscelin, but it is mainly based on information in Bede. His tomb was opened in 1915. Besides his feast day, the date of his translation, 13 September, was also celebrated after his death. <mask>'s tenure as archbishop is mainly remembered for his failure to secure a settlement with the Celtic church, and for his reconversion of Eadbald following Æthelbert's death.He was succeeded as archbishop by Mellitus, the Bishop of London. See also
 List of members of the Gregorian mission

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links
  – listing of most contemporary and close to contemporary mentions of <mask> in the primary sources. Includes some spurious charter listings. , who travelled back to Rome, and is probably the same person

Archbishops of Canterbury
Gregorian mission
Kentish saints
619 deaths
7th-century archbishops
7th-century Christian saints
Year of birth unknown
7th-century English clergy

masks: Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence Laurence


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<mask> (24 July 1930 in Antwerp – 12 February 1999 in Geneva) was a (in 1985 naturalised) Swiss economic historian of Belgian descent who specialized in urban history and historical demography. He published or co-authored more than two dozen books and 120 scholarly articles. His most important works emphasize the agricultural preconditions necessary for industrialization and controversially claim, contrary to most scholars that colonization was not beneficial to colonial empires. He argued that tariffs and growth were positively correlated in the 19th
century. Academic career

<mask> gained a bachelor's degree by correspondence, intending to become an engineer but he turned to studying economic history in 1956 at the parisian Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. He obtained his doctorate in 1963 at the Free University of Brussels where he worked from 1965 to 1995. He was economic adviser to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) at Geneva from 1967 to 1969, professor at the Sir George Williams University (Concordia) in Montréal from 1969 to 1971 and on recommendation of Fernand Braudel became director of studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes from 1971 to 1972.In 1972 he was made professor of history at the University of Geneva. He retired in 1995. He was also visiting professor at Harvard and at the Collège de France (1983) and Doctor honoris causa at the ETH Zurich. From 1985, <mask> directed a number of research projects on the world economy at a Centre for International Economic History in Geneva. Research

<mask> sought through quantitative, empirical research of historical trends to question and challenge many beliefs which are nowadays generally accepted in economics (see in particular his work Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes), among which: the idea that free trade historically led to periods of economic growth; that moving away from free trade caused the Great Depression; and that colonial powers in the 19th and early 20th centuries became rich by exploiting the Third World. Bairoch argued that such beliefs are based on insufficient knowledge and misguided interpretations of the economic history of the United States, Europe and the Third World. He researched extensively the reasons why an industrial takeoff was prevented in the colonised countries of the Third World (see e.g.his book Révolution industrielle et sous-développement). He is particularly known for his detailed empirical research on economic problems of Third World countries, on the industrial revolution and its aftermath and on urban history. His historical estimates of Gross Product measures are still being referred to in the literature, although some are also challenged by other economic historians such as Angus Maddison. Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists such as J. R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate:

Quotes

<mask> referred here to colonialism and to the exploitation of the third world in the 19th and early 20th century.He argued that this exploitation was not indispensable for industrialisation. This he thought is "good news" for the third world because it means that development could occur without exploitation of other regions. Books and monographs

Le mythe de la croissance économique rapide au XIXe siècle. 1962
Le processus et l'amorce de la croissance économique. [1963]
La formation des prix des fruits, légumes et produits laitiers (with Georges Thorn). Bruxelles: Université libre de Bruxelles, Institut de sociologie, 1964
La baisse des coûts des transports et le développement économique. 1965
Niveaux de développement économique de 1810 áa 1910.1965
L'économie belge et internationale (with T. Deldycke and others). Institut de sociologie, Université libre de Bruxelles, 1965.Originalités et conséquences de la révolution industrielle. 1966Le rôle de l'agriculture dans la création de la sidérurgie moderne. 1966Evolution de la population active dans le monde par branches et par régions, 1880–1960. 1968La population active et sa structure. Sous la direction de P. Bairoch par T. Deldycke, H. Gelders [et] J.-M. Limbor avec la participation de G. Lefevere, G. Thorn [et] G. Vandenabeele. [1968]Diagnostic de l'évolution économique du Tiers-monde, 1900–1968.4th edition. Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1970De tertiaire sector; studie over de invloed der ontwikkeling op de vermindering van de omvang der economische fluctuaties (with others) Bruxelles : Institut de sociologie de l'Université libre, [1970]Le Tiers monde en l'an 2000 (with Pierre Masse). Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1971.Trend in 1960–1967 and short term prospects of the Third World economy. Dakar : United Nations, African Institute for Economic Development and Planning, 1971.Le Tiers-Monde dans l'impasse. Le démarrage économique du XVIIIe au XXe siècle. Gallimard, 1971.Le chômage urbain dans les pays en voie de développement : présentation générale du problème et éléments d'une solution. Genève : Bureau International du Travail, 1972.Révolution industrielle et sous-développement.Fourth edition, Paris: Mouton, 1974.The economic development of the Third World since 1900. 1975Urban Unemployment in Developing Countries: The Nature of the Problem and Proposals for Its Solutions International Labour Office; 2nd edition, June 1976Commerce extérieur et développement économique de l'Europe au XIX siècle. Paris : Mouton, 1976.Taille des villes, conditions de vie et développement économique. Paris : Éd. de l'École des hautes études en sociales, 1977.Disparities in Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution (<mask> and Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, eds.) Palgrave: Macmillan, 1981. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981.Structure par produits des exportations du Tiers-monde 1830–1937 (with Bouda Etemad) Genève : Droz, 1985.Les passages des économies traditionnelles européennes aux sociétés industrielles: quatrième rencontre franco-suisse d'histoire économique et sociale.(ed.by <mask> and Anne-Marie Piuz). Genève: Droz, 1985.Histoire économique De Jéricho à Mexico. Villes et économie dans l’histoire. Gallimard, 1985La population des villes européennes : 800–1850 : banque de données et analyse sommaire des résultats (with Jean Batou and Pierre Chèvre) Genève : Droz, 1988.Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present. Translated by Christopher Braider. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988La Suisse dans l'économie mondiale (with Martin Körner). Genève: Droz, 1990.World energy production, 1800–1985 = Production mondiale d'énergie" (with Etemad Bouda & Jean Luciani ; under the direction of <mask> & Jean-Claude Toutain) Genève : Librairie Droz, 1991
Liber amicorum : Henri Vander Eycken (with Henri Vander Eycken).Brussels : VUBPress, 1991. Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes. University of Chicago Press, 1993
Autour de l'histoire sociale du temps. Zurich : Chronos Verlag, 1997. Victoires et déboires : histoire économique et sociale du monde du XVIe siècle à nos jours (3 Vols). Gallimard, 1997. L'agriculture des pays développés, 1800 à nos jours : production, productivité, rendements.Paris : Economica, c1999

Selected articles
<mask> and J.-M. Limbor, "Changes in the Industrial Distribution of the World Labour Force, by Region, 1880–1960," International Labour Review, 98 (1968), pp. 311–336;
"Population urbaine et taille des villes en Europe de 1600 à 1970," Revue d'histoire économique et sociale, Vol. 54, pp. 304–335
"Structure de la population active mondiale de 1700 à 1970," Annales E.S.C., 26 (1971), pp. 960–976. "Free Trade and European Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century’. IN: European Economic Review, 3, 1972."Agriculture and the industrial revolution 1700–1914", in: Carlo Cipolla (ed. ), The Industrial Revolution – Fontana Economic History of Europe, Vol. 3. London: Collins/Fontana, 1973
"Commerce international et genese de la revolution industrielle anglaise." In: Annales, 28, pp. 541–571, 1973
"European Foreign Trade in the XIX Century: The Development of the Value and Volume of Exports (Preliminary Results)", in: Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 2, no.1, 1973
"Geographical Structure and Trade Balance of European Foreign Trade from 1800 to 1970" in:  Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 3, no. 3, 1974
"European Gross National Product 1800–1975", in: Journal of European Economic History, 5, 1976. "Reply to Mr. Gunder Frank's Commentary", in: Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 5,  n. 2, 1976
"Le volume des productions et du produit national dans le Tiers monde, 1900–1977". In: Tiers-monde, 20(80) oct./dec. 1979 : 669–691
"Nature de la technologie et problematique du demarrage economique".Chronique sociale de France, cahier 6, décembre 1969, 77e année, p. 15–26
"International industrialization levels from 1750 to 1980", in: Journal of European Economic History, Vol. 11, no's 1 & 2, Fall 1982. "Employment and Large Cities: Problems and Outlook". International Labour Review, v121 n5 p519-33 Sep–Oct 1982
"Libre-echange et protectionnisme, idées reçues et réalités : les enseignements de l'histoire". In: Economie et humanisme, no 277, mai-juin 1984, p. 8–18
"Les mesures de conversion des énergies primaires. Historique des unités et présentation des coefficients", Histoire & Mesure, Vol. I – N° 3/4, 1986."Factors of urbanisation in the nineteenth century developed countries : a descriptive and econometric analysis" (with Gary Goertz)  Urban studies, Vol. 23, no. 4, Aug. 1986. "Historical Roots of Economic Underdevelopment: Myths and Realities". in: W.J. Mommsen & J. Osterhammel(ed.).Imperialism and After. Continuities and Discontinuities. Londres: Allen & Unwin, 1986. "Urbanization and the Economy in Preindustrial Societies: the Findings of Two Decades of Research", in: Journal of European Economic History vol. 18, no. 2 1989
"La Literature Periodique d'histoire economique contemporaine" (with Bouda Etemad), in: Annales E.S.C., 47, 1987
"The Impact of Crop Yields, Agricultural Productivity, and Transport Costs on Urban Growth between 1800 and 1910". In: A M van der Woude, Akira Hayami, Jan De Vries (eds.)Urbanization in history : a process of dynamic interactions. New York : Oxford University Press, 1990. "L'industrie manufacturière suisse : succès et déboires : une perspective internationale et historique (1830–1990)". In: Passé pluriel : en hommage au professeur Roland Ruffieux. Fribourg : Ed. universitaires, 1991. "The City and Technological Innovation" in Favorites of Fortune; Technology, Growth, and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution.Edited by Patrice Higonnet, David S. Landes and Henry Rosovsky. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1991
"La Belgique dans le commerce international, 1830–1990", in: <mask> & Eddy van Cauweberge (eds. ), Entrepreneurship and the Transformation of the Economy (10th–20th Centuries). Essays in Honour of Herman van der Wee, Leuven 1994. "Globalisation myths: some historical reflections on integration, industrialisation and growth in the world economy" (with Richard Kozul-Wright). UNCTAD discussion paper UNCTAD/OSG/DP/113 March 1996
"Globalization, myths and realities: One century of external trade and foreign investment", in R. Boyer and D. Drache, (eds), States Against Markets: The Limits of Globalisation.London: Routledge, 1996. "Les exportations d’articles manufacturés de la Suisse dans le contexte international (1840–1994)". In: Martin Körner und François Walter (ed. ),  Quand la Montagneaussi a une Histoire. Festschrift für J.-F. Bergier. Bern: Verlag Paul Haupt: Bern, 1996, pp. 205–234
"New Estimates of Agricultural Productivity and Yields of Developed Countries, 1800–1990," in Amit Bhaduri and Rune Skarstein, eds., Economic Development and Agricultural Productivity, Cheltenham, U.K., Edward Elgar, 1997, pp.45–64. "The impact of globalization on employment in Europe" in: Trade and jobs in Europe : much ado about nothing?, edited by Mathias Dewatripont, André Sapir, and Khalid Sekkat. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. "The Constituent Economic Principles of Globalization in Historical Perspective." International Sociology, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp.197–214, 2000

About <mask>

Towards an international economic and social history : essays in honour of <mask>. Genève : Ed. Passé Présent, 1995. Bouda Etemad and Jean Batou, "<mask> (1930–1999)" in Revue d'histoire suisse, vol. 49, n° 3, 1999, pp. 391–394. Patrick Verley, "In Memoriam: <mask> (1930–1999)", Revue économique, Vol.51, No. 2. A. M. Piuz, "<mask>", Journal of European Economic History, vol 29, no. 1, 2000

See also
Angus Maddison
James Morris Blaut
Andre Gunder Frank

References

External links
<mask>ch Library

Economic historians
1930 births
1999 deaths
École pratique des hautes études alumni
Université libre de Bruxelles alumni
Harvard University staff
20th-century Swiss historians

masks:
Paul Bairoch
Bairoch
Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Klep
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairoch
Paul Bairo


text_chunks:
was the 113th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. <mask>'s reign spanned the years from 1687 through to his abdication in 1709 corresponding to the Genroku era. The previous hundred years of peace and seclusion in Japan had created relative economic stability. The arts and theater and architecture flourished. Events of <mask>'s life

Early life
Before <mask>'s ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was  or Tomohito. Tomohito was born on October 21, 1675 and was the fifth son of Emperor Reigen; his birth mother was a lady-in-waiting named Matsuki Muneko. While Prince Tomohito was the son of a secondary consort, he was adopted by empress Takatsukasa Fusako (chief consort or Chūgū).Tomohito's Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. Events that took place before Tomohito became Crown Prince include a great flood that devastated Edo, a great famine that devastated Kyoto, and the Great Tenna Fire in Edo. The Shingon Buddhist temple Gokoku-ji was also founded in Edo where it remains today as one of the few sites in Tokyo that survived World War II. Tomohito-shinnō was proclaimed Crown prince in 1682, and given the pre-accession title of Go-no-miya (五宮). For the first time in over 300 years a ceremonial investiture was held for the occasion. A fire burned the Kyoto Imperial Palace to ashes in 1684 prompting reconstruction that took a year to complete. The effects from this fire on the Imperial family, if any, are unknown.Emperor Reigen's brother, former-Emperor Go-Sai, died on March 26, 1685 and a great comet was observed crossing the night sky. Reign
Prince Tomohito acceded to the throne on May 2, 1687 as Emperor when his father abdicated in his favor, the era's name was changed from Jōkyō to Genroku to mark this event. While he held the political title of Emperor, it was in name only as the shoguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. Initially, Emperor Reigen continued to rule in Higashiyama's name as a Cloistered Emperor as had been done in the Heian period. While this move caused trouble by provoking the ruling shogunate, <mask>'s gentle character helped to improve relations with the Shōgun. This warmed relationship caused imperial property to be increased, and repairs carried out on Imperial mausoleums. Reigen meanwhile lived out his retirement in the Sentō-gosho (the palace for an ex-Emperor), and is now known for being the last "Cloistered Emperor" of Japan.On December 20, 1688 the esoteric Daijō-sai ceremony was revived because of the shogunate's insistence. This Shinto ritual had been in abeyance for over a century, and is performed only once by the emperor in the period of the enthronement ceremonies. 1688 (Genroku gannen): The Tokugawa shogunate revised the code of conduct for funerals (Fuku-kiju-ryō), which incorporated a code of conduct for mourning as well. September 16, 1689 (Genroku 2): German physician Engelbert Kaempfer arrives at Dejima for the first time. Bakufu policy in this era was designed to marginalize the influence of foreigners; and Kaempfer had to present himself as "Dutch" in dealings with the Japanese. Regardless of this minor subterfuge, an unintended and opposite consequence of sakoku was to enhance the value and significance of a very small number of thoughtful observers like Kaempfer, whose writings document what he learned or discovered first-hand. Kaempfer's published accounts and unpublished writings provided a unique and useful perspective for Orientalists and Japanologists in the 19th century; and his work continues to be rigorously examined by modern researchers today.1695 (Genroku 8, 8th month): Minting begun of Genroku coinage. The shogunate placed the Japanese character gen (元) on the obverse of copper coins, the same character used today in China for the yuan. There is no connection between those uses, however. 1695 (Genroku 8, 11th month): First kennel is established for stray dogs in Edo. In this context, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi comes to be nicknamed the . 1697 (Genroku 10): The fourth official map of Japan was made in this year, but it was considered to be inferior to the previous one—which had been ordered in 1605 (Shōhō 1) and completed in 1639 (Kan'ei 16). This Genroku map was corrected in 1719 (Kyōhō 4) by the mathematician Tatebe Katahiro (1644–1739), using high mountain peaks as points of reference, and was drawn to a scale of 1:21,600.1697 (Genroku 10): Great fire in Edo. 1697 (Genroku 11): Another great fire in Edo. A new hall is constructed inside the enclosure of the Edo temple of Kan'ei-ji (which is also known as Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji or "Hiei-san of the east" after the principal temple of the Tendai Buddhist sect—that is to say, after the temple of Enryaku-ji at Mount Hiei near to Heian-kyō). 1703 (Genroku 15, 14th day of the 12th month): when the Akō Incident took place, in which a band of Forty-seven rōnin (leaderless samurai) avenged the death of their master Asano Naganori, due to the bloodshed, Emperor Higashiyama nearly withdrew the imperial will. 1703 (Genroku 16, 5th month): First performance of Chikamatsu Monzaemon's play The Love Suicides at Sonezaki. 1703 (Genroku 16, 28th day of the 11th month): The Great Genroku earthquake shook Edo and parts of the shōguns castle collapsed. The following day,  a vast fire spread throughout the city.Parts of Honshū's coast were battered by tsunami, and 200,000 people were either killed or injured. October 28, 1707 (Hōei 4, 14th day of the 10th month): 1707 Hōei earthquake. The city of Osaka suffers tremendously because of a very violent earthquake. November 15, 1707 (Hōei 4, 22nd day of the 10th month): An eruption of Mount Fuji; cinders and ash fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi. 1708 (Hōei 5): The shogunate introduces new copper coins into circulation; and each coin is marked with the Hōei nengō name (Hōei Tsubo). 1708 (Hōei 5, 8th day of the 3rd month): There was a great fire in Heian-kyō. 1708 (Hōei 5, 8th month):  Italian missionary Giovanni Sidotti landed in Yakushima, where he was promptly arrested.1709 (Hōei 6): Shōgun Tsunayoshi appoints commission to repair and restore Imperial mausoleums. 1709 (Hōei 6, 4th month): Tokugawa Ienobu, Tsunayoshi's nephew, becomes the 6th shōgun of the Edo bakufu. and Emperor Nakamikado accedes to the throne. July 27, 1709 (Hōei 6, 21st day of the 6th month): Emperor <mask> abdicated and the throne passed to his son. January 16, 1710 (Hōei 6, 17th day of the 12th month): <mask> died. Higashiyama is among those enshrined in the Imperial mausoleum, Tsuki no wa no misasagi, at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in this location are this emperor's immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai and Reigen.<mask>'s immediate Imperial successors, including Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono, are enshrined here as well. Eras of reign
The years of <mask>'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Jōkyō  (1684–1688)
 Genroku       (1688–1704)
 Hōei    (1704–1711)

Genealogy
<mask>'s family included at least 11 children. Spouse

Concubines

Issue

Fictional portrayals
<mask> appears under the name of Tomohito in the novel The Samurai's Wife by author Laura Joh Rowland. In the novel, detective Sano Ichiro is sent to investigate the murder of an important official in the Imperial Court. Tomohito is labelled as a suspect, and is portrayed as a childish oaf at the start of the novel. He is later revealed to be the instigator behind a coming revolution against the Tokugawa regime, so he can seize control of Japan himself.However, his plan fails, and he is once again placed in the Imperial Palace, where he seems to have accepted his fate to never leave the palace. Ancestry

See also
 Emperor of Japan
 List of Emperors of Japan
 Imperial cult

References

Further reading
 Hammer, Joshua. (2006). Yokohama Burning: the Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster. ;
 Meyer, Eva-Maria. (1999).Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867. Münster: LIT Verlag. ;
 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. __.(1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon.;
 Smith, Robert and Richard K. Beardsley. (2004). Japanese Culture: Its Development And Characteristics. Chicago, Aldine Publishing. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou,  Annales des empereurs du Japon.Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Traganeou, Jilly. (2004). The Tokaido Road: Traveling and Representation in Edo and Meiji Japan. New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ;
 Varley, H. Paul. (1980).Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ;

Japanese emperors
1675 births
1710 deaths
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Emperor Higashiyama
Deaths from smallpox
Infectious disease deaths in Japan
17th-century Japanese monarchs
18th-century Japanese monarchs
Japanese retired emperors

masks: Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama Higashiyama