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 was subordinated to Luftflotte 2 (2nd Air Fleet) in the middle sector of the Eastern Front in support of the defensive battles at Vitebsk. The Staffel flew combat missions from Orsha and Polotsk. Between 10:50 to 10:58 on 1 February 1944, <mask> achieved his fifth "ace-in-a-day", taking his total to 124. On 28 February, he claimed his 140th aerial victory.At the end of February 1944, II. Gruppe relocated again to Polotsk and then to Jakobstadt, present-day Jēkabpils in Latvia, and on 16 March <mask> claimed his 141st victory. Among his four victories claimed on 20 March were three Il-2 ground attack aircraft. On 25 March 1944, another "ace-in-a-day" achievement saw his total increase to 153 aerial victories. In late March 1944, II. Gruppe was transferred to the far north again, and was based at Alakurtti. Here they defended against the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive.<mask> was appointed Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of II. Gruppe of JG  5 on 26 March 1944. He claimed three aircraft shot down on 4 April, and four more on 9 April, taking his victories from 159 to 162. At the end of April 1944, II. Gruppe relocated to Jakobstadt, withdrawing from the Arctic Front for the last time. On 17 May he claimed victories 169 to 172, and the next day shot down three Yakovlev Yak-9s, taking his total to 175. These were his last victories on the Eastern Front.At the end of May 1944, II. Gruppe was transferred to Defense of the Reich duties and was relocated to Gardelegen Airfield in Germany. Combat on the Western Front
Weissenberger was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 June 1944. On 3 June he arrived in Herzogenaurach to take over command of I. Gruppe (1st Group) of JG 5. The former Gruppenkommandeur Major Horst Carganico had been killed in a flying accident on 27 May 1944. Three days after Weissenberger took command, the Allied invasion of Normandy began. To counter the invasion, elements of I./JG 5 were transported to France by train that afternoon.The ground personnel were flown on Junkers Ju 52s to their airfield at Montdidier,  south of Amiens. The following day, Weissenberger took I. Gruppe into combat, achieving "ace-in-a-day" status once again on his first day of combat on the Western Front. His 176th victory was over a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt shot down at 09:05. He claimed two further P-47s shot down 20 minutes later. I. Gruppe was scrambled again in the afternoon which resulted in aerial combat with roughly 12 P-47s near Beauvais. During the course of this encounter, which ended at 17:39, Weissenberger claimed two P-47s shot down. On 8 June the final elements of I. Gruppe arrived in Montdidier, making the unit complete.In the evening Weissenberger again claimed two P-47s shot down, his 181st and 182nd aerial victories. The airfield at Montdidier came under heavy fighter bomber attack on 11 June followed by another attack on 12 June resulting in significant damage to the airfield. On 12 June Weissenberger filed a claim for three aerial victories. Together with his wingman, Unteroffizier (Sergeant) Alfred Tichy, he took off at 06:00 and during the course of 12 minutes shot down three P-47s. After his first victory, Tichy was killed in action, crashing near Évreux. At 07:02 Weissenberger shot down his third P-47 of the day but his Bf 109 G-5 (Werknummer 110256—factory number) was hit in the engine forcing him to bail out near Saint André. The airfield in Montdidier was rendered unserviceable and I. Gruppe was forced to relocate.It was first moved to Péronne, then to Chauny, a makeshift airfield between Noyon and Tergnier. The constant attacks against German airfields forced another move in July 1944, this time to Frières in the vicinity of Laon. II. Gruppe flew a combat air patrol on 6 July 1944, resulting in the claim of three Lockheed P-38 Lightnings destroyed. Weissenberger was credited with two of these victories, the first at 08:48 and the second at 08:49, both shot down south of Cambrai. The next day, the Gruppe took off heading for the airspace south of Rosières where they engaged a formation of 15 to 20 P-47s. During this encounter, Weissenberger claimed three victories, numbers 188 to 190.The Gruppe was given a few days of rest and on 13 July were ordered to operate against enemy fighter bombers attacking German positions in the area Rouen – Bernay – Évreux. During this mission, he shot down a Hawker Typhoon at 18:24 near Trouville and another one two minutes later. They were then tasked with a fighter bomber mission on 14 July, attacking enemy positions near Caen. After a number of ground strafing attacks they themselves came under attack of numerous Supermarine Spitfires and P-47s. Flying at a height of , Weissenberger managed to shoot down one Spitfire  south of Bayeux. The commanding general of II. Jagdkorps (2nd Fighter Corps), Generalleutnant Alfred Bülowius, accompanied by Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld inspected II.Gruppe at their airfield in Frières on 15 July 1944. On 17 July, <mask> led his Gruppe on a number of missions in the combat area near Caen without encountering any enemy aircraft. On their last mission of the day, having taken off at 19:00, they encountered enemy fighter bombers near Caen – Le Mesnil. During aerial combat, the Gruppe lost three pilots without any success for themselves. On 19 July 1944, I. Gruppe was tasked with flying top cover for Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" and Jagdgeschwader 26 "Schlageter". During this mission, Weissenberger claimed four aerial victories. At 20:22 he shot down his first Typhoon of the mission north of Lisieux, another Typhoon one minute later and his third at 20:25 northwest of Cormeilles.His fourth victory was over a North American P-51 Mustang, shot down at 20:35 near Charleval. On 25 July 1944, the Gruppe was again tasked with a combat air patrol mission in the greater Caen area. Weissenberger received the order to take off at 10:30 and at 11:00 they spotted Spitfires in the vicinity of Rouen. In the ensuing aerial encounter at an altitude of , Weissenberger shot down a Spitfire  south of Rouen. This was his 199th aerial victory. Two minutes later, at 11:02, he shot down his 200th opponent. Weissenberger left the Gruppe on 30 July 1944 and went on vacation to Bad Wiessee.His I. Gruppe was withdrawn from combat and moved to Wunstorf for a period of rest and conversion training to the Bf 109 G-14. The ground personnel were transferred to II. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 6 (JG 6—6th Fighter Wing). Conversion training ended in October 1944 and I. Gruppe was disbanded shortly after and became III. Gruppe (3rd Group) of JG 6 on 14 October. On 24 October 1944 <mask> was ordered to Königsberg in der Neumark, present-day Chojna in Poland. At Königsberg, he was given command of the newly forming I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 "Nowotny" (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing).Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262
JG 7 "Nowotny" was the first operational jet fighter wing in the world and was named after Walter Nowotny, who was killed in action on 8 November 1944. Nowotny, a fighter pilot credited with 258 aerial victories and recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds (), had been assessing the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft under operational conditions. JG 7 "Nowotny" was equipped with the Me 262, an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter. General der Jagdflieger (General of the Fighter Force) Adolf Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the Allies' numerical superiority. On 12 November 1944, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL—Air Force High Command) ordered JG 7 "Nowotny" to be equipped with the Me 262. Galland appointed Oberst Johannes Steinhoff as its first Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander). JG 7 "Nowotny" was initially formed with the Stab (headquarters unit) and III.Gruppe  at Brandenburg-Briest from the remnants of Kommando Nowotny. I. Gruppe was created on 27 November from pilots and personnel from II. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 3 "Udet" (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing) and placed under the command of <mask>. Weissenberger's appointed Staffelkapitäne in I. Gruppe were Oberleutnant Hans Grünberg, Oberleutnant Fritz Stehle, and Oberleutnant Hans Waldmann, commanding 1.–3. Staffel respectively. On New Year's Day 1945, Weissenberger married his teenage-love Cilly Vogel in Langenselbold near Hanau. Best man at his wedding was his former JG 5 comrade and friend Walter Schuck.Schuck succeeded Waldmann as Staffelkapitän of the 3. Staffel following the latter's death in a flying accident on 18 March 1945. <mask> was promoted to Major on 1 January 1945 and replaced Steinhoff as Geschwaderkommodore of JG 7 "Nowotny" shortly after. Both Galland and Steinhoff, among others, were relieved of their commands in the aftermath of the Fighter Pilots' Revolt in early 1945. Under his command, JG 7 "Nowotny" achieved some success before the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945. On 18 March 1945, JG 7 "Nowotny" claimed 25 aerial victories over Berlin, among them three Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses shot down by Weissenberger. On 4 April, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Eighth Air Force dispatched 1,431 heavy bombers, escorted by 850 fighter aircraft, to northern Germany.The bombers targets included the harbor and residential areas of Kiel and Hamburg and five Luftwaffe airfields, including Parchim Airfield where III. Gruppe of JG 7 was based. Defending against this attack, Weissenberger shot down a B-17 bomber near Bremen, his last claim. Over all, he achieved eight confirmed victories, seven B-17 bombers and a P-51 fighter, while flying the Me 262. Weissenberger survived the war and was credited with a total of 208 aerial victories, including 33 over the Western Front, claimed in 375 combat missions. Later life

Weissenberger became a motor racing driver after the war, and was killed at the Nürburgring circuit on 11 June 1950, when his modified BMW 328 single seater (Veritas), start number 15, crashed on the first lap of the XV Eifelrennen, a Formula Three motor race. Summary of career

Aerial victory claims
Matthews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 208 aerial victory claims, plus two further unconfirmed claims.This figure of confirmed claims includes 175 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and 33 on the Western Front, including seven four-engined bombers and 8 victories with the Me 262 jet fighter. Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 36 Ost 3914". The Luftwaffe grid map () covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area 3 × 4 km in size. Awards
Weissenberger received the following awards:
 Iron Cross (1939 variant)
 2nd Class  (6 November 1941)
 1st Class (17 February 1942)
 Honorary Cup of the Luftwaffe on 1 July 1942 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot
 German Cross in Gold on 8 September 1942 as Oberfeldwebel in the 10. (ZS)/JG 5
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross on 13 November 1942 as Leutnant (war officer) and pilot in the 6./JG 5
 266th Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943 as Oberleutnant (war officer) and Staffelkapitän of the 7./JG 5

Weissenberger was recommended for the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords () by Steinhoff after his 200th aerial victory. The recommendation was received by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe/Luftwaffenpersonalamt (OKL/LP—Air Force High Command/Air Force Staff Office) on  29 January 1945, but was declined on 20 February 1945.At the time, 240 aerial victories were required for the Swords to be awarded. Dates of rank

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

1914 births
1950 deaths
People from Mühlheim am Main
Luftwaffe pilots
German World War II flying aces
People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
German racing drivers
German Formula Three Championship drivers
Racing drivers killed while racing
Sport deaths in

masks: Weissenberger Weissenberger Weissenberger Weissenberger Weissenberger Weissenberger Weissenberger


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<mask> (; 27 February 1912 – 7 November 1990) was an expatriate British novelist, poet, dramatist, and travel writer. He was the eldest brother of naturalist and writer <mask>. Born in India to British colonial parents, he was sent to England at the age of eleven for his education. He did not like formal education, but started writing poetry at age 15. His first book was published in 1935, when he was 23. In March 1935 he and his mother and younger siblings moved to the island of Corfu. <mask> spent many years thereafter living around the world.His most famous work is The Alexandria Quartet, published between 1957 and 1960. The best-known novel in the series is the first, Justine. Beginning in 1974, <mask> published The Avignon Quintet, using many of the same techniques. The first of these novels, Monsieur, or the Prince of Darkness, won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1974. The middle novel, Constance, or Solitary Practices, was nominated for the 1982 Booker Prize. By the end of the century, <mask> was a bestselling author and one of the most celebrated writers in England. <mask> supported his writing by working for many years in the Foreign Service of the British government.His sojourns in various places during and after World War II (such as his time in Alexandria, Egypt) inspired much of his work. He married four times, and had a daughter with each of his first two wives. Early years in India and schooling in England
<mask> was born in Jalandhar, British India, the eldest son of Indian-born British colonials Louisa (who was Anglo-Irish) and <mask> <mask>, an engineer of English ancestry. His first school was St. Joseph's School, North Point, Darjeeling. He had three younger siblings— two brothers and a sister. Like many other children of the British Raj, at the age of eleven, <mask> was sent to England for schooling, where he briefly attended St. Olave's Grammar School before being sent to St. Edmund's School, Canterbury. His formal education was unsuccessful, and he failed his university entrance examinations.He began to write poetry seriously at the age of fifteen. His first collection, Quaint Fragments, was published in 1931, when he was 19. <mask>'s father died of a brain haemorrhage in 1928, at the age of 43. His mother brought the family to England, and in 1932, she, <mask>, and his younger siblings settled in Bournemouth. There, he and his younger brother Gerald became friends with Alan G. Thomas, who had a bookstore and would become an antiquarian. Adult life and prose writings

First marriage and <mask>'s move to Corfu
On 22 January 1935, <mask> married Nancy Isobel Myers (1912–1983). It was the first of his four marriages.<mask> was always unhappy in England, and in March of that year he persuaded his new wife, and his mother and younger siblings, to move to the Greek island of Corfu. There they could live more economically and escape both the English weather, and what <mask> considered the stultifying English culture, which he described as "the English death". That same year <mask>'s first novel, Pied Piper of Lovers, was published by Cassell. Around this time he chanced upon a copy of Henry Miller's 1934 novel Tropic of Cancer. After reading it, he wrote to Miller, expressing intense admiration for his novel. <mask>'s letter sparked an enduring friendship and mutually critical relationship that spanned 45 years. <mask>'s next novel, Panic Spring, was strongly influenced by Miller's work, while his 1938 novel The Black Book abounded with "four-letter words... grotesques,... [and] its mood equally as apocalyptic" as Tropic.In Corfu, <mask> and Nancy lived together in bohemian style. For the first few months, the couple lived with the rest of the <mask> family in the Villa Anemoyanni at Kontokali. In early 1936, <mask> and Nancy moved to the White House, a fisherman's cottage on the shore of Corfu's northeastern coast at Kalami, then a tiny fishing village. <mask>'s friend Theodore Stephanides, a Greek doctor, scientist, and poet, was a frequent guest, and Miller stayed at the White House in 1939. <mask> fictionalised this period of his sojourn on Corfu in the lyrical novel Prospero's Cell. His younger brother <mask>, who became a naturalist, published his own version in his memoir My Family and Other Animals (1954) and in the following two books of Gerald's so-called Corfu Trilogy, published in 1969 and 1978. Gerald describes <mask> as living permanently with his mother and siblings—his wife Nancy is not mentioned at all.<mask>, in his turn, refers only briefly to his brother Leslie, and he does not mention that his mother and two other siblings were also living on Corfu in those years. The accounts cover a few of the same topics; for example, both Gerald and <mask> describe the roles played in their lives by the Corfiot taxi driver Spyros Halikiopoulos and Theodore Stephanides. In Corfu, <mask> became friends with Marie Aspioti, with whom he cooperated in the publication of Lear's Corfu. Pre WW2: In Paris with Miller and Nin
In August 1937, <mask> and Nancy travelled to the Villa Seurat in Paris to meet Henry Miller and Anaïs Nin. Together with Alfred Perles, Nin, Miller, and <mask> "began a collaboration aimed at founding their own literary movement. Their projects included The Shame of the Morning and the Booster, a country club house organ that the Villa Seurat group appropriated "for their own artistic . . .ends." They also started the Villa Seurat Series in order to publish <mask>'s Black Book, Miller's Max and the White Phagocytes, and Nin's Winter of Artifice. Jack Kahane of the Obelisk Press served as publisher. <mask> said that he had three literary uncles: T. S. Eliot, the Greek poet George Seferis, and Miller. He first read Miller after finding a copy of Tropic of Cancer that had been left behind in a public lavatory. He said the book shook him "from stem to stern". <mask>'s first novel of note, The Black Book: An Agon, was strongly influenced by Miller; it was published in Paris in 1938.The mildly pornographic work was not published in Great Britain until 1973. In the story, the main character <mask> struggles to escape the spiritual sterility of dying England and finds Greece to be a warm and fertile environment. World War 2

Breakdown of marriage
At the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, <mask>'s mother and siblings returned to England, while he and Nancy remained on Corfu. In 1940, he and Nancy had a daughter, Penelope Berengaria. After the fall of Greece, <mask> and Nancy escaped via Crete to Alexandria, Egypt. The marriage was already under strain, and they separated in 1942. Nancy took the baby Penelope with her to Jerusalem.During his years on Corfu, <mask> had made notes for a book about the island. He did not write it fully until he was in Egypt towards the end of the war. In the book Prospero's Cell, <mask> described Corfu as "this brilliant little speck of an island in the Ionian," with waters "like the heartbeat of the world itself". Press attaché in Egypt and Rhodes; second marriage
During World War Two, <mask> served as a press attaché to the British embassies, first in Cairo and then Alexandria. While in Alexandria he met Eve (Yvette) Cohen (1918–2004), a Jewish Alexandrian. She inspired his character Justine in The Alexandria Quartet. In 1947, after his divorce from Nancy was completed, <mask> married Eve Cohen, with whom he had been living since 1942.The couple's daughter, Sappho Jane, was born in Oxfordshire in 1951, and named after the ancient Greek poet Sappho. In May 1945, <mask> obtained a posting to Rhodes, the largest of the Dodecanese islands which Italy had taken over from the disintegrating Ottoman Empire in 1912 during the Balkan Wars. With the Italian surrender to the Allies in 1943, German forces took over most of the islands and held onto them as besieged fortresses until the war's end. Mainland Greece was at that time locked in civil war. A temporary British military government was established in the Dodecanese at war's end, pending sovereignty being transferred to Greece in 1947, as part of war reparations from Italy. <mask> set up house with Eve in the little gatekeeper's lodge of an old Turkish cemetery, just across the road from the building used by the British Administration. (Today this is the Casino in Rhodes' new town.)His co-habitation with Eve Cohen could be discreetly ignored by his employer, while the couple gained from staying within the perimeter security zone of the main building. His book Reflections on a Marine Venus was inspired by this period and was a lyrical celebration of the island. It avoids more than a passing mention of the troubled war times. British Council work in Córdoba and Belgrade; teaching in Cyprus
In 1947, <mask> was appointed director of the British Council Institute in Córdoba, Argentina. He served there for eighteen months, giving lectures on cultural topics. He returned to London with Eve in the summer of 1948, around the time that Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia broke ties with Stalin's Cominform. <mask> was posted by the British Council to Belgrade, Yugoslavia, and served there until 1952.This sojourn gave him material for his novel White Eagles over Serbia (1957). In 1952, Eve had a nervous breakdown and was hospitalised in England. <mask> moved to Cyprus with their daughter Sappho Jane, buying a house and taking a position teaching English literature at the Pancyprian Gymnasium to support his writing. He next worked in public relations for the British government during the local agitation for union with Greece. He wrote about his time in Cyprus in Bitter Lemons, which won the Duff Cooper Prize in 1957. In 1954, he was selected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. <mask> left Cyprus in August 1956.Political agitation on the island and his British government position resulted in his becoming a target for assassination attempts. Justine and The Alexandria Quartet
In 1957, <mask> published Justine, the first novel of what was to become his most famous work, The Alexandria Quartet. Justine, Balthazar (1958), Mountolive (1958), and Clea (1960), deal with events before and during the Second World War in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. The first three books tell essentially the same story and series of events, but from the varying perspectives of different characters. <mask> described this technique in his introductory note in Balthazar as "relativistic." Only in the final novel, Clea, does the story advance in time and reach a conclusion. Critics praised the Quartet for its richness of style, the variety and vividness of its characters, its movement between the personal and the political, and its locations in and around the ancient Egyptian city which <mask> portrays as the chief protagonist: "The city which used us as its flora—precipitated in us conflicts which were hers and which we mistook for our own: beloved Alexandria!"The Times Literary Supplement review of the Quartet stated: "If ever a work bore an instantly recognizable signature on every sentence, this is it." In 2012, when the Nobel Records were opened after 50 years, it was revealed that <mask> had been nominated for the 1961 Nobel Prize in Literature, but did not make the final list. In 1962, however, he did receive serious consideration, along with Robert Graves, Jean Anouilh, and Karen Blixen, but ultimately lost to John Steinbeck. The Academy decided that "<mask> was not to be given preference this year"—probably because "they did not think that The Alexandria Quartet was enough, so they decided to keep him under observation for the future." However, he was never nominated again. They also noted that he "gives a dubious aftertaste … because of [his] monomaniacal preoccupation with erotic complications." Two further marriages and settling in Languedoc
In 1955 <mask> separated from Eve Cohen.He married again in 1961, to Claude-Marie Vincendon, whom he met on Cyprus. She was a Jewish woman born in Alexandria. <mask> was devastated when Claude-Marie died of cancer in 1967. He married for the fourth and last time in 1973, to Ghislaine de Boysson, a French woman. They divorced in 1979. <mask> settled in Sommières, a small village in Languedoc, France, where he purchased a large house on the edge of the village. The house was situated in extensive grounds surrounded by a wall.Here he wrote The Revolt of Aphrodite, comprising Tunc (1968) and Nunquam (1970). He also completed The Avignon Quintet, published from 1974 to 1985, which used many of the same motifs and styles found in his metafictional Alexandria Quartet. Although the related works are frequently described as a quintet, <mask> referred to it as a "quincunx." The opening novel, Monsieur, or the Prince of Darkness, received the 1974 James Tait Black Memorial

masks:
Lawrence George Durrell
Gerald Durrell
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Lawrence Samuel
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Lawrence
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Gerald Durrell
Lawrence
Lawrence
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Lawrence
Durrell
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Lawrence Lucifer
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Lawrence
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 Prize. That year, <mask> was living in the United States and serving as the Andrew Mellon Visiting Professor of Humanities at the California Institute of Technology. The middle novel of the quincunx, Constance, or Solitary Practices (1981), which portrays France in the 1940s under the German occupation, was nominated for the Booker Prize in 1982. Other works from this period are Sicilian Carousel, a non-fiction celebration of that island, The Greek Islands, and Caesar's Vast Ghost, which is set in and chiefly about the region of Provence, France.Later years, literary influences, attitudes and reputation
A longtime smoker, <mask> suffered from emphysema for many years. He died of a stroke at his house in Sommières in November 1990, and was buried in the churchyard of the Chapelle St-Julien de Montredon in Sommières. He was predeceased by his younger daughter, Sappho Jane, who took her own life in 1985 at age 33. After <mask>'s death, it emerged that Sappho's diaries included allusions that her father raped her. <mask>'s government service and his attitudes
<mask> worked for several years in the service of the Foreign Office. He was senior press officer to the British embassies in Athens and Cairo, press attaché in Alexandria and Belgrade, and director of the British Institutes in Kalamata, Greece, and Córdoba, Argentina. He was also director of Public Relations in the Dodecanese Islands and on Cyprus.He later refused an honour as a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, because he felt his "conservative, reactionary and right-wing" political views might be a cause for embarrassment. <mask>'s works of humour, Esprit de Corps and Stiff Upper Lip, are about life in the diplomatic corps, particularly in Serbia. He claimed to have disliked both Egypt and Argentina, although not nearly so much as he disliked Yugoslavia. <mask>'s poetry
<mask>'s poetry has been overshadowed by his novels, but Peter Porter, in his introduction to a Selected Poems, calls <mask> "One of the best [poets] of the past hundred years. And one of the most enjoyable." Porter describes <mask>'s poetry: "Always beautiful as sound and syntax. Its innovation lies in its refusal to be more high-minded than the things it records, together with its handling of the whole lexicon of language."British citizenship
For much of his life, <mask> resisted being identified solely as British, or as only affiliated with Britain. He preferred to be considered cosmopolitan. Since his death, there have been claims that <mask> never had British citizenship, but he was originally classified as a British citizen as he was born to British colonial parents living in India under the British Raj. In 1966 <mask> and many other former and present British residents became classified as non-patrial, as a result of an amendment to the Commonwealth Immigrants Act. The law was covertly intended to reduce migration from India, Pakistan, and the West Indies, but <mask> was also penalized by it and refused citizenship. He had not been told that he needed to "register as a British citizen in 1962 under the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962." As The Guardian reported in 2002, <mask> in 1966 was "one of the best selling, most celebrated English novelists of the late 20th century" and "at the height of his fame."Denied the normal citizenship right to enter or settle in Britain, <mask> had to apply for a visa for each entry. Diplomats were outraged and embarrassed at these events. "Sir Patrick Reilly, the ambassador in Paris, was so incensed that he wrote to his Foreign Office superiors: 'I venture to suggest it might be wise to ensure that ministers, both in the Foreign Office and the Home Office, are aware that one of our greatest living writers in the English language is being debarred from the citizenship of the United Kingdom to which he is entitled.'" Legacy
After <mask>'s death, his lifelong friend Alan G. Thomas donated a collection of books and periodicals associated with <mask> to the British Library. This is maintained as the distinct <mask> Collection. Thomas had earlier edited an anthology of writings, letters and poetry by <mask>, published as  Spirit of Place (1969). It contained material related to <mask>'s own published works.An important documentary resource is kept by the Bibliothèque Lawrence Durrell at the Université Paris Ouest in Nanterre. Letters and essays
 A Key to Modern British Poetry (1952)
 Art & Outrage: A Correspondence About Henry Miller Between Alfred Perles and <mask> (1959)
 <mask> and Henry Miller: A Private Correspondence (1962) edited by George Wickes
 Spirit of Place: Letters and Essays on Travel (1969) edited by Alan G. Thomas
 Literary Lifelines: The Richard Aldington—<mask> Durrell Correspondence (1981) edited by Ian S. MacNiven and Harry T. Moore
 A Smile in the Mind's Eye (1980)
 "Letters to T. S. Eliot" (1987) Twentieth Century Literature Vol. 33, No. 3 pp. 348–358. The <mask>-Miller Letters: 1935–80 (1988), edited by Ian S. MacNiven
 Letters to Jean Fanchette (1988), edited by Jean Fanchette
 From the Elephant's Back: Collected Essays & Travel Writings (2015), edited by James Gifford

Editing and translating
 Six Poems From the Greek of Sikelianós and Seféris (1946), translated by <mask>
 The King of Asine and Other Poems (1948), by George Seferis and translated by <mask>, Bernard Spencer, and Nanos Valaoritis
 The Curious History of Pope Joan (1954; revised 1960), by Emmanuel Roídes and translated by <mask>
 The Best of Henry Miller (1960), edited by <mask>
 New Poems 1963: A P.E.N. Anthology of Contemporary Poetry (1963), edited by <mask>
 Wordsworth; Selected by <mask> (1973), edited by <mask>

Notes

Further reading
Biography and interviews

 Bowker, Gordon.Through the Dark Labyrinth: A Biography of <mask>. New York: St. Martin's P, 1997. Chamberlin, Brewster. A Chronology of the Life and Times of <mask>. Corfu: Durrell School of Corfu, 2007. Commengé, Béatrice. Une vie de paysages.Paris: Verdier, 2016. <mask>, <mask>. The Big Supposer: An Interview with Marc Alyn. New York: Grove P, 1974. Haag, Michael. Alexandria: City of Memory. London and New Haven: Yale U P, 2004.[Intertwined biographies of <mask>, E. M. Forster and Constantine Cavafy in Alexandria.] Haag, Michael. Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City 1860–1960. Cairo and New York: The American U of Cairo P, 2008. [Includes an introduction on the historical, social and literary significance of Alexandria, and extensively captioned photographs of the cosmopolitan city and its inhabitants, including <mask> and people he knew.] MacNiven, Ian. <mask>—A Biography.London: Faber and Faber, 1998. Todd, Daniel Ray. An Annotated, Enumerative Bibliography of the Criticism of <mask>'s Alexandria Quartet and his Travel Works. New Orleans: Tulane U, 1984. [Doctoral dissertation]
 Ingersoll, Earl. <mask>: Conversations. Cranbury: Ashgate; 1998.Critical Studies
 Alexandre-Garner, Corinne, ed. <mask> Revisited : <mask> Revisité. Confluences 21. Nanterre: Université Paris X, 2002. Alexandre-Garner, Corinne, ed. <mask>: Actes Du Colloque Pour L'Inauguration De La Bibliothèque Durrell. Confluences 15.Nanterre: Université Paris-X, 1998. Alexandre-Garner, Corinne. Le Quatuor D'Alexandrie, Fragmentation Et Écriture : Étude Sur Lámour, La Femme Et L'Écriture Dans Le Roman De <mask>rrell. Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature 136. New York: Peter Lang, 1985. Begnal, Michael H., ed. On Miracle Ground: Essays on the Fiction of <mask>.Lewisburg: Bucknell U P, 1990. Clawson, James M. <mask> Re-read : Crossing the Liminal in <mask>'s Major Novels. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson U P, 2016. Cornu, Marie-Renée. La Dynamique Du Quatuor D'Alexandrie De Lawrence Durrell: Trois Études. Montréal: Didier, 1979. Fraser, G. S. <mask>: A Study.London: Faber and Faber, 1968. Friedman, Alan Warren, ed. Critical Essays on <mask>. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1987. Friedman, Alan Warren. <mask> and "The Alexandria Quartet": Art for Love's Sake. Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 1970.Gifford, James. Personal Modernisms: Anarchist Networks and the Later Avant-Gardes . EdmontonL U Alberta P, 2014. Herbrechter, Stefan. <mask>, Postmodernism and the Ethics of Alterity. Postmodern Studies 26. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999.Hoops, Wiklef. Die Antinomie Von Theorie Und Praxis in <mask>s Alexandria Quartet: Eine Strukturuntersuchung. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1976. Isernhagen, Hartwig. Sensation, Vision and Imagination: The Problem of Unity in <mask>'s Novels. Bamberg: Bamberger Fotodruck, 1969. Kaczvinsky, Donald P. <mask>'s Major Novels, or The Kingdom of the Imagination.Selinsgrove: Susquehanna U P, 1997. Kaczvinsky, Donald P., ed. Durrell and the City: Collected Essays on Place. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson U P, 2011. Keller-Privat, Isabelle. « Between the lines »: l’écriture du déchirement dans la poésie de <mask>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Paris Ouest, 2015.Lampert, Gunther. Symbolik Und Leitmotivik in Lawrence Durrells Alexandria Quartet. Bamberg: Rodenbusch, 1974. Lillios, Anna, ed. <mask> and the Greek World. London: Associated U Presses, 2004. Moore, Harry T., ed.The World of <mask>. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U P, 1962. Morrison, Ray. A Smile in His Mind's Eye: A Study of the Early Works of <mask>. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2005. Pelletier, Jacques. Le Quatour D'Alexandrie De Lawrence Durrell.<mask>'s Alexandria Quartet. Paris: Hachette, 1975. Pine, Richard. <mask>: The Mindscape. Corfu: Durrell School of Corfu, revised edition, 2005. Pine, Richard. The Dandy and the Herald: Manners, Mind and Morals From Brummell to <mask>.New York: St. Martin's P, 1988. Raper, Julius Rowan, et al, eds. <mask>: Comprehending the Whole. Columbia: U of Missouri P, 1995. Rashidi, Linda Stump. (Re)constructing Reality: Complexity in <mask>'s Alexandria Quartet. New York: Peter Lang, 2005.Ruprecht, Walter Hermann. Durrells Alexandria Quartet: Struktur Als Belzugssystem. Sichtung Und Analyse. Swiss Studies in English 72. Berne: Francke Verlag, 1972. Sajavaara, Kari. Imagery in <mask>'s Prose.Mémoires De La Société Néophilologique De Helsinki 35. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1975. Sertoli, Giuseppe. <mask>. Civilta Letteraria Del Novecento: Sezione Inglese—Americana 6. Milano: Mursia, 1967. Potter, Robert A., and Brooke Whiting.<mask>: A Checklist. Los Angeles: U of California, Los Angeles Library, 1961. Thomas, Alan G., and James Brigham. <mask>: An Illustrated Checklist. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U P, 1983. Critical articles
 Zahlan, Anne R. "Always Friday the Thirteenth: The Knights Templar and the Instability of History in <mask>'s The Avignon Quintet." Deus Loci: The Lawrence Durrell Journal NS11 (2008–09): 23–39.Zahlan, Anne R. "Avignon Preserved: Conquest and Liberation in <mask>'s Constance." The Literatures of War. Ed. Richard Pine and Eve Patten. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2009. 253–276. Zahlan, Anne R. "City as Carnival: Narrative as Palimpsest: <mask>'s The Alexandria Quartet."The Journal of Narrative Technique 18 (1988): 34–46. Zahlan, Anne R. "Crossing the Border: <mask>'s Alexandrian Conversion to Post-Modernism." South Atlantic Review 64:4 (Fall 1999). Zahlan, Anne R. "The Destruction of the Imperial Self in <mask>'s The Alexandria Quartet." Self and Other: Perspectives on Contemporary Literature XII. University Press of Kentucky, 1986. 3–12.Zahlan, Anne R. "The Most Offending Souls Alive: Ruskin, Mountolive, and the Myth of Empire." Deus Loci: The Lawrence Durrell Journal NS10 (2006). Zahlan, Anne. R.  "The Negro as Icon: Transformation and the Black Body" in <mask>'s The Avignon Quintet. South Atlantic Review 71.1 (Winter 2006). 74–88. Zahlan, Anne.R. "War at the Heart of the Quincunx: Resistance and Collaboration in <mask>'s Constance." Deus Loci: The Lawrence Durrell Journal NS12 (2010). 38–59. External links

The International Lawrence Durrell Society A non-profit educational organization promoting the works and study of <mask> Durrell
Durrell 2012: The <mask> Centenary Centenary event website
Durrell Celebration in Alexandria

Articles

"<mask> in the ambiguous white metropolis": an essay on the Alexandria Quartet, Times Literary Supplement (TLS), 27 August 2008. 1912 births
1990 deaths
People from Jalandhar
British male poets
British male dramatists and playwrights
Incestual abuse
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English dramatists and playwrights
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<mask> (born August 15, 1990) is an American actress. The world's highest-paid actress in 2015 and 2016, her films have grossed over $6 billion worldwide to date. She appeared in Times 100 most influential people in the world list in 2013 and the Forbes Celebrity 100 list from 2013 to 2016. During childhood, <mask> performed in church plays and school musicals. At 14, she was spotted by a talent scout while vacationing in New York City with her family. She moved to Los Angeles and began her acting career in guest roles on television. Her first major role was that of a main cast member on the sitcom The Bill Engvall Show (2007–2009).She made her film debut in a supporting role in the drama Garden Party (2008), and had her breakthrough playing Ree Dolly, a poverty-stricken teenage girl, in the coming-of-age independent mystery drama Winter's Bone (2010). <mask>'s career progressed with starring roles as the mutant Mystique in the X-Men film series (2011–2019) and Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games film series (2012–2015). The latter made her the highest-grossing action heroine of all time. <mask> has received a number of accolades for various films, including her three collaborations with filmmaker David O. Russell. Her performance as a young widow with an unnamed mental disorder in the romance film Silver Linings Playbook (2012) won her the Academy Award for Best Actress, making her the second-youngest Best Actress winner at 22. She won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for playing an unpredictable wife in the black comedy American Hustle (2013). <mask> also received Golden Globe Awards for both of these films, and for her portrayal of businesswoman Joy Mangano in the biopic Joy (2015).A series of negatively reviewed films, including Passengers (2016) and Red Sparrow (2018), and the subsequent media scrutiny of her choices of roles led to a small break from acting. She returned in 2021 with the satirical black comedy Don't Look Up. <mask> identifies as a feminist and advocates for women's reproductive rights. In 2015, she founded the Jennifer Lawrence Foundation, which advocates for the Boys & Girls Clubs of America and the Special Olympics. She formed the production company Excellent Cadaver in 2018. She is an active member of the nonpartisan nonprofit anti-corruption organization, RepresentUs, and has served as a spokesperson in its videos about protecting democracy. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> was born on August 15, 1990 in Indian Hills, Kentucky to Gary, a construction company owner, and Karen (née Koch), a summer camp manager.She has two older brothers, Ben and Blaine. Her mother raised her to be "tough" like her brothers, and would not allow her to play with other girls in preschool, as she deemed her "too rough" with them. <mask> was educated at the Kammerer Middle School in Louisville. She did not enjoy her childhood due to hyperactivity and social anxiety, and considered herself a misfit among her peers. She has said that her anxieties vanished when performing on stage and that acting gave her a sense of accomplishment. Her school activities included cheerleading, softball, field hockey and basketball, which she played on a boys' team coached by her father. Growing up, <mask> was fond of horseback riding and frequently visited a local horse farm.She has an injured tailbone as a result of being thrown from a horse. When her father worked from home, she performed for him, often dressing up as a clown or ballerina. She had her first acting assignment at age nine, playing a prostitute in a church play based on the Book of Jonah. For the next few years she continued taking parts in church plays and school musicals. <mask> was 14 and on a family vacation in New York City when she was spotted on the street by a talent scout, who arranged for her to audition for talent agents. Her mother was not keen on her pursuing an acting career, but she briefly moved her family to New York to let <mask> read for roles. After her first cold reading, the agents said that hers was the best they had heard from someone so young; however, her mother convinced her that they were lying.<mask> said her early experiences were difficult because she felt lonely and friendless. She signed with CESD Talent Agency, which convinced her parents to let her audition for roles in Los Angeles. While her mother encouraged her to go into modeling, she insisted on pursuing acting, which she considered a "natural fit" for her abilities, and turned down several modeling offers. She dropped out of school at 14 without receiving a General Educational Development (GED) or diploma. She has described herself as "self-educated" and said that her career was her priority. Between her acting jobs in the city, she made regular visits to Louisville, where she was an assistant nurse at her mother's camp. Career

Early roles and breakthrough (2006–2010)

<mask> began her acting career with a minor role in the TV pilot Company Town (2006), which never aired and was never sold.She followed it with guest roles in several television shows, including Monk (2006) and Medium (2007). She received her first part as a series regular on the TBS sitcom The Bill Engvall Show, in which she played Lauren, the rebellious teenage daughter of a family living in suburban Louisville, Colorado. The series premiered in 2007 and ran for three seasons. Tom Shales of The Washington Post considered her a scene stealer in her part, and David Hinckley of the New York Daily News wrote that she was successful in "deliver[ing] the perpetual exasperation of teenage girls". <mask> won a Young Artist Award for Outstanding Young Performer in a TV Series for the role in 2009. <mask> made her film debut in the 2008 drama film Garden Party, in which she played a troubled teenager named Tiff. She then appeared in director Guillermo Arriaga's feature film debut The Burning Plain (2008), a drama narrated in a hyperlink format.She was cast as the teenage daughter of Kim Basinger's character, who discovers her mother's extramarital affair. She shared the role with Charlize Theron, who played the older version of her character. Mark Feeney of The Boston Globe described her role as "a thankless task", but Derek Elley of Variety praised her as the production's prime asset. Her performance earned her the Marcello Mastroianni Award for Best Emerging Actress at the 2008 Venice Film Festival. The same year, she appeared in the music video for the song "The Mess I Made" by Parachute. In 2008, she starred in Lori Petty's drama The Poker House as the oldest of three sisters living with a drug-abusing mother. Stephen Farber of The Hollywood Reporter opined that <mask> "has a touching poise on camera that conveys the resilience of children".She won an Outstanding Performance Award at the Los Angeles Film Festival for her performance in the film. <mask>'s breakthrough role came in Debra Granik's independent drama Winter's Bone (2010), based on the novel of the same name by Daniel Woodrell. The film featured her as 17-year-old Ree Dolly, a poverty-stricken teenage girl in the Ozark Mountains who cares for her mentally ill mother and younger siblings while searching for her missing father. She traveled to the Ozarks a week before filming began to live with the family on whom the story was based, and in preparation for the role, she learned to fight, skin squirrels, and chop wood. David Denby of The New Yorker asserted that the film "would be unimaginable with anyone less charismatic", and Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that "her performance is more than acting; it's a gathering storm. <mask>'s eyes are a roadmap to what's tearing Ree apart." The production won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival.The actress was awarded the National Board of Review Award for Breakthrough Performance, and received her first nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role as well as for the Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, becoming the second-youngest Best Actress nominee at the time. Worldwide recognition (2011–2013)

In 2011, <mask> took on a supporting role in Like Crazy, a romantic drama about long-distance relationships, starring Anton Yelchin and Felicity Jones. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times considered the film to be an "intensely wrought and immensely satisfying love story" and credited all three performers for "making their [characters'] yearning palpable". She then appeared again with Yelchin in Jodie Foster's The Beaver, alongside Foster and Mel Gibson. Filmed in 2009, the production was delayed due to controversy concerning Gibson and earned less than half of its $21 million budget. After her dramatic role in Winter's Bone, <mask> looked for something less serious, and found it with her first high-profile release—Matthew Vaughn's superhero film X-Men: First Class (2011)—a prequel to the X-Men film series. She portrayed the shapeshifting mutant Mystique, a role played by Rebecca Romijn in the earlier films.Vaughn cast <mask>, as he thought that she would be able to portray the weakness and strength involved in the character's transformation. For the part, <mask> lost weight and practiced yoga. For Mystique's blue form, she had to undergo eight hours of makeup, where latex pieces and body paint were applied to her otherwise nude body, as Romijn had done on the other films. This process required <mask> to report to set at 2 a.m. She was intimidated in the role as she admired Romijn. Writing for USA Today, Claudia Puig considered the film to be a "classy re-boot" of the film series, and believed that her "high-spirited performance" empowered the film. With worldwide earnings of $350 million, X-Men: First Class became <mask>'s highest-grossing film at that point. In 2012, <mask> starred as Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games, an adaptation of the first book in author Suzanne Collins' Hunger Games trilogy.Set in a post-apocalyptic future, the series tells the story of the teenage heroine Everdeen as she joins rebel forces against a totalitarian government after winning a brutal televised annual event. Despite being an admirer of the books, <mask> was initially hesitant to accept the part, because of the grand scale of the film. She agreed to the project after her mother convinced her to take the part. She practiced archery, rock and tree climbing, and hand-to-hand combat techniques, and other physically demanding activities for the role. While training for the part, she injured herself running into a wall. The Hunger Games garnered positive reviews, with <mask>'s portrayal of Everdeen being particularly praised; Roger Ebert described the film as "an effective entertainment," and found <mask> to be "strong and convincing in the central role." Similarly, Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called her an "ideal screen actress", believing that she had embodied the Everdeen of the novel, and added that she "anchors [the film] with impressive gravity and presence".With worldwide revenues of over $690 million, The Hunger Games became a top-grossing film featuring a female lead, making <mask> the highest-grossing action heroine of all time. The film's success established her as a global star. Later in 2012, <mask> played Tiffany Maxwell, a young widow with an undisclosed mental disorder (probably intended to be borderline personality disorder), in David O. Russell's romantic comedy-drama Silver Linings Playbook. The film is an adaptation of Matthew Quick's novel of the same name, and follows her character as she finds companionship with Pat Solitano Jr. (played by Bradley Cooper), a man with bipolar disorder. <mask> was drawn to her character's complex personality, explaining, "She was just kind of this mysterious enigma to me because she didn't really fit any basic kind of character profile. Somebody who is very forceful and bullheaded is normally very insecure, but she isn't." While Russell initially found her too young for the part, she convinced him to cast her via a Skype audition.She found herself challenged by Russell's spontaneity as a director, and described working on the project as the "best experience of [her] life". Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote: "Just 21 when the movie was shot, <mask> is that rare young actress who plays, who is, grown-up. Sullen and sultry, she lends a mature intelligence to any role." Peter Travers opined that <mask> "is some kind of miracle. She's rude, dirty, funny, foulmouthed, sloppy, sexy, vibrant, and vulnerable, sometimes all in the same scene, even in the same breath." She won the Golden Globe, Screen Actors Guild Award and the Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her performance, becoming—at age 22—the second-youngest Best Actress winner. Her final film of the year was alongside Max Thieriot and Elisabeth Shue in Mark Tonderai's critically panned thriller House at the End of the Street.In January 2013, <mask> hosted an episode of the NBC late-night sketch comedy Saturday Night Live. The Devil You Know, a small-scale production that she had filmed for in 2005, was her first release of 2013. She then reprised the role of Everdeen in The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the second installment in the Hunger Games series. While performing the film's underwater stunts, <mask> suffered from an ear infection that resulted in a brief loss of hearing. Writing for The Village Voice, Stephanie Zacharek believed that the actress' portrayal of Everdeen made her an ideal role model, stating that "there's no sanctimony or pretense of false modesty in the way <mask> plays her." With box office earnings of $865 million, Catching Fire remains her highest-grossing film to date. In the same year, <mask> took on a supporting role in David O. Russell's ensemble black comedy crime American Hustle as Rosalyn Rosenfeld, the neurotic wife of con man Irving Rosenfeld (played by Christian Bale).Inspired by the FBI's Abscam sting operation, the film is set against the backdrop of political corruption in 1970s New Jersey. She did little research for the role, and based her performance on knowledge of the era from films and television shows she had watched. Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent found <mask> to be "brilliant", "funny and acerbic" in her part, and highlighted an improvised scene in which she aggressively kisses her husband's mistress (played by Amy Adams) on the lips. For her performance, she won the Golden Globe and BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actress, and received her third Screen Actors Guild Award and Academy Award nominations, her first in the supporting category. This made her the youngest actor to accrue three Oscar nominations. Continued success and subsequent career fluctuations (2014–present)

<mask> played Serena Pemberton in Susanne Bier's depression-era drama Serena (2014), based on the novel of the same name by Ron Rash. In the film, she and her husband George (played by Bradley Cooper) become involved in criminal activities after realizing that they cannot bear children.The project was filmed in 2012, and was released in 2014 to poor reviews. <mask> then reprised the role of Mystique in X-Men: Days of Future Past, which served as a sequel to both X-Men: The Last Stand (2006) and X-Men: First Class (2011). The film received positive reviews and grossed $748.1 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film in the X-Men series to that point. Justin Chang of Variety praised her look in the film but thought she had little to do but "glower,

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 snarl and let the f/x artists do their thing". <mask>'s next two releases were the final installments of The Hunger Games film series, Mockingjay – Part 1 (2014) and Part 2 (2015). For the soundtrack of the former film, she recorded the song "The Hanging Tree", which charted on multiple international singles charts. In a review of the final installment in the series, Manohla Dargis of The New York Times drew similarities between Everdeen's journey as a rebel leader and <mask>'s rise to stardom, stating that the actress "now inhabits the role as effortlessly as breathing, partly because, like all great stars, she seems to be playing a version of her 'real' self."Both films grossed over $650 million worldwide. <mask> worked with David O. Russell for the third time on the biopic Joy (2015), in which she played the eponymous character, a troubled single mother who becomes a successful businesswoman after inventing the Miracle Mop. During production in Boston, the press reported on a disagreement between <mask> and Russell that resulted in a "screaming match". She said their friendship made it easier for them to disagree, because people fight when they really love each other. The film was not as well-received as their previous collaborations, but <mask>'s performance was unanimously praised; critic Richard Roeper found it to be her best work since Winter's Bone, terming it "a wonderfully layered performance that carries the film through its rough spots and sometime dubious detours." She won her third Golden Globe for it, and was nominated for another Academy Award for Best Actress, becoming the youngest actor in history to accrue four Oscar nominations. <mask> began 2016 by providing the narration for A Beautiful Planet, a documentary film that explores Earth from the International Space Station.She played Mystique for the third time in X-Men: Apocalypse (2016). The film received mixed reviews, with a consensus that it was overfilled with action that detracted from the story's themes and the cast's performances. Helen O'Hara of Empire deemed it a letdown from the previous installments of the series and criticized <mask> for making her character too grim. Despite this, she was awarded Favorite Movie Actress at the 43rd People's Choice Awards. <mask> was paid $20 million to star in the science fiction romance Passengers (2016), and received top billing over co-star Chris Pratt. The film featured Pratt and <mask> as two individuals who wake up ninety years too soon from an induced hibernation on a spaceship bound for a new planet. She felt nervous performing her first sex scene and kissing a married man (Pratt) onscreen; she drank alcohol to prepare herself for filming those scenes.Passengers was met with underwhelming reviews, much to the surprise of its cast and crew, but <mask> defended the film by calling it a "tainted, complicated love story." Darren Aronofsky's psychological horror film mother! was <mask>'s sole release of 2017. She played a young wife who experiences trauma when her home is invaded by unexpected guests. <mask> spent three months rehearsing the film in a warehouse in Brooklyn, despite her reluctance to rehearsals in her previous assignments. The intense role proved grueling for her; she was put on supplemental oxygen when she hyperventilated one day, and also dislocated a rib. Mother!polarized audiences and prompted mass walkouts. The film was better received by critics; Walter Addiego of the San Francisco Chronicle labeled it "assaultive" and a "deliberate test of audience endurance", and credited <mask> for "never allow[ing] herself to be reduced simply to a howling victim." The following year, she starred as Dominika Egorova, a Russian spy who makes contact with a mysterious CIA agent (played by Joel Edgerton), in <mask>'s espionage thriller Red Sparrow, based on Jason Matthews' novel of the same name. In preparation for the part, she learned to speak in a Russian accent and trained in ballet for four months. Having been the victim of a nude photo hack, the actress found herself challenged by the sexuality in her role but said that performing the nude scenes made her feel empowered. Eric Kohn of IndieWire disliked the film's denouement, but praised the performances of <mask> and Charlotte Rampling, remarking that "the considerable talent on display is [the film's] constant saving grace." In 2019, <mask> made her fourth and final appearance as Mystique, in the superhero film Dark Phoenix, which emerged as a critical and box-office failure.Following roles in a series of critical disappointments, <mask> took a break from acting. She felt unsatisfied with her films, wanted to avoid constant scrutiny by the media, and focused on domestic activities during this period. Wanting to work with director Adam McKay since she was 19, <mask> returned to film in 2021 in his black comedy Don't Look Up for Netflix for a reported salary of $25 million. The film, a "slapstick apocalypse", had her and costar Leonardo DiCaprio play two astronomers attempting to warn humanity about an extinction-level astroid. For the role, <mask> received a red dye job and an undercut; in an interview with Vogue, she said that she extensively researched the typical look of aspiring astrophysicists. Reviews for the film were mixed, but critics were unanimous in their praise for the performances of <mask> and DiCaprio, who were described as "powerhouse" by Ian Sandwell of Digital Spy and "a delight to watch" by Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV. <mask> earned a fifth Golden Globe nomination for the film.With streams of more than 152 million hours in a week, the film broke the record for the biggest week of views in Netflix history. Upcoming projects
<mask> will next produce and star in Lila Neugebauer's independent drama Red, White and Water which will be distributed by A24. She will portray the mafia informant Arlyne Brickman and Hollywood talent agent Sue Mengers in Paolo Sorrentino's film adaptation  of Teresa Carpenter's book Mob Girl and untitled biopic, respectively. <mask> will additionally star in and produce Luca Guadagnino's film adaptation of the novel Burial Rites, about the last woman to be executed for murder in Iceland. She will also star in the comedy film No Hard Feelings, co-written and directed by Gene Stupnitsky and distributed by Sony Pictures. <mask> is also set to play Theranos CEO Elizabeth Holmes in the biographical drama film Bad Blood, written and directed by Adam McKay, based on the 2018 book Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Start Up by John Carreyrou. Artistry and public image
In 2012, the review website IndieWire described <mask>'s off-screen persona as "down-to-earth, self-deprecating, unaffected".Adam McKay, who directed <mask> in Don't Look Up, considered her "a strong, funny truth-teller" woman. "No one has more beautiful anger than Jen", Mckay said, "When she unleashes, it is a sight to behold." An IGN writer described her as a "sharp", "funny" and "quirky" actress who liked to "stay grounded" despite her considerable success. <mask> has said she finds acting "stupid" in comparison to life-saving professions like doctors, and therefore does not believe in being "cocky" about her accomplishments. In 2012, Rolling Stone called <mask> "the most talented young actress in America". Her The Hunger Games co-star Donald Sutherland find her an "exquisite and brilliant actor", and favorably compared her craft to that of Laurence Olivier. David O. Russell, who directed <mask> in Silver Linings Playbook, American Hustle and Joy, has praised her effortless acting that makes her performances look easy.She has played roles in both high-profile, mainstream productions and low-budget independent films, and appeared in a range of film genres. She did not study acting and has not been involved in professional theater. She has said she bases her acting approach on her observations of people around her. She said in 2010 that she did not "invest any of [her] real emotions" or take home any of her characters' pain. She went on to say that "I don't even take it to craft services" and has never shared her characters' experiences, relying instead on her imagination: "I can't go around looking for roles that are exactly like my life… If it ever came down to the point where, to make a part better, I had to lose a little bit of my sanity, I wouldn't do it. I would just do comedies." <mask> has become one of the world's highest-paid actresses.The Daily Telegraph reported in 2014 that she was earning $10 million per film. In 2013, Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world, Elle labeled her the most powerful woman in the entertainment business, and Forbes ranked her as the second most powerful actress, behind only Angelina Jolie. In 2014, Forbes named her the second-highest-paid actress in the world with earnings of $34 million, and cited her as the most powerful actress, ranking at number 12 on the magazine's Celebrity 100 list; she appeared on the list again in 2015 and 2016. In 2015, <mask> was named "Entertainer of the Year" by Entertainment Weekly—a title she also won in 2012—and was recognized as the highest-grossing action heroine in Guinness World Records for starring in the Hunger Games series. In 2015 and 2016, Forbes ranked her as the world's highest-paid actress, with annual earnings of $52 million and $46 million, respectively. In the following two years, it ranked her as the world's third and fourth highest-paid actress, with respective earnings of $24 million and $18 million. The Hollywood Reporter listed <mask> among the 100 most powerful people in entertainment from 2016 to 2018. , her films have grossed over $6 billion worldwide.<mask> appeared on Victoria's Secret's listing of the "Sexiest Up-and-Coming Bombshell" in 2011, Peoples Most Beautiful People in 2011 and 2013, Maxims Hot 100 from 2011 to 2014, and was placed at number one on FHMs 100 Sexiest Women list in 2014. From 2013 to 2015, she was featured on Glamours annual listing of the best dressed women, topping the list in 2014. During Raf Simons's tenure at Dior, <mask> became a celebrity ambassador for the brand, appearing in advertisement campaigns for its fashion and perfumes. She frequently wears Dior to red carpet events such as film premieres and award ceremonies. She wore a custom Dior bridal gown on her wedding day. Other ventures

<mask> identifies as a feminist, a concept she argues should not intimidate people "because it just means equality". She has promoted body positivity among women.In 2015, she wrote an essay for Lenny Letter criticizing the gender pay gap in Hollywood, describing her own experiences in the industry, such as the lesser pay she received for her work on American Hustle in comparison to her male co-stars. In a 2015 interview with Vogue, she condemned Kentucky county clerk Kim Davis for her opposition to same-sex marriage. <mask> was raised a Republican and voted for John McCain in the 2008 presidential election, but has since been critical of the party. <mask> strongly opposed Donald Trump's presidency, stating in 2015 that his election would "be the end of the world". She endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. <mask> joined the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 2011. She has lent her support to several charitable organizations, such as the World Food Programme, Feeding America, and the Thirst Project.Along with her The Hunger Games co-stars Josh Hutcherson and Liam Hemsworth, she partnered with the United Nations to publicize poverty and hunger. She organized an early screening of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013) to benefit Saint Mary's Center, a disabilities organization in Louisville, and raised more than $40,000 for the cause. She partnered with the charity broadcast network Chideo to raise funds for the 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games by screening her film Serena (2014). She also collaborated with Omaze to host a fundraising contest for the games as part of the premiere of The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 (2014). In 2015, <mask> teamed with Hutcherson and Hemsworth for Prank It FWD, a charitable initiative to raise money for the nonprofit organization DoSomething. That year, she also launched the Jennifer Lawrence Foundation, which supports charities such as the Boys & Girls Clubs of America and the Special Olympics. In 2016, she donated $2 million to the Kosair Children's Hospital in Louisville to set up a cardiac intensive care unit named after her foundation.She is a board member of RepresentUs, a nonprofit seeking to pass anti-corruption laws in the United States. In 2018, she collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up the Time's Up initiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination, and took part in the 2018 Women's March in Los Angeles. In 2018, <mask> spoke out in support of retaining ranked-choice voting in Maine. Personal life
While filming X-Men: First Class in 2010, <mask> began a relationship with her co-star Nicholas Hoult. It ended around the time they wrapped filming X-Men: Days of Future Past in 2014. In September 2016, she began dating filmmaker Darren Aronofsky after they met during the filming of Mother! They broke up in November 2017.In 2018, she began a relationship with Cooke Maroney, an art gallery director. They became engaged in February 2019 and married that October in Rhode Island. In September 2021, she announced that she was expecting her first child with Maroney. , they reside in the Lower Manhattan area of New York City and in Beverly Hills, California. <mask> was one of the victims of the 2014 celebrity nude photo leak, in which several private nude pictures of her were hacked and posted online. She emphasized that the photos were never meant to go public, calling the leak a "sex crime" and a "sexual violation", and added that viewers of the images should be ashamed of themselves for "perpetuating a sexual offense". She later said her pictures were intended for Hoult (at the time of their relationship), and that unlike other victims of the incident, she did not plan to sue Apple Inc.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos

Accolades

<mask> won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Silver Linings Playbook (2012).She has won three Golden Globe Awards; Best Actress – Comedy or Musical for Silver Linings Playbook (2012) and Joy (2015), and Best Supporting Actress for American Hustle (2013). She also won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for American Hustle. Her other accolades include seven MTV Movie Awards (five for The Hunger Games series, two for Silver Linings Playbook), six People's Choice Awards (three for The Hunger Games, three for the X-Men series), a Satellite Award for Silver Linings Playbook, and a Saturn Award for The Hunger Games. References

External links

1990 births
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Louisville, Kentucky
American feminists
American film actresses
American philanthropists
American television actresses
Best Actress AACTA International Award winners
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Supporting Actress AACTA International Award winners
Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners
Living people
Marcello Mastroianni Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award

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<mask> (, ; 1630 – ), known as <mask> ( ),  was a Cossack leader who led a major uprising against the nobility and tsarist bureaucracy in southern Russia in 1670–1671. Early life

<mask>'s father, Timofey Razya, supposedly came from a suburb of Voronezh, a city near Russia's steppe frontier, called the Wild Fields. <mask>'s uncle and grandmother still lived in the village of New Usman''' or Usman' Sobakina,  outside of Voronezh, until 1667. The identity of <mask>'s mother is debated. In one document, Razin was referred to as a tuma Cossack which means "half-blood", leading to a hypothesis that his mother was a captured "Turkish" (turchanka) or Crimean Tatar woman. However, this term was also used by "upper Cossacks" as a derogatory nickname towards all "lower Cossacks" regardless of origin Another hypothesis draws on information about <mask>'s godmother Matrena Govorukha. According to tradition, a godmother should be related to a birthmother, and Stenka's godmother lived in the town of  in Sloboda Ukraine.Thus, Stepan's mother could also be Ukrainian. <mask> was first mentioned in historical sources in 1652, when he asked for permission to go on a long-distance pilgrimage to the great Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea. In 1661, he was mentioned as part of a diplomatic mission from the Don Cossacks to the Kalmyks. After that, all trace of him was lost for six years, after which he reappeared as the leader of a robber community established at Panshinskoye, among the marshes between the Tishina and Ilovlya rivers, whence he levied tribute from all vessels passing up and down the Volga. In 1665, his elder brother, Ivan, was executed by order of  for unauthorized desertion from the war with Poles. Protracted wars with Poland in 1654–1667 and the Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658) put a heavy burden upon the people of Russia. Taxes increased, as did conscription.Many peasants, hoping to escape these burdens, fled south and joined <mask>'s bands of Cossacks. They were also joined by many others who were disaffected with the Russian government, including people of the lower classes, as well as representatives of non-Russian ethnic groups such as Kalmyks, that were being oppressed at the time. <mask>'s first notable exploit was to destroy the great naval convoy consisting of the treasury barges and the barges of the Patriarch and the wealthy merchants of Moscow. <mask> then sailed down the Volga with a fleet of 35 vessels, capturing the more important forts on his way and devastating the country. At the beginning of 1668, he defeated the voivode Yakov Bezobrazov, sent against him from Astrakhan, and in the spring embarked on a predatory expedition into Daghestan and the Persia, which lasted for eighteen months. Background

The Time of Troubles, which lasted from 1598 to 1613, had proven a difficult period for Russia. The direct male line of Rurik dynasty tsars died out in 1598, and the rule of the Romanov dynasty (which would eventually end with the February Revolution of 1917) began only in 1613.The reigns of Michael Romanov (tsar from 1613 to 1645) and of his son Alexis (tsar from 1645 to 1676) saw a strengthening of the power of the tsar with a view to stabilizing the Russian lands after the turmoil of the Time of Troubles. As a result, the Zemsky Sobor and the boyar council, two other bodies of government in Russia, slowly lost influence. The Russian population went from fifteen years of "near anarchy" to the reigns of strong, centralizing autocrats. In addition, a deep divide existed between the peasantry and the nobility in Russia. Changes in the treatment and legal standing of peasants, including the institutionalization of serfdom with the Law Code of 1649, contributed to unrest among the peasantry. The Don Cossacks, a largely lower-class group which lived independently near the Don River and which the tsar's government subsidized in exchange for defending Russia's southern borders, led <mask>'s rebellion. Historian Paul Avrich characterizes <mask>'s revolt as a "curious mixture of brigandage and revolt", similar to other popular uprisings of the period.<mask> revolted against the "traitor-boyars" rather than against the tsar. Cossacks supported the tsar in that they worked for him as contracted military forces - just as they had previously served the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Departure from the Don

In 1667, <mask> gathered a small group of Cossacks and left the Don for an expedition in the Caspian Sea. He aimed to set up a base in Yaitsk (now known as Oral, located in Kazakhstan on the Ural River) and plunder villages from there. However, Moscow learned of Razin's plans and attempted to stop him. As Razin traveled down the Volga River to Tsaritsyn, the voivodes of Astrakhan warned Andrei Unkovsky (the voivode or governor of Tsaritsyn) of Razin's arrival and recommended that he not allow the Cossacks to enter the town. Unkovsky attempted to negotiate with Razin, but Razin threatened to set fire to Tsaritsyn if Unkovsky interfered.When he encountered a group of political prisoners being transported by the tsar's representatives on his way from the Don to the Volga, <mask> reportedly said, "I shall not force you to join me, but whoever chooses to come with me will be a free Cossack. I have come to fight only the boyars and the wealthy lords. As for the poor and plain folk, I shall treat them as brothers." When <mask> sailed by Tsartisyn, Unkovsky did not attack (possibly either because he felt that Razin posed a threat or because the guards of Tsaritsyn sympathized with <mask>'s Cossacks). This incident gave <mask> the reputation of an "invincible warrior endowed with supernatural powers." He continued his travels down the Volga and into the Caspian Sea, defeating several detachments of streltsy, or musketeers. In July 1667, <mask> captured Yaitsk by disguising himself and some of his companions as pilgrims to pray at the cathedral.Once inside Yaitsk, they opened the gates for the rest of the troops to enter and occupy the city. The opposition sent to fight <mask> felt reluctant to do so because they sympathized with the Cossacks. In the spring of 1668, <mask> led the majority of his men down the Yaik River (also known as the Ural River) while a small portion stayed behind to guard Yaitsk. However, the government defeated <mask>'s men in Yaitsk and Razin lost his base there. Persian expedition

After losing Yaitsk, <mask> sailed south down the coast of the Caspian Sea to continue his pillaging. He and his men then attacked Persia. Failing to capture the well-defended fortress port of Darband/Derbent in present-day Dagestan, his forces moved south to attack the small port of Badkuba (present Baku) located on the Absheron Peninsula in present-day Republic of Azerbaijan, but at Rasht (in the southwest Caspian Sea in modern Iran) the Persians killed roughly 400 Cossacks in a surprise attack.<mask> went to Isfahan to ask the shah for land in Persia in exchange for loyalty to the shah, but departed on the Caspian for more pillaging before they could reach an agreement. <mask> arrived in Farahabad (on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea in Iran) and masqueraded as a merchant in the city for several days before he and his men pillaged the city for two days. That winter the Cossacks with Razin fended off starvation and disease on the Miankaleh Peninsula, and in the spring of 1669 Razin built a base on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea and began raiding Turkmen villages. Then in the spring of 1669 he established himself on the isle of Suina, off which, in July, he annihilated a Persian fleet sent against him. <mask> <mask>, as he was generally called, had now become a potentate with whom princes did not disdain to treat. In August 1669 he reappeared at Astrakhan and accepted a fresh offer of pardon from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich there; the common people were fascinated by his adventures. The lawless Russian border region of Astrakhan, where the whole atmosphere was predatory and many people were still nomadic, was the natural milieu for such a rebellion as <mask>'s.Open rebellion

In 1670 <mask>, while ostensibly on his way to report at the Cossack headquarters on the Don, openly rebelled against the government, capturing Cherkassk and Tsaritsyn. After capturing Tsaritsyn, <mask> sailed up the Volga with his army of almost 7,000 men. The men traveled toward Cherny Yar, a government stronghold between Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan. <mask> and his men swiftly took Cherny Yar when the Cherny Yar streltsy rose up against their officers and joined the Cossack cause in June 1670. On June 24 he reached the city of Astrakhan. Astrakhan, Russia's wealthy "window on the East," occupied a strategically important location at the mouth of the Volga River on the shore of the Caspian Sea. Razin plundered the city despite its location on a strongly fortified island and the stone walls and brass cannons that surrounded the central citadel.The local streltsy's rebellion allowed <mask> to gain access to the city. After massacring all who opposed him (including two Princes Prozorovsky) and giving the rich bazaars of the city over to pillage, he converted Astrakhan into a Cossack republic, dividing the population into thousands, hundreds, and tens, with their proper officers, all of whom were appointed by a veche or general assembly, whose first act was to proclaim <mask> their gosudar (sovereign). After a three-week carnival of blood and debauchery, <mask> quit Astrakhan with two hundred barges full of troops. His aim was to establish the Cossack republic along the whole length of the Volga as a preliminary step towards advancing against Moscow. Saratov and Samara were captured, but Simbirsk defied all efforts, and after two bloody encounters close at hand on the banks of the Sviyaga River (October 1 and 4), <mask> was ultimately routed by the army of Yuri Baryatinsky and fled down the Volga, leaving the bulk of his followers to be extirpated by the victors. But the rebellion was by no means over. The emissaries of Razin, armed with inflammatory proclamations, had stirred up the inhabitants of the modern governments of Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, and Penza, and penetrated even as far as Moscow and Novgorod.It was not difficult to stir the oppressed population to revolt by promising deliverance from their yoke. <mask> proclaimed that his object was to root out the boyars and all officials, to level all ranks and dignities, and establish Cossackdom, with its corollary of absolute equality, throughout Russia. Even at the beginning of 1671 the outcome of the struggle was doubtful. Eight battles had been fought before the insurrection showed signs of weakening, and it continued for six months after <mask> had received his quietus. At Simbirsk his prestige had been shattered. Even his own settlements at Saratov and Samara refused to open their gates to him, and the Don Cossacks, hearing that the Patriarch had anathematized <mask>, also declared against him. The tsar sent troops to suppress the revolt.As Paul Avrich notes in Russian Rebels, 1600–1800, "The brutality of the repressions by far exceeded the atrocities committed by the insurgents." The tsar's troops mutilated the rebels' bodies and displayed them in public to serve as a warning to potential dissenters. In 1671, Stepan and his brother Frol <mask> were captured at Kagalnik Fortress (Кагальницкий городок) by Cossack elders. They were given over to Tsarist officials in Moscow, and on 16 June 1671, following the announcement of the verdict against him, Stepan <mask> was quartered on the scaffold on Red Square. A sentence of death was read aloud: Razin listened to this calmly, then turned to the church, bowed in three directions, passing the Kremlin and the tsar and said: "Forgive me". The executioner then proceeded to first cut off his right hand to his elbow, then his left foot to the knee. His brother Frol, witnessing Stepan's torment, shouted out: "I know the word and the matter of the sovereign!"(that is, "I am willing to inform upon those disloyal to the tsar"). Stepan shouted back, "Shut up, dog!" These were his last words; after them the executioner hurriedly cut off his head. <mask>'s hands, legs, and head, according to the testimony of the Englishman Thomas Hebdon, were stuck on five specially-placed stakes. The confession helped Frol to postpone his own execution, although five years later, in 1676, he was executed too. Implications
<mask> originally set out to loot villages, but as he became a symbol of peasant unrest, his movement turned political. Razin wanted to protect the independence of the Cossacks and to protest an increasingly centralized government.The Cossacks supported the tsar and autocracy, but they wanted a tsar that responded to the needs of the people and not just those of the upper class. By destroying and pillaging villages, <mask> intended to take power from the government officials and give more autonomy to the peasants. However, <mask>'s movement failed and the rebellion led to increased government control. The Cossacks lost some of their autonomy, and the tsar bonded more closely with the upper class because both feared more rebellion. On the other hand, as Avrich asserts, "[<mask>'s revolt] awakened, however dimly, the social consciousness of the poor, gave them a new sense of power, and made the upper class tremble for their lives and possessions." At the time of the Russian Civil War, the famous writer and White emigre Ivan Bunin compared <mask> to Bolshevik leaders, writing "Good God! What striking similarity there is between the time of Sten'ka and the pillaging that is going on today in the name of the 'Third International.'"In Russian-language culture and folklore
<mask> and the "Persian princess"

One of the most popular cultural motives associated with <mask> is the episode with the drowning of the "Persian princess" in the river. Modern historians doubt the reality of this episode. There are two reports of foreigners who ended up in Astrakhan during the uprising. One of the testimonies is the memoirs of the Dutch traveler Jan Struis. This testimony is much more famous, it was widely used by Russian historians and it served as the basis for the plot of the song. The other is the notes of the Dutchman Ludwig Fabricius, which became known only after the Second World War. In the first, a Persian princess appears, drowned in the Volga, in the second, a certain "Tatar maiden" drowned in the Yaik River.Streis conveys the story as drunken cruelty, and Fabritius as the fulfillment of the oath that <mask> made to a certain "water god" Ivan Gorinovich, who controls the Yaik River: <mask> promised that as a reward for good luck he would give this "god" the best he has. In 1883, the Russian poet Dmitry Sadovnikov published the poem "Stenka Razin", which he, as was customary, presented as a "folk epic". The text of this poem, with minor changes, was set to music by an unknown author and became extremely popular, and was performed by many famous singers. The lyrics of the song were dramatized in one of the first Russian narrative films, Stenka Razin directed by Vladimir Romashkov in 1908. The film lasts about 10 minutes. The screenplay was written by Vasily Goncharov, and the music (the first film music to be specially written to accompany a silent film) was by Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov. The song recounts that <mask> aboard his ship tames the captured "Persian princess" and his men accuse him of weakness — communicating with a woman, he himself became a "woman" the next morning.Hearing these speeches, <mask> throws the "princess" into the water as a gift to the Volga river, and continues the drunken fun with his men. The song was included in early radio broadcasts in 1923, designed to introduce the new media to peasant communities. An account of this was given by  Charles Ashleigh who visited a training college for  electrical engineers located in Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius. The popular song is known by the words Volga, Volga mat' rodnaya, Iz za ostrova na strezhen, and, simply, <mask> Razin. The song gave the title to the famous Soviet musical comedy Volga-Volga. The melody was used by Tom Springfield in the song "The Carnival Is Over" that placed The Seekers at #1 in 1965 in Australia and the UK. A version of this song is also performed by Doukhobors in Canada.Score:

Other Issues
Razin is the subject of a symphonic poem by Alexander Glazunov, Symphony no. 8 by Myaskovsky (op. 26, 1925), a cantata by Shostakovich, op. 119; The Execution of Stepan Razin (1964), a poem by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, and a novel, '', (Я пришёл дать вам волю)  by Vasily Shukshin. Beside that, <mask> was glorified in the Soviet drama film of 1939 directed by Ivan Pravov and Olga Preobrazhenskaya. One of his atamans, Alena Arzamasskaia, was a former nun. <mask> is the subject of the Landmark book "Chief of the Cossacks".References

Citations

 125 p. Biography in English. 319 p. Biography in Russian. 93 p. Biography in Russian. , 383 p. Biography in Russian. External links

Recording of Doukhobor Peter Gritchen performing verses of Volga, Volga mat' rodnaya

1630 births
1671 deaths
17th-century conflicts
Don Cossacks
Tsardom of Russia people
Peasant revolts
Russian pirates
Cossack rebels
Executed revolutionaries
Executed people from Voronezh Oblast
Russian folklore characters
Characters in Bylina
17th-century executions by Russia
People executed by dismemberment

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