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<mask> (29 April 1901 – 1 April 1967) was an Australian rules footballer who played for Richmond in the Victorian Football League (VFL) during the 1920s. Family
The son of <mask> and <mask>, née Barrett, <mask> was born in Steiglitz, Victoria on 29 April 1901. He married Edna Mary Maud White (1904–) on 14 April 1928. Football
Said to be an idol of Richmond great Jack Dyer, <mask> was a follower, who played originally with Hawthorn in the Victorian Football Association (VFA), but was also used in key positions. Hawthorn (VFA)
Having played with Camberwell Districts (1917), and with the East Burwood Football Club in 1918 and 1919, he was recruited by the VFA club Hawthorn. He played his first match on 10 July 1920 and played a total of 13 games, scoring seven goals in two seasons. Richmond (VFL)
Granted a permit in May 1922, by Hawthorn to play with Richmond, <mask> only played three matches with the Richmond First XVIII before he left to play country football.St. James
On leaving Richmond, he played with the St. James Football Club in the Benalla-Yarrawonga Line Football Association for the remainder of the 1922 season. Lang Lang
In 1923, he played with the Lang Lang Football Club, coached by Harry Harker, in the Berwick District Football Association. Richmond (VFL)
He returned to Richmond in 1924. On 2 May 1925, he was one of the Richmond team that played against his old club, Hawthorn, in its first-ever VFL match (,  and  were admitted to the VFL competition in 1925 season). A Victorian interstate representative, he appeared in seven finals over the course of his career, including the 1927 VFL Grand Final and 1928 Grand Final. <mask> played both premiership deciders from centre half-forward but Richmond didn't win either. Oakleigh (VFA)
In 1929, two new teams, Oakleigh and Sandringham, were admitted to the Victorian Football Association (VFA) competition.Along with Geelong's Eric Fleming, St Kilda's Wal Gunnyon, Essendon's Frank Maher and Chris Gomez, and Richmond's Fred Goding, <mask> went to the Oakleigh in 1929 without a clearance from the VFL (in doing so, all of them were automatically disqualified from the VFL for three years). However, another ex-Essendon player, Vince Irwin, who also went to Oakleigh in 1929, did receive a clearance from South Bendigo Football Club, with whom he had played in the Bendigo Football League (BFL) in 1927 and 1928. <mask> was a member of Oakleigh's inaugural VFA premiership teams in 1930 and 1931, as a centre half-back in the latter. Coburg (VFA)
In 1932, Oakleigh appointed ex-Collingwood footballer Harry Chesswas as its captain-coach; and, in 1933, in promoting Eric Fleming to the position of the team's captain-coach, the club also informed <mask> that "should he desire a clearance to any other club it would be granted on his application". Oakleigh cleared <mask> cleared to Coburg in March 1933. He played in 24 games as centre half-back that season, including the ferocious Grand Final—eight players, including <mask>, were reported for 14 different offences—in which Coburg lost to Northcote, 9.16 (70) to 11.21 (87). <mask> was appointed captain-coach of Coburg in 1934.New Town (TFL)
In 1936, he moved to Tasmania, and played with the New Town Football Club in the Tasmanian Football League (TFL). In his last match (against North Hobart on 19 August 1939), he was reported, found guilty of the charge, and suspended for one week. Without <mask> in its team, New Town lost the 16 August 1939 elimination final match to Lefroy, 8.10 (58) to 9.11 (65). Due to his enlistment in the Second AIF in June 1940, he was no longer available for selection at New Town. In 1940 he was the coach of various AIF teams in Tasmania. Reports and suspensions
According to Hogan (1996, p. 200), <mask> was "a fiery player [who] came under the notice of umpires on several occasions receiving a total of 61 weeks in suspensions in his career". 1925 (Richmond): charged with striking St Kilda's Frank Scully on 18 July 1925.The charge was dismissed. 1925 (Richmond): charged with striking St Kilda's John Lord on 18 July 1925. <mask> was found guilty and was suspended for 6 matches. 1926 (Richmond): charged with having used obscene language to Carlton's Jim Watson on 3 July 1926. <mask> was found guilty and was suspended for two matches. 1927 (Richmond): charged with kicking Fitzroy's <mask> on 9 July 1927. The charge was dismissed.1928 (Richmond): charged with unseemly conduct in having thrown the football at Geelong's Eric Fleming on 1 September 1928. The charge was dismissed. 1930 (Oakleigh): charged with tripping Coburg's Hugh Donnelly on 21 June 1930. The charge was dismissed. 1933 (Coburg): charged with striking Williamstown's Cairo Dixon on 6 May 1939. Although sustaining the charge, the Tribunal acknowledged that <mask> had been provoked and decided that, under the circumstances, "[although] a penalty of two weeks suspension would be recorded, … it would be suspended subject to no charge being brought against him and proved within a period of two years". 1933 (Coburg): Eight players were charged with sixteen offences committed during the fiery 1933 VFA Grand Final in which Coburg 9.16 (70) and Northcote Football Club on 7 October 1933.<mask> was charged with four offences (the tribunal noted that, in the course of the match, "<mask> had received great provocation"):
kicking Northcote's captain-coach Percy Rowe in the second quarter (Rowe was charged with striking <mask> in the second quarter). The charge against <mask> was not sustained (Rowe was suspended for one week). striking Northcote's Eddie M. Bray in the last quarter (Bray was charged with striking <mask> in the last quarter). <mask> was found guilty, and suspended for one week. (Bray, who was also reported for striking the Coburg captain-coach, Greg Stockdale, was found guilty of both offences and suspended for a total of six weeks). striking Northcote's Tommy Corrigan in the last quarter (Corrigan was charged with striking <mask> in the last quarter). <mask> was found guilty, and suspended for one week.striking Northcote's Ralph Goullet in the last quarter. <mask> was found guilty, and suspended for one week. 1934 (Coburg): charged with kicking Preston's Robert W. Cameron in the third quarter of the 1934 VFA Preliminary Final match on 22 September 1934. <mask> was found guilty and was suspended until July 1936. 1936 (New Town): charged with elbowing Lefroy's W. Humphreys on 18 July 1936. <mask> was found guilty and was suspended for four matches. On 27 July 1936 an appeal was lodged against the verdict.The appeal was subsequently rejected. 1939 (New Town): charged with striking North Hobart's Raymond Percival Carr on 19 August 1939. <mask> was found guilty and was suspended for one match. Cricket
He played in six matches with the Fitzroy Cricket Club's First XI in the District Cricket Competition in between 1932 and 1935. "<mask> was also a fine fast bowler [for Fitzroy] … [who] scored 21 runs with a highest score of 12 and took 6 wickets". Military service
He enlisted in the Second AIF in 1940, and served in the Army Service Corps. He was discharged in 1944.See also
 1927 Melbourne Carnival

Footnotes

References
 Hardy, Tony, Finding Jack Dyer: The Remarkable Story of 'Captain Blood': Legend of the Australian Football Hall of Fame, The Slattery Media Group, (Richmond), 2013. Hogan P: The Tigers of Old, Richmond FC, (Melbourne), 1996. Holmesby, Russell and Main, Jim (2007). The Encyclopedia of AFL Footballers. 7th ed. Melbourne: Bas Publishing. "Jumbo" Sharland, "<mask> Has Helped to Make Richmond a Match Winning Side", The Sporting Globe, (Saturday, 23 July 1927), p. 6.<mask>'s Serious Illness, The Age, Friday, 20 May 1938), p. 17. External links

 <mask>: VFA Project. <mask>, Demonwiki. <mask>, Boyles Football Photos. Memorial Plaque: G.E. <mask>, Cornelian Bay Cemetery. 1901 births
1967 deaths
Richmond Football Club players
Hawthorn Football Club (VFA) players
Oakleigh Football Club players
Coburg Football Club players
Coburg Football Club coaches
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia)
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Australian Army soldiers

masks:
George Ernest Rudolph
Frank Rudolph
Eliza Rudolph
George Ernest Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
George Gordon
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
Rudolph
George
George Rudolph
George Rudolph
George Rudolph
George Rudolph
George Rudolph
Rudolph


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<mask> (April 29, 1929 – February 17, 2006) was an American percussionist and bandleader of Puerto Rican ancestry. Throughout his career as a percussionist, he played a wide variety of Latin music styles, as well as Latin jazz. His first hit, "El Watusi", was recorded by his Charanga Moderna in 1962, becoming the most successful pachanga song in the United States. In the late 1960s, Barretto became one of the leading exponents of boogaloo and what would later be known as salsa. Nonetheless, many of <mask>'s recordings would remain rooted in more traditional genres such as son cubano. A master of the descarga (improvised jam session), <mask> was a long-time member of the Fania All-Stars. His success continued into the 1970s with songs such as "Cocinando" and "Indestructible."His last album for Fania Records, Soy dichoso, was released in 1990. He then formed the New World Spirit jazz ensemble and continued to tour and record until his death in 2006. Life and career

Early years
<mask> (his real name, "Barreto", was misspelled on his birth certificate) was born on April 29, 1929, in New York City. His parents moved to New York from Puerto Rico in the early 1920s, looking for a better life. His father left their family when Barretto was four, and his mother Delores moved the family to the Bronx, and from a young age he was influenced by his mother's love of music and by the jazz of Duke Ellington and Count Basie. In 1946, when Barretto was 17 years old, he joined the Army. While stationed in Germany, he met Belgian vibraphonist Fats Sadi.However, it was when he heard Dizzy Gillespie's  "Manteca" with Gil Fuller and Chano Pozo that he realized his calling. Beginnings as a sideman
In 1949, when <mask> returned home from military service, he started to visit clubs and participated in jam sessions, where he perfected his conga playing. On one occasion Charlie Parker heard Barretto play and invited him to play in his band. Later, he was asked to play for José Curbelo and Tito Puente, for whom he played for four years. It was in 1958, while playing for Puente, that Barretto received his first recoding credit. Barretto developed a unique style of playing the conga and soon he was sought by other jazz band leaders. Latin percussionists started to appear in jazz groups with frequency as a consequence of Barretto's musical influence.Charanga Moderna and rise to fame
In 1960, <mask> was a house musician for the Prestige, Blue Note, and Riverside labels. He also recorded on Columbia Records with Jazz flautist Herbie Mann. New York had become the center of Latin music in the United States and a musical genre called pachanga was the Latin music craze of the early 1960s. In 1962, Barretto formed his first group, Charanga La Moderna, and recorded his first hit, "El Watusi" for Tico Records. He was quite successful with the song and the genre, to the point of being typecast (something that he disliked). Boogaloo and early salsa
In 1965, <mask> signed with the Latin division of United Artists, UA Latino, and began recording a series of albums in the boogaloo genre, which merges rhythm and blues with Latin music. On his album El Ray Criollo, Barretto explored the modern Latin sounds of New York, combining features of charanga and conjunto to birth a new style which would later be known as salsa.After recording four albums for the United Artists label, <mask> joined the Fania record label in 1967, and his first recording for the new label was the 1968 album Acid, which is often cited as one of the most enduring boogaloo albums, with songs such as "A Deeper Shade of Soul" and the title track was included in the soundtrack of the video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories on the fictitious Latin music radio station "Radio Espantoso". During this period, Adalberto Santiago was the band's lead vocalist. Success with Fania

In 1972 <mask>'s Que viva la música was released. "Cocinando," a track from the album, opened the soundtrack of the Fania All Stars film Our Latin Thing in which Barretto had a role. After a number of successful albums, and just as his Afro-Cuban band had attained a remarkable following, most of its members left it to form Típica 73, a multinational salsa conglomerate. In 1973, Barretto recorded the album Indestructible, in which he played "La familia", a song written by José Curbelo in 1953 and recorded by the sonero Carlos Argentino with the Cuban band Sonora Matancera; Tito Allen joined as new vocalist. Allen left the band after "Indestructible".This series of departures left Barretto depressed and disappointed with salsa; he then redirected his efforts to jazz, while remaining as musical director of the Fania All Stars. In 1975 he released Barretto, also referred to as the Guararé album, with new vocalists Ruben Blades and Tito Gomez. Barretto played the conga in recording sessions for the Rolling Stones and the Bee Gees. In 1975, he was nominated for a Grammy Award for the album "Barretto". From 1976 to 1978, Barretto recorded three records for Atlantic Records, and was nominated for a Grammy for Barretto Live...Tomorrow. In 1979, he recorded La Cuna for CTI records and produced a salsa record for Fania, titled Rican/Struction, which was named 1980 "Best Album" by Latin N.Y. Magazine, with Barretto crowned as Conga Player of the Year. New World Spirit

In 1990, Barretto won his first Grammy for the album Ritmo en el corazón ("Rhythm in the Heart"), which featured the vocals of Celia Cruz.His 1968 song "A Deeper Shade Of Soul" was sampled for the 1991 Billboard Hot 100 #21 hit "Deeper Shade of Soul" by Dutch band Urban Dance Squad. Also in the 1990s, a Latin agent, Chino Rodríguez, approached Barretto with a concept he also pitched to Larry Harlow. The idea was "The Latin Legends of Fania", and <mask>, Harlow, Yomo Toro, Pete "el Conde" Rodríguez, Junior González, Ismael Miranda, and Adalberto Santiago came together and formed "The Latin Legends of Fania", booked by Chino Rodríguez of Latin Music Booking.com. However, in 1992 <mask> left the Legends to focus on his new jazz ensemble, New World Spirits, with which he recorded several albums for the Concord Jazz label. In 1999, Barretto was inducted into the International Latin Music Hall of Fame. In 2006, the National Endowment for the Arts awarded Barretto its Jazz Masters Award. Barretto lived in New York and was an active musical producer, as well as the leader of a touring band which embarked on tours of the United States, Africa, Europe, Israel and Latin America.Death
Barretto died of heart failure and complications of multiple health issues on February 17, 2006, at the Hackensack University Medical Center in New Jersey. His body was flown to Puerto Rico, where Barretto was given formal honors by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture; his remains were cremated. Discography

As leader
 Barretto para bailar (Riverside, 1961)
 Latino! (Riverside, 1962)
 Charanga Moderna (Tico, 1962)
 Moderna de Siempre (Tico, 1963)
 On Fire Again (Encendido otra vez) (Tico, 1963)
 The Big Hits Latin Style (Tico, 1963)
 Guajira y guaguancó (Tico, 1964)
 Viva Watusi! (United Artists, 1965)
 Señor 007 (United Artists, 1966)
 El Ray Criollo (United Artists, 1966)
 Latino con Soul (United Artists, 1966)
 Fiesta En El Barrio (United Artists, 1967)
 Acid (Fania, 1968)
 Hard Hands (Fania, 1968)
 Together (Fania, 1969)
 Head Sounds (Fania, 1969)
 Barretto Power (Fania, 1970)
 The Message (Fania, 1971)
 From the Beginning (Fania, 1971)
 Que viva la música (Fania, 1972)
 Indestructible (Fania, 1973)
 The Other Road (Fania, 1973)
 Barretto (Fania, 1975)
 Tomorrow: Barretto Live (Atlantic, 1976)
 Energy to Burn (Fania, 1977)
 Eye of the Beholder (Atlantic, 1977)
 Can You Feel It? (Atlantic, 1978)
 Gracias (Fania, 1978)
 La Cuna (CTI Records/CTI, 1979)
 Rican/Struction (Fania, 1979)
 Giant Force (Fania, 1980)
 Rhythm of Life (Fania, 1982)
 Todo se va poder (Fania, 1984)
 Aquí se puede (Fania, 1987)
 Irresistible (Fania, 1989)
 "Ritmo en el Corazón" (Fania, 1990)
 Handprints (Concord Picante, 1991)
 Soy Dichoso (Fania, 1992)
 Live in New York (Messidor, 1992)
 Salsa Caliente de Nu York (Universe, 2001)
 Fuerza Gigante: Live in Puerto Rico April 27, 2001 (Universe, 2004)
 Standards Rican-ditioned (Zoho Music, 2006)

With New World Spirit
 Ancestral Messages (Concord Picante, 1992)
 Taboo (Concord Picante, 1994)
 My Summertime (Owl, 1995)
 Contact! (Blue Note, 1997)
 Portraits in Jazz and Clave (RCA, 2000)
 Trancedance (Circular Moves, 2001)
 Homage to Art Blakey and The Jazz Messengers (Sunnyside, 2003)
 Hot Hands (Concord Picante, 2003)
 Time Was - Time Is (O+ Music, 2005)

As sideman
With Gene Ammons
 Blue Gene (Prestige, 1958)
 Boss Tenor (Prestige, 1960)
 Up Tight!(Prestige, 1961)
 Boss Soul! (Prestige, 1961)
 Twisting the Jug (Prestige, 1961) with Joe Newman and Jack McDuff
 Soul Summit Vol. 2 (Prestige, 1961 [1962])
 Late Hour Special (Prestige, 1961 [1964])
 Velvet Soul (Prestige, 1961 [1964])
 Goodbye (Prestige, 1974)
With Bee Gees
 Main Course (RSO, 1975)
With <mask>
 Dancing the Big Twist (Columbia, 1961)
With Kenny Burrell
 Bluesy Burrell (Moodsville, 1962) with Coleman Hawkins
 Midnight Blue (Blue Note, 1963)
 Crash! (Prestige, 1963) with Brother Jack McDuff
 Soul Call  (Prestige, 1964)
 God Bless the Child (CTI, 1971)
With Arnett Cobb
 Party Time (Prestige, 1959)
With Billy Cobham
 Spectrum (Atlantic, 1973)
With Celia Cruz
 Tremendo Trío! (Fania, 1983)
 Ritmo en el Corazón (Fania, 1989)
With George Benson
 The Other Side of Abbey Road (A&M Records, 1970)
With Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis
 Bacalao (Prestige, 1959) with Shirley Scott
 Misty (Moodsville, 1960 [1963]) with Shirley Scott
 Afro-Jaws (Riverside, 1960)
 Lock, the Fox (RCA Victor, 1966)
With Deodato
 Prelude (CTI, 1972)
With Bill Doggett
Doggett Beat for Dancing Feet (King, 1957)
With Judy Collins
 True Stories and Other Dreams (Elektra Records, 1973)
With Lou Donaldson
 Swing and Soul (Blue Note, 1957)
 Blues Walk (Blue Note, 1958)
 Light-Foot (Blue Note, 1959)
 The Time Is Right (Blue Note, 1959)
 Midnight Sun (Blue Note, 1960)
 Cole Slaw (Blue Note, 1964)
With Art Farmer
 Listen to Art Farmer and the Orchestra (Mercury, 1962)
With Jimmy Forrest
 Most Much! (Prestige, 1963)'
With Wes Montgomery
 SO Much Guitar! (Riverside, 1961)
With Oliver Nelson
 Impressions of Phaedra (United Artists, 1962)
With Dave Pike
 Limbo Carnival (New Jazz, 1962)
With Michel Sardaby
 Michel Sardaby in New York (Sound Hills, 2002)
With Johnny "Hammond" Smith
 Talk That Talk (New Jazz, 1960)
 Open House!(Riverside, 1963)
With Jeremy Steig and Eddie Gómez
Rain Forest (CMP, 1980)
With Sonny Stitt
 Stitt Meets Brother Jack (Prestige, 1962) with Jack McDuff
 The Matadors Meet the Bull (Roulette, 1965)
With Cal Tjader
 Along Comes Cal (Verve, 1967)
 Hip Vibrations (Verve, 1967)
With Julius Watkins
 French Horns for My Lady (Philips, 1962)
With Weather Report
 Mysterious Traveller (Columbia, 1974)
With Frank Wess
 Southern Comfort (Prestige, 1962)
With Charles Williams
 Stickball (Mainstream, 1972)

See also

List of Puerto Ricans

References

External links

 Photographs and sound

1929 births
2006 deaths
American salsa musicians
American jazz drummers
American people of Puerto Rican descent
Conga players
Jazz percussionists
Puerto Rican jazz musicians
Cuban charanga musicians
Grammy Award winners
Fania Records artists
Zoho Music artists
Musicians from New York City
Puerto Rican Army personnel
United States Army soldiers
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Tico Records artists
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
People from East Harlem
The Blackout All-Stars members
Atlantic Records artists
CTI Records artists

masks:
Ray Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Barretto
Ray Bryant


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<mask>, also <mask>, <mask> (born December 10, 1927 in Haradok, Byelorussian SSR) is an Israeli scientist, philologist, semiotician and philosopher, and is the author of Hebrew-English and English-Hebrew dictionaries. Biography
<mask> was born on December 10, 1927, in Haradok, a Belarusian town near Vitebsk. His father, Ben Zion, was a pharmacist, and his mother, Fruma, was a pediatrician. In 1933, the family moved to Leningrad, where <mask> graduated from secondary school and, in 1949, from the Law Institute, named after Mikhail Kalinin. He was sent to work as a barrister in the Vologda district, and worked there until 1953. During this time, he also studied the teaching of English at the local Pedagogical Institute, receiving a master's degree in the field at the beginning of 1954. After completing his master's degree, <mask> moved back to Leningrad to be with his family.In Leningrad, he taught English at secondary schools and at the university, and also continued his graduate studies. In 1966, he successfully defended his doctoral thesis and received a doctoral degree in applied linguistics (the teaching of foreign languages to adults). He then joined the Research Institute of Adult Education, a branch of the Russian Pedagogical Academy of Sciences, where he became a senior research fellow in the field of teaching foreign languages (mainly, English) to adults. In April 1974, <mask> immigrated to Israel with his wife and two children, taking up residence in Jerusalem. In November of the same year, he began working at the Israeli Ministry of Education as a supervisor of Ulpans (centers for teaching Hebrew to adults from a wide range of countries). In this capacity, he was responsible for formulating the teaching methods and developing the study materials that were used in the Ulpans. Among his most important accomplishments were the composition of new teaching manuals and the setting up of language laboratories with visual and audio devices to help adults learn Hebrew.In 1993, <mask> retired, but he continued writing grammars and dictionaries for various categories of learners (see below). During the 1990s, he developed a fascination for semiotics − the science of signs and sign-systems − and wrote ten monographs on the subject (eight in Russian and two in English). His semiotic studies led him to new philosophical generalizations, and he formulated his own theory of cognition, different from the existing views on this problem. Works
While working at the Ministry of Education, <mask> created a broad selection of teaching aids geared to different types of learning communities. Among his works were grammars for Russian and English speakers, phonetic exercises for them and for Ethiopian Jews, and lessons for presentation in radio broadcasts to the former Soviet Union. The pinnacle of his activities during this period was his creation of a manual for Ulpan teachers, "The Principal Concepts in Teaching Additional Languages to Adults", and his compilation of "Comparative Grammars" between Hebrew, on the one hand, and grammatical phenomena in English, French, Spanish, Russian, Georgian, Amharic, and Persian, on the other hand. In his final years at the Ministry of Education, <mask> began to familiarize the Ulpan teachers with computers, laying the groundwork for the introduction of computer-aided learning as one of the mainstays of the Ulpans' activities.After his retirement, <mask> began writing grammars and dictionaries for English and Russian speakers at the Mila Publication Co. Between 1995 and 2003, he wrote, edited, or initiated a score of different dictionaries and grammars. These works were collected into two teaching kits: one for English-speakers and the other for Russian-speakers. The kits are on sale to this day, and can also be purchased on the Internet. In addition to his linguistic activities, <mask> is deeply involved in the field of semiotics. He has written a number of books and articles on the topic and spoken at international conferences. He is currently recognized as an expert in the field.Not only has he developed his own concept of general semiotics, he has also tried to apply it to various branches of semiotics, including linguistics, pedagogy, advertising, and cartography. <mask> views general semiotics as the “trunk” of the “tree” of semiotics; every semiotic branch sprouts from this trunk, and all are united by the common laws and principles represented by the trunk. His fascination with the philosophy of cognition resulted in some books on the topic published in Petersburg (in Russian) and also at Cambridge University (in English). Meanwhile, one of his books – ″Essay on General Semiotics″ – was translated and published in China. Semiotic theory
<mask>'s theory of general semiotics is founded on the classification of sign-systems by their basic signs (taxons). The theory identifies five types of sign-systems: natural, iconic, linguistic, notational, and mathematical; each type includes systems with the same types of basic signs (see illustration). In <mask>'s general theory, the six types of sign-systems are arranged in a way that reflects both the order in which they appeared in human phylogenetic development (the development of the species as a whole, over time) and the order in which they appear ontogenetically in the understanding of each human being as they grow and develop.At the inception of the human race, the first signs humans encountered and accepted as such, were natural signs. Every natural phenomenon served them as a sign; smoke was a sign of burning, darkness was a sign of approaching night, etc. As people grew accustomed to these kinds of natural signs, they began to invent artificial signs as well. First, they invented signs that resembled the things they denoted – images of their prototypes. Then they started to think up signs that were more and more remote from the things they signified. Thus, sign-systems built upon words appeared, followed later by sign-systems built on graphemes, and, finally, sign-systems whose signs are entirely arbitrary – mathematical signs and other symbols. The theory of general semiotics arranges the types of sign-systems in a hierarchy that reflects this gradual development.Each higher level in the hierarchy represents basic signs of more abstract character – more remote from the things they denote – than the basic signs of the level below it. This hierarchy is illustrated in the diagram above. In the course of human development, each type of signs could only come into existence with the support of its predecessors. Furthermore, once it came into existence, each type of signs affected the further development of all previous types of signs. The various sign-systems that have developed at each stage in human history, and their interdependence, have shaped the science and culture of every generation since the dawn of mankind. The collection of signs and sign-systems that surround us at any given moment constitute the semiotic reality we use in our everyday life, in our scientific investigations, and in our cultural activities. In the course of semiotic development, people gradually improved their minds and acquired new qualities.Mastering natural signs helped them to cope with pressing everyday problems. Iconic sign-systems developed the imagination and allowed the arts to be pursued. Languages have provided the ability to logically discuss any problem that arises; notational systems created interpersonal communication and ensured the preservation of the acquired knowledge for posterity; formalized systems formed the basis of scientific developments and progress of sciences and crafts. All this taken together has created a semiotic reality, which, along with the surrounding reality, forms the basis of human existence. <mask> holds that his theory of general semiotics is reflected in all spheres of human existence. He has demonstrated manifold practical applications for the theory in his various works, and continues to produce new works that further develop this theme. A succinct review of his ideas in English can be found in his paper, that was published in September 2010 in China: (The journal "Chinese Semiotic Studies", School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Nanjing Normal University) and in his book «A Theory of General Semiotics» published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing in 2015.Many of his other works are available on the Internet, in English or in Russian. Philosophy of cognition

In <mask>’s view, while studying the ontological environment, humans develop a new sphere of reality: the semiotic one, which includes all signs and sign-systems, invented and accepted in different civilizations on the Earth. Little-by-little, this sphere becomes independent, obtains its own laws of development and equals in importance with the ontology. This makes it the partner of the ontological reality in all ongoing ventures for new scientific and technological feats. Their partnership cooperates with the human wisdom that introduces its share in human cognition. Acting together, these three forces make possible all and every new breakthroughs in new inventions and allow the progress of the human race. There are a lot of implications in such an approach – they contain the context of his latest publications.References

 A Theory of General Semiotics. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015. Semiotics and Linguistics. Paris, Editions des Ecrivains, 2001 (in English, disseminated through the Amazone network). On the Theory of General Semiotics (an article in English). "Chinese Semiotic Studies", vol. 3, No.1, 2010. Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China. Maskilon. Maskilon Learning Kit for the Study of Hebrew
 A New Model of Semiotics as a Science of Signs, Sign-systems, and Semiotic Activities (Philosophical Foundations). Some sign-system Classification. Semiotic notation principles for businessprocess modelling. 1927 births
Living people
People from Haradok
Soviet Jews
Soviet emigrants to Israel
Linguists from the Soviet Union
20th-century linguists
Linguists from Israel
Semioticians
Jewish scientists
Saint Petersburg State University faculty

masks:
Abraham Solomonick
Avraham Solomonick
Abraham Salomonick
Abraham Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick
Solomonick


text_chunks:
<mask> (born 18 January 1943) is an English actor who has appeared in theatre, television and film. In the United Kingdom, he is best known for his role in the romance TV series Yesterday's Dreams (1987) as Martin Daniels. Internationally, he is known for playing the rival archaeologist René Belloq in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), evil wine baron Gustav Riebmann on season 4 of the soap opera Falcon Crest (1984–85), supervillain Ivan Ooze in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie (1995), Julius Morlang in Morlang (2001), Ray in When I'm 64 (2004), Reverend Shooter in Hot Fuzz (2007) and Shrewd Eddie in Hard Boiled Sweets (2012)

Referring to <mask>'s extensive theatre work, in 1995 the Los Angeles Times described him as "one of Britain's best-regarded actors, classically trained, with stints at the Royal Shakespeare Company and the National Theatre". Personal life
<mask> was born in Barnet, Hertfordshire, on 18 January 1943. He is married to Maggie Scott, who was his co-star in the 1980 film The Dogs of War. They have one daughter, Lucy. <mask> was previously married to actress Judy Matheson.<mask> and Maggie Scott are both co-founders of the charity UK Friends of Healing Focus (UKHF), which works in partnership with Uganda NGO, Healing Focus Orphanage Centre. Career
He began his career in advertising and teaching, and landed small roles in the theatre, appearing in productions of A Midsummer Night's Dream and Hamlet. He had starring roles in the National Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Company, and later co-founded the Joint Stock Theatre Company in 1974, along with director Max Stafford-Clark. <mask> made his television debut in 1978 in the serial Will Shakespeare (1978). He also acted in the docudrama Death of a Princess, a film about the execution of Misha'al bint Fahd al Saud of Saudi Arabia. <mask> began his feature film career in 1980 when he appeared in The Long Good Friday and The Dogs of War. In 1981, he starred in the TV show Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years.In the same year, Steven Spielberg and George Lucas chose <mask> to play archaeologist René Belloq, the archrival to Indiana Jones, in the adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark. The film led to <mask> becoming typecast in villainous roles, especially Nazis. He played the conniving wine baron Gustav Riebmann in the fourth season of Falcon Crest, airing in 1984–1985. <mask> starred as Martin Daniels in the series Yesterday's Dreams in 1987. In 1988, he played Professor Moriarty in comedy film Without a Clue, which starred Michael Caine as Sherlock Holmes and Ben Kingsley as Watson. In 1995, he was cast as the villain Ivan Ooze in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie. <mask> guest-starred in television shows such as Monarch of the Glen, ER, Falcon Crest and The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles.He also played in several [ini-series, including Murderers Among Us: The Simon Wiesenthal Story (1989) and The Final Cut (1995). In 2004, <mask> played Angus, Bobby Jones' caddie, in Bobby Jones: A Stroke of Genius. During 2006 and 2007, he starred in the drama New Street Law. Also in 2007, he played Rev. Philip Shooter of Sandford in Hot Fuzz. He is also featured in several Travelers Insurance television commercials from 2007 to 2009. Among his television work, <mask> has appeared in an episode of Midsomer Murders titled "Down Among the Dead Men".He also appeared in the Waking the Dead in the episode "Straw Dog", and played Adam Kingsley in the BBC adaptation of Minette Walters' The Dark Room. He was seen in Agatha Christie's Poirot in the episode "Appointment with Death" as Colonel Carbury. He appeared as George Aaranow in the 2008 London revival of David Mamet's Glengarry Glen Ross. In 2012, he played Thomas Erpingham in the BBC adaption of William Shakespeare's Henry V from The Hollow Crown series. Filmography

Film

Television
 1967 – Champion House – Elwyn
 1972 – The Last of the Baskets – 1 Episode: "Since Then I Have Used No Other" − Bernard Rage
 1972 – Jason King – 1 Episode: "Zenia Male" − Revolutionary
 1972 – The Protectors – 1 Episode: "A Kind of Wild Justice" − Mechanic
 1973 – Coronation Street – 1 Episode: "Terry Slade"
 1974 – Crown Court – 1 Episode: "Good and Faithful Friends: Pt. 1" − Leonard Tyler
 1976 – Couples – 3 Episodes − Douglas Broom
 1976 – The XYY Man – 3 Episodes − Ray Lynch
 1978 – Scorpion Tales – 1 Episode: "The Great Albert" − Oliver Benthall
 1978 – Crown Court – 1 Episode: "The Song Not the Singer: Pt.1" − John Bernard
 1978 – Will Shakespeare – 6 Episodes − Dick Burbage
 1980 – Death of a Princess – Christopher Ryder
 1980 – Play for Today – 1 Episode: "A Walk in the Forest" − Alexander Kutsov
 1981 – Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years – Ralph Wigram
 1981 – Play for Today – 1 Episode: "No Visible Scar" − Doctor
 1982 – BBC2 Playhouse – 1 Episode: "The Workshop" − Max
 1982 – Play for Today – 1 Episode: "Willie's Last Stand" − Willie
 1982 – Crown Court – 1 Episode: "Face Value: Pt. 1" − Defence Counsel
 1982 – Gavilan – 1 Episode: "Sarah and the Buzz" – Mr.

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<mask> (born December 17, 1974) is an American actress. She is the recipient of several accolades, including a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award. In 2017, Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world. <mask> began her acting career in New York City stage productions before starring in the short-lived television series American Gothic (1995–1996) and Jack & Jill (1999–2001). She later appeared in comedy films such as What Women Want (2000) and Down with Love (2003), and drama films such as Path to War (2002) and The Notorious Bettie Page (2005). From 2006 to 2007, she starred as Harriet Hayes in the NBC comedy-drama series Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, for which she received her first Golden Globe Award nomination. In 2008, she starred as Ellen Dolan in the superhero noir film The Spirit.<mask> has appeared on Broadway in the plays The Glass Menagerie in 2005 and Collected Stories in 2010. She also starred in a number of independent films, and had a leading role on the ABC comedy series Cupid in 2009. She later starred in the independent drama film Martha Marcy May Marlene (2011), and received Primetime Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her portrayal of Nicolle Wallace in the HBO film Game Change (2012). She was featured as Mary Epps in the 2013 historical drama film 12 Years a Slave, as Abby Gerhard in the 2015 romantic drama film Carol, and as Toni Bradlee in the 2017 political drama film The Post, all of which were nominated for multiple Academy Awards. Her other films include Serenity (2005), New Year's Eve (2011), Mud (2012), Blue Jay (2016), Ocean's 8 (2018), Bird Box (2018), Glass (2019), and Run (2020). In 2011, <mask> began starring in the FX anthology series American Horror Story, playing different characters in many of the show's 10 seasons. For her performances in the series, she received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations and won two Critics' Choice Television Awards.In 2016, she portrayed real life prosecutor Marcia Clark in first season of the anthology series American Crime Story, subtitled The People v. O. J. Simpson, for which she garnered critical acclaim and numerous accolades, including the Primetime Emmy Award and the Golden Globe Award. In 2020, <mask> appeared in the FX limited series Mrs. America, and began starring as Nurse Mildred Ratched in the Netflix psychological thriller series Ratched. In 2021, she returned to American Crime Story to portray Linda Tripp in the third season of the show, subtitled Impeachment. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born in Tampa, Florida, on December 17, 1974, the daughter of Catharine Gordon (née Dolcater) and Douglas Lyle <mask> II. She spent her early life in South Tampa until her parents' divorce when she was five. After her parents' separation, she relocated with her mother and sister to Maine, then to New York City. Her mother worked as a waitress, and <mask> lived in Queens and Gramercy Park before settling in Park Slope.She recalled of this period, "My mom was 27 years old [when we moved]. She didn't know a single person in New York City. She got a job at Sardi's Restaurant. [...] She was so brave to be basically a debutante in Tampa, Florida, having a cotillion and a coming out balland she picked up and brought her two kids to the greatest city in the world, not knowing anyone. My mom's kind of my hero that way." Throughout her childhood, <mask> spent her summers with her father in Florida, who was an executive at a Tampa door manufacturing company. She attended P.S.29 and Berkeley Carroll School in Brooklyn before attending Manhattan's Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. Career

1994–2007

<mask> began working as an actress right out of high school. She appeared in the Horton Foote play Talking Pictures at the Signature Theatre, and in an episode of Law & Order in 1994. The next year <mask> appeared in the Hallmark television film Friends at Last (1995) opposite Kathleen Turner, playing the adult version of Turner's character's daughter. She also starred in the short-lived television series American Gothic (also 1995), playing the ghost of a murdered woman. In 1997, <mask> made her feature film debut in the independent thriller film Levitation, playing a woman who discovers she is pregnant after an anonymous sexual encounter. Leonard Klady of Variety noted that <mask> and her co-stars are "not supported by the script", concluding: "Levitation is a grim, convoluted saga of identity and belonging.An ill-fitting combination of melodrama and magic realism, the indie effort will have a decidedly difficult time in the theatrical arena." In 1997, <mask> was a featured actress (Janice/Nina) in the two-part episode "True Romance" of Cracker, which starred Robert Pastorelli. She also appeared Off-Broadway in a fall 1998 production of Killer Joe. She subsequently played Elisa Cronkite in The WB comedy-drama series Jack & Jill (1999). The same year, she was also cast opposite Juliette Lewis and Diane Keaton in the drama The Other Sister, playing the lesbian sister of a developmentally-disabled woman in San Francisco, and in a supporting part playing a hostage in the comedy Held Up, opposite Jamie Foxx. The following year, she had a small supporting role in the comedy What Women Want, starring Mel Gibson and Helen Hunt. <mask> had a minor recurring role in the HBO series Deadwood (2005–2006), and was a focal character in an episode of the FX series Nip/Tuck.She starred as the main character in the NBC series Leap of Faith. She was then cast in the period comedy Down with Love (2003) in a central role, portraying the friend and editor of a writer (portrayed by Renee Zellweger). In 2004, she had a supporting role in the ABC series The D.A., which was cancelled after only four episodes. In the spring of 2005, <mask> starred in a revival of The Glass Menagerie on Broadway, opposite future American Horror Story co-star Jessica Lange. Ben Brantley of The New York Times deemed the production as "misdirected and miscast... reality never makes an appearance in this surreally blurred production." Later that year, <mask> appeared Off-Broadway in a production of Colder Than Here, opposite Lily Rabe (also her future co-star on American Horror Story). The production received an unfavorable review from Variety, with critic Dave Rooney writing: "Rabe speaks in an affected monotone while <mask>son has the measured, upward-inflected delivery of a children's TV presenter... this mannered, melancholy play elicits a mainly impassive response, which is no small obstruction in a work dealing with loss."Also in 2005, <mask> had a small role in the Joss Whedon-directed science fiction film Serenity. In the 2006–07 television season, <mask> co-starred in NBC's Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, playing Harriet Hayes, one of the stars of the show-within-a-show. This role earned her a nomination for Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film. In December 2008, <mask> appeared in the screen adaptation of Will Eisner's comic book The Spirit, playing an updated version of the character Ellen Dolan. 2008–2015

In 2008, ABC cast <mask> in the pilot Cupid, which was ordered to series. It was a remake of the 1998 series starring Jeremy Piven and Paula Marshall. In the new version, <mask> starred opposite Bobby Cannavale.It debuted in late March 2009 on ABC but was cancelled on May 19, 2009, after six episodes. In February 2010, <mask> was cast as the circa 1982 mother of main character Meredith Grey, on the ABC drama Grey's Anatomy, appearing in a flashback sequence in a season-six episode. She then played Nicolle Wallace in the HBO film Game Change (2012), based on events of the 2008 U.S. presidential election campaign. For her performance, she earned Primetime Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations. In the spring of 2010, she starred in Donald Margulies's Collected Stories alongside Linda Lavin on Broadway. The same year, <mask> filmed the independent drama Martha Marcy May Marlene, in which she starred opposite Elizabeth Olsen and Hugh Dancy, portraying the wealthy sister of a woman who has escaped a cult. The film was released in the fall of 2011.Simultaneously, <mask> guest-starred in three episodes of the FX anthology series American Horror Story, playing medium Billie Dean Howard. <mask> returned the following year for season two, American Horror Story: Asylum, in which she played a new character, Lana Winters, a writer who is committed to an asylum for being a lesbian. During this time, she also played the supporting role of Mary Lee in the acclaimed 2012 drama film Mud, starring Matthew McConaughey. <mask> returned to theater in March 2013, appearing in an Off-Broadway production of Talley's Folly opposite Danny Burstein. She then starred in the third season of American Horror Story, titled Coven (2013) as Cordelia Foxx, a witch who runs an academy for other young witches. The same year, she starred as Mary Epps, an abusive slave-owner, in the historical drama film 12 Years a Slave. The film was a critical success, earning numerous accolades.In 2014, <mask> appeared in the fourth season of series of American Horror Story, titled Freak Show, playing the roles of conjoined twin sisters Bette and Dot Tattler, who are members of a circus freak show. She returned for the fifth season, subtitled Hotel, in the role of Hypodermic Sally, the ghost of a drug addict trapped in a Hollywood hotel. She also reprised the character of Billie Dean Howard in the last episode of the season, making a crossover appearance. During this time, <mask> also took on the role of Abby Gerhard in the Todd Haynes-directed romantic drama Carol (2015), a period piece in which she played the supporting role of Cate Blanchett's close friend. 2016–present

Beginning in February 2016, <mask> starred in the first season of the true crime anthology series American Crime Story, subtitled The People v. O.J. Simpson, portraying prosecutor Marcia Clark. She garnered widespread critical acclaim for her performance and won various awards, including the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama, the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film.In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting; in the video, <mask> and others told the stories of the people killed there. In the fall of 2016, she starred in the sixth iteration of American Horror Story, subtitled Roanoke; in it, she was cast in the dual roles of British actress Audrey Tindall and tortured wife and yoga instructor Shelby Miller, the latter of whom is portrayed by Tindall's character in My Roanoke Nightmare, a documentary within the series. She also reprised her role of Lana Winters in the final episode of Roanoke, in which the character makes a crossover appearance. After completing Roanoke, <mask> appeared in the series' seventh season, Cult (2017), in which she played restaurant owner Ally Mayfair-Richards, as well as Susan Atkins in the 10th episode of the season. She also starred as Geraldine Page in one episode of the first season of drama anthology series Feud (2017), which chronicles the turbulent working relationship between actresses Bette Davis and Joan Crawford. <mask> was then cast in the heist film Ocean's 8 (2018), co-starring with Cate Blanchett, Sandra Bullock, Anne Hathaway, Mindy Kaling, Awkwafina, and Rihanna. The film was a commercial success, grossing nearly $300million at the worldwide box office.In 2017 she was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. <mask> returned for the eighth season of American Horror Story, titled Apocalypse, which premiered on September 12, 2018. In Apocalypse, <mask> reprised both the Murder House and Coven roles of Billie Dean Howard and Cordelia Foxx, respectively, and also starred as the villainous Miss Wilhemina Venable. In addition to appearing as three characters, <mask> also directed one of the season's episodes, marking her directorial debut. She played Sandra Bullock's character's sister, Jessica, in the drama horror film Bird Box, which was released on Netflix in December 2018. In 2019, <mask> starred as Dr. Ellie Staple in the superhero thriller film Glass, Xandra in the drama film The Goldfinch, and Dr. Zara in the animated adventure film Abominable. <mask> then starred as Alice Macray in the FX limited drama series Mrs. America, which premiered in April 2020.She also starred as Clarissa Montgomery in the HBO satirical comedy television film Coastal Elites, which premiered in September 2020. In September 2017, it was announced that <mask> would star as a younger version of Nurse Mildred Ratched, the villain of the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and its acclaimed 1975 film adaptation, in the Netflix drama series Ratched, a prequel to the novel which would portray the character's origins. The first season was released on September 18, 2020. In November 2020, <mask> starred in the thriller film Run, opposite Kiera Allen. It went on to become the most watched original film on streaming platform Hulu. In 2021, she portrayed Linda Tripp in the third season of the true crime anthology series American Crime Story, subtitled Impeachment. In 2021 she returned to American Horror Story for its tenth season, after being absent for the ninth season.In February 2022 it was announced that <mask> had been tapped to portray author Glennon Doyle in a TV series based on Doyle's memoir, Untamed. In the media
In 2017, Time magazine named <mask> one of the 100 most influential people in the world. In 2018, <mask> was ranked one of the best dressed women by fashion website Net-a-Porter. Personal life
Paulson lives in Los Angeles. She is a supporter of the Democratic Party. She was diagnosed with melanoma on her back when she was 25, though the growth was removed before the cancer could spread. Addressing her sexuality, Paulson called it "a fluid situation" and later said, "If my life choices had to be predicated based on what was expected of me from a community on either side, that's going to make me feel really straitjacketed, and I don't want to feel that."She dated actress Cherry Jones, who is 18 years older than her, from 2004 to 2009. She had dated only men before this relationship, including her former fiancé, playwright Tracy Letts. Since early 2015, she has been in a relationship with actress Holland Taylor, who is 32 years older than her. Filmography

Paulson appeared in such films as What Women Want (2000), Down with Love (2003), Serenity (2005), The Notorious Bettie Page (2005), The Spirit (2008), Martha Marcy May Marlene (2011), New Year's Eve (2011), Mud (2012), Game Change (2012), 12 Years a Slave (2013), Carol (2015), Blue Jay (2016), The Post (2017), Ocean's 8 (2018), Bird Box (2018), Glass (2019), Abominable (2019), and Run (2020). On television, Paulson starred in American Gothic (1995–1996), Jack & Jill (1999–2001), Deadwood (2006), Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip (2006–2007), Cupid (2009), American Horror Story (2011–present), American Crime Story (2016–present), Mrs. America (2020), and Ratched (2020–present). <mask> has also appeared on Broadway in the plays The Glass Menagerie (2005) and Collected Stories (2010), and the off-Broadway plays Crimes of the Heart (2008) and Talley's Folly (2013). Awards and nominations

<mask> has accumulated nominations for seven Primetime Emmy Awards, five Golden Globe Awards, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards, receiving one of each for her role in the limited series The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story.She was also nominated for her work on other television programs, such as the comedy-drama series Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, the political drama film Game Change, and the horror anthology series American Horror Story. For her performance in the Academy Award-winning period drama film 12 Years a Slave, she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

1974 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Maine
Actresses from New York City
Actresses from Tampa, Florida
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School alumni
LGBT actresses
LGBT actors from the United States
LGBT people from Florida
LGBT people from New York (state)
People from Park Slope
People from Gramercy Park
People from Queens, New York
Florida Democrats
New York (state) Democrats
California Democrats
Maine Democrats

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Sarah Catharine Paulson
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<mask> was a chief rabbi of Metz and a Talmudist; the son of Abraham Aberle, he was born July 7, 1754, in Geislautern, a small village near Völklingen (some say Kaiserslautern); died at Metz, May 2, 1836. Biography
<mask> came from a family of rabbis and was destined for a rabbinical career. He received his early education from his father, Abraham Aberle, and afterwards was sent to Metz, the nearest city having a rabbinical college. This institution was directed by Chief Rabbi Loeb Günzburg (known by this main work, Sha'agat Aryeh), with whom <mask> gained such high favor that at the early age of fifteen he was allowed to deliver a lecture on a  subject in the synagogue of Metz. Through Günzburg's instrumentality, he was appointed in 1777 to the rabbinate of Kriechingen in German Lorraine. Having lived in that town for seven years, he returned to Metz, where, after the death of Günzburg on June 23, 1785, <mask> was chosen principal of the rabbinical college. For many years he officiated as associate rabbi and deputy chief rabbi, and on June 12, 1832, was unanimously elected chief rabbi.The government confirmed his election, although he had not mastered French as required by the law regulating the appointment of rabbis. Four years later he died, revered and beloved by both Orthodox and Progressive Jews. <mask> was so conservative in his views that even in his practical life he did not acquire a thorough knowledge of the language of his country, and still regarded the Zohar as a sacred book and as the composition of Simeon ben Yoḥai. Nevertheless, he gave expression to opinions that in some measure prepared the way for Jewish reforms. <mask>'s son-in-law was Yehuda Meir Lambert, who succeeded him as Chief Rabbi of Metz and opened a rabbinic school in the city and was an fierce opponent against Reform Judaism. So greatly was <mask> influenced by the French Revolution that he even dressed himself in the uniform of the National Guard and, to accord with military regulation, removed his beard. <mask> fully realized that the Jews, in receiving rights, had also duties to fulfil; and in a sermon preached during the Revolutionary period, he strongly rebuked the Jews for their aversion to handicrafts, and, as an example for them, apprenticed his son Elijah to an artisan.As a member of the Grand Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon, he delivered an impressive address on the "Relations of the Jews to Non-Jews according to Rabbinic Law," in which he demonstrated that the Talmudic opinions concerning the heathen should not be used as guides in the regulation of practical life under the conditions that existed then. Again, in purely Jewish affairs, in questions concerning rites and ceremonies, he showed himself remarkably broad-minded. Upon the occasion of his taking the oath as chief rabbi, administered by the government officials, his hat was handed him to cover himself. He refused it with a smile, saying: "God does not wish to impose upon us the duty of approaching Him bareheaded; but if we do so voluntarily, so much the better!" This cannot be regarded simply as a bon mot; for he did not hesitate publicly to declare himself in accord with the reform tendencies which were then beginning to force their way into the synagogue. Reform tendencies
<mask> was perhaps the only conservative rabbi of that period who expressed the opinion that it was better to pray in the vernacular than to mutter Hebrew prayers without understanding their meaning. On this ground, he refused to join the agitation against the reforms of the Hamburg Temple.His insight into the necessity of a reform in divine service is further shown by his protest against the custom of interrupting the ritual prayers by the insertion of , of whose authors he often spoke derisively. Such a man could not be a friend of superstitious customs, and he made a vigorous stand against them. He looked also with a critical eye upon other customs which he did not regard as obligatory on the mere ground of usage, and more than once he remarked, with an undertone of bitterness, that Moses Isserles (the ReMA) desired to force all Jewry under the yoke of Polish customs; but he saw no reason why German and French Jews should yield. In an article in the 2010 edition of the journal Yerushaseinu, it has been argued vehemently that <mask> in no way a supporter of reform and instead was an ardent supporter of preserving custom and  as is evident throughout his works, and instead was the subject of slander after his death. As for opposition to Isserles' rulings, German and French rabbinic authorities for centuries were opposed to changing their customs to that of the ReMA, as the German and French Jewish customs long preceded him and were primarily based on the rulings of the Ashkenazic . As for wanting to remove some of the , <mask> was hardly the first rabbi in favor of doing so, and by the 1800s most of Polish Jewry had stopped saying  except on the High Holidays, and the question of interrupting the prayers with  was hardly a new one. As for questioning certain customs, <mask> was certainly not the first rabbinic source to do so.He felt that some of the customs were superstitious had no source in the  and ran counter to Jewish behavior. Each of the customs he questions were similarly questioned by other authorities. A biography of <mask> is found in the Chida's work Shem Hagedolim, who avoided entries on anyone of questionable character or one straying from "Orthodox" Judaism. <mask> was the author of "Meore Or" (Flashes of Light), Metz, 1789-1830. This work, published anonymously (the author modestly limiting himself to a mere suggestion of his name), is the only one of its kind. It contains critical remarks as well as comments on most of the treatises of the Talmud and on a considerable part of the "Oraḥ Ḥayyim" section of the , which exhibit a thoroughly scientific spirit as well as an extraordinary acumen. A Christian admirer of <mask> said that half of that work would be sufficient to open the gates of any European academy to its author.In addition to this, <mask> published short notes on the  and the Passover  (Metz editions). With the exception of a Bible commentary which has not been published, <mask>'s other numerous manuscripts were destroyed in compliance with his wishes as expressed in his will. References

1754 births
1836 deaths
18th-century German rabbis
Clergy from Metz
People from Saarbrücken

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<mask> (; 681–743), courtesy name Huanzhi (), formally Marquess Wenxian of Zhaocheng (), was a poet and politician of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. He had a friendly relationship with fellow chancellor Zhang Jiuling, and when another chancellor, Li Linfu, managed to convince Emperor Xuanzong that both Zhang and <mask> were engaging in factionalism, both were removed, although <mask> continued to serve in important positions in the imperial administration until his death in 743. He was known for improving the food transportation system between the capital Chang'an and the eastern capital Luoyang, obviating the need for the emperor to periodically move between the two capitals. Background
<mask> was born in 681, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. He was from "The Wu Pei from south" of the prominent Pei clan of Hedong. <mask>'s grandfather <mask> () served as a county magistrate during Tang, and his father <mask>zhen () served as a prefectural prefect. <mask> was said to be intelligent well-learned even in childhood, being able to read complex text when he was only a few years old.He later passed a special imperial examination for boys, and in his youth became an assistant secretary at the Palace Library. He later served as the communications for Emperor Gaozong's son Li Dan the Prince of Xiang. Li Dan respected him, and made him and his colleague Wei Liqi () consultants. After Li Dan, a former emperor, returned to the throne in 712 (as Emperor Ruizong), he made <mask> Guozi Zhubu (), the secretary general at the imperial university. During Emperor Xuanzong's reign
Early in the Kaiyuan era (713-741) of Emperor Ruizong's son Emperor Xuanzong, <mask> <mask> was made the magistrate of Chang'an County—one of the two counties making up the Tang capital Chang'an. At that time, Chang'an County put governmental funds in trust with rich households to have them manage the funds for the government, leading to much trouble for both government and the people. <mask> ended the practice and retrieved the funds from the rich households, reducing both corruption and burden on these households.He served as magistrate of Chang'an County for two years, and it was said that he drew a balance between strictness and laxity. When he left that office, the people missed him greatly. In 725, <mask> became the prefect of Ji Prefecture (濟州, roughly modern Liaocheng, Shandong). That year, Emperor Xuanzong offered sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai, and as he went through the various prefectures, the prefectural prefects were rushing to offer him tributes—but Emperor Xuanzong was impressed by three prefects—Wang Qiu (), Cui Mian (), and <mask>, who offered no luxury items—and in <mask>'s case, what he offered was several hundred suggestions, all of which were aiming toward correcting Emperor Xuanzong's behavior. Emperor Xuanzong was particularly impressed with one of the suggestions, which stated, "If you cause great harm to the people, then you cannot say that the realm is peaceful." Emperor Xuanzong promoted the three of them—in <mask>'s case, to be the prefect of the more important Ding Prefecture (定州, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei). At the time that his promotion was announced, he was overseeing a project to repair the Yellow River levees.Instead of departing immediately for Ding Prefecture, he delayed his departure to make sure that the levees would be complete. He later successively served as the prefect of Xuan (宣州, roughly modern Xuancheng, Anhui) and Ji (冀州, roughly modern Hengshui, Hebei, note different prefecture than his previous post) Prefectures, before being recalled to Chang'an to serve as the deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang). In 732, Emperor Xuanzong commissioned his second cousin Li Hui () the Prince of Xin'an to command an army against Khitan and Xi tribes which would not submit to Tang suzerainty, with <mask> as Li Hui's deputy. After Li Hui scored a major victory over both the Khitan and the Xi, Emperor Xuanzong ordered <mask> to tour the Xi tribes that were submissive and which had participated in the campaign, to award a large amount of silk to them. <mask>, realizing that such a journey would be filled with danger as other tribes might become aware and might attack, proceeded quickly on the trip and divided his train into several groups, awarding the silk quickly and then returning to Tang territory. Indeed, hearing about <mask>'s tour, Eastern Tujue and Shiwei forces launched a raid against him, but by the time that they arrived, <mask> had already returned to Tang territory. In winter 732, he was made the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (), which encompassed Chang'an.In fall 733, there was much raining in the Guanzhong region (i.e., the region around Chang'an), causing flooding and rise in food prices. Emperor Xuanzong considered going to the eastern capital Luoyang, to decrease the need to requisition food supplies, and he summoned <mask> to discuss with him. <mask> suggested revising the food shipment scheme at that time to reduce the need for such journeys. <mask>'s proposal included several points:

 At that time, most of the food supply was coming from south of the Yangtze River and were shipped by ships from the region, which were unfamiliar with the waters in the Yellow River region, the journeys were often slow, often causing thefts or embezzlement. Under <mask>'s proposal, a large food storage would be built at Hulao, where Bian River (汴水, a major shipping route from the Yangtze to the Yellow) joined Yellow River, and the ships from the Yangtze region would offload their supplies at Hulao. The food supply would then be shipped from Hulao to Luoyang on either the Yellow River or the Luo River (洛水, flowing near Luoyang). One large food storage would be built on each side of Sanmenxia.The food supplies intended for Chang'an would be shipped from Luoyang to Sanmenxia and stored there. A road would be built from Sanmenxia upstream to the Wei River, allowing food to be shipped on land when the water flow was unsuitable for shipping on water. Once the food supply had been shipped to the Wei River either on land or on water, the food could then be shipped easily to Chang'an. Emperor Xuanzong agreed with the proposal. Later that year, when he removed the chancellors Xiao Song and Han Xiu from their chancellor positions, he made <mask> and Zhang Jiuling new chancellors to succeed them. Specifically, <mask> was made Huangmen Shilang (), the deputy head of the examination bureau of government (門下省, Menxia Sheng) with the chancellor de facto designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (). He was also made the director of food supply shipments (轉運使, Zhuanyun Shi).In 734, Zhang proposed that private citizens be allowed to mint money. <mask> opposed, pointing out that the quality of the coins would be greatly reduced. Emperor Xuanzong, with opposition also from Liu Zhi, decided not to allow private minting. Later that year, <mask> was made Shizhong (), the head of the examination bureau and a post considered one for a chancellor. Pursuant to <mask>'s proposal, a shipping station was built at the point where the Yellow River and the Bian River joined, with two large food storages—Heyin Storage () to the east and Boyai Storage () to the west. At Sanmenxia, Jijin Storage () was built to the east, and Yan Storage () was built to the west. A road 18 li long (roughly nine kilometers) was built from Sanmenxia to the Wei River.With <mask>'s plan implemented, the government received considerably savings during the next three years, and <mask>'s subordinates suggested that he submitted the surpluses to the emperor as a tribute. <mask> stated, "This is money saved for the government. How can I use it to ingratiate the emperor?" Instead, he saved the money for future transportation improvements. By 736, however, <mask> was caught in the middle of palace intrigue, with fellow chancellor Li Linfu beginning to gain favor at the expense of <mask> and Zhang, who were friendly with each other. At that time, there were several incidents for which the blunt Zhang had offended either Emperor Xuanzong—who was described to have begun to tire of governance and started seeking luxuries in earnest—or Li Linfu, who was described to be ingratiating the emperor:

 In fall 736, when Emperor Xuanzong was at Luoyang, he had set to return to Chang'an on March 7, 737. However, at that time, an incident occurred where there were strange apparitions appearing in the Luoyang Palace, and Emperor Xuanzong did not want to stay at Luoyang.On or right before November 9, 736, he summoned the chancellors to ask them whether he could depart for Chang'an immediately. <mask> and Zhang, pointing out the fact that it was harvest season and that the imperial train would interfere with harvest, requested a one-month delay. After <mask> and Zhang exited, however, Li Linfu remained personally and stated his agreement with the departure, arguing that the farmers could be compensated by relieving their taxes. Emperor Xuanzong was pleased and immediately departed for Chang'an. Emperor Xuanzong was, then, impressed with Niu Xianke, the military governor (jiedushi) of Shuofang Circuit (朔方, headquartered in modern Yinchuan, Ningxia), wanted to make him the minister of defense. Zhang, who pointed out that Niu was not well-learned and had started from the ranks of low-level administrators—contrary to the Tang tradition of going through the imperial examinations—opposed, and then further opposed the creation of a title. Eventually, despite Zhang's opposition, Emperor Xuanzong, with concurrence from Li LInfu, created Niu the Duke of Longxi.Li LInfu was associating with Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine Consort Wu and trying to have Emperor Xuanzong make her son Li Mao () the Prince of Shou crown prince to replace Emperor Xuanzong's then-crown prince Li Ying, who had long lost Emperor Xuanzong's favor. With Zhang strenuously opposing such a move, Li Ying remained in his position. The deputy minister Xiao Jiong (), whom Li Linfu recommended, was demoted on the suggestion of Zhang and Zhang's friend Yan Tingzhi (), who further offended Li Linfu by refusing to meet with him. Soon thereafter, there was an incident where Wang Yunyan (), the husband of Yan's ex-wife, was accused of corruption. Yan tried to intercede on Wang's behalf, and this was discovered. Li Linfu thus made accusations to Emperor Xuanzong that Zhang and <mask> were engaging in factionalism. Around the new year 737, Emperor Xuanzong removed <mask> and Zhang from their chancellor posts, making them Chengxiang () -- the heads of the executive bureau (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng) instead.Niu was made chancellor to replace them, serving with Li Linfu. At the same time, <mask> was created the Marquess of Zhaocheng. Later in 737, there was an incident in which the Yang Jun () the prefect of Yi Prefecture (夷州, roughly modern Zunyi, Guizhou), was accused of corruption and received a death sentence. Emperor Xuanzong commuted the sentence to caning for 60 times and exile to Gu Prefecture (古州, roughly modern Lạng Sơn Province, Vietnam). <mask> submitted a petition, pointing out that while caning instead of death was grace already, public caning nevertheless was undignified for someone who had been an honored official. Emperor Xuanzong agreed and commuted the caning as well. In 740, Emperor Xuanzong, impressed at the military accomplishments of the general Gai Jiayun (), the military governor of Hexi (河西, headquartered in modern Wuwei, Gansu) and Longyou (隴右, headquartered in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai) Circuits, summoned him to the capital to reward him and commissioned him to plan an attack on Tufan.Gai, happy about the imperial favor, lingered in Chang'an and did not immediately depart. <mask> submitted a petition, pointing out that while Gai was brave, he was becoming arrogant and unattentive in light of imperial favors. He suggested that Gai's commission be cancelled, or, in the least, that Emperor Xuanzong order Gai to immediately return to his command. Emperor Xuanzong did the latter. Later, as <mask> predicted, Gai was unable to prevail over Tufan. <mask> continued to serve as Pushe for the next several years. He died in 743 and was given posthumous honors.Notes and references

 Old Book of Tang, vol. 98. New Book of Tang, vol. 127. Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 212, 213, 214. 681 births
743 deaths
Tang dynasty poets
Chancellors under Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Tang dynasty diplomats
Mayors of Xi'an
8th-century Chinese poets

masks:
Pei Yaoqing
Pei
Pei
Pei Yaoqing
Pei Yaoqing
Pei Shen
Pei Shou
Pei Yaoqing
Pei
Pei
Yaoqing
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
Pei
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Pei


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Jo-<mask> (born January 12, 1985), credited professionally as <mask>, is an American actress, writer, and producer. <mask> first garnered attention for her work on the YouTube web series Awkward Black Girl. Since 2011, <mask> has continued to develop her YouTube channel, which features various short films, web series, and other content created by black people. <mask> has achieved wider recognition as the co-creator, co-writer, and star of the HBO television series Insecure (2016–2021), for which she has been nominated for multiple Golden Globes Awards and Primetime Emmy Awards. Her 2015 memoir, titled The Misadventures of Awkward Black Girl, became a New York Times best-seller. In 2018, <mask> was included in the annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. <mask> has also starred in feature films, with roles in the drama The Hate U Give (2018), the fantasy comedy Little (2019), the romance The Photograph (2020), and the romantic comedy The Lovebirds (2020).She will also voice Jessica Drew / Spider-Woman in Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (Part One) (2022). <mask> provided the voice work for the short film Hair Love, which won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2020. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born in Los Angeles, California. Her father, Abdoulaye Diop, is a pediatrician and neonatologist from Senegal, and her mother, Delyna Diop (née Hayward), is a teacher from Louisiana. Her parents met in France, when they were both in school. She has four siblings. Her father has a medical practice in Inglewood, California.The family lived in Dakar, Senegal, for a short period during her childhood. She was raised mostly in Potomac, Maryland, where she grew up with "things that aren't considered 'black,' like the swim team and street hockey and Passover dinners with Jewish best friends." When Diop was in sixth grade, her family moved to the affluent View Park-Windsor Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles, where she attended a predominantly black middle school. Diop graduated from King Drew Magnet High School of Medicine and Science, where she started acting. Her parents divorced when she was in high school. Diop is fluent in French. In 2007, Diop graduated from Stanford University with a Bachelor of Arts in African and African-American Studies.As a college student, she made music videos, wrote and directed plays, and created a mock reality series called Dorm Diaries for fun. At Stanford, Diop met Tracy Oliver, who helped produce Awkward Black Girl and starred on the show as Nina. After college, Diop received a theater fellowship at The Public Theater in New York City. Oliver and Diop started taking classes together at the New York Film Academy. Diop worked odd jobs and at one point was struggling to decide between business school and law school, but eventually abandoned both ideas when Awkward Black Girl started taking off in 2011. Career

Awkward Black Girl

<mask>'s web series Awkward Black Girl premiered on YouTube in 2011. The show follows the life of J (played by <mask>) as she interacts with co-workers and love interests who place her in uncomfortable situations.The story is told through a first-person narrative as J usually reveals how she feels about her circumstances through voice-over or dream sequence. The series eventually went viral through word of mouth, blog posts, and social media, resulting in mainstream media coverage and attention. In an effort to fund the rest of the first season, <mask> and producer Tracy Oliver decided to raise money for the series through Kickstarter. On August 11, 2011, they were awarded $56,269 from 1,960 donations and released the rest of season one on <mask>'s YouTube channel. <mask> eventually partnered with Pharrell and premiered season two of the series on his YouTube channel, iamOTHER. <mask> also began releasing other content on her original channel, predominantly created by and starring people of color. In 2013, Awkward Black Girl won a Shorty award for Best Web Show.<mask> created Awkward Black Girl because she felt the Hollywood stereotypes of African-American women were limiting and she could not relate to them:

I've always had an issue with the [assumption] that people of color, and black people especially, aren't relatable. I know we are. By using YouTube as her forum, <mask> was able to have autonomy of her work because she writes, films, produces, and edits most of her work. <mask>'s other shows—Ratchet Piece Theater, The "F" Word, Roomieloverfriends, and The Choir, among others—also focus on African-American experiences that are often not portrayed in the mainstream media. Insecure

In 2013, <mask> began working on a comedy series pilot with Larry Wilmore, in which she would star. The series, about the awkward experiences of a contemporary African-American woman, was eventually titled Insecure. HBO picked up the pilot in early 2015 and it was subsequently greenlit.Since its release in 2016, the series has received critical acclaim; Eric Deggans of NPR wrote that "<mask> has produced a series that feels revolutionary just by poking fun at the life of an average, twenty-something black woman." In 2017, the American Film Institute selected Insecure as one of the top 10 Television Programs of the Year. For her acting work on the show, <mask> has received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy in 2017 and 2018, as well as a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2018. In 2018,  at the 77th annual Peabody Awards, Insecure was honored for "creating a series that authentically captures the lives of everyday young, black people in modern society." On November 14, 2016, HBO renewed the show for a second season. The second season premiered on July 23, 2017. On August 8, 2017, it was announced that the show was renewed for a third season, which premiered on August 12, 2018.Season five premiered October 24, 2021. The final episode of Insecure aired December 26, 2021. Film work
Released in 2020, The Photograph follows the journey of <mask>'s character, Mae Morton, and LaKeith Stanfield's character Michael Block, as the two search for the backstory of Mae's mother. The New York Times mentioned this film as “an unabashedly old-school love story”. The Empire said that  “The Photograph is an African-American romance that, for the most part, feels relatable and true”. Released in 2020, The Lovebirds directed by Michael Showalter, <mask> played the role of Leilani. The film starred Kumail Nanjani, who played Jibran, Leilani's boyfriend.Throughout the film, the couple struggles to maintain their relationship and during this, they face an eventful murder. <mask>'s first book, a memoir titled The Misadventures of Awkward Black Girl, was released in 2015 and became a New York Times best-seller. In the book, she chronicles her life through a series of humorous anecdotes and opens up about her personal struggle with not fitting in, and not being considered "black enough" at times. Other work
On October 11, 2019, Google announced that <mask> would be an additional voice to the Google Assistant. Users could make Google Assistant speak in <mask>'s voice by saying "Ok Google, talk like Issa." Issa's Voice was available until Friday, October 1, 2021. Also in 2019, <mask>, through her newly launched record label "Raedio," partnered with Atlantic Records to produce "Kinda Love" by singer-rapper TeaMarrr.In March 2021, <mask>'s production company, Hoorae, signed a five-year film and television deal with WarnerMedia. Personal life
<mask>'s birth name, <mask>, comes from a combination of the names of her grandmothers: Joyce and Isseu. Her middle name, <mask>, is after an aunt, who was an artist. <mask> married her longtime partner, Louis Diame, a Senegalese businessman, in a private ceremony in France in July 2021. <mask> first wore her engagement ring publicly on the cover of Essence magazine's April 2019 issue. Activism
<mask> has used her platform to bring attention to police violence and brutality against African-Americans. Following the police shooting of Alton Sterling in 2016, she raised $700,000 for the Sterling Family Trust to help pay for the Sterling children to attend college.<mask> is an advocate for civil rights and women's rights movements. Her work includes themes of equality and social justice. She works closely with organizations like the ACLU, BLD PWR, and Black Lives Matter. Her show Insecure has changed the public perception of the South Los Angeles community by highlighting Black businesses. In the media
In 2012, <mask> was included on the annual Forbes '30 Under 30''' list in the entertainment section. In May 2015, <mask> appeared on the cover of Essence'' magazine's Game Changers issue, alongside Shonda Rhimes, Ava DuVernay, Debbie Allen, and Mara Brock Akil. <mask> expressed her desire for more people of color working in production behind the scenes to make a lasting impact in the television industry.On the red carpet at the 2017 Emmy Awards, <mask> told reporters, "I'm rooting for everybody black." The quote went viral and appeared on T-shirts and in the song "Sue Me" by the rapper Wale. Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos

Awards and nominations

Works and publications

References

External links

 <mask> <mask> on Instagram

1985 births
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
Actresses from Maryland
African-American actresses
African-American screenwriters
American people of Senegalese descent
Screenwriters from California
African-American women writers
American women screenwriters
American YouTubers
Living people
People from Potomac, Maryland
People from View Park–Windsor Hills, California
Stanford University alumni
Web series directors
Web series producers
Writers from Los Angeles
Screenwriters from Maryland
American women television writers
American television writers
21st-century American screenwriters
Forbes 30 Under 30 recipients
African-American female comedians
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women

masks:
Issa Rae Diop
Issa Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Jo Issa
Rae Diop
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Rae
Issa
Rae
Book Rae
Rae
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Jo Issa
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Issa
Rae


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<mask>dorff (; 1 July 1907 – 3 September 1980) was a German jurist, soldier, and member of the German resistance against Adolf Hitler. From 1967 to 1975 he was a judge of the German Federal Constitutional Court. Biography

Early life
Schlabrendorff was born on 1 July 1907 in Halle. He was the son of <mask>f (born Berlin, 1854, died Detmold, 1923) by his marriage to <mask> (1874–1944), a great-great-granddaughter of William I, Elector of Hesse by his mistress Rosa Dorothea Ritter. He was trained as a lawyer, later joining the German Army. As a reserve lieutenant-colonel (Oberstleutnant der Reserve), he was promoted to serve as adjutant (Ordonnanzoffizier) to Colonel <mask> in January 1941, a major leader in the resistance against Adolf Hitler, and held this position until July 1944. Attempts to kill Hitler
He joined the resistance and acted as a secret liaison between Tresckow in Russia and Ludwig Beck, Carl Goerdeler, Hans Oster, and Friedrich Olbricht in Berlin, taking part in various coup d'état plans and plots.On 13 March 1943, during a visit by Adolf Hitler to Army Group Centre Headquarters in Smolensk, Schlabrendorff smuggled a time bomb, disguised as bottles of Cointreau, onto the aircraft which carried Hitler back to Germany. The bomb detonator failed to go off, however, most likely because of the cold in the aircraft luggage compartment. Schlabrendorff managed to retrieve the bomb the next day and elude detection. Schlabrendorff was arrested following the failed 20 July 1944 Plot. He was sent to Gestapo prison where he was tortured, but refused to talk. While imprisoned he met fellow imprisoned co-conspirators Wilhelm Canaris, Hans Oster, <mask> Hassell, Johannes Popitz, Carl Goerdeler, Josef Mueller, and <mask> Falkenhausen. He was brought before the People's Court of Nazi Germany (Volksgerichtshof) on the 3rd of February 1945.However, while Schlabrendorff was awaiting trial, the courtroom took a direct hit from a bomb during an American air raid led by Lt. Col. Robert Rosenthal. The bomb killed Roland Freisler, the president of the People's Court, who was found crushed by a beam, still clutching Schlabrendorff's file. Schlabrendorff did not escape, however, and was arraigned before the court again the following month, now headed by Wilhelm Crohne, the vice president of the People's Court. Following an intense defence, conducted by himself on both legal and procedural grounds (claiming his torture had made the process outrageously unworthy of justice) and in an exceptionally rare instance in its final nine months of existence, the People's Court acquitted <mask>rendorff on 16 March 1945. His death was later demanded by Hitler's decree, but the order was defied insofar that it was never carried out. After his second trial, Schlabrendorff was moved from one concentration camp to another: Sachsenhausen and Flossenbürg, then Dachau near Munich. In late April 1945 he was transferred to Tyrol together with about 140 other prominent inmates of Dachau, where the SS-Guards fled after being confronted by a regular German Wehrmacht unit led by Wichard <mask>sleben and told to stand down by the Supreme Commander of all SS troops in Italy, who took responsibility for the order.Schlabrendorff was eventually liberated by the Fifth U.S. Army on 5 May 1945. After the war
As was revealed only 60 years after the fact, Schlabrendorff wrote analyses for the US secret service OSS about the leadership of the Wehrmacht and about war crimes committed by the Nazis. OSS head William J. Donovan then questioned him personally. When Donovan became adviser to the American delegation of lawyers at the Nuremberg trials after the dissolution of the OSS, he included Schlabrendorff on his staff. Schlabrendorff convinced Donovan that it was not the Germans but the Soviet secret service NKVD that had murdered some 4000 Polish officers in the Katyn forest. Donovan then had the Americans block the Soviet attempt to add Katyn to the list of German war crimes. Schlabrendorff was admitted to the Protestant Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg), in which he served as Captain of the Order (legal counsellor to the Herrenmeister, head of the Order) from 1957 to 1964.From 1 September 1967 until 7 November 1975, he was a judge of the Federal Constitutional Court of West Germany, the country's supreme constitutional court, serving in its second senate. Schlabrendorff died on 3 September 1980. Family

He married Luitgarde <mask>, born at Frankenstein in Silesia (now Ząbkowice Śląskie, Poland) in 1939 and had the following children:
 Herzeleide <mask>f (born Berlin, 28 February 1940), married to  (b. Hamburg, 15 June 1939 – 2 May 2006), four children. Dieprand Ludwig Carl Hans-Otto <mask>f (born Stettin, 18 May 1941), married to <mask> Polenz (born Karlsruhe, 10 June 1950), one child. Jürgen-Lewin <mask> Schlabrendorff (born Lasbeck, 3 February 1943), married to Beate Everth (born Meldorf, 6 November 1946), and had two children. <mask> <mask> Schlabrendorff (born Berlin, 23 December 1944), married to María de la Cruz Caballero y Palomero (b. Plasencia, 20 December 1954), two children. <mask> Schlabrendorff (born Buch am Forst, 12 November 1948), married Christian Eick (born Baden-Baden, 7 July 1947), three children; married to Gottfried <mask>.Carl Joachim Henning <mask>dorff (born Wiesbaden, 18 September 1950), married to Mechthild <mask>t, with two children. Quote
"To prevent this success of Hitler in all circumstances and by all means, even at the expense of a heavy defeat of the Third Reich, was our most urgent task. (Diesen Erfolg Hitlers unter allen Umständen und mit allen Mitteln zu verhindern, auch auf Kosten einer schweren Niederlage des Dritten Reiches, war unsere dringlichste Aufgabe.)" – from his book, Offiziere gegen Hitler (Officers Against Hitler), Zurich: Europa-Verlag, 1946, p. 38. Published works

  English translation of the 1946 book by <mask>rendorff. Honours
 1967: Great Cross of Merit of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1968: Honorary doctorate awarded by the University of Göttingen (Dr. iur. h.c.)

Bibliography
 .See also
 Assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler

References

External links

1907 births
1980 deaths
Failed assassins of Adolf Hitler
Protestants in the German Resistance
German resistance members
German judges
German Army officers of World War II
People from Halle (Saale)
People from the Province of Saxony
Sachsenhausen concentration camp survivors
Flossenbürg concentration camp survivors
Dachau concentration camp survivors
Members of the 20 July plot
German torture victims
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

masks: Fabian Ludwig Georg Adolf Kurt von Schlabren