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<mask> (; August 29, 1809 – October 7, 1894) was an American physician, poet, and polymath based in Boston. Grouped among the fireside poets, he was acclaimed by his peers as one of the best writers of the day. His most famous prose works are the "Breakfast-Table" series, which began with The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1858). He was also an important medical reformer. In addition to his work as an author and poet, <mask> also served as a physician, professor, lecturer and inventor and, although he never practiced it, he received formal training in law. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, <mask> was educated at Phillips Academy and Harvard College. After graduating from Harvard in 1829, he briefly studied law before turning to the medical profession.He began writing poetry at an early age; one of his most famous works, "Old Ironsides", was published in 1830 and was influential in the eventual preservation of the USS Constitution. Following training at the prestigious medical schools of Paris, <mask> was granted his Doctor of Medicine degree from Harvard Medical School in 1836. He taught at Dartmouth Medical School before returning to teach at Harvard and, for a time, served as dean there. During his long professorship, he became an advocate for various medical reforms and notably posited the controversial idea that doctors were capable of carrying puerperal fever from patient to patient. <mask> retired from Harvard in 1882 and continued writing poetry, novels and essays until his death in 1894. Surrounded by Boston's literary elite—which included friends such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and James Russell <mask> made an indelible imprint on the literary world of the 19th century. Many of his works were published in The Atlantic Monthly, a magazine that he named.For his literary achievements and other accomplishments, he was awarded numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world. <mask>'s writing often commemorated his native Boston area, and much of it was meant to be humorous or conversational. Some of his medical writings, notably his 1843 essay regarding the contagiousness of puerperal fever, were considered innovative for their time. He was often called upon to issue occasional poetry, or poems written specifically for an event, including many occasions at Harvard. <mask> also popularized several terms, including Boston Brahmin and anesthesia. He was the father of <mask> <mask> Jr. of the Supreme Court of the United States. Life and education

Early life and family

<mask> was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 29, 1809.His birthplace, a house just north of Harvard Yard, was said to have been the place where the Battle of Bunker Hill was planned. He was the first son of Abiel <mask> (1763–1837), minister of the First Congregational Church and avid historian, and <mask>, Abiel's second wife. Sarah was the daughter of a wealthy family, and <mask> was named for his maternal grandfather, a judge. The first <mask>, Evert Jansen, left the Netherlands in 1640 and settled in Albany, New York. Also through his mother, <mask> was descended from Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet and his wife, Anne Bradstreet (daughter of Thomas Dudley), the first published American poet. From a young age, <mask> was small and suffered from asthma, but he was known for his precociousness. When he was eight, he took his five-year-old brother, John, to witness the last hanging in Cambridge's Gallows Lot and was subsequently scolded by his parents.He also enjoyed exploring his father's library, writing later in life that "it was very largely theological, so that I was walled in by solemn folios making the shelves bend under the load of sacred learning." After being exposed to poets such as John Dryden, Alexander Pope and <mask>, the young <mask> began to compose and recite his own verse. His first recorded poem, which was copied down by his father, was written when he was 13. Although a talented student, the young <mask> was often admonished by his teachers for his talkative nature and habit of reading stories during school hours. He studied under Dame Prentiss and William Bigelow before enrolling in what was called the "Port School", a select private academy in the Cambridgeport settlement. One of his schoolmates was future critic and author Margaret Fuller, whose intellect <mask> admired. Education
<mask>'s father sent him to Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, at the age of 15.Abiel chose Phillips, which was known for its orthodox Calvinist teachings, because he hoped his eldest son would follow him into the ministry. <mask> had no interest in becoming a theologian, however, and as a result he did not enjoy his single year at Andover. Although he achieved distinction as an elected member of the Social Fraternity, a literary club, he disliked the "bigoted, narrow-minded, uncivilized" attitudes of most of the school's teachers. One teacher in particular, however, noted his young student's talent for poetry, and suggested that he pursue it. Shortly after his sixteenth birthday, <mask> was accepted by Harvard College. As a member of Harvard's class of 1829, <mask> lived at home for the first few years of his college career rather than in the dormitories. Since he measured only "five feet three inches when standing in a pair of substantial boots", the young student had no interest in joining a sports team or the Harvard Washington Corps.Instead, he allied himself with the "Aristocrats" or "Puffmaniacs", a group of students who gathered in order to smoke and talk. As a town student and the son of a minister, however, he was able to move between social groups. He also became a friend of Charles Chauncy Emerson (brother of Ralph Waldo Emerson), who was a year older. During second year, <mask> was one of 20 students awarded the scholastic honor Deturs, which came with a copy of The Poems of James Graham, John Logan, and William Falconer. Despite his scholastic achievements, the young scholar admitted to a schoolmate from Andover that he did not "study as hard as I ought to'. He did, however, excel in languages and took classes in French, Italian and Spanish. <mask>'s academic interests and hobbies were divided among law, medicine, and writing.He was elected to the Hasty Pudding, where he served as Poet and Secretary, and to the Phi Beta Kappa honor society. With two friends, he collaborated on a small book entitled Poetical Illustrations of the Athenaeum Gallery of Painting, which was a collection of satirical poems about the new art gallery in Boston. He was asked to provide an original work for his graduating class's commencement and wrote a "light and sarcastic" poem that met with great acclaim. Following graduation, <mask> intended to go into the legal profession, so he lived at home and studied at the Harvard Law School (named Dane School at the time). By January 1830, however, he was disenchanted with legal studies. "I am sick at heart of this place and almost everything connected to it", he wrote. "I know not what the temple of law may be to those who have entered it, but to me it seems very cold and cheerless about the threshold."Poetic beginnings
1830 proved to be an important year for <mask> as a poet; while disappointed by his law studies, he began writing poetry for his own amusement. Before the end of the year, he had produced over fifty poems, contributing twenty-five of them (all unsigned) to The Collegian, a short-lived publication started by friends from Harvard. Four of these poems would ultimately become among his best-known: "The Dorchester Giant", "Reflections of a Proud Pedestrian", "Evening / By a Tailor" and "The Height of the Ridiculous". Nine more of his poems were published anonymously in the 1830 pamphlet Illustrations of the Athenaeum Gallery of Paintings. In September of that same year, <mask> read a short article in the Boston Daily Advertiser about the renowned 18th-century frigate USS Constitution, which was to be dismantled by the Navy. <mask> was moved to write "Old Ironsides" in opposition to the ship's scrapping. The patriotic poem was published in the Advertiser the very next day and was soon printed by papers in New York, Philadelphia and Washington.It not only brought the author immediate national attention, but the three-stanza poem also generated so much public sentiment that the historic ship was preserved, though plans to do so may have already been in motion. During the rest of the year, <mask> published only five more poems. His last major poem that year was "The Last Leaf", which was inspired in part by a local man named Thomas Melvill, "the last of the cocked hats" and one of the "Indians" from the 1774 Boston Tea Party. <mask> would later write that Melvill had reminded him of "a withered leaf which has held to its stem through the storms of autumn and winter, and finds itself still clinging to its bough while the new growths of spring are bursting their buds and spreading their foliage all around it." Literary critic Edgar Allan Poe called the poem one of the finest works in the English language. Years later, Abraham Lincoln would also become a fan of the poem; William Herndon, Lincoln's law partner and biographer, wrote in 1867: "I have heard Lincoln recite it, praise it, laud it, and swear by it". Although he experienced early literary success, <mask> did not consider turning to a literary profession.Later he would write that he had "tasted the intoxicating pleasure of authorship" but compared such contentment to a sickness, saying: "there is no form of lead-poisoning which more rapidly and thoroughly pervades the blood and bones and marrow than that which reaches the young author through mental contact with type metal". Medical career

Medical training
Having given up on the study of law, <mask> switched to medicine. After leaving his childhood home in Cambridge during the autumn of 1830, he moved into a boardinghouse in Boston to attend the city's medical college. At that time, students studied only five subjects: medicine, anatomy and surgery, obstetrics, chemistry and materia medica. <mask> became a student of James Jackson, a physician and the father of a friend, and worked part-time as a chemist in the hospital dispensary. Dismayed by the "painful and repulsive aspects" of primitive medical treatment of the time—which included practices such as bloodletting and blistering—<mask> responded favorably to his mentor's teachings, which emphasized close observation of the patient and humane approaches. Despite his lack of free time, he was able to continue writing.He wrote two essays during this time which detailed life as seen from his boardinghouse's breakfast table. These essays, which would evolve into one of <mask>'s most popular works, were published in November 1831 and February 1832 in The New-England Magazine under the title "The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table". In 1833, <mask> traveled to Paris to further his medical studies. Recent and radical reorganization of the city's hospital system had made medical training there highly advanced for the time. At twenty-three years old, <mask> was one of the first Americans trained in the new "clinical" method being advanced at the famed École de Médecine. Since the lectures were taught entirely in French, he engaged a private language tutor. Although far from home, he stayed connected to his family and friends through letters and visitors (such as Ralph Waldo Emerson).He quickly acclimated to his new surroundings. While writing to his father, he stated, "I love to talk French, to eat French, to drink French every now and then." At the hospital of La Pitié, he studied under internal pathologist Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis, who demonstrated the ineffectiveness of bloodletting, which had been a mainstay of medical practice since antiquity. Louis was one of the fathers of the méthode expectante, a therapeutic doctrine that states the physician's role is to do everything possible to aid nature in the process of disease recovery, and to do nothing to hinder this natural process. Upon his return to Boston, <mask> became one of the country's leading proponents of the méthode expectante. <mask> was awarded his Doctor of Medicine degree from Harvard in 1836; he wrote his dissertation on acute pericarditis. His first collection of poetry was published later that year, but <mask>, ready to begin his medical career, wrote it off as a one-time event.In the book's introduction, he mused: "Already engaged in other duties, it has been with some effort that I have found time to adjust my own mantle; and I now willingly retire to more quiet labors, which, if less exciting, are more certain to be acknowledged as useful and received with gratitude". Medical reformer
After graduation, <mask> quickly became a fixture in the local medical scene by joining the Massachusetts Medical Society, the Boston Medical Society, and the Boston Society for Medical Improvement—an organization composed of young, Paris-trained doctors. He also gained a greater reputation after winning Harvard Medical School's prestigious Boylston Prize, for which he submitted a paper on the benefits of using the stethoscope, a device with which many American doctors were not familiar. In 1837, <mask> was appointed to the Boston Dispensary, where he was shocked by the poor hygienic conditions. That year he competed for and won both of the Boylston essay prizes. Wishing to concentrate on research and teaching, he, along with three of his peers, established the Tremont Medical School—which would later merge with Harvard Medical School—above an apothecary shop at 35 Tremont Row in Boston. There, he lectured on pathology, taught the use of microscopes, and supervised dissections of cadavers.He often criticized traditional medical practices and once quipped that if all contemporary medicine was tossed into the sea "it would be all the better for mankind—and all the worse for the fishes". For the next ten years, he maintained a small and irregular private medical practice, but spent much of his time teaching. He served on the faculty of Dartmouth Medical School from 1838 to 1840, where he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology. For fourteen weeks each fall, during these years, he traveled to Hanover, New Hampshire, to lecture. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1838. After <mask> resigned his professorship at Dartmouth, he composed a series of three lectures dedicated to exposing medical fallacies, or "quackeries". Adopting a more serious tone than his previous lectures, he took great pains to reveal the false reasoning and misrepresentation of evidence that marked subjects such as "Astrology and Alchemy", his first lecture, and "Medical Delusions of the Past", his second.He deemed homeopathy, the subject of his third lecture, "the pretended science" that was a "mingled mass of perverse ingenuity, of tinsel erudition, of imbecile credulity, and of artful misrepresentation, too often mingled in practice". In 1842, he published the essay "Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions" in which he again denounced the practice. In 1846, <mask> coined the word anaesthesia. In a letter to dentist William T. G. Morton, the first practitioner to publicly demonstrate the use of ether during surgery, he wrote:

<mask> predicted his new term "will be repeated by the tongues of every civilized race of mankind." Study of childbed fever

In 1842 <mask> attended a lecture by Walter Channing to the Boston Society for Medical Improvement about puerperal fever, or "childbed fever", a disease which at the time was a

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 significant cause of mortality of women after delivering children. Becoming interested in the subject, <mask> spent a year going through case reports and other medical literature on the subject to ascertain the cause and possible prevention of the condition. In 1843, he presented his research to the society, which he then published as a paper "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever" in the short-lived publication New England Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery.The essay argued—contrary to popular belief at the time, which predated germ theory of disease—that the cause of puerperal fever, a deadly infection contracted by women during or shortly after childbirth, stems from patient-to-patient contact via their physicians. He believed that bed sheets, washcloths and articles of clothing were of particular concern in this regard. <mask> gathered a large collection of evidence for this theory, including stories of doctors who had become ill and died after performing autopsies on patients who had likewise been infected. In concluding his case, he insisted that a physician in whose practice even one case of puerperal fever had occurred, had a moral obligation to purify his instruments, burn the clothing he had worn while assisting in the fatal delivery, and cease obstetric practice for a period of at least six months. Though it largely escaped notice when first published, <mask> eventually came under attack by two distinguished professors of obstetrics—Hugh L. Hodge and Charles D. Meigs—who adamantly denied his theory of contagion. In 1855, <mask> published a revised version of the essay in the form of a pamphlet under the new title Puerperal Fever as a Private Pestilence, and discussing additional cases. In a new introduction, in which <mask> directly addressed his opponents, he wrote: "I had rather rescue one mother from being poisoned by her attendant, than claim to have saved forty out of fifty patients to whom I had carried the disease."He added, "I beg to be heard in behalf of the women whose lives are at stake, until some stronger voice shall plead for them." A few years later, Ignaz Semmelweis would reach similar conclusions in Vienna, where his introduction of prophylaxis (handwashing in chlorine solution before assisting at delivery) would considerably lower the puerperal mortality rate, and the then-controversial work is now considered a landmark in germ theory of disease. Teaching and lecturing
In 1847, <mask> was hired as Parkman Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Harvard Medical School, where he served as dean until 1853 and taught until 1882. Soon after his appointment, <mask> was criticized by the all-male student body for considering granting admission to a woman named Harriot Kezia Hunt. Facing opposition from not only students but also university overseers and other faculty members, she was asked to withdraw her application. Harvard Medical School would not admit a woman until 1945. <mask>'s training in Paris led him to teach his students the importance of anatomico-pathological basis of disease, and that "no doctrine of prayer or special providence is to be his excuse for not looking straight at secondary causes."Students were fond of <mask>, to whom they referred as "Uncle <mask>". One teaching assistant recalled:

Marriage, family, and later life

On June 15, 1840, <mask> married Amelia Lee Jackson at King's Chapel in Boston. She was the daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson, formerly Associate Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and the niece of James Jackson, the physician with whom <mask> had studied. Judge Jackson gave the couple a house at 8 Montgomery Place, which would be their home for eighteen years. They had three children: Civil War officer and American jurist <mask> <mask>. (1841–1935), Amelia Jackson <mask> (1843–1889), and Edward Jackson <mask> (1846–1884). <mask> inherited $2,000 in 1848, and she and her husband used the money to build a summer house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.Beginning in July 1849, the family spent "seven blessed summers" there. Having recently given up his private medical practice, <mask> was able to socialize with other literary figures who spent time in The Berkshires; in August 1850, for example, <mask> spent time with Evert Augustus Duyckinck, Cornelius Mathews, Herman Melville, James T. Fields and Nathaniel Hawthorne. <mask> enjoyed measuring the circumference of trees on his property and kept track of the data, writing that he had "a most intense, passionate fondness for trees in general, and have had several romantic attachments to certain trees in particular". The high cost of maintaining their home in Pittsfield caused the <mask> family to sell it in May 1856. While serving as dean in 1850, <mask> became a witness for both the defense and prosecution during the notorious Parkman–Webster murder case. Both George Parkman (the victim), a local physician and wealthy benefactor, and John Webster (the assailant) were graduates of Harvard, and Webster was professor of chemistry at the Medical School during the time of the highly publicized murder. He was convicted and hanged.<mask> dedicated his November 1850 introductory lecture at the Medical School to Parkman's memory. The same year, <mask> was approached by Martin Delany, an African-American man who had worked with Frederick Douglass. The 38-year-old requested admission to Harvard after having been previously rejected by four schools despite impressive credentials. In a controversial move, <mask> admitted Delany and two other black men to the Medical School. Their admission sparked a student statement, which read: "Resolved That we have no objection to the education and evaluation of blacks but do decidedly remonstrate against their presence in College with us." Sixty students signed the resolution, although 48 students signed another resolution which noted it would be "a far greater evil, if, in the present state of public feeling, a medical college in Boston could refuse to this unfortunate class any privileges of education, which it is in the power of the profession to bestow". In response, <mask> told the black students they would not be able to continue after that semester.A faculty meeting directed <mask> to write that "the intermixing of races is distasteful to a large portion of the class, & injurious to the interests of the school". Despite his support of education for blacks, he was not an abolitionist; against what he considered the abolitionists' habit of using "every form of language calculated to inflame", he felt that the movement was going too far. This lack of support dismayed friends like James Russell Lowell, who once told <mask> he should be more outspoken against slavery. <mask> calmly responded, "Let me try to improve and please my fellowmen after my own fashion at present." Nonetheless, <mask> believed that slavery could be ended peacefully and legally. <mask> lectured extensively from 1851 to 1856 on subjects such as "Medical Science as It Is or Has Been", "Lectures and Lecturing", and "English Poets of the Nineteenth Century". Traveling throughout New England, he received anywhere from $40 to $100 per lecture, but he also published a great deal during this time, and the British edition of his Poems sold well abroad.As social attitudes began to change, however, <mask> often found himself publicly at odds with those he called the "moral bullies"; because of mounting criticisms from the press regarding <mask>'s vocal anti-abolitionism, as well as his dislike of the growing temperance movement, he chose to discontinue his lecturing and return home. Later literary success and the Civil War
In 1856, the Atlantic or Saturday Club was created to launch and support The Atlantic Monthly. This new magazine was edited by <mask>'s friend James Russell Lowell, and articles were contributed by the New England literary elite such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Lothrop Motley and J. Elliot Cabot. <mask> not only provided its name, but also wrote various pieces for the journal throughout the years. For the magazine's first issue, <mask> produced a new version of two of his earlier essays, "The Autocrat at the Breakfast-Table". Based upon fictionalized breakfast table talk and including poetry, stories, jokes and songs, the work was favored by readers and critics alike and it secured the initial success of The Atlantic Monthly. The essays were collected as a book of the same name in 1858 and became his most enduring work, selling ten thousand copies in three days.Its sequel, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table, was released shortly after beginning in serialized installments in January 1859. <mask>'s first novel, Elsie Venner, was published serially in the Atlantic beginning in December 1859. Originally entitled "The Professor's Story", the novel is about a neurotic young woman whose mother was bitten by a rattlesnake while pregnant, making her daughter's personality half-woman, half-snake. The novel drew a wide range of comments, including praise from John Greenleaf Whittier and condemnation from church papers, which claimed the work a product of heresy. Also in December 1859, <mask> sent medication to the ailing writer Washington Irving after visiting him at his Sunnyside home in New York; Irving died only a few months later. The Massachusetts Historical Society posthumously awarded Irving an honorary membership at a tribute held on December 15, 1859. At the ceremony, <mask> presented an account of his meeting with Irving and a list of medical symptoms he had observed, despite the taboo of discussing health publicly.About 1860, <mask> invented the "American stereoscope", a 19th-century entertainment in which pictures were viewed in 3-D. He later wrote an explanation for its popularity, stating: "There was not any wholly new principle involved in its construction, but, it proved so much more convenient than any hand-instrument in use, that it gradually drove them all out of the field, in great measure, at least so far as the Boston market was concerned." Rather than patenting the hand stereopticon and profiting from its success, <mask> gave the idea away. Soon after South Carolina's secession from the Union in 1861 and the start of the Civil War, <mask> began publishing pieces—the first of which was the patriotic song "A Voice of the Loyal North"—in support of the Union cause. Although he had previously criticized the abolitionists, deeming them traitorous, his main concern was for the preservation of the Union. In September of that year, he published an article titled "Bread and Newspapers" in the Atlantic, in which he proudly identified himself as an ardent Unionist. He wrote, "War has taught us, as nothing else could, what we can be and are" and inspiring even the upper class to have "courage ... big enough for the uniform which hangs so loosely about their slender figures."However, on July 4, 1863, <mask> wrote, "how idle it is to look for any other cause than slavery as having any material agency in dividing the country" and declared it as one of "its sins against a just God". <mask> also had a personal stake in the war: his oldest son, <mask> <mask>., enlisted in the Army against his father's wishes in April 1861 and was injured three times in battle, including a gunshot wound in his chest at the Battle of Ball's Bluff in October 1861. <mask> wrote an account of his search for his son after hearing news of his injury at the Battle of Antietam which was published in The Atlantic Monthly. Amid the Civil War, <mask>'s friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow began translating Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. Beginning in 1864, Longfellow invited several friends to help at weekly meetings held on Wednesdays. The "Dante Club", as it was called, regularly included Longfellow, Lowell, William Dean Howells, Charles Eliot Norton, and <mask>. The final translation was published in three volumes in the spring of 1867.(American novelist Matthew Pearl has fictionalized their efforts in The Dante Club [2003].) The same year the Dante translation was published, <mask>'s second novel, The Guardian Angel, began appearing serially in the Atlantic. It was published in book form in November, though its sales were half that of Elsie Venner. Later years and death
<mask>'s fame continued through his later years. The Poet at the Breakfast-Table was published in 1872. Written fifteen years after The Autocrat, this work's tone was mellower and more nostalgic than its predecessor; "As people grow older," <mask> wrote, "they come at length to live so much in memory that they often think with a kind of pleasure of losing their dearest possessions. Nothing can be so perfect while we possess it as it will seem when remembered".In 1876, at the age of seventy, <mask> published a biography of John Lothrop Motley, which was an extension of an earlier sketch he had written for the Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings. The following year he published a collection of his medical essays and Pages from an Old Volume of Life, a collection of various essays he had previously written for The Atlantic Monthly. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1880. He retired from Harvard Medical School in 1882 after thirty-five years as a professor. After he gave his final lecture on November 28, the university made him professor emeritus. In 1884, <mask> published a book dedicated to the life and works of his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson. Later biographers would use <mask>'s book as an outline for their own studies, but particularly useful was the section dedicated to Emerson's poetry, into which <mask> had particular insight.Beginning in January 1885, <mask>'s third and last novel, A Mortal Antipathy, was published serially in The Atlantic Monthly. Later that year, <mask> contributed $10 to Walt Whitman, though he did not approve of his poetry, and convinced friend John Greenleaf Whittier to do the same. A friend of Whitman, a lawyer named Thomas Donaldson, had requested monetary donations from several authors to purchase a horse and buggy for Whitman who, in his old age, was becoming a shut-in. Suffering from exhaustion, and mourning the sudden death of his youngest son, <mask> began postponing his writing and social engagements. In late 1884, he embarked on a visit to Europe with his daughter Amelia. In Great Britain he met with writers such as Henry James, George du Maurier and Alfred Tennyson, and was awarded a Doctor of Letters degree from the University of Cambridge, a Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Edinburgh, and a third honorary degree from the University of Oxford. <mask> and Amelia then visited Paris, a place that had significantly influenced him in his earlier years.He met with chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur, whose previous studies in germ theory had helped reduce the mortality rate of women suffering from puerperal fever. <mask> called Pasteur "one of the truest benefactors of his race". After returning to the United States, <mask> published a travelogue, Our One Hundred Days in Europe. In June 1886, <mask> received an honorary degree from Yale University Law School. His wife of more than forty years, who had struggled with an illness that had kept her an invalid for months, died on February 6, 1888. The younger Amelia died the following year after a brief malady. Despite his weakening eyesight and a fear that he was becoming antiquated, <mask> continued to find solace in writing.He published Over the Teacups, the last of his table-talk books, in 1891. Towards the end of his life, <mask> noted that he had outlived most of

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 his friends, including Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. As he said, "I feel like my own survivor ... We were on deck together as we began the voyage of life ... Then the craft which held us began going to pieces." His last public appearance was at a reception for the National Education Association in Boston on February 23, 1893, where he presented the poem "To the Teachers of America". A month later, <mask> wrote to Harvard president Charles William Eliot that the university should consider adopting the honorary doctor of letters degree and offer one to Samuel Francis Smith, though one was never issued. <mask> died quietly after falling asleep in the afternoon of Sunday, October 7, 1894. As his son <mask> <mask>. wrote, "His death was as peaceful as one could wish for those one loves.He simply ceased to breathe." <mask>'s memorial service was held at King's Chapel and overseen by Edward Everett Hale. <mask> was buried alongside his wife in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Writing

Poetry
<mask> is one of the fireside poets, together with William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and John Greenleaf Whittier. These poets—whose writing was characterized as family-friendly and conventional—were among the first Americans to build substantial popularity in Europe. <mask> in particular believed poetry had "the power of transfiguring the experiences and shows of life into an aspect which comes from the imagination and kindles that of others". Due to his immense popularity during his lifetime, <mask> was often called upon to produce commemorative poetry for specific occasions, including memorials, anniversaries and birthdays.Referring to this demand for his attention, he once wrote that he was "a florist in verse, and what would people say / If I came to a banquet without my bouquet?" As critic Hyatt Waggoner noted, however, "very little ... survives the occasions that produced it". <mask> became known as a poet who expressed the benefits of loyalty and trust at serious gatherings, as well as one who showed wit at festivities and celebrations. Edwin Percy Whipple for one considered <mask> to be "a poet of sentiment and passion. Those who know him only as a comic lyricist, as the libellous laureate of chirping follow and presumptuous egotism, would be surprised at the clear sweetness and skylark thrill of his serious and sentimental compositions". In addition to the commemorative nature of much of <mask>'s poetry, some pieces were written based on his observations of the world around him. This is the case with two of <mask>'s best known and critically successful poems—"Old Ironsides" and "The Last Leaf"—which were published when he was a young adult.As is seen with poems such as "The Chambered Nautilus" and " or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay", <mask> successfully concentrated his verse upon concrete objects with which he was long familiar, or had studied at length, such as the one-horse shay or a seashell. Some of his works also deal with his personal or family history; for example, the poem "Dorothy Q" is a portrait of his maternal great-grandmother. The poem combines pride, humor and tenderness in short rhyming couplets:

<mask>, an outspoken critic of over-sentimental Transcendentalist and Romantic poetry, often slipped into sentimentality when writing his occasional poetry, but would often balance such emotional excess with humor. Critic George Warren Arms believed <mask>'s poetry to be provincial in nature, noting his "New England homeliness" and "Puritan familiarity with household detail" as proof. In his poetry, <mask> often connected the theme of nature to human relations and social teachings; poems such as "The Ploughman" and "The New Eden", which were delivered in commemoration of Pittsfield's scenic countryside, were even quoted in the 1863 edition of the Old Farmer's Almanac. He composed several hymn texts, including Thou Gracious God, Whose Mercy Lends and Lord of All Being, Throned Afar. Prose
Although mainly known as a poet, <mask> wrote numerous medical treatises, essays, novels, memoirs and table-talk books.His prose works include topics that range from medicine to theology, psychology, society, democracy, sex and gender, and the natural world. Author and critic William Dean Howells argued that <mask> created a genre called dramatized (or discursive) essay, in which major themes are informed by the story's plot, but his works often use a combination of genres; excerpts of poetry, essays and conversations are often included throughout his prose. Critic William Lawrence Schroeder described <mask>'s prose style as "attractive" in that it "made no great demand on the attention of the reader." He further stated that although the author's earlier works (The Autocrat and The Professor of the Breakfast-Table) are "virile and fascinating", later ones such as Our Hundred Days in Europe and Over the Teacups "have little distinction of style to recommend them." <mask> first gained international fame with his "Breakfast-Tables" series. These three table-talk books attracted a diverse audience due to their conversational style, which made readers feel an intimate connection to the author, and resulted in a flood of letters from admirers. The series' conversational tone is not only meant to mimic the philosophical debates and pleasantries that occur around the breakfast table, but it is also used in order to facilitate an openness of thought and expression.As the Autocrat, <mask> states in the first volume:

The various speakers represent different facets of <mask>'s life and experiences. The speaker of the first installment, for example, is understood to be a doctor who spent several years studying in Paris, while the second volume—The Professor at the Breakfast-Table—is told from the point of view of a professor of a distinguished medical school. Although the speakers discuss myriad topics, the flow of conversation always leads to supporting <mask>'s Paris-taught conception of science and medicine and how they relate to morality and the mind. Autocrat in particular addresses philosophical issues such as the nature of one's self, language, life and truth. <mask> wrote in the second preface to Elsie Venner, his first novel, that his aim in writing the work was "to test the doctrine of 'original sin' and human responsibility for the distorted violation coming under that technical denomination". He also stated his belief that "a grave scientific doctrine may be detected lying beneath some of the delineations of character" throughout all fiction. Deeming the work a "psychological romance", he employed a romantic narrative in order to describe moral theology from a scientific perspective.This means of expression is also present in his two other novels, in which <mask> uses medical or psychological dilemmas to further the story's dramatic plot. <mask> referred to his novels as "medicated novels". Some critics believe that these works were innovative in exploring theories of Sigmund Freud and other emerging psychiatrists and psychologists. The Guardian Angel, for example, explores mental health and repressed memory, and <mask> uses the concept of the unconscious mind throughout his works. A Mortal Antipathy depicts a character whose phobias are rooted in psychic trauma, later cured by shock therapy. <mask>'s novels were not critically successful during his lifetime. As psychiatrist Clarence P. Oberndorf, author of The Psychiatric Novels of <mask> Wendell Holmes, states, the three works are "poor fiction when judged by modern criteria.... Their plots are simple, almost juvenile and, in two of them, the reader is not disappointed in the customary thwarting of the villain and the coming of true love to its own". Legacy and criticism

<mask> was well respected by his peers, and garnered a large, international following throughout his long life. Particularly noted for his intelligence, he was named by American theologian Henry James Sr. "intellectually the most alive man I ever knew". Critic John G. Palfrey also praised <mask>, referring to him as "a man of genius ... His manner is entirely his own, manly and unaffected; generally easy and playful, and sinking at times into 'a most humorous sadness'". On the other hand, critics S. I. Hayakawa and Howard Mumford Jones argued that <mask> was "distinctly an amateur in letters. His literary writings, on the whole, are partly the leisure-born meditations of a physician, partly a means of spreading certain items of professional propaganda, partly a distillation of his social life." Like Samuel Johnson in 18th-century England, <mask> was noted for his conversational powers in both his life and literary output.Though he was popular at the national level, <mask> promoted Boston culture and often wrote from a Boston-centric point of view, believing the city was "the thinking centre of the continent, and therefore of the planet". He is often referred to as a Boston Brahmin, a term that he created while referring to the oldest families in the Boston area. The term, as he used it, referred not only to members of a good family but also implied intellectualism. He also famously nicknamed Emerson's The American Scholar the American "intellectual Declaration of Independence". Although his essay on puerperal fever has been deemed "the most important contribution made in America to the advancement of medicine" up to that time, <mask> is most famous as a humorist and poet. Editor and critic George Ripley, an admirer of <mask>, referred to him as "one of the wittiest and most original of modern poets". Emerson noted that, though <mask> did not renew his focus on poetry until later in his life, he quickly perfected his role "like old pear trees which have done nothing for ten years, and at last begin to grow great."Poems by <mask>, along with those by the other fireside or schoolroom poets, were often required to be memorized by schoolchildren. Although learning by rote recitation began fading out by the 1890s, these poets nevertheless remained fixed as ideal New England poets. Literary scholar Lawrence Buell wrote of these poets: "we value [them] less than the nineteenth century did but still regard as the mainstream of nineteenth-century New England verse." Many of these poets soon became recognized only as children's poets, as noted by a 20th-century scholar who asked about <mask>'s contemporary Longfellow: "Who, except wretched schoolchildren, now reads Longfellow?" Another modern scholar notes that "<mask> is a casualty of the ongoing movement to revise the literary canon. His work is the least likely of the Fireside Poets to find its way into American literature anthologies." The school library of Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where <mask> studied as a child, is named the <mask> Wendell Holmes Library, or the OWHL, in his memory.Items from <mask>'s personal library—including medical papers, essays, songs and poems—are held in the library's Special Collections department. In 1915, Bostonians placed a memorial seat and sundial behind <mask>'s final home at 296 Beacon Street in a spot where he would have seen it from his library. King's Chapel in Boston, where <mask> worshiped, erected an inscribed memorial tablet in his honor. The tablet notes <mask>'s achievements in the order he recognized them: "Teacher of Anatomy, Essayist and Poet". It ends with a quote from Horace's Ars Poetica: Miscuit Utile Dulci: "He mingled the useful with the pleasant." Selected list of works
Poetry
 Poems (1836)
 Songs in Many Keys (1862)

Medical and psychological studies
 Puerperal Fever as a Private Pestilence (1855)
 Mechanism in Thought and Morals (1871)

Table-talk books
 The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1858)
 The Professor at the Breakfast-Table (1860)
 The Poet at the Breakfast-Table (1872)
 Over the Teacups (1891)

Novels
 Elsie Venner (1861)
 The Guardian Angel (1867)
 A Mortal Antipathy (1885)

Articles
 "The Stereoscope and the Stereograph", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 6 (1859)
 "Sun-painting and sun-sculpture", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 8 (July 1861)
 "Doings of the sun-beam", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 12 (July 1863)

Biographies and travelogue
 John Lothrop Motley, A Memoir (1876)
 Ralph Waldo Emerson (1884)
 Our Hundred Days in Europe (1887)

See also

 Epeolatry, a term coined by <mask>
 George Livermore, a childhood classmate
 <mask>, North Carolina, a town named after Holmes

Notes

References

 Arms, George Warren. The Fields Were Green: A New View of Bryant, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, and Longfellow.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1953. .
 Broaddus, Dorothy C. Genteel Rhetoric: Writing High Culture in Nineteenth-Century Boston. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, 1999. .
 Dowling, William C.  <mask> <mask> in Paris: Medicine, Theology, and The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. Hanover: University Press of New England, 2006. .
 Gibian, Peter. <mask> Holmes and the Culture of Conversation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. .
 <mask>, <mask>. The Complete Poetical Works of <mask> Wendell <mask>. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1908. .
 Hoyt, Edwin Palmer.The Improper Bostonian: Dr. <mask> <mask>. New York: Morrow, 1979. .
 Kennedy, William Sloane. <mask> <mask>: Poet, Littérateur, Scientist. Boston: S.E. Cassino, 1883. .
 Knight, Denise D. "<mask> <mask> (1809–1894)", Writers of the American Renaissance: An A-to-Z Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. .
 Menand, Louis. The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America.New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. .

 Novick, Sheldon M. Honorable Justice: The Life of <mask> <mask>. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989. .
 Schroeder, William Lawrence. <mask> Wendell Holmes, an appreciation. London: Philip Green, 1909. .
 Small, Miriam Rossiter. <mask> <mask>. Twayne's United States authors series, 29. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1962. .
 Sullivan, Wilson.New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972. .
 Tilton, Eleanor M. Amiable Autocrat: A Biography of Dr. <mask> <mask>. New York: H. Schuman, 1947. .
 Weinstein, Michael A. The Imaginative Prose of <mask> <mask>. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006. . External links

Sources

 Oliver Wendell Holmes Library, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress
 <mask> Wendell Holmes letters. Available online through Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera.Other
 The name of <mask> – Dr. <mask>
 Quotes by <mask> <mask>, Sr.
 "The Annotated Autocrat" a mostly complete set of annotations to <mask>'s Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
 "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever" by <mask>
 The Deacon's Masterpiece The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay: A Logical Story – audio reading
 Works with text by <mask>, <mask>

1809 births
1894 deaths
19th-century American novelists
19th-century American poets
American essayists
American expatriates in France
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
19th-century American physicians
American medical writers
Arthur Conan Doyle
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Geisel School of Medicine faculty
Harvard Medical School alumni
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Phillips Academy alumni
Novelists from Massachusetts
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
American male novelists
American male essayists
American male poets
Hasty Pudding alumni
Harvard College alumni
People from Beacon Hill, Boston
Occasional

masks:
Holmes
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Oliver Wendell
Holmes Jr
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<mask> (born ,  Mount Vernon, Virginia – year and place of death unknown), was an enslaved house servant at George Washington's plantation, Mount Vernon, in Virginia, United States. As a teenager, he worked as Washington's "body servant" in the presidential households in New York City, 1789–90, and Philadelphia, 1790–91. In September 1799, Washington foiled an escape attempt by <mask> from Mount Vernon. Three months later he was present at the former president's deathbed. Dower slaves
Sheels was the property of the estate of Daniel Parke Custis (1711–1757), Martha Washington's first husband. As widow, she was granted the lifetime use of one-third of the Custis Estate slaves, hence the term "dower" slaves. At the time of her January 1759 marriage to George Washington, the dower slaves numbered at least 85 persons.Under Virginia law, the legal status of a slave was traced through the female, so all the children of an enslaved mother were born enslaved, no matter who the father was. Multiple generations of dower slaves were born at Mount Vernon. The July 1799 Mount Vernon Slave Census lists 153 dower slaves. While George Washington freed his 123 slaves through his 1799 will, the dower slaves remained the property of the Custis estate. Following Martha Washington's 1802 death, the Custis estate was settled, and the dower slaves were inherited by the four Custis grandchildren. Background
Sheels was the son of Alyce (also spelled Alce), an enslaved spinner at the Mansion. His father may have been <mask>, a white wagon driver, who worked at Mount Vernon until December 1773, and he is listed as "11 yrs.old" in the February 1786 Mount Vernon Slave Census. His grandmother, "Old Doll," was a cook at the Mansion, and had been among the original dower slaves who were brought to Mount Vernon in 1759. Will Lee had been Washington's "body servant" through the Revolutionary War, the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and at Mount Vernon. In April 1789, when Washington set out for New York City to be inaugurated as the first President of the United States, Lee was too ill to make the trip. The fourteen-year-old went in Lee's place, although Lee joined <mask> in the presidential household several weeks later. The two were related: Lee's brother was married to <mask>' aunt. Presidential households
Following ratification of the U.S. Constitution, New York City served as the national capital from December 1788 to December 1790.Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789. The first presidential household consisted of about twenty servants, including seven slaves from Mount Vernon — Oney Judge, Austin, Giles, Paris, Moll, <mask>, and William Lee. Under the July 1790 Residence Act, Congress moved the national capital to Philadelphia for a ten-year period, while the permanent national capital was under construction in the District of Columbia. The Philadelphia President's House had a larger household, about twenty-four servants initially, including eight slaves from Mount Vernon — Oney Judge, Austin, Giles, Paris, Moll, Hercules, Richmond, and <mask>. Will Lee was never part of the Philadelphia presidential household. He was permanently returned to Mount Vernon, where he became the plantation's shoemaker. Following Austin's 1794 death,  "Postilion Joe" (Richardson) joined the Philadelphia presidential household.Gradual Abolition Act
With the 1780 Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, Pennsylvania's government was the first to begin an abolition of slavery. But the state law was very gradual, and highly-respectful of the property rights of slaveholders. It freed only the future children of enslaved mothers. Every person enslaved in Pennsylvania before the law went into effect remained enslaved-for-life. Non-resident slaveholders could keep their slaves for six months while in the state. But, if those slaves were held in Pennsylvania longer than six months, the state law empowered them to legally free themselves. Philadelphia had functioned as the national capital during the Revolutionary War.When the Gradual Abolition Act was drafted, the federal government had a single branch – Congress – which met in the city. Pennsylvania specifically exempted Congressmen and their personal slaves from the 1780 state law. Ten years later, when the national capital returned to Philadelphia, the U.S. Constitution had been ratified and the federal government had three branches. Members of Congress remained exempt from Pennsylvania's Gradual Abolition Act, however, the law's effects on slaveholding officers of the Judicial and Executive branches remained unclear. Washington argued, privately, that his presence in Pennsylvania was solely a consequence of Philadelphia's being the temporary seat of the federal government, that he remained a citizen of Virginia, and Pennsylvania law should not apply to him. On the advice of his attorney general, Edmund Randolph, he systematically rotated the President's House slaves in and out of the state to prevent their establishing a six-month continuous residency. This rotation was arguably a violation of a 1788 amendment to the Pennsylvania law, but Washington remained unchallenged through his residency in Philadelphia.As the first six-month deadline approached in May 1791, Martha Washington took <mask> and Oney Judge on a two-day trip to Trenton, New Jersey, thus voiding their Pennsylvania residencies. Mount Vernon
Sheels was permanently returned to Mount Vernon by January 1792, where he worked as a waiter, serving the family meals. Washington completed his second term as President in March 1797, and returned to Virginia. In September 1799, Washington discovered a note outlining an escape plan from Mount Vernon for <mask> and his fiancee. (The note proves that <mask> could read.) Washington foiled the escape. Three months later, <mask> was at his bedside when Washington died on December 14, 1799.As a dower slave, <mask> was not among the 123 slaves freed by George Washington under the terms of his 1799 will. Following Martha Washington's 1802 death, <mask> became one of the 153 dower slaves inherited by the four Custis grandchildren. There is no documentation of where he lived the rest of his life or when he died. See also
 List of enslaved people of Mount Vernon
 George Washington and slavery
 Samuel Osgood House – First Presidential Mansion
 Alexander Macomb House – Second Presidential Mansion
 President's House (Philadelphia) – Third Presidential Mansion

References

1770s births
19th-century deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death unknown
Mount Vernon slaves
People from Mount Vernon, Virginia
Virginia colonial people

masks:
Christopher Sheels
Sheels
Christopher Sheldes
Sheels
Sheels
Christopher Sheels
Christopher Sheels
Sheels
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General <mask> (born February 22, 1937) was briefly the 13th Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force for 79 days in 1990 until he was dismissed by United States Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney after telling reporters that the U.S. military planned to target Saddam Hussein, his family, and even his mistress in the Gulf War with Iraq. He became the first member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to be dismissed since Admiral Louis Denfeld in 1949, and the first top general to be relieved since General MacArthur in 1951. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Albany, New York. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Military Academy in 1958, and a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Colorado in 1972. He completed Squadron Officer School in 1965, Air Command and Staff College in 1970 and the Air War College in 1973. Military career
<mask>'s early operational assignments were in F-100s and A-1s. He flew A-1s during 1967, from Pleiku Air Base, Republic of Vietnam, and Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand.He then planned and taught cadet military training courses and served as cadet squadron and group air officer commanding at the United States Air Force Academy. From June 1973 to July 1977, <mask> was assigned to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., as an action officer and branch chief in the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Plans and Operations, and then as executive to the vice chief of staff. He next served at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, as vice commander and, later, commander of the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing. He subsequently became commander of the 23rd Tactical Fighter Wing, England Air Force Base, Louisiana, and commander of the 832d Air Division, Luke Air Force Base, Arizona. In May 1982, he moved to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, where he served successively as Tactical Air Command's assistant deputy chief of staff for operations, inspector general and deputy chief of staff for operations. He was assigned to the deputy chief of staff for plans and operations at Air Force headquarters as director of operations in June 1986, and as assistant deputy chief of staff in January 1987. He became the Air Force deputy chief of staff, programs and resources, in July 1987.He then became deputy chief of staff, plans and operations, in March 1988. <mask> assumed command of U.S. Air Forces in Europe on April 12, 1989 and was promoted to general on May 1, 1989, with the same date of rank. He went on to become Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in July 1990. As chief, he served as the senior uniformed Air Force officer responsible for the organization, training and equipage of a combined active duty, Guard, Reserve and civilian force of nearly 1 million people serving at approximately 3,000 locations in the United States and overseas. As a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he and the other service chiefs functioned as the principal military advisers to the Secretary of Defense, National Security Council and the President. During his brief tenure as Chief of Staff, Alaskan Air Command stood down, and was reduced to Numbered Air Force status as Headquarters, Eleventh Air Force, falling under the jurisdiction of Pacific Air Forces. <mask> is a command pilot with 4,500 flying hours and 300 combat missions.His military decorations include the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Star, Legion of Merit with two oak leaf clusters, Distinguished Flying Cross, Purple Heart, Air Medal, Air Force Commendation Medal with two oak leaf clusters and Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm. Removal from post
In September 1990, during the lead-up to the Persian Gulf War after Saddam Hussein's Iraq had invaded Kuwait, <mask> revealed to reporters that the U.S. military had plans to bomb Baghdad relentlessly and "decapitate" the Iraqi leadership by targeting Hussein personally, along with his family, his senior commanders, his palace guard and even his mistress. He said that he had personally "assigned a team to find Iraqi military defectors, knowledgeable professors, Iraqi expatriates and journalists who recently have visited Baghdad to learn more about Iraqi culture" so that he could get "a better list" of targets that would cause the most psychological damage to the Iraqi people if bombed. "The list stressed the importance of attacking Hussein and his inner circle, but beyond that, Dugan would not detail the potential Iraqi leverage points he intend[ed] to try to destroy." United States Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, who had warned Dugan previously about speaking with journalists because he was known to be "loose-lipped," fired General Dugan. Cheney said that Dugan showed "poor judgment at a sensitive time"  adding, "We never talk about the targeting of specific individuals who are officials of other governments. Taking such action might be a violation of the standing presidential executive order 'banning assassinations.'"<mask> was replaced by Merrill McPeak and retired from the Air Force on January 1, 1991. On January 17, 1991, the aerial bombardment of Iraq began which destroyed much of the civilian and military infrastructure of Iraq, though Saddam Hussein, his family, and mistress were unharmed. After being removed from office, <mask> remained on active-duty while transitioning into retirement. He was allowed to hold onto his four-star rank, and was reassigned as the Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Air Force. The Senate approved <mask>'s four-star retirement rank and he retired from the Air Force on January 1, 1991. Post-military career
<mask> went on to serve as the president of the National Multiple Sclerosis Society and is now President-Emeritus of that organization. References
Official USAF Biography

See also
List of commanders of USAFE

1937 births
Living people
Chiefs of Staff of the United States Air Force
United States Military Academy alumni
Military personnel from Albany, New York
Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Order of the Sword (United States)
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal

masks:
Michael Joseph Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
Dugan
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<mask> (11 February 1872 – 22 October 1956) was an English suffragette and socialist. Born into a poor farming family in Derbyshire, <mask> left home at a young age to work as a seamstress in Bolton, where she became involved in the socialist movement. She worked for many years in organisations related to socialism, women's suffrage and pacifism. After World War I she was elected to Manchester City Council and worked as a magistrate, before later working for Labour Party leader, Keir Hardie. Biography

Early life

<mask> was born on 11 February 1872 to Benjamin and Ann Webster in a farmhouse named after and just below Alport Castles in Hope Woodlands, in the Derbyshire Peak District. The daughter of a farmer, she was the fourth of six children. Her mother had a temper especially with her last three children, <mask>, Sarah and Benjamin.Webster was not permitted a formal education, although her father who was mild mannered taught her to read. <mask> stayed at home performing domestic duties with her mother, with whom she did not get on. She was expected to look after her father and brothers, which she resented. Early on <mask> became acutely aware of gender inequality in the domestic sphere. She also observed the seemingly inevitable early marriages of girls around her to "farm lads", to avoid having children out of wedlock, and was keen to avoid the same fate. She later said in her autobiography that her mother was a bad-tempered and violent woman who sometimes made her children sleep in the barn. When she was 13 she became an apprentice dressmaker, to earn extra money for her impoverished family.In Glossop, her mistress was an older crippled seamstress, Miss Brown. <mask> wrote that her approach was a contrast to her mother and she gently taught  "that work could also be a pleasure." At the age of 14, after an argument with her mother, she left home and went to live with her brother William and family in Glossop and at nineteen moved into Bolton, Lancashire, where she found work as a dressmaker 'earning ten shillings a week' and in domestic service. Marriage and socialism
In Bolton, <mask> started improving her education, originally hoping to become a teacher. One job she had was in the household of a schoolmaster, who allowed her to borrow his books. She became involved in the socialist movement and spoke up for shorter hours and a half-day off (paid) weekly for shop workers, and commented that the working conditions of women in the garment industry included not only poor pay and conditions, also required strict silence and fines "enforced by a thin-liped shrew of a woman." <mask> also attended The Labour Church.She was particularly influenced by Robert Blatchford's newspaper The Clarion. At one meeting she attended, she heard Katharine Glasier speak. In the house where she lodged, she met a tailor's cutter called Gibbon <mask>, and both were known to Richard Pankhurst, supporting his interest in Kinder Scout area. Although she was cautious about marriage, from her observations of her family members, the young couple both longed for their own home. They married in Hayfield parish church in 1895, <mask> wearing a grey dress and matching velvet hat, and she gave birth to a son, Frank Gibbon <mask> in 1896. Because of the difficulty of this birth and the reluctance to bring more children into poverty, <mask> resolved to have no more. She and her husband agreed to use birth control and had no further children.As well as their son, the <mask>s also cared for an orphaned niece. She soon found herself disillusioned by marriage. Although her husband initially agreed to her requests for an equal division of labour in their household, she found that reality did not quite live up to this ideal. She continued to work as a seamstress to supplement Gibbon's meagre earnings, and found the rest of her time taken up with household chores. Like other women in the socialist movement, <mask> struggled to convince male socialists of the importance of feminist issues. The couple moved to Newhall, Derbyshire where socialists in this mining area co-funded a hall for meetings, and speakers often were accommodated with the <mask>s. In 1900 they moved to Ashton-under-Lyne, near Manchester, where Gibbon worked in the tailoring section of the Co-operative store.<mask> herself began to speak publicly at meetings of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). She was appointed by the party as Poor Law Guardian for their town in 1904. Role in women's suffrage movement
<mask> then joined, and worked as a part-time organiser for, Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst's Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Although initially unsure about the 'property qualification' proposals expected to be acceptable, <mask> wanted a truer equality for all male and female voters. But hearing Annie Kenney's talk at Stalybridge Market she noted that despite appearing charmed by the speaker, the majority would support getting votes for all men (Manhood Suffrage) and make the women wait even longer to be enfranchised. <mask> also toured the country including the working class villages in Colne Valley making speeches, herself, and 'had no difficulty' including 'dealing with hecklers'  as she campaigned for women's suffrage at by-elections. In 1905, <mask> joined Emmeline Pankhurst, Annie Kenney, Keir Hardie, Theresa Billington and Mrs Elmy at the prison gates when Christabel Pankhurst was released after a week of imprisonment for the first assault in the cause, spitting at a policeman.She was again with the 150 women who tried in October 1905, to enter the House of Commons , and only 20 were allowed in, including <mask>. With Louie CulIen, <mask> had hidden a 'Votes for Women" banner in her clothes. Mary Gawthorpe stood on a chair to make a speech after their leaders told them that Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman was not presenting a women's suffrage Bill, and was pulled down by police, the two banners were raised up but police tore them down into 'shreds'. She was shocked to see the rough treatment of Mrs Pankhurst and that the Members of Parliament quickly came to watch "most of them guffawing loudly'. <mask> was then campaigning in Huddersfield by-election where 'Yorkshire women heard the call and followed us in hundreds'. <mask> also was involved with the Liverpool branch started up by Alice Morrissey. In 1907 <mask> suffered a nervous breakdown which her doctor put down to overwork and malnourishment.While she was recovering, Charlotte Despard visited her and gave her money for food. In her autobiography she mentioned the hurt that she felt when none of the Pankhursts contacted her during her recovery. In 1908 she left the WSPU, and joined Despard's new Women's Freedom League. During the First World War, <mask> supported the pacifist movement volunteering for organisations such as the ILP No Conscription Fellowship and the Women's International League. In 1918 she started to work with the ILP again and in 1924 they nominated her as a member of Manchester City Council. She was elected and served until 1935. She became a magistrate in 1926, and served in that capacity for the next 20 years.Later life
On 9 May 1939, <mask> helped to organise a meeting of 40 ex-suffragettes in Manchester. Towards the end of the Second World War, she began work on her autobiography, which remained unpublished in her lifetime. After the war, she began writing for The Northern Voice and Manchester City News. In the last years of her life, <mask> lived in Newton Heath. There is a blue plaque on the house at 18 Ingham Street, Newton Heath dedicated to her, where she wrote her autobiography "The Hard Way Up". <mask> died on 22 October 1956 at home in Manchester. Her autobiography, The Hard Way Up, the Autobiography of <mask>, Suffragette and Rebel, was edited by her grandson and published in 1968.There is also a blue plaque dedicated to her on the wall of the house that she lived in with her family in Ashton-under-Lyne between 1900 and 1910. Hannah Mitchell Foundation
2012 saw the formation of the Hannah Mitchell Foundation, a forum for the development of devolved government in the North of England. The name was chosen "in memory of an outstanding Northern socialist, feminist and co-operator who was proud of her working class roots and had a cultural as well as political vision." Notes

References

1872 births
1956 deaths
English feminists
English pacifists
English socialists
English suffragists
People from High Peak, Derbyshire
English socialist feminists
People from Bolton
People from Newton Heath
Women's Social and Political Union
Hunger Strike Medal recipients

masks:
Hannah Mitchell
Mitchell
Hannah Webster
Hannah
Hannah
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Hannah
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Mitchell
Hannah
Mitchell
Hannah Mitchell


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<mask> (11 July 1942 – 29 July 2018) was a Polish trumpeter and composer. Stańko was associated with free jazz and the avant-garde. In 1962, <mask> formed his first band, the Jazz Darings, with saxophonist Janusz Muniak, pianist Adam Makowicz, bassist Jacek Ostaszewski, drummer Wiktor Perelmuter. Inspired by Ornette Coleman and the innovations of John Coltrane, Miles Davis and George Russell, the group is often cited by music historians as the first European group to play free jazz. In his later years, he collaborated with pianist Krzysztof Komeda on Komeda's album Astigmatic, recorded in late 1965. In 1968, <mask> formed a quintet whose members were Janusz Muniak (tenor and soprano saxophones, flute), Zbigniew Seifert (alto sax and violin), Bronisław Suchanek (bass), Janusz Stefański (drums, percussion). In 1975, he formed the Tomasz Stańko-Adam Makowicz Unit.<mask> established a reputation as a leading figure not only in Polish jazz, but internationally as well, working with musicians including Jack DeJohnette, Dave Holland, Reggie Workman, Rufus Reid, Lester Bowie, David Murray, Manu Katché and Chico Freeman. From 1984, he was a member of Cecil Taylor's big band. Biography

Early years

<mask> <mask> was born in Rzeszów, Poland, on 11 July 1942. His first encounters with jazz were through Voice of America radio programs and tours initiated by the U.S. State Department. Coming of age in Communist Poland, <mask> was impressed by the correlation jazz had with a message of freedom. In 1958 he saw his first jazz concert given by Dave Brubeck. Along with the pianist Adam Makowicz and with the saxophonist Janusz Muniak, the group took inspiration from the music of musicians such as Ornette Coleman, George Russell and Miles Davis and was considered by many critics to be the first group in Europe to perform in the free jazz idiom.In 1963 <mask> joined the Krzysztof Komeda quintet, where he learned much about harmony, musical structure and asymmetry. During his career with Komeda, which concluded in 1967, Stańko did five tours with the pianist and recorded eleven albums with him. In 1968 <mask> formed a quintet that met critical acclaim—one that included Zbigniew Seifert on violin and alto saxophone. In 1970, he joined the Globe Unity Orchestra, and in 1971 he collaborated with Krzysztof Penderecki and Don Cherry. Not long after he formed a quartet that included himself, saxophonist <mask> Szukalski and Finnish drummer Edward Vesala. His performances with Vesala are often considered to be some of his most important work. In 1975, he formed the Tomasz <mask>-Adam Makowicz Unit.1980s and 1990s
During the 1980s, he traveled to India and recorded solo work in the Taj Mahal, and also worked with Chico Freeman and Howard Johnson in Vesala's solo album Heavy Life. In the mid-1980s, he began doing extensive work with Cecil Taylor, performing in his big bands and also led various groups of his own, including COCX (with Vitold Rek and Apostolis Anthimos). Then, before returning to ECM Records, <mask> also worked in a trio that included himself, Arild Andersen and Jon Christensen. In 1993, <mask> formed a new quartet composed of the then 16-year-old drummer Michał Miśkiewicz, along with Miśkiewicz's two friends, pianist Marcin Wasilewski and bassist Sławomir Kurkiewicz. That same year he also formed an international quartet that included Bobo Stenson, Tony Oxley and Anders Jormin. in 1994 the quartet released their first ECM recording titled Matka Joanna. In 1997, <mask> formed a group which performed the songs of pianist Krzysztof Komeda, touring London, Copenhagen, Stockholm and appearing at jazz festivals like those in Nancy and Berlin.The idea for the project came from ECM president Manfred Eicher. <mask> lost his natural teeth in the 1990s, although over time he developed a new embouchure with the help of a skilled dentist and monotonous practice. He would spend long hours playing what he deemed to be "boring" long tones which helped to strengthen his lip, in spite of playing with the disadvantage of false teeth. 2000s

The early 2000s was a time of extensive international touring. This experience led to a second album of <mask>'s Polish quartet Suspended Night. Billboard magazine noted that this album was one of the bestselling jazz albums of 2004 in the United States. Together with Suspended Night ECM released a collection of <mask>'s recording in its Rarum/ Selected Recordings series.In 2005 the quartet recorded the last joint album Lontano, again for ECM. Having an established position on the world jazz stage, each album of the quartet as celebrated across Europe and the United States. In 2005 the band also made its first tour around Asia and Australia. In 2005 <mask> also created music for the Warsaw Uprising Museum titled Freedom in August. The second half of the first decade 2000 saw a new resurgence in Stańko's career: a chapter of experiments, creating projects, searching for new sounds. As a result of these experiences, in 2007 a new band, a Scandinavian quintet composed of Alexi Tuomarila, Jakob Bro, Anders Christensen and Olavi Louhivuori, was formed, with which <mask> recorded the 2009 album Dark Eyes for ECM. Later years
The end of the first decade of the 21st century marked the beginning of the New York period in Stańko's life.His move to Manhattan saw him give regular concerts in New York venues and clubs, such as Birdland, Jazz Standard and Merking Hall. Stańko used the opportunity to meet with local musicians and absorbed new ideas and richness of sounds. New projects were spontaneously created, including those with Lee Konitz, Craig Taborn, Thomas Morgan, Gerald Cleaver, Chris Potter and others. The idea of the New York Quartet was forming which, after various combinations, eventually formed in 2012. <mask>'s autobiography Desperado was published in Poland in 2010, a multi-part interview conducted by Rafał Księżyk. In November 2010 he took part in the "Szakala Day" charity concert, in Warsaw, in aid of saxophonist <mask> Szukalski. In 2011 the Smithsonian Institution, the world's largest museum and education and research complex, published the six-disc compilation Jazz: The Smithsonian Anthology, which closes with "Suspended Night Variation VIII" by Stańko.The second decade of the 21st century saw the emergence of <mask>'s new poetry-based project. Its beginnings date back to 2009 when Jerzy Ilg, editor-in-chief of Znak Publishing House, invited the trumpeter to one of the last poetry nights of Wisława Szymborska. During the meeting at the Kraków Opera, the poet read her poems, with <mask> accompanying her on the trumpet. The CD recording from this concert was incorporated with Here, the next volume of poems published by Szymborska. Meeting the poet became the key to a new stage in Stańko's career and some of her poems provided the inspiration for new compositions and titles. He dedicated to her his album Wisława, recorded with a new New York quartet featuring Thomas Morgan, Gerald Cleaver and David Virelles, and released by ECM in 2013.

in 2014 <mask> was invited to compose a suite on the occasion of the opening of the core exhibition of the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. It was released as the album POLIN, recorded in New York with Ravi Coltrane, David Virelles, Dezron Douglas and Kush Abadey.Stańko last studio album December Avenue was released on 31 March 2017. Reviewing the album The Guardian jazz critic John Fordham wrote: "Nobody holds a single, long-blown trumpet note like the Polish pioneer <mask> <mask> – a wearily exhaled, soberly ironic, yet oddly awestruck sound that is unique in jazz." On 14 January 2014 <mask> received the "Polityka Passport" for his work as a cultural leader. On the same day, in Paris, the l'Académie du jazz, under the leadership of François Lacharme, awarded him the Prix du Musicien Européen - the European Music Award of the Year - for his current achievements and his lifetime achievement. On 15 January 2014, he received one of the three honorary Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik (PdSK) awards, granted by an independent association of over 140 music journalists from Germany, Austria and Switzerland. <mask> was the organizer and director of the Jazzowa Jesień festival in Bielsko-Biała, Poland. He also became a member of the honorary committee supporting Bronisław Komorowski before the presidential elections in Poland in 2015.In March 2018, due to suspected pneumonia, his April concerts were cancelled. <mask> died of lung cancer, in the oncological hospital in Warsaw on 29 July 2018. The following day ECM Records published a video tribute to <mask>, on its YouTube channel, entitled "Remembering <mask> Stanko". Fellow musician Dave Holland tribute on Twitter, calling him "a unique musician with deep feelings and a gentle soul". Critical appreciation

Derek Richardson, writing for the San Francisco Chronicle said, "<mask> Stanko is not the first jazz musician to negotiate a rapprochement between gorgeous melodies and free improvisation. But he is one of the most eloquent proponents of extemporaneous lyricism working today." Author Brian Morton compared Stanko's lyricism to that of Miles Davis, calling it a "direct but individual offshoot."Discography

As leader

<mask> <mask> Quintet

Tomasz Stańko Quartet

<mask> <mask> New York Quartet

Tomasz <mask> Septet

Video albums

Soundtracks

Appearances

Books

Notes

References

External links

 <mask> Stanko, A Trumpeter Whose Music Spoke To Freedom, Has Died- obituary at npr.org
  Death of trumpeter <mask> Stanko, precursor of free jazz - obituary at Le Figaro

1942 births
2018 deaths
Avant-garde jazz musicians
Deaths from lung cancer
ECM Records artists
Free jazz trumpeters
Globe Unity Orchestra members
Male film score composers
Male jazz composers
People from Rzeszów
Polish jazz composers
Polish jazz musicians
Polish jazz trumpeters
Polish film score composers

masks:
Tomasz Ludwik Stańko
Tomasz Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Tomasz
Tomasz
Stańko
Tomasz
Stańko
Stańko
Tomasz
Tomasz


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Air Vice Marshal <mask>,  (20 April 1891 – 26 September 1954) was air officer of the Royal Air Force (RAF). He first served in the Royal Navy and was a naval aviator during the First World War, taking part in the Cuxhaven Raid in December 1914; and while serving in the Gallipoli Campaign (1915) he was the first man to sink an enemy ship from an aircraft, using a torpedo. In the interbellum he remained in the RAF, becoming a senior staff officer during World War II. Early life
<mask> was one of four children born to <mask> and his wife Mary Elizabeth (née Harris), in Lincoln, Lincolnshire. In 1903, at the age of 14, he joined the Royal Navy as cadet. On 15 July 1911 he was promoted from midshipman to sub-lieutenant, serving aboard the battleship  from 10 October 1911, taking part in blockade operations during the First Balkan War. Edmonds then learned to fly at the Bristol School at Larkhill on Salisbury Plain, being granted Royal Aero Club Aviators' Certificate No.206 on 16 April 1912 after soloing a Bristol Biplane. On 17 February 1913 he was promoted to lieutenant. On 17 May 1913 he was posted to the Central Flying School for a course of instruction, then on 13 August was posted to Calshot Naval Air Station. He served in the Naval Wing of the Royal Flying Corps until 1 July 1914, when it became the Royal Naval Air Service. World War I
In late 1914 Edmonds took part in the Cuxhaven Raid. On 24 December 1914, under the command of Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt, the light cruisers  and , together with eight destroyers of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, sailed from Harwich with the seaplane carriers ,  and , each carrying three Short seaplanes. Two destroyers and ten submarines under the command of Commodore Roger Keyes acted as escort.At 0600 on 25 December the force was in a position  north of Heligoland and the seven of the seaplanes were successfully launched by 0700. Their principal objective was to attack the airship sheds at Cuxhaven, but were also tasked with reconnoitring the naval base at Wilhelmshaven. Poor weather over the land meant that none of the aircraft found their objective, but a thorough survey of German naval installations was made, and a number of bombs dropped on various targets. While the British aircraft flew over Germany, the naval force cruised off the enemy coast awaiting their return. Intercepted radio traffic showed that the Germans were well aware of their presence, but remarkably their navy made no attempt to interfere. Attacks were made by a number of German seaplanes and two Zeppelins, but were driven off by British fire. Only three aircraft (Edmonds among them) managed to return to the fleet, while three others ran low on fuel and were obliged to come down at sea near Nordeney, where they were picked up by the submarine .The seventh pilot also came down on the sea after suffering an engine failure and was picked up by Dutch trawler, and taken to Holland, before eventually returning to England. Following the raid <mask> was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. On 25 March 1915 he was promoted to flight commander, with seniority from 23 February, and served aboard  in the Mediterranean and Aden. He then served aboard the seaplane carrier  during the Gallipoli Campaign. On 12 August 1915, flying a Short 184 seaplane, he made history by launching the first ever aerial torpedo attack on a Turkish merchant ship. It subsequently sank, although it had already been hit by the British submarine . Five days later, he successfully attacked another Turkish ship, the first to have been sunk entirely by this method.While flying Short Type 184 No. 849 on 11 February 1916, he suffered an engine failure and on landing on a heavy sea, the aircraft capsized. <mask> and his observer (Lieutenant Erskine Childers, the author of The Riddle of the Sands) were rescued by HMT Charlsen. On 14 March 1916 he received a mention in despatches from the Vice Admiral Commanding the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron covering operations between the time of the landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915, and the evacuation in December 1915 – January 1916. On 5 May 1916 <mask> was posted to , for Special Service in the RNAS. On 30 June 1916 he was promoted to squadron commander, eventually becoming Officer Commanding, No. 6 Wing RNAS, based at Otranto on 13 March 1917.He was promoted to wing commander on 31 December 1917. On 1 April 1918, the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) was merged with the Army's Royal Flying Corps to form the Royal Air Force. The same day <mask>, now holding the rank of major (temporary lieutenant colonel) was appointed a Staff Officer, 1st Class, to serve in the Air Ministry. Shortly after, on 17 April, he was granted permission by the King to wear the Croix de guerre that had been conferred by the President of the French Republic. Interbellum
<mask> received further awards after the war. On 1 January 1919 he was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire, and on 8 February was granted permission to wear the insignia of an Officer of the Order of the Crown of Italy. On 1 April 1919 <mask>, now a lieutenant colonel (acting brigadier general), left the staff, reverting to flying status.On 1 August 1919 he was awarded a permanent commission in the RAF with the rank of major (squadron leader). After a period on half-pay, on 16 February 1920 <mask> was appointed Officer Commanding, Storage Station, Brockworth, then on 1 May was appointed to serve on the staff of No. 7 Group. On 22 August 1921 he was transferred to the Air Ministry to serve in the Directorate of Training and& Organisation, until 1 November 1921, when he was temporarily attached to the Air Pilotage School as a supernumerary officer before joining RAF Staff College as an instructor on 1 April 1922, having been promoted to wing commander on 1 January. <mask> was one of the first instructors at the Staff College, which was opened under the command of Air Commodore Robert Brooke-Popham. The Directing Staff also included Air Commodore Robert Clark-Hall, Group Captain Philip Joubert de la Ferté, Wing Commander Wilfrid Freeman, and Squadron Leader Bertine Sutton, while the first class of students included Wing Commanders Jack Baldwin and Richard Peirse, Squadron Leaders Conway Pulford, Keith Park, Wilfred McClaughry and <mask>, and Flight Lieutenants Eric Betts, Harold Kerby and John Cole-Hamilton. <mask> won the R. M. Groves Memorial Essay prize for his paper on A Forecast of Aerial Development in June 1922, and on 12 December 1923, by arrangement with the Royal Aeronautical Society, presented a paper before the Royal United Service Institution on the subject of Air Strategy.On 4 May 1925 <mask> was appointed Officer Commanding, Armament and Gunnery School, serving until 7 March 1927 when he was temporarily posted to the RAF Depot at Uxbridge, before being seconded for duty as the RAF Member of the British Naval Mission to Greece, serving there from 15 March 1927 until 15 March 1929. He then completed the Royal Navy Senior Officer's War Course, and was promoted to group captain on 1 July. On 6 August 1929 he was appointed Officer Commanding, RAF Worthy Down, and also won the R. M. Groves Memorial Essay prize for a second time. He served as Officer Commanding, No. 21 (Training) Group from 7 August 1931, and on 1 February 1932 was posted to the Headquarters of No. 1 Air Defence Group, and attached to the Air Ministry (Deputy Directorate of Manning). On 1 March 1932 he was appointed Deputy Director of Manning.He also came third in the Gordon Shephard Memorial Essay competition. <mask> then served the Directorate of Personal Services until 1 February 1938, when he transferred to the Deputy Directorate of Plans. World War II
On 27 November 1939 <mask> was appointed Senior Maintenance Staff Officer at the Headquarters of RAF Maintenance Command, and was promoted to the temporary rank of air commodore on 1 June 1941. Appointed acting air vice marshal on 18 May 1942, he then served as Senior Air Staff Officer at Combined Operations HQ from June, and then as Air Officer in Charge of Administration at Fighter Command HQ from 13 November 1942. In the 1943 New Year Honours <mask> was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. On 18 May 1943 his temporary rank of air commodore was made war substantive. On 15 November 1943 he was appointed Air Officer in Charge of Administration at the Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force.On 1 December 1944 he was promoted to air commodore, relinquishing his acting rank of air vice marshal on 15 December 1944. On 1 January 1945 he received a mention in despatches, and on 8 January was appointed Air Officer in Charge of Administration, RAF Flying Training Command, regaining his acting rank of air vice marshal. On 12 June 1945 he received, from Poland, the Order of Polonia Restituta, Second Class, and again on 7 August relinquished his acting rank of air vice-marshal. <mask> retired from the RAF, retaining the rank of air vice-marshal, on 3 October 1945. He was made a Commander of the Legion of Merit by the United States on 9 October. Personal life

On 5 April 1917 <mask> married Lorna Karim Chadwick Osborn, the daughter of Colonel Osborn, Royal Artillery, at the Church of St. John the Evangelist, Paddington. They had three children, including Robert Humphrey <mask> (1920-2009), a diplomat and writer.<mask> is buried in Brookwood Cemetery. References

1891 births
1954 deaths
People from Lincoln, England
Royal Navy officers of World War I
Royal Naval Air Service personnel of World War I
Royal Air Force personnel of World War I
Royal Naval Air Service aviators
Royal Air Force air marshals of World War II
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Military personnel from Lincolnshire

masks:
Charles Humphrey Kingsman Edmonds
Edmonds
Charles Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Charles Portal
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Edmonds
Gordon Edmonds
Charles Edmonds


text_chunks:
Charles "<mask>" <mask> (born June 23, 1962) is an American singer and songwriter who is best known as the lead vocalist for thrash metal band Testament. Musical career

Testament
<mask> joined Legacy in 1986, replacing vocalist Steve "Zetro" Souza who would later join Exodus. After Legacy changed its name to Testament, the band released their debut album The Legacy in 1987, which featured one song written by <mask> entitled "Do or Die". Testament has since released twelve more studio albums, and toured consistently, including sharing the stage with notable acts such as Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Black Sabbath, Kiss, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Exodus, Overkill, Sepultura, Suicidal Tendencies, Pantera, White Zombie, Primus, D.R.I. and Pro-Pain. Although Testament's lineup has changed over the years, <mask> is one of the two constant members of the band along with guitarist and founder Eric Peterson; they are the only two members of Testament to appear on all of the band's studio albums. His vocal style has changed considerably over the years from a clear, high-pitched thrash style to a lower register approaching a death grunt.Since the Low album, he has mixed both styles, sometimes within the same song. Work outside of Testament

<mask>'s influences reportedly include Rob Halford, Ronnie James Dio, Bruce Dickinson, Phil Mogg, James Hetfield, Ozzy Osbourne, Geddy Lee, Bon Scott, Steven Tyler, Alice Cooper, Robert Plant, Phil Lynott and Klaus Meine. Prior to Legacy and Testament, <mask> was the vocalist for a local metal band called Guilt which also featured future Hericane Alice and Medicine Wheel guitarist Danny Gill. No records by the band exist but they recorded one demo in 1984 and contributed the song "Down to the City" to the U.S. Metal Vol. IV compilation on Shrapnel Records. He also played in high school bands. Around 1996, <mask> auditioned for lead vocals with Sepultura as the replacement for Max Cavalera, but lost that position to Derrick Green.<mask> has also appeared on the solo projects of James Murphy, playing on both albums as a guest musician. In 2006, <mask> provided vocals on the Sadus song "Crazy" and, along with several other musicians from other bands, did a cover of Iron Maiden's "Fear of the Dark" for their Numbers from the Beast tribute album. On Light This City's 2008 release, Stormchaser, he provides vocals on the song "Firehaven." He also joined with musicians including his brothers Eddie and <mask>, Steve Souza, Greg Bustamante, Steve Robello, Dan Cunningham, Willy Lange to form the band Dublin Death Patrol. In 2008, <mask> did the vocals for Silent Night on the album of Christmas carols We Wish You a Metal Xmas and a Headbanging New Year with the likes of Scott Ian, Jon Donais, Chris Wyse and John Tempesta. In 2009, <mask> appeared on the song "Live My Dream" from the band Susperia's album, Attitude. For the live presentation of the album Ziltoid the Omniscient by Devin Townsend, he provided the voice of the Planet Smasher on the track of the same name.This happened at Tuska Open Air Metal Festival 2010 in Helsinki. In 2014, <mask> provided guest vocals on the song "Trend Killer" on Swedish melodeath band The Haunted's album Exit Wounds. In 2014, <mask> on vocals for Exodus' performance on October 28, 2004 at the Warfield Theatre in San Francisco, where the band opened for Megadeth. In 2015, <mask> appeared on Metal Allegiance's self-titled album and provided featured vocals on the track "Can't Kill the Devil." <mask> and Jake Oni contributed vocals to the song "The Never" from Lamb of God guitarist Mark Morton's debut solo album Anesthetic, released in March 2019. In 2019, <mask> appeared as a featured artist on the Killswitch Engage song "The Crownless King" from their album Atonement.In 2020, <mask> appeared on the Lamb of God song "Routes" from their self-titled album. In 2021, <mask> provided additional voices for the Disney+ television series "What If...? ", part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. In 2022, <mask> appeared on the Matt Heafy song "Behold Our Power"

In 2022, <mask> will appear on deathcore band Shadow of Intent's new album Elegy coming January 14th. Possible solo album
In an August 2021 interview on The Jasta Show, <mask> revealed that he might release a solo album in the future and hinted that its musical direction would be different from the traditional thrash metal style of Testament. Awards and honors
In 2013, California State Assemblyman Jim Frazier honored <mask> on the State Assembly floor for his positive influence on the Native American community. <mask> became the first Native American to be permanently featured in the memorabilia display at the Hard Rock Hotel in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 2013.He is also recognized in the National Museum of the American Indian exhibit in the Smithsonian Institution titled "Up Where We Belong: Native Musicians in Popular Culture", which was on display through January 2, 2011. Personal life
<mask> was born to a Native American father and a Mexican mother. He is of the Pomo Native Americans, an indigenous people of Northern California, and is proud of his Native American heritage, sometimes giving a shoutout to his "Native brothers and sisters" in the audience. The song "Trail of Tears" is a tribute to his heritage, as are "Allegiance" and "Native Blood". <mask> is first cousins with Stephen Carpenter, co-founder and lead guitarist of alternative metal band Deftones. In 2001, <mask> was diagnosed with germ cell seminoma; his was a rare medical situation since this type of cancer usually manifests in men's testicular region, while in <mask>'s case the tumor appeared in the chest region near his heart. In August 2001, friends organized the Thrash of the Titans benefit concert, held to raise money for <mask>'s medical expenses.Following chemotherapy, he has since been given a clean bill of health and continued his work with Testament. In March 2020, <mask> and his wife Tiffany tested positive for COVID-19 following the completion of The Bay Strikes Back tour in Europe; he was the third person to have returned home sick from the aforementioned tour, following Will Carroll of Death Angel and Gary Holt of Exodus. Testament confirmed the testings in a statement and had been quarantined in his home since then. References

External links

 National Museum of the American Indian’s Newest Exhibition “Up Where We Belong: Native Musicians in Popular Culture”

1962 births
Living people
American heavy metal singers
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
21st-century American male musicians
American baritones
American musicians of Mexican descent
Hispanic and Latino American musicians
Native American singers
People from Antioch, California
Pomo people
Testament (band) members
Singers from California

masks:
Chuck
Billy
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Andy Billy
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Billyro
Billy
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