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<mask> (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young (), was King of the Franks from 1137 to 1180. He was the son and successor of King <mask> VI (hence the epithet "the Young") and married Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western Europe. The marriage temporarily extended the Capetian lands to the Pyrenees, but was annulled in 1152 after no male heir was produced. Immediately after the annulment of her marriage, Eleanor married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, to whom she conveyed Aquitaine and produced five male heirs. When Henry became King of England in 1154 as Henry II, he ruled as king, duke or count over a large empire of kingdoms, duchies and counties that spanned from Scotland to the Pyrenees. Henry's efforts to preserve and expand on this patrimony for the Crown of England would mark the beginning of the long rivalry between France and England. <mask>'s reign saw the founding of the University of Paris and the disastrous Second Crusade.<mask> and his famous counselor Abbot Suger pushed for a greater centralization of the state and favoured the development of French Gothic architecture, notably the construction of Notre-Dame de Paris. He died in 1180 and was succeeded by his son Philip II. Early life and education
<mask> was born in 1120, the second son of <mask> VI of France and Adelaide of Maurienne. The early education of the young <mask> anticipated an ecclesiastical career. As a result, he became well-learned and exceptionally devout, but his life course changed decisively after the accidental death of his older brother Philip in 1131, when he unexpectedly became the heir to the throne of France. In October 1131, his father had him anointed and crowned by Pope Innocent II in Reims Cathedral. He spent much of his youth in Saint-Denis, where he built a friendship with the Abbot Suger, an advisor to his father who also served <mask> well during his early years as king.Early reign

Following the death of Duke William X of Aquitaine, <mask> moved quickly to have his son married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, who had inherited William's territory, on 25 July 1137. In this way, <mask> sought to add the large, sprawling territory of the duchy of Aquitaine to his family's holdings in France. On 1 August 1137, shortly after the marriage, <mask> died, and <mask> became king. The pairing of the monkish <mask> and the high-spirited Eleanor was doomed to failure; she reportedly once declared that she had thought to marry a king, only to find she had married a monk. There was a marked difference between the frosty, reserved culture of the northern court in the Íle de France, where <mask> had been raised, and the rich, free-wheeling court life of the Aquitaine with which Eleanor was familiar. <mask> and Eleanor had two daughters, Marie and Alix. In the first part of his reign, <mask> was vigorous and zealous in his prerogatives.His accession was marked by no disturbances other than uprisings by the burgesses of Orléans and Poitiers, who wished to organise communes. He soon came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II, however, when the archbishopric of Bourges became vacant. The king supported the chancellor Cadurc as a candidate to fill the vacancy against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived, Pierre should never enter Bourges. The pope thus imposed an interdict upon the king. <mask> then became involved in a war with Theobald II of Champagne by permitting Raoul I of Vermandois, the seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald II's sister, and to marry Petronilla of Aquitaine, sister of the queen of France. As a result, Champagne decided to side with the pope in the dispute over Bourges. The war lasted two years (1142–1144) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army.<mask> was personally involved in the assault and burning of the town of Vitry-le-François. At least 1500 people who had sought refuge in the church died in the flames. Condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities, <mask> removed his armies from Champagne and returned them to Theobald. He accepted Pierre de la Chatre as archbishop of Bourges and shunned Raoul and Petronilla. Desiring to atone for his sins, he declared his intention of mounting a crusade on Christmas Day 1145 at Bourges. Bernard of Clairvaux assured its popularity by his preaching at Vezelay on Easter 1146. In the meantime, <mask>, Count of Anjou, completed his conquest of Normandy in 1144.In exchange for being recognised as Duke of Normandy by <mask>, <mask> surrendered half of the county of Vexin – a region vital to Norman security – to <mask>. Considered a clever move by <mask> at the time, it would later prove yet another step towards Angevin rule. In June 1147, in fulfillment of his vow to mount the Second Crusade, <mask> and his queen set out from the Basilica of St Denis, first stopping in Metz on the overland route to Syria. Soon they arrived in the Kingdom of Hungary, where they were welcomed by the king Géza II of Hungary, who was already waiting with King Conrad III of Germany. Due to his good relationships with <mask>, Géza II asked the French king to be his son Stephen's baptism godfather. Relations between the kingdoms of France and Hungary remained cordial long after this time: decades later, <mask>'s daughter Margaret was taken as wife by Géza's son Béla III of Hungary. After receiving provisions from Géza, the armies continued the march to the East.Just beyond Laodicea at Honaz, the French army was ambushed by Turks. In the resulting battle of Mount Cadmus, the Turks first bombarded the French with arrows and heavy stones, then swarmed down from the mountains and massacred them. The historian Odo of Deuil gives this account:
During the fighting the King <mask> lost his small and famous royal guard, but he remained in good heart and nimbly and courageously scaled the side of the mountain by gripping the tree roots [...] The enemy climbed after him, hoping to capture him, and the enemy in the distance continued to fire arrows at him. But God willed that his cuirass should protect him from the arrows, and to prevent himself from being captured he defended the crag with his bloody sword, cutting off many heads and hands. <mask> and his army finally reached the Holy Land in 1148. His queen Eleanor supported her uncle, Raymond of Poitiers, and prevailed upon <mask> to help Antioch against Aleppo. But <mask>'s interest lay in Jerusalem, and so he slipped out of Antioch in secret.He united with King Conrad III of Germany and King Baldwin III of Jerusalem to lay siege to Damascus; this ended in disaster and the project was abandoned. <mask> decided to leave the Holy Land, despite the protests of Eleanor, who still wanted to help her doomed uncle Raymond. <mask> and the French army returned home in 1149. A shift in the status quo
The expedition to the Holy Land came at a great cost to the royal treasury and military. It also precipitated a conflict with Eleanor that led to the annulment of their marriage. Perhaps the marriage to Eleanor might have continued if the royal couple had produced a male heir, but this had not occurred. The Council of Beaugency found an exit clause, declaring that <mask> and Eleanor were too closely related for their marriage to be legal, thus the marriage was annulled on 21 March 1152.The pretext of kinship was the basis for annulment, but in fact, it owed more to the state of hostility between <mask> and Eleanor, with a decreasing likelihood that their marriage would produce a male heir to the throne of France. On 18 May 1152, Eleanor married the Count of Anjou, the future King Henry II of England. She gave him the duchy of Aquitaine and bore him three daughters and five sons. <mask> led an ineffective war against Henry for having married without the authorization of his suzerain. The result was a humiliation for the enemies of Henry and Eleanor, who saw their troops routed, their lands ravaged, and their property stolen. <mask> reacted by coming down with a fever and returned to the Ile-de France. In 1154, <mask> married Constance of Castile, daughter of King Alfonso VII of Castile.She also failed to supply him with a son and heir, bearing only two daughters, Margaret and Alys. By 1157, Henry II of England began to believe that <mask> might never produce a male heir, and that the succession of France would consequently be left in question. Determined to secure a claim for his family, he sent his chancellor, Thomas Becket, to press for a marriage between Margaret and Henry's heir, Henry the Young King. <mask> agreed to this proposal, and by the Treaty of Gisors (1158) betrothed the young pair, giving as a dowry the Norman city of Gisors and the surrounding county of Vexin. <mask> was devastated when Constance died in childbirth on 4 October 1160. As he was desperate for a son, he married Adela of Champagne just 5 weeks later. To counterbalance the advantage this would give the king of France, Henry II had the marriage of their children (Henry "the Young King" and Margaret) celebrated at once.<mask> understood the danger of the growing Angevin power; however, through indecision and a lack of fiscal and military resources in comparison to Henry II, he failed to oppose Angevin hegemony effectively. One of his few successes was a trip to Toulouse in 1159 to aid Raymond V, Count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by Henry II: <mask> entered into the city with a small escort, claiming to be visiting his sister, the Countess, Henry declared that he could not attack the city while his liege lord was inside, and went home. In 1169, <mask> was petitioned by the bishop of Puy to stop the Viscount of Polignac from attacking travelers through Auvergne. The viscount was besieged by <mask> at Nonette and the county was turned into a prévôt. Diplomacy

<mask>' reign saw Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I press his claims to Arles, in southeastern France. When a papal schism broke out in 1159, <mask> took the part of Pope Alexander III, the enemy of Frederick I, and after two comical failures of Frederick I to meet <mask> at Saint Jean de Losne (on 29 August and 22 September 1162), <mask> definitely gave himself up to the cause of Alexander III, who lived at Sens from 1163 to 1165. In return for his loyal support, the pope gave <mask> the Golden Rose.More important for English history would be <mask>'s support for Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, whom he tried to reconcile with Henry II. <mask> sided with Becket as much to damage Henry as out of piety – yet even he grew irritated with the stubbornness of the archbishop, asking when Becket refused Henry's conciliations, "Do you wish to be more than a Saint?" <mask> also tried to weaken Henry by supporting his rebellious sons, and encouraged Plantagenet disunity by making Henry's sons, rather than Henry himself, the feudal overlords of the Angevin territories in France. But the rivalry among Henry's sons and <mask>'s own indecisiveness broke up the coalition (1173–1174) between them. Finally, in 1177, the pope intervened to bring the two kings to terms at Vitry-le-François. In 1165, <mask>'s third wife bore him a son and heir, Philip. <mask> had him crowned at Reims in 1179, in the Capetian tradition (Philip would in fact be the last king so crowned).Already stricken with paralysis, <mask> himself could not be present at the ceremony. He died on 18 September 1180 in Paris and was buried the next day at Barbeau Abbey, which he had founded. His remains were moved to the Basilica of Saint-Denis in 1817. Marriages and children
<mask>' children by his three marriages:

with Eleanor of Aquitaine:
 Marie (1145 – 11 March 1198), married Henry I of Champagne
 Alix (1151–1197/1198), married Theobald V of Blois

with Constance of Castile:
 Margaret (1158 – August/September 1197), married (1) Henry the Young King; (2) King Béla III of Hungary
 Alys (4 October 1160 – ca. 1220), engaged to Richard I of England; she married William IV, Count of Ponthieu

with Adele of Champagne:
 Philip II Augustus (22 August 1165 – 1223)
 Agnes (1171 – after 1204), married 1) Alexius II Comnenus (1180–1183), 2) Andronicus I Comnenus (1183–1185), then 3) Theodore Branas (1204)

Legacy

From the point of view of the preservation and expansion of the French royal domains, the reign of <mask> was a difficult and unfortunate one. Yet royal authority was more strongly felt in the parts of France distant from these domains: more direct and more frequent connections were made with distant vassals, a result largely due to an alliance between the clergy with the crown. <mask> thus reaped the reward for services rendered the church during the least successful portions of his reign.His greater accomplishments lie in the development of agriculture, population, commerce, the building of stone fortresses, as well as an intellectual renaissance. Considering the significant disparity of political leverage and financial resources between <mask> and his Angevin rival Henry II, not to mention Henry's superior military skills, <mask> should be credited with helping to preserve the Capetian dynasty. Fictional portrayals
<mask> is a character in Jean Anouilh's 1959 play Becket. In the 1964 film adaptation he was portrayed by John Gielgud, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was also portrayed by Charles Kay in the 1978 BBC TV drama series The Devil's Crown. He has a role in Sharon Kay Penman's novels When Christ and His Saints Slept and Devil's Brood. The early part of Norah <mask>' biography of Eleanor of Aquitaine deals considerably with <mask> VII, seen through Eleanor's eyes and giving her side in their problematic relationship.<mask> is one of the main characters in Elizabeth Chadwick's novel The Summer Queen. References

Sources

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1120 births
1180 deaths
12th-century kings of France
Christians of the Second Crusade
House of Capet
Dukes of Gascony
Dukes of Aquitaine
Counts of Poitiers
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis

masks:
Louis VII
Louis
Louis VII
Louis
Louis
Louis
Louis
Louis
Louis VI
Louis VI
Louis VI
Louis VII
Louis
Louis
Louis
Louis VII
Louis VII
Louis VII
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Jean-<mask> (18 February 1734 – 10 November 1793) was a French inspector of manufactures in Lyon and became a leader of the Girondist faction in the French Revolution, largely influenced in this direction by his wife, Marie-Jeanne "Manon" <mask>. He served as a minister of the interior in King Louis XVI's government in 1792. Early life
<mask> was born and baptized on 18 February 1734 in Thizy, Rhône. He was a studious child, who received a thorough education. At the age of 18 years, <mask> was offered the choice of becoming either a businessman or a priest. But he declined both offers and took up studying manufacturing, leading him to the city of Lyons. Two years later, a cousin and inspector of manufactures offered <mask> a position in Rouen.He gladly accepted the job. <mask> then was transferred to Languedoc, where he became an enthusiastic economist but soon became ill from overwork. He was then offered the less stressful job of lead inspector of Picardy which was the third most important manufacturing province in France in 1781. Later that year he married Marie-Jeanne Phlipon, better known simply as <mask>, the daughter of a Parisian engraver. <mask> was just as involved in Jean-Marie's work as he was, editing much of his writing and supporting his political goals. For the first four years of their marriage, <mask> continued to live in Picardy and work as a factory inspector. His knowledge of commercial affairs enabled him to contribute articles to the Encyclopédie Méthodique, a three volume encyclopedia of manufacturing and industry, in which, as in all his literary work, he was assisted by his wife.The Revolution

During the first year of the Revolution, the <mask>s moved to Lyon, where their influence grew and their political ambitions became clear. From the beginning of the Revolution, they affiliated with the liberal cause. The articles they contributed to the Courrier de Lyon came to the attention of the Parisian press; although <mask> signed them, it was <mask> who wrote them. The city then sent <mask> to Paris to inform the Constituent Assembly of the critical state of the silk industry and to ask for relief of Lyon's debt. As a result, a correspondence began between <mask>, Jacques Pierre Brissot and other supporters of the Revolution, whom he had met in Paris. The Rolands arrived in Paris during February 1791, and remained there until September. They frequented the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, entertaining deputies who later became leading Girondists, and taking an active part in the political landscape.Meanwhile, <mask> opened her first salon, helping her husband's name become better known in the capital. In September 1791, <mask>'s mission was complete and he returned to Lyon. By then, however, inspectorships of manufacture had been abolished, so the <mask> family decided to move and make their new home in Paris. <mask> became a member of the Jacobin Club, and their influence continued to grow. <mask>'s salon becoming the rendezvous of Brissot, Jérôme Pétion <mask>, Maximilien Robespierre, and other leaders of the popular movement – especially <mask> Leonard Buzot. When the Girondins assumed power, <mask> found himself appointed minister of the interior on 23 March 1792, displaying both his administrative ability and what the Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, 1911) characterized as "a bourgeois brusqueness". His wife's influence on his declarations of policy was particularly strong in this period: as <mask> was ex officio excluded from the Legislative Assembly, these declarations were in writing, and so most prone to exhibit <mask>'s personal beliefs.King Louis XVI used his veto power to prevent decrees against émigrés and the non-juring clergy. Madame <mask> therefore wrote a letter addressing the royal refusal to sanction the decrees and the role of the king in the state, which her husband addressed and sent to the king. When it remained unanswered, <mask> read it aloud in full council and in the king's presence. Judged inconsistent with a minister's position and disrespectful in tone, the incident led to <mask>'s dismissal. However, he then read the letter to the Assembly, which ordered it printed and circulated. It became a manifesto of dissatisfaction, and the Assembly's subsequent demand that <mask> and other dismissed ministers be reinstated eventually led to the king's dethronement. After the insurrection of 10 August, <mask> was reinstated as Interior Minister, but was dismayed by what he saw as the lack of progress made by the Revolution.As a provincial, he opposed the Montagnards who aimed at supremacy not only in Paris but in the government as well. His hostility to the Paris Commune prompted him to propose transferring the government to Blois; and his attacks on Robespierre and his associates made him very unpopular. After failing to seal the armoire de fer (iron chest) found in the Tuileries Palace, containing documents that indicated Louis XVI's relations with corrupt politicians, he was accused of destroying some of the evidence within. Finally, during the trial of the king, he and the Girondists demanded that the sentence should be decided by a poll of the French people rather than the National Convention. Two days after the king's execution, he resigned his office. Death

Not long after he resigned as minister, the Girondins came under attack and <mask> was denounced as well. <mask> fled Paris and went into hiding; in his absence, he was sentenced to death.Madame <mask> remained in Paris, where she was arrested in June 1793 and executed on 8 November. When <mask> learned belatedly of his wife's imminent death, he wandered away from his refuge in Rouen and wrote a few words expressing his horror at the Reign of Terror: "From the moment when I learned that they had murdered my wife, I would no longer remain in a world stained with enemies." He attached the paper to his chest, sat up against a tree, and ran a cane-sword through his heart on the evening of 10 November 1793. See also
 Society of the Friends of Truth

References

Sources
 The Britannica

Further reading
Andress, David. The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (2006)
<mask>, Evangeline Wilbour. Manon Phlipon <mask>: Early Years (1922) online
Hanson, Paul R.  Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution
 Higonnet, Patrice. "The Social and Cultural Antecedents of Revolutionary Discontinuity: Montagnards and Girondins," English Historical Review (1985): 100#396 pp.513–544 in JSTOR
 Lamartine, Alphonse <mask>. History of the Girondists, Volume I Personal Memoirs of the Patriots of the French Revolution (1847)  online free in Kindle edition; Volume 1, Volume 2 | Volume 3
 May, Gita. Madame Roland and the Age of Revolution (1970)
 Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (1989)  excerpt and text search
 Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution 1789-1799 (1985) Vol. 2 pp 837–41 online
 <mask>, D.M.G. France 1789–1815.Revolution and Counter-Revolution (2nd ed. 2003) ch 5,
 Tarbell, Ida. <mask>, A Biographical Study (1905). External links

1734 births
1793 deaths
People from Rhône (department)
People of the French Revolution
French politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by sharp instrument in France
French interior ministers
Girondins
18th-century suicides

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Marie Roland de la Platière
Roland de la Platière
Roland de la Platière
Roland
Roland
Roland
Madame Roland
Madame Roland
Roland
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Madame Roland
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Blessed <mask> (11 May 1826 - 10 January 1883) - born <mask> - was an Argentine Roman Catholic professed member from the Order of Friars Minor and the Bishop of Córdoba from 1880 until his death. Esquiú's cause for sainthood commenced under Pope Paul VI on 13 April 1978 and he became titled as a Servant of God while the confirmation of his heroic virtue allowed for Pope Benedict XVI to name him as Venerable on 16 December 2006. He was beatified on 4 September 2021. Life
<mask> was born on 11 May 1826 in Piedra Blanca to Santiago Esquiú and María de las Nieves Medina. His mother chose the name "Mamerto de la Ascensión" in homenage to Saint <mask> due to his date of birth being the commemoration date for Saint Mamertus while "Ascensión" comprised part of the name because the because Ascension feast fell on his birth. Esquiú's faith came from his mother and he decided to pursue a path to the priesthood; his mother was a devotee of Saint Francis of Assisi and from age five he himself began to cultivate a devotion and admiration for the Italian saint. He entered the Order of Friars Minor and on 31 May 1836 began his education and his period of novitiate at the Catamarca Franciscan convent in Catamarca.On 14 July 1842 he made his solemn profession into the order and was ordained to the priesthood on 18 October 1848; he celebrated his first Mass on 15 May 1849. He was committed to education being a teacher and professor at the convent for sometime and from 1850 to 1860 taught philosophical studies at a school that Governor Manuel Navarro (1791-1852) had founded. After the ruthless and devastating Argentine civil war - and during the celebration of the Oath of the Constitution of 9 July 1853 - he preached his famous Sermon of the Constitution where he prayed for the union of all Argentine people. He became noted as a patriot for his preaching and sermons that advocated a united Argentina in accordance with the 1853 constitution. <mask> lauded the constitution and welcomed it in the name of peace but could not finish the last sentence of his sermon because the audience burst into thunderous applause. President Justo José de Urquiza (1801-70) lauded his comments and ordered the sermon printed and distributed across Argentina. In 1860 he settled in Paraná as the private aid to the diocese's first bishop Luis Gabriel Segura (1803-62) and remained there until the bishop's death in 1862 before moving to the Franciscan convent at Tarija in Bolivia.He was stationed there until 1867 when the Archbishop of Sucre Pedro José Puch i Solona summoned him; he remained there until 1872 and there published the newspaper dubbed "The Crusader" in response to anti-clericalism. In 1872 - while in Sucre before he left - the President endorsed him as the new Archbishop of Buenos Aires but he refused this and instead moved to Peru and then to Guayaquil in Ecuador to escape further pressure to accept the nomination. Esquiú made a trip to Rome and later to Jerusalem in 1876 and preached on the night of Good Friday to thousands of pilgrims in 1877 before returning to his hometown in late 1878. He was appointed as the Bishop of Córdoba under Pope Leo XIII on 27 February 1880. Esquiú received his episcopal consecration on 12 December 1880 from the Cardinal Archbishop of Buenos Aires Federico León Aneiros; he later assumed possession of his new episcopal see on 17 January 1881. Esquiú died at 3:00pm on 10 January 1883 in El Suncho and his remains lie in the Córdoba Cathedral. Before he died he was in La Rioja but returned his diocese on 8 January 1883 weakened; he felt indigestion and was nauseous and could not eat while also being unable to sleep.There is a department in Catamarca Province that is named in his honour. The house where he was born which stands facing the church of San Antonio was declared a National Historic Monument. Stolen heart

His incorrupt heart had remained in the Franciscan convent in Catamarca but on 20 January 2008 was stolen from the urn in which it was kept; this marked the second time it was taken; someone had absconded with it once on 30 October 1990 and was found the following 7 November not too far from the convent (the culprit was never identified). The urn in which the heart was kept was left behind and the head of the convent Jorge Martinez said: "The theft was carried out because of the heart - nothing else was stolen" and described the incident as "sad". Witnesses reported a bearded man running from the convent at the time of the theft. Gemain Jasani (b. 1988) was arrested a month later and said he threw it in a trash can several blocks from the convent; Jorge Martinez blamed religious fanaticism for the theft.The heart has never been recovered. Beatification
The beatification process commenced after Bishop Fermín Emilio Lafitte inaugurated an informative process to assess the late friar's life on 18 July 1930 and later concluded the process in a solemn Mass held on 20 December 1945; theologians approved all of his spiritual writings to be in full line with official doctrine on 23 November 1963 while the Congregation for the Causes of Saints would later validate the cause on 1 March 2002. The formal introduction to the cause came under Pope Paul VI on 13 April 1978 and he became titled as a Servant of God. The postulation submitted the Positio dossier to the C.C.S. in 2004 who assigned a board of historians to discuss the cause on 16 November 2004. Theologians approved the cause on 3 February 2006 as did the C.C.S. on 17 October 2006 after a thorough review of the dossier's contents.<mask> was named as Venerable on 16 December 2006 after Pope Benedict XVI confirmed that the late Franciscan had lived a model life of heroic virtue. Pope Francis approved his beatification in June 2020 and said that he was someone who showed "that faith has a transforming dynamic far superior to that of all political programs, which is the force of love". The beatification was scheduled first for 13 March 2021 but postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic; the celebration was rescheduled and celebrated on 4 September 2021 in Catamarca. The current postulator for this cause is Fra Giovangiuseppe Califano while the current vice-postulator is Fra Marcelo Mendez. References

External links
Hagiography Circle
Catholic Hierarchy

1826 births
1883 deaths
19th-century venerated Christians
19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Argentina
Argentine Friars Minor
Franciscan bishops
People from Catamarca Province
Venerated Catholics
Venerated Catholics by Pope Benedict XVI
Argentine Servants of God
Beatifications by Pope Francis
Roman Catholic bishops of Córdoba

masks:
Mamerto Esquiú Medina
Mamerto de la Ascensión Esquiú
Mamerto de la Ascensión Esquiú
Mamerto
Esquiú
Esquiú


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<mask> (, 8 September 1852 – 21 January 1919), was the monarch of Korea from 1864 to 1907. He reigned as the last King of Joseon from 1864 to 1897, and as the first Emperor of Korea from 1897 until his forced abdication in 1907. He is known posthumously as the Emperor Gwangmu (). Biography

Early life
<mask> was born in Jeongseonbang, a province of Hanseong. He was the son of Yi Ha-eung. <mask> had almost no possibility of becoming king since he was far removed. Early reign

<mask> took the Joseon throne in early 1864 when he was twelve years old.As a minor, his father, the Heungseon Daewongun (or more commonly, the Daewongun), ruled as a regent for him until Gojong reached adulthood. As Gojong became an adult, he had conflicts with his father since he wanted to rule the country. During the mid-1860s, the Heungseon Daewongun was the main proponent of isolationism and was responsible for the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the French invasion and the United States expedition to Korea in 1871. The early years of the Daewongun's rule also witnessed a concerted effort to restore the largely dilapidated Gyeongbok Palace, the seat of royal authority. During the Daewongun's reign, Joseon factional politics, the Seowons (private academies that often doubled as epicenters of factional power), and the power wielded by the Andong Kim clan in particular was dismantled. In 1873, <mask> announced his assumption of direct royal rule. In November 1874, with the retirement of the Heungseon Daewongun, <mask>'s consort, Queen Min (posthumously known as Empress Myeongseong), gained complete control over the court, filling senior court positions with members of her family.This angered Heungseon Daewongun, who was exiled from court. Some relatives of Heungseon Daewongun and members of the Southerner faction plotted a coup. External pressures and unequal treaties

In the 19th century, tensions mounted between Qing China and Japan, culminating in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895. Much of this war was fought on the Korean peninsula. Japan, having acquired Western military technology after the Meiji Restoration, secured a victory against Joseon forces in Ganghwa Island, forcing Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876. Japan encroached upon Korean territory in search of fish, iron ore, and other natural resources. It also established a strong economic presence in the peninsula, heralding the beginning of Japanese Imperial expansion in East Asia.These events were the roots of <mask>'s antipathy to the Japanese Empire. The French campaign against Korea of 1866, the United States expedition to Korea in 1871, and the Ganghwa Island incident all put pressure on many of Joseon's officials, including King <mask>. The Treaty of Ganghwa became the first unequal treaty signed between Korea and a foreign country; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea and forced the Korean government to open three ports, Busan, Incheon, and Wonsan, to Japanese and foreign trade. With the signing of such a lopsided treaty, Korea became easy prey for competing imperialistic powers, paving the way for Korea's annexation by Japan. Imo Rebellion and Gapsin Coup

King <mask> began to rely on a new paid army (byeolgigun) of soldiers equipped with rifles. In contrast to the well-armed army, the old army had not received a salary for 13 months. The tattered army was finally paid one month's salary, Enraged, the old army sparked a riot, and Heungseon Daewongun seized power.However Chinese troops led by the Qing Chinese general Yuan Shikai abducted the Daewongun and took him to China, thus foiling his return to power. Four years later, the Daewongun returned to Korea. During the Imo incident when Queen Min was taking refuge in her relative's villa, Lady Seon-yeong of the Yeongwol Eom clan showed extreme devotion towards King <mask>. He rewarded her fealty by promoting her to the rank of Jimil Sanggung (5th senior rank of Women of the Internal Court). Upon Queen Min's return in 1885, she had Lady Seon-yeong banished from the royal palace when she discovered the court lady wearing <mask>'s clothing. Lady Seon-yeong was demoted to Seoin. On 4 December 1884, five revolutionaries attempted a coup d'état by leading a small anti-old minister army to detain King <mask> and Queen Min.The Gapsin Coup failed after 3 days. Some of its leaders, including Kim Okgyun, fled to Japan, and others were executed. Peasant revolts

Widespread poverty presented significant challenges to the 19th century Joseon Dynasty. Starvation was rampant, and much of the populace lived in run-down shanties lined along dirt roads. Famine, poverty, crushing taxes, and corruption among the ruling class, led to many notable peasant revolts in the 19th century. King <mask>'s predecessors had suppressed an 1811–1812 revolt in the Pyeongan Province, led by Hong Gyeong-nae. In 1894, another major revolt, the Donghak Peasant Revolution took hold as an anti-government, anti-yangban, and anti-foreign campaign.One leading cause of the revolution was the tax system implemented by Queen Min, who was not familiar with modern tax systems. <mask> brought Chinese and Japanese to crush the revolution. Yi Jun-yong and others coordinated with peasants to assassinate <mask>. However, the plot was leaked and the revolution failed. Although the revolution ultimately failed, many of the peasants' grievances were later addressed with the Gabo Reform. One of the biggest reforms in 1894 was abolishing the slave (nobi) system, which had existed as far back as Gojoseon. The assassination of Queen Min

In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents.The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the Gyeongbokgung in Seoul, which was under guard by Korean troops sympathetic to the Japanese, and the Queen was killed in the palace. The Queen had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to Russia or China for support. Anti-Japanese sentiments in Korea
In 1895 Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War, expanding its influence over the Korean government. The Gabo reforms and the assassination of the Queen also stirred controversy in Korea, fomenting Korean anti-Japanese sentiment. <mask>'s antipathy toward the Japanese intensified, and he turned to Russia as an ally by signing Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884. He sent many emissaries to Russian Empire.Some Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom. These armies were preceded by the Donghak movement and succeeded by various Korean independence movements. Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation

Pro-Japanese government grew, while anti-Japanese politicians were either killed or fled for their survival after the Chun Sang Door Incident in 1895. <mask> perceived the need for refuge. On 11 February 1896, King <mask> and his crown prince fled from the Gyeongbokgung to the Russian legation in Seoul, from which they governed for about one year, an event known as the Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation. After Queen Min's death, Lady Seon-yeong re-entered the palace as Eom Gwi-in and lived with <mask> and the crown prince in the Russian legation where she gave birth to Crown Prince Euimin in 1897. Her status had changed to Sunbin and Sunbi, but was later given the title of Imperial Noble Consort Sunheon of the Yeongwol Eom clan.As the Japanese Empire continued to meddle in Korean state affairs, <mask> tried to ally with Russia by sending officials including Min Young-hwan to the coronation of Nicholas II of Russia. Proclamation of empire

In 1897, yielding to rising pressure from overseas and the demands of the Independence Association-led public opinion, King <mask> returned to Gyeongungung (modern-day Deoksugung). He declared himself emperor, changed the country's name to the Great Korean Empire, and declared a new era name Gwangmu (Hangul: 광무, Hanja: 光武) (meaning, "shining and martial"). This effectively ended Korea's historic subordination to the Qing empire, which Korea had acknowledged since the fall of the Ming Dynasty. He took the title of Gwangmu Emperor, and was formally crowned emperor in Wongudan. This marked the end of the traditional Chinese tributary system in the Far East. By declaring Korea an empire, Gojong at least nominally made Korea the co-equal of Qing China and implemented the "full and complete" independence of Korea as recognized in 1895.He established the Independence Club to establish a constitutional monarchy but this plan was blocked by right-wing politicians, and the Korean Empire remained an absolute monarchy. When Heungseon Daewongun died in 1898, Emperor Gwangmu refused to attend the funeral of his father as the relationship between father and son had broken down irretrievably. But it was also reported that the emperor's cries could be heard when he looked over the palace wall. <mask> desired to elevate Imperial Noble Consort Sunheon to be his Empress, but this was opposed by Lee Jun-yong and Korean refugees who created a movement to stop the action. They successfully blocked her accession, but she was able to persuade the emperor to choose Yun Yong-seon's adoptive granddaughter, Lady Jeongsun of the Haepyeong Yun clan, as wife for the Crown Prince as reward for the grace and assistance she received from Yun during her banishment. Emperor of Korea

<mask> proclaimed the Korean Empire in October 1897 to justify the country's ending of its traditional alliance with China. He tried to promote the Gwangmu Reform, which aimed to modernize and industrialize the new empire.On September 12 (July 25 in the lunar calendar) of 1898, the emperor was the target of a failed assassination attempt by interpreter Kim Hong Ryuk (金鴻陸). Kim had lost political power when the king took refuge at the Russian legation and tried to poison the coffee of the emperor and the prince with opium. <mask> returned from Russia in the next year. <mask> maintained the Absolute monarchy but, he always possessed the country being Constitutional monarchy until 1897. He listened to the opinion of independence club. But when Independence Club became an anti-government organization, <mask> maintained the absolute monarchy. Before the Russo-Japanese War, <mask> used to announce helping the Russian Empire but, he later declared the neutral.When the war actually began, <mask> agreed the military activity of Empire of Japan without any term. Japanese army made peasants refugees. Itō Hirobumi gave him 300,000 Yen (Which is now 25,000,000 dollars nowadays). In 1904–1905, the Japan was the victor in the Russo-Japanese War. Amidst the war, there has been diplomatic efforts to keep Korea independent, including that of Korean Charge d'Affaires Yi Han-eung in London who desperately tried to gain support from UK. But UK already had common interests with Japan by Anglo-Japanese Alliance and Lord Lansdowne in British Foreign Office has ignored his diplomatic request. Yi Han-eung took his own life on May 1905 as a protest, and <mask> mourned his tragic death as his remains returned to Korea by ship.Itō Hirobumi purposed the Protectorate Treaty of 1905 between Korea and Japan. <mask> disagreed with signing the treaty so as the officials. But some agreed signing. Because the Korean government did not had a clear decision, heavily armed Imperial Japanese Army marched near his palace. Itō Hirobumi met 8 ministers of Korean Empire without <mask>. Only 3 of them were against the treaty until the end. Itō modified the treaty and met the 5 ministers that agreed with the treaty.5 of them signed the treaty without <mask>. These five ministers are later referred as Five Eulsa Traitors. But it is said that before signing the treaty, Gojong got bribe of 20,000 Won (which is about 2,080,000 dollars nowadays) from Japan. This made him to appoint pro-Japanese officials as high-ranking officials for example appointing Pak Chesoon as the Foreign Affairs Minister. But it is a controversial whether he really got bribe. Because section of <mask> and Sunjong of Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty was written by Japanese officials during Korea under Japanese rule. This stripped Korea of its rights as an independent nation, <mask> sent representatives to the Hague Peace Convention of 1907 to try to re-assert his sovereignty over Korea.Although the Korean representatives were blocked by the Japanese delegates, they did not give up, and later held interviews with newspapers. Whenever he had chances, <mask> sent letters showed his disagreement with the treaties. <mask> told to three Korean representatives sent to Hague that not to mind if he is murdered but only care about sovereignty of Korea. He even tried to reach Nicholas II to ask him to help the representatives of Korea sent to Europe. But this failed by the interruption of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empire of Japan. One representative warned of Japanese ambitions in Asia:

When these acts of Gojong was revealed by Japanese, Japanese tried to remove him. On July 20, 1907, <mask> was removed.<mask>'s son Sunjong succeeded him to the throne. During Sunjong's reign, the kingdom of Joseon ended with the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910. After abdication

After abdicating, Emperor <mask> was confined to Deoksu Palace. On 22 August 1910, the Empire of Korea was annexed by Japan under the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. In the treaty, <mask> lost his title as a former emperor; instead, he received a new title, "King Emeritus Yi of Deoksu" (徳寿宮李太王), and was recognized as a member of the imperial family of Japan. <mask> died suddenly on 21 January 1919 at Deoksugung Palace at the age of 66. There is much speculation that he was killed by a poison administered by Japanese officials, an idea that gained wide circulation and acceptance at the time of his death.His death and subsequent funeral proved a catalyst for the March First Movement for Korean independence from Japanese rule. He is buried with his wife at the imperial tomb of Hongneung (홍릉, 洪陵) in the city of Namyangju. Family
 Father
Yi Ha-Eung, King Heungseon (21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898) (흥선왕 이하응)
 Grandfather: Yi Gu, Prince Namyeon (22 August 1788 – 19 March 1836) (이구 남연군)
 Grandmother: Princess Consort Min of the Yeoheung Min clan (26 June 1788 – 1831) (군부인 여흥민씨, 驪興府大夫人 閔氏)
 Legal Father: Yi Yeong, King Munjo of Joseon (18 September 1809 – 25 June 1830) (조선의 문조 이영)
 Mother
 Queen Sunmok of the Yeoheung Min clan (3 February 1818 – 8 January 1898) (순목왕비 민씨)
Grandfather: Min Chi-Gu (1795 – 14 December 1874) (민치구, 閔致久)
Grandmother: Lady Yi of the Jeonju Yi clan (? Portrayed by Kim Young-min in the 2009 film The Sword with No Name. Portrayed by Choi Jong-hwan in the 2010 SBS TV series Jejungwon. Portrayed by Park Hee-soon in the 2012 film Gabi. Portrayed by Lee Min-woo in the 2014 KBS2 TV series Gunman in Joseon.Portrayed by Park Min-sang in the 2016 film The Map Against The World. Portrayed by Baek Yoon-sik in the 2016 film The Last Princess. Portrayed by Kang Yi-seok and Lee Seung-joon in the 2018 tvN TV series Mr. Sunshine. Trivia

 <mask> was a great fan of billiards, and coffee. He sometimes stayed up until 2 to 3 in the morning playing billiards. Loving coffee made Kim Hong Ryuk to plot assassination by poisoning his coffee. See also
History of Korea
Rulers of Korea
Heungseon Daewongun
Empress Myeongseong
List of Head of State and Government deposed by foreign power in the 20th and 21st century

Notes

References

External links

 "Essays Trace US, Japan Roles in Joseon's Downfall" Korea Times, June 13, 2008

Korean Empire emperors
1852 births
1919 deaths
19th-century Korean monarchs
Monarchs who abdicated
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Honorary Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Flag designers

masks: Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong Gojong


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<mask> (born August 18, 1992) is an American competition swimmer who specializes in backstroke and individual medley events. Beisel placed second in the 400m individual medley at the 2016 US Olympic Swimming Trials, qualifying for her third Olympic team. She has won a total of nine medals in major international competition, four gold, one silver, and four bronze spanning the Olympics, World Aquatics, and the Pan Pacific championships. Beisel competed in the 200-meter backstroke and 400-meter individual medley events at the 2008 Summer Olympics, placing fifth and fourth, respectively, in the world. She won the silver medal in the 400-meter individual medley and bronze in the 200-meter backstroke at the 2012 Summer Olympics. On August 30, 2021, she became the first woman to ever swim to Block Island. The 20km swim raised funds for cancer research and clinical trials.In August 2020, SPIRE Institute and Academy signed Biesel to become a swimming ambassador. She will be joining Caeleb Dressel in representing the school. The goal of the partnership with SPIRE and the ambassadors is to emphasize the development of peak performance in athletics, academics, character and life. Early life
Beisel was born in Saunderstown, Rhode Island, in 1992, the daughter of Ted and Joan Beisel. She graduated from North Kingstown High School in North Kingstown, Rhode Island in 2010. From the age of 12 through high school, she competed for the Bluefish Swim Club while training under coach Chuck Batchelor. Beisel became a member of the U.S. national swim team when she was 13 years old.Beisel's great uncle, Warren William Krech, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was called the "King of Pre-code Hollywood." He was also one of the original fourteen members of the Screen Actors Guild. College career
Beisel accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, where she swam for coach Gregg Troy's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) competition from 2011 to 2014. She won nine Southeastern Conference (SEC) individual championships, and was honored as the SEC Female Swimmer of the Year in 2012. Beisel also won the NCAA individual championships in the 200-yard backstroke in 2012, and the 400-yard individual medley in 2013, leading the Lady Gators to a seventh, tenth, sixth and sixth-place team finishes at the NCAA national championships. She received eighteen All-American honors and earned first-team Academic All-America recognition. International career

2007 World Championships
At the age of 14, Beisel competed in the 2007 World Championships.She advanced to the semi-finals and placed twelfth overall in the 200-meter backstroke. 2008 Summer Olympics

At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Trials, Beisel finished second to Katie Hoff in the 400-meter individual medley with a time of 4:32.87. Hoff went on to set the world record in that race. In the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel finished second to Margaret Hoelzer, who also set the world record. As a 15-year-old, Beisel was the youngest member of the U.S. Olympic swim team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. Beisel clocked the best time in the preliminaries of the 400-meter individual medley, and finished fourth in the final with a time of 4:34.24. She had the second fastest time in the semi-finals of the 200-meter backstroke, and finished fifth in the final.2009 World Championships

At the 2009 National Championships, Beisel competed in four individual events and qualified to swim in two finals. In the 400-meter individual medley, Beisel edged Julia Smit with a time of 4:36.31. In the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel finished first with a time of 2:08.80. Margaret Hoelzer, the Olympic silver medalist in Beijing, finished third. In her first event at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel finished third in the final with a time of 2:06.39, just missing Hoelzer's American record of 2:06.09. In the 400-meter individual medley final, Beisel placed fifth. 2010 Pan Pacific Championships
At the 2010 National Championships, Beisel competed in two events.In the 400-meter individual medley, the defending national champion slipped to fourth place. In the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel successfully defended her national title, finishing first with a time of 2:08.50. At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, Beisel won two gold medals. Her first gold medal came in the 400-meter individual medley, in which she finished first with a time of 4:34.69. It was three seconds faster than the second-place finisher and was Beisel's first international gold medal. In the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel won her second gold medal with a time of 2:07.83. 2011 World Aquatics Championships

At the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai, China, Beisel competed in two events, the 200-meter backstroke and the 400-meter individual medley.After qualifying third in both the heats (2:08.40) and semi-finals (2:07.82) of the 200-meter backstroke, Beisel finished in fifth place in the final with a time of 2:08.16. In her second and final event the 400-meter individual medley, Beisel won the gold in a time of 4:31.78. In the heats, Beisel posted the top qualifying time with a 4:34.95. Her nearest competitor, Hannah Miley, was over two seconds behind. This was Beisel's first individual title at a World Aquatics Championships. 2012 Summer Olympics

At the 2012 U.S. Olympic Trials in Omaha, Nebraska, Beisel qualified for the U.S. Olympic team by placing first in the women's 400-meter individual medley. In the final, Beisel posted a personal best time of 4:31.74, finishing more than two seconds ahead of teammate Caitlin Leverenz.She also qualified in the 200-meter backstroke by placing second, behind Missy Franklin, with a time of 2:07.58. In her third event, the 400-meter freestyle, Beisel placed fifth in a time of 4:07.29. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Beisel posted a time of 4:31.68 in the preliminaries of the 400-meter individual medley. She was seeded first going into the finals, and received a silver medal for finishing second behind China's Ye Shiwen with a time of 4:31.27 to Ye's 4:28.46. She also won a bronze medal by placing third in the 200-meter backstroke with a time of 2:06.55, behind American Missy Franklin and Russian Anastasia Zuyeva. 2016 Summer Olympics

At the 2016 U.S. Olympic Trials held in Omaha, Nebraska, Beisel qualified for her 3rd Olympic team in the women's 400-meter individual medley. In the finals, Beisel swam a 4:36.81 for 2nd place behind Maya Dirado, who won the event with a 4:33.73.In Rio de Janeiro, Beisel finished sixth in the final of the 400-meter individual medley with a time of 4:34.98. 2020 coaching career
In August 2020, SPIRE Institute and Academy signed Biesel to become a swimming ambassador. As an ambassador she will lead and instruct select classes. Survivor
Beisel competed on Survivor: Island of the Idols, the 39th season of the CBS series Survivor. She was the third Olympian to be a contestant on the show. She placed ninth after a blindside on Day 30. As a member of the jury at the Final Tribal Council, she voted for Dean Kowalski to win, though Tommy Sheehan would end up winning the season.She was widely criticized for using false accusations of sexual harassment to further her game while simultaneously being dismissive and unsupportive of the actual victim. While she did initially apologize  many felt that the apology was insincere and only due to the intense backlash she received after the show aired. Personal bests (long course)
. Involvement in LEAD Sports Summit
Since retiring from her swimming career, <mask> has become extremely involved in the LEAD Sports Summit. She has been a part of this organization since 2017 and is currently active. LEAD is a yearly summit that connects young female athletes with Olympic champions and experts through an all-inclusive, 4-day event. See also

 List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)
 List of University of Florida alumni
 List of University of Florida Olympians
 List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (women)

Bibliography
 Beisel, <mask> with Beth Fehr.Silver Lining. United States, Nico 11 Publishing & Design, January 22, 2020. .

References

External links

1992 births
Living people
American female backstroke swimmers
American female medley swimmers
Florida Gators women's swimmers
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in swimming
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in swimming
People from North Kingstown, Rhode Island
Sportspeople from Washington County, Rhode Island
Survivor (American TV series) contestants
Swimmers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming

masks:
Elizabeth Lyon Beisel
Elizabeth
Elizabeth


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William Ellsworth "<mask>" <mask> (May 23, 1862 – December 15, 1961) was an American center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) who played for several teams from 1888 to 1902, most notably the Cincinnati Reds and two Washington, D.C. franchises. Hoy is the most accomplished deaf player in MLB history, and is credited by some sources with causing the establishment of signals for safe and out calls. He held the MLB record for games in center field (1,726) from 1889 to 1902, set records for career putouts (3,958) and total chances (4,625) as an outfielder, and retired among the leaders in outfield games (2nd; 1,795), assists (7th; 273), and double plays (3rd; 72). He was also an excellent baserunner, scoring over 100 runs nine times, and often finishing among the top base stealers. He is one of only 29 players to have played in four different Major Leagues. His 1,006 career walks put him second in MLB history behind Billy Hamilton when he retired, and he also ended his career ranking eighth in career games played (1,796). Career

Born in the small town of Houcktown, Ohio, Hoy became deaf after suffering from meningitis at age three.He graduated from the Ohio State School for the Deaf in Columbus as class valedictorian. He opened a shoe repair store in his hometown and played baseball on weekends, earning a professional contract in  with an Oshkosh, Wisconsin, team which was managed by Frank Selee in 1887. In 1888, with the Washington Nationals of the National League, Hoy became the third deaf player in the major leagues, after pitcher Ed Dundon and pitcher Tom Lynch. In his rookie year he led the league in stolen bases (although the statistic was defined differently prior to 1898), and also finished second with 69 walks while batting .274. At 5'4" and batting left-handed, he was able to gain numerous walks with a small strike zone, leading the league twice and compiling a .386 career on-base percentage. Hoy's speed was a great advantage in the outfield, and he was able to play shallow as a result. On June 19, 1889, he set an MLB record (which has since been tied twice) by throwing out three runners at home plate in one game, with catcher Connie Mack recording the outs.He and Mack joined the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League in 1890, after which Hoy returned to the AA with the St. Louis Browns under player-manager Charles Comiskey for the league's final season in , leading the league with 119 walks and scoring a career-high 136 runs (second in the league). He returned to Washington for two years with the Washington Senators of the National League, and was traded to the Reds in December 1893, where he was reunited with Comiskey. Hoy later joined the Louisville Colonels, where his teammates included Honus Wagner, Fred Clarke and Tommy Leach (who was his roommate), and he hit .304 and .306 in his two seasons with the club; in  he broke Mike Griffin's Major League record of 1459 games in center field. After playing for the Chicago White Sox in the American League during its last minor league season in 1900, where Comiskey was now the team owner, Hoy stayed with the team when the AL achieved major league status in 1901, helping them to the league's (and his) first pennant; that year he broke Tom Brown's record of 3623 career outfield putouts, and also led the league with 86 walks and 14 times hit by pitch while finishing fourth in runs (112) and on-base percentage (.407). He ended his Major League career with the Reds in 1902, batting .290 and breaking Brown's record of 4461 career total chances in the outfield, and played for Los Angeles in the Pacific Coast League in 1903. In May of his last season with the Reds, he batted against pitcher <mask> Taylor of the New York Giants in the first faceoff between deaf players in the Major Leagues; Hoy got two hits. Hoy retired with a .288 batting average, 2048 hits, 1429 runs, 725 runs batted in, 248 doubles, 121 triples and 40 home runs.He had 488 stolen bases from 1888 through 1897, and 108 more after the statistic was redefined to its present meaning in 1898. His 1795 games in the outfield ranked second to Jimmy Ryan (then at 1829) in MLB history. Jesse Burkett broke his MLB record for career putouts in 1905, and Clarke topped his record for career total chances in 1909. His record for career games in center field was broken by Tris Speaker in 1920. Personal life

In Hoy's time, the word "dumb" was used to describe someone who could not speak, rather than someone who was stupid; but since the ability to speak was often connected to one's intelligence, the epithets "dumb" and "dummy" became interchangeable with stupidity. Hoy himself often corrected individuals who addressed him as William, and referred to himself as Dummy. Said to have been able to speak with a voice that resembled a squeak, he was actually one of the most intelligent players of his time, and is sometimes credited with developing the hand signals used by umpires to this day, though this view is widely disputed; Cy Rigler is believed to have created signals for balls and strikes while working in the minor leagues (although, in the November 6, 1886 issue of The Sporting News, the deaf pitcher Ed Dundon is credited as using hand signals while umpiring a game in Mobile, Alabama on October 20 of that year), and Bill Klem is credited with introducing those signals to the Major Leagues, in the early 20th century.Indeed, no articles printed during Hoy's lifetime have been found to support the suggestion that he influenced the creation of signals, nor did he ever maintain that he had such a role. Nonetheless, due to the possibility that he may have played a role in the use of signals, as well as for his all-around play, there is a movement to support his election to the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York. In retirement, <mask> and his wife Anna Maria (who was also deaf) operated a dairy farm in Mount Healthy, Ohio, outside Cincinnati; among their six children was Carson, an Ohio judge, and their grandson, Judson, became a member of the Ohio House of Representatives. They also raised his nephew, <mask> Helms, the founder of the Helms Athletic Foundation in Los Angeles. Hoy also worked as an executive with Goodyear after supervising hundreds of deaf workers during World War I. In 1951 he was the first deaf athlete elected to membership in the American Athletic Association of the Deaf Hall of Fame. At the age of 99 and just two months before his death in Cincinnati following a stroke, the Reds brought him back to Crosley Field, built on the site of his former home field, to throw out the first ball before Game 3 of the 1961 World Series.He could see, if not hear, the standing ovation he received. Upon his death that December, his remains were cremated according to family tradition and were scattered at Lytle Park in Cincinnati. Legacy

Upon his death in 1961 at the age of 99, Hoy was the longest-lived former MLB player ever. (In 1973, Ralph Miller broke Hoy's "record" by becoming the first ex-major leaguer to reach the age of 100. Altogether, 13 former big league ballplayers have become centenarians, the oldest being Chet Hoff, who was 107 when he died in 1998.) At the time of his death, <mask> <mask> was the last surviving participant of both the American Association and the Players' League. In  the baseball field at Gallaudet University was named the William "Dummy" Hoy Baseball Field.He was inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in . Hoy was inducted into the Baseball Reliquary's Shrine of the Eternals in 2004. The William "Dummy" Hoy Classic is a baseball game held every two years during Rochester, New York Deaf Awareness Week; it is contested between members of the Rochester Recreation Club of the Deaf and the Buffalo, New York Club of the Deaf, at a recreated 19th-century ballpark at Genesee Country Village and Museum. In 2008, the Documentary Channel aired the biography Dummy Hoy: A Deaf Hero (aka: I See the Crowd Roar). The documentary, using photographs of Hoy and actors to recreate certain events, chronicled the highlights of Hoy's life and his contributions to baseball; Hoy was portrayed by Ryan Lane. The <mask> Story: How a Deaf Baseball Player Changed the Game, a children's picture book by Nancy Churnin, was published in 2016. "Silent Star: The Story of Deaf Major Leaguer <mask>" by Bill Wise was published in 2012.The 2019 limited-release movie The Silent Natural, tells the story of <mask>, who is played by Miles Barbee, who is deaf in real life. The Little-Known Heroes: William '<mask>' <mask>, a children's picture book by Kaushay and Spencer Ford, was published in 2021. Notes

References

Sandy, Steve; Miller, Richard. "No Dummy: William Ellsworth Hoy." Timeline, March–April 2000, pp. 48–53. External links

BaseballLibrary – profile and career highlights
DummyHoy.com – website promoting his induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame
The Dummy Hoy documentary film, I See the Crowd Roar

1862 births
1961 deaths
Major League Baseball center fielders
19th-century baseball players
Cincinnati Reds players
Washington Nationals (1886–1889) players
Buffalo Bisons (PL) players
St. Louis Browns (AA) players
Washington Senators (1891–1899) players
Louisville Colonels players
Chicago White Sox players
Baseball players from Ohio
National League stolen base champions
Oshkosh (minor league baseball) players
Los Angeles Angels (minor league) players
Chicago White Stockings (minor league) players
American disabled sportspeople
Deaf baseball players
Disabled baseball players
People from Hancock County, Ohio
Deaf people from the United States
People from Mount Healthy, Ohio

masks:
Dummy
Hoy
Dummy
Hoy
Paul Hoy
Dummy
Hoy
William Hoy
William Hoy
Hoy
Dummy
Hoy


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<mask> (January 20, 1888 - July 13, 1961) was a court interpreter and civil rights activist who led the legal battle which recognized U.S. citizenship for Puerto Ricans living in Hawaii. Early years
<mask> was born in Yauco, Puerto Rico, when the island was still a Spanish possession. As a native inhabitant of Puerto Rico, he was a Spanish subject. <mask> was still residing in the island when the United States annexed Puerto Rico after the Spanish–American War in 1898 and Spain had lost its last colony in the western hemisphere. United States occupation of Puerto Rico
The United States established a military government, which acted as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Almost immediately, the United States began the "Americanization" process of Puerto Rico. The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles in their colony.Puerto Rico was classified as an "unincorporated territory," which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution — including the right of citizenship — did not automatically apply, because the island belonged to the U.S., but was not part of the U.S.

One of the conditions of the treaty was the transfer by cession the allegiance of the islanders to the United States. <mask> Sánchez was a citizen of Puerto Rico, but not of the United States even though the island was governed by that nation. Situation in Puerto Rico after Hurricane San Ciriaco

On August 8, 1899, Hurricane San Ciriaco, with winds of over 100 miles per hour, struck Puerto Rico and, on August 22, another hurricane followed. The floods caused by 28 days of continuous rain damaged the agricultural industry and left 3,400 dead and thousands of people without shelter, food or work. As a result, there was a shortage of sugar from the Caribbean in the world market and a huge demand for the product from Hawaii and other sugar producing countries. To meet the demand, plantation owners from Hawaii began a campaign to recruit the jobless laborers in Puerto Rico. First Puerto Rican immigrants to Hawaii

On November 22, 1900, the first group of Puerto Ricans consisting of 56 men, began their long journey to Maui, Hawaii.The trip was long and unpleasant. They first set sail from San Juan harbor to New Orleans, Louisiana. Once in New Orleans, they were boarded on a railroad train and sent to Port Los Angeles, California. From there they set sail aboard the Rio de Janeiro to Hawaii. According to the "Los Angeles Times" dated December 26, 1901, the Puerto Ricans were mistreated and starved by the shippers and the railroad company. They arrived in Honolulu, on December 23, 1900, and were sent to work in different plantations on Hawaii's four islands. By October 17, 1901, 5,000 Puerto Rican men, women and children had made their new homes on the four islands.Records show that, in 1902, 34 plantations had 1,773 Puerto Ricans on their payrolls; 1,734 worked as field hands and another 39 were clerks or overseers (foremen). Wages and living accommodations depended upon their jobs and race. Europeans were paid more and were given better living  quarters. Most of the workers moved from plantation to plantation to work because they did not like the work they did and because of the racial discrimination. <mask> Sánchez travels to Hawaii

In 1900, when <mask> Sánchez was 12 years old, his father died. That same year, the United States passed the Foraker Act establishing the territorial status of Puerto Rico and Puerto Rican citizenship in accordance to Section VII. Therefore, Puerto Ricans were not entitled to the same rights that citizens of the United States had, even though the island was governed by that nation.<mask> Sánchez's family financial situation worsened and in 1901, he moved to Hawaii with his mother. He became fluent in both English and Spanish and worked as a court interpreter. At the time Puerto Rico and Hawaii were unincorporated and incorporated territories of the United States respectively; however, the passage of the Jones-Shafroth Act of 1917, same year that the U.S. entered World War I, granted U.S. citizenship to the Puerto Rican residents in Puerto Rico and excluded those who resided in Hawaii. Even though Puerto Ricans in Hawaii were excluded from U.S. citizenship, they were assigned draft numbers along with those who were citizens. Plantation owners, like those that comprised the so-called Big Five, had an association called the "Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association" (HSPA), found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap labor overseas, especially from Puerto Rico and Asia. Such immigration was prohibited in various other states of the Union. Struggle for U.S. citizenship
In 1917, Puerto Ricans in the island, believing that they were entitled to the same rights that every other U.S. citizens had, tried to sign up to vote in a local Hawaiian election and  were denied their rights by David Kalauokalani, the county clerk, who claimed that early immigrants to Hawaii were not covered by the Jones Act.<mask> Sánchez became enraged in what he viewed as a violation of the civil rights of his fellow countrymen. He encouraged his fellow Puerto Ricans to protest by telling them that "If you are not allowed to vote, don't answer the draft call". <mask> Sánchez took a mandamus suit to court with the claim that all Puerto Ricans were United States citizens and entitled to the civil rights guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, however the lower court ruled in favor of the county clerk. <mask> Sánchez hired two liberal lawyers. Together they presented the case to the Territorial Supreme Court. The case known as "IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION OF MANUEL OLIVIERI SANCHEZ FOR A WRIT OF MANDAMUS AGAINST DAVID KALAUOKALANI" No. 1024, which was decided on October 22, 1917, reversed the lower court's decision.The Territorial Supreme Court recognized that all Puerto Ricans in Hawaii were citizens of the United States and were entitled to all rights of citizenship. Struggle against discrimination

<mask> Sánchez' victory was not welcomed by the members of HSPA, who depended on the cheap labor non-citizens provided. In 1930, HSPA began circulating false rumors. They made it known that they (HSPA) planned to recruit laborers in Puerto Rico, while at the same time they had the "Honolulu Star Bullentin" and other local newspapers they controlled run anti-Puerto Rican stories—claiming, for example, that Puerto Ricans were "unhealthy hookwormers who had bought disease to Hawaii". In a Dec. 1931 letter to the editor of the "Hawaiian Advertiser," <mask> Sánchez wrote that he saw all of the rhetoric as a tactic by the HSPA to push the different ethnic groups in the local labor force back to work on the plantations. He was right, the HSPA wanted to persuade Congress to exempt the territory from a law, which in 1924 was requested by California to prevent the migration of Filipinos and Japanese nationals to the U.S. (National Origins Quota Action (Immigration Act) and Johnson Immigration Act of 1924). HSPA's secretary treasurer J. K. Butler claimed that the association was unwilling to import Puerto Ricans to Hawaii.His defamation of Puerto Ricans condemned not only the Puerto Ricans of Hawaii, but also those on the island. Despite the efforts of <mask> Sánchez, HSPA had their way and Hawaii was exempted from the stern anti-immigration laws of the time. The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by the activist descendants of the original immigrant laborers. Because they were born in an incorporated United States territory and they were legal American citizens, they gained full local voting rights and actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands. Death
<mask> Sánchez died at St. Francis Hospital in Honolulu, Hawaii on July 13, 1961. Legacy
His efforts helped to make the United States citizenship, which was granted to the citizens of Puerto Rico by way of the Jones Act of 1917, to be extended to the Puerto Ricans living there. See also

 List of Puerto Ricans
 Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii

References

1888 births
1961 deaths
People from Yauco, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican activists
Puerto Rican people of Corsican descent
Hawaii people of Puerto Rican descent

masks:
Manuel Olivieri Sánchez
Olivieri Sánchez
Olivieri Sánchez
Olivieri
Manuel Olivieri
Olivieri
Olivieri
Olivieri
Olivieri
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Olivieri
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<mask> (also Ogodei;  – 11 December 1241) was the third son of <mask> and second khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, succeeding his father. He continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun, and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the Mongol invasions of Europe and Mongol conquests of China. Like all of Genghis' primary sons, he participated extensively in conquests in China, Iran, and Central Asia. Background
<mask> was the third son of <mask> and Börte Ujin. He participated in the turbulent events of his father's rise. When <mask> was 17 years old, <mask> experienced the disastrous defeat of Khalakhaljid Sands against the army of Jamukha. <mask> was heavily wounded and lost on the battlefield.His father's adopted brother and companion Borokhula rescued him. Although he was already married, in 1204 his father gave him Töregene, the wife of a defeated Merkit chief. The addition of such a wife was not uncommon in steppe culture. After Genghis was proclaimed Emperor or Khagan in 1206, myangans (thousands) of the Jalayir, Besud, Suldus, and Khongqatan clans were given to him as his appanage. <mask>'s territory occupied the Emil and Hobok rivers. According to his father's wish, Ilugei, the commander of the Jalayir, became <mask>'s tutor. <mask>, along with his brothers, campaigned independently for the first time in November 1211 against the Jin dynasty .He was sent to ravage the land south through Hebei and then north through Shanxi in 1213. <mask>'s force drove the Jin garrison out of the Ordos, and he rode to the juncture of the Xi Xia, Jin, and Song domains. During the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia, <mask>i massacred the residents of Otrar after a five-month siege in 1219–20 and joined Jochi who was outside the walls of Urganch. Because Jochi and Chagatai were quarreling over the military strategy, <mask> was appointed by Genghis <mask> to oversee the siege of Urganch. They captured the city in 1221. When the rebellion broke out in southeast Persia and Afghanistan, <mask> also pacified Ghazni. Ascendancy to Supreme Khan

The Empress Yisui insisted that Genghis <mask> designate an heir before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219.After the terrible brawl between two elder sons Jochi and Chagatai, they agreed that <mask> was to be chosen as heir. Genghis confirmed their decision. Genghis <mask> died in 1227, and Jochi had died a year or two earlier. <mask>'s younger brother Tolui held the regency until 1229. <mask> was elected supreme khan in 1229, according to the kurultai held at Kodoe Aral on the Kherlen River after Genghis' death, although this was never really in doubt as it was Genghis' clear wish that he be succeeded by <mask>. After ritually declining three times, <mask> was proclaimed Khagan of the Mongols on 13 September 1229. Chagatai continued to support his younger brother's claim.Genghis <mask> saw <mask> as having a courteous and generous character. His charisma is partially credited for his success in keeping the Empire on his father's path. Thanks mostly to the organization left behind by Genghis <mask>, and to the personality of <mask>, the affairs of the Mongol Empire remained for the most part stable during his reign. <mask> was a pragmatic man, though he made some mistakes during his reign. <mask> had no delusions that he was his father's equal as a military commander or organizer and used the abilities of those he found most capable. Notwithstanding reports of his charisma, <mask> was criticized by Mongol and Persian chroniclers for a crime he committed in 1237, which according to Persian chroniclers consisted of ordering the rape of four thousand Oirat girls above the age of seven. These girls were then confiscated for <mask>'s harem or given to caravan hostels throughout the Mongol Empire for use as prostitutes.This move brought the Oirat and their lands under <mask>'s control following the death of <mask>'s sister Checheyigen, who previously controlled Oirat lands. World conquests

Expansion in the Middle East

After destroying the Khwarazmian empire, Genghis <mask> was free to move against Western Xia. In 1226, however, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last of the Khwarizm monarchs, returned to Persia to revive the empire lost by his father, Muhammad ‘Ala al-Din II. The Mongol forces sent against him in 1227 were defeated at Dameghan. Another army that marched against Jalal al-Din scored a pyrrhic victory in the vicinity of Isfahan but was unable to follow up that success. With <mask>'s consent to launch a campaign, Chormaqan qorchi left Bukhara at the head of 30,000 to 50,000 Mongol soldiers. He occupied Persia and Khorasan, two long-standing bases of Khwarazmian support.Crossing the Amu Darya River in 1230 and entering Khorasan without encountering any opposition, Chormaqan passed through quickly. He left a sizable contingent behind under the command of Dayir Baghatur, who had further instructions to invade western Afghanistan. Chormaqan and the majority of his army then entered Tabaristan (modern-day Mazandaran), a region between the Caspian Sea and Alborz mountains, in the autumn of 1230, thus avoiding the mountainous area to the south, which was controlled by the Nizari Ismailis (the Assassins). Upon reaching the city of Rey, Chormaqan made his winter camp there and dispatched his armies to pacify the rest of northern Persia. In 1231, he led his army southward and quickly captured the cities of Qum and Hamadan. From there, he sent armies into the regions of Fars and Kirman, whose rulers quickly submitted, preferring to pay tribute to Mongol overlords rather than having their states ravaged. Meanwhile, further east, Dayir Baghatur steadily achieved his goals in capturing Kabul, Ghazni, and Zabulistan.With the Mongols already in control of Persia, Jalal al-Din was isolated in Transcaucasia where he was banished. Thus all of Persia was added to the Mongol Empire. The fall of the Jin dynasty

At the end of 1230, responding to the Jin's unexpected defeat of Doqolqu cherbi (Mongol general), the Khagan went south to Shanxi province with Tolui, clearing the area of the Jin forces and taking the city of Fengxiang. After passing the summer in the north, they again campaigned against the Jin in Henan, cutting through territory of South China to assault the Jin's rear. By 1232 the Jin Emperor was besieged in his capital of Kaifeng. <mask> soon departed, leaving the final conquest to his generals. After taking several cities, the Mongols, with the belated assistance of the Song dynasty, destroyed the Jin with the fall of Caizhou in February 1234.However, a viceroy of the Song murdered a Mongol ambassador, and the Song armies recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang'an, which were now ruled by the Mongols. In addition to the war with the Jin dynasty, <mask> crushed the Eastern Xia founded by Puxian Wannu in 1233, pacifying southern Manchuria. <mask> subdued the Water Tatars in the northern part of the region and suppressed their rebellion in 1237. Conquest of Georgia and Armenia

The Mongols under Chormaqan returned to the Caucasus in 1232. The walls of Ganjak were breached by catapult and battering ram in 1235. The Mongols eventually withdrew after the citizens of Irbil agreed to send a yearly tribute to the court of the khagan. Chormaqan waited until 1238, when the force of Möngke <mask> was also active in the north Caucasus.After subduing Armenia, Chormaqan took Tiflis. In 1238, the Mongols captured Lorhe whose ruler, Shahanshah, fled with his family before the Mongols arrived, leaving the rich city to its fate. After putting up a spirited defense at Hohanaberd, the city's ruler, Hasan Jalal, submitted to the Mongols. Another column then advanced against Gaian, ruled by Prince Avak. The Mongol commander Tokhta ruled out a direct assault and had his men construct a wall around the city, and Avak soon surrendered. By 1240, Chormaqan had completed the conquest of Transcaucasia, forcing the Georgian nobles to surrender. Invasion of Korea

In 1224, a Mongol envoy was killed in obscure circumstances and Korea stopped paying tribute.<mask> dispatched Saritai qorchi to subdue Korea and avenge the dead envoy in 1231. Thus, Mongol armies began to invade Korea in order to subdue the kingdom. The Goryeo King temporarily submitted and agreed to accept Mongol overseers. When they withdrew for the summer, however, Choe U moved the capital from Kaesong to Ganghwa Island. Saritai was hit with a stray arrow and died as he campaigned against them. <mask> announced plans for the conquest of the Koreans, the Southern Song, the Kipchaks and their European allies, all of whom killed Mongol envoys, at the kurultai in Mongolia in 1234. <mask> appointed Danqu commander of the Mongol army and made Bog Wong, a defected Korean general, governor of 40 cities with their subjects.When the court of Goryeo sued for peace in 1238, <mask> demanded that the king of Goryeo appear before him in person. The Goryeo king finally sent his relative Yeong Nong-gun Sung with ten noble boys to Mongolia as hostages, temporarily ending the war in 1241. Europe

The Mongol Empire expanded westward under the command of Batu <mask> to subdue the western steppes and drive into Europe. Their western conquests included Volga Bulgaria, almost all of Alania, Cumania, and Rus', along with a brief occupation of Hungary. They also invaded Poland, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, the Latin Empire, and Austria. During the siege of Kolomna, the Khagan's half brother Khulgen was killed by an arrow. Amid the conquest, <mask>'s son Güyük and Chagatai's grandson Büri ridiculed Batu, and the Mongol camp suffered dissension.The Khagan harshly criticized Güyük: "You broke the spirit of every man in your army... Do you think that the Russians surrendered because of how mean you were to your own men?". He then sent Güyük back to continue the conquest of Europe. Güyük and another of <mask>'s sons, Kadan, attacked Transylvania and Poland, respectively. Although <mask> <mask> had granted permission to invade the remainder of Europe, all the way to the "Great Sea", the Atlantic Ocean, the Mongol advance stopped in East Europe early in 1242, the year after his death. Mongol accounts would later attribute the drive's failure to his untimely demise necessitating Batu's withdrawal to personally participate in the election of <mask>'s successor. Batu, however, never reached Mongolia for such an election and a successor wouldn't be named until 1246. A likely reason the advance stalled and never regained momentum is that European fortifications posed a strategic problem that Mongol commanders were unable to surmount with the resources they had available.Conflict with Song China

In a series of razzias from 1235 to 1245, the Mongols commanded by <mask>'s sons penetrated deep into the Song Dynasty and reached Chengdu, Xiangyang and Yangtze River. But they could not succeed in completing their conquest due to climate and the number of Song troops, and <mask>'s son Khochu died in the process. In 1240, <mask>'s other son Khuden dispatched a subsidiary expedition to Tibet. The situation between the two nations worsened when Song officers murdered <mask>'s envoys headed by Selmus. The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent under the leadership of <mask> helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road, the primary trading route between East and West. India

<mask> appointed Dayir Baghatur in Ghazni and Menggetu noyan in Qonduz. In winter 1241 the Mongol force invaded the Indus valley and besieged Lahore, which was controlled by the Delhi Sultanate.However, Dayir Baghatur died storming the town, on 30 December 1241, and the Mongols butchered the town before withdrawing from the Delhi Sultanate. Some time after 1235 another Mongol force invaded Kashmir, stationing a darughachi there for several years. Soon Kashmir became a Mongolian dependency. Around the same time, a Kashmiri Buddhist master, Otochi, and his brother Namo arrived at the court of <mask>. Administration
<mask> began the bureaucratization of Mongol administration. Three divisions constituted his administration:
 the Christian eastern Turks, represented by Chinqai, the Uyghur scribe, and the Keraites. the Islamic cycle, represented by two Khorazmians, Mahamud Yalavach, and Masud Beg.the North Chinese Confucian circle, represented by Yelu Chucai, a Khitan, and Nianhe Zhong-shan, a Jurchen. Mahamud Yalavach promoted a system in which the government would delegate tax collection to tax farmers who collect payments in silver. Yelu Chucai encouraged Ögedei to institute a traditional Chinese system of government, with taxation in the hands of government agents and payment in a government issued currency. The Muslim merchants, working with capital supplied by the Mongol aristocrats, loaned at higher interest the silver needed for tax payments. In particular, Ögedei actively invested in these ortoq enterprises. At the same time the Mongols began circulating paper currency backed by silver reserves. Ögedei abolished the branch departments of state affairs and divided

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Ögedei
Genghis Khan
Ögedei
Genghis Khan
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Genghis Khan
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