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<mask> (born 1976) is a jouhikko musician from Tampere and a part-time teacher at the Sibelius Academy. He is also a composer, a producer and a researcher. He is trained as an ethnomusicologist, specializing in traditional folk music. He performs together with his band K:H:H:L, which stands for ‘the bones of dead horses out of control’. Early life
In 1993–94, when he was 17 years old, Käppi spent a year in the United States as an exchange student. The son of his host family was a fan of Grateful Dead, and through him Käppi became familiar with the band's music, which consisted of rock and improvised music based on folk music. This provoked his interest in the sources of that music, and especially in Finnish folk music.Another important influence for Käppi has been Värttinä, which caused him to look into the folk music collections of his local library. In 1997, Käppi got a chance to study folk music in Kaustinen, at the Ala-Könni Folk High School, where he began to play the jouhikko. At the time, he was frustrated with the guitar and felt it had too many strings and too much of everything in general. In 1998, Käppi played in the streets with a friend, who played the bagpipe. The sound of the jouhikko could barely be heard, and Käppi felt he needed an amplifier. The device had to be a small one, so he could carry it around, but the result was that he had to crank it up, thus producing a distorted sound. This is how he found his own sound, which has remained almost unchanged ever since then.Solo career
Käppi released his debut record, a four-song EP in Kalastajia ja kaivostyöläisiä (‘Fishermen and Miners’) 2001. It was said that it “brought to one’s mind the field recordings of cultural anthropologists, a breath of air from some mystical past. It had an intriguing atmosphere and at the same time it was aesthetically pleasant.” Since then he has released three more EPs and two albums of collaborations as well as three solo albums and three albums with K:H:H:L.

On his first full album, Jos ken pahoin uneksii (‘If you have a bad dream’), Käppi “creates a laudable palette of songs. At first, it appears to be a pure folk music album, but that’s not what it is. The first song, Mariainen, draws masterfully from the delta blues, and the final song, Vanhan virsikirjan virsi 277 (‘Hymn 277 from the old hymnal’) brings the listener back to Finnish traditions. During the rest of the songs he goes through a rich variety of styles, which one would not first associate with a jouhikko player. <mask>'s voice, which at times reminds one of that of Tuomari Nurmio, combined with traditional music, brings to one's mind The Incredible String Band.If it is allowed to be psychedelic in folk music, then Käppi is the leading figure in it in our country”, wrote Jaan Wessman for the music journal Soundi. The second album, Vuonna ’86 (‘In the year ’86’), gave rise to the following critique: “It seems that in Tampere there exists some kind of version of the Star Trekian disturbance in the spacetime continuum. A lot of folk music of other dimensions has originated from there during the last few years. The new release by <mask> Käppi, too, draws partially from the same Ugric marsh as did the fine album Jos ken pahoin uneksii (2007), but from a great many other places as well.”

The critique of the third album, Rammat Jumalat (‘lame gods’), says that “on record or at a gig [Käppi’s music] is not only easy to approach but simply irresistible. Rammat jumalat makes it even easier to approach with its stylish band approach, in which Käppi’s multitoned jouhikko rock blends with a hypnotic sound frame reminiscent of the ragged blues of Tom Waits and Tuomari Nurmio. The tones of folk music are just one ingredient in his soulful and liberated kind of organic rock. The compositions are by Käppi, and in his lyrics traditional croaking blends with his lyricist’s heavy message.The riffs swing and the melodies are catchy, and the songs are exceptionally strong. But in spite of this, the strongest ace of the record is Käppi’s voice. He has a sound all of his own, full of touching soul and unpredictable power. His unusual phrasing sounds completely natural. One must look far in the history of Afroamerican music to find similarly convincing performers who sing with the voice of a ‘sensitive bad guy’. We have never before heard the likes of him in Finland.”

<mask> Käppi & K:H:H:L.
Since 2015, <mask> has released three albums with K:H:H:L, in which he was joined by Tommi Laine (guitars) and Nuutti Vapaavuori (bass), along with Jani Auvinen (drums and percussion) for his most recent gigs. The band emerged from the sessions of Rammat Jumalat, “and from the beginning it was clear that the next album would be a band effort.In the critique of the first album, Sanguis Meus, Mama!, it was said that “Käppi understands the connection between the original Ugric spirit and the blues. There are riffs and rhythmic patters here into which one could run on the records of Tuareg bands. The rock set up woven so cleverly fits in well with these spells. Laine plays splendidly with his acoustic slide guitar, but at times he also tears up distorted riffs that would gain approval from The Black Keys. The dialogue between the jouhikko and the guitar, with intertwining comments from synthesizers, grows into an ever greater role the more one listens to this record. The rhythm is augmented with great taste with drum machines. But I would venture to say that a skillful drummer would add to the value of this hypnotic and at times funky material.If Käppi’s voice is still a little boyish and clean, his texts, aware of traditions, are all the heavier. One can sense a powerful smell of revenge, destitution and death in them.” Sanguis Meus, Mama! managed to popularize Käppi voodoo concoction, cooked from folk music and blues, into a nearly perfect fit, suitable even for the radio waves. The second album, Matilda, did not fare quite as well with the critics as the first one did. “If Sanguis Meus, Mama! leaned quite heavily to pop music, then Matilda did so even more heavily. However, Käppi’s newest concoction causes one to wrinkle one’s nose at it, as the album is not as good as its predecessor.… But Matilda is still quite a good record. It’s only that Sanguis Meus, Mama! is so good that not many artists are able to create anything like it during their whole careers, so it is natural to feel disappointed here. One can safely say even now that Matilda is much better than most Finnish pop records will be this year. Käppi’s voodoo pop is on its own orbit.”

The third album was likewise reviewed positively. Soundi writes that “<mask> Käppi and his band make interesting music on their third album, and they are still rocking wildly. It feels strongly that the best elements on their previous efforts have now found their rightful places here.The first song, “Ikoni” (‘Icon’), with its pop tones makes one smile, and its mantra like rhythm makes one’s body move to it.” Helsingin Sanomat writes that “at the start of the year we have a folk music hit. An incredibly catchy, intriguingly strange five and a half minute song, which one wants to listen to time and again. This is the song ‘Ikoni’ from the coing album by <mask> <mask> & K:H:H:L entitled Väärä laulu (‘The wrong song’).”

It has been said that the jouhikko sound on the last record is reminiscent of Jimmy Page’s sound, especially when the latter played his guitar with a bow. Another influence has been Nirvana’s MTV Unplugged in New York in which Käppi was impressed by the accordion playing of Krist Novoselić. Discography

EPs
Kalastajia ja kaivostyöläisiä, Amerikan Peikko Records, Kuusi Pientä Kustantajaa, 2001. Бубнить Себе под нос, 267 lattajjaa, 2003. Minun päiväkunnissani, Imvated, 2004.Solo albums
Jos ken pahoin uneksii, Peippo, 2007. Vuonna '86, Singing Knives, 2010. Rammat Jumalat, Helmi Levyt, 2013. <mask> Käppi & K:H:H:L.
Sanguis Meus, Mama!, GAEA Records, 2015. Matilda, Svart Records, 2017. Väärä Laulu, Svart Records, 2019. Collaborations
Claypipe, <mask> <mask>, The Blithe Sons: The Amazed Map, Music Fellowship, 2007.Petra Hartikainen & <mask> Käppi: Uni Uuhella Ajeli, Uulu Records, 2009. <mask> <mask> / Juhana Nyrhinen: Mun paras ystävä, Helmi Levyt, 2012. (EP)

References

Finnish folk music
Finnish composers
1976 births
Living people

masks:
Pekko Käppi
Käppi
Pekko
Pekko
Käppi
Pekko
Pekko
Käppi
Pekko
Pekko
Käppi
Pekko
Pekko
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<mask> (born 2 August 1983) is a Brazilian retired professional footballer who mainly played as a left winger. <mask> started his career at hometown club Pelotas before moving to the Netherlands, where he played for Feyenoord and Excelsior. He then returned to Brazil, where he played for Atlético Paranaense, Grêmio and Figueirense. He moved to French club Lille in 2006 before transferring to Lyon in 2009. After unsuccessful spells at Schalke 04, Al Ain and Roma, he moved back to Brazil to play for São Paulo in 2014. He joined Palmeiras in 2017 and had a spell at Sport do Recife in 2018. He signed for América (MG) in 2019.<mask> has won 10 caps and scored 1 goal for the Brazil national team. He was a starter at the 2010 World Cup, playing as a left-back. <mask> was known to be a free kick specialist throughout his career. Club career
<mask> was born in the Brazilian city of Pelotas and began his career playing for hometown club Esporte Clube Pelotas. In 2001, he moved to the Netherlands joining Dutch club Feyenoord Rotterdam playing for the Jong Feyenoord, the club's reserve section. Following a loan stint at nearby Excelsior Rotterdam, he returned to Brazil joining Atlético Paranaense. <mask> later played for Grêmio and Figueirense (loan) before deciding to return to Europe.Lille

Bastos joined French club Lille OSC in July 2006 and made his league debut in the club's opening match of the 2006–07 season against Rennes playing 65 minutes before taken off. Lille won the match 2–1. <mask> scored his first goal for the club against Lens in the annual Derby du Nord and finished the season with a total of three goals. Over the next two seasons, his goal tally quickly increased. He scored eight league goals during the 2007–08 season, including goals against Rennes, Lyon, and Lorient to help Lille finish in a respectable seventh place. During this season, <mask> began alternating between the left-back and left winger position. For the 2008–09 season, he was installed in the left winger role permanently.He scored his first goal in just the second match of the season in a 1–3 loss to Le Mans. Two weeks later, he scored in the club's 2–1 win over Bordeaux and, a week later, scored again, this time in a 1–1 draw with Sochaux, he also scored in a 2–2 draw against Lyon. From 11 November 2008 onwards, Bastos scored in five straight matches. He scored goals against Marseille, Lorient, Toulouse, Nice, and Le Havre. Lille accumulated two wins and three draws in that span. Several weeks later, he began another streak scoring a goal in six straight matches. With Lille winning all of those matches, they moved into the European places in the standings and eventually finished fifth earning a UEFA Cup spot on the final day of the season.In total that season, <mask> appeared in 41 matches and scored 16 goals, 14 in the league and also assisted on nine goals, which led Ligue 1. He was awarded the Trophée du Meilleur Passeur and became the only player in Ligue 1 history to appear in the top five of both the goalscorers' table and the assists' table since the creation of the assists' table for the 2007–08 season. He was also nominated for the Ligue 1 Player of the Year Award and named to the league's Team of the Year. Lyon

On 15 July 2009, Lille president <mask> revealed that the club had accepted an €18 million offer from Lyon. On 16 July, <mask> successfully passed his medical and agreed to a four-year contract making him Lyon's second signing of the summer following Argentine Lisandro López. He was presented to the media, along with fellow new signing Aly Cissokho, on 20 July and was assigned the number 7 shirt. <mask> scored his first goal for Lyon in the first leg of the club's playoff round match against Anderlecht in the UEFA Champions League.In the club's 5–1 victory, he scored the third goal, coming in from the right side and unleashing a left-footed strike into the top left corner. On 21 February 2010, <mask> scored a 21-minute hat-trick against Sochaux, as Lyon won the match 4–0 to move into the Champions League spots. Despite constant speculation linking Bastos with clubs around Europe, he remained an integral part of Lyon's first team, featuring regularly in Champions League, Coupe de France and Ligue 1 fixtures. He netted the only goal of the game against local rivals Saint-Étienne on 9 December 2012, smashing in a 25-yard free-kick, to keep Lyon at the top of Ligue 1 with a five-point gap over PSG. Loan to Schalke 04
On 29 January 2013, Bastos joined German side Schalke 04 on loan until the end of the 2013-2014 season, with option to sign him outright. He was given the number 9 shirt. Bastos made his Schalke debut on 2 February against Greuther Fürth and opened the scoring two minutes after half-time, but Schalke fell to a 2–1 defeat.In his third game in the 2012–13 Bundesliga, Bastos bagged a brace as Schalke twice came from behind to secure a 2–2 draw with Mainz on 16 February. Al Ain
Schalke did not exercise the option to sign Bastos on a permanent basis, and on 5 August 2013 Bastos was sold to a UAE club Al Ain for €4 million. Loan to Roma
On 20 January 2014, Italian side Roma announced that Bastos had signed a loan contract until the end of the season for a fee of €1.1 million, with the option of buying the full rights at the beginning of the 2014–15 season, for €3.5 million. São Paulo
On 13 August 2014, Bastos returned to his homeland and signed a one-and-a-half-year deal with Brasileirão club São Paulo. On 28 December 2016, Bastos and São Paulo, under a mutual agreement, cancel the contract, that would run until December 2017. Palmeiras
On 31 December 2016, Bastos and Palmeiras signed a contract until 2018, with a one more year option. Bastos is the fifth signing of Verdão to 2017 season.Loan to Sport Recife
On 30 April 2018, Sport Recife announced that <mask> had signed a loan contract until the end of the season. América Minerio
On 27 May 2019, América Mineiro announced the signing of Bastos until the end of the season. However on 12 September 2019 the club and player announced the friendly termination of the contract. On 8 October 2019 he announced his retirement from professional football. International career
Prior to joining Lyon, Bastos had never been called up to the Seleção. <mask> cited his move to Lyon as an important factor in attempting to earn a spot on Brazil's 2010 FIFA World Cup team. On 27 October 2009, Bastos was selected, for the very first time, by the national team for friendly matches against England and Oman.He made his national team debut in the England match starting in the left back position. Bastos later started in the same position in Brazil's next two friendly matches against Oman and the Republic of Ireland in February 2010 and, on 11 May 2010, was subsequently named to the 23-man squad to participate in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Career statistics

Club

International goals
Score and result list Brazil's goal tally first, score column indicates score after Bastos goal. Honours
Lyon
 Coupe de France: 2011–12
 Trophée des Champions: 2012

Individual
 Ligue 1 Team of the Year 2008–09

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
People from Pelotas
Brazilian footballers
Association football wingers
Brazil international footballers
2010 FIFA World Cup players
Esporte Clube Pelotas players
Feyenoord players
SBV Excelsior players
Club Athletico Paranaense players
Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense players
Figueirense FC players
Lille OSC players
Olympique Lyonnais players
FC Schalke 04 players
Al Ain FC players
A.S. Roma players
São Paulo FC players
Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras players
Sport Club do Recife players
América Futebol Clube (MG) players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B players
Eredivisie players
Ligue 1 players
Bundesliga players
Serie A players
UAE Pro League players
Brazilian expatriate footballers
Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Expatriate footballers in France
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in France
Expatriate footballers in Germany
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Expatriate footballers in the United Arab Emirates
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in the United Arab Emirates
Expatriate footballers in Italy
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in Italy

masks:
Michel Fernandes Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos
Michel
Michel Seydoux
Bastos
Michel
Bastos
Bastos
Bastos


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<mask> (27 December 1880 – 16 July 1962) was a German culture and social philosopher as well as a pedagogue. In the debate with Dilthey, Simmel and Cassirer, Litt developed an independent approach in cultural philosophy and philosophical anthropology, which was determined by the dialectical view of the relationship between the individual and society, man and the world, reason and life. At the same time, he projected these thoughts into a  that had its starting point in progressive education at the beginning of the 20th century and, via Litt's student , extended into the discussion on educational reform in the 1970s. Litt identified with the Weimar Republic and, as rector of the University of Leipzig, came into conflict with National Socialism, was banned from lecturing in 1937 and retired early. Nevertheless, he continued to publish critically against the ruling ideology. After the end of the Second World War, he could not come to terms with the ideology of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany and therefore moved to the Universität Bonn, where he founded the Institute for pedagogy. Life
Born in Düsseldorf, Litt was the son of the grammar school professor <mask> and great-nephew of the theatre director and actor .From 1890 to 1898, <mask> attended the humanistic Städtisches Gymnasium (today's ) in Düsseldorf. He then began teacher training in philosophy, history and classical philology (with one semester in Berlin) at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn. In Bonn, he became a member of the Sängerverbindung , in Berlin of the Akademische Liedertafel in the . In 1904 he was awarded a doctorate in classical philology with a dissertation written in Latin. After four years as a teacher of ancient languages and history in Bonn, Kreuznach and from 1906 as a senior teacher in Cologne at the , he was employed for six months as a referent in the Prussian Ministry of Culture in Berlin. <mask>'s interest in philosophy and pedagogy is said to have been triggered, among other things, by the Trauma of the First World War. As early as 1919, the University of Bonn appointed <mask> as an associate professor of education.In Individual and Community, <mask> gave an outline of cultural and social philosophy. Alongside Ernst Troeltsch, Ernst Cassirer and Georg Simmel, <mask> became a member of the Leipzig School for social philosophy. In 1920, he succeeded Eduard Spranger, who moved to the University of Berlin, as chair of philosophy and education at the Leipzig University, where he served as university lecturer or rector (1931–1932) until 1937. In 1927, Litt addressed his pedagogical problems in his work Führen oder Wachsenlassen (Leading or Letting Grow). His rejection of irrational, organological and romantic ideologies as well as his claim to respect for the growing and developing human being led to hostility from the National Socialists. In his inaugural speech as Rector of the University of Leipzig in 1931, he spoke out in favour of maintaining an independent university. For Litt, the Nazi regime ushered in the end of his first creative period from 1919 to 1937.He did not bow to the regime, which attacked his anti-National Socialist stance. At the university association conference in October 1932, <mask> suggested a declaration by the university teachers taking a stand against the National Socialist movement. Nevertheless, <mask> is named among the signatories of the Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State of 11 November 1933. In 1934, his lectures were severely disrupted and the University of Leipzig was even temporarily closed. In 1936, Litt ended a lecture tour to Vienna because the Nazi authorities banned him from lecturing. Returning to Leipzig, he demanded his early retirement, which he achieved in 1937. Litt nevertheless did not let this stop him from publishing the small paper Der deutsche Geist und das Christentum in 1938.In it he criticised Alfred Rosenbergs antisemitic The Myth of the 20th Century, wherein the latter advocated a religion to replace Christianity. Litt found great favour among devout Christians, and the relatively large print run was immediately sold out. But Litt disappointed the rejection by his colleagues who belonged to the humanities pedagogy, such as Eduard Spranger and Wilhelm Flitner, most of whom remained in their chairs during the National Socialist era despite agreeing with <mask>'s critique. Only Herman Nohl was dismissed from his post in 1937. In 1944, when <mask> was also banned from giving lectures at the Saxon Academy of Sciences, he withdrew completely. <mask>'s second creative period began in 1945. On Ernst Cassirer's recommendation, he was assigned the task of the democratic reform of Leipzig University.Although <mask> taught again in 1946, after a lecture on The Significance of Pedagogical Theory for the Training of Teachers in East Berlin he came into conflict with the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) and took up a professorship in philosophy and education at the Universität Bonn. <mask> founded and remained head of the Institute for Educational Sciences until his death. His numerous lectures such as Self-Criticism in Modern Culture or Political Ethics and Pedagogy were just as well received as his paper Die politische Selbsterziehung des deutschen Volkes, which gave rise to the inauguration of a series of papers by the Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. In 1962, <mask>'s last publication, Freiheit und Lebensordnung, was published, which again dealt with his confrontation with totalitarian types of power and their political theories. <mask> was a member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences, the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Sciences of the GDR, of the  and the Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. He was an honorary doctor of the universities in Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and the Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität. <mask> died in Bonn at the age of 81.Philosophical position

Dialectical way of thinking
As a philosopher, <mask> was strongly influenced by the dialectical way of thinking, which was determined by his engagement with Kant and Herder on the one hand and Hegel on the other. Like Eduard Spranger, Herman Nohl, Wilhelm Flitner and Erich Weniger, he is counted in the camp of the . He himself described his position as cultural pedagogy after Ernst Troeltsch, which believed that it could gain pedagogical goals from a historically saturated overall view of the cultural sphere in harmonising dialectics from tradition – covering contradictions and far removed from conflicts of power and interest. Thinkers such as Georg Simmel, Wilhelm Dilthey and Edmund Husserl also influenced his philosophical worldview. Jonas Cohn's book Theorie der Dialektik inspired him to examine problem areas in pedagogy dialectically. But for Litt, a critical examination of contradictions was not necessary for the purpose of education. For Litt, the dialectic manifests itself in the antinomy of individual and community, in the antinomy of reason and life, and in the opposition of subjective spirit (person) and objective spirit (objective formation of spirit).With his dialectical way of thinking, Litt aimed to abolish one-dimensional views and their credibility in an all-encompassing context. In doing so, he proceeded rationally, contrarily as well as dialectically at the same time and conceived an extensive philosophy of culture (Individual and Community) as well as a philosophical anthropology (Mensch und Welt). He attempted to bring together the fundamental opposition between cognition and life into an orderly whole by means of an overall view of interpretative ideas. The "free-thinking" educational science of Wolfgang Klafki and the educational reform of the 1960s took up Litt's didactic approach to supporting education in the humanities, but above all in history, with reference to technology, science and the world of work. Talcott Parsons' social theory is also trained on it. History as an overall cultural situation
The human being is to be seen in a historical context. Litt understood history not only as the past, but also as the future history shaped by people.He defined history as the "overall cultural situation", by which is meant the totality of what people in a community have created through thought, action and production. History is cultural history in the sense of the spiritual world. Under this condition, education is an "action that is directed in its essence towards the context of the human-social world, that is the spiritual world." But this assumed totality is not so given in the world. Characteristic of the overall cultural situation, one finds rather inequalities, disjunctions and diversities. What is already given in the world is the separate coexistence. Human actions differ in their intentions and goals and therefore exist separately next to each other.Contradiction in the basic dialectical structure
By creating syntheses, tensions and contradictions can be resolved. These tensions are not a concept devised by the mind, but a real, antinomic structure of human being. The cause for the contradictory, for the antinomic in the human psyche lies in the dialectical basic structure of human being. The dialectical basic structure cannot be remedied from the outside by psychological measures. These can at most provide information about this contradiction, but not about how the individual is able to deal with enlightenment. In the education of a child, the resolution of the dialectical tensions cannot be realised, because the tensions cling to the educator (leader) just as much as to the person being educated, and he can just as little step out of them. However, Litt did not see the solution to the tensions and contradictions inherent in the human being in letting it grow naturally, especially since this letting it grow would have to be based on the assumption that development is purposeful and meaningful from the outset.Elimination of the tension
There is a gulf between human spiritual existence and organic Dasein. Nature does not correspond to "ought" and meaning. Nature does not strive to eliminate contradictions. This is rather the fictitious desire of human beings, because their spirit demands to live in harmony with "All-That-Is" and because it seeks harmonious perfection. The human spirit demands the abolition of contradictions through independent mental work. According to Litt, the being of education can only be understood in terms of its "ought". This "ought" is the synthesis that must be produced in order to recognise contradictions and accept them as given as the product of the human spirit, which has the claim to control contradictions through mental effort and to bring them into harmony.The bringing together of opposing poles is possible for the human spirit because those also originate from it. Man and the world
Litt emphasised the importance of the individual: ego and world are dependent on each other and are in a mutual process of development. Litt criticised the one-dimensional interpretation of Hegel, who pushed the individual into the shadows. The objective contents must be absorbed into the life of the respective subject in order to be useful. The term tradition is inseparable from that of individuation. "Man" and "world" have a reciprocal effect on each other and are in a positive dialectical tension with each other in that both work off each other. Through this mutual "working off", both form each other.Man forms himself in his definition of himself, and the world as the totality of spiritual-social-historical content forms itself in its virtuous assertion of claims, which is respected and strengthened. Science, work world and technology are designated as the world and are in a mutual interaction with humans. Man forms and creates the world and thus has a Weltbildungscharakter (world-forming character). The areas grouped together as the world are "forming powers". School pedagogical position

Ideals of education
For Litt, there is no ideal blueprint of education. Nevertheless, there are educational rubrics, such as religion, science, art and

masks:
Theodor Litt
Ferdinand Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
Litt
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 morality, which remain untouchable in their educational character. It is characteristic of society to want to create an educational ideal in order to protect certain contents of education from criticism.This tendency is inappropriate and questionable. On the other hand, it is something else to seek the constructs of the mind for their own sake and to court their meaning and purpose in pure self-forgetfulness. Education can also be purposeful without an educational ideal. Without an ideal design, it aims at the self-forming of the subject in order to come to oneself, by man working his way through to his actual form of existence and thus making himself known. The formation of the human being cannot be concluded from any educational ideal. It is the same with the spirit, which either is or is not. In order to form the self that is conscious, it is necessary to discuss the given world one by one.Neither upbringing nor education need follow an ideal image, be it from religion or politics, in order to make it useful. On the other hand, the free-thinking spirit that wants to come into its own in the world commits itself to education. It is the task of education to educate the free-thinking spirit through the critical examination of the world. Cultural and educational goods
Litt emphasises the importance of selecting educational content. Because of the diversity of educational content in pedagogy, it is all the more important to examine its content. No educational content may claim general validity for itself, because its relevance is measured against certain life contexts of the respective culture. Pedagogy must attempt to move from a totality of cultural realities to the individual areas of culture in order to bring a structure to the cultural areas and cultural goods and to classify them according to importance.However, this approach still ignores fundamental decisions about cultural and educational goods. For the observer and enjoyer, a cultural good can have great significance, but without relevance to education. There is no coincidence of cultural goods and educational goods. In order for cultural goods to prove themselves as educational goods, they must fit into the inner movement of the living whole and allow themselves to be related to the whole of youthful soul development. They must correspond to the world views of youth. Once the appropriate educational goods have been selected, they still need to be specified – for an intended target group with a comparable mindset. The mission of education
Education teaches man to keep himself and his relationship in order.The person gains better access to realising this. Work, with its objectivity, has a positive effect on the human being. This transfer of life makes it possible for man to conform to the order inherent in work, to grow humanly through work. Litt puts the pedagogisation of society into practice. Even the most functional family could no longer provide the performance that was still conceivable in the times of Pestalozzi or Diesterweg to enable the adolescent to successfully master everyday life. The school was constantly taking on new tasks in order to ensure and support the suitability for everyday life and the personal responsibility of the adolescent. A separation of education and the adult world (professional world) is no longer conceivable.From kindergarten onwards, children would also experience the constraints of the adult world. Educational and vital values
The young person should be exposed to classical contents and cultural goods with an educational character of "timeless significance", because these are the actual educational values. Furthermore, in addition to the actual educational values, the school must also take into account and relate to the real demands of life, the social demands. This means that the so-called "vital values" have the same importance as the educational values. A tension arises between the two values that remains incompatible because it cannot be shattered and thus endured. Democratisation of the youth
Furthermore, Litt demands that daily political controversies be kept out of the classroom. School should not be misused for party-political purposes.On the other hand, he emphasises the important consolidation of the "youthful" character through spirituality and morality. Despite Litt's rejection of political and school interdependence, he advocates education towards democracy. A functioning school system shows itself through consistency. The school should distance itself from the general intellectual and cultural climate so as not to fall into the false belief that it has to react to political controversies. School has a preserving character because it is able to pass on the "educational solidarity of generations" and is obliged to remain consistent even in times of change. Criticism of the uniform school system
Litt advocates the divided school system and categorically rejects the "" (uniform school). Furthermore, Litt advocates the gymnasial educational directions with their respective core content.The task of the secondary schools is to offer high-achieving pupils a challenging education. The educational diversity offered at secondary schools is very limited at vocational schools, he argues, because students remain experts in one field and general education, which includes learning basic social and intellectual skills, is neglected. This means that the vocational school has the task of opening up and connecting with fundamental areas of existence. It should put culture and history into a context that is appropriate for the respective occupation. Understanding and respect should also be important aspects of the educational task at these schools, as these are key points in preventing blatant and massive human rights violations. Pedagogical influence in the classroom
For Litt, "instruction" and "education" are to be seen as interlinked, because an educational aspect always flows into instruction. The pedagogical effect is decisive for orderly and consistent teaching, which focuses on education for objectivity, work ethic and fulfilment of duty.Litt finds it advantageous when the above-mentioned values are passed on by teachers without them having to exert direct influence on pupils, since every teacher has a different educational radiance and way of looking at things. Besides the reciprocal intertwining of "teaching" and "education", there is also one for "intellect" and "character" or "knowledge" and "education". "Knowledge" is always an assessment of the situation, and the becoming one of knowledge and conscience is a prerequisite for action to correspond to knowledge (belief). Tasks of the teachers

Required characteristics
Litt is of the opinion that there are born educators who are naturally endowed with an outstanding educational talent; nevertheless, most educators must learn certain aids and educational methods. In a narrower sense, this means the consistency and definiteness of pedagogical form and an unrestricted knowledge of teaching methods. In addition, Litt argues in favour of the methodical, because systematic, planned procedures leave no room for misconstructions. In addition to methodological knowledge, pedagogical theory should be emphasised as a requirement for the teacher, even if it has nothing to do with practical implementation per se.Rather, it has a "historical site consciousness" which teachers should use to make it easier for students to find their way in world affairs. By historical location awareness, Litt also understands the "breadth of the intellectual horizon". It allows the teacher to convincingly represent the "spiritual powers whose precipitation confronts him as the content of his teaching activity. Moreover, it gives him the competence to face contemporary phenomena in an examining and conscientious manner. Pedagogical theory also has the task of giving the prospective teacher a sense of his pedagogical self-determination, based on inner freedom and a sense of duty. A good teacher can be recognised by the fact that he or she has the self-control not to take sides, but is able to confront contentious issues and central questions of life on a level of unity. For Litt, wanting to ideologically penetrate and influence the school is a danger.Granting freedom of choice
It is a mistake to deprive pupils of the opportunity to make decisions regarding their personal worldview by trying to take them in early on for that of the educating generation. Instead, they should be given the opportunity to shape their own vision of the future. This requires tolerance from the teacher and a taming of his own wishful images and ideas. In this way, he is also better able to connect the pupils with the objective culture and to act as a mediator between the "I" and the "world", so that the educational process leads via the person to the thing. The teacher has the duty to bring objective content closer to his pupils. Education only fulfils its purpose if, in addition to "letting the growing person grow", guiding is also seen as a component of the educational process. Merely observing the direction of a child's development and meeting his or her requirements and preferences as well as promoting his or her interests is regressive as a sole "educational measure" and in no way sufficient for the developing human being."I" and "world" are in a reciprocal process of development and the confrontation with objective contents corresponding to the age as well as the talents is fundamental for the process of becoming a human being. Honours
 Mitglied des Ordens Pour le Mérite, Friedensklasse (1952)
 Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern (20 December 1955)
 Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1958)
 Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband (27 December 1960)

Work

Independent publications
 Geschichte und Leben. Von den Bildungsaufgaben geschichtlichen und sprachlichen Unterrichts. Leipzig/Berlin 1918; from the 2nd, modified edition with the subtitle Probleme und Ziele kulturwissenschaftlicher Bildung. Individuum und Gemeinschaft. Grundfragen der sozialen Theorie und Ethik. Leipzig/Berlin 1919; from the 2nd, modified edition (1924) with the subtitle Grundlegung der Kulturphilosophie; 3rd, again revised edition.1926. Erkenntnis und Leben. Untersuchungen über Gliederung, Methoden und Beruf der Wissenschaft. Leipzig/Berlin 1923. Die Philosophie der Gegenwart und ihr Einfluss auf das Bildungsideal. Leipzig/Berlin 1925. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Pädagogik.Abhandlungen zur gegenwärtigen Lage von Erziehung und Erziehungstheorie. Leipzig/Berlin 1926. Führen oder Wachsenlassen. Eine Erörterung des pädagogischen Grundproblems. Leipzig/Berlin 1927. Wissenschaft, Bildung, Weltanschauung. Leipzig/Berlin 1928.Kant und Herder als Deuter der geistigen Welt. Leipzig 1930. Einleitung in die Philosophie. Leipzig/Berlin 1933. Die Selbsterkenntnis des Menschen. Leipzig 1938. Der deutsche Geist und das Christentum.Vom Wesen geschichtlicher Begegnung. Klotz, Leipzig 1938, ; Nachdr. als Gemeinschaftsausgabe: Fischer, Norderstedt; Leipziger Univ.-Verlag, Leipzig 1997,  and . Das Allgemeine im Aufbau der geisteswissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis. Leipzig 1941. Geschichte und Verantwortung. Wiesbaden 1947.Denken und Sein. Stuttgart/Zürich 1948. Mensch und Welt. Grundlinien einer Philosophie des Geistes. Munich 1948. Staatsgewalt und Sittlichkeit. Munich 1948.Wege und Irrwege geschichtlichen Denkens. Munich 1948. Die Geschichte und das Übergeschichtliche. Hamburg 1949. Geschichtswissenschaft und Geschichtsphilosophie. Munich 1950. Der Mensch vor der Geschichte.Bremen 1950. Naturwissenschaft und Menschenbildung. Heidelberg 1952. Hegel. Versuch einer kritischen Erneuerung. Heidelberg 1953. Das Bildungsideal der deutschen Klassik und die moderne Arbeitswelt.Bonn 1955. Die Wiedererweckung des geschichtlichen Bewußtseins. Heidelberg 1956. Technisches Denken und menschliche Bildung. Heidelberg 1957. Leibniz und die deutsche Gegenwart. Wiesbaden 1947.Wissenschaft und Menschenbildung im Lichte des Ost-West-Gegensatzes. Heidelberg 1958. Freiheit und Lebensordnung. Zur Philosophie und Pädagogik der Demokratie. Heidelberg 1962. Pädagogik und Kultur. Kleine


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 pädagogische Schriften 1918–1926.Edited by F. Nicolin, Bad Heilbrunn 1965. Essays
 Die höhere Schule und das Problem der Einheitsschule. In Monatsschrift für höhere Schulen. 18 (1919), . Hegel und die Aufgaben deutscher Jugend. In Jugendführer und Jugendprobleme (Festschrift zu Georg Kerschensteiners 70. Geburtstag).Edited by Aloys Fischer, Eduard Spranger. Leipzig/Berlin 1930. Hegels Begriff des „Geistes“ und das Problem der Tradition. In Studium Generale. volume 4. Springer, . Leitsätze zur Begründung eines realistischen höheren Schulwesens.In Bildung und Erziehung. 5 (1952), . Charakterbildung geht vor Wissensbildung. In Pädagogische Wahrheiten und Halbwahrheiten kritisch beleuchtet (Festgabe für Wilhelm Flitner zum 70. Geburtstag). Edited by Eduard Spranger. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1959, , .Secondary literature
 Hans-Karl Beckmann: Der Erziehungsauftrag der Schule. In F. Schmaderer (ed. ): Die pädagogische Gestaltung des Schullebens. Beiträge zur Verwirklichung des Erziehungsauftrags der Schule (Schulpädagogische Aspekte). Ehrenwirth, Munich 1979, , . Ursula Bracht: Zum Problem der Menschenbildung bei <mask>tt. Studien zur wissenschaftstheoretischen Problematik im Gesamtwerk Theodor Litts.Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1973, . Holger Burckhart: <mask>: Das Bildungsideal der deutschen Klassik und die moderne Arbeitswelt. Darmstadt 2003. Thomas Friederich: <mask>tts Warnung vor "allzu direkten Methoden". In Deutsche Philosophen 1933. edited by Wolfgang Fritz Haug, Berlin 1989, . Lorenz Funderburk: Erlebnis, Verstehen, Erkenntnis. <mask>tts System der Philosophie aus erkenntnistheoretischer Sicht.Bonn 1971, . Hans Glöckel: Vom Unterricht. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1990, . Wolfgang Klafki: <mask>tt. In Hans Scheuerl (ed. ): Klassiker der Pädagogik. Munich 1979.Wolfgang Klafki: Die Pädagogik <mask>tts. Eine kritische Vergegenwärtigung. Scriptor, Königstein 1982, . Julia Kurig: Die Technik als Herausforderung der Pädagogik in den 1950er Jahren: <mask>tts Bildungs- und Subjekttheorie für die Industriegesellschaft. In Jahrbuch für Historische Bildungsforschung 2014. Schwerpunkt Maschinen (Jahrbuch für Historische Bildungsforschung. Volume 20, ).Julius Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 2015, , ,  (PDF; 4,2 MB). Rudolf Lassahn: Das Selbstverständnis der Pädagogik <mask>tts. Ratingen 1968. Rudolf Lassahn: <mask>tt. Münster 1970.

 , Hans-Helmuth Knütter, : <mask> und die politische Bildung der Gegenwart (Berichte und Studien der Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung. Volume 31). Olzog, München 1981, .Friedhelm Nicolin (ed. ): <mask>. Pädagogische Analysen zu seinem Werk. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1973, . Friedhelm Nicolin: <mask>. In Josef Speck (ed. ): Geschichte der Pädagogik des 20.Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart 1977.
 : <mask>. Eine einführende Überschau. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1950, . Wolfgang Ritzel: Philosophie und Pädagogik im 20. Jahrhundert. Die philosophischen Bemühungen des 20.Jahrhunderts. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1980, .
 : Lieber will ich Steine klopfen. Der Philosoph und Pädagoge <mask> in Leipzig. Leipzig 1996. Wolfgang Schulz: Untersuchungen zur Kulturtheorie <mask>tts. Neue Zugänge zu seinem Werk. Dt.Studien-Verlag, Weinheim 1990, . Gerhard Steindorf: Lernen und Wissen. Theorie des Wissens und der Wissensvermittlung. Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn 1985, . <mask>-Jahrbuch. Published by the Theodor-Litt-Forschungsstelle der Universität Leipzig, Leipzig 1999 ff.,

References

External links

 Professor <mask> on Universität Leipzig
 Werner Flach: <mask>tts Grundlehre. Dem Andenken Theodor Litts gewidmet.In iablis.de
 Harald Lönnecker: „… den Kern dieses ganzen Wesens hochzuhalten und … zu lieben." <mask> und die studentischen Verbindungen. Frankfurt 2005 (PDF; 288 kB) In burschenschaftsgeschichte.de (zuerst in Dieter Schulz, Heinz-Werner Wollersheim [ed. ]: <mask>tt-Jahrbuch. 4 (2005), , ). First in Dieter Schulz, Heinz-Werner Wollersheim (ed. ): <mask>tt-Jahrbuch. . Volume 4, Leipziger Univ.-Verlag, [Leipzig] 2005, , .In uni-leipzig.de. (Abstract from) Journal der Universität Leipzig. No. 2, April 2000, ,. 33 f. (PDF-S. 35 f.) (PDF; 34,2 MB)
  Der Nachlass des Erziehungswissenschaftlers und Philosophen Theodor Litt. (PDF 43 kB) In kobv.de
 Wolfgang Klafki: Die gegenwärtigen Kontroversen in der deutschen Erziehungswissenschaft über das Verhältnis der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Pädagogik zum Nationalsozialismus. In uni-marburg.de, "[…] Litt's political position in the Weimar Republic was that of a conservative-liberal republican of reason.Out of insight into the socio-political conditions of the time, he unequivocally declared his support for the binding nature of the Constitution of the Weimar Republic and, in the crisis years at the end of the Weimar period, unequivocally opposed right-wing extremism and left-wing extremism. threats to the constitutional state and the autonomy of universities position. At no time was his national attitude in danger of turning nationalistic, and he never gave cause to be misunderstood in this sense. In the first years after 1933, he had the courage – as one of very few university teachers in Germany at the time – to openly criticise the race theory and the historical view of National Socialism in publications. […]"
 Littstraße (with a photograph of Litt). In uni-leipzig.de
 Theodor-Litt-Gesellschaft. In uni-leipzig.de (with links to the <mask> symposium, archive, research centre, publications an <mask>tt Preis)
  Litt, <mask> on archivdatenbank.bbf.dipf.<mask> on Lexikon Westfälischer Autorinnen und Autoren – 1750–1950
 <mask> spricht über die Aufgabe der Philosophie in der Gegenwart, Bonn 1959

20th-century German educators
20th-century German philosophers
Philosophers of culture
Rectors of Leipzig University
University of Bonn faculty
German non-fiction literature
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
1880 births
1962 deaths
People from

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<mask> (born 28 November 1987) is an English professional golfer and former cricketer who appeared in 71 matches for the England cricket team between 2010 and 2013. Born and raised in South Africa, <mask> moved to England to complete his education, and began playing county cricket for Somerset in 2007. Three years later, he made his international debut in a One Day International (ODI) against Bangladesh. A wicket-keeper batsman, he was considered a one-day specialist, and all his international appearances came in ODIs or Twenty20 Internationals. <mask> played junior cricket for Western Province until the age of 18, but lack of opportunity led him to seek an alternative route in England. He studied at Millfield, where he was noticed by Somerset. The county's lack of a strong wicket-keeper gave Kieswetter his opportunity, and he made his debut for the team early in the 2007 season.Through his Scottish mother, he qualified to play county cricket, and his performances soon generated discussion about his potential to play for England. Around this time, the captain of South Africa, Graeme Smith, invited him to return to play in South Africa but <mask> preferred to qualify for England. In early 2010, <mask> achieved his target; some strong performances for the England Lions, especially in a match against the senior England team, won him a place in the squad to face Bangladesh. His selection, along with the presence of other South African-born players in the England team, was criticised; some commentators suggested there should be fewer foreign-born players in the team. <mask> scored his only international century in his third match, and a couple of months later he was the man of the match in the final when England won the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. After a promising start for England, he was dropped owing to his inconsistency before the end of 2010. He returned to the team the following year, but his place was insecure, and in 2013 he was replaced by Jos Buttler, his teammate at Somerset.<mask>'s career was cut short by an injury sustained while batting for Somerset in July 2014: a ball penetrated the gap between his helmet's grille and visor and struck him in the face, damaging his vision. There was some hope of a full recovery and he was named in a provisional England squad for the 2015 Cricket World Cup, but he continued to experience difficulties with his vision and he announced his retirement from professional cricket in June 2015, aged 27. In 2017, he became a professional golfer. Early life and career
<mask> was born in Johannesburg to an Afrikaner father, Wayne, and Scottish mother, Belinda. He studied at Diocesan College in Cape Town, and played cricket for Western Province junior teams between the ages of 13 and 18. <mask> was disappointed when he was asked to play club cricket for two or three seasons before returning to play for the senior team; he never received an explanation and decided instead to pursue a cricket career in England, where he moved at the age of 18. He studied for his A-levels for a year at Millfield, where Mark Davis, a former Somerset bowler, spotted him.He was quickly signed by Somerset. At the 2006 Under-19s World Cup in Sri Lanka, he represented South Africa and won a Man of the Match award in a game against the United States for his innings of 80 off 66 balls. <mask> made his first appearance for Somerset's second team in May 2006, taking over from Sam Spurway as wicket-keeper midway through a match when the latter was injured. He scored 94 not out in his first innings of that match against Glamorgan, and by the end of the season he had scored  at an average of over 40. His performances were so strong that Somerset chose to release Spurway at the start of the 2007 season, and named <mask> alongside Carl Gazzard as their two wicket-keepers. In early April that year, he made his one-day debut for Somerset against Glamorgan; he made 69 not out off 58 balls and took a catch described as "world class" by Somerset's director of cricket, Brian Rose. He made his first-class debut the following month, keeping wicket while Derbyshire made 801 for8 declared and scored 63 in the Somerset reply.<mask> continued to perform well during 2007 and 2008, and was awarded the NBC Denis Compton Award, as the "most promising young player", for Somerset in both seasons, scoring several fifties in first-class and one-day cricket. Against Glamorgan, he scored 93 while batting at number eight. <mask> came in after two wickets had been lost in an over, with the score at 250 for 6. His innings, which included a partnership of 130 with Andrew Caddick, helped Somerset to reach 402 and eventually win the match. Towards the end of the 2008 season, during a 40-over match against Gloucestershire, <mask> scored his first century for Somerset, scoring  from , and sharing a competition-record 302-run partnership with Marcus Trescothick. In 2009, <mask> passed 1,000 first-class runs in a season for the only time during his career. Early in the year, he scored an unbeaten 150 in a high-scoring draw against Warwickshire, his maiden first-class century.A few weeks later, he scored  against Durham to help his county avoid defeat. In his report for ESPNcricinfo, Andrew McGlashan described Kieswetter as "another likely South African to make the transition to England colours". <mask> scored two further first-class centuries during the year, both at Taunton, against Sussex and Lancashire; he averaged just under 60 for his 1,242 first-class runs in the season. In one-day cricket, <mask> opened the batting alongside Trescothick, and averaged 65.83, scoring an unbeaten 138 off 131 balls against Warwickshire. In the quarter-final of the 2009 Friends Provident Trophy, <mask> scored his second one-day century of the season, but Somerset were defeated by six wickets. His  in the 2009 Twenty20 Cup helped Somerset reach the final of that competition, where they were again beaten by Sussex. He was awarded his county cap during the final game of the 2009 County Championship against Worcestershire.International cricketer

International selection
Following his strong performances for Somerset, <mask> was part of the England Performance Programme squad that spent eight weeks of the English winter training in Loughborough and Pretoria. The South African national cricket captain, Graeme Smith, said he wanted Kieswetter to return to play cricket in South Africa; rather than directly inviting him to play for the South Africa national cricket team, he stated that "the challenge is to get him back into our franchise system first, but he is certainly someone we have seen and would like to get back into the system". <mask> repeated his desire to play international cricket for England. In 2010, <mask> qualified to play for England on the basis of having a British passport, via his Scottish mother, and his residency in England. Under the rules for international cricket, he had to wait until four years after his last appearance for South Africa, which was on 16 February 2006 during the Under-19s World Cup. In January 2010, he was named as part of the England Lions squad to tour the United Arab Emirates for a series against Pakistan A. The England head coach, Andy Flower, described <mask>'s performances during that tour as "a really good start", and described the Twenty20 warm-up match between the England Lions and the England senior team that followed the tour as "a chance for him to impress".During that match, which was played on the day that he qualified for England, <mask> scored  to help the Lions beat the senior team. After England's drawn T20I series with Pakistan in mid-February 2010, <mask> was added to the senior England squad for the ODI series against Bangladesh. He was immediately included in the team, playing as a specialist batsman alongside wicket-keeper Matt Prior, in the first warm-up match on 23 February against the Bangladesh Cricket Board XI. He scored 143, his career-best one-day score, from 123 balls. That score, and his performances for the England Lions, led to <mask>'s selection for the first ODI against Bangladesh on 28 February. Opening the innings alongside captain Alastair Cook, <mask> struggled in his first over; he made  in an innings described by ESPNcricinfos Andrew Miller as "tinged with nerves" and "chancy". In the next match, two days later, <mask> misplayed his first ball and was nearly dismissed; he was then caught off a similar mishit from the next ball bowled.In the third match, he scored his first international century–  which helped England to 284 for five and a 45-run victory. England won the series 3–0. In contrast to the "hard-hitting batting" which Geoff Miller, the England selector, had cited as one of the reasons for his inclusion, <mask>'s century was patiently built after a nervous start. When the England squad was announced for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, <mask> was named as the only wicket-keeper in the squad, replacing Prior. <mask> opened the innings with Michael Lumb throughout the tournament, and ESPNcricinfos Andrew McGlashan identified their performances as one of the reasons that England reached the final. During the final, <mask> was England's top-scorer, hitting  from , and was named as the man of the match as England won their first ICC global title. During the tournament, <mask> scored , the fourth-most of any player, at an average of 31.71 and a strike rate of 116.84.Dropped and recalled by England
After returning to England, <mask>'s form dipped, and he scored 121runs from eight ODIs against Australia and Bangladesh. As a result, when England played five ODIs against Pakistan in September, <mask> was omitted and Worcestershire's Steven Davies was preferred, although <mask> was included in the T20I squad. <mask> opened the innings alongside Davies, who was playing as wicket-keeper, in the two T20Is, but made scores of only six and sixteen. Although named in the T20I squad for the tour of Australia, he was not selected to play, and instead took part in the England Performance Programme XI tour, before joining up with the England Lions to take part in the Regional Four Day Competition in the West Indies. During the competition, <mask> scored two centuries, against the Leeward Islands and the Combined Campuses and Colleges. <mask> began the 2011 season strongly for Somerset, scoring  in his first four one-day matches, including two centuries. Another century, in the County Championship prompted Jeremy James of ESPNcricinfo to ask "whether <mask> will regain his place in England's one-day side before Jos Buttler assumes it ahead of him".His form earned him a recall to England's one-day squads for the series against Sri Lanka, Geoff Miller saying "[Kieswetter] will offer some real fire power with the bat along with his ability with the gloves". In his first match back for England, the Twenty20 match, <mask> scored only four runs, but he was England's top-scorer in the first ODI match, with . He struck another half-century in the fourth match of the series: he scored 72 not out as England won by ten wickets. A week later, playing for Somerset against Nottinghamshire, he scored , the highest innings of his first-class career, as part of a 290-run partnership with James Hildreth. <mask> remained England wicket-keeper for the T20I and ODI matches against India late in the season. In the T20I, Buttler, his fellow Somerset wicket-keeper, made his debut, albeit as a specialist batsman; Jonny Bairstow, the Yorkshire wicket-keeper,

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 made his debut in the final ODI in a similar role. In that series, <mask> struggled against the moving ball in English conditions but was praised for his attacking batting, including  from  in the second match.Based on the number of appearances that he made for England, <mask> was awarded an incremental contract by the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) in September 2011. During England's subsequent 5–0 ODI series loss in India, described by the Wisden Cricketers' Almanacks Stephen Brenkley as "a tour too far for England", <mask> was the only England batsman to maintain a strike rate above 100. He scored one half-century during the tour, and was included in the England Lions squad that toured Sri Lanka three months later. End of international career
Playing for the Lions, <mask> moved into the middle-order, rather than opening the batting; this was intended to prepare him for a similar switch with the senior England team to allow Kevin Pietersen to open. He scored a century and a half-century to help England win the series 3–2, though he was outperformed by Buttler. In early 2012, playing against Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates, <mask> batted only twice in the ODI series, and was praised for his 43-run contribution in the fourth match, though George Dobell of ESPNcricinfo identified his wicket-keeping as "still not as polished as he would like". Although <mask> dropped down the order in ODIs, he retained his place opening the batting in T20Is.In contrast to the 2010 World Twenty20, when the England players were told to attack bat selflessly, in 2012 the team was instructed to avoid losing early wickets, and <mask> struggled to adapt his game to score low-risk singles and rotate the strike. During the 2012 ICC World Twenty20, he lost his place in England's T20I team after a match against New Zealand in which he scored four runs from fourteen balls. That was his final international Twenty20 match. In his 25 games, he scored  at an average of 21.91 and a strike rate of 111.91. Despite his struggles in international cricket, <mask> had a successful season with Somerset in 2012; he scored 848 first-class runs at an average of just over 60, including a century against Warwickshire and one for the Lions against Australia A. The following year, he retained his place in the ODI team for the tour of India, although ESPNcricinfos Alex Winter suggested that it might be due to "England's desire to protect the workload of their players ahead of back-to-back Ashes series." Winter's colleague, Dobell, described the England ODI wicket-keeper position as one of England's key areas requiring resolution, citing both Bairstow and Buttler as candidates to take over, as well as the possibility of Matt Prior, the England Test wicket-keeper, reclaiming the role.<mask> played the first three ODIs of the series, scoring 24 not out, 18 and 0 before he was dropped and replaced by Buttler. Dobell described Kieswetter as "perhaps... a little unfortunate", but cited his inability to adjust his game and the number of balls he blocked as the reasons for his removal. He played , scoring  at an average of 30.11. Later domestic career
The competition between <mask> and Buttler for England's one-day wicket-keeping role also caused conflict at Somerset for the 2013 season: both players wanted to fulfil the role for the county. <mask> began the season as the wicket-keeper in the County Championship, but broke his thumb during the third match of the season, which kept him out of action for six weeks. <mask> had a particularly strong Twenty20 season, finishing as the leading run-scorer in the 2013 Friends Life t20 with , including five half-centuries. His teammate, Peter Trego, praised <mask>'s ability to build big innings in Twenty20 cricket, and <mask> himself said that he "tried to be a bit more of a responsible player, rather than just power blazing."He scored a late-season century against Warwickshire in the County Championship, but in a season in which Somerset struggled against relegation, he scored a relatively modest 606 first-class runs at an average of 31.89. At the end of the season, Buttler, whose contract with Somerset had expired, announced that he was joining Lancashire, leaving <mask> as the clear first-choice wicket-keeper at Somerset. <mask> signed with the Brisbane Heat for the 2013–14 Big Bash League. During the tournament, he scored  from eight matches including two half-centuries. He entered the 2014 Indian Premier League auction, but remained unsold. He was called up as a late replacement for the injured Luke Wright for England's squad in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20, but was not selected to play. He began the 2014 season positively for Somerset, particularly in the Twenty20 competition, in which he scored six half-centuries in ten innings, averaging just under 50.Injury and retirement from cricket

On 12 July 2014, <mask> suffered a broken nose and fractured cheek bone while batting for Somerset against Northamptonshire in a County Championship match. The bowler, David Willey, delivered a bouncer which went through the gap between the grille and the peak of <mask>'s helmet and struck him in the face. The injuries were initially described by Somerset's chairman, Andy Nash, as "serious but non-career threatening". He underwent facial surgery, and suffered from double vision for a while after. He returned to the Somerset side before the end of the 2014 season and scored a half-century in his first match back, against Middlesex, though he admitted that his vision was still not fully recovered. <mask> signed for the South African franchise Warriors as their overseas player to play in the Ram Slam T20 Challenge for the 2014–15 season. He played all ten matches for the Warriors, scoring  at an average of 22.11, including two half-centuries.On 10 December 2014, despite having been named in England's 30-man provisional 2015 Cricket World Cup squad, <mask> revealed that he was still suffering vision problems. He announced that he would not play in the 2015 season and would seek further treatment. The following June, he announced his retirement from professional cricket, saying that, although he was still capable of playing, he could not play to the standard he wanted: "In the end I just thought, there are too many mediocre players in county cricket– and good luck to them– but I don't want to be another one." He found batting in floodlit conditions particularly difficult, and described the vision in his right eye as being "only at 80 or 85 percent". He finished his career with similar statistics in first-class and one-day cricket; in both he averaged just under 40 and had scored eleven centuries. In Twenty20 cricket, his highest score was 89 not out, and he averaged just over 30. In an interview with ESPNcricinfo shortly after his retirement, <mask> said that he would be interested in working in the media, perhaps as part of a commentary team for Twenty20 matches.Although rare, the injury to Kieswetter was followed by another high-profile case, when Phillip Hughes died after being struck on the head by a cricket ball while batting. These incidents led the ECB to make the wearing of helmets mandatory for professional cricketers in England from the start of the 2016 season, and banned them from wearing helmets with adjustable grilles, specifying that the gap between the grille and the helmet's peak should be no more than . Playing style
<mask>'s confident and attacking batting style was compared to that of Kevin Pietersen, another England batsman of South African origin. Although Kieswetter favoured the off-side, he was also strong behind square on both sides, and stood with a typical South African stance, his bat held high. He played with what Wisden described as an "attractive, uncomplicated front-foot technique". He began his career playing in front of his stumps, but once bowlers had worked out his technique, he moved his batting stance to outside the leg stump to give himself more space to drive the ball. This move had some success on flat subcontinental pitches, but was less effective in England, where the ball tended to change direction more.<mask> admitted that the change had not worked, saying that "I wasn’t really moving my feet. I was staying leg-side and playing with my hands. My technique just wasn’t strong enough to cope." After being dropped by England, <mask> worked on his batting, which had been described by Steve James as a "frenzy at the crease, as manic as a teenager on a night out". He moved back in front of his stumps, and maintained a calmer mentality, aiming to construct an innings. He was generally more highly regarded for his batting than his wicket-keeping, often drawing criticism for the quality of his glovework. Despite this, he was at times considered to be a better wicket-keeper than two of his rivals for England; Bairstow and Buttler.Nonetheless, playing in an era when international teams did not play specialist wicket-keepers, <mask>'s selection was based primarily upon his batting ability, rather than his keeping ability. For a couple of matches during 2012, he was used as an off spin bowler by Somerset, collecting three wickets. Somerset experimented with Kieswetter throughout the order, trying to find the most effective place for him. He began as a middle-order batsman, but by the end of the 2007 season, although he remained in the middle-order in first-class cricket, <mask> regularly found himself opening the batting alongside Marcus Trescothick in one-day cricket, a role he would also take up in opening six matches of the 2009 Twenty20 Cup, although he later dropped back into the middle order to improve the balance of the side. On his international call-up, England chose to use Kieswetter as an opening batsman. He was selected "because of his proven ability to pierce the field in the Powerplay overs, particularly with his booming drives up and over the covers." He later moved down the order for England to accommodate Kevin Pietersen as opener.Golf career
After <mask>'s retirement from cricket, his father suggested that he take a break and play some golf. He had done so during his youth in South Africa, playing in provincial tournaments. After some lessons with David Leadbetter, who suggested that he try to become a professional golfer, <mask> began to enter amateur tournaments. After performing well in those events, he set himself a target of becoming a professional, and playing regularly on the European Tour. In late 2016, he took part in a couple of PGA EuroPro Tour tournaments and one on the MENA Golf Tour. In early 2017, he turned professional and in March played in the MENA Golf Tour qualifying school in Morocco, finishing tied for 31st place and earning a card for the 2017 season. He played regularly on the Tour during 2017 and in September won his biggest prize of the season, winning US$360 in the Dubai Creek Open after finishing tied for 38th place.Notes

References

1987 births
Living people
Alumni of Diocesan College, Cape Town
Brisbane Heat cricketers
England One Day International cricketers
England Twenty20 International cricketers
English male golfers
English people of Scottish descent
English sportspeople of South African descent
NBC Denis Compton Award recipients
People educated at Millfield
Somerset cricketers
South African cricketers
South African emigrants to the United Kingdom
South African people of Scottish descent
Cricketers from Johannesburg
Golfers from Johannesburg
Warriors

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<mask> (November 9, 1731October 19, 1806) was an African-American naturalist, mathematician, astronomer and almanac author. He was a landowner who also worked as a surveyor and farmer. Born in Baltimore County, Maryland, to a free African-American mother and a father who had formerly been enslaved, <mask> had little or no formal education and was largely self-taught. He became known for assisting Major Andrew Ellicott in a survey that established the original borders of the District of Columbia, the federal capital district of the United States. <mask>'s knowledge of astronomy helped him author a commercially successful series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson on the topics of slavery and racial equality. Abolitionists and advocates of racial equality promoted and praised <mask>'s works.Although a fire on the day of <mask>'s funeral destroyed many of his papers and belongings, one of his journals and several of his remaining artifacts are presently available for public viewing. <mask> became a folk-hero after his death, leading to many accounts of his life being exaggerated or embellished. The names of parks, schools and streets commemorate him and his works, as do other tributes. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born on November 9, 1731, in Baltimore County, Maryland, to Mary Banneky, a free black woman, and Robert, a freed slave from Guinea who died in 1759. There are two conflicting accounts of <mask>'s family history. <mask> himself and his earliest biographers described him as having only African ancestry. None of <mask>'s surviving papers describe a white ancestor or identify the name of his grandmother.However, later biographers have contended that <mask>'s mother was the child of Molly Welsh, a former white indentured servant, and an African slave named Banneka. The first published description of Molly Welsh was based on interviews with her descendants that took place in 1836, long after the deaths of both Molly and <mask>. According to that story, Molly purchased Banneka to help establish a farm located near the future site of Ellicott's Mills, Maryland, west of Baltimore. A biographer suggested in 2002 that Banneka may have been a member of the Dogon people, who several anthropologists have claimed had an early knowledge of astronomy (see Dogon astronomical beliefs). Molly supposedly freed and married Banneka, who may have shared his knowledge of astronomy with her. The biographer suggested that <mask> acquired this knowledge from Molly, as <mask> was born after Banneka's death. A genealogist who in 2016 reported an analysis of records related to Banneker's family tree was unable to identify any documents that showed that Banneker had a white grandmother, but could not rule out that possibility.The report noted that the name "Bannaker" may have had the same origin as that of Banaka, a small village in the present-day Klay District of Bomi County in northwestern Liberia that had once participated in the African slave trade. A 2021 update to this genealogy stated that <mask>'s father, Robert, was by May 18, 1731, married to Mary Lett (then called Mary Beneca), the daughter of a white woman by an enslaved man. The update noted that Banaka is the  home of the Vai people, who have lived there since about 1500 when they left the Mali Empire. In 1737, <mask> was named at the age of 6 on the deed of his family's  farm in the Patapsco Valley in rural Baltimore County. A letter writer stated in 1791 that <mask>'s parents had sent him to an obscure school where he learned reading, writing and arithmetic as far as double position. However, the remainder of <mask>'s early life is not well documented. Unverified accounts that first appeared in books published more than 140 years after <mask>'s death relate that, as a young teenager, Banneker met and befriended Peter Heinrich, a Quaker who later established a school near the Banneker family farm.(Quakers were leaders in the anti-slavery movement and advocates of racial equality (see Quakers in the abolition movement and Testimony of equality)). These accounts state that Heinrich shared his personal library and provided Banneker with his only classroom instruction. <mask>'s formal education (if any) presumably ended when he was old enough to help on his family's farm. Notable works
Around 1753, at about the age of 21, <mask> reportedly completed a wooden clock that struck on the hour. He appears to have modelled his clock from a borrowed pocket watch by carving each piece to scale. The clock continued to work until his death. After his father died in 1759, <mask> lived with his mother and sisters.In 1768, he signed a Baltimore County petition to move the county seat from Joppa to Baltimore. An entry for his property in a 1773 Baltimore County tax list identified <mask> as the only adult member of his household. In 1772, brothers Andrew Ellicott, John Ellicott and Joseph Ellicott moved from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, and bought land along the Patapsco Falls near <mask>ott's Mills (now Ellicott City) subsequently developed. The Ellicotts were Quakers who held the same views on racial equality as did many of their faith. <mask> studied the mills and became acquainted with their proprietors. In 1788, George Ellicott, a son of Andrew Ellicott, loaned Banneker books and equipment to begin a more formal study of astronomy. During the following year, Banneker sent George his work calculating a solar eclipse.In 1790, <mask> prepared an ephemeris for 1791, which he hoped would be placed within a published almanac. However, he was unable to find a printer that was willing to publish and distribute the work. Survey of the original boundaries of the District of Columbia

In early 1791, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson asked surveyor Major Andrew Ellicott (a son of Joseph Ellicott and a cousin of George Ellicott) to survey an area that would contain a new federal district. In February 1791, Ellicott left a surveying team that he had been leading in western New York so that he could begin the district's survey. Ellicott then hired <mask> as a replacement to assist in the initial survey of the federal district's boundaries, advancing him $60 for travel expenses to and at Georgetown. The territory that became the original District of Columbia was formed from land along the Potomac River that the states of Maryland and Virginia ceded to the federal government of the United States in accordance with the 1790 federal Residence Act and later legislation. The territory was a square that measured  on each side, totaling  (see: Founding of Washington, D.C.).Ellicott's team placed boundary marker stones at or near every mile point along the borders of the new capital territory (see: Boundary markers of the original District of Columbia). Biographers have stated that <mask>'s duties on the survey consisted primarily of making astronomical observations and calculations to establish base points, including one at Jones Point in Alexandria, Virginia, where the survey started and where the south corner stone was to be located. They have also stated that <mask> maintained a clock that he used to relate points on the ground to the positions of stars at specific times. However, some have noted that <mask>'s actual role in the survey is uncertain, as his involvement in the effort "rests on extremely meager documentation". An April 21, 1791, news report of the April 15 dedication ceremony for the first boundary stone (the south corner stone) stated that it was Andrew Ellicott who "ascertained the precise point from which the first line of the district was to proceed". The news report did not mention <mask>'s name. <mask> left the boundary survey in April 1791 within three months of its initiation because the time that he was devoting to the project was conflicting with the time that he had expected to use to calculate an ephemeris for the year of 1792.Further, the arrival of spring required him to direct more attention to his farm than was needed during the winter. In addition, Andrew Ellicott's younger brothers, <mask> and Joseph Ellicott, who usually assisted Andrew, had completed the New York survey and were able to join the survey of the federal district at around that time. <mask> therefore returned to his home near Ellicott's Mills. The Ellicotts and other members of the surveying team then laid the remaining Virginia marker stones later in 1791. The team laid the Maryland stones and completed the boundary survey in 1792. <mask>'s almanacs
After returning to Ellicott's Mills, <mask> made astronomical calculations that predicted eclipses and planetary conjunctions for inclusion in an almanac and ephemeris for the year of 1792. To aid <mask> in his efforts to have his almanac published, Andrew Ellicott (who had been authoring almanacs and ephemerides of his own since 1780) forwarded <mask>'s ephemeris to James Pemberton, the president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.Pemberton then asked William Waring, a Philadelphia mathematician and ephemeris calculator, and David Rittenhouse, a prominent American astronomer, almanac author, surveyor and scientific instrument maker who was at the time serving as the president of the American Philosophical Society, to confirm the accuracy of <mask>'s work. Waring endorsed <mask>'s work, stating, "I have examined <mask>'s Almanac for 1792, and am of the Opinion that it well deserves the Acceptance and Encouragement of the Public." Rittenhouse responded to Pemberton by stating that <mask>'s ephemeris "was a very extraordinary performance, considering the Colour of the Author" and that he "had no doubt that the Calculations are sufficiently accurate for the purposes of a common Almanac. .... Every instance of Genius amongst the Negroes is worthy of attention, because their suppressors seem to lay great stress on their supposed inferior mental abilities." A biographer wrote that <mask> replied to Rittenhouse's endorsement by stating: "I am annoyed to find that the subject of my race is so much stressed. The work is either correct or it is not. In this case, I believe it to be perfect."Pemberton then made arrangements for Joseph Crukshank (a Philadelphia Quaker who was a founder of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery and who had since 1770 been publishing almanacs, including at least one that Waring had calculated) to print <mask>'s almanac. Having thus secured the support of Pemberton, Rittenhouse and Waring, <mask> delivered a manuscript containing his ephemeris to William Goddard, a Baltimore printer who had published The Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Almanack and Ephemeris for every year since 1782. Goddard then agreed to print and distribute <mask>'s work within an almanac and ephemeris for the year of 1792. Banneker's Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Almanack and Ephemeris, for the Year of our Lord, 1792 was the first in a six-year series of almanacs and ephemerides that printers agreed to publish and sell. At least 28 editions of the almanacs, some of which appeared during the same year, were printed in seven cities in five states: Baltimore; Philadelphia; Wilmington, Delaware; Alexandria, Virginia; Petersburg, Virginia; Richmond, Virginia; and Trenton, New Jersey. The title pages of the Baltimore editions of Banneker's 1792, 1793 and 1794 almanacs and ephemerides stated that the publications contained:
the Motions of the Sun and Moon, the True Places and Aspects of the Planets, the Rising and Setting of the Sun, Place and Age of the Moon, &c. – The Lunations, Conjunctions, Eclipses, Judgment of the Weather, Festivals, and other remarkable Days; Days for holding the Supreme and Circuit Courts of the United States, as also the useful Courts in Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Also – several useful Tables, and valuable Receipts.– Various Selections from the Commonplace–Book of the Kentucky Philosopher, an American Sage; with interesting and entertaining Essays, in Prose and Verse –the whole comprising a greater, more pleasing, and useful Variety than any Work of the Kind and Price in North America. (1) (2)

In addition to the information that its title page described, the 1792 almanac contained a tide table listing the methods for calculating the time of high water at four locations along the Chesapeake Bay (Cape Charles and Point Lookout, Virginia; Annapolis and Baltimore, Maryland). Later almanacs contained tables for making such calculations for those

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 locations as well as for Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Halifax, Quebec, Hatteras, Nantucket and other places. Monthly tables in each edition listed astronomical data and weather predictions for each of the months' dates. A Philadelphia edition of Banneker's 1795 almanac contained a lengthy account of a yellow fever epidemic that had struck that city in 1793. Written by a committee whose president was the city's mayor, Matthew Clarkson, the account related the presumed origins and causes of the epidemic, as well as the extent and duration of the event. The title pages of two Baltimore editions of <mask>'s 1795 almanac had woodcut portraits of him as he may have appeared.However, a biographer later concluded that the portraits were more likely portrayals of an idealized African-American youth. A Baltimore edition of <mask>'s 1796 almanac contained a table enumerating the population of each U.S. state and the Southwest Territory as recorded in the 1790 United States census. The table listed the number of free persons and slaves in each state and the territory according to race and gender, as well as to whether they were above or below the age of 16 years. The table also listed the number of members of the U.S. House of Representatives that each state had during the almanac's year. The almanacs' editors prefaced the publications with adulatory references to <mask> and his race. Editions of <mask>'s 1792 and 1793 almanacs contained full or abridged copies of a lengthy commendatory letter that James McHenry, the Secretary of the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention and self-described friend of <mask>, had written to Goddard and his partner, James Angell, in August 1791 to support the almanac's publication. As first published in <mask>'s 1792 almanac and later given an increased circulation when re-published in Philadelphia within The American Museum, or Universal Magazine, McHenry's full letter began:
<mask>, a free Negro, has calculated an Almanack, for the ensuing year, 1792, which being desirous to dispose of, to the best advantage, he has requested me to aid his application to you for that purpose.Having fully satisfied myself, in respect to his title to this type of authorship, if you can agree to him for the price of his work, I may venture to assure you it will do you credit, as Editors, while it will afford you the opportunity to encourage talents that have thus far surmounted the most discouraging circumstances and prejudices." (2)  Cited in Bedini 1999, p. 190, reference 2. However, the British Parliament's report of the debate that accompanied this effort did not mention either Banneker or his almanac. The title page of a Petersburg edition of <mask>'s 1794 "Virginia Almanack" stated that the work was "Calculated by that ingenious self taught astronomer <mask>, a black man", repeating a term that Angell had used in the 1793 Baltimore almanac. The introduction to a 1795 Philadelphia edition contained a poem titled: "Addressed to <mask>".Perot, full text, pp. 137–138. The verse began and ended:

Fain would the muse exalt her tuneful lays,And chant in strains sublime Banneker's praise;Fain would the soar on Fame's majestic wing,Thy genius, great Banneker, to sing;Thy talents and thy greatness would I shew,Not in applausive strains to thee undue;..............Long may thou live an evidence to shew,That Afric's sable race have talents too.And may thy genius bright its strength retain;Tho' nature to decline may still remain;And may favour us to thy latest yearsWith thy Ephemeris call'd <mask>'s.A work which ages yet unborn shall nameAnd be the monument of lasting fame;A work which after ages shall adore,When Banneker, alas! shall be no more! The writer of a tribute in a 1796 Baltimore edition quoted a quatrain and amended another that an Englishman, Thomas Gray, had placed in a popular poem first published in 1751 (see Adaptations and parodies of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard). (1) § 1. Gray's Family and Life(2) § 9. An Elegy in a Country Churchyard. (3) § 10.Characteristics of the Elegy. The revised rhyme stated:
Nor you ye proud, impute to these the blameIf Afric's sons to genius are unknown,For Banneker has prov'd they may acquire a name,As bright, as lasting, as your own.Bedini, 1972, p. 324. Supported by Andrew, George and Elias Ellicott and heavily promoted by the Maryland and Pennsylvania abolition societies, the early editions of the almanacs achieved commercial success. Printers then distributed at least nine editions of <mask>'s 1795 almanac. A Wilmington, Delaware, printer issued five editions for distribution by different vendors. Printers in Baltimore issued three versions of the almanac, while three Philadelphia printers also sold editions. A Trenton, New Jersey, printer additionally sold a version of the work.(1)  In  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 394, Reference 11. (2)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 12..(3)  In Whiteman, 1969. (4)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 14. (5)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 15. (6)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 16. (7)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 17. (8)
Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 18.(9) (a) (b)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 19. (10)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 20. (11)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 21. (12)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 22. (13)  Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 395, Reference 23. (14) (a) (b)  In (c) Cited in Bedini, 1999, p. 396, Reference 24. In 1796, <mask> gave a manuscript of one of his almanacs to Suzanna Mason, a member of the Ellicott family who was visiting his home.In 1836, Mason's daughter wrote a published memoir of her mother's life, letters and manuscripts. The memoir contained a copy of a poem that Mason had sent to Banneker shortly after her 1796 visit. A portion of the verse stated:But thou, a man exhalted high,Conspicuous in the world's keen eye,On record now thy name's enrolled,And future ages will be told,There lived a man called <mask>,An African astronomer. Banneker's journals

Banneker kept a series of journals that contained his notebooks for astronomical observations, his diary and accounts of his dreams. The journals, only one of which escaped a fire on the day of his funeral, additionally contained a number of mathematical calculations and puzzles. The surviving journal described in April 1800 Banneker's recollections of the 1749, 1766 and 1783 emergences of Brood X of the seventeen-year periodical cicada (Magicicada septendecim and related species) and stated, "... they may be expected again in they year 1800 which is Seventeen Since their third appearance to me." Describing an effect that the pathogenic fungus, Massospora cicadina, has on its host, the journal further stated that the insects:.... begin to Sing or make a noise from first they come out of the Earth till they die.The hindermost part rots off, and it does not appear to be any pain to them, for they still continue on Singing till they die. The journal also recorded <mask>'s observations on the hives and behavior of honey bees. Political views
Banneker's 1792 almanac contained an extract from an anonymous essay entitled "On Negro Slavery, and the Slave Trade" that the Columbian Magazine had published in 1790. After quoting a statement that David Rittenhouse had made (that Negroes "have been doomed to endless slavery by us — merely because their bodies have been disposed to reflect or absorb the rays of light in a way different from ours"), the extract concluded:The time, it is hoped is not very remote, when those ill-fated people, dwelling in this land of freedom, shall commence a participation with the white inhabitants, in the blessings of liberty; and experience the kindly protection of government, for the essential rights of human nature. A Philadelphia edition of <mask>'s 1793 almanac that Joseph Crukshank published contained copies of pleas for peace that the English anti-slavery poet William Cowper and others had authored, as well as anti-slavery speeches and writings from England and America. The latter included extracts from speeches that William Pitt, Matthew Montagu and Charles James Fox had given to the British House of Commons in 1792 during the debate on a motion for the abolition of the British slave trade, an extract from a 1789 poem by an English Quaker, Thomas Wilkinson, and an extract from a query in Thomas Jefferson's 1787 Notes on the State of Virginia.Bedini, 1999, p. 191. Crukshank's edition of <mask>'s 1793 almanac also contained a copy of "A Plan of a Peace-Office, for the United States".Although the almanac did not identify the Plan's author, writers later attributed the work to Dr. <mask>, a signer of the 1776 Declaration of Independence. The Plan proposed the appointment of a "Secretary of Peace", described the Secretary's powers and advocated federal support and promotion of the Christian religion. The Plan stated:
I. Let a Secretary of Peace be appointed to preside in this office; ....; let him be a genuine republican and a sincere Christian, ....

II. Let a power be given to the Secretary to establish and maintain free schools in every city, village and township in the United States; .... Let the youth of our country be instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and in the doctrines of a religion of some kind; the Christian religion should be preferred to all others; for it belongs to this religion exclusively to teach us not only to cultivate peace with all men, but to forgive—nay more, to love our very enemies. ....

III. Let every family be furnished at public expense, by the Secretary of this office, with an American edition of the Bible.....

IV. Let the following sentence be inscribed in letters of gold over the door of every home in the United States:  THE SON OF MAN CAME INTO THE WORLD, NOT TO DESTROY MEN'S LIVES, BUT TO SAVE THEM. V. To inspire a veneration for human life, and a horror at the shedding of human blood, let all those laws be repealed which authorise juries, judges, sheriffs, or hangmen to assume the resentments of individuals, and to commit murder in cold blood in any case whatever. ....

VI. To subdue that passion for war, .... militia laws should everywhere be repealed, and military dresses and military titles should be laid aside. .... Correspondence with Thomas Jefferson

On August 19, 1791, after departing the federal capital area, Banneker wrote a letter to Thomas Jefferson, who in 1776 had drafted the United States Declaration of Independence and in 1791 was serving as the United States Secretary of State (see: List of Secretaries of State of the United States).(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 155-163. (2) <mask>, 1792b(1). (3) (4)  Quoting language in the Declaration, the letter expressed a plea for justice for African Americans. To support his plea, <mask> included within his letter a handwritten manuscript of an almanac for 1792 containing his ephemeris with his astronomical calculations. He retained handwritten copies of the letter and Jefferson's August 30, 1791, reply in a volume of manuscripts that became part of a journal. In late 1792, James Angell published a Baltimore edition of <mask>'s 1793 almanac that contained copies of <mask>'s letter and Jefferson's reply.Soon afterwards, a Philadelphia printer distributed two sequential editions of a widely circulated pamphlet that also contained the letter and reply.The Universal Asylum, and Columbian Magazine also published <mask>'s letter and Jefferson's reply in Philadelphia in late 1792. The Magazine editors (A Society of Gentlemen) titled the letter as being "from the famous self-taught astronomer, <mask>, a black man". In his letter, <mask> accused Jefferson of criminally using fraud and violence to oppress his slaves by stating:
.... Sir, how pitiable is it to reflect, that altho you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of those rights and privileges which he had conferred upon them, that you should at the same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, that you should at the Same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to your Selves. (1) Allaben, p. 67. (2) Banneker, 1792b(1), p. 8.(3) Bedini, 1999, pp. 160, 162(4) <mask> <mask>(1) Bedini, 1999, pp. 160, 163. (2) <mask>, 1792b(1), p. 10. Jefferson's reply did not directly respond to <mask>'s

masks:
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Benjamin Banneker
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Benjamin Rush
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