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<mask> (born March 26, 1984 in Brossard, Quebec) is a Quebec singer, song writer, television and movie actress and humanitarian activist. She is best known as  the winner of the second season of Star Académie. Profile/background

Musical and actor development

Lapointe discovered and developed her interest in music as a young child. It was in 1992, at the age of 8, that she had her first piano lessons at her elementary school in Brossard (formerly Longueuil) a southern suburb of Montreal. In 1996, right after finishing primary school, she traveled to France for a school extracurricular and educational activity. It was there she made her debut in theatrical plays. Her trip to France marked the moment she discovered an interest in the world of acting.In 2001, at age 17, Lapointe became a member of a group which performed musical comedies. She then played in various other plays, including a French remake of (Beauty and the Beast), as well as other French plays such as Aida, and Once on This Island. While in France, she also followed several dance classes. At the same time, she continued to develop her skills in music and theatrical acting. The lessons later proved important for her future roles in Quebec television reality shows and movies starting in 2005. While refining her acting skills, Lapointe studied at Collège Édouard-Montpetit in humanities. She is not related to the Québécois singer Eric Lapointe.Star Academie experience

In 2003, TVA's newest reality show Star Académie, a remake of France's Star Academy, debuted. Lapointe, while in France, never auditioned for the French edition prior to returning to Quebec. She first auditioned for Star Académie in 2003 but had a greater success the following year, on the series second season, when she impressed the three judges. During the performances as a top-ten finalist, she delivered several impressive performances, full of emotion and sensitivity. Despite her timid nature and calm demeanor, she was known by the public for her energetic performances including rock hits such as Green Day's "American Idiot". During the season, she faced elimination only once, in March 2004, but was saved by the public. While being in danger of being sent off, she considered abandoning everything.After being saved by the public, she gained more confidence throughout the remainder of the gala. At the finale, she won the 2004 crown, defeating Marc-André Niquet. She is currently the only female winner in the reality show's three-season history. Her hits "L'infidèle" (previously performed by Claude Dubois and "Si fragile" (previously performed by Luc de la Rochelière) from the Star Académie 2004 album, also aired on French radio stations across Quebec prior to her debut album. The Star Académie 2 album was certified double platinum within two days of its release date. Debut album: Sur le fil (2005)

Following her province-wide tour with the 2004 Star Académie finalists, in which she acquired more confidence and self-esteem, she immediately started recording her first album, Sur le fil, produced by Francis Collard. The album was launched and debuted on August 30, 2005, at the Vidéotron headquarters in Montreal.The event was held in front of several well-known personalities, including Star Académie and Le Banquier host Julie Snyder and one of the competition's judges and La Presse editor Stéphane Laporte. The album itself is composed of many ballads and love songs. Her first two hits, "Nous sommes" and "La mer", performed very well on the French charts, with the former hitting the top spot on the RockDétente Top 20 Countdown. A third hit, "Je sais déjà", played on French radio stations and TV station MusiquePlus in December 2006. Singers Catherine Durand, Projet Orange frontman Jean-Christophe Boies and Sylvie Paquette, as well as writers Dave Richard and Martine Coupal, participated in the composition of Sur le fil. Lapointe wrote portions of the final two songs, "Love You" and "Interlude", along with Dave Richard. As of November 2006, 30,000 copies of the album were sold across Quebec and it was, at one point in September 2005, the francophone album with the most copies sold provincewide.In 2006, she also participated in the debut album of writer and journalist Tristan Malavoy as she provided background vocals in one of Malavoy's songs. The videoclip of "La Mer" was directed by video and scene director Dominique Laurence, who also directed clips for songs by Ariane Moffatt, Jean-François Breau, former Star Académie season 2 finalist Martin Giroux and season 1 winner Wilfred Le Bouthillier. Second album
She completed her contract with Musicor and, in March 2009, released her second album, entitled Donne-moi quelque chose qui ne finit pas (Give me something that doesn't end). <mask> (not related) wrote two songs for it, "Une fleur" (A flower) and the duet "À quoi" (What are you thinking). She also recorded a French version of Cher's "Bang Bang" song. Awards and nominations

Due to the success generated by the album, she was nominated for Breakthrough Artist of the Year in 2006 at the ADISQ music gala and was a Juno nominee for Francophone Album of the Year. At the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards, she won the award for Best Francophone Video for her song la "Mer"

Performances
Lapointe started to perform various shows as guest artist across the province in 2004, including concerts with Quebec singer Isabelle Boulay, as well as on Quebec television shows.She also performed at the Saint-Jean Chrysostome Hot Air Balloon Festival and another, entitled Show de filles, at the Gatineau Hot Air Balloon Festival in September 2006, which also featured Marjo and fellow Star Académie contestants Émily Bégin and Annie Villeneuve from the first season. Heavy rain due to the remnants of Hurricane Ernesto affected the turnout at the show which was estimated at 15 000 spectators. She also made a province-wide tour in 2006 and 2007 called Sur le fil which debuted in Montreal's le Gésu. Most of the critics praised her softness and her charming voice. Acting career

While her musical debut was a success, despite modest record sales, she also appeared on television in the mini-series Le Négociateur (The Negotiator) which aired on the French television network TVA starting in 2005 with the second season airing during the fall of 2006. Lapointe played the role of Colette Cloutier, the sister of the show's main character, Mac Cloutier, a journalist and a negotiator, played by Frédérick de Grandpré. She  returned in the same role for the series' third chapter, which was filmed during the fall of 2006 and aired in 2008.In movie roles, she appeared in Aurore, which opened in French theaters across the province of Quebec in the summer of 2005. She played the role of Marie-Anne Caron, the young biological mother of Aurore Gagnon, a girl who was mistreated by her stepmother and her father after the death of her birth mother from tuberculosis. Film director Luc Dionne initially balked at her participation in the movie, but later accepted after Denise Robert, the co-founder of Quebec movie company Cinémaginaire Inc., urged Dionne to give Lapointe a real opportunity for the role of Marie-Anne Caron. Care Canada, humanitarian and community involvement
Lapointe is involved in various community causes and participated in the Opération Enfant Soleil telethon in 2005 while performing Sting's "Fields of Gold" song. She adores the outdoors, wildlife and nature and was the spokesperson for the project "Au sommet pour Care" launched by Care Canada. In order to raise funds for the organization, she climbed Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest peak in Central Africa, in 2005 along with 24 other Canadians. During an interview with reporter Nathalie Petrowski of the Montreal newspaper La Presse, Lapointe revealed that if she was to abandon music, she would like to be heavily involved in helping humanitarian groups, as she notably travelled across several countries in conjunction with her participation at the Care Canada mission.Lapointe also made, in 2007, a Quebec-wide tour for Unicef-Quebec as Ambassador, along with actress Catherine Brunet, to discuss and sensitize the public on the issue of worldwide child poverty, particularly in Africa, just prior to the Halloween. In May 2007, she made a humanitarian trip to Mali and the Sahel region, and met up with a non-governmental organization which planned to set up a new school in the region. In April 2008, Lapointe, along with Laurence and producer Eza Paventi, planned a tour of the Darfur region of Sudan in order to produce several small documentaries on African migrations, for Radio-Canada. In addition to her humanitarian work, Lapointe had also been pro-active in regards to global environment. During her appearance on Star Académie, she made a statement to the Quebec government of Jean Charest towards an improved provincial policy on recycling. Lapointe mentioned in the Quebec magazine Le Privé that the environment and other world issues will be significant topics for her upcoming album. In addition, she also encouraged schools to discuss more on such major global issues.

masks:
Stéphanie Lapointe
Pierre Lapointe


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<mask> is a Greek-Australian entrepreneur, sporting director and sports sponsor who is the founder and CEO of Reventon and CHC Planning Solutions. Since 2010, he has been the major sponsor of cue sports, is the director of the Reventon Snooker Academy and also created the Reventon Triple Crown. Aside from this, <mask> is an author of best-selling book, Your Path To Wealth: Brick By Brick, and the host of RELENTLESS: Life on Your Terms podcast. Biography
<mask> was born in Melbourne, Australia to Greek-Cypriot parents and is the youngest of four children. He spent his early years in Cyprus. In 1988, he along with family, moved back to Cyprus, when he was 9 years old. At the age 10, he started selling lottery tickets on the streets of Cyprus and working 10-hour shifts at his father's supermarket on the weekends and school holidays.<mask> has pursued cue sports such as snooker and billiards; combat sports such as kickboxing, boxing, and MMA; and poker as hobbies. At the age of 12, he returned to Melbourne and started playing snooker at Brunswick Club and later represented nationally. He has played kickboxing and attained elite status, while playing at a national level. Career

At the age of 19, he began working for a property market development company and later bought his first property with the help of his parents. Later, he formed a business partnership in Queensland and was working on expanding it. By the age of 24, he owned twenty-four investment properties. Somehow, the  business collapsed and left <mask> in a massive debt of $780,000.After the debacle, he sold all of his properties and moved back to his parents home. At the same time, his eldest son became deaf after a long battle with meningitis and he split with his partner. In 2005, <mask> was under a debt of $348,000. At this stage, he started a new company, Reventon, and opened its first office in the lounge room of his parents' home. Due to his efforts and hard work, Reventon later became a leading investment and financial services company and currently manages more than $1 billion in real estate transactions. In 2015, he co-founded CHC Planning Solutions along with <mask> and Harris Hadjiharalambous. In September 2019, he started a new podcast named RELENTLESS: Life On Your Terms.He also published his best-selling book, Your Path To Wealth: Brick By Brick in 2019. In the year, he was appointed as one of the top 100 young entrepreneurs in Australia and won the Melbourne Young Entrepreneur Awards 2019 in the category Finance. Contribution to cue sports
<mask> has been a major contributor to the sport of snooker and billiard as a player, administrator, and sponsor. He started playing snooker at the age of 14 when he lived in Cyprus. He returned to Australia when he was 16 and started playing for Brunswick where he was promoted to A grade. Later, he competed in the Australian U18 and U21 national tournaments, representing Victoria alongside his friends Neil Robertson and James Mifsud. He has won snooker events, including Vic Minors and has played in the quarter-finals of open snooker events.In 2010, at a time when the sport was declining, <mask> started sponsoring the Australian Billiards and Snooker Council (ABSC)  and also saw the creation of its own ranking system, named the Reventon Ranking  system. Due to <mask> continued support and financial contributions to the Yarraville Billiards and Snooker Club (YBSC) and Victoria Billiards and Snooker Association (VBSA), the YBSC club was renamed to the Reventon Snooker Academy. In 2016, the ABSC honoured <mask> with the creation of the Reventon Triple Crown, a series of tournaments which combine Reventon Masters, the Reventon Classic and the Reventon International, and are the highest prized tournaments held in Melbourne, Australia. In 2020, the Reventon Triple Crown received international coverage with 278 entries and a disclosed $135,700 AUD in prize payouts. Part of the funds raised for the tournament were donated to the White Ribbon Foundation. In the same year, the ABSC President, Frank Dewens, awarded <mask> for his recognition of his outstanding contribution to the sport. Philanthropy
<mask> is passionate about philanthropy and giving back to the community.He has sponsored charitable initiatives such as White Ribbon Australia, Expression Australia, World Vision. He is a major contributor to Vinnies CEO Sleepout, a charity which raises awareness regarding homelessness. In June 2018, <mask> began his philanthropic work with Vinnies CEO Sleepout to make a difference and started by raising a total of $40,185 to which he personally contributed $10,000. After a successful 2018, in 2019 he continued his support for the charity and raised a total of $60,564 with <mask> donating 50 cents to every dollar raised, donating approximately $20,000. In the same year, <mask>' philanthropic work was recognised when Vinnies appointed him a Vinnies CEO Sleepout ambassador. In 2019, saw Vinnies break their own record by raising $7.8 million for the respective charity. <mask> again pledged to raise the bar the following two years to raise $80,000 and $100,000 respectively.In the same year, 'Brick by Brick' fund-raising project was created. He purchased a vacant block of land in Mt. Duneed in order to build a home, and later sold the property, in order to support people experiencing homelessness and poverty in Australia. In addition, every property sale through his company Reventon, $500 from the sale is also donated towards the 'Brick by Brick' fund-raising project. In 2020, <mask> partnered up with Matthew Charles from We Gift Rap by creating a song targeting homelessness and raising awareness. With strict lockdown rules limiting sleepout, <mask> slept on the streets of Melbourne on two consecutive nights in June along with his wife. He raised a total of $82,177, with <mask> and his company Reventon donating 75 cents of every dollar raised, totalling $38,000.In 2021, he collaborated with Matthew Charles again to recreate an acoustic version, which featured special guest, Andrew Loadsman. To raise awareness, <mask> again took to the streets of Melbourne and slept outside. This year, he raised $113,173 in donations, in which he donated $1 to every $1 raised, totaling contributing $56,500. Personal life
<mask> is married to Billie and is father to four children. He along with his wife own twenty-two real estate properties with each property valued between $500,000 and $1.2 million. Awards and recognition
Amongst the many awards that <mask> has won, below are to mention a few:
 APLACE by Glenvill Award (2020)
 Choice Platinum Achiever Award (2018-2021)
 Business News Young Entrepreneur of the Year for Financial Services (2018)
 Business News Young Entrepreneur of the Year for Financial Services (2019)
 Australia's top 100 entrepreneurs (2018)
 Australia's top 100 entrepreneurs (2019)

<mask>, his wife Billie and Reventon have featured on many publications, including Herald Sun, Sky News Australia, Channel 9, Channel 10, Channel 7, ABC, NewsCorp, Australian Financial Review. Published works

Books
 <mask>ofi, <mask> (2019).Your Path To Wealth: Brick By Brick

Audiobooks
 Your Path To Wealth: Brick By Brick

See also
 Reventon Triple Crown

References

External links
 <mask>i official website
 Reventon
 CHC Planning Solutions

Australian businesspeople
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

masks:
Chris Christofi
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Christopher Stylianou
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Chris
Christ
Chris
Chris Christof


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<mask> (March 21, 1897 – September 5, 1987) was a Mexican professional wrestling promoter of the mid-twentieth century. Lutteroth's promotion, Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL), has been the dominant Mexican promotion since its founding in 1933 until Lutteroth left the company in the 1950s. Under its current name of Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), it is, to date, the longest-running active professional wrestling promotion in the world presenting three weekly shows. <mask> was known as the "father of lucha libre," and, in his position as promoter and booker of the dominant promotion, was the most powerful man in Mexican wrestling, and one of the most powerful wrestling executives in the world. He was, in large part, responsible for the widespread fame of the most famous Mexican professional wrestlers of the mid-twentieth century, such as Octavio Gaona, the first Mexican wrestler to win the middleweight championship of the world defeating Gus Kalio, Carlos Tarzan Lopez, El Santo, Gori Guerrero, Rene Guajardo, Karlof Lagarde, Enrique Yañez and the international league wrestler Medico Asesino, Rito Romero, Dorrel Dickson and Mil Mascaras, who wrestled in the United States, Japan, and Europe. Early life
<mask> was born on March 21, 1897, in Colotlan, Jalisco, though he soon moved to Mexico City, where he went to agriculture school. At age 17, <mask> joined the Mexican Revolution, and served as a lieutenant, and captain under the orders of General Álvaro Obregón while battling against the forces of Pancho Villa, among others.By 1923, he had been promoted to First Captain, but after getting married in 1924 to Armida Camou Olea from Hermosillo, Sonora, he left the military and soon took a job in the Tax Department as a property inspector. He and his wife had four children, <mask>, Hector, Enrique, and Elsa. By 1929, Lutteroth was relocated to Ciudad Juarez, where he was first exposed to the sport of professional wrestling. While there he began regularly attending matches at Liberty Hall in El Paso, Texas, where he became enamored with the personalities of the various competitors, most notably the Greek star, Gus Pappas. Wrestling career
<mask> then decided to bring this entertaining sport back to his native Mexico; and in 1933, he chartered his new company, Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre (EMLL), along with his financial partner Francisco Ahumada. After unsuccessful negotiations with the boxing promoters to let him use the premier National Arena, Lutteroth rented out the smaller Modelo Arena, which became the first true home of Lucha Libre. Fans soon began to catch on to the idea of professional wrestling in Mexico; and by the first anniversary of the EMLL, Lutteroth was promoting to gates upwards of 5,000 fans.In 1934, an American wrestler debuted in Mexico under a black, leather mask, and <mask> dubbed him "Maravilla Enmascarada" or "The Masked Marvel". Soon after, <mask> incorporated the use of other masked wrestlers into Lucha Libre, creating real-life superheroes and villains for the audience to identify with. The idea was a huge success and thus, the modern era of Mexican wrestling was born. It was also around this time that <mask> would discover his first legitimate superstar, the masked icon El Santo, who is generally regarded as the greatest Mexican wrestler of all-time. As his fan base continued to grow, <mask> and his partners eventually moved to larger and more profitable venues. Through an amazing stroke of luck, <mask> then won 40,000 pesos in the Mexican lottery on September 21, 1934, and he immediately poured his winnings (which equates to $3,500 in today's money, but about $40,000 in relative 1934 terms) to renovate the roof and seats for his promotion. By the mid-1940s, the fan base grew so big that <mask> constructed the Arena Coliseo, which opened with a capacity for nearly 6,500 seats.As television surfaced as a viable entertainment medium during the 1950s, another struck of luck, the personnel of the Arena Coliseo bought a lottery ticket that won 5 million pesos, it was the first grand prize and <mask> had bought half of the ticket and invested the money on the new Arena Mexico; Lutteroth was then able to broadcast his wrestling across the nation, subsequently yielding a popularity explosion for the sport. Moreover, it was the emergence of television that allowed Lutteroth to promote Lucha Libre's first breakout superstar, El Santo, into a national pop-culture phenomenon. The El Santo persona debuted in the early 1940s as a rudo (heel) and initially engaged in a heated feud with Lutteroth's top babyface, Tarzán López. The Mexican fanbase was so enamored with the mystique and the secrecy of his identity, however, that El Santo soon became the company's most popular performer. In addition, Lutteroth insisted that El Santo's face remain covered by a mask at all times, even when he was not performing in the ring. Consequently, Lutteroth transformed El Santo into a mega-babyface; and for the next three decades, he would serve as the preeminent face of EMLL while he also acted in scores of action-adventure motion picture films, which were hugely popular at the time. As a result, El Santo quickly grew into one of Mexico's most popular national celebrities of the 20th century, while the sport of Lucha Libre thus received an unparalleled degree of mainstream attention.Following the mammoth success of El Santo, <mask> then frequently pushed additional masked superstar characters, such as the Black Shadow, the Blue Demon, Mil Mascaras, and the Villano's (among others); and to this day, Lucha Libre remains associated with high-flying masked superstars, with Rey Mysterio, Jr., Psicosis, Silver King, and La Parka representing the latest generation of masked luchadores. The <mask> Family continues to serve as Lucha Libre's most powerful promoters while steering the dominant EMLL organization. In addition his stable of emmascarados, Lutteroth also built a roster of legendary performers, including the likes of Gory Guerrero, Cavernario Galindo, Tarzan Lopez, Perro Aguayo, René Guajardo, Dorrel Dixon, Mil Máscaras, Rito Romero, Médico Asesino, Sugi Sito and others, while holding a virtual monopoly on the country's wrestling landscape. Moreover, EMLL achieved international recognition for presenting a distinctive in-ring wrestling style that featured dazzling high-risk maneuvers and superior work rate in contrast to the increased brawling style that was employed in the U.S. Consequently, Mexican Lucha Libre (along with Japanese Puroresu) eventually gained world renown as a significant foreign alternative to American-style professional wrestling. Later years
However, by the mid-1950s, an aging <mask> began to cede control of the EMLL to his son <mask> "Chavo" <mask> II, who commanded the same level of respect from the wrestlers. Obtaining the recognition from the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), for the welterweight and light-heavyweight world titles for Mexico, which brought him great pride as a promotion in that time was done without television because of the mayor of Mexico City, Lic. Ernesto Uruchurtu banned the wrestling matches from being televised, and yet ticket sales at the arena averaged 90% with a maximum capacity of 16,500 seats; wrestlers were brought from Spain, England, Argentina, France, Japan, Korea, and Jamaica among others.As a result, on January 16, 1975, NWA Light Heavyweight Champion Ray Mendoza broke away from the new EMLL management, and with the backing of arena promoters Francisco Flores and Benjamin Mora Jr., started a competing federation known as Lucha Libre Internacional, S. C., which has since become known as the Universal Wrestling Association(and the eventual home of longtime champion El Canek). <mask> Jr. retired in 1987; and his grandson Paco Alonso has since taken control of EMLL, which remains the world's oldest wrestling federation while continuing to compete with the UWA and Antonio Peña's AAA promotion. With its fast-paced, athletic style, Lucha Libre is now entrenched among Mexico's top attractions, ranking with soccer and baseball as its most popular pastimes. Moreover, in recent years, Mexican stars like Eddie Guerrero, Rey Mysterio, Jr., Konnan, and Vampiro have also been top draws in the U.S. as well. Championships and accomplishments
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2013)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)

References

1897 births
1987 deaths
Professional wrestling promoters
People from Mexico City
People of the Mexican Revolution
Lucha libre
Professional wrestling in Mexico

masks:
Salvador Lutteroth González
Lutteroth
Salvador Lutteroth González
Lutteroth
Salvador
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Salvador Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Salvador Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Lutteroth
Salvador
Lutteroth
Salvador Lutteroth


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<mask> (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was an American politician and engineer who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933 and a member of the Republican Party, holding office during the onset of the Great Depression. Before serving as president, <mask> led the Commission for Relief in Belgium, served as the director of the U.S. Food Administration, and served as the third U.S. secretary of commerce. <mask> was born to a Quaker family in West Branch, Iowa, but he grew up in Oregon. He took a position with a London-based mining company after graduating from Stanford University in 1895. After the outbreak of World War I, he became the head of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, an international relief organization that provided food to occupied Belgium. When the U.S. entered the war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed <mask> to lead the Food Administration, and <mask> became known as the country's "food czar". After the war, <mask> led the American Relief Administration, which provided food to the inhabitants of Central and Eastern Europe.<mask>'s wartime service made him a favorite of many progressives, and he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1920 presidential election. President Warren G. Harding appointed <mask> as Secretary of Commerce in 1920, and he continued to serve under President Calvin Coolidge after Harding died in 1923. <mask> was an unusually active and visible Cabinet member, becoming known as "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". He was influential in the development of air travel and radio. He led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. <mask> won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election, and defeated Democratic candidate Al Smith in a landslide. In 1929 <mask> assumed the presidency during a period of widespread economic stability.However the economy would take a drastic turn when the stock market crashed. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The Great Depression dominated <mask>'s presidency and he pursued a variety of policies in an attempt to lift the economy. <mask> strongly opposed directly involving the federal government in relief efforts. In the midst of the economic crisis, <mask> was decisively defeated by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. <mask>'s retirement was over 31 years long, one of the longest presidential retirements. He authored numerous works and became increasingly conservative in retirement.He strongly criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and New Deal domestic agenda. In the 1940s and 1950s, public opinion of <mask> improved largely due to his service in various assignments for presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, including chairing the influential Hoover Commission. Nevertheless, <mask> is often regarded as a below-average U.S. president, and most polls of historians and political scientists rank him as one of the worst presidents in US history. Early life

<mask> was born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa. His father, <mask>, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner of German, Swiss, and English ancestry. <mask>'s mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was raised in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, before moving to Iowa in 1859. Like most other citizens of West Branch, Jesse and Hulda were Quakers.Around age two "Bertie", as he was called during that time, contracted a serious bout of croup, and was momentarily thought to have died until resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn. As a young child he was often referred to by his father as "my little stick in the mud" when he repeatedly got trapped in the mud crossing the unpaved street. <mask>'s family figured prominently in the town's public prayer life, due almost entirely to mother Hulda's role in the church. As a child, <mask> consistently attended schools, but he did little reading on his own aside from the Bible. <mask>'s father, noted by the local paper for his "pleasant, sunshiny disposition", died in 1880 at the age of 34. <mask>'s mother died in 1884, leaving <mask>, his older brother, Theodore, and his younger sister, May, as orphans. <mask> lived the next 18 months with his uncle <mask> at a nearby farm.In November 1885, <mask> was sent to Newberg, Oregon, to live with his uncle John Minthorn, a Quaker physician and businessman whose own son had died the year before. The Minthorn household was considered cultured and educational, and imparted a strong work ethic. Much like West Branch, Newberg was a frontier town settled largely by Midwestern Quakers. Minthorn ensured that <mask> received an education, but <mask> disliked the many chores assigned to him and often resented Minthorn. One observer described <mask> as "an orphan [who] seemed to be neglected in many ways". <mask> attended Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University), but dropped out at the age of thirteen to become an office assistant for his uncle's real estate office (Oregon Land Company) in Salem, Oregon. Though he did not attend high school, <mask> learned bookkeeping, typing, and mathematics at a night school.<mask> was a member of the inaugural "Pioneer Class" of Stanford University, entering in 1891 despite failing all the entrance exams except mathematics. During his freshman year, he switched his major from mechanical engineering to geology after working for John Casper Branner, the chair of Stanford's geology department. During his sophomore year, to reduce his costs, <mask> co-founded the first student housing cooperative at Stanford, "Romero Hall". <mask> was a mediocre student, and he spent much of his time working in various part-time jobs or participating in campus activities. Though he was initially shy among fellow students, <mask> won election as student treasurer and became known for his distaste for fraternities and sororities. He served as student manager of both the baseball and football teams, and helped organize the inaugural Big Game versus the University of California. During the summers before and after his senior year, <mask> interned under economic geologist Waldemar Lindgren of the United States Geological Survey; these experiences convinced <mask> to pursue a career as a mining geologist.Mining engineer

Bewick, Moreing

When <mask> graduated from Stanford in 1895, the country was in the midst of the Panic of 1893, and he initially struggled to find a job. He worked in various low-level mining jobs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains until he convinced prominent mining engineer Louis Janin to hire him. After working as a mine scout for a year, <mask> was hired by Bewick, Moreing & Co., a London-based company that operated gold mines in Western Australia. <mask> first went to Coolgardie, then the center of the Eastern Goldfields. Though <mask> received a $5,000 salary (), conditions were harsh in the goldfields. <mask> described the Coolgardie and Murchison rangelands on the edge of the Great Victoria Desert as a land of "black flies, red dust and white heat". <mask> traveled constantly across the Outback to evaluate and manage the company's mines.He convinced Bewick, Moreing to purchase the Sons of Gwalia gold mine, which proved to be one of the most successful mines in the region. Partly due to <mask>'s efforts, the company eventually controlled approximately 50 percent of gold production in Western Australia. <mask> brought in many Italian immigrants to cut costs and counter the labour movement of the Australian miners. During his time with the mining company, <mask> became opposed to measures such as a minimum wage and workers' compensation, feeling that they were unfair to owners. <mask>'s work impressed his employers, and in 1898 he was promoted to junior partner. An open feud developed between <mask> and his boss, Ernest Williams, but company leaders defused the situation by offering <mask> a compelling position in China. Upon arriving in China, <mask> developed gold mines near Tianjin on behalf of Bewick, Moreing and the Chinese-owned Chinese Engineering and Mining Company.He became deeply interested in Chinese history, but gave up on learning the language to a fluent level. He publicly warned that Chinese workers were inefficient and racially inferior. He made recommendations to improve the lot of the Chinese worker, seeking to end the practice of imposing long-term servitude contracts and to institute reforms for workers based on merit. The Boxer Rebellion broke out shortly after <mask> arrived in China, trapping the <mask>s and numerous other foreign nationals until a multi-national military force defeated Boxer forces in the Battle of Tientsin. Fearing the imminent collapse of the Chinese government, the director of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company agreed to establish a new Sino-British venture with Bewick, Moreing. After <mask> and Bewick, Moreing established effective control over the new Chinese mining company, <mask> became the operating partner of Bewick, Moreing in late 1901. As operating partner, <mask> continually traveled the world on behalf of Bewick, Moreing, visiting mines operated by the company on different continents.Beginning in December 1902, the company faced mounting legal and financial issues after one of the partners admitted to having fraudulently sold stock in a mine. More issues arose in 1904, after the British government formed two separate royal commissions to investigate Bewick, Moreing's labor practices and financial dealings in Western Australia. After the company lost a suit <mask> began looking for a way to get out of the partnership, and he sold his shares in mid-1908. Sole proprietor

After leaving Bewick, Moreing, <mask> worked as a London-based independent mining consultant and financier. Though he had risen to prominence as a geologist and mine operator, <mask> focused much of his attention on raising money, restructuring corporate organizations, and financing new ventures. He specialized in rejuvenating troubled mining operations, taking a share of the profits in exchange for his technical and financial expertise. <mask> thought of himself and his associates as "engineering doctors to sick concerns", and he earned a reputation as a "doctor of sick mines".He made investments on every continent and had offices in San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; and Mandalay, British Burma. By 1914, <mask> was a very wealthy man, with an estimated personal fortune of $4 million (equivalent to $ million in ). He co-founded the Zinc Corporation to extract zinc near the Australian city of Broken Hill, New South Wales. The Zinc Corporation developed the froth flotation process to extract zinc from lead-silver ore and operated the world's first selective ore differential flotation plant. <mask> worked with the Burma Corporation, a British firm that produced silver, lead, and zinc in large quantities at the Namtu Bawdwin Mine. He also helped increase copper production in Kyshtym, Russia, through the use of pyritic smelting. He also agreed to manage a separate mine in the Altai Mountains that, according to <mask>, "developed probably the greatest and richest single body of ore known in the world".In his spare time, <mask> wrote. His lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities were published in 1909 as Principles of Mining, which became a standard textbook. The book reflects his move towards progressive ideals, as <mask> came to endorse eight-hour workdays and organized labor. <mask> became deeply interested in the history of science, and he was especially drawn to the De re metallica, an influential 16th century work on mining and metallurgy by Georgius Agricola. In 1912, <mask> and his wife published the first English translation of De re metallica. <mask> also joined the board of trustees at Stanford, and led a successful campaign to appoint John Branner as the university's president. Marriage and family

During his senior year at Stanford, <mask> became smitten with a classmate named Lou Henry, though his financial situation precluded marriage at that time.The daughter of a banker from Monterey, California, Lou Henry decided to study geology at Stanford after attending a lecture delivered by John Branner. Immediately after earning a promotion in 1898, <mask> cabled Lou Henry, asking her to marry him. After she cabled back her acceptance of the proposal, <mask> briefly returned to the United States for their wedding. They would remain married until Lou Henry <mask>'s death in 1944. Though his Quaker upbringing strongly influenced his career, <mask> rarely attended Quaker meetings during his adult life. <mask> and his wife had two children: <mask> Jr. (born in 1903) and Allan Henry <mask> (born in 1907). The <mask> family began living in London in 1902, though they frequently traveled as part of <mask>'s career.After 1916, the <mask>s began living in the United States, maintaining homes in Palo Alto, California, and Washington, D.C.

World War I and aftermath

Relief in Europe

World War I broke out in August 1914, pitting Germany and its allies against France and its allies. The German plan was a quick victory by marching through neutral Belgium to capture Paris. That failed but the Germans did control nearly all of Belgium for the entire war. <mask> and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. <mask> was appointed as the committee's chair and, with the assent of Congress and the Wilson administration, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. <mask> later stated, "I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life."By early October 1914, <mask>'s organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans. The German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 set off a food crisis in Belgium, which relied heavily on food imports. The Germans refused to take responsibility for feeding Belgian citizens in captured territory, and the British refused to lift their blockade of German-occupied Belgium unless the U.S. government supervised Belgian food imports as a neutral party in the war. With the cooperation of the Wilson administration and the CNSA, a Belgian relief organization, <mask> established the Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB). The CRB obtained and imported millions of tons of foodstuffs for the CNSA to distribute, and helped ensure that the German army did not appropriate the food. Private donations and government grants supplied the majority of its $11-million-a-month budget, and the CRB became a veritable independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads. <mask> worked 14-hour days from London, administering the distribution of over two million tons of food to nine million war victims.In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea forty times to meet with German authorities and persuade them to allow food shipments. He also convinced British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George to allow individuals to send money to the people of Belgium, thereby lessening workload of the CRB. At the request of the French government, the CRB began delivering supplies to the people of German-occupied Northern France in 1915. American diplomat Walter Page described <mask> as "probably the only man living who has privately (i.e., without holding office) negotiated understandings with the British, French, German, Dutch, and Belgian governments". U.S. Food Administration

War upon Germany was declared in April 1917 and American food was essential to Allied victory. With the U.S. mobilizing for war, President Wilson appointed <mask> to head the U.S. Food Administration, which was charged with ensuring the nation's food needs during the war. <mask> had hoped to join the administration in some capacity since at least 1916, and he obtained the position after lobbying several members of Congress and Wilson's confidant, Edward M. House.Earning the appellation of "food czar", <mask> recruited a volunteer force of hundreds of thousands of women and deployed propaganda in movie theaters, schools, and churches. He carefully selected men to assist in the agency leadership—Alonzo Taylor (technical abilities), Robert Taft (political associations), Gifford Pinchot (agricultural influence), and Julius Barnes (business acumen). World War I had created a global food crisis that dramatically increased food prices and caused food riots and starvation in the countries at war. <mask>'s chief goal as food czar was to provide supplies to the Allied Powers, but he also sought to stabilize domestic prices and to prevent domestic shortages. Under the broad powers granted by the Food and Fuel Control Act, the Food Administration supervised food production throughout the United States, and the administration made use of its authority to buy, import, store, and sell food. Determined to avoid rationing, <mask> established set days for people to avoid eating specified foods and save them for soldiers' rations: meatless Mondays, wheatless Wednesdays, and "when in doubt, eat potatoes". These policies were dubbed "Hooverizing" by government publicists, in spite of <mask>'s continual orders that publicity should not mention him by name.The Food Administration shipped 23 million metric tons of food to the Allied Powers, preventing their collapse and earning <mask> great acclaim. As head of the Food Administration, <mask> gained a following in the United States, especially among progressives who saw in <mask> an expert administrator and symbol of efficiency. Post-war relief in Europe

World War I came to an end in November 1918, but

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 Europe continued to face a critical food situation; <mask> estimated that as many as 400 million people faced the possibility of starvation. The United States Food Administration became the American Relief Administration (ARA), and <mask> was charged with providing food to Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to providing relief, the ARA rebuilt infrastructure in an effort to rejuvenate the economy of Europe. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference, <mask> served as a close adviser to President Wilson, and he largely shared Wilson's goals of establishing the League of Nations, settling borders on the basis of self-determination, and refraining from inflicting a harsh punishment on the defeated Central Powers. The following year, famed British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in The Economic Consequences of the Peace that if <mask>'s realism, "knowledge, magnanimity and disinterestedness" had found wider play in the councils of Paris, the world would have had "the Good Peace".After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in mid-1919, <mask> transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. He also established the European Children's Fund, which provided relief to fifteen million children across fourteen countries. Despite the opposition of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans, <mask> provided aid to the defeated German nation after the war, as well as relief to famine-stricken Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. <mask> condemned the Bolsheviks, but warned President Wilson against an intervention in the Russian Civil War, as he viewed the White Russian forces as little better than the Bolsheviks and feared the possibility of a protracted U.S. involvement. The Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed six million people, but the intervention of the ARA likely saved millions of lives. When asked if he was not helping Bolshevism by providing relief, <mask> stated, "twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"Reflecting the gratitude of many Europeans, in July 1922, Soviet author Maxim Gorky told <mask> that "your help will enter history as a unique, gigantic achievement, worthy of the greatest glory, which will long remain in the memory of millions of Russians whom you have saved from death". In 1919, <mask> established the Hoover War Collection at Stanford University. He donated all the files of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, the U.S. Food Administration, and the American Relief Administration, and pledged $50,000 as an endowment (). Scholars were sent to Europe to collect pamphlets, society publications, government documents, newspapers, posters, proclamations, and other ephemeral materials related to the war and the revolutions that followed it. The collection was renamed the Hoover War Library in 1922 and is now known as the Hoover Institution Library and Archives. During the post-war period, <mask> also served as the president of the Federated American Engineering Societies. 1920 election

<mask> had been little known among the American public before 1914, but his service in the Wilson administration established him as a contender in the 1920 presidential election.<mask>'s wartime push for higher taxes, criticism of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's actions during the First Red Scare, and his advocacy for measures such as the minimum wage, forty-eight-hour workweek, and elimination of child labor made him appealing to progressives of both parties. Despite his service in the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson, <mask> had never been closely affiliated with either the Democrats or the Republicans. He initially sought to avoid committing to any party in the 1920 election, hoping that either of the two major parties would draft him for president at their national conventions. In March 1920, he changed strategy and declared himself a Republican; he was motivated in large part by the belief that the Democrats had little chance of winning. Despite his national renown, <mask>'s service in the Wilson administration had alienated farmers and the conservative Old Guard of the GOP, and his presidential candidacy fizzled out after his defeat in the California primary by favorite son Hiram Johnson. At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Warren G. Harding emerged as a compromise candidate after the convention became deadlocked between supporters of Johnson, Leonard Wood, and Frank Orren Lowden. <mask> backed Harding's successful campaign in the general election, and he began laying the groundwork for a future presidential run by building a base of strong supporters in the Republican Party.Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928)

After his election as president in 1920, Harding rewarded <mask> for his support, offering to appoint him as either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce. Secretary of Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and vaguely defined responsibilities, but <mask> decided to accept the position. <mask>'s progressive stances, continuing support for the League of Nations, and recent conversion to the Republican Party aroused opposition to his appointment from many Senate Republicans. To overcome this opposition, Harding paired <mask>'s nomination with that of conservative favorite Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury, and the nominations of both <mask> and Mellon were confirmed by the Senate. <mask> would serve as Secretary of Commerce from 1921 to 1929, serving under Harding and, after Harding's death in 1923, President Calvin Coolidge. While some of the most prominent members of the Harding administration, including Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty and Secretary of Interior Albert B. Fall, were implicated in major scandals, <mask> emerged largely unscathed from investigations into the Harding administration.<mask> envisioned the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability. His experience mobilizing the war-time economy convinced him that the federal government could promote efficiency by eliminating waste, increasing production, encouraging the adoption of data-based practices, investing in infrastructure, and conserving natural resources. Contemporaries described <mask>'s approach as a "third alternative" between "unrestrained capitalism" and socialism, which was becoming increasingly popular in Europe. <mask> sought to foster a balance among labor, capital, and the government, and for this he has been variously labeled a corporatist or an associationalist. A high priority was economic diplomacy, including promoting the growth of exports, as well as protection against monopolistic practices of foreign governments, especially regarding rubber and coffee. <mask> demanded, and received, authority to coordinate economic affairs throughout the government. He created many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics to air travel.In some instances he "seized" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well; some began referring to him as the "Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments". In response to the Depression of 1920–21, he convinced Harding to assemble a presidential commission on unemployment, which encouraged local governments to engage in countercyclical infrastructure spending. He endorsed much of Mellon's tax reduction program, but favored a more progressive tax system and opposed the treasury secretary's efforts to eliminate the estate tax. Radio regulation and air travel

Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million, and <mask>'s tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States. In the early and mid-1920s, <mask>'s radio conferences played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of radio broadcasting. <mask> also helped pass the Radio Act of 1927, which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed "non-useful" to the public. <mask>'s attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.<mask> was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by indirect government subsidies. He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for crop dusting. He also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later Federal Aviation Administration. As Commerce Secretary, <mask> hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. <mask>'s chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of traffic accidents, but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests.The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states, and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity between jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets. <mask>'s image building
Phillips Payson O'Brien argues that <mask> had a Britain problem. He had spent so many years living in Britain and Australia, as an employee of British companies, there was a risk that he would be labeled a British tool. There were three solutions, all of which he tried in close collaboration with the media, which greatly admired him. First came the image of the dispassionate scientist, emotionally uninvolved but always committed to finding and implementing the best possible solution. The second solution was to gain the reputation of a humanitarian, deeply concerned with the world's troubles, such as famine in Belgium, as well as specific American problems which he had solved as food commissioner during the world war.The third solution to was to fall back on that old tactic of twisting the British tail. He employed that solution in 1925–1926 in the worldwide rubber crisis. The American auto industry consumed 70% of the world's output, but British investors controlled much of the supply. Their plan was to drastically cut back on output from British Malaya, which had the effect of tripling rubber prices. <mask> energetically gave a series of speeches and interviews denouncing the monopolistic practice, and demanding that it be ended. The American State Department wanted no such crisis and compromised the issue in 1926. By then <mask> had solved his image problem, and during his 1928 campaign he successfully squelched attacks that alleged he was too close to British interests.Other initiatives

With the goal of encouraging wise business investments, <mask> made the Commerce Department a clearinghouse of information. He recruited numerous academics from various fields and tasked them with publishing reports on different aspects of the economy, including steel production and films. To eliminate waste, he encouraged standardization of products like automobile tires and baby bottle nipples. Other efforts at eliminating waste included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and reducing the amount of crude oil spilled during extraction and shipping. He promoted international trade by opening overseas offices to advise businessmen. <mask> was especially eager to promote Hollywood films overseas. His "Own Your Own Home" campaign was a collaboration to promote ownership of single-family dwellings, with groups such as the Better Houses in America movement, the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, and the Home Modernizing Bureau.He worked with bankers and the savings and loan industry to promote the new long-term home mortgage, which dramatically stimulated home construction. Other accomplishments included winning the agreement of U.S. Steel to adopt an eight-hour workday, and the fostering of the Colorado River Compact, a water rights compact among Southwestern states. Mississippi flood
The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in the flooding of millions of acres and leaving 1.5 million people displaced from their homes. Although disaster response did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi River specifically asked President Coolidge to appoint <mask> to coordinate the response to the flood. Believing that disaster response was not the domain of the federal government, Coolidge initially refused to become involved, but he eventually acceded to political pressure and appointed <mask> to chair a special committee to help the region. <mask> established over one hundred tent cities and a fleet of more than six hundred vessels, and raised $17 million (equivalent to $ million in ). In large part due to his leadership during the flood crisis, by 1928, <mask> had begun to overshadow President Coolidge himself.Though <mask> received wide acclaim for his role in the crisis, he ordered the suppression of reports of mistreatment of African Americans in refugee camps. He did so with the cooperation of African-American leader Robert Russa Moton, who was promised unprecedented influence once <mask> became president. Presidential election of 1928

<mask> quietly built up support for a future presidential bid throughout the 1920s, but he carefully avoided alienating Coolidge, who was eligible to run for another term in the 1928 presidential election. Along with the rest of the nation, he was surprised when Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek another term. With the impending retirement of Coolidge, <mask> immediately emerged as the front-runner for the 1928 Republican nomination, and he quickly put together a strong campaign team led by Hubert Work, Will H. Hays, and Reed Smoot. Coolidge was unwilling to anoint <mask> as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that, "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad". Despite his lukewarm feelings towards <mask>, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary's candidacy.Many wary Republican leaders cast about for an alternative candidate, such as Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon or former secretary of state Charles Evans Hughes. However, Hughes and Mellon declined to run, and other potential contenders like Frank Orren Lowden and Vice President Charles G. Dawes failed to garner widespread support. <mask> won the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1928 Republican National Convention. Convention delegates considered re-nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be <mask>'s running mate, but Coolidge, who hated Dawes, remarked that this would be "a personal affront" to him. The convention instead selected Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas. <mask> accepted the nomination at Stanford Stadium, telling a huge crowd that he would continue the policies of the Harding and Coolidge administrations. The Democrats nominated New York governor Al Smith, who became the first Catholic major party nominee for president.<mask> centered his campaign around the Republican record of peace and prosperity, as well as his own reputation as a successful engineer and public official. Averse to giving political speeches, <mask> largely stayed out of the fray and left the campaigning to Curtis and other Republicans. Smith was more charismatic and gregarious than <mask>, but his campaign was damaged by anti-Catholicism and his overt opposition to Prohibition. <mask> had never been a strong proponent of Prohibition, but he accepted the Republican Party's plank in favor of it and issued an ambivalent statement calling Prohibition "a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose". In the South, <mask> and the national party pursued a "lily-white" strategy, removing black Republicans from leadership positions in an attempt to curry favor with white Southerners. <mask> maintained polling leads throughout the 1928 campaign, and he decisively defeated Smith on election day, taking 58 percent of the popular vote and 444 of the 531 electoral votes. Historians agree that <mask>'s national reputation and the booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.<mask>'s appeal to Southern white voters succeeded in cracking the "Solid South", and he won five Southern states. <mask>'s victory was positively received by newspapers; one wrote that <mask> would "drive so forcefully at the tasks now before the nation that the end of his eight years as president will find us looking back on an era of prodigious achievement". <mask>'s detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 United States Census which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920 Census was the first and only Decennial Census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress, which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the Presidential Election. Presidency

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 (1929–1933)

<mask> saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed "volunteerism". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance. The first major bill that he signed, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, established the Federal Farm Board in order to stabilize farm prices.<mask> made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by <mask>, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society. He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon. Lou Henry <mask> was an activist First Lady. She typified the new woman of the post–World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities. Great Depression

On taking office, <mask> said that "given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation". Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared <mask>'s optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on <mask>'s accession.This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing income inequality. Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive speculation that had raised stock prices far beyond their value. Some regulators and bankers had warned Coolidge and <mask> that a failure to curb speculation would lead to "one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen," but both presidents were reluctant to become involved with the workings of the Federal Reserve System, which regulated banks. In late October 1929, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 occurred, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but <mask> viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as the fundamental economic problem facing the nation. He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He also feared that allowing individuals on the "dole" would permanently weaken the country.Instead, <mask> strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address the needs of individuals. Early policies

Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, <mask> moved quickly to address the stock market collapse. In the days following Black Tuesday, <mask> gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21. <mask> also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates. In early 1930, <mask> acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus. At the same time, <mask> opposed congressional proposals to provide federal relief to the unemployed, as he believed that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments and philanthropic organizations.<mask> had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with a bill that broadly raised tariffs. <mask> refused to become closely involved in the congressional debate over the tariff, and Congress produced a tariff bill that raised rates for many goods. Despite the widespread unpopularity of the bill, <mask> felt that he could not reject the main legislative accomplishment of the Republican-controlled 71st Congress. Over the objection of many economists, <mask> signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law in June 1930. Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of the economy. Progressive Republicans such as Senator William E. Borah of Idaho were outraged when <mask> signed the tariff act, and <mask>'s relations with that wing of the party never recovered. Later policies

By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21.A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931. While other countries left the gold standard, <mask> refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as "collectivism". <mask> viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States. In response to the collapse of the German economy, <mask> marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts. The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans. As the worldwide economy worsened, democratic governments fell; in Germany, Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler assumed power and dismantled the Weimar Republic. By mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns.A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, <mask> allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch. <mask>'s opponents developed defamatory epithets to discredit him, such as "Hooverville" (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), "Hoover leather" (cardboard used to cover holes in the soles of shoes), and "Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold). While <mask> continued to resist direct federal relief efforts, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York launched the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to provide aid to the unemployed. Democrats positioned the program as a kinder alternative to <mask>'s alleged apathy towards the unemployed, despite <mask>'s belief that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments. The economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932, and <mask> finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention. In January 1932, he convinced Congress to authorize the establishment of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which would provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments. The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as much as <mask> had hoped, partly because it was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans.The same month the RFC was established, <mask> signed the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System. He also helped arrange passage of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932, emergency banking legislation designed to expand banking credit by expanding the collateral on which Federal Reserve banks were authorized to lend. As these measures failed to stem the economic crisis, <mask> signed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, a $2 billion public works bill, in July 1932. Budget policy

After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. In late 1931, <mask> proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the Revenue Act of 1932. The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s.Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut personal income tax exemptions, eliminated the corporate income tax exemption, and raised corporate tax rates. Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit. Civil rights and Mexican Repatriation

<mask> seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president. He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative. <mask> appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge had combined, but many African-American leaders condemned various aspects of the <mask> administration, including <mask>'s unwillingness to push for a federal anti-lynching law. <mask> also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South.Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African-American leaders were outraged. <mask> further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to the Supreme Court; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from the NAACP and organized labor. Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition. As part of his efforts to limit unemployment, <mask> sought to cut immigration to the United States, and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to the United States. Prohibition

On taking office, <mask> urged Americans to obey the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which had established Prohibition across the United States. To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Wickersham Commission. <mask> had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the enforcement of the Volstead Act and noted the growing public opposition to Prohibition.After the Wickersham Report was published in 1931, <mask> rejected the advice of some of his closest allies and refused to endorse any revision of the Volstead Act or the Eighteenth Amendment, as he feared doing so would undermine his support among Prohibition advocates. As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and a grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal. In January 1933, a constitutional amendment repealing the Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification. By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment. Foreign relations

According to Leuchtenburg, <mask> was "the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world". Nevertheless, during <mask>'s term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble. As president, <mask> largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs.In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. <mask> did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominican Republic, and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution. Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banana Wars, ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti. <mask> placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs. <mask> and Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which sought to prevent a naval arms race. As a result of <mask>'s efforts, the United States and other major naval powers signed the 1930 London Naval Treaty. The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels, as previous agreements had only affected capital ships.At the 1932 World Disarmament Conference, <mask> urged further cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanks and bombers, but his proposals were not adopted. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, defeating the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and establishing Manchukuo, a puppet state. The <mask> administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government and alienate a potential ally against the Soviet Union, which he saw as a much greater threat. In response to the Japanese invasion, <mask> and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson Doctrine, which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force. Bonus Army

Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the "Bonus Army" remained. Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful.Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. <mask> sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur to the protests. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. Though <mask> had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact. The incident proved embarrassing for the <mask> administration and hurt his bid for re-election. 1932 re-election campaign

By mid-1931 few observers thought that <mask> had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis. The Republican expectations were so bleak that <mask> faced no serious opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 Republican National Convention.Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge <mask>. Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith. The Democrats attacked <mask> as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions. As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis. The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted <mask>. Prohibition was increasingly unpopular, and wets offered the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. <mask> proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars.Roosevelt's platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment. <mask> originally planned to make only one or two major speeches, and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, as sitting presidents had traditionally done. However, encouraged by Republican pleas and outraged by Democratic claims, <mask> entered the public fray. In his nine major radio addresses <mask> primarily defended his administration and his philosophy of government, urging voters to hold to the "foundations of experience" and reject the notion that government interventionism could save the country from the Depression. In his campaign trips around the country, <mask> was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds ever seen by a sitting president. Besides having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several occasions, the Secret Service halted attempts to hurt <mask>, including capturing one man nearing <mask> carrying sticks of dynamite, and another already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the president's train. <mask>'s attempts to vindicate his administration fell on deaf ears, as much of the public blamed his administration for the depression.In the electoral vote, <mask> lost 59–472, carrying six states. <mask> won 39.7 percent of the popular vote, a plunge of 26 percentage points from his result in the 1928 election. Post-presidency (1933–1964)

Roosevelt administration

Opposition to New Deal

<mask> departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity. As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had

masks: Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover


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 all died during the 1920s or early 1930s and Roosevelt died in office, <mask> was the sole living ex-president from 1933 to 1953. <mask> and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point <mask> began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City. During the 1930s, <mask> increasingly self-identified as a conservative. He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt.In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, <mask> wrote more than two dozen books, including The Challenge to Liberty (1934), which harshly criticized Roosevelt's New Deal. <mask> described the New Deal's National Recovery Administration and Agricultural Adjustment Administration as "fascistic", and he called the 1933 Banking Act a "move to gigantic socialism". Only 58 when he left office, <mask> held out hope for another term as president throughout the 1930s. At the 1936 Republican National Convention, <mask>'s speech attacking the New Deal was well received, but the nomination went to Kansas Governor Alf Landon. In the general election, <mask> delivered numerous well-publicized speeches on behalf of Landon, but Landon was defeated by Roosevelt. Though <mask> was eager to oppose Roosevelt at every turn, Senator Arthur Vandenberg and other Republicans urged the still-unpopular <mask> to remain out of the fray during the debate over Roosevelt's proposed Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. At the 1940 Republican National Convention, <mask> again hoped for the presidential nomination, but it went to the internationalist Wendell Willkie, who lost to Roosevelt in the general election.World War II

During a 1938 trip to Europe, <mask> met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring's hunting lodge. He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S. Instead, <mask> believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an "accommodation" with Germany. After the September 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany, <mask> opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, including the Lend-Lease policy. He was active in the isolationist America First Committee. He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe, but, with the help of old friends from the CRB, helped establish the Commission for Polish Relief. After the beginning of the occupation of Belgium in 1940, <mask> provided aid for Belgian civilians, though this aid was described as unnecessary by German broadcasts.In December 1939, sympathetic Americans led by <mask> formed the Finnish Relief Fund to donate money to aid Finnish civilians and refugees after the Soviet Union had started the Winter War by attacking Finland, which had outraged Americans. By the end of January, it had already sent more than two million dollars to the Finns. During a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, <mask> disparaged any "tacit alliance" between the U.S. and the USSR, stating, "if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world... War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty. It is a tragedy." Much to his frustration, <mask> was not called upon to serve after the United States entered World War II due to his differences with Roosevelt and his continuing unpopularity. He did not pursue the presidential nomination at the 1944 Republican National Convention, and, at the request of Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey, refrained from campaigning during the general election. In 1945, <mask> advised President Harry S. Truman to drop the United States' demand for the unconditional surrender of Japan because of the high projected casualties of the planned invasion of Japan, although <mask> was unaware of the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.Post–World War II

Following World War II, <mask> befriended President Harry S. Truman despite their ideological differences. Because of <mask>'s experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Allied-occupied Germany and Rome, Italy to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nations. After touring Germany, <mask> produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy. He stated in one report that "there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state.' It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it." On <mask>'s initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947; the program served 3,500,000 children. Even more important, in 1947 Truman appointed <mask> to lead the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government a new high level study.Truman accepted some of the recommendations of the "Hoover Commission" for eliminating waste, fraud and inefficiency, consolidating agencies, and strengthening White House control of policy. Though <mask> had opposed Roosevelt's concentration of power in the 1930s, he believed that a stronger presidency was required with the advent of the Atomic Age. During the 1948 presidential election, <mask> supported Republican nominee Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful campaign against Truman, but he remained on good terms with Truman. <mask> favored the United Nations in principle, but he opposed granting membership to the Soviet Union and other Communist states. He viewed the Soviet Union to be as morally repugnant as Nazi Germany and supported the efforts of Richard Nixon and others to expose Communists in the United States. In 1949, New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey offered <mask> the Senate seat vacated by Robert F. Wagner. It was a matter of being senator for only two months and he declined.<mask> backed conservative leader Robert A. Taft at the 1952 Republican National Convention, but the party's presidential nomination instead went to Dwight D. Eisenhower, who went on to win the 1952 election. Though Eisenhower appointed <mask> to another presidential commission, <mask> disliked Eisenhower, faulting the latter's failure to roll back the New Deal. <mask>'s public work helped to rehabilitate his reputation, as did his use of self-deprecating humor; he occasionally remarked that "I am the only person of distinction who's ever had a depression named after him." In 1958, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension () to each former president. <mask> took the pension even though he did not need the money, possibly to avoid embarrassing Truman, whose precarious financial status played a role in the law's enactment. In the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy offered <mask> various positions; <mask> declined the offers but defended Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs invasion and was personally distraught by Kennedy's assassination in 1963. <mask> wrote several books during his retirement, including The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, in which he strongly defended Wilson's actions at the Paris Peace Conference.In 1944, he began working on Freedom Betrayed, which he often referred to as his "magnum opus". In Freedom Betrayed, <mask> strongly critiques Roosevelt's foreign policy, especially Roosevelt's decision to recognize the Soviet Union in order to provide aid to that country during World War II. The book was published in 2012 after being edited by historian George H. Nash. Death

<mask> faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on his large intestine was removed. He died on October 20, 1964, in New York City following massive internal bleeding. Though <mask>'s last spoken words are unknown, his last known written words were a get well message to his friend Harry Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman had sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: "Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela on your world famine mission in 1946. My warmest sympathy and best wishes for your recovery."Two months earlier, on August 10, <mask> reached the age of 90, only the second U.S. president (after John Adams) to do so. When asked how he felt on reaching the milestone, <mask> replied, "Too old." At the time of his death, <mask> had been out of office for over 31 years ( days all together). This was the longest retirement in presidential history until Jimmy Carter broke that record in September 2012. <mask> was honored with a state funeral in which he lay in state in the United States Capitol rotunda. President Lyndon Johnson and First Lady Ladybird Johnson attended, along with former presidents Truman and Eisenhower. Then, on October 25, he was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his presidential library and birthplace on the grounds of the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site.Afterwards, <mask>'s wife, Lou Henry <mask>, who had been buried in Palo Alto, California, following her death in 1944, was re-interred beside him. <mask> was the last surviving member of the Harding and Coolidge Cabinets. John Nance Garner (he was Speaker of the House during the second half of <mask>'s term) was the only person in <mask>'s United States presidential line of succession he did not outlive. Legacy

Historical reputation
<mask> was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s. According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited <mask> for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs. However, Hamilton also notes that <mask> was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression. Nicholas Lemann writes that <mask> has been remembered "as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into a Democratic one".Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked <mask> in the bottom third of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked <mask> as the 36th best president. A 2017 C-Span poll of historians also ranked <mask> as the 36th best president. Although <mask> is generally regarded as having had a failed presidency, he has also received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official. Biographer Glen Jeansonne writes that <mask> was "one of the most extraordinary Americans of modern times," adding that <mask> "led a life that was a prototypical Horatio Alger story, except that Horatio Alger stories stop at the pinnacle of success". Biographer Kenneth Whyte writes that, "the question of where <mask> belongs in the American political tradition remains a loaded one to this day. While he clearly played important roles in the development of both the progressive and conservative traditions, neither side will embrace him for fear of contamination with the other."Views of race

<mask> was known to hold racist attitudes towards black and mixed-race people. Many of his black contemporaries considered him a racist with W. E. B. Du Bois charging him as an "undemocratic racist who saw blacks as a species of 'sub-men'".Memorials
The <mask> Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site. The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration. The <mask>–Minthorn House, where <mask> lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Newberg, Oregon. His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Stanford, California, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a National Historic Landmark.Also located at Stanford is the Hoover Institution, a think tank and research institution started by <mask>. <mask> has been memorialized in the names of several things, including the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River and numerous elementary, middle, and high schools across the United States. Two minor planets, 932 Hooveria and 1363 Herberta, are named in his honor. The Polish capital of Warsaw has a square named after <mask>, and the historic townsite of Gwalia, Western Australia contains the Hoover House Bed and Breakfast, where <mask> resided while managing and visiting the mine during the first decade of the twentieth century. A medicine ball game known as Hooverball is named for <mask>; it was invented by White House physician Admiral Joel T. Boone to help <mask> keep fit while serving as president. Other honors

<mask> was inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame in 1988 (inaugural class). His wife was inducted into the hall in 1990.<mask> was inducted into the Australian Prospectors and Miners' Hall of Fame in the category Directors and Management. <mask> was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Charles University in Prague and University of Helsinki in March 1938. The ceremonial sword is today on display in the lobby of the Hoover tower. See also
 Great Depression in the United States
 List of presidents of the United States
 Progressive Era
 Roaring Twenties

Notes

References
 Citations

Works cited

  Originally published as

  Book 1 in The Life of Herbert Hoover Series. Further reading

Biographies

 Best, Gary Dean. The Politics of American Individualism: <mask> in Transition, 1918–1921 (1975)
 Best, Gary Dean. The Life of <mask>: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964.Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Clements, Kendrick A. The Life of <mask>: Imperfect Visionary, 1918–1928 (2010). Edwards, Barry C. "Putting <mask> on the Map: Was the 31st President a Progressive?" Congress & the Presidency 41#1 (2014) pp 49–83 online
 Hatfield, Mark. ed. <mask> Reassessed (2002)
 .Jeansonne, Glen. The Life of <mask>: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933. Palgrave Macmillan; 2012. Lloyd, Craig. Aggressive Introvert: A Study of <mask> and Public Relations Management, 1912–1932 (1973). Nash, George H. The Life of <mask>: The Engineer 1874–1914 (1983); in-depth scholarly study
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 Nash, Lee, ed. Understanding <mask>: Ten Perspectives (1987); essays by scholars
 Smith, Richard Norton.An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of <mask>, (1987), biography concentrating on post 1932. Walch, Timothy. ed. Uncommon Americans: The Lives and Legacies of <mask> and Lou Henry <mask>raeger, 2003. West, Hal Elliott. <mask>, the Fishing President: Portrait of the Man and his Life Outdoors (2005). Scholarly studies

 Arnold, Peri E. "The 'Great Engineer' as Administrator: <mask> and Modern Bureaucracy."Review of Politics 42.3 (1980): 329–348. .
 Barber, William J. From New Era to New Deal: <mask>, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921–1933. (1985)

 Brandes, Joseph. <mask> and Economic Diplomacy: Department of Commerce Policy, 1921-1928. (U of Pittsburgh Press, 1970). Britten, Thomas A. "<mask> and the Indians: the Case for Continuity in Federal Indian Policy, 1900–1933" Historian 1999 61'(3): 518–538. .
 Clements, Kendrick A<mask>, Conservation, and Consumerism: Engineering the Good Life.University Press of Kansas, 2000
 Dodge, Mark M., ed. <mask> and the Historians. (1989)
 Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds. The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal (1974)
 Goodman, Mark, and Mark Gring. "The Radio Act of 1927: progressive ideology, epistemology, and praxis". Rhetoric & Public Affairs 3.3 (2000): 397–418. Hawley, Ellis."<mask> and the Historians—Recent Developments: A Review Essay" Annals of Iowa 78#1 (2018) pp. 75–86 DOI
 Hawley, Ellis. "<mask>, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State', 1921–1928". Journal of American History, (June 1974) 61#1: 116–140. Jansky Jr, C. M. "The contribution of <mask> to broadcasting." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 1.3 (1957): 241–249. Lee, David D. "<mask> and the Development of Commercial Aviation, 1921–1926."Business History Review 58.1 (1984): 78-102. Lichtman, Allan J. Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928 (1979)
 Lisio, Donald J. The President and Protest: <mask>, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot, 2d ed. (1994)
 Lisio, Donald J. <mask>, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies (1985)
 Parafianowicz,Halina. '<mask><mask> and Poland: 1919–1933. Between Myth and Reality'
 Polsky, Andrew J., and Olesya Tkacheva."Legacies Versus Politics: <mask>, Partisan Conflict, and the Symbolic Appeal of Associationalism in the 1920s." International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 16.2 (2002): 207–235. online
 Short, Brant. "The Rhetoric of the Post-Presidency: <mask>'s Campaign against the New Deal, 1934-1936" Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991) 21#2   pp. 333–350 online
 Sibley, Katherine A.S., ed. A Companion to Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and <mask> (2014); 616pp; essays by scholars stressing historiography
 Wueschner, Silvano A. Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: <mask> and Benjamin Strong, 1917–1927. Greenwood, 1999

Primary sources

 Myers, William Starr; Walter H. Newton, eds.(1936). The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative. Hawley, Ellis, ed. (1974–1977). <mask>: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President'', 4 vols. .
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