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<mask> (December 7, 1859April 7, 1930) was a Republican politician who served as the fourth governor of New Mexico and a United States senator. He was the first Mexican-American and first Hispanic United States Senator. He was New Mexico's first Latino Senator and governor. Early life
<mask> was born in Valle de Allende in Chihuahua, Mexico, on December 7, 1859, to <mask>, a wealthy landowner, and Doña <mask>. He was brought up in a wealthy home and was taught to read and write in his home; he later briefly attended school in his town but left after his schoolteacher beat him. In 1863, French soldiers ransacked the Larrazolo home because the family supported Benito Juarez's revolt against the French. In 1870 at the age of eleven, <mask> left Mexico for Tucson, Arizona Territory, under the care of Jean Salpointe, a French-born bishop of Arizona.<mask> left with the bishop because he intended to study theology to become a priest and because his family had fallen into bankruptcy and could not support his schooling. After completing his primary studies with the bishop, <mask> studied theology at the St. Michael's College at Santa Fe, New Mexico Territory, graduating in 1876 at the age of 18. He considered entering the priesthood right after his graduation but secured a teaching position instead; he later also taught in El Paso County, Texas. During this time, he started studying law; he taught in the day and studied law at night. On December 11, 1884, <mask> became a U.S. citizen in order to prepare himself to become a lawyer. In this same year, he registered with the Texas State Republican Party. Politics
<mask> was admitted to the Texas state bar in 1888.He was elected district attorney for the Western District of Texas in 1890 and reelected in 1892. He held the position until 1894. <mask> moved to Las Vegas, New Mexico Territory, in 1895. He practiced law in that town and became involved in Democratic politics and focused on civil rights for the Mexicans and Hispanos who comprised two-thirds of New Mexico's population. <mask> had difficulty finding success as a Democrat because most Latinos identified as Republicans. This difficulty is shown by the fact that he narrowly lost elections to become Territorial Delegate to the US Congress in 1900, 1906, and 1908, though the 1908 election was extremely close and subject to several credible fraud charges. In 1910, <mask> attacked the machine politics in New Mexico that he felt were exploiting Hispanic voters across the state.He feared New Mexico was close to becoming like the South where Jim Crow laws stripped African Americans of their rights. This speech is considered a milestone; he forced both Republicans and Democrats to acknowledge the concerns of Hispanics in New Mexico and became the most vocal leader in his generation. In the speech, he said "you [Hispanics] … have allowed yourselves to be controlled by other men but you will be controlled by bosses only as long as you permit the yoke to rest on you...Every native citizen must unite in supporting this constitution because it secures to you people of New Mexico your rights—every one of them; the rights also of your children and in such a manner that they can never be taken away...if you want to acquire your freedom and transmit this sacred heritage in the land hallowed by the blood of your forefathers who fought to protect it...Do not wait until you are put in the position of Arizona which in two years will be able to disfranchise every Spanish speaking citizen." In 1911, the New Mexican Territory held a constitutional convention in preparation for its entering the Union. <mask> was one of the Latino delegates chosen to attend the convention. To his displeasure, the State Convention of the Democratic Party denied his request that half of all statewide nominees be Hispanic to represent the 60 percent of the population of New Mexico that was Hispanic. Despite this, <mask> was able to have considerable success in implementing pro-Latino measures in the New Mexico Constitution.He and other people insisted that the Spanish-speaking population of New Mexico be protected by the new state constitution. The reason for this was that <mask> did not want the rights of the Spanish-speaking people to be stripped when New Mexico entered the Union because he was afraid that the Union's segregation policies applied to African Americans would be used to justify the infringement of Latinos' rights in New Mexico once it entered the Union. <mask> and the other Latino delegates succeeded in implementing pro-Latino measures and language into the New Mexico State Constitution. The new Bill of Rights stated that (Article II Section V) "The rights, privileges and immunities, civil, political and religious, guaranteed to the people of New Mexico by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo shall be preserved inviolate." The Education Article, (XII., Section 8), gave the legislature authority to provide training for teachers in public schools so that "they may become proficient in both the English and Spanish languages, to qualify them to teach Spanish-speaking pupils. . .". Section ten of the article assured the right of children of Spanish descent to attend public education institutions and prohibited the establishment of separate schools.To the dismay of <mask>, the state Democrats unsuccessfully tried to prevent the ratification of the state constitution because of these pro-Latino provisions and because of this he became a Republican and remained one for the rest of his life. Because <mask> advocated so strongly for Latino rights, many New Mexico politicians considered him a race agitator. Even though many New Mexico politicians resented him for this, <mask> still managed to gain a lot of political credibility especially from Latinos who were glad for the work he had done for Latinos. His popularity throughout New Mexico caused the New Mexico Republican party to nominate him for governor of New Mexico. The campaign in 1918, though, was an intense one that exposed some factions within the Hispanic community. His Democratic opponent, Félix García, claimed that <mask>'s birth in Chihuahua precluded him from understanding the concerns of "native New Mexicans." He was elected Governor of the State of New Mexico in 1918, becoming the first Mexican-born Latino to be governor of New Mexico.<mask>'s narrow victory, however, seemed to quiet most of the debate about whether he could authentically advocate on behalf of the Spanish-speaking population. Throughout his time as governor, he had various controversies and successes. In the first year of his term, he declared martial law in the state to suppress a coal mining strike. In the time the fear of anarchism was rampant and this plus the gravity of the strike convinced <mask> to declare martial law. He was also criticized for pardoning Mexican troops who raided parts of New Mexico with Pancho Villa. He believed that since the Mexican troops were acting under orders from their superior that they should not be held accountable. He also supported and signed a new income tax law that angered his Republican party.The aspects that he won praise for was his support for the creation of the League of Nations. <mask> advocated for bilingual education and supported the civil rights of Mexican immigrants in the state. He was also a supporter of the women's suffrage amendment to the United States Constitution. Since he angered the Republican party of his state many times throughout his time as governor, the New Mexico Republican Party did not renominate <mask> to be governor of New Mexico. This caused him to briefly return to El Paso County, Texas to practice law. He opened a firm in El Paso with Nick Meyer and practiced in New Mexico and Mexico. In 1922 <mask> opened an office in Albuquerque as well.However, he did not stay out of politics for too long. In 1923, the state legislature of New Mexico nominated him to become governor of Puerto Rico. He lost this bid but he used the jolt of political popularity that he received by his consideration to be appointed governor of Puerto Rico to reenter politics in New Mexico. He ran and lost an election to become a justice of the New Mexico supreme court in 1924. However, he was elected in 1927 to the New Mexico State House of Representatives. But then in 1927, the Democratic U.S. Senator from New Mexico Andrieus Jones died and <mask> ran and on 6 November 1928 won for Jones's remaining term.This made <mask> the first Mexican-American to serve in the U.S. Senate. Unfortunately, he was by that time very old and suffered with many illnesses. Because of this he only was able to make it to one session of Congress and he was only able to introduce one legislative action. This action called for the establishment of an industrial school in New Mexico for the Spanish-speaking youth to promote equal opportunity. <mask> died on April 7, 1930. See also
 List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
 List of first minority male lawyers and judges in New Mexico
 List of United States senators born outside the United States

References

External links

 Octaviano A. <mask> Papers

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1859 births
1930 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American politicians of Mexican descent
Governors of New Mexico
Hispanic and Latino American state governors of the United States
Members of the New Mexico House of Representatives
Mexican emigrants to the United States
New Mexico Democrats
Hispanic and Latino American members of the United States Congress
New Mexico Republicans
People from Chihuahua (state)
People of the American Old West
Republican Party state governors of the United States
Republican Party United States senators
Santa Fe University of Art and Design alumni
United States senators from New Mexico
19th-century American lawyers
20th-century American lawyers

masks:
Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Don Octaviano
Donaciana Corral de Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
Larrazolo
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<mask> (Serbian Cyrillic: Дионисије Миливојевић; 26 July 1898 – 15 May 1979) was a Serbian Orthodox bishop who served as Bishop of America and Canada from 1939 to 1964. In his youth, he was one of the leaders of the evangelical  which won the support of Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović. In 1964, he went into schism with the Serbian Orthodox Church and formed the Free Serbian Orthodox Church. He was a vocal anti-communist and believed that the clergy in Yugoslavia had acquiesced to the ruling League of Communists of Yugoslavia too easily, and asserted the independence of the congregations of the SOC in North America and Australia. Early life
<mask> was born <mask> on 26 July 1898 in Rabrovac near Smederevska Palanka. After graduating from gymnasium, he enrolled at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Law. Two years later, he enrolled at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Orthodox Theology where he graduated.In his youth, he belonged to a millenarian movement before embracing Eastern Orthodoxy. Upon graduation, he got married. His wife died shortly afterward, whereupon he went to Hilandar Monastery, where he received tonsure and was given the monastic name of Dionisije. Before he was elevated to the position of Vicar Bishop, he was the head of a monastery, a professor at the seminary in Sremski Karlovci, and the head of the monastic school in Dečani Monastery. At the same time, he was one of the leaders of the , in which he had been active since his student days. He edited the organization's newspaper Christian Community, until 1933. He was elevated to the position of Bishop of Moravica and Vicar Bishop to Patriarch Gavrilo in 1938 and was consecrated in August of that year at the Saborna crkva.In late 1939, he was selected Bishop of America and Canada. He departed for the United States in early April 1940. Bishop of America and Canada in the SOC
He took over the administration of the Diocese of America and Canada on 15 April 1940, on the eve of the outbreak of World War II. He started his work in the Diocese from Saint Sava Monastery in Libertyville, Illinois. He first relocated the Diocese's headquarters from Chicago to the monastery, which he renovated completely. Between 1941 and 1943, he increased the monastery's property by 73 acres. In 1950, he purchased a 1,400-acre farm with buildings for the elderly and a children's resort in Shadeland, near Springboro, Pennsylvania.In Jackson, California, he purchased 173 acres of land. He organized a number of parishes and church-school municipalities. One of the most significant undertakings by Bishop Dionisije was his work in bringing and rescuing Serbs from the prison camps of Germany, Italy and Austria after the end of World War II. According to records, 16,000 Serbs and about 30 priests were brought to the US and Canada on the basis of letters of guarantee signed by Dionisije. Schism with the SOC and death

By the early 1960s, the SOC's stance toward the communist authorities had become a standing source of friction between Bishop Dionisije and Patriarch German in Belgrade. Like most churches under communism, the SOC had found a modus vivendi in order to procure the space it needed to operate. The diaspora priests claimed that the Belgrade "red priests" had acquiesced too early.Dionisije met , the daughter of a former royalist officer who left Yugoslavia in 1953. He allowed her to live in church residences. There was speculation both that Milentijević was his lover, and that she had been an agent of the Yugoslav authorities designed to seduce and discredit Bishop Dionisije. Both vehemently denied these allegations. The relationship assumed the dimensions of a public scandal, and in 1961 Milentijević left Chicago. A delegation from the Serbian Orthodox Church was sent to the United States to meet <mask> and stayed with him for two months during 1962. After having returned to Belgrade, the group generally spoke positively of Dionisije, but also brought forward the allegations brewing around his personal life.For this reason, the Holy Assembly of Bishops requested that the Holy Synod start a trial against Dionisije on 10 May 1963, the same day that his Diocese was split into three newly created ones. A new delegation met with Dionisije in July 1963, when he presented them with a written response to their letter. At the same time, he published announcements against the Assembly, claiming that everything they did was to appease the communist regime in Belgrade. He was removed from the position of bishop at an extraordinary assembly on 27 July 1963. Dionisije then called upon all parishes opposed to Belgrade to join him, and called upon a church-popular assembly on 10–14 November 1963 when all decisions from Belgrade were dismissed until the fall of communism, starting a schism with the SOC. <mask>'s successor, , was consecrated at this assembly. In mid-October 1963, Bishop <mask> was at the forefront of the local Serbs' campaign against Josip Broz Tito's visit to the United States.They organized press conferences, picket lines, demonstrations and harangued San Francisco's Fairmont Hotel where he was staying. Tito canceled several receptions, as well as his West Coast tour. He was defrocked at the Holy Assembly of Bishops in March 1964. In Australia, he initiated the first church-popular assembly in Melbourne on 31 October 1964, where the schismatic Diocese of Australia and New Zealand was created. The clergy loyal to Bishop Dionisije was commonly known as the raskolnici () and the ones loyal to Belgrade, federalci (). The row even split the exiled royal family. King Peter II originally sided with the raskolnici, but later retracted his support.Prince Andrew supported the raskolnici, and Princes Tomislav and Alexander the federalci. Peter II was interred in the Saint Sava Monastery in 1970, still under the control of Dionisije-loyals. It is alleged either that this signifies his renewed support for Dionisije before death, or that his corpse was taken from the Denver hospital where he died without permission. Dionisije was forced to leave the church's seat in Saint Sava Monastery and transferred to the nearby Grayslake following a court ruling in favor of the SOC with regards to ownership of the monastery. He and Metropolitan Irinej Kovačević built a new seat, the New Gračanica Monastery in Third Lake, Illinois. It was completed in 1984. Starting in 1977, the group assumed the name Free Serbian Orthodox Church.It was reconciled with the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1992. He died on 15 May 1979 at Saint Sava Monastery in Libertyville, Illinois. He was buried by the monastery's church. See also
 Serbian Orthodox Diocese v. Milivojevich

References

Literature

1898 births
1979 deaths
20th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops
Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox bishops in Canada
Eastern Orthodox theologians
People from Mladenovac
People from the Kingdom of Serbia
Serbian anti-communists
Serbian nationalists
Serbian Orthodox Church in Serbia
Serbian theologians
University of Belgrade Faculty of Orthodox Theology alumni
Burials at the Saint Sava Serbian Orthodox Monastery in Libertyville, Illinois

masks:
Dionisije Milivojević
Dionisije
Dragoljub Milivojević
Dionisije
Dionisije
Dionisije


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<mask> (born 1966) is an American politician, author, and former attorney. He served as the county attorney for Maricopa County in Arizona from 2004 until April 6, 2010. During his term in office, he was known for his anti-illegal immigrant policies. On April 10, 2012, <mask> was disbarred by a disciplinary panel of the Arizona State Supreme Court for his actions as county attorney. Early life
<mask> was born in Long Beach, California in 1966 and spent most of his childhood in Missouri's Ozarks. He received a B.A. in political science from the University of Missouri in 1988 and a J.D.from Harvard University in 1991. Early career
<mask> moved to Arizona to join a law firm in Phoenix, where he practiced civil litigation, and left in 1994 to serve as Assistant Attorney General for Arizona, followed by posts as deputy counsel and criminal justice policy advisor to governor Fife Symington III. <mask> later became chief attorney at the Arizona Department of Corrections. In 2002, <mask> easily won the Republican nomination for Arizona Attorney General, but lost the general election to Terry Goddard, though he managed to make waves with strong stands against crime, abortion and, especially, illegal immigration. <mask> joined the Maricopa County Attorney's Office as a Deputy County Attorney in 2003, then ran successfully for Maricopa County Attorney in 2004, having campaigned for state-based laws and initiatives against illegal immigration, pledging to pursue "fetal homicide" cases, and opposing same-sex marriage. He took office in January 2005, with virtually no prosecutorial experience. Maricopa County Attorney

Elections
<mask> ran for Maricopa County Attorney in 2004 on a platform of seeking tougher sentences for violent criminals and stopping illegal immigration.He posted the phrase "Stop Illegal Immigration" on his campaign road signs. <mask> faced Democrat Don Harris in the general election. <mask> was endorsed by The Arizona Republic newspaper, outgoing Maricopa County Attorney Rick Romley, then Phoenix mayor Phil Gordon, and former Arizona Attorney General Grant Woods. <mask> won the election easily, with over 58% of the votes cast. In his 2008 re-election bid, <mask> faced Democrat Tim Nelson. <mask> lost many of his 2004 endorsers. The Arizona Republic wrote "<mask> simply has worn his intensely partisan Republican politics too boldly on his sleeve.Nowhere has that partisanship been more in evidence than in his rabid pursuit of the small fry of illegal immigration, the petty hoodlums and the traffic violators." Rick Romley stated "Police chiefs tell me that the Maricopa County attorney's relationships with their police agencies are at an all-time low. And people are fearful that they are being targeted just because of the color of their skin." <mask> still won the election decisively, beating Nelson by an over 7% margin. Policies
As a candidate for Maricopa County Attorney, <mask> campaigned on "tough on crime, tough on illegal immigration" principles, and promised to stop illegal immigration. As Maricopa County Attorney, <mask> also focused on the rights of crime victims, and adopted tough policies on violent crime, child exploitation, identity theft and repeat offenders. During his time in office, he lobbied for and helped pass legislative bills targeting identity theft, human smuggling, control of methamphetamine, crimes against unborn children and victims' rights.Illegal immigration

As Maricopa County Attorney, <mask> kept the issue of illegal immigration at the forefront of Arizona politics. <mask> prosecuted illegal immigrants as co-conspirators in smuggling themselves, under his interpretation of Arizona's 2005 human smuggling law. This practice was initially upheld by Arizona's appeals court in 2008, but was found unconstitutional by the U.S. District Court in Phoenix in 2013, with the current Maricopa County Attorney declining to appeal the ruling. <mask> helped draft and campaigned for Proposition 100, a ballot measure aimed at denying bail to people who are in the U.S. illegally and charged with a range of felonies. During the campaign for the ballot measure, <mask> asserted that "[f]ar too many illegal immigrants accused of serious crimes have jumped bail and slipped across the border in order to avoid justice in an Arizona courtroom." Approved in 2006 by nearly 80% of the state's voters, the law was challenged by the ACLU in a 2008 class-action, and ruled unconstitutional by an en banc panel of the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in October, 2014. <mask> was a strong supporter of Arizona's 2007 Legal Arizona Workers Act, a law intended to regulate the presence of illegal immigrants in the state.Sometimes called the "Employer Sanctions Law," it makes it a felony for a person to take the identity of another person, whether real or fictitious, for the purposes of obtaining employment, and provides civil penalties for employers that intentionally or knowingly employ an alien who does not have the legal right or authorization under federal law to work in the United States. After the act was signed into law, <mask> set up a web site that explained the law, and provided a form to report violations. In cooperation with Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio, <mask>' focus of enforcement was on the apprehension of unauthorized workers through workplace raids or through traffic inspections. Few charges were brought against employers. <mask> was also an ardent supporter of Arizona SB 1070, also known as the Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act, that at the time of passage in 2010 was the broadest and strictest anti-illegal immigration measure in recent U.S. history, but which was largely struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2012. Tough on Crime
<mask> helped draft and campaigned for Proposition 301, an Arizona ballot measure which toughened sanctions for abuse of methamphetamines, including amending Arizona law so that a person convicted for the first or second time of personal possession of methamphetamines could be sentenced to a term in jail or prison, allowing judges to use a jail term as a condition of probation to force methamphetamine users to comply with court mandated drug treatment and rehabilitation. In 2006, Proposition 301 was approved by 58% of Arizona's voters.<mask> put in place a policy in which defendants in most cases were not given the opportunity to negotiate and plea down charges for serious offenses, but rather were required to plead to the most serious charge or face trial on that charge. The list of crimes which were not eligible for plea bargain included second degree murder, manslaughter, aggravated assault with injury or a weapon, sexual assault, arson of an occupied structure, armed robbery, first degree burglary, kidnapping, drive-by shooting, discharging a weapon at an occupied structure, and assault by prisoners with intent to incite riot. In his first two years in office, <mask> nearly doubled the number of times his office sought the death penalty, despite the number of first-degree murder cases remaining more or less the same. In 2007, <mask> sought the death penalty in almost half of potential first-degree murder cases. This policy change contributed to a backlog of capital cases that crippled the county's public defender system. Judge Timothy Ryan, then Maricopa county's assistant presiding criminal judge, stated "We had more death-penalty cases on our plate than any jurisdiction in the nation, [such] that we didn't have enough prosecutors, judges, or qualified defense attorneys to keep things moving along at a rate that anyone could define as satisfactory." Ultimately, all but a few of the 2007 death-penalty cases brought by <mask>' office ended in guilty plea bargains to reduced charges.Community outreach
Under <mask>, the Maricopa County Attorney's Office expanded their community outreach programs by sponsoring informational websites which published DUI offenders' photographs online, provided news roundups pertaining to regional crime, and discussed illegal immigration issues. Immediately after starting, <mask> made major changes to the county attorney's office staffing. Among his goals was increasing diversity, and two-thirds of the new appointments were women and minorities. He was criticized for demoting two division chiefs: Paul McMurdie from appeals and Cindi Nannetti from sex crimes. Nannetti was named state prosecutor of the year in 2004 and he was particularly criticized for that move. Nannetti was replaced by Rachel Mitchell. Conflict with Maricopa County Board of Supervisors and Superior Court judges

<mask> engaged in a high-profile conflict with the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors, who are responsible for allocating funds to his office.The dispute, in which he was joined by Sheriff Joe Arpaio, resulted in a number of lawsuits, with legal costs to the county for recent disputes exceeding 2.6 million. The conflict also resulted in Arpaio investigating and <mask> obtaining multiple indictments against County Supervisors Don Stapley and Mary Rose Wilcox. <mask> originally obtained indictments on Stapley on December 2, 2008, on 118 felony and misdemeanor counts dealing primarily with financial disclosure irregularities. In an effort to mediate differences with the Board of Supervisors, <mask> transferred the case and criminal investigations to the Yavapai County Attorney's Office. All of the counts in the indictment were subsequently dismissed, as it was found that Stapley had not actually violated any County regulations regarding financial disclosures. <mask> then took the case back from the Yavapai County Attorney's office, and obtained a second indictment against Stapley, on 27 similar felony and misdemeanor counts, on December 8, 2009. The United States Postal Service granted a request by <mask> and Arpaio to track Wilcox's mail.Using this information, Arpaio and Thomas obtained search warrants for other information and raided a company that had hired Wilcox. <mask> obtained an indictment of Wilcox, charging her with 36 felony counts related to failing to disclose business loans she took out from the business finance arm of an organization which had business before the Board of Supervisors. In February, 2010, Pima County Judge John Leonardo, appointed by a special master of the Arizona Supreme Court to hear the matter, ruled that <mask> had acted unethically, and had prosecuted Wilcox for political gain and retaliation, despite conflicts of interest that should have precluded his office from prosecuting. In January, 2011, After a ten-month review, Gila County Attorney Daisy Flores concluded there was insufficient evidence to pursue a criminal case against Wilcox. Wilcox sued the county and was awarded a settlement of nearly 1 million in 2011. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the ruling. Related to the Wilcox indictment, and a subsequent attempt by the MCSO to intimidate her attorney, The Arizona Republic editorialized that <mask>

masks:
Andrew Peyton Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Andrew Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Andrew Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
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 and Arpaio were misusing their powers to "intimidate and harass their political enemies."In March, 2009, Maricopa Superior Court Criminal Presiding Judge Gary Donahoe ruled that a conflict of interest between <mask> and the county Board of Supervisors over the investigation of a planned court tower created the "appearance of evil" for <mask>. <mask> has made many statements, both publicly and in legal filings, that judges in Maricopa County Superior Court are biased against him. On December 1, 2009, Thomas and Arpaio announced that they "filed a federal racketeering lawsuit against the Maricopa Board of Supervisors, leading Superior Court judges [including Judge Gary Donahoe], and a private law firm shared by the Board and Court, alleging the defendants have conspired illegally to block criminal investigations and prosecutions of themselves, particularly those related to the new 341 million Superior Court Tower and Supervisor Donald Stapley Jr."

On December 9, 2009, <mask> held a press conference to announce that he had filed criminal charges against Judge Donahoe on three felony counts: bribery, obstructing a criminal investigation, and hindering prosecution. <mask> presented no evidence of actual wrongdoing on Donahoe's part, other than several rulings with which he disagreed. <mask> filed the charges without first seeking a grand jury indictment. Subsequent to the filing of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) suit and filing of charges against Donahoe, a number of defense attorneys filed motions in Maricopa Superior Court to disqualify the Maricopa County Attorney's office from prosecuting cases. Those motions later became moot, after the RICO suit and criminal charges against Donahoe were dropped by <mask>.(See below.) On December 23, 2009, the Arizona Supreme Court appointed former Arizona Supreme Court Chief Justice Ruth McGregor as Special Master to administer all matters arising from the controversy. In February, 2010, Pima County Superior Court Judge John S. Leonardo ruled that:

[T]he County Attorney [<mask>] has the following conflicts of interest between his duty to impartially exercise his prosecutorial discretion; and

Subsequent to this ruling, which dismissed an indictment against Maricopa Supervisor Mary Rose Wilcox, <mask> announced that he was dismissing an indictment against Maricopa Supervisor Don Stapley, dismissing the federal RICO suit, and dropping the charges against Donahoe. In August, 2010, a Greenlee County judge ordered grand jury transcripts released that showed <mask>, in January, 2010, had tried to indict several members of the Maricopa Board of Supervisors, as well as the Maricopa County Mangager, his assistant, an attorney working for the Board of Supervisors, and Donahoe. Based on the ruling by Judge Leonardo, <mask>, through his assistant, requested that the grand jury return the case to his office, to be forwarded to a special prosecutor. Instead, the grand jury took the rare action of ordering the inquiry ended. One of <mask>' own prosecutors had explained to the jury during orientation that to "end the inquiry" meant "the case is so bad, there's no further evidence that could be brought to you folks."Rather than ending the inquiry, as ordered by the grand jury, <mask> held a press conference to announce that he had worked with Arpaio, and Arpaio's attorney, to refer the matter to the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) Public Integrity Section. The DOJ responded that they did not intend to review the file. Further, the acting chief of the section responded "In these circumstances, I was dismayed to learn that your mere referral of information to the Public Integrity Section was cited and relied upon in a pleading in federal court [the now-ended Arpaio/Thomas civil RICO lawsuit] and then used as a platform for a press conference." Phoenix New Times reporter Ray Stern noted that, despite multiple press conferences and a complete set of grand jury transcripts, there is no record of <mask> having presented any evidence of bribery by Donahoe. On May 21, 2010, Donahoe filed a notice of claim, a precursor to filing suit against Maricopa County, alleging abuse of power by <mask> and Arpaio, and demanding 4.75 million to settle his claims. In August 2012, the DOJ announced it was ending its investigation of Arpaio and <mask> and that no indictments would be issued, stating that they "do not believe the allegations presented to us are prosecutable as crimes." As of June, 2014, costs to Maricopa County taxpayers related to Arpaio's and <mask>' failed corruption investigations exceeded 44 million, not including county officials' investigation into the MCSO's budgeting.State Bar of Arizona investigations
In 2008, the State Bar of Arizona launched an investigation of <mask>. In response, <mask> filed a Petition for Special Action with the Arizona Supreme Court in an effort to halt the investigation. The Arizona State Bar filed a response noting that "a lawyer who happens to be an elected public officer... cannot simply opt out of the lawyer-regulatory system claiming the privilege of his elected office." <mask>' private attorneys filed a reply on July 2, 2008.  . <mask> also posted a call to reform the State Bar of Arizona on the Maricopa County Attorney web site. On August 15, 2008, the Arizona Supreme Court denied his Petition for Special Action and ruled that the State Bar of Arizona could proceed with the ethics investigations against <mask>. The State Bar of Arizona dismissed those complaints in March, 2009. In March, 2010, the Chief Justice of the Arizona Supreme Court, at the request of the State Bar of Arizona, appointed a special investigator to look into accusations of misconduct against <mask>, after a Pima County judge ruled that he acted unethically in investigating county supervisors for political gain.<mask> said that the State Bar of Arizona investigation into his ethical conduct was stacked against him and orchestrated to damage his campaign for state attorney general. Officials involved in the investigation dismissed <mask>' allegations as baseless. <mask> filed a petition with the Arizona Supreme Court in an attempt to end investigations into his ethical conduct. The court refused to end the investigation. On December 6, 2010, the report from the Arizona Supreme Court was released, and with the recommendation that <mask> be disbarred. The report alleges 32 ethics rules violations by <mask>, involving conflicts of interest, dishonesty, misrepresentation, filing a frivolous suit, and filing charges against county officials solely to embarrass or burden them. The report also alleges that <mask> engaged in criminal conduct and "conspired... with others to injure, oppress, threaten or intimidate Judge (Gary) Donahoe" by filing a criminal complaint against him.The investigative report was provided to a judge appointed by the Arizona Supreme Court, who made the decision to move forward with disciplinary recommendations against <mask>. The State Bar of Arizona's probable cause orders, signed by Judge Charles E. Jones, state that "Ethical violations by respondent, as described by Independent Bar Counsel, are far-reaching and numerous. Evidence thus far adduced portrays a reckless, four-year campaign of corruption and power abuse by respondent as a public official, undertaken at enormous and mostly wasteful cost to the taxpayers... Motivation for much of the alleged impropriety appears retaliatory, intended to do personal harm to the reputations of judges, county supervisors and other county officials... Actions by respondent appear intent on intimidation, focused on political gain, and appear fully disconnected from professional and prosecutorial standards long associated with the administration of justice ..."  Judge Jones added a 33rd ethical violation in the probable cause orders: that <mask> failed to submit substantive responses to the investigator. 2010 candidacy for Arizona Attorney General
On April 1, 2010, <mask> announced  his resignation as Maricopa County Attorney, effective April 6, 2010, as required by Arizona law in order to run for the office of Arizona Attorney General. Rick Romley, was appointed interim Maricopa County Attorney by the Maricopa Board of Supervisors.Bill Montgomery thereafter won a 2010 special election, and took office as Maricopa County Attorney in November, 2010. After a divisive campaign leading up to the August 2010 Republican primary election for Arizona Attorney General, in which he was endorsed and supported by Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio, <mask> lost by 899 out of 552,623 total votes to Tom Horne, who went on to win the general election. Disbarment
In April, 2012, a three-member panel appointed by the Arizona Supreme Court voted unanimously to disbar <mask>. The panel issued an extensive 247-page opinion discussing the decision. According to the panel, <mask> "outrageously exploited power, flagrantly fostered fear, and disgracefully misused the law" while serving as Maricopa County Attorney. The panel found "clear and convincing evidence" that <mask> and his deputy brought unfounded and malicious criminal and civil charges against political opponents, including four state judges and the state attorney general. "Were this a criminal case," the panel concluded, "we are confident that the evidence would establish this conspiracy beyond a reasonable doubt."<mask> has denied wrongdoing, calling the bar investigation a "political witch hunt." While he had the opportunity to appeal his disbarment, he chose not to. Disciplinary proceedings related to <mask> cost the State Bar of Arizona 616,571, of which <mask>, with his co-defendants, agreed on a restitution repayment amount of 101,294. Under rules set forth by the State Bar of Arizona, <mask> is eligible for reinstatement, five years after the effective date of disbarment. <mask> was disbarred effective May 10, 2012, meaning he is eligible for reinstatement on May 10, 2017. Reinstatement is not automatic for disbarred lawyers in Arizona. 2014 campaign for Arizona Governor

In May, 2014, <mask> filed nominating petitions to be placed on the Republican ballot as a candidate for Arizona Governor in the August 26, 2014 primary election.In June, 2014, <mask> qualified for 754,000 in public election funding through the Arizona Clean Elections Commission, by showing that he had received 4500 contributions of at least 5 each from Arizona voters. <mask> received 8.1% of the Republican primary votes, losing to Doug Ducey in a six-way election that shattered Arizona spending records. Personal life
<mask> is married to Ann Estrada <mask>, with whom he has four children. Books

  With Reggie White. References

External links

 Maricopa County Attorney's Office

1966 births
Arizona lawyers
Arizona Republicans
Disbarred American lawyers
District attorneys in Arizona
Harvard Law School alumni
Living people
University of Missouri alumni
Arizona politicians convicted of

masks: Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas


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<mask> ( ;  ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered a pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy, along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle. <mask> has also often been cited as one of the founders of Western religion and spirituality. The so-called neoplatonism of philosophers such as Plotinus and Porphyry greatly influenced Christianity through Church Fathers such as Augustine. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to <mask>." <mask> was an innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy. <mask> is also considered the founder of Western political philosophy.His most famous contribution is the theory of Forms known by pure reason, in which <mask> presents a solution to the problem of universals known as Platonism (also ambiguously called either Platonic realism or Platonic idealism). He is also the namesake of Platonic love and the Platonic solids. His own most decisive philosophical influences are usually thought to have been, along with Socrates, the pre-Socratics Pythagoras, Heraclitus and Parmenides, although few of his predecessors' works remain extant and much of what we know about these figures today derives from <mask> himself. Unlike the work of nearly all of his contemporaries, <mask>'s entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Although their popularity has fluctuated, <mask>'s works have consistently been read and studied. Biography

Early life

Birth and family

Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about <mask>'s early life and education. <mask> belonged to an aristocratic and influential family.According to a disputed tradition, reported by doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, <mask>'s father Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus. According to the ancient Hellenic tradition, Codrus was said to have been descended from the mythological deity Poseidon. <mask>'s mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon, one of the seven sages, who repealed the laws of Draco (except for the death penalty for homicide). Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, known as the Thirty, the brief oligarchic regime (404–403 BC), which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested. The exact time and place of <mask>'s birth are unknown. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BC, not long after the start of the Peloponnesian War.The traditional date of <mask>'s birth during the 87th or 88th Olympiad, 428 or 427 BC, is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laërtius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [<mask>] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [<mask>] went to Euclides in Megara." However, as Debra Nails argues, the text does not state that <mask> left for Megara immediately after joining Cratylus and Hermogenes. In his Seventh Letter, <mask> notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates <mask>'s birth to 424/423. According to Neanthes, <mask> was six years younger than Isocrates, and therefore was born the same year the prominent Athenian statesman Pericles died (429 BC). Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as the year of <mask>'s birth.The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens in his Chronicles argues that <mask> was born in the 88th Olympiad. Both the Suda and Sir Thomas Browne also claimed he was born during the 88th Olympiad. Another legend related that, when <mask> was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Besides <mask> himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of <mask> as head of the ). The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of <mask>, though some have argued they were uncles. In a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than <mask>. Ariston appears to have died in <mask>'s childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens. Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of <mask>, who appears in Parmenides. In contrast to his reticence about himself, <mask> often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues or referred to them with some precision. In addition to Adeimantus and Glaucon in the Republic, Charmides has a dialogue named after him; and Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras. These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct <mask>'s family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... <mask>'s dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates but also the happier days of his own family."Name
The fact that the philosopher in his maturity called himself <mask>n is indisputable, but the origin of this name remains mysterious. <mask>n is a nickname from the adjective platýs () 'broad'. Although <mask>n was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone), the name does not occur in <mask>'s known family line. The sources of Diogenes Laërtius account for this by claiming that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that <mask> derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead. While recalling a moral lesson about frugal living Seneca mentions the meaning of <mask>'s name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest." His true name was supposedly Aristocles (), meaning 'best reputation'. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.But there is only one inscription of an Aristocles, an early archon of Athens in 605/4 BC. There is no record of a line from Aristocles to <mask>'s father, Ariston. Recently a scholar has argued that even the name Aristocles for <mask> was a much later invention. However, another scholar claims that "there is good reason for not dismissing [the idea that Aristocles was <mask>'s given name] as a mere invention of his biographers", noting how prevalent that account is in our sources. Education
Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised <mask>'s quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study". His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, <mask> must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.<mask> invokes Damon many times in the Republic. <mask> was a wrestler, and Dicaearchus went so far as to say that <mask> wrestled at the Isthmian games. <mask> had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus and the Heraclitean doctrines. Ambrose believed that <mask> met Jeremiah in Egypt and was influenced by his ideas. Augustine initially accepted this claim, but later rejected it, arguing in The City of God that "<mask> was born a hundred years after Jeremiah prophesied." Later life and death
<mask> may have travelled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and Cyrene. <mask>'s own statement was that he visited Italy and Sicily at the age of forty and was disgusted by the sensuality of life there.Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, <mask> founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus. This land was named after Academus, an Attic hero in Greek mythology. In historic Greek times it was adorned with oriental plane and olive plantations

The Academy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadia (a total of between a kilometer and a half mile) outside of Athens proper. One story is that the name of the  comes from the ancient hero, Academus; still another story is that the name came from a supposed former owner of the plot of land, an Athenian citizen whose name was (also) Academus; while yet another account is that it was named after a member of the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian named Echedemus. The  operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Many intellectuals were schooled in the , the most prominent one being Aristotle. Throughout his later life, <mask> became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse.According to Diogenes Laërtius, <mask> initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius. During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of <mask>'s disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against <mask>. <mask> almost faced death, but he was sold into slavery. Anniceris, a Cyrenaic philosopher, subsequently bought <mask>'s freedom for twenty minas, and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to <mask>'s Seventh Letter, Dion requested <mask> return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept <mask>'s teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept <mask> against his will.Eventually <mask> left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of <mask>. According to Seneca, <mask> died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born. The Suda indicates that he lived to 82 years, while Neanthes claims an age of 84. A variety of sources have given accounts of his death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript, suggests <mask> died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him. Another tradition suggests <mask> died at a wedding feast.The account is based on Diogenes Laërtius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian. According to Tertullian, <mask> simply died in his sleep. <mask> owned an estate at Iphistiadae, which by will he left to a certain youth named Adeimantus, presumably a younger relative, as <mask> had an elder brother or uncle by this name. Influences

Pythagoras

Although Socrates influenced <mask> directly as related in the dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon <mask>, or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as Archytas also appears to have been significant. Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of <mask> closely followed the teachings of the Pythagoreans, and Cicero repeats this claim: "They say <mask> learned all things Pythagorean." It is probable that both were influenced by Orphism, and both believed in metempsychosis, transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles.He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and <mask>. George Karamanolis notes thatNumenius accepted both Pythagoras and <mask> as the two authorities one should follow in philosophy, but he regarded <mask>'s authority as subordinate to that of Pythagoras, whom he considered to be the source of all true philosophy—including <mask>'s own. For Numenius it is just that <mask> wrote so many philosophical works, whereas Pythagoras' views were originally passed on only orally. According to R. M. Hare, this influence consists of three points:
The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in science and morals". They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".<mask> and mathematics
<mask> may have studied under the mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene, and has a dialogue named for and whose central character is the mathematician Theaetetus. While not a mathematician, <mask> was considered an accomplished teacher of mathematics. Eudoxus of Cnidus, the greatest mathematician in Classical Greece, who contributed much of what is found in Euclid's Elements, was taught by Archytas and <mask>. <mask> helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic. In the dialogue Timaeus <mask>litus and Parmenides
The two philosophers Heraclitus and Parmenides, following the way initiated by pre-Socratic Greek philosophers such as Pythagoras, depart from mythology and begin the metaphysical tradition that strongly influenced <mask> and continues today.The surviving fragments written by Heraclitus suggest the view that all things are continuously changing, or becoming. His image of the river, with ever-changing waters, is well known. According to some ancient traditions such as that of Diogenes Laërtius, <mask> received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple Cratylus, who held the more radical view that continuous change warrants scepticism because we cannot define a thing that does not have a permanent nature. Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of changeless Being and the view that change is an illusion. John Palmer notes "Parmenides' distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology." These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced <mask> in formulating his theory of Forms. <mask>'s most self-critical dialogue is the Parmenides, which features Parmenides and his student Zeno, who, following Parmenides' denial of change, argued forcefully through his paradoxes to deny the existence of motion.<mask>'s Sophist

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 dialogue includes an Eleatic stranger, a follower of Parmenides, as a foil for his arguments against Parmenides. In the dialogue, <mask> distinguishes nouns and verbs, providing some of the earliest treatment of subject and predicate. He also argues that motion and rest both "are", against followers of Parmenides who say rest is but motion is not. Socrates

Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates. The precise relationship between <mask> and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. <mask> never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues, and speaks as Socrates in all but the Laws. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of <mask> exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new"; if the Letter is <mask>'s, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity.In any case, Xenophon's Memorabilia and Aristophanes's The Clouds seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one <mask> paints. The Socratic problem asks how to reconcile these various accounts. Leo Strauss notes that Socrates' reputation for irony casts doubt on whether <mask>'s Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs. Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to <mask> and Socrates. Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike <mask>'s Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding. In the dialogues of <mask> though, Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to <mask>. Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of <mask> and Socrates.In the Meno <mask> refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates's answers better if he could stay for the initiations next week. It is possible that <mask> and Socrates took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries. Philosophy

Metaphysics
In <mask>'s dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of metaphysics. These include religion and science,  human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. Francis Cornford referred to the "twin pillars of Platonism" as being the theory of Forms on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of immortality of the soul. The Forms

"Platonism" and its theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world.The theory of Forms is first introduced in the Phaedo dialogue (also known as On the Soul), wherein Socrates refutes the pluralism of the likes of Anaxagoras, then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides, while giving the "Opposites Argument" in support of the Forms. According to this theory of Forms, there are at least two worlds: the apparent world of concrete objects, grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms or abstract objects, grasped by pure reason (), which ground what is apparent. It can also be said there are three worlds, with the apparent world consisting of both the world of material objects and of mental images, with the "third realm" consisting of the Forms. Thus, though there is the term "Platonic idealism", this refers to Platonic Ideas or the Forms, and not to some platonic kind of idealism, an 18th-century view which sees matter as unreal in favour of mind. For <mask>, though grasped by the mind, only the Forms are truly real. <mask>'s Forms thus represent types of things, as well as properties, patterns, and relations, to which we refer as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e. g. justice, truth, and beauty refer to objects in another world.One of <mask>'s most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of geometry, such as the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, the Forms are universals given as a solution to the problem of universals, or the problem of "the One and the Many", e. g. how one predicate "red" can apply to many red objects. For <mask>, this is because there is one abstract object or Form of red, redness itself, in which the several red things "participate". As <mask>'s solution is that universals are Forms and that Forms are real if anything is, <mask>'s philosophy is unambiguously called Platonic realism. According to Aristotle, <mask>'s best-known argument in support of the Forms was the "one over many" argument. Aside from being immutable, timeless, changeless, and one over many, the Forms also provide definitions and the standard against which all instances are measured. In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning – in the sense of intensional definitions – of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular, extensional examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples.There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation. The soul

For <mask>, as was characteristic of ancient Greek philosophy, the soul was that which gave life. See this brief exchange from the Phaedo: "What is it that, when present in a body, makes it living? — A soul." <mask> advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. In the Timaeus, Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the navel. Epistemology
<mask> also discusses several aspects of epistemology.More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge (episteme) and opinion (doxa). <mask>'s epistemology involves Socrates (and other characters, such as Timaeus) arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. The Forms are also responsible for both knowledge or certainty, and are grasped by pure reason. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real.In the Theaetetus, he says such people are eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses". In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. In <mask>'s dialogues, Socrates always insists on his ignorance and humility, that he knows nothing, so-called "Socratic irony." Several dialogues refute a series of viewpoints, but offer no positive position, thus ending in aporia. Recollection
In several of <mask>'s dialogues, Socrates promulgates the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection of the state before one is born, and not of observation or study. Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound <mask>'s view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection.Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, <mask> himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division. More explicitly, <mask> himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them.That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with <mask>'s theory in the Theaetetus and Meno. Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression. Justified true belief

Many have interpreted <mask> as stating — even having been the first to write — that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology. This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein <mask> argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of their true belief. And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so. Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge, which Gettier addresses, is equivalent to <mask>'s is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.<mask> himself also identified problems with the justified true belief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of difference, meaning that the definition of knowledge is circular. Ethics
Several dialogues discuss ethics including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. <mask> views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". Socrates propounded a moral intellectualism which claimed nobody does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the Protagoras dialogue it is argued that virtue is innate and cannot be learned. Socrates presents the famous Euthyphro dilemma in the dialogue of the same name:  "Is the pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a)

Justice
As above, in the Republic, <mask> asks the question, “What is justice?” By means of the Greek term dikaiosune – a term for “justice” that captures both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, <mask> is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: “What is the basis of moral and social obligation?” <mask>'s well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good.<mask> further argues that such understanding of Forms produces and ensures the good communal life when ideally structured under a philosopher king in a society with three classes (philosopher kings, guardians, and workers) that neatly mirror his triadic view of the individual soul (reason, spirit, and appetite). In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice. Politics

The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of <mask>'s most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. Because these opinions are not spoken directly by <mask> and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing <mask>'s own views. Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.Productive (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. Protective (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule.Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Socrates says reason and wisdom should govern. As Socrates puts it:

 "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophize, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." Socrates describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities.The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after <mask> to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Socrates asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than by a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.)This is emphasised within the Republic as Socrates describes the event of mutiny on board a ship. Socrates suggests the ship's crew to

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 be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Socrates' description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant). Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in <mask>'s Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of <mask>'s analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work.In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy, the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character. Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control. In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes. Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as a popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression. Art and poetry
Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody.Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Rhetoric
Scholars often view <mask>'s philosophy as at odds with rhetoric due to his criticisms of rhetoric in the Gorgias and his ambivalence toward rhetoric expressed in the Phaedrus. But other contemporary researchers contest the idea that <mask> despised rhetoric and instead view his dialogues as a dramatization of complex rhetorical principles. Unwritten doctrines

For a long time, <mask>'s unwritten doctrines had been controversial.Many modern books on <mask> seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings ()." The term "" literally means unwritten doctrines or unwritten dogmas and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of <mask>, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where <mask> criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually." The same argument is repeated in <mask>'s Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing." In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment". It is, however, said that <mask> once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (), in which the Good () is identified with the One (the Unity, ), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it." Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to <mask>, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (), which he called Large and Small ()", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at <mask>'s lecture on the Good". Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of <mask>'s metaphysical doctrine.In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. <mask>] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly, the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One". "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ), the Great and Small (). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".The most important aspect of this interpretation of <mask>'s metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus{{efn|Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen'] (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of <mask>'s unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser."}} or Ficino which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of <mask>'s doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of <mask> was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930. All the sources related to the  have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica. These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.Themes of <mask>'s dialogues
 Trial of Socrates

The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of <mask>'s dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Crito, and Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defence speech, and Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction.Apology is among the most frequently read of <mask>'s works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumours that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens.In Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning <mask> by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime. Later, <mask> is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus. In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining <mask>'s absence by saying, "<mask> was ill". The trial in other dialogues

If <mask>'s important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus and the Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.Euthyphro 2a–b In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats. In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.<mask>'s support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees. Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue.Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates. In the dialogues <mask> is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar.However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues. Allegories Mythos and logos are terms that evolved throughout classical Greek history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account. It may seem that <mask>, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead, he made abundant use of it.This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use. <mask>, in general, distinguished between three types of myth. First, there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally, there were those non-verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of <mask>'s myths, they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul. It is generally agreed that the main purpose for <mask> in using myths was didactic.He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of <mask>'s myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally, he also invented altogether new myths. Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave. The Cave

The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible (noeton) and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance.Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For

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