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<mask> (161 – 21 October 256), courtesy name Dinggong, was a military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, <mask> started his career as a minor official in his home commandery in present-day Taizhou, Jiangsu before migrating south to the Jiangdong (or Wu) region, where he became an assistant magistrate and later a county chief under the warlord Sun Quan. He rose to prominence after his successes in suppressing some rebellions in Sun Quan's territories. Around the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period, Sun Quan, who later became the founding emperor of Eastern Wu, appointed <mask> as the governor of the restive Jiao Province in the south. During his ten-year-long tenure in Jiao Province, <mask> quelled a number of revolts, maintained peace in the area, and contacted some foreign kingdoms in Mainland Southeast Asia and made them pay tribute to Eastern Wu. In 231, he was recalled to Wuchang to oversee civil and military affairs in Jing Province (present-day Hubei and Hunan) alongside his colleague Lu Xun. Throughout the 230s, he suppressed a few rebellions in Wu territories.By 240, as he neared the age of 80, he was still in good physical health and competent enough to perform his duties. He rose to the position of Senior General-in-Chief in 246 and later Grand Marshal in 252 during the reign of Sun Quan's successor Sun Liang. He died at the old age of 95 and was one of the longest-living notable persons of the Three Kingdoms period. Early career
<mask> <mask> was from Hailing County (), Guangling Commandery (), which is in present-day Taizhou, Jiangsu. He started his career in the late Eastern Han dynasty as a low-level bureaucrat in the county and commandery offices. When chaos broke out throughout China in the 180s and 190s, he fled south to the Jiangdong (or Wu) region for shelter. In the year 200, after Sun Quan became the warlord ruling over the Jiangdong territories, <mask> <mask> sought a career under him and was appointed as an assistant official in Wu Commandery.During an inspection tour of Wu Commandery, Sun Quan summoned all the county chiefs and assistant officials for a review of every county's stores and legal administration. <mask> <mask> impressed Sun Quan when he responded well to his questions and showed that everything under his watch was in perfect order. Sun Quan then reassigned him to be a clerk in his personal administrative office, and later appointed him as the Chief of Yuyao County. During his tenure, <mask> <mask> recruited over 1,000 able-bodied men to serve in Sun Quan's army. Pacifying a rebellion in Kuaiji
When <mask> He () and Qin Lang () led an uprising in the five counties in the east of Kuaiji Commandery (around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), Sun Quan commissioned <mask> <mask> as a Colonel and ordered him to assist Jiang Qin in dealing with the rebels. <mask> <mask> and Jiang Qin succeeded in their mission and managed to pacify the five counties and capture the two rebel leaders. <mask> <mask> was then promoted to General of the Household of Illustrious Trust () as a reward for his achievement.Aborted mission to Hanzhong
In 211, <mask> <mask>, with Yin Yi () as his deputy, led 2,000 troops west to lure Zhang Lu, a warlord based in Hanzhong Commandery, into a trap at Hanxing Commandery (漢興郡; around present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). However, Zhang Lu suspected something fishy so he did not respond. Sun Quan then ordered <mask> <mask> and his men to return to Jiangdong. On the journey back, <mask> <mask> passed by Baidicheng (in present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) and met Sun Quan's ally Liu Bei, who was leading an army to seize control of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from its governor Liu Zhang. He saw that Liu Bei's army was in disarray and had lost about half their total number of troops, and felt convinced that Liu Bei would not succeed in conquering Yi Province. After returning to Jiangdong, he told Sun Quan, who in turn asked his adviser Wu Fan (), who had previously predicted that Liu Bei would conquer Yi Province. Wu Fan replied: "My prediction is based on Heaven's will.What Lü <mask> saw were the actions of people." Wu Fan's prediction came true as Liu Bei did eventually conquer Yi Province by 214. Role in the Sun–Liu territorial dispute

In 215, when Sun Quan had a territorial dispute with his ally Liu Bei in Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), he ordered <mask> <mask>, with Sun Mao () and nine other officers as his deputies, to lead troops to seize control of the three commanderies of Changsha, Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan). The officials in four counties – Ancheng, You, Yongxin and Chaling – moved to Yinshan County (陰山縣; southeast of present-day Hengdong County, Hunan), where they declared hostility towards Lü <mask>. In response, <mask> <mask> led his troops to besiege and attack Yinshan County, and succeeded in forcing the rebellious officials to surrender. The three commanderies in southern Jing Province thus came firmly under Sun Quan's control. Sun Quan left <mask> <mask> in charge of Changsha.Around the time, Wu Dang (), the Chief of Ancheng County, conspired with a military officer Yuan Long () to rebel against Sun Quan and defect to Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province. Wu Dang managed to occupy You County while Yuan Long stationed himself at Liling County. Sun Quan sent his general Lu Su to attack Wu Dang; Lu Su succeeded in defeating Wu Dang and recapturing the counties while Wu Dang fled after his defeat. In the meantime, <mask> <mask> attacked Liling County and succeeded in capturing and executing Yuan Long. He was then assigned to serve as the Administrator of Luling Commandery (廬陵郡; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi). As the governor of Jiao Province
In 220, <mask> <mask> was appointed as the Inspector () of the southern Jiao Province (covering present-day Guangdong, Guangxi and parts of northern Vietnam) to replace Bu Zhi. After <mask> <mask> assumed office, Qian Bo (), a bandit chief from Gaoliang Commandery (高涼郡; around present-day Yangjiang, Guangdong) led his followers to surrender to him.<mask> <mask> accepted Qian Bo's surrender and appointed him as the Commandant of the West Section of Gaoliang Commandery. Later, he also quelled an uprising by indigenous tribes in Yulin Commandery (鬱林郡; around present-day Guigang, Guangxi). Around the time, there was a bandit chief Wang Jin () from Zhenyang County (湞陽縣; east of present-day Yingde, Guangdong) who frequently led his followers to raid the borders of Nanhai Commandery (南海郡; around present-day Guangzhou, Guangdong). Under orders from Sun Quan, <mask> <mask> led his troops to attack the bandits and succeeded in capturing Wang Jin alive. He then sent Wang Jin as a captive to the Wu imperial capital, Jianye (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Throughout the campaign, he had killed, captured and released about 10,000 bandits in total. In recognition of <mask> <mask>'s efforts, Sun Quan promoted him to General Who Stabilises the South (), granted him acting imperial authority, and enfeoffed him as a Marquis of a Chief District ().Suppressing Shi Hui's rebellion
When Shi Xie, the Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery, died in 226, Sun Quan commissioned Shi Xie's third son, Shi Hui (), as a general and appointed him as the Administrator of Jiuzhen Commandery (九真郡; around present-day Thanh Hóa, Vietnam). He also appointed Chen Shi () as the new Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery to succeed Shi Xie. Around the time, Sun Quan wanted to split Jiao Province and create another province, Guang Province (): Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen () and Rinan () commanderies would remain part of Jiao Province; Cangwu (), Nanhai (), Yulin () and Hepu () commanderies would form the new Guang Province. He then appointed <mask> () and <mask> <mask> as the Inspectors of Jiao and Guang provinces respectively. When <mask> and Chen Shi came to assume their new appointments, Shi Hui refused to accept the new arrangement and he started a rebellion by sending his forces to block <mask> and Chen Shi. After obtaining approval from Sun Quan, <mask> <mask> led 3,000 troops to attack Shi Hui and quell the rebellion. When someone warned <mask> <mask> to be careful because the Shi clan had lived in Jiao Province for generations and had strong support from the locals, <mask> <mask> replied: "Although Shi Hui has decided to rebel, he doesn't expect me to show up with an army.If I launch a swift attack now, I can catch him off guard and defeat him easily. If I don't act fast, the others will start thinking of rebelling too, while Shi Hui will have more time to strengthen his defences. If the barbarians in all the seven commanderies combine forces and join him in his rebellion, I don't think even the most brilliant military commanders can deal with them." <mask> <mask> then led his troops to the rendezvous point at Hepu County, where he combined forces with <mask> and prepared to attack Shi Hui. When Shi Hui learnt that <mask> <mask> had showed up at Jiaozhi Commandery with an army, he was so shocked and terrified that he did not know what to do as he did not expect <mask> <mask> to arrive so quickly. He had no choice but to lead his brothers out of the city and surrender to <mask> <mask>. <mask> <mask> later executed all the Shi brothers and sent their heads to Sun Quan.Gan Li () and Huan Zhi (), two

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 military officers who used to serve under Shi Hui, rallied their forces to attack <mask> <mask> to avenge their master. <mask> <mask> managed to defeat them and eliminate all remaining opposing forces. As a reward for his achievement, <mask> <mask> was promoted from a district marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Panyu" (). After Shi Hui's rebellion, Sun Quan abolished the newly created Guang Province and restored the original Jiao Province. After pacifying Jiaozhi Commandery, <mask> <mask> led his troops further south into Jiuzhen Commandery to attack opposing forces, and killed or captured tens of thousands of enemies. He also tasked the officials under him with spreading Han Chinese culture in the southern lands with the aim of sinicising the non-Han Chinese peoples living there. At the same time, he sent emissaries to contact the rulers of foreign kingdoms such as Funan, Lâm Ấp and Tangming () in Mainland Southeast Asia, and make them pay tribute to Wu.Sun Quan lauded <mask> <mask> for his efforts and promoted him to General Who Guards the South (). Pacifying rebellions in Wuling, Luling, Kuaiji and Nanhai
In early 231, after seeing that Jiao Province was peaceful, Sun Quan reassigned <mask> <mask> to a new post at Oukou (漚口; in present-day Changsha, Hunan). Around March or April 231, when the indigenous tribes living in Wuxi (五谿; literally "five streams"; referring to an area around present-day Huaihua, Hunan) rebelled against Wu rule, Sun Quan ordered <mask> <mask> to lead 50,000 troops to suppress the rebellion. He also ordered Pan Jun to supervise and assist <mask> <mask> as the latter conducted the military operation against the rebels. Pan Jun ensured that promises were kept, and rewards and punishments were given out fairly. By December 234, the rebellion ended with over 10,000 rebels killed or taken captive. The indigenous tribes also became so drastically weakened that they could not rebel again in a long time.In 233, Sun Quan ordered <mask> <mask> and Pan Zhang to lead their troops to station at Lukou (陸口; at Lushui Lake near present-day Chibi, Hubei). Later, he instructed them to relocate their garrison to the nearby Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei). In 235, rebellions broke out almost simultaneously in three commanderies: Luling (廬陵; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi), eastern Kuaiji (around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang) and Nanhai (南海; around present-day Guangzhou, Guangdong). Li Huan () and Lu He () led the rebels in Luling; Sui Chun () led the rebels in eastern Kuaiji; and Luo Li () led the rebels in Nanhai. In response, Sun Quan ordered <mask> <mask>, with Liu Zuan () and Tang Zi as his deputies, to lead troops to separately quell each rebellion. After Sui Chun surrendered, <mask> <mask> appointed him as a Lieutenant-General and recruited him as a subordinate. He also defeated the other rebel forces, executed the rebel leaders Li Huan, Lu He and Luo Li, and sent their heads to Sun Quan.Sun Quan issued an imperial decree to praise <mask> <mask> for his achievements in quelling the rebellions and restoring peace in the three commanderies. Following Pan Jun's death in 239, <mask> <mask> succeeded him by overseeing all civil and documentation-related affairs in Jing Province. He also moved to Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) to work alongside Lu Xun, but continued to remain in charge of the garrison at Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei). Quelling Liao Shi's rebellion
In December 239 or January 240, a Wu officer Liao Shi () started a rebellion in Linhe Commandery (臨賀郡; around present-day Hezhou, Guangxi) and led his followers to attack the neighbouring commanderies of Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan). Liao Shi's revolt also inspired the locals in Jiao Province's Cangwu (蒼梧; around present-day Wuzhou, Guangxi) and Yulin (鬱林; around present-day Guigang, Guangxi) commanderies to rebel against Eastern Wu as well. When <mask> <mask> received news of the rebellions, he immediately assembled his troops and led them to attack the rebels. They even travelled at night in order to reach their destination in the shortest possible time.Sun Quan sent an emissary to catch up with <mask> <mask> and officially appoint him as the Governor of Jiao Province (). At the same time, he ordered other officers such as Tang Zi to lead their units to Jiao Province to support <mask> <mask>. After about a year, <mask> <mask> succeeded in defeating the rebels and restoring peace in the various commanderies. He also executed the rebel leaders Liao Shi, Fei Yang () and their followers. After completing his mission, he returned to his previous post at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei). Overseeing affairs in Wuchang
By 240, <mask> <mask> was already nearing the age of 80, but he was still in good physical health, competent enough to perform his duties as a general, and still personally saw to all the day-to-day affairs in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei). Around this time, a Wu general Zhang Cheng wrote a letter to <mask> <mask> as follows: "In the past, when Dan and Shi served as regents of Zhou, people wrote the Odes of the South to praise them.Today, you and Master Lu are just like the two of them. Both of you demonstrate loyalty, diligence, hard work, and humility, make great achievements and contributions, and promote a strong civil culture. Junzis sing praises of your virtues while the people admire you for your values. I heard that every day you have piles of documents to look through and an endless queue of people to meet, yet you neither put aside your work nor complain that you are tired. I even heard that you can get onto horseback without stepping on the stirrups. It looks like you have surpassed Lian Po. How wonderful it is for you to have all these achievements!The Yijing says: 'He wishes his virtue to be more and more complete, and in his intercourse with others to be more and more respectful.' How did you attain such perfection?" In 243, <mask> <mask> sent Zhu Ying () and Kang Tai () to survey the lands south of Jiao Province in present-day Mainland Southeast Asia and spread Chinese culture there. Kang Tai wrote the Wu Shi Waiguo Zhuan (), which recorded what he saw during his travels in Mainland Southeast Asia. Following Lu Xun's death in 245, Zhuge Ke replaced him as the military commander guarding Wuchang and overseeing affairs in Jing Province. Sun Quan then divided Wuchang into two sections and put <mask> <mask> in charge of the right section, which oversaw the area from Puqi (蒲圻; present-day Chibi, Hubei) to Wuchang. In September or October 246, he promoted <mask> <mask> to Senior General-in-Chief (), and commissioned <mask> <mask>'s son <mask> Kai () as a Colonel to oversee the military garrison at Puqi.Later career and death
After Sun Quan died in May 252, his youngest son Sun Liang became the next emperor of Wu. Later in May or June that year, Sun Liang appointed <mask> <mask> as Grand Marshal (). <mask> <mask> died on 21 October 256 at the age of 96 (by East Asian age reckoning). His son, <mask> Kai (), inherited his peerage as the Marquis of Panyu (). Before his death, <mask> <mask> gave instructions that he wanted to be buried in an undecorated coffin, to be dressed in plain clothes, and have a simple funeral. <mask> Kai followed all his instructions faithfully. Anecdotes

Leaving his family in poverty
<mask> <mask> was known for living an honest, frugal and simple life.When he held office in Jiao Province, he did not send any income home for years and caused his family to live in poverty and hunger. Sun Quan sighed when he heard about it, and he told his subjects: "<mask> <mask> is thousands of li away from home faithfully performing his duties to the State while his family suffers from poverty and I don't know about it until now. What have you, my close aides and information gatherers, been doing all this while?" He then arranged for a certain amount of money, grain, cloth and silk to be sent to <mask> <mask>'s family every year. Friendship with Xu Yuan
Lü <mask> was close friends with one Xu Yuan () from Wu Commandery who was known for being generous and ambitious. <mask> <mask> saw great potential in Xu Yuan so he often sent him clothing, often discussed current affairs with him, and recommended him for higher positions. Xu Yuan eventually rose through the ranks in the Wu government to the position of an imperial censor.Xu Yuan was known for being loyal, bold and outspoken. Whenever he saw <mask> <mask> make a mistake, he would point it out to <mask> <mask> in private and, at the same time, bring up the issue and discuss it in public. When someone told <mask> <mask> about it, the latter remarked: "This is why I regard Deyuan (Xu Yuan's courtesy name) so highly." When Xu Yuan died, <mask> <mask> cried inconsolably and said: "Deyuan was my best friend. Now that he has passed away, where am I going to find someone who will point out my mistakes to me?" Their contemporaries saw their friendship in a very positive light. See also
 Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

Notes

References

 Chen, Shou (3rd century).Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu). 161 births
256 deaths
Eastern Wu generals
Eastern Wu politicians
Generals under Sun Quan
Politicians from Taizhou, Jiangsu
Political office-holders in Jiangxi
Political office-holders in Guangdong
Han dynasty generals from

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<mask> (; born 3 June 1996) is an Iraqi professional footballer who plays for Al-Zawraa in Iraqi Premier League and the Iraqi national team as a right back. Club career

Youth career
<mask> was graduated from the prestigious Ammo Baba Football School, situated opposite the Al-Shaab Stadium, one of Iraq's biggest stadiums, where he spent the early part of his football education. Many other Iraqi footballers have come out of the school such as Ali Adnan. Al Kahraba
After leaving the Ammo Baba school, <mask> signed for Al Kahraba. His club was relegated to the Iraq Division One in 2013 but <mask> helped the club to the Division One title the following year where he scored 4 league goals as a defender. Al Zawraa
In 2015, Mhawi signed a one-year contract for Iraqi giants Al Zawra'a. Ala'a won another league title, this time however it was the Iraqi Premier League.His impressive showing with 6 goals from the fullback position earned him a two-year contract extension. In the 2016/17 season, Mhawi played in the AFC Cup, Asia's second-tier continental tournament. During the AFC Cup, Mhawi scored 2 goals, one coming against Syrian side Al Jaish on 4 April 2017 and the second coming in a match against defending champions Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya on 22 May 2017 in the zonal Semi-Final, where his team got knocked out. Ala'a left the team shortly before the end of the 2016/17 season, to join Saudi club Al Batin. Al Batin
On 17 July 2017, <mask> signed a professional contract for one season with Saudi Club Al-Batin. He made his debut on 11 August in a shock 3-1 victory over Ittihad. His contract was ended by mutual consent on 29 September 2017 after playing only two games.Al Shorta
Following his release from Al Batin. Ali returned to Iraq, this time with Al-Shorta. He made his debut on 21 November as a second-half substitute against Karbalaa. International career

Iraq U-17

Mhawi made his debut for Iraq's Under-17s in 2011 at the age of just 15. He played for the Under-17s over the next 3 years. He went on to make 10 more appearances for the youth side scoring 2 goals in his 11 appearances. At the age of 17, Mhawi played in the 2013 Under-17 World Cup and played in all of Iraq's matches against Sweden, Mexico and Nigeria.Iraq U-19

<mask> was called up to the Iraqi Under-19 squad for the AFC Under-19 Championship qualifiers against Bangladesh and Kuwait in October 2013. He scored 20 minutes into his debut as Iraq beat Bangladesh 6-0 and played in the 0-0 draw against Kuwait which saw Iraq top the group and qualify for the 2014 AFC Under-19 Championship. <mask> played in all 3 of Iraq's matches at the Under-19 Asian Cup in October 2014 against Oman, Qatar and North Korea. Despite Iraq having a higher goal difference and the same number of points as North Korea, they were knocked out at the group stage due to the head-to-head results. He scored his second and final goal in his fifth and final appearance for the Under-19s, which came against North Korea on 14 October 2014. Iraq U-23
<mask> was called up to the Iraqi Under-23 squad for the 2016 AFC Under-23 Championship qualifiers against Oman, Lebanon, Bahrain and the Maldives in March 2015. He made his debut in Iraq's 4-1 win over Lebanon and played in ever qualifier, being instrumental to Iraq's qualification to the Under-23 Asian Cup.<mask> was part of the squad which went to Qatar for the Under-23 Asian Championship in 2016. He played in all of Iraq's matches, against South Korea, Uzbekistan, Yemen and the U.A.E. as the young side made it to the semi-final, where they were beaten by eventual champions Japan. In the third-place play-off, which Mhawi played in as well, against Qatar, Iraq won, awarding them with a spot at that summer's Olympics. As a result of his performance at the Under-23 Asian Championship, <mask> was included in the squad that went to Brazil for the 2016 Rio Olympics. He featured in 2 of Iraq's 3 matches as they were knocked out at the group stage, despite being unbeaten. In Iraq's match against hosts Brazil, Mhawi's direct opponent was Brazil and FC Barcelona superstar Neymar, who was expected to be the star man in a Brazil demolition.<mask>'s excellent defending, and occasional attacking, however, prevented Neymar and Brazil from scoring in a match that saw even Brazilian fans applaud the Iraqi team after the match. <mask> was also key in Iraq's draw with South Africa in their final match as the got knocked out, despite not losing a match. Iraq
<mask> was called up to the Iraqi senior team following his impressive performances at the Under-23 Asian Championship and the Rio 2016 Olympics. On 21 August 2016 he made his international debut and won his first cap for Iraq against North Korea in a friendly match. <mask> has gone on to play in multiple World Cup qualifiers and friendlies for Iraq, establishing himself as one of the country's best right backs. Personal life
<mask> is currently based in Baghdad. He is married and he has one daughter called rose.His cousin is also a young professional footballer Amir Aldaraji. Playing Style
Mhawi is a very good all-rounder. Despite being a right back, he can be seen scoring goals quite often. Although he is relatively quick, he hasn't got the explosive pace that a lot of full backs have, he makes up for that with his dribbling however, as he is very good on the ball going forwards. He is just as good defensively, stopping many wingers from getting into dangerous areas. statistics

Honors

Club
Al-Kahrabaa
 Iraq Division One: 2013–14 (shared)
Al-Zawraa
 Iraqi Premier League: 2015–16
 Iraqi Super Cup: 2021
Al-Shorta
 Iraqi Premier League: 2018–19
 Iraqi Super Cup: 2019

Individual
 Soccer Iraq Team of the Decade: 2010–2019

References

External links

1996 births
Living people
Iraqi footballers
Iraq international footballers
Iraqi expatriate footballers
Al-Zawraa SC players
Footballers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic footballers of Iraq
2019 AFC Asian Cup players
Sportspeople from Baghdad
Association football fullbacks
Saudi Professional League players
Al-Batin FC players
Expatriate footballers in Saudi Arabia
Iraqi expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
Al-Shorta SC players

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<mask> (June 28, 1892 – March 24, 1986) was a United States Foreign Service Officer and diplomat. Background
<mask> was born on June 28, 1892, in Rogers, Arkansas, to a poor Methodist preacher. He attended college in a small town in Kansas before transferring to Northwestern University. Career

Early career
An arm injury prevented <mask> from fighting in World War I, so he served as a Red Cross volunteer instead. In 1922, <mask> joined the United States Foreign Service. Eastern Europe and USSR

After an initial consular tour in Ireland, <mask> began a 24-year focus on Soviet and Eastern European Affairs. He then investigated the connection between the Soviet Comintern and left wing organizations in the United States while serving in Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia.In 1933, the Roosevelt Administration extended diplomatic recognition to the Soviet Union and <mask> was assigned to Russia to help reopen the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. Aiding him in this task were fellow junior officers George F. Kennan and Charles Bohlen, who along with <mask> would later be considered the Department's top Soviet specialists. In 1935, the Kremlin broke its pledge to not to interfere in U. S. domestic politics. In response, Ambassador Bullitt returned to Washington in disgust, leaving <mask> for a time as chargé d'affaires in Moscow. As chargé, <mask> warned Washington that the Soviet Union was likely to cooperate with Nazi Germany. Four years later, Moscow signed the Soviet-German Non-aggression Pact of 1939. <mask> was one of the contributors to the <mask> declaration of 1940, which established US non recognition policy of Baltic states occupation by Soviet Union.<mask> deeply distrusted the Kremlin and was at odds with the enthusiasm most Americans—and President Roosevelt—had in early 1942 for their new Soviet wartime allies. On the occasion of the third anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, however, he submitted In a memorandum as Chargé in the Soviet Union to the Secretary of State, Hull, dated  November 16, 1936 a description of the failure of the last years giving a lot place to the arguments of the Soviet side to raise a better understanding. Nevertheless Eleanor Roosevelt and other Soviet sympathizers in the White House pressured the State Department to transfer <mask> out of the Soviet section. As a result, <mask> was sent to Baghdad as the U.S. ambassador to Iraq. "A man of the highest character, absolutely incorruptible....Overruled time after time, he asked in 1943 to be relieved of his duties as chief of the division". Near Eastern Affairs

In between serving as U.S. Minister in Iraq (1943–45), Ambassador to India (1948–51) and Ambassador to Iran (1951–54), <mask> returned to Washington in 1945 to serve at the State Department as the director of the Office of Near Eastern Affairs. In 1945, Syrians in Damascus led an uprising against French rule.In response, French forces bombed Damascus. <mask>, as head of Near Eastern Affairs, advised President Harry Truman to force the French to withdraw. <mask> argued that the French bombing undermined not only the newly created United Nations but also the West's relations with the Arab world. <mask> correctly predicted that if the West did not maintain close relations with Syria, it would fall into the Soviet sphere. In early 1946, Soviet troops advanced south to the outskirts of Tabriz in northwestern Iran, sparking an early Cold War stand-off known as the Iran crisis. <mask> showed the Truman administration how such movements threatened Turkey, Iraq, and the Iranian oil fields. Following <mask>'s advice, Truman issued a stern warning to Stalin.Stalin thereafter pulled back his troops. <mask> came under fierce criticism from San Francisco attorney Bartley Crum. Crum had served on the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. Crum named <mask> as a symbol of State Department duplicity in supporting the Arab cause in Palestine. In late 1946, the Kremlin attempted to bully Ankara into ceding territory in eastern Turkey and control of the Dardanelles, which would have given Moscow its long-desired warm water port. <mask>, with Acting Secretary of State Dean Acheson, convinced Truman to express support for Turkey and to dispatch navy units to the eastern Mediterranean. In response, the Soviets withdrew some of their demands.In 1947, the British embassy in Washington informed <mask> that the United Kingdom was no longer able to bolster the pro-Western forces against the Communist agitators in the Greek Civil War. Once again, <mask> convinced Truman to actively defend Western interests in the Mediterranean against Soviet encroachment. <mask> designed the Truman Doctrine plans to strengthen Greece and Turkey, an early move which would influence U.S. containment policy for decades to come. In 1948, <mask> clashed with domestic groups lobbying for the creation of the state of Israel. Secretary of State George C. Marshall and <mask>, speaking for the Department of State, opposed the United Nations resolution dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, as they felt Israel would not be able to defend itself and would ruin Washington's relationships with the Arab world; their view was that the area should remain a trust under the UN. On the other side, Presidential advisors such as David Niles and Clark Clifford, along with American Jewish groups and much of the general public, favored the partition of Palestine into the State of Israel and an Arab state. <mask> was harshly criticized for his opposition to the creation of Israel.His views did not prevail in 1948 and his transfer to the ambassadorship for India was rumored by his supporters to have been the result of political pressure from the pro-Zionist groups. In 1954, he was appointed as Assistant Secretary of State for Administration. In 1956, he was named a Career Ambassador. He retired in 1960 and spent seven years teaching International Relations at Washington, D.C.'s American University. His memoirs, entitled "A Question of Trust: the origins of U.S.-Soviet diplomatic relations" were published in 1986. <mask> returned to the Middle East in 1951 as Ambassador to Iran. There he dealt with the newly elected prime minister, Mohammed Mossadegh, on questions associated with Iran's oil reserves previously owned by British interests that Mossadegh had recently nationalized.The United States was opposed to the nationalization, and he helped orchestrate the 1953 CIA-assisted coup which removed Mossadegh, a democratically elected leader. <mask> retired from the U.S. Foreign Service in 1957. Death

<mask> died age 93 on March 24, 1986. Legacy

The major auditorium in the State Department Harry S Truman Building headquarters is named in his honor. Career summary

References

Further reading
 Brands, H. W. Inside the Cold War: <mask> <mask> and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918–1961 (Oxford University Press, 1991). <mask>, <mask> <mask>. A Question of Trust: The Origins of US-Soviet Diplomatic Relations: the Memoirs of <mask> W<mask> (Hoover Institution Press, 1986), a primary source online

 Jones, Kenneth Paul, ed.U.S. Diplomats in Europe, 1919–41 (ABC-CLIO. 1981) online on <mask>'s role with USSR Europe, pp 149–164. Kuniholm, Bruce R. "<mask> <mask>, Dean Acheson, and the Origins of the Truman Doctrine." in Dean Acheson and the Making of US Foreign Policy (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1993) pp. 73-108. External links
The Political Graveyard - Short summary of details. <mask> W<mask>: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress
Oral history interviewfrom 1973 at the Harry S. Truman Library.Memoirs of <mask> W<mask> in the Library of Congress
A brief biography by <mask>. Dale

1892 births
1986 deaths
People from Rogers, Arkansas
Northwestern University alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to India
Ambassadors of the United States to Iran
Ambassadors of the United States to Iraq
United States Career Ambassadors
Recipients of the President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service
20th-century American diplomats

masks:
Loy Wesley Henderson
Loy Wesley Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Welles
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Henderson
Loy
Henderson
Henderson
Loy
Wesley
Loy
. Henderson
Henderson
Loy
Henderson
Loy
. Henderson
Loy
. Henderson
William N


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<mask> (August 18, 1905  September 22, 1979) was an American architect who was trained in the Beaux-Arts architecture tradition. He designed many buildings in Tennessee, including homes, churches, military installations, skyscrapers, hospitals and school buildings, some of which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. He is best known for Nashville's landmark Life and Casualty Tower built in 1957 which was the tallest commercial structure in the Southeastern United States at that time (31 stories). It reflected an architectural turn to modernism and was one of the first buildings emphasizing energy efficiency. Keeble had a preference for designing tall slender church steeples, nicknamed "Keeble's needles" by architecture critics. He briefly taught architecture at the University of Pennsylvania before settling in Nashville. He was one of the founders of the "Nashville Architectural Studio" during the 1920s and 1930s.His efforts to establish a school of architecture at Vanderbilt University were unsuccessful. Early life

<mask><mask> was born August 18, 1905, in Monteagle, Tennessee, a town on the Cumberland Plateau in the southeast corner of Tennessee on a direct path between Nashville and Chattanooga. Monteagle was the family's summer home, the primary home being Nashville. He was the fourth of six children. His father, John Bell <mask>, was the dean of the Vanderbilt University Law School. His mother was Emmie Frazer. His maternal great-grandfather, John Bell, was a U.S.senator and was U.S. Secretary of War in 1841 under President William Henry Harrison.Bell was an 1860 U.S. Presidential candidate. Keeble's paternal grandfather, <mask> <mask>, was Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives, Mayor of Murfreesboro, and represented Tennessee in the Confederate Congress of 1864. Keeble grew up in his father's house at 2114 West End Avenue in Nashville, across the street from the Vanderbilt University Campus— within sight of Kissam Hall. His early schooling was at the Wallace University School, which was a block from his house. His high school was Montgomery Bell Academy, where his father had attended; it was a straight three-mile trolley ride down West End Avenue. He graduated in 1921 and went on to Vanderbilt University, where he earned a bachelor's degree in engineering in 1924. He studied architecture at the University of Pennsylvania with Paul Philippe Cret, a Frenchman who had trained in Lyon and Paris in the Beaux-Arts tradition.This association influenced Keeble to spend the summer of 1926 studying in France at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Artistiques at Fontainebleau. The next year he studied with Georges Gromort at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He then traveled through France and Italy observing architectural styles before returning to the University of Pennsylvania to complete his architecture degree in 1928. Early career

On completion of his studies, Keeble returned to Nashville and for a brief period, worked for architect Donald Southgate and for a Los Angeles architect named Kenneth McDonald Jr. In 1929 he joined Francis Bodie Warfield, forming the firm of Warfield & Keeble, with whom he practiced for the next 15 years . Warfield, known as "Dolly", graduated from Vanderbilt in 1915. He was about 14 years older than Keeble, and had served during the First World War in France with the 105th Engineers Corps.Warfield was primarily an engineer, and his major solo works were two housing projects, Cheatham Place and the Andrew Jackson; Vanderbilt University's Rand Hall (1952), the First Presbyterian Church, and the Springfield Woolen Mills. With Keeble, they designed McTyeire Hall in 1940 (Vanderbilt's first women's residence hall on campus) and Westminster Presbyterian Church. Warfield was a commissioner and Vice-Mayor of Belle Meade but had to resign in 1957 for health reasons before finishing his term. In 1964, Warfield was honored with a citation by the American Institute of Architects for his efforts "...to establish architecture as a significant art form". Throughout the 1930s, their firm was quite active and they designed college dormitories, schools, churches and many private homes. When World War II was raging in Europe, Congress authorized the president to federalize the National Guard; as a result, National Guard Armories were needed on a grand scale. Warfield and Keeble received a commission from the State of Tennessee, with partial funding from the Works Progress Administration, to design and supervise the construction of National Guard Armories (see photo) in six Tennessee cities: Columbia, Lawrenceburg, Cookeville, Shelbyville, Centerville and Murfreesboro.Each armory took a year or two to build and kept them busy up until the U.S. entry into the war. Warfield and Keeble also designed houses like the P. D. Houston Jr. House in Forest Hills in 1941, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places;  but with the advent of the war, Keeble entered the military in 1944, at age 39, and this effectively dissolved their association. Stationed in Washington, D.C., Keeble served as a lieutenant in the United States Navy. He was assigned to the "Bureau of Ordnance" where he worked in the planning of rocket-producing plants, for which there existed no industrial precedent. The expertise developed during this led him many contracts for these facilities. Post-war career

Private homes
After the war, in 1946, Keeble opened his solo practice, Edwin A. Keeble & Associates. He designed private residences and several are on the National Register of Historic Places.Examples are the Dr. Cleo Miller House at 1431 Shelton Avenue in Nashville, and the 4410 Truxton Place house in Belle Meade. The latter house was designed in the 1960s for Keeble's nephew, <mask> and is the "French Regency" style. According to the Nashville Post, the description, "It's a Keeble" is used as a symbol of added desirability in describing upscale Nashville homes. Keeble was quite busy during his prime years, with up to 100 projects per year. He designed seven houses, including his own, on Nashville's Stanford Drive, and the enclave was unofficially called "Keeble Heights". Here are selected examples of his private homes, all designed by Keeble unless otherwise noted; not intended to be complete:

5403 Stanford Drive, the Walter Stokes Jr. House, (1930), Colonial Revival Style, Forest Hills, Tennessee
30 Castlewood Court, the Richard E. Martin House (1931), Forest Hills, Tennessee (Warfield and Keeble), NRHP-listed
5134 Stanford Drive (1932)
The Guilford Dudley Jr house, "Northumberland", Hillsboro Pike at Harding Place, Colonial Revival style
John H. Dewitt Jr. home (now demolished), Stanford Drive, International Style
1431 Shelton Avenue (see photo), the Dr. Cleo Miller House, Tudor Revival style (1934–36), Nashville, Tennessee, NRHP-listed
5335 Stanford Drive, the Dr. Cobb Pilcher House, "Deepwood". This was one of the first Modernist homes in Nashville.(1936), Forest Hills, Tennessee (Warfield and Keeble), NRHP-listed
5401 Stanford Drive, the Dr. Frank Luton house, (1938), Country French
9205 Weston Drive, Maple Grove Farm, (1939), Brentwood, Tennessee
5405 Stanford Drive, the <mask> A. Keeble House. (1936) He designed his own house on Stanford Drive. 1301 Chickering Road, the William J. Tyne House (1936) demolished 2017. 1315 Chickering Road, Einer Nielsen house (1938), Forest Hills, Tennessee. Keeble added to it in 1978. 5617 Hillsboro Pike, the P.D. Houston Jr. House (1941), Forest Hills, Tennessee (Warfield and Keeble), NRHP-listed
4410 Truxton Place house, the Sydney Keeble house, French Regency style Belle Meade (1967)
5415 Stanford Drive (1970)
5400 Stanford Drive
5520 Stanford Drive
6129 Hillsboro Pike, The Snodgrass House, "Cedarwood" (1938) Colonial Revival style
114 Clarendon Ave, Nashville

Churches

Keeble designed churches in Nashville and elsewhere.Some include:

Westminster Presbyterian Church, 3900 West End Ave, Nashville, (With Warfield), 1938; 150 foot steeple; cost, $137,000. Its significance was that it was the first classically-inspired Georgian church in Nashville (others were typically Romanesque or Gothic). Woodmont Christian Church, 3601 Hillsboro Pike, Neo-Classical style with a 220-foot spire, 1949; cost, $350,0000. The tall narrow steeple has been referred to as one of "Keebles needles" says architectural writer Trish Elston . Vine Street Christian Church (see photo) 4101 Harding Pike, Nashville, 1958; it features a 187-foot steeple and working shutters for the windows. During the construction, Keeble personally supervised the brickmasons to take five bricks from separate piles to minimize color variations; cost, $900,000. Nashville First Baptist Church (see photo), 7th and Broadway, Nashville (1970); Keeble had to please two factions of the congregation; preservationists cherished the existing 1886 Victorian Gothic design; others wanted to rebuild an entirely new church.Keeble elected to keep the original tower, which was achievable since the tower stood on its own foundation and to build a new structure partially around it. An architecture critic said the addition "did nothing to complement the powerful steeple"; cost, about $2 million. The main design inspiration for First Baptist Church, Nashville came from the completed 1962 Coventry Cathedral in Coventry, England. Most notable similarities are the tall, vertical windows on the North and South sides of the Sanctuary that go back through the Nave and the Schantz Pipe Organ with its stacked tiers of organ pipes, modeled after the 1962 Harrison and Harrison organ which is housed in Coventry Cathedral. Immanuel Baptist Church Belle Meade Boulevard, Nashville, Neo-Classical, 1954. It features an unusually tall steeple over a columned portico. Donelson Presbyterian Church, 2305 Lebanon Road, Nashville, (1952); cost, $85,000.First Christian Church, Glasgow, Kentucky
Warren Chapel, Monteagle, Tennessee
Bellevue Baptist Church, Memphis. Life and Casualty tower

 Keeble designed the Life & Casualty Tower, a skyscraper in downtown Nashville completed in 1957. Architecture critics called it "Nashville's first landmark" and said, "it was clearly the pivotal building on which the course of Nashville's architecture turned finally to modernism." USA Today (with input from the American Institute of Architects) named it as one of "The 25 must-see buildings in Tennessee" in 2017. At the time it was built, it was the tallest commercial structure in the Southeast. Writing in The Tennessean, Keeble described his thinking in designing the 31 story tower and said, "...every line in the Life and Casualty tower has a reason". His mission, as he described it, was to build a 409-foot tower providing light and a view; that only required one fourth of the present property area; with enough office space to meet the company's need for 25 years.His use of four-foot aluminum "fins" running up the side of the building (see photo) was designed to afford views but protect offices from the direct sun. In his planning, he consulted a Vanderbilt astronomer to map the site's exposure to the sun's rays. Keeble's intent was to maximize available sunlight in the building in winter; in summer, direct sun did not enter after 9:30 a.m. or before 5:15 p.m. Now called "passive solar architecture", this resulted in significant energy savings for the Life and Casualty owners two decades before energy conservation in buildings became a national concern. He said the aesthetic appeal of the fins is as "entirely incidental as it is welcome". He wanted to use even more aluminum in the structure, but limestone was needed for weight against wind pressure, and was less expensive. The top 20 floors were designed to be free of internal columns, another first for a building of this height. This required more steel and therefore higher cost, but created an additional 4000 square feet and more flexibility of arrangement without columns in the way.The building cost about six million dollars. Other designs

He designed buildings on the campus of his alma mater Vanderbilt University, like McTyeire Hall and Memorial Gymnasium. On the campus of Sewanee University, Keeble designed McCready Hall, Hamilton Hall, and Cravens Hall. He was also the architect behind the Franklin County Airport in Sewanee. Outside Tennessee, Keeble designed the Milliken Building in Bowling Green, Kentucky, completed in 1963; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Keeble designed the Veterans Administration hospitals in Nashville and Washington, D.C. In 1970 Keeble retired, transferring his firm and its management to his long-time associates: <mask>, William Lincoln, Louis C. Daugherty, Henry C. Waechter, and John F. Caldwell Jr.The new firm was named "Architect-Engineer Associates, Inc." Keeble remained a consultant. Works include: (Keeble unless otherwise noted):
Vanderbilt University Memorial Gymnasium
Woodmont Terrace Apartments (1938–39), 920 Woodmont, Nashville, Tennessee (with Warfield), NRHP-listed
Hillsboro High School (1954)
Nashville Airport Terminal, "Berry Field"(1944)
Franklin County Airport, Sewanee, Tennessee
Life & Casualty Tower (1957), Nashville
Milliken Building (1963), 1039 College St., Bowling Green, Kentucky, NRHP-listed
Veterans Administration hospital, Nashville
Peach Blossom Square, ten-home town house Development, Nashville
Vanderbilt University, McTyeire Hall (1940), (with Warfield)
 U.S. Naval Reserve Training Center, Shelby Park, (1948). A pool was installed for "river assault boat training" and was used until 1961. Veterans Administration hospital, Washington, D.C. Numerous rocket and ammunitions plants around the U.S. for the Navy. Educational pursuits
Keeble briefly taught architecture at the University of Pennsylvania but when he moved to Nashville, he had a desire to raise the entire profile of architecture there.Early in his career, he felt that a prestigious school of architecture could be founded at Vanderbilt University; writing in a 1932 letter, he said "If we would realize our own strength and the possibilities of it, Southern architecture would follow Southern literature". Many young people who wished to study architecture came to him during the 1920s and 1930s. Rather than set them up in his office as apprentices, he did what his teacher Paul Cret had done and organized the "Nashville Architectural Studio". Working without pay, Keeble involved other architects in the teaching project including Edward E. Dougherty, Granbery Jackson Jr. and Henry C. Hibbs. Through Keeble's efforts, this group became associated with the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York and was recognized as the institute's "Nashville Atelier". This meant that its students were able to transfer credits to almost any school of architecture in the United States. They met from 1930 to 1932 in a room provided by Vanderbilt University.Vanderbilt would not commit to the project to establish a school of architecture— a decision which, says Architecture historian Christine Kreyling, "still inhibits the seriousness with which the design of the built environment is taken in the city". Personal life
Keeble married Barbara McKelvey from Youngstown, Ohio, a graduate of Smith College, in 1936. She was studying music at Ward-Belmont in Nashville. They had a daughter, Kezia and a son, <mask><mask> Jr. The junior Keeble, a Marine, was killed in the Vietnam War when his helicopter was shot down by enemy ground fire February 28, 1969. He had attended Deerfield Academy and had graduated from Princeton a couple of years prior. The daughter, Kezia <mask> was one of Vogue Magazine's youngest editors at age 24 and a founder of A New York public relations and advertising firm, Keeble, Cavaco, and Duka.The New York Times called Keeble "a shaper of American Fashion". She died of breast cancer at age 48. <mask> married <mask> on December 15, 1950 in LaGrange, Tennessee. They resided in a home he designed in the Classical Revival architectural style on Stanford Drive in Forest Hills, a suburb of Nashville. They had a son, Peter and a daughter, <mask> Wilkinson. <mask> died on September 22, 1979 in Sewanee, Tennessee at the age of 74. His funeral was held in the Warren Chapel (which Keeble designed) located at the Monteagle Sunday School Assembly in Monteagle, Tennessee, and he was buried in the Mount Olivet Cemetery in Nashville.Keeble's business associate in the 1930s, Francis B. Warfield died August 6, 1975 at age 84. Notes

References

1905 births
1979 deaths
People from Monteagle, Tennessee
People from Davidson County, Tennessee
Vanderbilt University alumni
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
University of Pennsylvania School of Design alumni
Architects from Tennessee
20th-century American architects
Burials at Mount Olivet Cemetery (Nashville)

masks:
Edwin Augustus Keeble
Edwin A
. Keeble
Keeble
Edwin Augustus
Keeble
Sydney Keeble
Edwin
Arnold Nye
Edwin A
. Keeble
Keeble
Keeble
Alice Beasley
Lucy Keeble
Edwin Keeble


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<mask> (September 17, 1889 – August 29, 1931), codename Kirgiz, was an interwar Polish politician, diplomat and author of many articles and books. He was most notable for his moderate stance on the "Ukrainian problem" faced by the Polish government, which due to its nationalist policies in Poland's largely Ukrainian- and Belarusian-populated eastern territories, faced increasing tensions there. Despite, or perhaps because of, being a relative moderate in  policies toward the Ukrainian population, and a supporter of peaceful cooperation, he was assassinated in 1931 by two members of the radical Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. Life
Born on September 17, 1889, in Semipalatinsk, Governor-Generalship of the Steppes, Russian Empire (now Semey, Kazakhstan), Hołówko became a close collaborator of Józef Piłsudski, first in the Polish Socialist Party (PPS), later in the Polish Military Organization (POW) and finally in the pro-Sanation Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (BBWR) party and the Polish government (the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). In 1918 he became a vice-minister in the first government of the Second Polish Republic led by Prime Minister Ignacy Daszyński. One of the organizers of the POW and the BBWR, he was the BBWR'''s vice president and chief ideologist. From 1930 he was a deputy to the Polish parliament (Sejm); he advocated increasing the presidential and executive powers and decreasing the powers of the Sejm.He is credited by many English and Polish authors for advocating and improving relations with Poland's ethnic minorities, chiefly the Ukrainians and Belarusians.Timothy Snyder, Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine, Yale University Press, 2005, , Google Print, p.33, p.41, p.75 Włodzimierz Kalicki, Gazeta Wyborcza, 2002-08-29, 29 VIII 1931: Morderstwo podczas burzy (29.8.1931: Murder during the storm). Last accessed on 30 September 2006 However, certain Ukrainian authorsZynoviy Knysh. "V sutinkah zrady (Ubuvstvo Tadeusha Holufka na tli zrady Romana Baranovskoho)",  consider otherwise pointing out his opposition to granting the autonomy to Ukrainian regions and even to creation of the Ukrainian university in Galicia and to his efforts aimed at convincing the Ukrainian leaders to recall their complaints about pacification submitted to the League of Nations. Modern research however notes he was supportive of giving wide autonomy to the minorities and supported their cultural development,Eugeniusz Mironowicz, Oleg Łatyszonek, Historia Białorusi. Last accessed on 30 September 2006. for example, by advocating for using Belarusian language in schools, but not Ukrainian. Considered one of the ideologists and activists of the "Prometheist" policies<ref name="Prom">Timothy Snyder, Covert Polish missions across the Soviet Ukrainian border, 1928-1933' in Cofini, Silvia Salvatici (a cura di), Rubbettino, 2005, (p.1, p.2, p.3, p.4, p.5).</ref> that sought to destabilize the Soviet Union by encouraging national uprisings among the non-Russian nations that had been conquered by the Soviet Union, particularly the Ukrainians and the peoples of the Caucasus, Hołówko took an active part in preparing the 1929 Soviet-Polish treaty, called the Litvinov's Pact after the Soviet diplomat Maxim Litvinov. In his published comments to the Treaty, Hołówko stated apparently contrary to the "Prometheian" ideas that the Soviet control over Dnieper Ukraine is the most beneficial condition for the Polish "solution of the Ukrainian problem" as any genuinely Ukrainian government would have likely raised territorial claims towards Polish state.On the other hand, he was frequently cited as an advocate for independence of Ukraine, Belarus and other countries. His controversial stance towards the Ukrainian problem made him a target for Ukrainian extremists. Approximately 1/3 of population of the Second Polish Republic was formed of ethnic minorities, but their problems were marginalized by the Polish government, whose heavy-handed policies were only serving to antagonize the Ukrainian population. Eventually the extremists among Ukrainians started sabotage and assassinations campaign and Polish government responded with further repressions. <mask> was one of the few who tried to deal with that problem with negotiations and compromise; he mediated between willing Polish and Ukrainian politicians and proposed various plans to solve the tensions, from releasing Ukrainians prisoners and granting the minorities more rights, up to giving the Kresy regions, inhabited by those minorities, substantial autonomy. However, such pro-Polish Ukrainian politicians were viewed as collaborators by the radical Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, and <mask>'s stance made him enemies among extremist politicians on both sides, who saw profit in further inter-ethnic conflict. He died in Truskawiec (Truskavets) on August 29, 1931, one of the first victims of an assassination campaign carried out by militants of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).Having experienced heart-related illness, and unable to go to abroad due to financial constraints, he had decided to stay at the health resort of Truskawiec in eastern Poland's Kresy, an area with a largely  Ukrainian population. He had, moreover, chosen to stay at a guest house run by Greek-Catholic nuns of Basil of Caesarea (Sorores Basyliae), partly as a declaration of his pro-Ukrainian stance, and partly because it was less expensive. At the news that he had chosen Truskawiec to spend his vacation, the local police commissioner, unable to change Hołówko's mind, assigned a man to shadow him as a bodyguard. August 29 was <mask>'s last day in Truskawiec; unable to leave as planned because he was waiting for a cash transfer to pay for his stay, he was further delayed by a storm. Then in his room he was met by two OUN activists, Vasyl Bilas and Dmytro Danylyshyn, who shot him and left the scene. His death, widely discussed in the Polish press, and mentioned in the international press and even at a League of Nations session, was part of a vicious circle involving the Polish government's brutal repression of ethnically-Ukrainian citizens (the Polish government's "pacification" campaign) and the OUN's campaign of terror. Some time later, the Polish police commissioner in charge of investigating Hołówko's death, Emilian Czechowski, himself became an OUN assassination victim.Works
O demokracji, polityce i moralności życia publicznego
Kwestia narodowościowa w Polsce (1922). Quotes
"Influence of communism diminishes with progress... [In a wealthy, educated village], a communist agitator has nothing to do. Thus two things are needed do combat influences of communism: objective, independent and just administration, and cultural work." "Independence of Poland is inconceivable without independent Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Ukraine and Belarus. Independence of Poland is only one of many examples of a process seen throughout modern Europe - freeing of nations from political slavery. If Poland is alone, if other countries created on the ruins of Russian Empire will fall - dark will be Poland's future." ..."such policies [needs to be used] that ethnic minorities would feel good in Poland, not attempting to break away from Polish state, but on the opposite, they would see such a break away as a defeat.[...] [Thus] those national movements must be supported [...] Therefore that population which would have complete freedom within borders of the Republic would not be loured by Russia." See also
Prometheism

References

Further reading
 WERSCHLER Iwo; Z dziejów obozu belwederskiego. Tadeusz Hołówko, życie i działalność. Warszawa 1984 PWN

1889 births
1931 deaths
People from Semey
People from Semipalatinsk Oblast
People of the Russian Empire of Polish descent
Polish Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Polish Socialist Party politicians
Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government politicians
Members of the Sejm of the Second Polish Republic (1930–1935)
Polish activists
Polish male writers
Assassinated Polish politicians
Deaths by firearm in Ukraine
Victims of OUN-B killings

masks:
Tadeusz Ludwik Hołówko
Hołówko
Hołówko
Hołówko


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<mask> (born 1961, Rio de Janeiro) is a Brazilian contemporary artist. Art practice
<mask>' art practice has been evolving since the 1980s throughout a range of works and projects spanning across media and mediums, including text, sound and video installations, assemblages, photography and site-specific projects. Mostly known and recognized through gestures of appropriation and intervention, <mask> searches for different meanings, or manoeuvres the existing ones inherent to objects, words and life-situations. His work extracts poetry and alternative representations by shifting the values of ordinary, everyday objects, landscapes and words. “<mask> surprises meanings and values that are immersed in vulgar things, dissimulated by habit or convention. He makes unpredictable displacements and produces assemblages in a tone of parody distilling his acute observations of the world, from technology to rubbish.”  writes Brazilian art-critic Ligia Canongia

Early life and education
<mask> was born in Rio de Janeiro in January 1961 as the youngest of seven children. He grew up in the neighborhood of Santa Teresa where he continues to have his studio.As a teenager, he was very close to his aunt, <mask> who worked for the architects Wilson Reis Netto and ; this triggered his training in architecture and urbanism (1979) at  Universidade Santa Ursula where he attended classes with Lygia Pape who had an important influence on him. He also took classes at the Visual Arts School of Parque Lage where many of his peers taught or trained, and at the Museo de Arte Moderna where Rubens Gerchman taught him painting. In 1984, he traveled to Italy and studied art history while working as an assistant with the Italian comic artist and satirist Francesco Tullio Altan. It was from Altan from whom he learnt the value of direct humor which one finds in most of <mask>' works. While in Italy, he met Antonio Dias, an influential figure in Brazilian contemporary art, who invited him to work as his assistant in Milan. During this period he was introduced to Arte Povera artists and aesthetics, another inspiration for his later work. Upon his return to Brazil in 1985, he met , a major artist in the Brazilian scene with whom he began a regular dialogue about art.Together they experimented with four-hands paintings. During this period, <mask> developed a studio practice and started working on his first assemblages and object-based works, shifting his interest from painting to what has shaped his current conceptual, language and text-based, and photographic practice. Important works

Eu Só Vendo A vista, 1997 (Conceptual photography)

<mask>' most notable photographic work, Eu só vendo a vista (1997), takes as its main subject Rio de Janeiro's iconic view of the Sugar Loaf mountain found on tourist postcards and collectively associated to the landscape of the city. This view, shot from a very traditional angle becomes almost invisible for having been overly represented and used. As an attempt to restore a relationship with it, <mask> takes this image to the field of art and transposes onto it a sentence which holds many semantic ambiguities: Eu só vendo a vista. Playing around the words vista (view, eyesight), the meaning of the expression à vista (cash) as well as vendo (depending on the conjugation means selling, seeing, and concealing) one could read the different sentences:

 Eu só vendo a vista =  I only sell the view
 Eu só vendo à vista = I only sell for cash
 Eu só, vendo a vista (with an added comma) = I alone or lonely, see the view. Só eu vendo a vista (words swapped) = Only I sell the view / sight

This apparently simple yet highly charged conceptual work holds within it, strong statements and criticism about art, photography and the position of an artist in society, including within the art and photography fields ruled by market transactions of selling and buying views on/ of the world.By questioning the meaning of overselling Rio de Janeiro's iconic view to mere merchandise (on postcards), <mask> asserts his ownership and power to sell that view as an artist. From a sociological perspective this work dissects and determines power relations between the artist and his social space (his city and its urban fabric), the artist and his eyesight (his photographic language) as well as the artist's role in a neoliberal economy of image and photography circulation. The question of value is inherent to the work, as it alludes to a form of payment (cash) but also to images that have different economic values while they represent the same view. On the one hand a cheap reproducible postcard, while on the other, an expensive limited edition photographic artwork. This work which apparently questions the meaning and value of Rio de Janeiro's view, actually also addresses deeper meanings and values relating to the nature of a work of art and the position of the artist in an image-selling world. The play with a mental associations triggered by words is filled with humor and a hint of cynicism as in most of the artist's works. Buracos (Holes), 1996 (photographic series)

For the last three decades, <mask> has been photographing the holes in Rio de Janeiro's streets and the ready-made sculptures they become when residents fill them up with objects as a warning for pedestrians and cars.It is an ongoing cartographic and archival project about the city, photography, sculpture and street interventions—all at once. A map of the city could be generated from this methodical archive, resembling the process of an urban anthropologist, extracting meaning and sense from the city's urban fabric and the way its users inhabit it or fill its holes...

[…] the series Buracos (Holes) is at the same time several indistinct things: it is a collective sculpture, a public installation, a popular intervention, and also a conceptual appropriation, an urban ready-made, a photography and, last but not least, a political work, and not necessarily in this order, for here what matter is multiplication and not sum—Adolfo Montejo Navas. Like true urban phantasmagoria, then, <mask> has been rescuing local street interventions in the fashion of Kurt Schwitters-like apparitions. For each hole is a liability in the city's public power, a symbolic fissure that is opened, a popular homage to the dangers of faulting politics that the social imaginary represents as a fracture. Each hole is an intervention that plays with presences and absences (of ground, of emptiness, of structure, of signs) and that is read with an accomplice and sardonic irony. It is not the first time that the artist approaches the urban imaginary of his city with a transversal and humorous gaze, but this time the aesthetic itinerary is different. […]The photos of the holes are self-representations, in which object and idea couple in their raw material (the piece lifted in the street) and in its category of thought (the photographic and conceptual registration), but in order to arrive at perverse tautologies, which never stop incurring on several levels of understanding.There are other signs on the road. Thus in this collection of holes one can see much more than one thinks—Adolfo Montejo Navas. Laughing Mask, 2005 (video)

Laughing Mask is part of three self-portrait mask videos by <mask>. It shows a disembodied head floating in the middle of a black screen. A latex carnival mask the artist bought in central street market of Rio de Janeiro covers the face from just below the eyes. It is dominated by a grotesquely over-sized mouth, fixed in a horrifying smile, which reveals two banks of yellow teeth. Laughing Mask questions the boundaries between the 'reality' of the artist as person / persona and the 'fiction' of the artwork, keeping both perceptions in play simultaneously.As with the most unnerving comedy, there is no laughter soundtrack – viewers are left to decide for themselves in which of the ambiguities to place their trust. [...]the mask carries, in the origin of its representation, the moral, political and poetic functions. Still, the mask has the potential of absorbing many of the issues that arouse the interest of the art territory in its modern acceptation: illusion, myth, allegory and simulacrum. In an even broader sphere, the mask touches the true/false dichotomy, a dilemma that, since Plato, has substantiated the aesthetic universe. The figure of the mask is not extraneous to the work of <mask>, and this has already been observed in the interventions that he carried out at Castelinho do Flamengo in 2000 when, using make-up, false eyelashes and other adornments, he transformed the eclectic-style sculptures into lively and hilarious images, like transvestites. There, he effected a deviation of the static nature of the statues, updating and ironizing the obsolete character of academic art, in addition to underscoring how much from eclecticism – which transits amidst various styles – was appropriated by the post-modern world.—Ligia Canongia

Academia, 2014 (installation)

This work is an installation made of wooden, metal, concrete and plastic elements: sculptures of gym and weight lifting equipment. Inspired by the public open-air gyms of Rio de Janeiro, the work is a comment on the social structures which produce a form of living together and social cohesion which public services for all, allow for.Vai Passar (? ), 2019 (public art intervention)

Vai Passar (?) is a monumental flag and public art intervention erected on the roof of Museu de Arte do Rio (MAR) museum, visible from the refurbished  and from the bay. Commissioned by the MAR in 2019 - three months after Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro's conservative government began governing Brazil - the work is rooted in Brazilian popular music and subtly addresses the crisis and conservatism the country is going through. The flag holds the words Vai Passar (This too shall pass ? Will this pass ?) a direct reference to a title of a Chico Buarque song composed in 1980 during the military dictatorship.Sown on a green and pink shiny fabric, the flag refers to the colors of Brazil's first Samba School: Mangueira. <mask> is not the first artist to establish a relation with Mangueira. This social structure is collectively acclaimed for its contribution to the music and genre of Samba in Brazil but foremost for its political and social engagement through the lyrics of the songs they create and the gender/ class composition of its members. Exhibitions

In Brazil
<mask> has had several solo and collective exhibitions in Brazil's major art institutions and biennials including the Museum of Art of Rio (MAR), Museum of Modern Art in Rio de Janeiro, The Museum of Contemporary Art of Niteroi (MAC), CCBB- Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil, 1st and 5th Biennials of Mercosul Porto Alegre, and the 25th International Biennial of São Paulo. Internationally
His work has been part of major international exhibitions and collections including the Mori Art Museum (Tokyo – Japan); Martin-Gropius-Bau, Neuer Berliner Kunstverein – NBK (Berlin –  Germany) Manifesta7 - The European Biennial of Contemporary Art, (Bolzano – Italy);  Centre d'Art Contemporain (Freiburg, Switzerland); Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Portugal – Lisbon) Ludwig Museum (Koblenz – Germany); Vantaa Art Museum (Helsinki – Finland); Temporary Contemporary Space (Cardiff – UK); 4th Biennial of Havana (Cuba); VI Festival Images-Vevey Visual Arts Biennial: Extravaganza. Out of the Ordinary (Vevey, Switzerland); 17th Bienal de Cerveira - award (Cerveira, Portugal); Esbjerg Kunstmuseum (Esbjerg, Denmark);  (Amersfoort, the Netherlands); Santiago Museum of Contemporary Art (Santiago de Chile); CAB– Centro de Arte Caja de Burgos (Burgos, Spain); Northern Gallery (Sunderland, UK); Centro per l’Arte Contemporânea Luigi Pecci (Prato, Italy); Zeppelin Universität (Germany). Published books and catalogs
NAVAS, A.M., L. CANONGIA and L. DUARTE, ed.ARTEBRA Marcos Chaves. , Casa da Palavra, 2007. CHAVES, <mask>, ed. <mask>. , Aeroplano editora, 2008. COCCHIARALE, Fernando, ed. <mask>.exhibition catalog in Casa de Cultura Laura Alvin, Rio de Janeiro, 2011. NAVARRO, Emílio, ed. MARCOS CHAVES. ARBOLABOR. , Caja de Burgos, Burgos, Spain, 2015.

masks:
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Mara Chaves
Chaves
Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Chaves
Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves
Marcos
Marcos Chaves
Marcos Chaves


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<mask> (born June 1, 1985), nicknamed "Swaggy P", is an American former professional basketball player. <mask> played college basketball for the USC Trojans and was a two-time first-team all-conference selection in the Pac-10. He was selected by the Washington Wizards in the first round of the 2007 NBA draft with the 16th overall pick. He won an NBA championship with the Golden State Warriors in 2018. High school career
Born in Los Angeles, California, <mask> played for Cleveland High School in suburban Reseda, California. He averaged 27.2 points and 10.8 rebounds as a 2004 senior at Cleveland, earning 2004 CIF L.A. City Section, Los Angeles Times All-City and San Fernando Valley first team honors. He shot 57.3% from the field and 46.8% from three-point range (52-of-111), had 48 steals and 41 blocks as Cleveland finished 25–4.<mask>op and listed by prep basketball guru Frank Burlison as among the Top 50 recruits in 2004. He once scored 56 points in one game and had 23 rebounds in another. He earned CIF L.A. City Section first team honors in 2003 and was included in a list of Top Seniors by Athlon Sports heading into 2004. College career
<mask> played for the University of Southern California from 2004 to 2007 and was All-Pac-10 First Team in the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons. In the 2007 NCAA Tournament, <mask> led the fifth-seeded Trojans to a berth in the Sweet Sixteen, where they lost to the one-seeded North Carolina Tar Heels, 74–64. Along the way, <mask> led USC to a 77–60 first-round win against Arkansas. In the 2nd round, <mask> led the team with 22 points over the Texas Longhorns in an 87–68 rout of the team featuring the National Player of the Year, Kevin Durant, though Durant led both teams in scoring with 30.As expected, following his junior season, <mask> announced on April 15, 2007, to the Los Angeles Times that he would forgo his senior year to turn professional and enter the 2007 NBA Draft, where he was selected with the 16th overall pick by the Washington Wizards. Professional career

Washington Wizards (2007–2012)

<mask> was selected 16th overall by the Washington Wizards in the 2007 NBA draft. He started his first career NBA game on December 15, 2007, against the Sacramento Kings. On January 9, 2010, <mask> was fined $10,000 by the Washington Wizards for participating in Gilbert Arenas's antics before a game on January 5, 2010, against the Philadelphia 76ers. Arenas was being investigated for a prior incident involving guns in the Wizards' locker room, but made light of the accusations by pointing his finger at his teammates, as if he were shooting them. His teammates were photographed smiling and laughing with him. <mask> scored a career-high 43 points on January 11, 2011, against the Sacramento Kings.Los Angeles Clippers (2012)
On March 15, 2012, <mask> was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in a three-way trade involving the Denver Nuggets and Washington Wizards. Later, on April 16, 2012, he helped the Clippers clinch their first playoff berth in 6 years with a 19-point performance against the Oklahoma City Thunder. He was also a key part of the Clippers' comeback victory against the Memphis Grizzlies in game one of the first round of the 2012 playoffs, making three three-pointers in under a minute. Philadelphia 76ers (2012–2013)
On July 12, 2012, <mask> signed with the Philadelphia 76ers to a one-year deal. Los Angeles Lakers (2013–2017)
On July 11, 2013, <mask> signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. During the 2013–14 season, he converted a Lakers-record seven four-point plays while averaging a career-high 17.9 points per game. On July 21, 2014, <mask> re-signed with Lakers to a reported four-year, $21.5 million contract.During training camp, he suffered a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament in his right thumb, and was expected to miss six to eight weeks. After missing the first ten games of the season with the injury, <mask> made his season debut on November 18 against the Atlanta Hawks, recording 17 points and 5 rebounds in a 114–109 win. On December 12, he scored a season-high 29 points in a 112–110 win over the San Antonio Spurs. On November 30, 2016, <mask> was ruled out for two to four weeks due to a strained right calf muscle. On December 17, 2016, he made eight three-pointers and scored a season-high 32 points in a 119–108 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers. Between late December and early January, <mask>'s burst from long range gave him 36 three-pointers in eight games—the most in an eight-game stretch in Lakers franchise history. On April 2, 2017, after being held out of 11 of the previous 12 games despite being healthy, <mask> was shut down by the Lakers for the last five regular-season games.On June 21, 2017, the Lakers announced that <mask> elected not to exercise his option to extend his contract for the 2017–18 season, thus becoming an unrestricted free agent. Golden State Warriors (2017–2018)
On July 7, 2017, <mask> signed with the Golden State Warriors. In his debut for the Warriors in their season opener on October 17, 2017, <mask> came off the bench to hit six 3-pointers and score 23 points in a 122–121 loss to the Houston Rockets. He helped the Warriors reach the 2018 NBA Finals, where they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in a four-game sweep, with <mask> winning his first NBA championship. Denver Nuggets (2018)
On December 10, 2018, <mask> signed with the Denver Nuggets. Twenty days later, on December 30, he was waived by the Nuggets, after appearing in only four games. <mask>'s nickname is "Swaggy P", which he said is a pseudo-biblical reference to "the Prophet of Swag".Relationships and family
<mask> is the cousin of Kevon Looney, who is an NBA player. They became teammates with the Warriors in 2017–18. <mask> is also a cousin of rappers Kendrick Lamar and Baby Keem. <mask> has been in an on-again, off-again relationship with his high school sweetheart Keonna Green since 2002. They have three children together: two sons (born in 2012 and 2019) and a daughter (born in 2016). They became engaged in 2019. <mask> and Australian rapper Iggy Azalea announced their engagement on June 1, 2015.Azalea broke off their engagement a year later after a video of <mask> discussing how he was having an affair with another woman surfaced. After Azalea broke off her engagement to <mask>, Green confirmed that she was 22 weeks pregnant with their daughter. References

External links

 <mask> at usctrojans.com

1985 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Los Angeles
Big3 players
Denver Nuggets players
Golden State Warriors players
Los Angeles Clippers players
Los Angeles Lakers players
People from the San Fernando Valley
Philadelphia 76ers players
Shooting guards
Small forwards
USC Trojans men's basketball players
Washington Wizards draft picks
Washington Wizards players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people
American men's 3x3 basketball players

masks:
Nicholas Aaron Young
Young
Young
Youngco
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
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Nick Young


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<mask> (8 May 1951 - 15 March 2006) was an Irish property developer and businessperson. Early life and family
<mask> was born in Holles Street hospital, Dublin on 8 May 1951. His parents were Matt and <mask> (née Sheeran). He had 4 sisters and 2 brothers, Danny, Delia, Maureen, Helen, Paul and Kathryn. As a child, he lived at the family home, Hollywood Rath, Mulhuddart, County Dublin. His father was one of the largest property developers in the country, and as <mask>'s older brother had Down Syndrome, he was in line to succeed his father as the head of his business, the Gallagher Group. <mask> attended a number of secondary schools including St Gerard's in Bray, County Wicklow, Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare, and Blackrock College in County Dublin.He married Sue Craigie in 1970, and they had two sons, Matthew and <mask>. They lived in Ballymacarney House on the Mulhuddart estate from 1973. Early career
At age 17 <mask> joined the Gallagher Group, starting as a tea boy, before working as a plasterer, plumber and bricklayer. By 1971, he was head of house sales during the wider Irish housing boom. After the sudden death of his father in January 1974, <mask> became the head of the Gallagher Group at age 22. Along with the main business, he also inherited a stud farm, a shopping centre, a building society, a builder's providers company, and two small banks. He also inherited his father's network of political and business allies, in particular Charles Haughey and John Byrne, who both mentored him in those years immediately after his father's death.As his inheritance was held in trusts on the Cayman Islands it was exempt from estate tax, but the Gallagher Group was not protected. The failure of <mask> and the business was anticipated, but he saved the business by laying off staff and selling off a large portion of the land his father had accrued. He reconstituted the Gallagher Group board in March 1975, with new, younger board members. <mask> became known for his high-flying lifestyle in the most exclusive restaurants, bars and nightclubs of Dublin, being driven around by a chauffeur in a Rolls-Royce. He mixed business with leisure, often conducting meetings in hotel bars. In 1977 <mask> had a cancer scare, but this appeared to fuel his excessive lifestyle. He came under pressure from the Central Bank to divest his two banks, Merchant Banking Ltd and Merchant Banking (Northern Ireland) Ltd, of all their almost exclusive investments in the Gallagher Group.In 1977 he reduced Merchant Banking's activities significantly. While it continued to lend to the Gallagher Group, it also operated from an office in his shopping centre in Donaghmede where it received small deposits from local shoppers. Between 1977 and 1978 Merchant Banking (Northern Ireland) doubled its deposit base to £1.19 million, and it was transferred to the ownership of another Gallagher company in April 1978, removing it from the regulatory oversight of the Central Bank. This allowed it to lend freely to the Gallagher Group. <mask>'s building society, the O'Connell Benefit, was also growing fast, with the <mask> family having 4 of the 7 board seats. When the funds of Merchant Banking waned, the O'Connell Benefit was directed by <mask> to deposit amounts of £250,000 to £500,000 in the bank. While Ireland experienced a recession from 1974 to 1976, <mask> built homes for the higher end of the market, selling off large greenfield sites outside of Dublin which were earmarked for low-cost building, whilst then buying smaller sites near to more up-market and established suburbs.Unlike the semi-detached homes in large estates his father built, <mask> built bungalows with large gardens in small estates where the houses had a less uniform appearance. His developments were bolstered by very positive coverage in the property pages of both The Irish Times and Irish Independent, with the editor of the property section of the latter later admitting that <mask> paid them for the coverage. To further maximise his profits, <mask> would buy up large sites, secure planning permission for development, and then sell them on as smaller parcels to smaller builders and developers. He would then offer them finance from Merchant Banking with a phased payment scheme, only requiring repayment on completion. Alongside this, he also had marketing and architectural services, and would take on the development of housing estate amenities including parks and roads. This resulted in the Gallagher Group moving away from construction almost exclusively to property speculation by 1977. <mask> continued the relationship his father had cultivated with the leading planner in Dublin, George Redmond, giving him regular large payments and paying for family holidays.The <mask>s were both Fianna Fáil supporters and donors, but <mask> had allies in other political parties. In March 1977, <mask> had lost the right to final appeal on a permission to build 500 houses in Malahide, it was James Tully, the Labour Party minister for local government, who granted him permission despite strong local opposition. <mask> would often disregard the planning process entirely, instructing his contractors to build before planning permission was approved. His developments often ignored conditions laid down by planners, and <mask> would also fail to provide amenities such as footpaths and green spaces in his housing estates while still charging ground rent to the new homeowners. The Gallagher Group became notorious for proceeding against and seeking jail sentences for homeowners who did not pay the ground rent due. His new business model of residential development allowed him to free up large amounts of capital, which he directed towards office developments. When Rohan Ltd invested £500,000 in the Gallagher Group in 1976, these funds were directed towards purchasing land in Dublin city.Spurred on by the election of a Fianna Fáil government in 1977, and the expansion of the public sector brought in a new surge in demand for office space in Dublin. The government chose not to build its own offices, instead suspended the capital levy on office developments and encouraged certain developers to build the office facilities that the government would then lease long-term. <mask> concentrated on sites in Dublin 2, focusing on the St Stephen's Green area. The Gallagher Group was instrumental in the demolition of a number of historic buildings in the area's Georgian and Victorian core, and replaced them with unsympathetic, modern office blocks in which he was fiercely opposed by preservationists. Like his father, <mask> worked with Desmond Fitzgerald on these developments. Older buildings that <mask> owned were often left open to the weather, and there were a number of suspicious accidents that damaged them beyond repair. One of his most notorious developments was on Molesworth and Dawson Streets, when in 1978 he demolished a series of Georgian and Victorian buildings.Two of the most notable buildings razed were St Ann's School and Molesworth Hall which were designed by Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward. Architectural students occupied St Ann's School in an attempt to delay its demolition, and <mask> responded with a press conference announcing that he would lay off 300 workers across the city if the occupation was not ended. This led to counter demonstration from the construction workers, and ultimately a high court injunction ordering the squatters to be evicted, which <mask> did forcibly. The injunction was obtained on the grounds that the school could collapse at any moment, but the building had to be demolished by hand when the bulldozers failed to demolish it. He built an office block designed by Fitzgerald, which he later sold at a profit of £2-3 million to a pension fund. Through rapid turnover, <mask> spent an estimated £45 million between 1976 and 1982. He would occasionally appear to have over reached, but would save himself by closing a large sale when most in need of cash.One such occasion was when he had purchased Sean Lemass House (formerly St Vincent's Hospital) on St Stephen's Green for £5 million, he sold it 7 months later to the Irish Permanent Building Society for £7.5 million in December 1979. He had only paid a £500,000 deposit. <mask> was a friend of the Irish Permanent's chief executive, but he later denied he had been bribed to pay more than it was worth. Given his track record, a number of large banks backed <mask>, including the Northern Bank Finance Corporation (NBFC). An executive of NBFC sat on the board of the Gallagher Group and flagrantly broke Central Bank rules by lending over 5% of its total advances to <mask>. It was this support that allowed <mask> to outbid all his competitors in purchasing sites, paying more than market value. It also allowed him to offer very generous payment schedules to the builders who bought land off him for residential development, and flipping commercial sites before purchase payments were due, allowed <mask> to hold a large debt burden with a relatively small cash flow in comparison.His success was attributed, in part, to the rise of Haughey's political prominence. He continued to donate to Fianna Fáil, while giving Haughey annual payments of £2,000 to £3,000 and free use of his company cars. He facilitated the purchase of a house by Haughey's daughter with loans from Merchant Banking to companies controlled by Haughey in 1976. These loans from Merchant Banking were often used as gifts, with no expectation of repayment. In December 1979, when Haughey was elected taoiseach, <mask> was the only non-politician beside Haughey during his first press conference. The following day, <mask> was informed by Haughey that he owed over £1 million to Allied Irish Banks and he requested £750,000 be paid towards the debt. Agreeing to pay £300,000, this transaction was concealing the fact that this was a non-refundable deposit for land which Haughey would later sell to the Gallagher Group in 1984.However, there was no intention that this sale would ever take place. <mask> invested in racehorses, including £4 million in the bloodstock market, and participating in the racing and breeding syndicate at Coolmore. This led to a loss of £200,000 with the loss of Try My Best at the English 2,000 Guineas, leading to <mask> selling all but £50,000 of his interests. In a partnership with 2 others, <mask> bought Phoenix Park racecourse in 1980, and started a redevelopment. <mask> continued to spend large amount of money personally, including £200,000 on improving Ballymacarney House before he purchased Straffan House on its 300-acre estate in 1979 for £1 million. He then spent another £1 million renovating it over 3 years. During this time he ignored the gallery that his father had promised to the Royal Hibernian Academy, which had come to a halt in 1975.Instead, he used the site on Ely Place as a storage yard for his other building sites. In 1981, he paid the £1.5 million ransom for his friend Ben Dunne after his kidnapping by the IRA, which was later repaid. Gallagher Group collapse
The Irish economy began to falter under high interest rates from 1980, and for the first time <mask>'s properties were not rising in value to compensate for the interest on his debts. <mask> responded by taking on a number of ill-advised and ambitious projects, despite warnings from other including Haughey. He bought a 330-acre site at Fortunestown for low-cost residential development, but could not find any builders to develop it. In an attempt to stimulate cash flow, he built a high-end shopping centre on St Stephen's Green, the Galleria and started on the redevelopment of Phoenix Park racecourse, against the advise of his bankers. The Galleria struggled to find tenants, and the racecourse ran over budget, costing £2 million over the year from 1981 to 1982.As his debts mounted, <mask> relied on the O'Connell Benefit, taking out large sums and taking longer to repay. When his demand of £1 million was denied by the society's board of directors in 1981, <mask> lost control of O'Connell Benefit. Merchant Banking (Northern Ireland), now called Merbro, had been transferring such large amounts to Merchant Banking in Dublin that in March 1972, the Bank of England revoked its licence. Undeterred, <mask> bought the 4.5-acre Slazenger site on St Stephen's Green, the largest commercial property site in Dublin that would later become Stephen's Green Shopping Centre, acquiring the site for £50,000 in cash with the agreement that he would take on the Slazenger's debts of £10 million. Irish Life Assurance company had indicated it would pay £16 million for the site in 1981 if the outstanding planning and lease problems could be resolved by <mask>. <mask> wrongly assumed he had a legal agreement with Irish Life, and proceeded to by a 4-acre Earlsfort Terrace site in January 1982 for £9.5 million with plans of selling it to a British institution. <mask> struggled to resolve leasing issues with the Slazenger site, making some progress before he was stymied by one tenant with a strong legal case.In face of this, Irish Life backed out of the purchase, and later the British institution also reneged on the purchase of the site at Earlsfort Terrace after issues with planning permission. With the Irish recession beginning to take hold, and public opinion against the government, on minister conceded that many of the regulations and taxes on property development had been designed to benefit developers such as <mask>. In an attempt to save his business, <mask> made a bid to buy the successful supermarket chain, H. Williams, but delays resulted in the sellers realising <mask>'s perilous financial situation. <mask> sold off many personal assets, and proposed the sale of the Phoenix Park racecourse to his partners, but the banks did not agree to restructure <mask>'s debts. This resulted in him accumulating £100,000 in interest charges alone every week. The Gallagher Group was placed in receivership on 29 April 1982, owing £30 million to banks such as Bank of Ireland and AIB, and £20 million to other creditors. <mask> blamed the bankers for acting too swiftly, and he maintained that his assets were worth £60 million, double their real £26 million.Straffan House was repossessed by the banks just 3 weeks after <mask> had moved in, along with his stud farm, horses worth £2 million, and his Rolls-Royce. <mask>'s brother, Paul, had to vacate Castle Howard, and his mother forfeited his home, Dolanstown House. <mask> assisted the receiver for a year. The Dublin property market faltered under the burden of the fallout from <mask>'s bankruptcy, including all of the smaller creditors that went under following the Gallagher Group collapse. O'Connell Benefit survived, but both Merchant Banking and Merbro were liquidated, having lent 80% of their assets to the Gallagher Group, leading to many savers losing their money as the Irish government did not cover the losses of Merchant Banking. The liquidator's report, released in 1984, showed that the <mask> family, as well as associates, had accrued more than £250,000 in fictitious loans, and a wider fraud investigation was instigated. Later life and death
In partnership with his brother Paul, <mask> attempted to restart his career in property development in 1983, securing finances from small banks.This was owing to a group of friends, Tony O'Reilly, P. V. Doyle, Byrne, and his uncle Charles, paying <mask>'s living expenses and guaranteeing his loans. He moved to London in 1984, where he bought flats which he refurbished and sold on, and by 1987 he could afford Balsoon House on 31 acres at Bective, County Meath, where he lived at the weekends. <mask> was arrested in March 1988 by the British police following a fraud investigation into the management of Merbro Ltd, he was later bailed. He pleaded guilty in Belfast crown court in November 1989. His sentencing was postponed if he agreed to compensate the depositors, and while he made an initial payment of £500,000 but was unable to pay the further £500,000 with the agreed 11 months. He was imprisoned from October 1990 to October 1991. In June 1990, the Irish director of public prosecutions received a report recommending the <mask> be charged with fraud in relation to the management of Merchant Banking Ltd, but it was decided not to pursue the charges.The depositors of the bank took a high court civil action against <mask>, resulting in a settlement in 1996 of an undisclosed sum. When he was released from prison, <mask> separated from his wife, and immigrated to Zimbabwe. There he bought a farm and was involved in a scheme to settle Afrikaner farmers which was abandoned. He then moved to South Africa, and was involved in a number of failed investment schemes across Africa. In 1998, he confirmed that he paid Haughey money, and gave evidence to the Moriarty tribunal in 1999 on the matter. He denied he received any favours in return, and remained friendly with Haughey. He suffered with poor health, and his friends paid for his medical expenses.He divided his time between Dublin and Cape Town. <mask> died on 15 March 2006 in Dublin, and is buried at Three-Mile-Water cemetery, County Wicklow. He was survived by his partner, Yvonne D'Arcy. References

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Sources

1951 births
2006 deaths
Irish businesspeople
Irish businesspeople in real estate
People educated at Blackrock College

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Helena Patricia Gallagher
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