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<mask> (November 22, 1868 – November 7, 1967), known among his contemporaries as "Cactus Jack", was an American Democratic politician and lawyer from Texas. He was the 32nd vice president, serving under Franklin D. Roosevelt from 1933 to 1941. He was also the 39th speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1931 to 1933. <mask> and Schuyler Colfax are the only politicians to serve as presiding officer of both houses of Congress. <mask> began his political career as the county judge of Uvalde County, Texas. He served in the Texas House of Representatives from 1898 to 1902 and won election to represent Texas in the United States House of Representatives in 1902. He represented Texas's 15th congressional district from 1903 to 1933.<mask> served as House Minority Leader from 1929 to 1931, and was elevated to Speaker of the House when Democrats won control of the House following the 1930 elections. <mask> sought the Democratic presidential nomination in the 1932 presidential election, but he agreed to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate at the 1932 Democratic National Convention. Roosevelt and <mask> won the 1932 election and were re-elected in 1936. A conservative Southerner, <mask> opposed the sit-down strikes of the labor unions and the New Deal's deficit spending. He broke with Roosevelt in early 1937 over the issue of enlarging the Supreme Court, and helped defeat it on the grounds that it centralized too much power in the president's hands. <mask> again sought the presidency in the 1940 presidential election, but Roosevelt won the party's presidential nomination at the 1940 Democratic National Convention. Roosevelt then chose Henry A. Wallace as his running mate.Biography

Early life and family

<mask> was born on November 22, 1868, in a log cabin in Red River County, Texas to <mask> <mask> and his wife, Sarah Guest <mask>. That mud-chinked log cabin no longer exists, but the large, white, two-story house where he was raised survives and is located at 260 South Main Street in Detroit, Texas. <mask> attended Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, for only one semester before dropping out and returning home. He studied law at the firm of Sims and Wright in Clarksville, Texas, was admitted to the bar in 1890, and began practice in Uvalde, Uvalde County, Texas. In 1893, <mask> entered politics, running for county judge of Uvalde County, the county's chief administrative officer. <mask> was opposed in the primary by a woman—Mariette "Ettie" Rheiner, a rancher's daughter. <mask> won, and with the Democratic nomination seen as tantamount to election in the post-Civil War Solid South, <mask> was elected county judge and served until 1896.<mask> and Rheiner began dating after the primary. They married in Sabinal, Texas on November 25, 1895. Their  son, Tully <mask> (1896–1968), became a banker and businessman. Mariette <mask> served as her husband's secretary throughout his Congressional career, and Second Lady of the United States during her husband's tenure as vice president. Texas politics

<mask> was elected to the Texas House of Representatives in 1898, and re-elected in 1900. During his service, the legislature selected a state flower for Texas. <mask> fervently supported the prickly pear cactus for the honor, and thus earned the nickname "Cactus Jack".(The Bluebonnet was chosen.) In 1901 <mask> voted for the poll tax, a measure passed by the Democratic-dominated legislature to make voter registration more difficult and reduce the number of black, minority, and poor white voters on the voting rolls. This disfranchised most minority voters until the 1960s, and ended challenges to Democratic power; Texas became in effect a one-party state. <mask> traveled parts of southern Texas controlled by the patrón system, currying political favor with the land bosses who exercised near-complete control of the local people and local elections. His patrón allies created a gerrymandered district for him, the 15th congressional district, a narrow strip reaching south to include tens of thousands of square miles of rural areas. <mask> was first elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1902. He was elected from the district 14 subsequent times, serving until 1933.His wife was paid and worked as his private secretary during this period. Throughout his career he maintained allegiance to the white landowners who controlled the voting booths in South Texas. He regarded his Mexican voting base as "inferior and undesirable as U.S. citizens." <mask> was chosen to serve as minority floor leader for the Democrats in 1929, and in 1931 as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, when the Democrats became the majority. <mask> supported passage of the federal income tax but opposed most tariffs except for those on wool and mohair, which were important to his Texas base. He also believed in rural investment, bringing taxpayer dollars to farmers of the Brush Country region of South Texas.<mask> was popular with his fellow House members in both parties. He held what he called his "board of education" during the era of Prohibition, a gathering spot for lawmakers to drink alcohol, or as <mask> called it, "strike a blow for liberty." (The "board of education" was continued by future Speaker Sam Rayburn after Prohibition had ended and <mask> had left the House.) Vice presidency (1933–1941)

In 1932, <mask> ran for the Democratic presidential nomination. It had become evident that Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Governor of New York, was the strongest of several candidates, but although he had a solid majority of convention delegates, he was 87.25 votes short of the two-thirds required for nomination. After <mask> cut a deal with Roosevelt, thus allowing Roosevelt to win the nomination, <mask> became his vice-presidential candidate. <mask> was re-elected to the 73rd Congress on November 8, 1932, and on the same day was elected Vice President of the United States.On February 8, 1933, then-Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of his successor, House Speaker <mask>, while <mask> was seated next to him on the House dais. He was the second man, Schuyler Colfax being the first, to serve as both Speaker of the House and President of the Senate. <mask> was re-elected Vice President with Roosevelt in 1936, serving in that office in total from March 4, 1933, to January 20, 1941. Like most vice presidents in this era, <mask> had little to do and little influence on the president's policies. He famously described the vice presidency as being "not worth a bucket of warm piss" (for many years, this quote was bowdlerized as "warm spit".) During Roosevelt's second term, <mask>'s previously warm relationship with the president quickly soured, as <mask> disagreed sharply with him on a wide range of important issues. <mask> supported federal intervention to break up the Flint sit-down strike, supported a balanced federal budget, opposed the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 to "pack" the Supreme Court with additional judges, and opposed executive interference with the internal business of the Congress.During 1938 and 1939, numerous Democratic party leaders urged <mask> to run for president in 1940. <mask> identified as the champion of the traditional Democratic Party establishment, which often clashed with supporters of Roosevelt's New Deal. The Gallup poll showed that <mask> was the favorite among Democratic voters, based on the assumption that Roosevelt would defer to the longstanding two-term tradition and not run for a third term. Time characterized him on April 15, 1940:

Some other Democrats did not find him appealing. In Congressional testimony, union leader <mask>. Lewis described him using tetrameter as "a labor-baiting, poker-playing, whiskey-drinking, evil old man". <mask> declared his candidacy. Roosevelt refused to say whether he would run again.If he did, it was highly unlikely that <mask> could win the nomination, but <mask> stayed in the race anyway. He opposed some of Roosevelt's New Deal policies, most notably those related to wooing labor, and on principle, opposed presidents serving third terms. However, <mask> was also credited with steering a number of important bills through Congress in the crisis atmosphere of Roosevelt's first one hundred days in office and his relationship with the President would not become strained until Roosevelt's second term, when the Vice President's hopes of balancing the budget and paring New Deal programs faded. He was also active in Roosevelt's Cabinet meetings on national policy and legislative strategy, which also resulted in the effective transformation of the previously ceremonial office of the U.S. Vice President. However, the president's "court-packing" plan of 1937 widened the rift with <mask>, and the final blow in their relationship came when the president attempted to purge opposition Democratic members of Congress in the 1938 elections. At the Democratic National Convention, Roosevelt engineered a "spontaneous" call for his renomination, and won on the first ballot. <mask> received only 61 votes out of 1,093.Roosevelt chose Henry A. Wallace to be his vice-presidential running mate. Final years and legacy

<mask> left office on January 20, 1941, ending a 46-year career in public life. He retired to his home in Uvalde for the last 26 years of his life, where he managed his extensive real estate holdings, spent time with his great-grandchildren, and fished. Throughout his retirement, he was consulted by active Democratic politicians and was especially close to Roosevelt's successor, Harry S. Truman. On the morning of <mask>'s 95th birthday, November 22, 1963, President <mask>. Kennedy called to wish him a happy birthday. This was just hours before  Kennedy's assassination. Dan Rather states that he visited the <mask> ranch that morning to film an interview with <mask>, where Miss Texas Wool was in attendance, and that he then flew back to Dallas from Uvalde to deposit the film at then-CBS affiliate KRLD-TV (now Fox owned-and-operated KDFW-TV).<mask> died on November 7, 1967, at the age of 98 years and 350 days. He is interred in Uvalde Cemetery. <mask> is the longest-lived Vice President in U.S. history, a distinction which was previously held by Levi P. Morton (Benjamin Harrison's Vice President, who died in 1920 on his 96th birthday). <mask> and Schuyler Colfax, vice president under Ulysses S. Grant, are the only two Vice Presidents to have been Speaker of the House of Representatives prior to becoming Vice President. As the Vice President is also the President of the Senate, <mask> and Colfax are the only people to have served as the presiding officer of both houses of Congress. The popular Garner State Park, located  north of Uvalde, bears his name, as does Garner Field just east of Uvalde. The women's dormitory at Southwest Texas Junior College in Uvalde bears his wife's name.<mask> Middle School, located in San Antonio's North East Independent School District, is also named after him. Footnotes

Further reading
 Anders, Evan. Boss Rule in South Texas. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1982. Champagne, Anthony. "<mask> <mask>", in Raymond W Smock and Susan W Hammond, eds. Masters of the House: Congressional Leadership Over Two Centuries (1998) pp 144–80

 Timmons, Bascom N. <mask> of Texas: A Personal History.1948. Will, George. "In Cactus Jack's Footsteps". Jewish World Review Jan 6, 2000. External links

 Let's get goin'!, Bill Sykes Editorial Cartoon depicting <mask>'s 1940 presidential candidacy, December 19, 1939
 Conspicuous among the casualties, Bill Sykes Editorial Cartoon depicting Vandenberg and <mask> in 1940 presidential primaries, April 4, 1940

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1868 births
1967 deaths
20th-century vice presidents of the United States
1932 United States vice-presidential candidates
1936 United States vice-presidential candidates
American Methodists
Burials in Texas
Candidates in the 1932 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1940 United States presidential election
County judges in Texas
Democratic Party (United States) vice presidential nominees
Democratic Party vice presidents of the United States
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Members of the Texas House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Texas
Minority leaders of the United States House of Representatives
Old Right (United States)
People from Red River County, Texas
People from Uvalde, Texas
Speakers of the United States House of Representatives
Texas Democrats
Texas lawyers
Vice presidents of the United States

masks:
John Nance Garner III
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
John Nance
Garner II
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Garner
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Garner
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Charles Garner
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John L
Garner
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Garner
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John F
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner
John Garner
John Nance
Garner
Garner
Garner
Garner


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<mask> (21 October 1926 – 27 February 2016) was a Spanish baritone. He was born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Canary Islands), Spain, on 21 October 1926. His father, <mask>, was born in Austria and <mask> was the first born of the Kraus-Trujillo family; soon would follow Alfredo, Enriqueta Lola and Carmen. Vocal technique

He and his brother Alfredo began their training with María Suárez Fiol, (born in Madrid, 1897 –  died in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 1987). The first songs in front of an audience were in the house of his teacher, where Mrs Fiol organized benefit concerts. He started  singing in the Choir of the School of the Heart of Maria, and made an audition for Soloists in the Philharmonic  Society of Las Palmas. After coming back from Barcelona, <mask> married his fiancé  <mask>.He studied Voice technique in Milan with famous teacher and Soprano Mercedes Llopart. Mrs Llopart's legacy of exquisite technique and knowledge of voice production was passed on to her students, <mask>, Renata Scotto, Anna Moffo, Fiorenza Cossotto, Ivo Vinco, Greek soprano Elena Suliotis, Venezuelan coloratura soprano Cecilia Nuñez Albanese, and <mask>. <mask>'s baritone voice has a wide vocal range, up to a high B with powerful bright, dark, rich notes, placed high in the mask. His career

In December 1960, <mask> made his Debut in the “Teatro Comunale Giuseppe Verdi” in Trieste with the Moussorgsky opera Khovanshchina in the role of  Shaklovity and using the stage name Franco di Marco. Later he continued singing Enrico of Lucia di Lammermoor, Valentin of the opera Faust, and  Germont of La Traviata. He returned to Spain where he appeared with the “Festivales of Spain” in La Coruña. He made his debut in the “Teatro de la Zarzuela” in Madrid with the Compañía Lírica Nacional with great success.With this same Company he made a tour of Spain with identical results. In 1962 he formed his own company and toured Spain for four years, singing zarzuela: La Bruja, La Tabernera del Puerto, Katiuska, El Huésped del Sevillano, La Calesera, La Rosa del Azafrán, La del Soto del Parral, and other works of the repertoire with artists like Amparo Azcón, Celia Langa, Pilarín Alvarez, Rosa Gil, Fina Gessa, María Pastor, Eduardo Bermúdez, Enrique del Portal, José Luis Cancela and Andrés García Martí, under the baton of the Maestros Jose Terol and Mariano de las Heras. In Madrid, in June 1963, he performed several presentations of the opera Marina, by  the Spanish composer Emilio Arrieta. The performances took place in El Parque del Retiro, with his brother Alfredo. In 1966 a contract with the company of Maria Francisca Caballer and Agustín Lisbona, to perform in the National Theater of Caracas, “Teatro Nacionál,” took him to Venezuela for one long season. He then returned to the Canary Islands to dedicate more time to family matters. His break from the  Operatic scene was not total, however, and in the 1970s he took part in several seasons of Zarzuela with the Isaac Albéniz  Company of Juan Jose Seoane, performing all over Spain and the Spanish Islands.Career in Venezuela

At the end of 1978 <mask> returned to Venezuela for a series of concerts and performances in Radio and Television. He performed in Teatro Municipal de Caracas with Opera Metropolitana de Caracas OMAC the opera Marina, with <mask>, soprano Cecilia Núñez Albanese and Cayito Aponte, with the Orquesta Filármonica de Caracas conducted by Dominican Maestro Carlos Piantini. He had a series of concerts in Hogar Canario de Caracas and Teatro Nacional. His brother Alfredo was very often performing in Caracas, Teatro Municipal, with OMAC (Caracas Metropolitan Opera Company). This time the stay would last nine years since, aside from his performances <mask> was offered the position as professor of vocal technique in the Superior School of Music of Caracas, Escuela Superior de Musica J.A. Lamas and also in the Escuela de Música Prudencio Esaá. He was very active as a teacher and some of his students were: Fanny Arjona soprano, Amelia Salazar, Natacha Valladares, Marisol Gil, Alfredo Olarte, Rosaura Longa, and Biella Da Costa.In 1987, he returned to Spain to teach voice technique in the Conservatory of the “Gran Teatre del Liceu” in Barcelona, where he taught until his retirement. Retirement

His last public performance took place in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1996, where he was awarded the Gold medal of the City. In July 2000 <mask> and his wife Enedina decided to be based permanently in the city where he was born. In November 2000, <mask> received the tribute of the Canary Island “Friends of the Zarzuela”, who gave him a Plaque in recognition of his long career. Complete recordings

La tempestad (1958),
Marina (1963). Ed. : Carillón
Video.Marina 1974 Teatro Municipal de Caracas. Omac. “Selección de Zarzuelas”:

El Cantar del Arriero,
La Calesera,
El Caserío,
El Huésped del Sevillano,
La Parranda,
La Canción del olvido,
Molinos de viento,
Los Gavilanes,
La del Soto del Parral. Ed. : Belter (1973). TV film, German TV ZDF Reiselust. “Gran Canaria”.References
http://www.promocionlaspalmas.com/prensa.php?fot_seccion=2&id=675 María Suarez Fiol (Spanish) Las Palmas city Hall
Ayuntamiento de Las Palmas. Tribute to Opera singers. https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/mcvr1234/krausf.htm&date=2009-10-26+02:27:05

Antología de la Opera en Caracas, Photographer Gilberto Noguera. Caracas, Venezuela. Escuela de Música Prudencio Esaa. Founded in 1970 Maestro Innocente Carreño
Address:: Calle 1, Quinta Caniza
Urb. : Montalbán Caracas, Venezuela

Escuela Superior de Música J.A.Lamas
Av. Urdaneta, Caracas, Dtto. Federal, Venezuela

Zarzuela History. Spanish Operetta

https://web.archive.org/web/20070920202442/http://biblia.com/radio/zarzuela.htm#Reseña%20Histórica%20de%20la%20Zarzuela:Zarzuela in Spain Composers titles, history. 1926 births
2016 deaths
People from Las Palmas
Spanish people of Austrian descent
Spanish operatic baritones
20th-century Spanish  male opera singers

masks:
Francisco Kraus Trujillo
Otto Kraus
Francisco
Francisco
Enedina Kraus
Alfredo Kraus
Francisco Kraus
Francisco
Francisco
Kraus
Alfredo Kraus
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Francisco Kraus


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Jean-<mask> (; ; ; 10 August 1924 – 21 April 1998) was a French philosopher, sociologist, and literary theorist. His interdisciplinary discourse spans such topics as epistemology and communication, the human body, modern art and postmodern art, literature and critical theory, music, film, time and memory, space, the city and landscape, the sublime, and the relation between aesthetics and politics. He is best known for his articulation of postmodernism after the late 1970s and the analysis of the impact of postmodernity on the human condition. Lyotard was a key personality in contemporary Continental philosophy and author of 26 books and many articles. He was a director of the International College of Philosophy founded by Jacques Derrida, François Châtelet, Jean-Pierre Faye, and Dominique Lecourt. Biography

Early life, educational background, and family

<mask> was born on August 10, 1924, in Vincennes, France, to <mask>, a sales representative, and Madeleine Cavalli. He went to school at the Lycée Buffon (1935–42) and Louis-le-Grand, Paris.As a child, Lyotard had many aspirations: to be an artist, a historian, a Dominican friar, and a writer. He later gave up the dream of becoming a writer when he finished writing an unsuccessful fictional novel at the age of 15. Ultimately, Lyotard described the realization that he would not become any of these occupations as "fate" in his intellectual biography called Peregrinations, published in 1988. Lyotard served as a medic during the liberation of Paris in the Second World War, and soon after began studying philosophy at the Sorbonne in the late 1940s, after failing the entrance exam to the more prestigious École normale supérieure twice. His 1947 DES thesis, Indifference as an Ethical Concept (L'indifférence comme notion éthique), analyzed forms of indifference and detachment in Zen Buddhism, Stoicism, Taoism, and Epicureanism. In 1950, Lyotard took up a position teaching philosophy in Constantine in French Algeria but returned to mainland France in 1952 to teach at the Prytanée military academy in La Flèche, where he wrote a short work on Phenomenology, published in 1954. Lyotard moved to Paris in 1959 to teach at the Sorbonne: introductory lectures from this time (1964) have been posthumously published under the title Why Philosophize?Having moved to teach at the new campus of Nanterre in 1966, Lyotard participated in the events following March 22 and the tumult of May 1968. In 1971, Lyotard earned a State doctorate with his dissertation Discours, figure under Mikel Dufrenne—the work was published the same year. Lyotard joined the Philosophy department of the experimental University at Vincennes, later Paris 8, together with Gilles Deleuze, in the academic year 1970-71; it remained his academic home in France until 1987. He married his first wife, Andrée May, in 1948 with whom he had two children, Corinne and Laurence, and later married for a second time in 1993 to Dolores Djidzek, the mother of his son David (born in 1986). Political life

In 1954, Lyotard became a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie ("Socialism or Barbarism"), a French political organization formed in 1948 around the inadequacy of the Trotskyist analysis to explain the new forms of domination in the Soviet Union. Socialisme ou Barbarie and the publication of the same name had an objective to conduct a critique of Marxism from within the left, including the dominance of bureaucracy within the French Communist Party and its adherence to the dictats of the Soviet Union. His writings in this period are mostly concerned with far-left politics, with a focus on the Algerian situation—which he witnessed first-hand while teaching philosophy in Constantine.As the principle correspondent on Algeria for Socialisme ou Barbarie, during the period of Algeria's struggle for independence, Lyotard wrote a dozen essays analyzing the economic and political situation (1956–63), which were later  reproduced in La Guerre des Algeriens (1989) and translated in Political Writings (1993). Lyotard hoped to encourage an Algerian fight for independence from France, and a social revolution, actively supporting the FLN in secret, whilst also being critical of its approach. Following disputes with Cornelius Castoriadis in 1964, Lyotard left Socialisme ou Barbarie for the newly formed splinter group Pouvoir Ouvrier ("Worker Power"), from which he resigned in turn in 1966. Although Lyotard played an active part in the May 1968 uprisings, he distanced himself from revolutionary Marxism with his 1974 book Libidinal Economy. He distanced himself from Marxism because he felt that Marxism had a rigid structuralist approach and they were imposing "systematization of desires" through a strong emphasis on industrial production as the ground culture. Academic career
Lyotard taught at the , Algeria from 1950 to 1952. In 1952 Lyotard returned to mainland France to teach at the Prytanée military academy, La Flèche, Sarthe.He published the book La phénoménologie (Phenomenology) in 1954 and began to write for the journal Socialisme ou Barbarie under the psudonym François Laborde. In 1972, Lyotard began teaching at the University of Paris VIII; he taught there until 1987 when he became Professor Emeritus. In 1982-3 Lyotard was involved in the foundation of the Collège International de Philosophie, Paris, serving as its second Director in 1985. Lyotard frequently lectured outside France as visiting professor at universities around the world. From 1974, these included trans-Atlantic visits, including: Johns Hopkins University, University of California, Berkeley, Yale University, Stony Brook University and the University of California, San Diego in the U.S., the Université de Montréal in Quebec (Canada), and the University of São Paulo in Brazil. In 1987 he took a part-time professorship at the University of California, Irvine where he held a joint post with Jacques Derrida and Wolfgang Iser in the Department of Critical Theory. Before his death, he split his time between Paris and Atlanta, where he taught at Emory University as the Woodruff Professor of Philosophy and French from 1995-8.Work

Lyotard's work is characterized by a persistent opposition to universals, métarécits (meta-narratives), and generality. He is fiercely critical of many of the "universalist" claims of the Enlightenment, and several of his works serve to undermine the fundamental principles that generate these broad claims. In his writings of the early 1970s, he rejects what he regards as theological underpinnings of both Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud: "In Freud, it is Judaical, critical sombre (forgetful of the political); in Marx it is catholic. Hegelian, reconciliatory (...) in the one and in the other the relationship of the economic with meaning is blocked in the category of representation (...) Here a politics, there a therapeutics, in both cases a laical theology, on top of the arbitrariness and the roaming of forces". Consequently, he rejected Theodor W. Adorno's negative dialectics because he viewed them as seeking a "therapeutic resolution in the framework of a religion, here the religion of history." In Lyotard's "libidinal economics" he aimed at "discovering and describing different social modes of investment of libidinal intensities". Academic legacy
Throughout his academic career Jean-François Lyotard has contributed to the magazines L'Âge nouveau, Les Temps modernes, Socialisme ou barbarie, Cahiers de philosophie, Esprit, Revue d'esthétique, Musique en jeu, L'Art vivant, Semiotexte, October, Art Press International, Critique, Flash Art, Art Forum, Po&sie, among others.The Postmodern Condition
Lyotard is a skeptic of modern cultural thought. According to his 1979 The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, the impact of the postmodern condition was to provoke skepticism about universalizing theories. Lyotard argues that we have outgrown our needs for metanarratives () due to the advancement of techniques and technologies since World War II. He argues against the possibility of justifying the narratives that bring together disciplines and social practices, such as science and culture; according to James Williams, for Lyotard "the narratives we tell to justify a single set of laws and stakes are inherently unjust." A loss of faith in metanarratives has an effect on how we view science, art, and literature. Little narratives have now become the appropriate way for explaining social transformations and political problems. Lyotard argues that this is the driving force behind postmodern science.As metanarratives fade, science suffers a loss of faith in its search for truth, and therefore must find other ways of legitimating its efforts. Connected to this scientific legitimacy is the growing dominance for information machines. Lyotard argues that one day, in order for knowledge to be considered useful, it will have to be converted into computerized data. Years later, this led him into writing his book The Inhuman, published in 1988, in which he illustrates a world where technology has taken over. The Inhuman (1988)
In his book, The Inhuman, Lyotard explores the philosophy of Kant, Heidegger, Adorno, and Derrida, as well as the works of modernist and postmodernist artists like Cézanne, Debussy, and Boulez, in a wide-ranging debate. Time and memory, the sublime and the avant-garde, and the link between aesthetics and politics are all topics Lyotard addresses in the book. He analyzes the close but problematic ties between modernity, development, and humanity, as well as the shift to postmodernity, throughout his study.The job of literature, philosophy, and the arts, according to Lyotard, is to give witness to and explain this arduous shift. Lyotard rejected classical humanism mainly because he paradoxically assumes that the humane is something that every person has inherently from birth but can only be realized through education. Lyotard essentially asks if humanity is so inherent to all of us, can we only gain it by undergoing education? By using the concept of the inhuman, Lyotard described all those things that humanism has excluded from its definition of man. He developed a science fiction thought experiment that would take place in 4.5 billion years, at the time of the explosion of the sun. Should the human species put itself in the position to live on without Earth, and if so what would then remain of "humanity"? Everything that is of importance for our present determination of what is "human" would fall away if the human species began living an extra-planetary existence.Lyotard's opinion on this remained divided: on the one hand, he criticized the dehumanizing effects of modern technology that can already be observed today; on the other hand, he saw in them the chance to open up a space of possibilities, since they do not fix the human being to one image. The collapse of the "grand narrative" and "language-games"

Most famously, in La Condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir (The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge) (1979), he proposes what he calls an extreme simplification of the "postmodern" as an 'incredulity towards meta-narratives'. These meta-narratives—sometimes 'grand narratives'—are grand, large-scale theories and philosophies of the world, such as the progress of history, the knowability of everything by science, and the possibility of absolute freedom. Lyotard argues that we have ceased to believe that narratives of this kind are adequate to represent and contain us all. He points out that no one seemed to agree on what, if anything, was real and everyone had their own perspective and story. We have become alert to difference, diversity, the incompatibility of our aspirations, beliefs, and desires, and for that reason postmodernity is characterized by an abundance of micronarratives. For this concept, Lyotard draws from the notion of "language-games" found in the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein.Lyotard notes that it is based on the mapping of society according to the concept of the language games. In <mask>'s works, the term "language games", sometimes also called "phrase regimens", denotes the multiplicity of communities of meaning, the innumerable and incommensurable separate systems in which meanings are produced and rules for their circulation are created. This involves, for example, an incredulity towards the metanarrative of human emancipation. That is, the story of how the human race has set itself free that brings together the language game of science, the language game of human historical conflicts, and the language game of human qualities into the overall justification of the steady development of the human race in terms of wealth and moral well-being. According to this metanarrative, the justification of science is related to wealth and education. The development of history is seen as steady progress towards civilization or moral well-being. The language game of human passions, qualities and faults (c.f.character flaws (narratives)), is seen as steadily

masks:
François Lyotard
Jean François Lyotard
Jean Pierre Lyotard
Lyotard


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 shifting in favor of our qualities and away from our faults as science and historical developments help us to conquer our faults in favor of our qualities. The point is that any event ought to be able to be understood in terms of the justifications of this metanarrative; anything that happens can be understood and judged according to the discourse of human emancipation. For example, for any new social, political or scientific revolution we could ask the question, "Is this revolution a step towards the greater well-being of the mass of human beings?" It should always be possible to answer this question in terms of the rules of justification of the metanarrative of human emancipation. This becomes more crucial in Au juste: Conversations (Just Gaming) (1979) and Le Différend (The Differend) (1983), which develop a postmodern theory of justice. It might appear that the atomization of human beings implied by the notion of the micronarrative and the language game suggests a collapse of ethics. It has often been thought that universality is a condition for something to be a properly ethical statement: "thou shalt not steal" is an ethical statement in a way that "thou shalt not steal from Margaret" is not.The latter is too particular to be an ethical statement (what's so special about Margaret? ); it is only ethical if it rests on a universal statement ("thou shalt not steal from anyone"). But universals are impermissible in a world that has lost faith in metanarratives, and so it would seem that ethics is impossible. Justice and injustice can only be terms within language games, and the universality of ethics is out of the window. Lyotard argues that notions of justice and injustice do in fact remain in postmodernism. The new definition of injustice is indeed to use the language rules from one "phrase regimen" and apply them to another. Ethical behavior is about remaining alert precisely to the threat of this injustice, about paying attention to things in their particularity and not enclosing them within abstract conceptuality.One must bear witness to the "differend". In a differend, there is a conflict between two parties that cannot be solved in a just manner. However, the act of being able to bridge the two and understand the claims of both parties, is the first step towards finding a solution. "I would like to call a differend the case where the plaintiff is divested of the means to argue and becomes for that reason a victim. If the addressor, the addressee, and the sense of the testimony are neutralized, everything takes place as if there were no damages. A case of differend between two parties takes place when the regulation of the conflict that opposes them is done in the idiom of one of the parties while the wrong suffered by the other is not signified in that idiom." In more than one book, Lyotard promoted what he called a new paganism.Plato, in Book II of the Republic, condemns pagans for their shape-shifting and deceitful gods, antithetical to universal truth. Lyotard prefers a mirror image of Plato's critique, vindicating the pagans as Plato sees them. A new paganism would revolt against a Greek masculinist, such as that of Plato. The revolt would be led by women, for woman is antirational and anti-philosophical (at least as Plato understands what it is to be philosophical). Woman, as "the little girl", is "the antonym of the adult male questioner" and would release us from the mental illness evident in Platonic philosophy, in Judaism and in the American, French and Russian revolutions. The Differend

In The Differend, based on Immanuel Kant's views on the separation of Understanding, Judgment, and Reason, Lyotard identifies the moment in which language fails as the differend, and explains it as follows: "...the unstable state and instant of language wherein something which must be able to be put into phrases cannot yet be… the human beings who thought they could use language as an instrument of communication, learn through the feeling of pain which accompanies silence (and of pleasure which accompanies the invention of a new idiom)". Lyotard undermines the common view that the meanings of phrases can be determined by what they refer to (the referent).The meaning of a phrase—an event (something happens)--cannot be fixed by appealing to reality (what actually happened). Lyotard develops this view of language by defining "reality" in an original way, as a complex of possible senses attached to a referent through a name. The correct sense of a phrase cannot be determined by a reference to reality, since the referent itself does not fix sense, and reality itself is defined as the complex of competing senses attached to a referent. Therefore, the phrase event remains indeterminate. Lyotard uses the example of Auschwitz and the revisionist historian Robert Faurisson’s demands for proof of the Holocaust to show how the differend operates as a double bind. Faurisson will only accept proof of the existence of gas chambers from eyewitnesses who were themselves victims of the gas chambers. However, any such eyewitnesses are dead and are not able to testify.Either there were no gas chambers, in which case there would be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence, or there were gas chambers, in which case there would still be no eyewitnesses to produce evidence, because they would be dead. Since Faurisson will accept no evidence for the existence of gas chambers, except the testimony of actual victims, he will conclude from both possibilities (gas chambers existed and gas chambers did not exist) that gas chambers did not exist. This presents a double bind. There are two alternatives, either there were gas chambers or there were not, which lead to the same conclusion: there were no gas chambers (and no final solution). The case is a differend because the harm done to the victims cannot be presented in the standard of judgment upheld by Faurisson. The sublime
Lyotard was a frequent writer on aesthetic matters. He was, despite his reputation as a postmodernist, a great promoter of modernist art.Lyotard saw postmodernism as a latent tendency within thought throughout time and not a narrowly limited historical period. He favored the startling and perplexing works of the high modernist avant-garde. In them he found a demonstration of the limits of our conceptuality, a valuable lesson for anyone too imbued with Enlightenment confidence. Lyotard has written extensively also on many contemporary artists of his choice: Valerio Adami, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Monory, Ruth Francken, Shusaku Arakawa, Bracha Ettinger, Sam Francis, Karel Appel, Barnett Newman, René Guiffrey, , and Albert Ayme as well as on earlier artists, notably Paul Cézanne and Paul Klee. He developed these themes in particular by discussing the sublime. The "sublime" is a term in aesthetics whose fortunes revived under postmodernism after a century or more of neglect. It refers to the experience of pleasurable anxiety that we experience when confronting wild and threatening sights like, for example, a massive craggy mountain, black against the sky, looming terrifyingly in our vision.A sublime is the conjunction of two opposed feelings, which makes it harder for us to see the injustice of it, or a solution to it. <mask> found particularly interesting the explanation of the sublime offered by Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urtheilskraft, more exactly Critique of the Power of Judgment). In this book, Kant explains this mixture of anxiety and pleasure in the following terms: there are two kinds of "sublime" experience. In the "mathematically" sublime, an object strikes the mind in such a way that we find ourselves unable to take it in as a whole. More precisely, we experience a clash between our reason (which tells us that all objects are finite) and the imagination (the aspect of the mind that organizes what we see, and which sees an object incalculably larger than ourselves, and feels infinite). In the "dynamically" sublime, the mind recoils at an object so immeasurably more powerful than we, whose weight, force, scale could crush us without the remotest hope of our being able to resist it. (Kant stresses that if we are in actual danger, our feeling of anxiety is very different from that of a sublime feeling.The sublime is an aesthetic experience, not a practical feeling of personal danger.) This explains the feeling of anxiety. What is deeply unsettling about the mathematically sublime is that the mental faculties that present visual perceptions to the mind are inadequate to the concept corresponding to it; in other words, what we are able to make ourselves see cannot fully match up to what we know is there. We know it is a mountain but we cannot take the whole thing into our perception. Our sensibility is incapable of coping with such sights, but our reason can assert the finitude of the presentation. With the dynamically sublime, our sense of physical danger should prompt an awareness that we are not just physical material beings, but moral and (in Kant's terms) noumenal beings as well. The body may be dwarfed by its power but our reason need not be.This explains, in both cases, why the sublime is an experience of pleasure as well as pain. Lyotard is fascinated by this admission, from one of the philosophical architects of the Enlightenment, that the mind cannot always organize the world rationally. Some objects are simply incapable of being brought neatly under concepts. For Lyotard, in Lessons on the Analytic of the Sublime, but drawing on his argument in The Differend, this is a good thing. Such generalities as "concepts" fail to pay proper attention to the particularity of things. What happens in the sublime is a crisis where we realize the inadequacy of the imagination and reason to each other. What we are witnessing, says Lyotard, is actually the differend; the straining of the mind at the edges of itself and at the edges of its conceptuality.Aesthetics
Lyotard's thesis, published under the title Discours, Figure (1971), focused on aesthetics. Lyotard devoted himself a lot to aesthetic issues, in a way that sought to break with the Hegelian perspective, in which art had to think of itself as a materialization of the mind. Lyotard's thought on modern and contemporary art focused on a few artists who allowed him to emphasize the flagship issues of French thought after the Second World War, particularly those of conceptual mastery of the artist as an author: Paul Cézanne and Wassily Kandinsky as well as Bracha L. Ettinger, Albert Ayme, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Valerio Adami, Jacques Monory, Shusaku Arakawa, Ruth Francken, Sam Francis, Barnett Newman, Joseph Kosuth, Karel Appel, René Guiffrey, and Gianfranco Baruchello. Libidinal Economy

In one of Lyotard's most famous books, Libidinal Economy, he offers a critique of Marx’s idea of "false consciousness" and claims that the 19th-century working class enjoyed being a part of the industrialization process. Lyotard claims that this was due to libidinal energythe term "libidinal" coming from the term libido, used in psychoanalysis to refer to the desires of our deeper consciousness. Libidinal Economy has been called an achievement in our attempts to live with the rejection of all religious and moral principles through an undermining of the structures associated with it. Structures conceal libidinal intensities while intense feelings and desires force us away from set structures.However, there also can be no intensities or desires without structures, because there would be no dream of escaping the repressive structures if they do not exist. "Libidinal energy comes from this disruptive intervention of external events within structures that seek order and self-containment." This was the first of Lyotard's writings that had really criticized a Marxist view. It achieved great success, but was also the last of Lyotard's writings on this particular topic where he really opposed the views of Marx. Les Immatériaux
In 1985, Lyotard co-curated the exhibition Les Immatériaux at the Centre de Création Industrielle at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, together with the design theorist and curator Thierry Chaput. At that point, Les Immatériaux was the largest exhibition held at the Centre Georges Pompidou. The exhibition was framed in a pre-1989 context that predicted globalization to be a melancholy foreshadowing of contemporary art's shifting function in the era of increasing transnational exchange, and as a turning point in a history of exhibits in the aftermath of what was formerly known as aesthetics.John Rajchman says this about the exhibition: "We might imagine Les Immatériaux as an extravagant staging of a peculiar moment in the role of information in the history of aesthetics after so-called ‘modernism’, yet before the ‘contemporary’ configuration of biennials that was already taking shape in the 1990s, within or against which the question of a new ‘history of exhibition’ now itself arises."


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 "Mainmise"
Lyotard was impressed by the importance of childhood in human life, which he saw as providing the opportunity of creativity, as opposed to the settled hubris of maturity. In "Mainmise", however, he also explored the hold of childhood experience on the individual through the (Roman) concept of mancipium, an authoritative right of possession. Because parental influences affect the new-born before it has the linguistic skill even to articulate them, let alone oppose them, Lyotard considered that "We are born from others but also to others, given over defenseless to them. Subject to their mancipium." Later life and death

Some of the latest works that Lyotard had been working on were both writings about a French writer, activist, and politician, André Malraux. One of them being a biography, Signed, Malraux.Lyotard was interested in the aesthetic views of society that Malraux shared. Lyotard's other book was named The Confession of Augustine and was a study in the phenomenology of time. This work-in-progress was published posthumously in the same year of Lyotard's death. Two of his latest essays on art were on the artwork of artist Bracha L. Ettinger: Anima Minima (Diffracted Traces), 1995, and Anamnesis (L'anamnese), 1997. Lyotard repeatedly returned to the notion of the Postmodern in essays gathered in English as The Postmodern Explained to Children, Toward the Postmodern, and Postmodern Fables. In 1998, while preparing for a conference on postmodernism and media theory, he died unexpectedly from a case of leukemia that had advanced rapidly. He is buried in Division 6 of Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.Criticism

There are three major criticisms of <mask>'s work. Each coincides with a school of thought. Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Nancy have written deconstructions of <mask>'s work (Derrida 1992; Nancy 1985). They focus on Lyotard's postmodern work and on The Differend in particular. A differend depends upon a distinction drawn between groups that itself depends upon the heterogeneity of language games and genres of discourse. Why should these differences be privileged over an endless division and reconstruction of groups? In concentrating on specific differences, Lyotard's thought becomes overly dependent on differences; between categories that are given as fixed and well defined.From the point of view of deconstruction, Lyotard's philosophy gives too much credit to illegitimate categories and groups. Underlying any differend there is a multiplicity of further differences; some of these will involve crossing the first divide, others will question the integrity of the groups that were originally separated. Manfred Frank (1988) has put the Frankfurt School criticism best. It attacks Lyotard's search for division over consensus on the grounds that it involves a philosophical mistake with serious political and social repercussions. Lyotard has failed to notice that an underlying condition for consensus is also a condition for the successful communication of his own thought. It is a performative contradiction to give an account that appeals to our reason on behalf of a difference that is supposed to elude it. So, in putting forward a false argument against a rational consensus, Lyotard plays into the hands of the irrational forces that often give rise to injustice and differ ends.Worse, he is then only in a position to testify to that injustice, rather than put forward a just and rational resolution. In turn, these criticisms have been met with responses arguing that Frank misreads Lyotard's work, for example, failing to recognize the role of the sublime, as well as failing to see that Lyotard wants to go beyond the monopoly of the cognitive, argumentative genre, in order to give other genres a right to exist as well. From a Nietzschean and Deleuzian point of view (James Williams 2000), Lyotard's postmodern philosophy took a turn toward a destructive modern nihilism that his early work avoids. The different and the sublime are negative terms that introduce a severe pessimism at the core of Lyotard's philosophy. Both terms draw lines that cannot be crossed and yet they mark the threshold of that which is most valuable for the philosophy, that which is to be testified to and its proper concern. It is not possible repetitively to lend an ear to the sublime without falling into despair due to its fleeting nature. Whenever we try to understand or even memorize: the activity of testimony through the sublime, it can only be as something that has now dissipated and that we cannot capture.Charles J. Stivale reviewed Lyotard's The Differend (in English translation) in 1990, stating:

Influence
The collective tribute to Lyotard following his death was organized by the Collège International de Philosophie, and chaired by <mask> and Jean-Claude Milner, the College's director at that time. The proceedings were published by PUF in 2001 under the general title Jean-François Lyotard, l'exercice du différend. Lyotard's work continues to be important in politics, philosophy, sociology, literature, art, and cultural studies. To mark the tenth anniversary of Lyotard's death, an international symposium about Jean-François Lyotard organized by the Collège International de Philosophie (under the direction of <mask>, Jean-Claude Milner and Gerald Sfez) was held in Paris from January 25–27 in 2007. Miscellaneous

 In Pierre Gripari's novel Pierrot la lune, he writes about a Lyotard, who is given the name "Jef" in the novel, saying that he was the only person with whom he could open up about his homosexuality: "I do not understand Jef, but I need him." In a 1984 interview with Georges Van Den Abbeele, Lyotard discusses how he views all the work he's published as rough drafts, noting that, "Even Le différend (1984), which I spent nine years elaborating and writing, remains a sketch, whose master I have not been. And in this sense, I can without lying plead limited responsibility.That is to say: a reader cannot incorrectly locate in a piece of writing an aspect which, according to me, is not at all there." Lyotard was quoted as having privately said, in a conversation with David Hawkes, that "capital is the enemy". Selected publications
Phenomenology. Trans. Brian Beakley. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991 [La Phénoménologie. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954], .Discourse, Figure. Trans. Antony Hudek and Mary Lydon. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011 [Discours, figure. Paris: Klincksieck, 1971], . Libidinal Economy. Trans.Iain Hamilton Grant. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993 [Économie libidinale. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1974], . Duchamp's TRANS/formers. Trans. Ian McLeod. California: Lapis Press, 1990 [Les transformateurs Duchamp.Paris: Editions Galilée, 1977], . Just Gaming. Trans. Wlad Godzich. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985 [Au juste: Conversations. Paris: Christian Bourgois, 1979], . The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge.Trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984 [La Condition postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1979], . Pacific Wall. Trans. Bruce Boone.California: Lapis Press, 1989 [Le mur du pacifique. Paris: Editions Galilée, 1979]. The Differend: Phrases in Dispute. Trans. Georges Van Den Abbeele. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988 [Le Différend. Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1983].The Assassination of Experience by Painting – Monory. Trans. Rachel Bowlby. London: Black Dog, 1998 [L’Assassinat de l’expérience par la peinture, Monory. Bègles: Castor Astral, 1984]. Driftworks. Ed.Roger McKeon. New York: Semiotext(e), 1984. [Essays and interviews dating from 1970 to 1972.] Enthusiasm: The Kantian Critique of History. Trans. George Van Den Abbeele. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009 [L'enthousiasme, la critique kantienne de l'histoire.Paris: Galilée, 1986]. The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence, 1982–1985. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas. Trans. Don Barry. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993 [Le Postmoderne expliqué aux enfants: Correspondance, 1982–1985.Paris: Galilée, 1986]. The Inhuman: Reflections on Time. Trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991 [L’Inhumain: Causeries sur le temps. Paris: Galilée, 1988]. Heidegger and "the jews."Trans. Andreas Michael and Mark S. Roberts. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990 [Heidegger et "les juifs." Paris: Galilée, 1988]. The Lyotard Reader. Ed. Andrew Benjamin.Oxford: Blackwell, 1989. Peregrinations: Law, Form, Event. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988 [Pérégrinations: Loi, forme, événement. Paris: Galilée, 1990]. Lessons on the Analytic of the Sublime: Kant’s Critique of Judgment, §§ 23–29. Trans. Elizabeth Rottenberg.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994 [Leçons sur l’"Analytique du sublime": Kant, "Critique de la faculté de juger," paragraphes 23–29. Paris: Galilée, 1991]. The Hyphen: Between Judaism and Christianity. Trans. Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1999 [Un trait d’union. Sainte-Foy, Quebec: Le Griffon d’argile, 1993].Political Writings. Trans. Bill Readings and Kevin Paul Geiman. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. [Political texts composed 1956–1989.] Postmodern Fables. Trans.Georges Van Den Abbeele. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997 [Moralités postmodernes. Paris: Galilée, 1993]. Toward the Postmodern. Ed. Robert Harvey and Mark S. Roberts. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1993.[Essays composed 1970–1991]. Signed, Malraux. Trans. Robert Harvey. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999 [Signé Malraux. Paris: B. Grasset, 1996]. The Politics of Jean-François Lyotard.Ed. Chris Rojek and Bryan S. Turner. New York: Routledge, 1998. The Confession of Augustine. Trans. Richard Beardsworth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000 [La Confession d’Augustin.Paris: Galilée, 1998]. Soundproof Room: Malraux’s Anti-Aesthetics. Trans. Robert Harvey. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001 [Chambre sourde: L’Antiesthétique de Malraux. Paris: Galilée, 1998]. Jean-François Lyotard : Writings on Contemporary Art and Artists, Six volumes.Ed. Herman Parret, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2010–2013. Jean-François Lyotard: The Interviews and Debates. Ed. Kiff Bamford. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020. See also
Continental philosophy
Post-structuralism
Aestheticism

References
Notes

Further reading
Bamford, Kiff.Jean-François Lyotard: Critical Lives. London: Reaktion Books, 2017. Bamford, Kiff. Lyotard and the "figural" in Performance, Art and Writing. London: Bloomsbury, 2012. Callinicos, Alex. Social theory: a historical introduction.New York: New York University Press, 1999. Elliott, Anthony, and Larry J. Ray. "Jean Francois Lyotard." Key contemporary social theorists. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2003. Ford Derek R. Inhuman Educations: Jean-Francois <mask>, Pedagogy, Thought. Leiden: Brill.2021. Grebowicz, Margret. Gender After Lyotard. SUNY Press, 2007. Lemert, Charles C.. "After Modern." Social theory: the multicultural and classic readings. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993.Lewis, Jeff. Cultural Studies. London: Sage, 2008. <mask>, Dolorès, et al. Jean-François Lyotard. L'Exercice du Différend (with essays by Alain Badiou, Jean-Luc Nancy, Jacques Derrida, Jean-Claude Milner). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2001.Mann, Doug. "The Postmodern Condition." Understanding society: a survey of modern social theory. Don Mills, Ont. : Oxford University Press, 2008. Parker, Noel. The A–Z guide to modern social and political theorists.London: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1997. Readings, Bill. Introducing Lyotard: Art and Politics. New York: Routledge, 1991. Robbinis, Derek, ed. 2004 J.F. Lyotard.Sage Publishing. Sica, Alan. Social thought: from the Enlightenment to the present. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2005. The critical analysis of David Harvey in his book The Condition of Postmodernity (Blackwell, 1989). External links

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jean-François Lyotard
Jean-Francois Lyotard at European Graduate School (Biography, bibliography, quotes and web resources)
The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (The first 5 chapters)
International symposium. Collège International de Philosophie January 25–27, 2007
Les Immatériaux: A Conversation with Jean-François Lyotard

1924 births
1998 deaths
People from Versailles
20th-century French philosophers
Continental philosophers
Critical theorists
Deconstruction
French literary theorists
Philosophers of art
Postmodern theory
Postmodern writers
French rhetoricians
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Emory University faculty
University of Paris alumni
Deaths from leukemia
French male writers
Libertarian socialists
French Marxists
French Modern Pagans
French feminist writers
Male feminists
Modern Pagan philosophers
Paris 8 University

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Dolores Lyotard
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<mask> (27 March 184111 July 1913) was a captain in the United States Revenue Cutter Service and was appointed in 1895 by Secretary of the Treasury John G. Carlisle to be Chief of the Revenue Marine Division of the Department of the Treasury. <mask> was noted for his leadership in gaining improvements in the retirement system for officers in the Revenue Cutter Service and for leading the service at a time when there were many engineering improvements made in the construction of vessels used by the service. During his tenure he worked successfully with three different Secretaries of the Treasury as an appointee to improve the personnel standards and the vessels used by the service. Although he was never formally known as Commandant, he is recognized today as the second Commandant of the Coast Guard. Early life and education
<mask> was born in Iowa Territory on 27 March 1841. His father, William R<mask> was an officer in the ordnance department of the U.S. Army and moved his family from one post to another many times during his army career. As a child, <mask> was educated at home by members of his family and he became adept at mathematics.At 17, <mask> received an appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy from Miguel Otero, the congressional delegate from New Mexico Territory. At the end of three years, he resigned from the academy and was commissioned as a third lieutenant in the Revenue Cutter Service on 20 November 1860. Career

His first assignment was aboard the USRC Lewis Cass stationed at Mobile, Alabama. In the days leading up to the Civil War his commanding officer, Captain James J. Morrison, resigned his commission, turned the cutter over to Alabama state authorities and left <mask> to lead his officers and men back to Union territory. He served on several revenue cutters guarding the Port Of New York until 4 April 1864 when he resigned his commission to go into private business. <mask> was re-commissioned a third lieutenant on 25 June 1868 and promoted to a second lieutenant on 12 March 1872 serving at various stations on the Atlantic coast.In 1875, he was serving on , homeported at New Bedford, Massachusetts until he was assigned the duties of assistant inspector of the U.S. Life-Saving Service at New York City. In 1876 he was appointed assistant inspector of the Third Life Saving District of the U.S. Life-Saving Service and while serving in that billet was promoted to first lieutenant on 25 March 1878. In 1878, <mask> was transferred to the office of Sumner I. Kimball, then the Chief of the Revenue Marine Bureau and was assigned investigating duties and heard complaints against keepers at all Life-Saving Service stations. In 1880, he was assigned to investigate the sinking of the British barque M & S Henderson near the Pea Island Life-Saving Station. After taking statements from the station crew and survivors of the shipwreck, <mask> concluded that the surfman on watch had been negligent as a lookout and that the station's keeper had lied under oath. Both were dismissed and Shoemaker appointed Richard Etheridge, a black surfman as the new keeper. Etheridge was the first black keeper of a life saving station and was permitted to have an all black crew on the recommendation of <mask>; a situation that lasted until 1947 when the station was disestablished.<mask> was assigned as executive officer on the USRC Seward in 1882 which at the time patrolled the Gulf Coast and was homeported at Bay Saint Louis, Mississippi. In 1885 he was once again detailed to the USLSS, first as an assistant inspector of the Third District and later as inspector of all districts except the Twelfth district on the Pacific coast. During this assignment, he located and obtained sites for stations, conducted 300 investigations and brought serious charges against four assistant superintendents of the service. In April 1891 he was assigned as commanding officer of USRC Washington at the Port of New York. After shifting Washington to Philadelphia in 1893, he assumed command of the newly commissioned USRC Hudson in Philadelphia and returned to New York for harbor patrol duty. Chief of Revenue Cutter Service

On 19 March 1895, Secretary of the Treasury, John Griffin Carlisle appointed <mask> to replace Leonard G. Shepard as Chief of the Revenue Cutter Division and promoted him to senior captain. Improvements in service retirement
As a result of Secretary Carlisle's and predecessor Shepard's efforts, legislation passed during March 1895 allowed <mask> to place 39 disabled officers that had been on active duty since the Civil War on a retired list, thus giving younger officers a chance at promotion.Since retirement practices of the period were non-existent, so many long serving officers were kept on active duty status well beyond their ability to actually serve effectively because of age and health related issues. Because the number of officers in the RCS was limited by Congressional legislation, this caused senior officers to serve in multiple billets and junior officers oftentimes had to serve in billets that required a senior officer, but they couldn't be promoted or paid the senior officer's pay. The legislation of March 1895 allowed the Chief of the Revenue Cutter Division to take steps to retire the disabled officers at half pay; in turn opening the ranks to younger qualified officers. This helped officer morale of the Revenue Cutter Service. Unfortunately it only affected those officers that were on active duty and incapacitated at the time the legislation was enacted so it was not a permanent solution. Both Shoemaker and Carlisle continued to push for retirement reforms for officer corps, asking Congress to approve retirement at three-quarters pay any officer that had reached the age of 64 or had served for thirty years and declared physically or mentally disqualified for duty by a medical officer. Lyman Gage, who succeeded Carlisle as Secretary of the Treasury, called for enlisted men injured in the line of duty to be included on a pension list; Shoemaker endorsed this reform also.Congress didn't take action on legislation allowing this to occur until the Overland Relief Expedition of 1897–1898 and the Spanish–American War brought public attention to the Revenue Cutter Service. By 1901, the service faced a shortage of qualified officers once more because of the temporary nature of the 1895 retirement law; the officer ranks were again filled with the aged and infirm and lieutenants had to fill billets that would have normally been reserved for a captain. Finally, at the urging of both Gage and Shoemaker, Congress passed Senate Bill 1025 on 12 April 1902 that recognized the discrepancies in the treatment of Revenue Cutter Service officers versus officers in the other services:

By 30 June 1902, the service had retired, under the new law, nine captains, and five chief engineers because of age and one chief engineer, one third lieutenant and two assistant engineers because of disability; thus opening up opportunities for promotion for the lower ranks. New cutter construction
Building on the foundation laid by Shepard, <mask> oversaw the acquisition of new steel-hulled cutters and increased the number of cutters in service including five cutters over 200 feet in length. Older cutters dating back to before the Civil War were retired and newer cutters replaced them, all were designed with steam propulsion. Changes in the RCS School of Instruction
Shoemaker was responsible as the new Chief of the Revenue Cutter Service in enlarging the school's training cutter, USRC Salmon P. Chase so that it could accommodate more cadets. The training cutter had no specific homeport and put into various ports to only to re-provision and get mail.During his tenure, <mask> acquired the land for Chase to use as a homeport and for repairs at Arundel Cove in Curtis Bay, Maryland. A small two-story building was built for the school as well as a 400-foot pier for the Chase. This site eventually became the service's vessel construction and overhaul facility and today is known as the United States Coast Guard Yard. Retirement and death
Upon reaching the statutory retirement age of 64, <mask> was placed the Retired List on 27 March 1905. He was succeeded by Senior Captain Worth G. Ross. On 8 May 1908, <mask> was promoted to the rank of Captain-Commandant on the Revenue Cutter Service Retired List by Act of Congress. He died at his home in Woodstock, Virginia on 11 July 1913 and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery

See also

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References cited

External links
Historian's Office  U.S. Coast Guard Official website

1841 births
1913 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Commandants of the United States Coast Guard

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<mask> (August 1773 – May 1858) was a French explorer and botanist who traveled with Alexander von Humboldt in Latin America from 1799 to 1804. He co-authored volumes of the scientific results of their expedition. Biography
<mask> was born as <mask>ud in La Rochelle, France, on 22, 28, or 29 August 1773. His father was a physician and, around 1790, he joined his brother Michael in Paris, where they both studied medicine. From 1791, they attended courses given at Paris's Botanical Museum of Natural History. Their teachers included Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, and René Louiche Desfontaines; Aimé further studied under Jean-Nicolas Corvisart and may have attended classes given by Pierre-Joseph Desault at the Hôtel-Dieu. During this period, Aimé also befriended his fellow student, Xavier Bichat.Amid the turmoil of the French Revolution and Revolutionary Wars, <mask> served as a surgeon in the French army or navy. Having befriended Alexander von Humboldt at Corvisart's house, he joined him on a five-year journey to Tenerife and the Spanish colonial empire in the Americas,  traveling to what later became the independent states of Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, as well as the Orinoco and Amazon basins, with a last stop in the United States. During this trip, he collected and classified about 6,000 plants that were mostly unknown in Europe up to that time. His account of these findings was published as a series of volumes from 1808 to 1816 entitled Equatorial Plants (). Upon his return to Paris, Napoleon granted him a pension of 3000 francs per year in return for the many specimens he bestowed upon the Museum of Natural History. The Empress Josephine was very fond of him and installed him as superintendent over the gardens at Malmaison, where many seeds he had brought from the Americas were cultivated. In 1813, he published his Description of the Rare Plants Cultivated at Malmaison and in Navarre ().During this period, he also became acquainted with Gay-Lussac, Arago, and other eminent scientists and, after the abdication of Fontainebleau, vainly pleaded with Napoleon to retire to Venezuela. He was present at Josephine's deathbed. In 1816, he took various European plants to Buenos Aires, where he was elected professor of natural history. He soon left his post, however, to explore the interior of South America. In 1821, he established a colony at Santa Ana near the Paraná for the specific object of harvesting and selling yerba mate. The colony was located in territory claimed by both Paraguay and Argentina; further, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, dictator of Paraguay, "feared that Bonpland's success in cultivating mate would interfere with his own attempt to monopolize that business." The Paraguayans therefore destroyed the colony on December 8, 1821, and Bonpland was arrested as a spy and detained at Santa Maria, Paraguay until 1829.During his captivity, he married and had several children. He was given freedom of movement and acted as a physician for the local poor and the military garrison. At the same epoch, the Swiss naturalist Johann Rudolph Rengger also stayed in Paraguay: he was not allowed to cross the strictly guarded border, but was free to circulate pending the request of a special permit for each excursion. <mask> was freed in 1829 and in 1831 returned to Argentina, where he settled at San Borja in Corrientes. There, aged 58, he married  a local woman and made a living farming and trading in yerba mate. In 1853, he returned to Santa Ana, where he cultivated the orange trees he had introduced. He received a piastre estate from the Corrientes government in gratitude for his work in the province.The small town around it is now known as "Bonpland" in his honor. A different small town in Misiones province just south of Santa Ana (Misiones) is also named Bonpland. He died at age 84, at San Borja, Santa Ana, or Restauración on 4 or 11 May 1858, before his planned return to Paris. Legacy
His collection of plant specimens deposited in Paris at the National Museum of Natural History, France was curated by Alicia Lourteig. Bonpland's biography was written by Adolphe Brunel. A fictionalized account of his travels with Humboldt occurs in Daniel Kehlmann's Die Vermessung der Welt, translated by Carol Brown Janeway as Measuring the World: A Novel. Bonpland Street in the upscale Buenos Aires neighborhood of Palermo Hollywood lies among streets named after Charles Darwin, Robert FitzRoy, and Alexander von Humboldt.There is also a Bonpland Street in the city of Bahía Blanca, Argentina, in Caracas, Venezuela, and in Montevideo, Uruguay. Many animals and plants are also named in his honor, including the squid Grimalditeuthis bonplandi and the orchid Ornithocephalus bonplandi. The lunar crater Bonpland is named after him. Also Pico Bonpland in the Venezuelan Andes is named to his honor, although he never visited the Venezuelan Andes. A peak of over  in New Zealand also bears his name. The mountain is near the head of Lake Wakatipu in the South Island. Taxonomic descriptions
The following genera and species have been named or described by <mask> <mask>.Genera

Species

Works
1805: Essai sur la géographie des plantes. Written with Alexander von Humboldt. English translation from 2009. 1811: A collection of observations on zoology and comparative anatomy written with Alexander von Humboldt, Printing JH Stone, Paris. Digital version at the website Gallica. 1813: Description of rare plants grown at Malmaison and Navarre by <mask> <mask>. Printing P. The elder Didot, Paris.By <mask> <mask> dedicated to the Empress Joséphine. Digital version at the website Botanicus, and Digital version of the illustrations at the website of the Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé (Interuniversity Library of Health). 1815: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 1, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus. 1816: Monograph Melastomacées including all plants of this order including Rhexies, Volume 1, Paris. 1817: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 2, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus.1818: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 3, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus. 1820: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 4, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus. 1821: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 5, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus. 1823: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 6, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris.Digital version at the website Botanicus. 1823: Monograph Melastomacées including all plants of this order including Rhexies, Volume 2, Paris. 1825: Nova plantarum genera and species written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 7, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. Digital version at the website Botanicus. See also
 Rengger, Johann Rudolph (1795-1832)
 von Humboldt, Alexander (1769-1859)
 :Category:Taxa named by <mask> Bonpland

References

Citations

Bibliography

 . External links

 View biographical information in Australian National Botanic Gardens
 View biographical information on and digitized titles by Aimė <mask> in Botanicus.org

19th-century explorers
19th-century French botanists
19th-century French physicians
1773 births
1858 deaths
Alexander von Humboldt
Botanists active in North America
Botanists active in South America
French emigrants to Argentina
French explorers
French phycologists
People from La Rochelle
Pteridologists

masks:
Aimé Jacques Alexandre Bonpland
Bonpland
Aimé Jacques Alexandre Gouja
Bonpland
Bonpland
Aimé
Bonpland
Aimé
Bonpland
Aimé
Bonpland
Aimé
Bonpland


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<mask> (October 12, 1958 – May 20, 2012) was a leading aviation regulatory lawyer, who held several key posts in the public and private sectors in the United States. He served until 2008 as the Assistant Secretary for Aviation and International Affairs within the United States Department of Transportation, after being confirmed to the position by the U.S. Senate on September 29, 2006, following appointment by President George W<mask>. Prior to that post, he had been appointed by the President in May 2003, as the Chief Counsel of the Federal Aviation Administration, where he served as the top legal advisor to FAA Administrator Marion C<mask>. <mask> was a partner in the Washington D.C. office of the international law firm of Jones Day, where he led the firm's aviation regulatory practice, a post once held by aviation pioneer L. Welch Pogue. Education and career

From 2000 to 2002, <mask> was Executive Vice President of Administration, General Counsel and Corporate Secretary for Travelocity.com, Inc., the online travel site, following its acquisition of Preview Travel, Inc.

From 1996 to 2000, he was Senior Vice President and then Executive Vice President, General Counsel and Secretary of Sabre, Inc., a leading provider of computerized reservation systems and information technology to the travel industry. From 1990 to 1996, he held a number of senior positions within the legal department of American Airlines, Inc., serving as Associate General Counsel in charge of the airline's employment and environmental legal practice, and Senior Attorney responsible for antitrust matters. From 1986 to 1990, he was associated with the Los Angeles-based law firm of Gibson, Dunn and Crutcher, where he practiced antitrust law and commercial litigation.Immediately prior to joining the Department of Transportation, <mask> was Vice President, General Counsel and Secretary of Church & Dwight Co., Inc., a diversified consumer packaged goods and industrial products company with $1.5 billion in sales. <mask> earned his bachelor's degree in politics magna cum laude from Princeton University and graduated cum laude from Harvard Law School. After law school he served as a judicial law clerk to the Honorable Richard A. Gadbois, Jr. in the United States District Court for the Central District of California. Assistant Secretary for Aviation and International Affairs

As Assistant Secretary, <mask> handled several heavily contested and controversial matters. He granted economic authority to Virgin America to begin flights in the U.S., over the heavy opposition of U.S. airlines and labor unions, finding that the airline was not under the control of Virgin Group’s <mask>. He tried unsuccessfully to end federally subsidized flights to 65 smaller communities, saying the Essential Air Service program did not work and needed reform. About a possible merger in 2007, between US Airways and Delta Air Lines, <mask> said in congressional testimony that while any merger immediately reduces the number of competitors, ultimately market forces would play out to benefit consumers.On the international front, under Secretary Mary Peters, he led DOT’s efforts in 2007, to secure an “Open Skies” agreement with the European Union. <mask> helped negotiate an agreement with the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) that doubled air routes to the U.S., and then signed an order giving United Airlines and Delta Air Lines access to coveted new routes to China (from San Francisco to Guangzhou and from Atlanta to Shanghai respectively). He opposed the inclusion of aviation in Europe's Emissions Trading Scheme, claiming it "would violate international law and undercut international efforts to better manage the impact of aviation emissions," a position disputed by EU authorities. He also promoted the use of  satellite-based air traffic systems as part of efforts to modernize legacy air traffic control systems in the U.S. and elsewhere. FAA Chief Counsel

At the FAA, <mask> oversaw a staff of 290 individuals, including approximately 200 aviation lawyers, located in Washington and in the agency's 11 regional offices and technical centers. In 2006, he issued a cease and desist order against a jet management company that the FAA claimed was involved in illegal operations as an air carrier and was linked to a crash at Teterboro Airport. He also defended the agency’s decision, after an impasse with the National Air Traffic Controllers Association, to impose a new contract on NATCA.Private law practice

At Jones Day, <mask> has represented large airline clients opposed to FAA efforts to increase safety regulation, including new limits on pilot work hours. He also defended a commuter airline, Gulfstream International Airlines, against FAA safety allegations over alleged maintenance and work rule violations after the airline’s training academy came under scrutiny in the Colgan Flight 3407 crash. He has been critical of the slow pace of modernization of the air traffic control system under the FAA “NextGen” program. He claimed that President <mask>'s National Mediation Board would take various procedural steps to benefit airline labor unions, which later occurred. Earlier in his career, <mask> represented American Airlines in defeating claims of predatory pricing and attempted monopolization by Continental Airlines and Northwest Airlines, who were represented by prominent plaintiff’s attorneys <mask> and Joe Jamail. Awards

In 2008, <mask> won the Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award (now known as the Montreal Protocol Award) from the Environmental Protection Agency for his work representing the United States at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), on preservation of the ozone layer. In 2013, <mask> was awarded (posthumously) the L. Welch Pogue Award for Lifetime Achievement in Aviation.References

United States Department of Transportation officials
California lawyers
1958 births
Princeton University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
2012 deaths
Antitrust lawyers
People associated with Gibson Dunn
20th-century American lawyers

masks:
Andrew Bart Steinberg
. Bush
. Blakey
Steinberg
Steinberg
Steinberg
Steinberg
Steinberg
Richard Branson
Steinberg
Steinberg
Steinberg
Steinberg
Barack Obama
Steinberg
David Boies
Steinberg
Steinberg


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<mask>, 1st Earl of Norfolk (1095–1177) was the second son of Roger Bigod (also known as Roger Bigot) (died 1107), sheriff of Norfolk and royal advisor, and Adeliza, daughter of Robert de Todeni. Early years
After the death of his elder brother William, who perished without issue in the sinking of the White Ship on 25 November 1120, <mask> was allowed to inherit his brother's office of royal steward and many estates in East Anglia. He also succeeded his aunt Albreda, heiress of her brother Berengar de Tosny, with lands in Yorkshire and in Normandy. <mask> became Constable of Norwich Castle in 1122. During King Stephen's reign
<mask> initially supported Stephen of Blois as king of England. On the death of Henry I in 1135, his nephew Stephen usurped the throne, despite the oath Stephen and the barons had sworn to accept Henry's daughter Empress Matilda as his successor. It was Bigod who asserted that, in his last days, Henry I had named Stephen to become king at the expense of his daughter Matilda.Civil war resulted when, in 1139, Matilda commanded the military strength necessary to challenge Stephen within his own realm. King Stephen initially had the support of the English barons, but in 1136 he was stricken with sickness and a report of his death was quickly spread abroad. <mask> seized and held Norwich castle. Stephen, quickly recovering, laid siege to the city and <mask> was compelled to surrender. In February 1141 Bigod fought on Stephen's side in the First Battle of Lincoln, after which the Earl deserted the captured king. In July of that year he was granted the earldom of Norfolk by the Empress Matilda but he appears to have assumed a position of armed neutrality during the civil war, rather than actively siding with the supporters of the empress. He supported his first wife's brother-in-law, <mask> Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex, during his rebellion against King Stephen in 1143–44.During the disagreement between King Stephen and Archbishop Theobald in 1148, <mask> sided with the archbishop and received him in his stronghold, his Castle of Framlingham, but joined with others in negotiating a reconciliation between the king and the archbishop. Rise of King Henry II
Five years later, in 1153, when Henry, Duke of Normandy, soon to become King Henry II (r. 1154–89), landed in England to assert his claim to the throne, Bigod held out in Ipswich against Stephen's forces, while Henry II, on the other side, laid siege to Stamford. Both places fell to Stephen. In the critical state of his fortunes, however, Stephen was in no position to punish the rebel earl. Negotiations between the two parties resulted in Henry's recognition as Stephen's heir and <mask> eluded retaliation. On Henry II's accession in December 1154, Bigod received confirmation of the possession of his earldom and office of royal steward by a charter issued apparently in January of the next year. The first years of the new reign were spent in restoring order to the shattered kingdom and in breaking the power of the independent barons, which had grown out of control during King Stephen's reign.It was not long before Bigod became agitated under the rule of law initiated by Henry. He grew restless with measures such as the scutage, a fee paid by vassals in lieu of military service, which became the central feature of Henry II's military system of operation by 1159. The Earl showed signs of resistance, but was at once put down. In 1157 Henry II marched into the eastern counties and received the earl's submission. After this incident <mask> makes no significant appearances in the chronicles for some time; he is named among those who had been excommunicated by Becket, in consequence of his retention of lands belonging to the monastery of Pentney in Norfolk. The revolt of 1173

In 1173 the young Crown Prince Henry (also known as Henry the Young King) raised a revolt against his father Henry II. This gave <mask> a fresh occasion for rebellion, with the English barons and the kings of France and Scotland leagued in his favour.He at once became a leader in the cause, being eager to revive his feudal power which Henry II had curtailed, and because the conflict which inevitably resulted was, at least in England, centred upon his own territorial possessions. The custody of Norwich Castle was promised by the young prince as his reward. The king's energy and good fortune were equal to the occasion. While he held in check his rebel vassals in France, the loyal barons in England defeated his enemies there. Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester (died 1190) landed at Walton, in Suffolk, on 29 September 1173 and marched to Framlingham, joining forces with <mask>. Together they besieged and took the castle of Hagenet in Suffolk on 13 October, held by Randal de Broc for the crown. But the Earl of Leicester was defeated and taken prisoner setting out from Framlingham at the Battle of Fornham, near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, by the justiciar Richard de Luci and other barons.These then turned their arms against Earl <mask>, who, not being strong enough to fight, opened negotiations with his assailants. It is said he bought them off, and at the same time secured a safe passage home for the Flemings in his service. Final days
Though defeated and compelled to surrender his castles, Bigod kept his lands and his earldom, and lived at peace with Henry II until his death reportedly in 1177 in Palestine. On 1 March 1177, his son Roger Bigod appealed to the king on a dispute with his stepmother. <mask> was dead at the time of Roger's appeal, the date of his father's death is fixed  'ante caput jejunii',  (i.e. before 9 March). If, then, he died in Palestine, his death must have taken place in the preceding year, 1176, to allow time for the arrival of the news in England.Henry II took advantage of Roger's appeal to seize upon the late Earl's treasure. Earl <mask> had possessed vast estates, which he inherited, and was also the recipient of the third penny of judicial fines levied in the county of Norfolk by right of his earldom. Marriage and family
Bigod married firstly to Juliane de Vere (died c. 1199). She was the daughter of Aubrey de Vere II and Adeliza de Clare, the daughter of Gilbert Fitz Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Clare. The marriage was dissolved before 1156. They had one son:
Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk (born c. 1144–5). He married Ida de Tosny, had issue.Bigod married secondly Gundreda (c. 1135–1200), daughter of Roger de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Warwick. They had two children:
 <mask> (born c. 1156)
 <mask> Bigod (born 1168)

References

Attribution:

External links
 Medieval Lands Project on <mask>, 1st Earl of Norfolk

1095 births
1177 deaths
1st Earl of Norfolk
Anglo-Normans
Norman warriors
<mask> of The Anarchy
Peers created by King Stephen

masks:
Hugh Bigod
Hugh
Hugh
Hugh
Hugh Bigod
Hugh
Geoffrey de
Hugh Bigod
Hugh
Hugh Bigod
Hugh Bigod
Hugh
Hugh
Hugh
Hugh
Hugh Bigod
William Hugh
Hugh Bigod
Hugh People