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<mask> (born in Madrid, Spain on 20 September 1951) is a Spanish novelist, translator, and columnist. <mask> has published fifteen novels, including A Heart So White (Corazón tan blanco, 1992) and Tomorrow in the Battle Think on Me (Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí, 1994). In addition to his novels, he has published three collections of short stories and various essays. As one of Spain's most celebrated novelists, his work has been translated into forty-four languages and has sold over eight and a half million copies internationally. He has received several awards for his work, such as the Rómulo Gallegos Prize (1994), the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award (1997), the International Nonino Prize (2011), and the Austrian State Prize for European Literature (2011). <mask> studied philosophy and literature at the Complutense University of Madrid before going on to teach at several universities, including his alma mater, universities in Oxford and Venice, and Wellesley College in Massachusetts. In 1997, he was awarded the title of King of the Kingdom of Redonda by its predecessor Jon Wynne-Tyson for his understanding of the kingdom and for mentioning the story of one of its previous kings, John Gawsworth, in his novel All Souls (Todas las almas, 1989).Life
<mask> was born in Madrid. His father was the philosopher Julián <mask>, who was briefly imprisoned and then banned from teaching for opposing Franco (the father of the protagonist of Your Face Tomorrow was given a similar biography). <mask> is the fourth of five sons  and spent parts of his childhood in the United States, where his father taught at various institutions, including Yale University and Wellesley College. His mother died when <mask> was 26 years old. His first literary employment consisted in translating Dracula scripts for his maternal uncle, Jesús Franco. He was educated at the Colegio Estudio in Madrid. Writing
Marías began writing in earnest at an early age."The Life and Death of Marcelino Iturriaga", one of the short stories in While the Women are Sleeping (2010), was written when he was just 14. He wrote his first novel, Los dominios del lobo (The Dominions of the Wolf), at the age of 17, after running away to Paris. His second novel, Travesía del horizonte (Voyage Along the Horizon), was an adventure story about an expedition to Antarctica. After attending the Complutense University of Madrid, <mask> turned his attention to translating English novels into Spanish. His translations included work by Updike, Hardy, Conrad, Nabokov, Faulkner, Kipling, James, Stevenson, Browne, and Shakespeare. In 1979 he won the Spanish national award for translation for his version of Sterne's Tristram Shandy. Between 1983 and 1985 he lectured in Spanish literature and translation at the University of Oxford.In 1986 Marías published El hombre sentimental (The Man of Feeling), and in 1988 he published Todas las almas (All Souls), which was set at Oxford University. The Spanish film director Gracia Querejeta released El Último viaje de Robert Rylands, adapted from Todas las almas, in 1996. His 1992 novel Corazón tan blanco was a commercial and critical success and for its English version A Heart So White, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Marías and Costa were joint winners of the 1997 International Dublin Literary Award. His 1994 novel, Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí, whose protagonist is a ghostwriter, won the Venezuelan Rómulo Gallegos Prize. The protagonists of the novels written since 1986 are all interpreters or translators of one kind or another, based on his own experience as a translator and teacher of translation at Oxford University. Of these protagonists, Marías has written, "They are people who are renouncing their own voices." In 2002 Marías published Tu rostro mañana 1.Fiebre y lanza (Your Face Tomorrow 1: Fever and Spear), the first part of a trilogy that is his most ambitious literary project. The first volume is dominated by a translator, an elderly don based on an actual professor emeritus of Spanish studies at Oxford University, Sir Peter Russell. The second volume, Tu rostro mañana 2. Baile y sueño (Your Face Tomorrow 2: Dance and Dream), was published in 2004. In 2007, Marías completed the final installment, Tu rostro mañana 3. Veneno y sombra y adiós (Your Face Tomorrow 3: Poison, Shadow and Farewell). Marías operates a small publishing house under the name of Reino de Redonda.He also writes a weekly column in El País. In 2005-06 an English version of his column, "La Zona Fantasma", appeared in the monthly magazine The Believer. <mask> was elected to Seat R of the Real Academia Española on 29 June 2006. He took up his seat on 27 April 2008. At his investiture he agreed with Robert Louis Stevenson that the work of novelists is "pretty childish," but also argued that it is impossible to narrate real events, and that “you can only fully tell stories about what has never happened, the invented and imagined.”

In 2013, <mask> was awarded the prestigious Prix Formentor. Redonda

<mask>'s novel, Todas las almas (All Souls), included a portrayal of the poet John Gawsworth, who was also the third King of Redonda. Although the fate of this monarchy after the death of Gawsworth is contested, the portrayal by Marías so affected the "reigning" king, Jon Wynne-Tyson, that he abdicated and left the throne to Marías in 1997.This course of events was chronicled in his "false novel," Negra espalda del tiempo (Dark Back of Time). The book was inspired by the reception of Todas las almas by many people who, falsely according to Marías, believed they were the source of the characters in Todas las almas. Since "taking the throne" of Redonda, Marías has begun a publishing imprint named Reino de Redonda ("Kingdom of Redonda"). In addition, Marías created a literary prize, to be judged by the dukes and duchesses. In addition to prize money, the winner receives a duchy. Winners: 2001 – John Maxwell Coetzee (Duke of Deshonra); 2002 – John H. Elliott (Duke of Simancas); 2003 – Claudio Magris (Duke of Segunda Mano); 2004 – Eric Rohmer (Duke of Olalla); 2005 – Alice Munro (Duchess of Ontario); 2006 – Ray Bradbury (Duke of Diente de León); 2007 – George Steiner (Duke of Girona); 2008 – Umberto Eco (Duke of la Isla del Día de Antes); 2009 – Marc Fumaroli (Duke of Houyhnhnms). Awards and honours

 1995: Fastenrath Award (Real Academia Española) for  Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí
 1997: International Dublin Literary Award for A Heart So White
 2011: International Nonino Prize in Italy
 2013: Prix Formentor.2013: National Book Critics Circle Award (fiction) shortlist for The Infatuations
 2021: Elected a Royal Society of Literature International Writer

Bibliography
All English translations by Margaret Jull Costa unless otherwise indicated. Novels
 Los dominios del lobo (1971)
 Travesía del horizonte (1973). Voyage Along the Horizon, translated by Kristina Cordero (McSweeney's, 2006)
 El monarca del tiempo (1978)
 El siglo (1983)
 El hombre sentimental (1986). The Man of Feeling (US: New Directions/UK: The Harvill Press, 2003)
 Todas las almas (1989). All Souls (The Harvill Press, 1992; New Directions, 2000)
Corazón tan blanco (1992). A Heart So White (The Harvill Press, 1995; New Directions, 2002)
 Vidas escritas (1992). Written Lives (US: New Directions/UK: Canongate, 2006).Literary biography. Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí (1994). Tomorrow in the Battle Think on Me (The Harvill Press, 1996; New Directions, 2001)
Negra espalda del tiempo (1998). Dark Back of Time, translated by Esther Allen (New Directions, 2001; Chatto & Windus, 2003)
Tu rostro mañana 1. Fiebre y lanza (2002). Your Face Tomorrow 1: Fever and Spear (US: New Directions/UK: Chatto & Windus, 2005)
 Tu rostro mañana 2. Baile y sueño (2004).Your Face Tomorrow 2: Dance and Dream (US: New Directions/UK: Chatto & Windus, 2006)
 Tu rostro mañana 3. Veneno y sombra y adiós (2007). Your Face Tomorrow 3: Poison, Shadow and Farewell (US: New Directions/UK: Chatto & Windus, 2009)
 Los enamoramientos (2011). The Infatuations (US: Knopf/UK: Hamish Hamilton, 2013)
 Así empieza lo malo (2014). Thus Bad Begins (US: Knopf/UK: Hamish Hamilton, 2016)
 Berta Isla (2017). Berta Isla (US: Knopf/UK: Hamish Hamilton, 2018)
 Tomás Nevinson (2021)

Novellas and short stories

 Mientras ellas duermen (1990). While the Women Are Sleeping (US: New Directions/UK: Chatto & Windus, 2010)
 Cuando fui mortal (1996).When I Was Mortal (The Harvill Press, 1999; New Directions, 2000)
 Mala índole (1996). Bad Nature, or With Elvis in Mexico, translated by Esther Allen (New Directions, 2010)

Anthologies
 Between Eternities & Other Writings (US: Penguin/UK: Hamish Hamilton, 2017). Later compiled in Spanish as Entre Eternidades. Y otros escritos (2018)

Further reading
 Berg, Karen, <mask>'s Postmodern Praxis: Humor and Interplay between Reality and Fiction in his Novels and Essays (2008)
 Cunado, Isabel, El Espectro de la Herencia: La Narrativa de Javier Marías (2004)
 Herzberger, David K. A Companion to <mask>. Rochester, NY: Tamesis Books, 2011. References

External links

 Chelsea Bauch, "Exclusive Q&A: Spanish Author <mask>", 30 November 2009. "Airships" (translated by Margaret Jull Costa), Granta 107, Summer 2009."<mask>s", BBC HardTalk Extra, 3 March 2006. Video
 Wyatt Mason, "A Man Who Wasn't There", The New Yorker, 14 November 2005. "Feeling London's bombs in Madrid", New York Times 11 July 2005. Sarah Emily Miano, "Betrayal of a blood brother", The Observer, 8 May 2005. Aida Edemariam, "Looking for Luisa", The Guardian, 7 May 2005. "How to remember, how to forget", The New York Times, September 11, 2004. "Fewer Scruples", Barcelona Review, No.15, November 1999. "The Limits of Human Memory: On Proust and <mask>s" The Quarterly Conversation, Issue 17. 1951 births
Living people
Writers from Madrid
Spanish male novelists
Spanish translators
English–Spanish translators
Complutense University of Madrid alumni
Members of the Royal Spanish Academy
Micronational leaders
Prix Femina Étranger winners
20th-century Spanish male writers
21st-century Spanish male writers
20th-century Spanish novelists
21st-century Spanish novelists
20th-century translators
21st-century translators
El País columnists

masks:
Javier Marías
Marías
Marías
Javier Marías
Marías
Marías
Javier
Marías
Marías
Marías
Marías
Javier Marías
Javier Marías
Javier Marías
Javier María
Javier María


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<mask> of India, also known as Mar Jacob, was a metropolitan bishop of the St Thomas Christians of Malabar. The history and legends of the East Syriac prelates in India prior to the arrival of European explorers are shrouded in mystery because of the unavailability of surviving documents. The Vatican Syrian codex 22, the oldest surviving Syrian manuscript written in Malabar, specifically mentions an East Syriac bishop who was residing in Malabar at that time. According to this ancient document, (now in the Vatican Library), which was written by a Deacon named Zachariah bar Joseph address Mar Jacob as Metropolitan and director of the holy see of the Apostle St Thomas, the great captain and the director of the entire holy church of India. Introduction. The Christians of St. Thomas became strong enough to achieve independence. Before the coming of the Portuguese, St. Thomas installed Christian rulers of their own (Villarvattom) to be absorbed into the rajahs of Cochin.The metropolitan of Angamali was assisted in the operations of his office by an archdeacon. The archdeacon was selected by the Catholics from the influential Pakalomattom family. Upon the death of the metropolitan, the archdeacon was left with the task of managing the office alone. He petitioned the patriarch to name a successor to the deceased metropolitan. Painting a comprehensive picture of this time in Ancient Indian Christianity remains an insurmountable task. The source material for this dark period, which existed in the East Syriac repositories of Mesopotamia and in the old records of the Indian churches, was destroyed by the Mongol hordes on the one side and by the Portuguese on the other. In fact, the vandalism of the Mongol invasions of the Middle East was only surpassed in this sphere by the repercussions of the Synod of Diamper in 1599.That act of faith simply led to the obliteration of all Indian records, since it was decided to burn all religious manuscripts tainted with the heresy of Nestorius. Thus historic records of The Malabar Church became lost to time. Cardinal Tisserant, however, registers a few minor references bearing upon the later medieval history of that church. The first dates from the fourteenth century, when a copyist named Zaccharias bar joseph bar Zaccharias made an allusion to the Catholicos Yahballaha III (1245–1314) and to Mar Jacob, bishop of India, in 1301. Patriarch Yahballaha III and the Metropolitan Yaʿqob of India. The dating formula in the colophon to a manuscript copied in June 1301 in the church of Mar Quriaqos in Cranganoor mentions the patriarch Yahballaha III (whom it curiously describes as Yahballaha V), and the metropolitan Yaʿqob of India(described as ‘vicar and governor of the seat of the apostle Thomas’, and probably the bishop Yacqob mentioned as the scribe's tutor).. Cranganore, described in this manuscript as 'the royal city', was doubtless the metropolitan seat for India at this time. The scribe was the fourteen-year-old Deacon Zakarya, son of Joseph, son of Zakarya, who is described as ‘the pupil of the bishop Yacqob’.The colophon of the manuscript suggests the ongoing relationship between the churches of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Malabar  and also the consciousness of St Thomas Christians about their apostolic origin. (One important aspect of the identity of the St. Thomas Christians was and continues to be their consciousness of their apostolic origin). This holy book was written in the royal, renowned and famous city of Chingala (Cranganore) in Malabar in the time of the great captain and director of the holy catholic church of the East.. our blessed and holy Father Mar Yahd Alaha V and in the time of bishop Mar Jacob, Metropolitan and director of the holy see of the Apostle Mar Thoma, that is to say, our great captain and the director of the entire holy church of Christian IndiaOrigin of Christianity in India: a historiographical critique By Benedict VadakkekaraThe rise and decline of the Indian Church of the Thomas Christians by Placid J. Podipara page 15

The language used by the scribe about the patriarch Yahballaha III, however, is intriguing. The dating formula reads as follows:When the great governor, the holder of the key of the Holy Apostolic Church of the East and the bright lamp illuminating its territories, the chief of the chief priests, the father of fathers, our blessed and holy father, was Mar Yahballaha the Fifth, the Turk, catholicos-patriarch of the East, the chief region of the world, which guides and illuminates the other regions; who stands above the Catholic Church like a lampstand to give light to all its servants and to dispel its fears.Origin of Christianity in India: a historiographical critique By Benedict Vadakkekara

It is interesting to see the superiority of the East over the West upheld in this formula, as three years later, in 1304, Yahballaha acknowledged the primacy of the Roman Church. Protestant and Catholic scholars have long disputed the significance of this acknowledgement, and it seems likely that Yahballaha's acknowledgement in 1304 meant little in practice. It made sense for Yahballaha to cultivate good relations with Rome, but the recognition by the Church of the East of the primacy of the See of Saint Peter did not, in the eyes of the East Syriacs, give the Western church the right to dictate their beliefs. The colophon of MS Vat Syr 22 is an interesting indication of how the East Syriacs really saw themselves at this period.But there is one puzzling aspect of this colophon. It is not surprising to find the Ongut patriarch Yahballaha III referred to as a ‘Turk’. But it is surprising to find him referred to as ‘Yahballaha the Fifth’. The standard lists of the Easy Syrian patriarchs know only two earlier patriarchs named Yahballaha, viz. Yahballaha I (415–20) and Yahballaha II (1190–1222). None of the known anti-patriarchs were named Yahballaha. Contact with Western missionaries
About the same time, unexpected circumstances briefly provided the Indian Church with western contacts.Two of those visitors stand out as particularly important from the viewpoint of inter-Christian relations. The first was the Dominican Friar Jordan Catalanl of Sevcrar: [d.c. 1336) who, after the first stay in India, prompted Pope John XXII (1361-44] to establish the first Latin-rite diocese in the subcontinent at Quilon. It was, however, a very short-lived attempt. The second was the Franciscan and papal envoy John de Marignolli. who stayed in Quilon for sixteen months In 1348-49. Their reports, as well as those of other such casual visitors, help us to get a clearer picture of Eastern Christianity in India in these centuries. In the 1320s the anonymous biographer of the patriarch Yahballaha III and his friend Rabban Bar Sauma praised the achievement of the Church of the East in converting 'the Indians, Chinese and Turks'.India was listed as one of the Church of the East's 'provinces of the exterior' by the historian ʿAmr in 1348. See also
List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East
Rabban Bar Sauma
Nestorianism and the church in India

References

Sources

14th-century bishops of the Church of the East
Church of the East in India
Syrian bishops


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<mask> (rus. Иван Васильевич Турчанинов); December 24, 1822 – June 18, 1901)  better known by his Anglicised name of <mask>, was a Union Army brigadier general in the American Civil War. He led two critical charges that saved the day at Chickamauga and was among the first to lead soldiers up Missionary Ridge. He was court-martialed for allowing his men to perpetrate the "Sack of Athens," and found guilty of all charges, but President Abraham Lincoln promoted him to brigadier general, which invalidated the verdict, as an officer could only be tried by those of equal or greater rank. Early life and career
<mask> was born on December 24, 1822, or January 30, 1822, into a Don Cossack family in the Russian Empire. He entered the Russian Army in 1843, and graduated from the Imperial Military School in St. Petersburg in 1852. His father was a major in the Imperial Russian Army, which gained him entry into schools that led to his eventual military commission.He later served as a Colonel of Staff in the Russian Guards and fought in Hungary and in the Crimean War. While serving as a lieutenant, he took part in the Russian campaign to help the Austrian Empire suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Following his graduation, <mask> was posted to the staff of Imperial Guards in St. Petersburg, under the command of Count F.V. Rudiger. In May 1856, he married Nadezhda Lvov, the daughter of his commanding officer. Later that year, he and his wife emigrated to the United States, where he eventually settled in Chicago and worked for the Illinois Central Railroad. Civil War
Turchin joined the Union army at the outbreak of the war in 1861 and became the colonel of the 19th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment.Having led his regiment in Missouri and Kentucky, he soon found his unit under the command of Major General Don Carlos Buell in the newly organized Army of the Ohio. Buell was impressed by Turchin and promoted him to command a brigade in the Army of the Ohio's Third Division, commanded by Brigadier General Ormsby M. Mitchel. Buell advanced southward into Kentucky and Tennessee in early 1862. When Buell headed west to support Grant at the Battle of Shiloh, he left Mitchel to hold Nashville. Turchin urged Mitchel to move southward. Mitchel did so, but not because of Turchin. He took Huntsville, Alabama, as part of a plan with the spy James J. Andrews to capture Chattanooga by cutting it off from Confederate reinforcements.Mitchel blocked them from the west by capturing Huntsville. Andrews was to block them from the south by burning bridges on the Western and Atlantic line. Unfortunately, Andrews failed; after the Great Locomotive Chase, all the raiders were captured, and some, including Andrews, were executed. Nonetheless, Mitchell continued to occupy the line westward from Chattanooga throughout much of northern Alabama. The occupation of northern Alabama by this division of the Union Army led to attack by combined partisan and Confederate cavalry units. One such attack overran one of Turchin's regiments at Athens, Alabama. Frustration had been building among these Union soldiers for weeks over repeated attacks and Buell's clearly stated conciliatory policy of protecting the rights and property of Southerners.The reported involvement of local citizens in the rout at Athens and the humiliation suffered by the Union soldiers led to the sacking of the town when Turchin brought up reinforcements. According to University of New Mexico School of Law professor Joshua E. Kastenberg, Southern civilians had fired on Turchin's men. General Joseph Keifer, who served as an ad hoc judge advocate, stated "Turchin did not believe that war could be successfully waged by an invading army with its officers and soldiers acting as missionaries of mercy." After reoccupying the town on May 2, 1862, Turchin assembled his men and reportedly told them, "I shut my eyes for two hours. I see nothing." He did in fact leave the town to reconnoiter defensive positions, during which time his men ransacked the business district. The incident was controversial, and Lost Cause supporters vilified Turchin.When word reached General Buell, a man much detested by the soldiers, he insisted on court-martialing Turchin. The court proceedings received national attention and became a focal point for the debate on the conduct of the war, related to the conciliatory policy as Union casualties in the war mounted. On February 25, 1862, Buell had issued a general order commanding his soldier "to protect the dignity of civilians." As Professor Kastenberg has noted, while Turchin may not have been concerned with the law or war, he certainly was "on notice" of Buell's order. Turchin, according to Kastenberg, had another problem at his court-martial. He requested Colonel Carter Gazlay to serve as his defense counsel, which was unusual since defense counsel was not a right at the time, and Gazlay faced his own court-martial for theft of army property. Also, as Kastenberg points out, Brigadier General James Garfield wrote to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, "I cannot sufficiently give utterance to my horror of the ravages, outrages, that have been committed… this town was, by Col Turchin, given up to pillage."<mask> was ultimately spared an ignominious end because Buell was removed from command for his incompetence. There were three charges against Turchin. He was first accused of "neglect of duty." According to the recitations, there were over twenty or so instances in which Turchin supposedly ordered his soldiers to pillage and plunder Athens, Alabama, without any proper restraints to them. Such instances included the sexual abuse of a servant [meaning slave] girl and the utter decimation of Bibles and testaments, ruthlessly destroyed and burned to pieces in a shop. Many of the other allegations against him included the plundering of ten stores and nine homes. "The rape served as the ultimate example of Turchin's failure" to control his own troops.Under the second charge, Turchin failed to conduct himself in a manner expected of an officer and a gentleman. That mattered to General Buell because under "Article 83 conviction meant automatic dismissal from the service and the end of Turchin's military career." A specification added to this charge included a failure to pay the bill at a hotel. The third charge was a failure to obey orders. It was believed that if Turchin were convicted on that charge, it would send a clear message to the officers in the Army of the Ohio and instill discipline and order within the ranks of the army. When the court-martial began, Garfield had been under the impression that Turchin allowed the things that took place at Athens in accordance with Muscovite custom. Turchin was found guilty of all charges, but the member of the court-martial urged Buell to show clemency.Buell instead ordered he be dismissed from the army. However, <mask>'s wife and others acted on his behalf in Washington, and were able to get Secretary of War Edwin Stanton to recommend his promotion to brigadier general. President Abraham Lincoln promoted him in mid-July. This invalidated the verdict: an officer could only be tried by those of equal or greater rank, and Turchin now outranked six of the seven members of the court. Turchin received a hero's welcome upon his return to Chicago. Prominent figures called for the removal of Buell and a more aggressive conduct of the war to bring it to a swift end. <mask> was given command of a new brigade.He distinguished himself during the battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and in the Atlanta Campaign. <mask>'s wife, known in the army as <mask>, always stood by him and followed her husband on the field during his campaigns, witnessing the battles (as at Chickamauga and at the Battle of Missionary Ridge), and writing the only woman's war diary of the military campaigns. The song "Turchin's got your mule" (stemming from the catchphrase "Here's your mule") was popular during the war, and its chorus is said to have been used by disheartened troopers as a derisive answer to General Braxton Bragg's endearments at Missionary Ridge. Turchin resigned from service in October 1864 after suffering heatstroke on the campaign. Postbellum career and legacy

<mask> returned to Chicago and worked for a time as a patent solicitor and civil engineer. He later was involved in real estate and the settlement of immigrants in southern Illinois. In 1900, he was awarded a pension under a private pension act approved by Congress.He suffered severe dementia, attributed to his heatstroke, and died penniless in an institution in Anna, Illinois, at the age of 79. He is buried next to his wife in the Mound City National Cemetery in southern Illinois. <mask> has been portrayed by many in the South as a villainous figure for the so-called "Rape of Athens," but his actions presaged those that other Union commanders, particularly William Tecumseh Sherman, would adopt in prosecuting total war against the Confederate States. See also

 List of American Civil War generals (Union)

Notes

References
 Bradley, George C., and Dahlen, Richard L., From Conciliation to Conquest. The Sack of Athens and the Court-Martial of Colonel John B<mask> (U of Alabama, 2006)
 Casstevens, Frances Harding. Tales from the North and the South: Twenty-Four Remarkable People and Events of the Civil War. Jefferson, NC.: McFarland & Co., 2007. Chicoine, Stephen, John Basil <mask> and the Fight to Free the Slaves (Praeger, 2003)
 Cozzens, Peter. This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. East, Ernest E. "Lincoln's Russian General", Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, Vol. 52, No. 1, Lincoln Sesquicentennial (Spring, 1959), pp.106–122
 Haynie, J. Henry. The Nineteenth Illinois: A Memoir of the Regiment of Volunteer Infantry Famous in the Civil War of Fifty Years Ago for Its Drill, Bravery, and Distinguished Services. (M.A. Donohue & Co., 1912)
 Mcelligott, Mary Ellen. "A Monotony Full of Sadness": The Diary of Nadine Turchin, May, 1863–April, 1864", Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, Vol. 70, No. 1 (Feb., 1977), pp.27–89
 Treichel, James A. Union Cossack: General John B<mask>'s Career in the American Civil War. Thesis (M.A. ), Marquette University, 1962. External links

  From Conciliation to Conquest, the book on the Turchin Court Martial
 Turchin biography: John Basil Turchin and the Fight to Free the Slaves
 The Tale of <mask>nov
 <mask>, Union's Russian General

1822 births
1901 deaths
Union Army generals
United States Army personnel who were court-martialed
Russian military personnel of the Crimean War
American Cossacks
Don Cossacks
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
People from Chicago
People from Union County, Illinois
People of Illinois in the American Civil War

masks:
Ivan Vasilyevich Turchaninov
John Basil Turchin
Ivan Turchin
Turchin
Turchin
Turchin
Turchin
Turchin
Madame Turchin
Turchin
Turchin
. Turchin
Turchin
. Turchin
Ivan Turchani
Ivan Turchaninov


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<mask> Ph.D. (January 9, 1870 – November 13, 1935) was an American classical scholar. Career overview
<mask> was born in Brookfield, Wisconsin in 1870. He was educated at Carroll College and at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he worked as instructor in Latin (1900–1909), and from 1909 until his death as professor of classics. <mask> House in Kronshage Hall is named after him. Works
 With the Professor, Henry Holt and Company, 1910. Horace and His Influence, The Plimpton Press, 1922. Eternal Rome, 2 Vol., Yale University Press, 1924.Rome and the Romans; A Survey and Interpretation, The Macmillan Company, 1931. Monuments and Men of Ancient Rome, D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935. Selected articles

 "Was Attis at Rome under the Republic?," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. XXXI, 1900. "Cicero's Appreciation of Greek Art," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. XXXIV, 1903. "The American College Course," Educational Review, September 1903."Eastern Education Thru Western Eyes," Educational Review, Vol. XXX, December 1905. "A Professorial Meditation," Scribner's Magazine, Vol. XL, July/December 1906. "Mud and Nails," Educational Review, Vol. XXXV, May 1908. "College Professors Exposed," Educational Review, Vol.XXXVI, June/December 1908. "The Ancient Religions in Universal History," American Journal of Philology, Vol. XXIX, No. 114, 1908. "A Professorial Recantation," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVIII, June 1909. "The Making of a Professor," Atlantic Monthly, Vol.CIV, November 1909. "The Literary History of Rome," The Dial, Vol. XLVII, July/December 1909. "Philosophy of Trimmings," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CV, 1910. "Peace and the Professor," Part II, The Kindergarten-Primary Magazine, Vol. XXIII, September 1910/June 1911."Introduction to Study of Greek Mythology." In The World's Progress, Part II, The Delphian Society, 1911. "The Foxfielders at School," Educational Review, Vol. XLI, January 1911. "The Ancients Illuminated," The Dial, Vol. L, January/June 1911. "Let's us Have Peace!," The Dial, Vol.L, January/June 1911. "The Ferreresque Style of Writing History," The Dial, Vol. LI, July/December 1911. "The Making of a Democrat," The Yale Review, Vol. I, 1911/1912. "The Glory that was Greece," The Dial, Vol. LII, January/June 1912."Roman Religious Experience," The Dial, Vol. LII, January/June 1912. "Life and Letters," Educational Review, Vol. XLV, February 1913. "Sunday in Andalusia," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CXIII, 1914. "The Democrat Reflects," The Unpopular Review, Vol.I, January/June 1914. "The Story of a Microbophobiac," The Unpopular Review, Vol. I, January/June 1914. "The Case for Pigeon-Holes," The Unpopular Review, Vol. I, January/June 1914. "A Critic of Democracy," The Dial, Vol. LVII, July/December 1914."Balzac and Flaubert," The Dial, Vol. LVII, July/December 1914. "The Republic of Megaphon," The Unpopular Review, Vol. II, No. 4, October/December 1914. "Fitness First," The Methodist Review, Vol. XXXI, January/February 1915."The Liberal Arts and Scientific Management," The Popular Science Monthly, June 1915. "Valencia, and May," The Catholic World, Vol. CI, April/September 1915. "The Drama Movement," The Dial, Vol. LVIII, January/June 1915. "The Great Vocation," The Dial, Vol. LIX, June/December 1915."The New Painting," The Dial, Vol. LIX, June/December 1915. "The Way of the Translator," The Unpopular Review, Vol. V, No. 9, January/March 1916. "The Acceptable Year of the Lord," The Dial, Vol. LX, January/June 1916."Painting and the Public," The Dial, Vol. LX, January/June 1916. "Sixty Years of the American Stage," The Dial, Vol. LXI, June/December 1916. "Modest Modernist Papers," Part II, The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, January/June 1917. "Smith, Smoke and the War," The New Republic, February 1918.“Machine and Man,” The Unpopular Review, Vol. IX, No. 18, April/June 1918. "Theophrastus up to Date," The Bookman, Vol. XLVII, March/August 1918. "The Ethernal City." In Classical Studies in Honor of Charles Foster Smith, Madison, 1919."Measuring the Immeasurable," The Nation, No. 109, July 1919. "The Professor and the Pipes," The Unpopular Review, Vol. XI, No. 22, April/June 1919. "The Pope's Last Appearance," University of California Chronicle, Vol. XXIV, 1922."The Dead and the Quick in Eternal Home," The Independent, Vol. CVIII, January/June 1922. "Music Before a Roman Jury," The Independent, Vol. CIX, July/December 1922. "The Struggle for Liberty," University of California Chronicle, 1926. "Heckling the College," School and Society, Vol. XXIV, July/December 1926."The Liberal College," School and Society, Vol. XXV, January/June 1927. "Art and Decency," The Yale Review, Vol. XI, 1922. "A Most Lamentable Comedy," School and Society, Vol. XXXIII, April 1931. Other publications
 "Attis."In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. II, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. "Criobolium." In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IV, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. "Cybele." In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.IV, Charles Scribner's Sons, 19089. "Death and Disposal of the Dead." In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IV, Charles Scribner's Sons, 19098. Franz Cumont, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, with an introductory essay by <mask>, Open Court Pub. Co., 1911. "Isis."In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, 1914. "Martial's Epigrams." In: Encyclopædia Americana, Vol. XVIII, 1919. "Taurobolium.” In: Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XII, 1921.References

Further reading
 Bassett, H. J., et al. (1936). "In Memoriam: <mask>," The Classical Journal, Vol. 31, No. 9. Oldfather, W. A. (1936)."In Memoriam: <mask> of Wisconsin and Rome," The American Scholar, No. 5, September. External links

 Works by <mask>, at Hathi Trust
 Works by <mask>, at Harper's Magazine
 Works by <mask>, at JSTOR

American classical scholars
People from Brookfield, Wisconsin
Carroll University alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Classical scholars of the University of Wisconsin–Madison
Writers from Wisconsin
1870 births
1935 deaths

masks:
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman
Showerman
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman
Grant Showerman


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This is about the racing driver, for the Norwegian geologist with a similarly spelled name go to <mask>

<mask> (17 May 1913 – 27 August 2007) was a Swiss racing driver, a novelist, and an internationally prominent activist against animal experiments and vivisection. <mask> has been described as a pioneer of the anti-vivisection movement. <mask> was born in Naples to an Italian-speaking Swiss mother and a German-speaking Swiss father. He lived the first 14 years of his life in Naples, where his father was a textile industrialist and a specialist in Pompeian Art. <mask> attended boarding school in Switzerland. He then studied law at the University of Zurich but dropped out in 1932 to join the racing circuit. After World War II, in 1946, <mask> left the United States and returned to Naples.He married Maria Luisa de la Feld in 1949. They separated in the early 1970s and Maria Luisa died in 2006. <mask> died of cancer at his home in Lugano, Switzerland. He was 94. He is survived by his daughter, <mask> Mellon of Manhattan, his sons, <mask>. <mask> and <mask>, of Switzerland, and five grandchildren, Diana Mellon, Angela Mellon, Sarah Mellon, <mask> and <mask>. Racing career
He began racing in 1932 with MG at the Klausenrennen when he was 19. During the 1930s, he drove several Alfa Romeo and Maserati racing and sports cars at many smaller events throughout Europe.<mask> drove a Maserati 8CM 1934 and a Maserati 4CS in 1935 and 1936, followed by an Alfa Romeo GP car in 1936 and 1937. He also took part in the 1937 South Africa series. He competed in more than 100 races in Europe and South Africa, winning 27 races. During the early fifties, he drove a Ferrari 4.1-litre MM sports car. Writing and film career
In the late 1930s, <mask> moved to the United States, publishing short fiction in popular magazines. In 1946, he returned to Naples to continue writing. His most popular novels include Top of the World (Harper, 1950),  The Racer (Ballantine, 1953), and South of the Heart: A Novel of Modern Arabia (Coward-McCann, 1957).In The New York Times Book Review review of Top of the World, Max Eastman called Mr. <mask> "a born storyteller," and the novel is "a brilliant feat of poetic imagination." Ironically, <mask> had never seen an Eskimo. He based his story on the Oscar-winning film Eskimo (1933), directed by W.S. van Dyke. Director Nicholas Ray wrote the screenplay for the movie of <mask>'s novel, Top of the World. It debuted in Europe under the name, Ombre bianche. In 1961, it was released in the United States as The Savage Innocents.Anthony Quinn starred as Inuk, an Inuit (formerly Eskimo), who has had little contact with white men. At a trading post, Inuk accidentally kills a missionary, who insulted him by refusing the traditional Inuit (sexual) hospitality of wife-sharing. Inuk is pursued by a Javert-like police trooper, Peter O'Toole, in his first movie role. Mr. O'Toole refused to be credited with this movie, because his voice was dubbed. This movie was nominated for the Golden Palm award at the 1960 Cannes Film Festival. Drawing on his experiences in European auto racing, <mask> wrote the novel The Racer. It was released as the film The Racers (1955).Kirk Douglas starred as Gino Borgesa, a reckless Formula One driver, ensnared by speed, adrenaline, and a Hollywood 1950s romance. The movie was shot at several classic circuits, including Monaco, the Nürburgring, the Mille Miglia, and Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, with the climactic race at Reims-Gueux. Activism career
<mask> was internationally known as an outspoken advocate against vivisection and other forms of animal testing. An animal lover since his childhood, he became an activist against animal testing, while living in Rome. <mask> did not believe that medical research could benefit by using such methods. Instead, <mask> insisted that medicine was led dangerously astray by what he saw as pseudo-science, and a fatally false methodology. He argued that rabbits, mice, rats and other animals are not anatomically and physiologically similar to humans and drew upon numerous statements from doctors and researchers in support of his stance (see his work, 1,000 Doctors and More Against Vivisection).Therefore, such animal testing cannot reliably predict physiological reactions in humans. In 1974, he founded the Center for Scientific Information on Vivisection (CIVIS) and devoted the rest of his life to the abolition of vivisection. In the 1970s, <mask> started writing exposés of the animal testing and research industry. He wrote the Slaughter of the Innocent (Bantam, 1978) and the Naked Empress, or The Great Medical Fraud, as well as publishing "The International Foundation Report Dedicated to the Abolition of Vivisection." Slaughter of the Innocent (Civitas Publications, 1983) is credited with promoting and strengthening the animal-rights movement in the U.S. and abroad. There is potential confusion concerning <mask>'s first two books denouncing vivisection. His first book on the subject was written and published in European countries with a title in each language that would translate into English as "The Naked Empress."(<mask> was multilingual, and he wrote the translations himself.) When this same work was to be published in England, the title was changed, at the publisher's request, to "Slaughter of the Innocent", and that is the title used when the book was subsequently issued (by Civitas) in the United States. Some years later, <mask> wrote a second book criticising vivisection, in English, which was released (again, by Civitas) in the United States, with the title "The Naked Empress, or the Great Medical Fraud". Whereas the first book focused on vivisection as a barbaric and unscientific means of obtaining medical knowledge, the second book focused on the profit motives of the medical-pharmaceutical industry in perpetuating vivisection. To summarise, the book known by the English title "The Naked Empress" is a different book to the one published earlier in Europe with that same title in other languages but known in English as "Slaughter of the Innocent". (This information is provided by the original organiser of Civitas.) Selective bibliography

Novels

 Top of the World series:
 Top of the World (1950) ()
 Back to the Top of the World (1973)
 The Racer (1953)
 Com'esser poverli (1956)
 South of the Heart: A Novel of Modern Arabia, AKA The Great Thirst, AKA The Arab (1957)
 The Game (1961)
 I mammà e papà (1962)
 The Stealers (1962)
 Make a Fortune (1967)

Nonfiction

 Naked Empress, or the Great Medical Fraud (Imperatrice nuda.La scienza medica attuale sotto accusa) (1976)
 Die Fälscher Der Wissenschaft: Techn. Rapport (1979)
 Slaughter of the Innocent (1978)
 I Falsari della Scienza (1980)
  1000 Doctors (And Many More) Against Vivisection (1989)
 La medicina smascherata: L'antivivisezionismo come esperienza politica (2005)
 La figlia dell'imperatrice: La grande industria della malattia (2005)

Filmography

 The Racers (1955)
 as Such Men Are Dangerous (UK)
 "The 20th Century-Fox Hour" (1 episode, 1956)
 Fox Hour of Stars (USA: rerun title) - Men Against Speed (1956) TV Episode based on the novel The Racer
 The Savage Innocents (1960) based on the novel Top of the World
 Black Gold (2012) based on the novel South of the Heart: A Novel of Modern Arabia / The Great Thirst / The Arab

References

External links

Obituary in The Times
Homepage (Italian language)
Schweizer Autor und Pharmakritiker gestorben (German language; "author and pharmaceutical critic")
Biography

1913 births
2007 deaths
Animal rights scholars
Anti-vivisectionists
Grand Prix drivers
European Championship drivers
Swiss animal rights activists
Swiss racing drivers

masks:
Hans Reusch
Hans Ruesch
Ruesch
Family Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Hans Ruesch
Vivian Ruesch
Hans Jr
Ruesch
Peter Ruesch
Jessica Ruesch
Gina Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Hans Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch
Ruesch


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<mask><mask>, is an economist and physician who has been on the faculty of the Economics Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1977. He received an AB (summa cum laude, 1969) from Harvard University, as well as an MD (1974) and a PhD in Economics (1975) from the University of Pennsylvania. Having trained in internal medicine at the Massachusetts General Hospital (1974-1977), he maintained a medical practice at that institution until 2006. Since then, he has continued to practice as an internist at federally sponsored community health centers in Rhode Island, where the majority of his patients have poverty-level incomes and are not fluent in English. Research
<mask> has published widely on smoking and health, the economics of smoking and public policy toward the tobacco industry, HIV/AIDS, health economics, as well as economics and statistics generally. He is author of Deadly Choices: Coping with Health Risks in Everyday Life. Research publications

Williamson-Wachter-<mask> (1975)
As a graduate student, <mask> collaborated with his doctoral thesis adviser, Oliver E. Williamson (Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2008), in an article entitled Understanding the Employment Relation: The Analysis of Idiosyncratic Exchange.This article (294 Web of Science (WoS) citations, 928 Google Scholar (GS) citations) was subsequently reproduced in several collections, including Williamson's Markets and Hierarchies (1975). The article has been described as "the first explicit application of the new institutional economics to internal labor markets." The Internal Organization of Hospitals (1977)
Based upon <mask>' training in the economics of organization and his experiences as a medical resident, this article (149 WoS citations, 411 GS citations) has been listed as one of the top articles in the last four decades of scholarship in health economics. Reproduced in several collections, the article was cited in the first generation of health economics textbooks as the Harris Model: "The hospital, under <mask>' account, is the scene of continual conflict within an organization inherently split into two parts, what <mask> describes as a noncooperative oligopoly game." DuMouchel-<mask> (1983)
Based upon his participation in the Diesel Impacts Study Committee of the National Academy of Sciences, <mask> collaborated with William H. DuMouchel in an article entitled Bayes Methods for Combining the Results of Cancer Studies in Humans and Other Species (181 WoS citations, 228 GS citations). As recounted by Sharon Bertsch McGrayne in The Theory That Would Not Die, "Several civilian researchers tackling hitherto intractable problems concerning public health, sociology, epidemiology, and image restoration did experiment during the 1980s with computers for Bayes. A major controversy about the effect of diesel engine emissions on air quality and cancer inspired the first attempt.By the 1980s cancer specialists had solid data about the effects of cigarette smoke on people, laboratory animals, and cells but little accurate information about diesel fumes. William H. DuMouchel from MIT’s mathematics department and <mask><mask> from its economics department and Massachusetts General Hospital teamed up in 1983 to ask, 'Could you borrow and extrapolate and take advantage of information from non-human species for humans?' ... Thanks to mice and hamster studies, DuMouchel and <mask> were able to conclude that even if light-duty diesel vehicles captured a 25% market share over 20 years, the risk of lung cancer would be negligible for the typical urban resident compared to the typical pack-a-day cigarette smoker. ... Today, Bayesian meta-analyses are statistically old hat, but DuMouchel and <mask> made Bayesians salivate for more big-data methods—and for the computing power to deal with them." Cigarette smoking among successive birth cohorts (1983)
Motivated by his contributions to the 1979 and 1980 Surgeon General’s Reports, <mask> developed a method to reconstruct the smoking rates of successive birth cohorts of men and women throughout the 20th century, based upon individual smoking histories reported in large-scale cross-section surveys. The resulting article, published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute in 1983 (148 Wos citations, 210 GS citations), spawned a series of studies tracking the birth cohort-specific relationships between smoking rates and disease incidence.Improved short-term survival from AIDS (1990)
In an article entitled Improved Short-Term Survival of AIDS Patients Initially Diagnosed with Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia, 1984 through 1987 (101 WoS citations, 131 GS citations), <mask> was one of the first investigators to report a significant gain in life expectancy for AIDS patients, which he attributed to the introduction in 1986 of zidovudine, the first antiretroviral agent. Risk of lung cancer from low tar cigarettes (2004)
<mask> collaborated with Dr. Michael Thun and his colleagues at the American Cancer Society to study the relationship between cigarette tar yield and the risk of cancer in the Cancer Prevention Study II (CPS-II) cohort (57 WoS citations, 136 GS citations, 36,000 downloads from British Medical Journal website). This prospective cohort study of over 900,000 men and women remains the standard citation for the conclusion that, while cigarette smoking increases the risk of lung cancer compared to nonsmokers, there is no difference in lung cancer risk between those who smoke medium tar cigarettes, low tar cigarettes and very low tar cigarettes. Public service
<mask> has served as Consulting Scientific Editor, Contributor, and Senior Reviewer to U.S. Surgeon General's Reports on Smoking and Health (1979–1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1996). He has served as a member of several committees of the National Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Medicine, including the Diesel Impacts Study Committee, the Committee to Study the Prevention of Low Birth Weight, the Committee on National Strategies toward Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, the Committee on Risk Characterization, and the Committee on Reducing Tobacco Use. Harris has served as consultant to governmental agencies, including the U.S. National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Federal Trade Commission, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Internal Revenue Service, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Minnesota Attorney General, New York City Department of Health, New Hampshire Association of Counties, the Attorney General of Canada, and the Australian Competition and Consumer Safety Commission.He has consulted for nonprofit public interest organizations, including the American Cancer Society. He has also served as a physician member of the Massachusetts Board of Registration in Medicine (1978-1980). Expert testimony
<mask> has given invited testimony before the Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of Representatives; the Committee of the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives; the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee; the U.S. Senate Committee on Agriculture; the U.S. Senate Democratic Task Force; and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. In 2003, he gave expert testimony in Price v. Philip Morris, a class-action lawsuit alleging fraud in the marketing and sale concerning light cigarettes, in which the trial court entered a $10.1 billion judgment against the defendant. In 2004, he gave expert testimony in United States v. Philip Morris et al., in which the trial court found that tobacco manufacturers had violated the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act. <mask> has offered expert testimony in other cases involving the tobacco and pharmaceutical industries. Cipollone v. Liggett (1988)
<mask>’ role as an expert witness at trial in Cipollone v. Liggett, the first lawsuit in which a jury held the tobacco industry responsible for an individual smoker's death, has been subject to reviews.As recounted by Richard Kluger in his Pulitzer Prize-winning Ashes to Ashes: "<mask> tellingly contrasted the tobacco companies' conduct with that of the canning industry, which had adopted new sterilizing methods when botulism was traced to its careless procedures, and the pharmaceutical industry, which had put a skull-and-crossbones warning on preparations found to be toxic when ingested. Such measures were in marked contrast to the conduct of Philip Morris, <mask> said, which in the 'Thirties had introduced the humectant diethylene glycol-- a compound later found to be harmful to the kidneys-- based on a minimum of testing..." <mask>' unpublished Expert Report on the State of the Art, which was submitted in the Cipollone litigation, itself spawned an inquiry into the role of historians as experts in tobacco-related litigation. As recounted by Robert Proctor in Golden Holocaust, "In a memo titled 'Witness Development,' Arnold & Porter's Janet L. Johnson emphasized to STIC's State-of-the-Art Subcomittee their need to develop a 'storyteller' to tell 'our version' of the history of the recognition of tobacco hazards. <mask>'s expert report for Cipollone had presented a detailed chronicle of the discovery of lung cancer hazard, identifying evidence from the 1930s and the strong case for proof by 1957. The industry wanted to counter the testimony without having to address when a link had actually been established. 'Instead of trying to defend the issue of whether and when a link between cigarette smoking and lung cancer was established, we should consider focusing our testimony on defending 1954, attacking <mask>' 1957 date on which a link was 'proven,' and demonstrate that it was not proven in 1957 with post-57 statements by medical experts about the existence of a controversy'." Hispanic collaborations
Since he spent the summer of 2005 in a community health center in Guatemala, <mask> has developed connections with researchers and policy makers throughout the Spanish-speaking world.He has served as visiting faculty and has given lectures, principally in Spanish, in Guatemala (Universidad Francisco Marroquin), Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública), the Dominican Republic (Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, Universidad Tecnológica de Santiago), Spain (University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, University of La Laguna, University of Salamanca, Pompeu Fabra University),  Costa Rica (Instituto Costarricense de Investigación y Enseñanza en Nutrición y Salud, University of Costa Rica), Uruguay (Fondo Nacional de Recursos, University of the Republic) and Chile (University of Chile, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile). In 2008, <mask> was named Huésped Distinguido (Distinguished Guest and Honorary Citizen), City of Salamanca, Spain. In 2011, he received a Fulbright Specialist Award from the U.S. Department of State to establish collaborative connections with academic colleagues in Uruguay. His recent collaborative research work includes studies of physician specialty choice in Spain and the evaluation of Uruguay's tobacco control campaign. Since 2013, he has embarked on a series of collaborative projects in Chile sponsored by the MIT Sloan Latin America Office and the MIT MISTI/Chile Program. References

American public health doctors
Tobacco researchers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Physicians of Massachusetts General Hospital
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty
Harvard University alumni
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Scientists from Massachusetts
Smoking in the United States
Tobacco in Mexico
20th-century American physicians
21st-century American physicians
20th-century American economists
21st-century American economists

masks:
Jeffrey E
. Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Jeffrey E
. Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris
Jeffrey Harris
Harris
Harris
Harris


text_chunks:
<mask> (?–1871) was twice Mexican governor of Alta California from 1825 to 1831 and again from 1832 to 1833. He was the only governor of California that lived in San Diego. Personal life
At the college of engineers in Mexico City, he was a Lieutenant-Colonel. He move to Mexico at appointment, leaving his wife and four daughters in Mexico with an olive oil mill he owned. He asked Mexico to give half of his government pay to his Wife. In 1855 he returned to Mexico to find his wife was paid no money and his mill not doing well, with his fortunes turned and he found himself poor. In 1835 there was an earthquake.Being an engineer he was in demand to repair the many damaged buildings and was able to get out of poverty. Antonio López <mask> Anna arrested him in 1855 for a political reasons on something <mask> negatively said about him, but he was then released. He returned to California and lived there with his daughters, even after the U.S. takeover in 1847 he continued in California until his death in 1871. He had step-daughters to care for him in his old age. Governor

In 1825 <mask> was appointed Governor of both lower Baja and upper Alta California. He moved to Monterey, California as this was the current capital. Not liking the cold fog and that he felt too far away from Baja, he moved to San Diego.Most of the administrative office stayed in Monterey. Much of the north Californio were not happy with this absent leader. He appointed Military officer <mask> Padré as a Lit. Governor of Baja California. Padré was elected to Mexico's congress in 1828. Padré appointed a lower level office in his place, but his did not go over well. In 1829 Manuel Victoria was sent to be the governor Baja California.Victoria was more on the side of the missions over the new rancho and Californio. In 1826 Governor <mask> had Jedediah Smith and his men "arrested", interviewed, released and ordered to depart California. As he was fearful that Smith's reports would open the area to Americans. Echeandía reduced the area and time span of Russians sea otter hunting off the coast of California, that his predecessor Luis Antonio Argüello had licensed to the Russians. In 1827 Echeandía did not deport Father <mask>a a priest of the Mission San Juan Capistrano. Barona supported Independence of Mexico; but would not swear an oath of allegiance to the republic of Mexico. The Mexican government passed legislation on December 20, 1827, that mandated the expulsion of all Spaniards younger than sixty years of age from Mexican territories; Governor <mask> nevertheless intervened on Barona's behalf in order to prevent his deportation once the law of took effect in California.In 1828 Echeandía issued the first truancy law of California. It ordered the commanding officers to compel parents to send their children to the schools which he had established. In 1829, throughout Alta California, there were 339 students in 11 primary schools. During this time a noted educator in San Diego was Friar <mask> and his 18 pupils. Private schools operated throughout this time in California also. After Victoria's removal Echeandía started serving as provisional governor of the south part of California from 1832 to 1833. Agustin V. Zamorano from 1832 to 1833 was provisional governor of north part of California.This was due to the removal of Victoria. The removal was in part due to a military uprising revolt and the Battle of Cahuenga Pass and Victoria was not liked by the rich. In 1829 soldiers who had not been paid for years marched south starting in Monterey. Echeandía heard about the unrest and had his troops stop them just before Santa Barbara. In 1829 Estanislao, an indigenous alcalde, of Mission San José and a member and leader of the Lakisamni tribe of the Yokut people of northern California lead a bands of armed Native Americans in revolt against the California Mexican government. Estanislao led many raids against Mexican settlers. Echeandía send troops led by Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo to battle him in the San Joaquin Valley but did not win.In 1833, malaria was introduced into the San Joaquin Valley by Canadian beaver trappers from the Hudson's Bay Company. More than 20,000 California natives died from malaria in 1833 including many Yokuts, Chumash, Miwok and others, thus ending the revolts. Governor <mask> arrived from Mexico in 1833, resolving the north–south political struggle and replaced Echeandía on January 14, 1833. Figueroa continued the secularization of missions and giving out of Mexican land grants. Proclamation of Emancipation

Echeandía as the first native Mexican elected Governor of Alta California issued a "Proclamation of Emancipation"  (or "Prevenciónes de Emancipacion") on July 25, 1826. All Indians within the military districts of San Diego Mission, Santa Barbara, and Monterey who were found qualified were freed from missionary rule and made eligible to become Mexican citizens. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage (guardianship) were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment.By 1830 even those new to California appeared confident in their own abilities to operate the mission ranches and farms independently; the padres, however, doubted the capabilities of their charges in this regard. In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control in all of Upper-Alta California was about 18,683 and about 4,342 of garrison soldiers, free settlers, and "other classes" totaled 4,342. New immigration of both Mexican and foreigners, increased pressure on the Alta California government to seize the mission properties and dispossess the natives in accordance with <mask>'s directive. Despite the fact that <mask>'s emancipation plan was met with little encouragement from the newcomers who populated the southern missions, he was nonetheless determined to test the scheme on a large scale at Mission San Juan Capistrano. To that end, he appointed a number of comisionados (commissioners) to oversee the emancipation of the Indians. The Mexican government passed legislation on December 20, 1827 that mandated the expulsion of all Spaniards younger than sixty years of age from Mexican territories; Governor <mask> nevertheless intervened on behalf of some of the Spanish-born Franciscans missionaries in order to prevent their deportation once the law took effect in California. he knew this would leave most missions without missionaries priests.In 1830 as Governor he had Father Martinez arrested on charge of treason, and banished the Father from the Mexican territories. Mission secularization

Echeandía supported the Mexican secularization act of 1833 put on the Alta California missions. The act started the redistribution of the land holdings of the church to land grant ranchos. <mask> did not take any Ranchos for himself. While the secularization act was passed after <mask> departed office. In 1827, one of his sub lieutenant <mask> Sánchez, who was stationed at the Presidio of San Francisco, was granted permission by Echeandía to occupy the a rancho, Rancho Buri Buri, for "grazing and agricultural purposes" on the Mission San Francisco de Asís's Mission Dolores lands. The land later was granted to him in 1835, by Governor <mask> Pico, land of

In 1827 he made a land grant of Rancho El Rosario on Baja California, to Don <mask> Machado, one of the first soldiers stationed at the Presidio of San Diego. In 1828 he granted Rancho La Brea land of   in present-day Los Angeles County, California. The land was given to Antonio Jose Rocha and Nemisio Dominguez by <mask> Carrillo, the Alcalde of Los Angeles. Rancho La Brea consisted of one square league of land of what is now Wilshire's Miracle Mile, Hollywood, and parts of West Hollywood. The grant included the famous La Brea Tar Pits. In 1829 Echeandía made a land grant of Rancho Tía Juana to Santiago Arguello, paymaster at the Presidio of San Diego and part of the revolt against Governor Manuel Victoria. It covered 26,019.53 acres in what is now Tijuana and parts of San Ysidro in San Diego.In 1829 Echeandía gave a land grant to Rancho Janal of  in present-day San Diego County. The grant was to <mask> Estudillo a lieutenant at the Presidio of San Diego. The grant was located near present-day Otay Mesa. Even though <mask> had already been replaced as governor, he still appointed  Alvarado to oversee the secularization of Mission San Miguel. The new governor, Manuel Victoria rescinded the order and wanted Alvarado and Castro arrested. The pair fled and were hidden by their old friend Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, who was now adjutant at the Presidio of San Francisco. However, Victoria's rule proved to be unpopular and he was overthrown by <mask>, then replaced by Pío Pico at the end of 1831.In 1829 he grants land of Rancho Tecate to Juan Bandini. The  grant was for 4,439 acres (18 km2) of land in the valley of Tecate in  Baja California, near San Diego. A grant to Juan Bandini is recorded as being completed for Rancho Cañada de Tecate on July 12, 1834 under governor <mask>roa. He granted Rancho Temescal in present-day Riverside County, California to Leandro Serrano. The actor Ben Wright played Governor Echeandia in the 1960 episode "Forbidden Wedding" of the syndicated television anthology series Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story line, Echeandia objects to the wedding of a young woman who once spurned his affections. See also
List of pre-statehood governors of California
List of Ranchos of California
Rancho Suey
Henry D. Fitch
William Edward Petty Hartnell
Agustín V. Zamorano - Secretary of State to Governor <mask> <mask>.References

Californios
American politicians of Mexican descent
Politicians from San Francisco
Year of birth missing
1871 deaths
Governors of Mexican California

masks:
José María de Echeandía
de Santa
Echeandía
Echeandía
José María
Echeandía
José Baron
Echeandía
Antonio Menendez
José Figueroa
Echeandía
Echeandía
Echeandía
Echeandía
Echeandía
José Antonio
José Castroío
José Manuel
José Antonio
José Antonio
Echeandía
Echeandía
José Figue
José María
Echeandía


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<mask> Prakash Bhasin Award. The Government of India awarded him the fourth highest civilian honour of the Padma Shri in 1992. Biography
<mask> was born on 1 February 1930 to Lokanayaki and G. R<mask>, a freedom fighter, at a small hamlet in Tirunelveli district by name, Tenkasi, in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. His early education was at the local village school after which he did his intermediate (higher secondary) from St. Xavier's College, Palayamkottai. At Alagappa Chettiar College, Karaikudi, where he joined for his graduate studies, he had the opportunity to learn under S. Doraisamy, an algologist and a protégé of M. O. P. Iyengar, a renowned phycologist. His master's degree came from Banaras Hindu University and, on getting a Government of India fellowship, he pursued doctoral studies under the guidance of Y. Bharadwaja and secured a PhD and DSc from the same university.His career started as an Assistant Botanist at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in 1956. With the guidance of M. S. Randhawa, then Vice-President of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, he established an algal research centre at the institute which is known to have conducted research on Algae and published several research papers and books on the subject. Through his researches, he established the role of algae in agriculture as a nitrogen fixing agent which was accepted by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), among others. He also initiated master's and doctoral courses in Agricultural Phycology at the institute to foster research and for training manpower. Supported by a grant from the Department of Biotechnology, he also established a national facility for the collection and distribution of Blue-green algae (BGA) cultures. When the Department of Science and Technology initiated a national level project on Algae for fertilizer, feed and fuel in 1976, Venkataraman was selected to head the project as its director. The project, which had state and central participation, is reported to have been successful in the dissemination knowledge on BGA bio-fertilizers among Indian farming community.His studies revealed the importance of rice strain selection as he maintained that different strains have differing ability and adaptability vis-à-vis soil conditions, resistance to pesticides and insensitivity to sources of nitrogen like nitrates and Ammonium. He demonstrated the transfer of fixed nitrogen from algae to rice plants using 15N. He also developed a method for the in situ production of the BGA bio-fertilizer which he later improved by growing pure cultures of BGA on solid organic substrates, an achievement during his days at the School of Biological Sciences of Madurai Kamaraj University. <mask>'s book, The Cultivation of Algae, published by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1969, is a monograph on the culture and cultivation of algae while the 1974 publication, Algae: form and function, and Vaucheriaceae, deal with the scientific aspects of Algae. Two other books, Algal biofertilizers and rice cultivation and Blue-green algae for rice production : a manual for its promotion detail the algal applications in agriculture and one of the books he edited, Plant protection in the year 2000 AD covers the papers and proceedings of the conference held at New Delhi in December 1984. He was the editor of another book, Cyanobacterial biotechnology, a presentation of selected papers from the International Symposium on Cyanobacterial Biotechnology, held in Tiruchirappalli in September 1996. He also published over 170 articles on the subject.Venkataraman served as the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Phycology and was a member of the editorial boards of Biological Wastes and MIRCEN Journal of Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. He was the Editor of the INSA scientific publications from 1983 to 1986 and a member of the sectional committee and the council of the Indian National Science Academy. He was associated with the International Rice Research Institute as a member of its Policy Advisory Committee on Microbiological Nitrogen Fixation and was a director of the Indo-US Science and Technology Collaborative Programme in Agriculture. He served as the visiting professor at Japan Agriculture Society and was a consultant to the Food and Agriculture Organization. Venkataraman died on 3 October 1998, at the age of 68. Awards and honours
Venkitaraman's memoirs have been included in the 24th volume of Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy, a compendium periodically published by the Indian National Science Academy, featuring its deceased and living fellows. The Indian Academy of Sciences elected him as their fellow in 1974 and the Indian National Science Academy followed suit in 1984.He was also an elected fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, India and a fellow of the National Geographical Society and Phycological Society of India. He received the VASVIK Industrial Research Award in 1978, Sanjay Gandhi Award for Science and Technology, four years later and the National Lecturer Award of the University Grants Commission in 1986. In 1988, he was awarded the Om Prakash Bhasin Award by the Om Prakash Bhasin Foundation for his contributions to Agriculture and Allied Sciences. The Government of India included him in the 1992 Republic Day honours list for the civilian award of the Padma Shri. Venkataraman, who was a holder of Humboldt Research Fellowship, delivered several award lectures including the Professor Panchanan Maheshwari Memorial Award Lecture of the Indian National Science Academy. He was also a recipient of the Alagappa Gold medal for his academic excellence from his alma mater, Alagappa Chettiyar College and the Australian Bicentennial International Medal in 1988 from Melbourne Poetry Society for his poem anthology, Reactions, published in 1986. He was one of the 56 Tamil personalities covered in Arunthondu Aatriya Tamizhaga Andhanargal, a compilation of biographies, published in Tamil language.References

Recipients of the Padma Shri in medicine
1930 births
1998 deaths
People from Tirunelveli district
20th-century Indian botanists
Indian scientific authors
Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
Fellows of The National Academy of Sciences, India
Indian phycologists
Humboldt Research Award recipients
Food and Agriculture Organization officials
Banaras Hindu University alumni
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Madurai Kamaraj University
Scientists from Tamil Nadu
Indian officials of the United Nations

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Gopalasamudram Sitaraman Venkataramanm
Venkataraman
. Sitaraman
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<mask> (, Giánnēs Makrygiánnīs; 1797–1864), born Ioannis Triantaphyllou (, Iōánnēs Triantafýllou), was a Greek merchant, military officer, politician and author, best known today for his Memoirs. Starting from humble origins, he joined the Greek struggle for independence, achieving the rank of general and leading his men to notable victories, most notably the successful defence of Nafplio in the Battle of the Lerna Mills. Following Greek independence, he had a tumultuous public career, playing a prominent part in the granting of the first Constitution of the Kingdom of Greece and later being sentenced to death and pardoned. Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early Greek state, general Makriyannis is mostly remembered for his Memoirs. Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period, this work has also been called a "monument of Modern Greek literature", as it is written in pure Demotic Greek. Indeed, its literary quality led Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis to call Makriyannis one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose. Biography

Early life
<mask> was born to a poor family at the village of Avoriti, in Phocis."Makriyannis" (Long Yannis) was a nickname he acquired because of his height. His father, Dimitris Triantaphyllou, was killed in a clash with the forces of Ali Pasha. His family was forced to flee to Levadeia, where Makriyannis spent his childhood up to 1811. At age seven, he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia, but the menial labour and beatings he endured were, in his own words, "his death". Thus, in 1811 he left for Arta to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha. There, still a teenager, he was involved in trade and, according to his memoirs, became a wealthy man. His property amounted to 40,000 piastres.According to Sphyroeras, he probably joined the Filiki Etaireia, a secret anti-Ottoman society, in 1820. In March 1821 he left for Patras, in the Peloponnese, supposedly on business. His actual assignment, however, was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native Roumeli. Having met with Odysseas Androutsos, he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the Ottoman authorities and placed under arrest in the local fortress. He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and, in August 1821, first took up arms against the Ottomans under chieftain Gogos Bakolas. Activity during the War of Independence

Under the command of Gogos Bakolas, in September 1821 he took part in the battle of Stavros, near Tzoumerka, and in the battle of Peta, where he sustained a light leg injury. A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control.In late 1821, he left for Mesolonghi, but there, according to his memoirs, he fell seriously ill, only recovering in March 1822. Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki, near Salona, he resumed military action, assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity. He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of Patratziki, which had been fortified with considerable Ottoman forces. After the Acropolis of Athens was surrendered by the Ottomans in June 1822, Makriyannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on 1 January 1823. In that office, he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery. In the summer of 1823, he fought alongside Nikitaras in the eastern part of Central Greece. In October 1823, he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese, and fought alongside the government of Georgios Kountouriotis against the rebels in the civil war.For his actions during that conflict, he was rewarded with the rank of brigadier, promoted to lieutenant general in August 1824 and full general in late 1824. In March 1825, after the Peloponnese had been invaded by Egyptian forces, he was appointed politarch (head of public order) of Kyparissia and took part in the defence of Neokastro. After the fortress fell on 11 May 1825, he hurried to Myloi, near Nafplio, arriving with one hundred men on 10 June. He ordered the construction of makeshift fortifications, as well as the gathering of provisions. More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and Ibrahim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian forces, was unable to take the position, despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on 12 and 14 June. Makriyannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio. Soon after the battle, he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian, and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death.After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826, Makriyannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis, and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander, <mask> Gouras. He managed to repel a fierce assault against the Odeon of Herodes Atticus on 7 October, and during the defence of the Acropolis, he sustained heavy injures three times, to the head and to the neck. These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life, but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war: in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of Piraeus and the battle of Phaleron. Activity after Greek Independence

Governorship of Kapodistrias
Makriyannis's activity did not cease with the achievement of Greek independence. After Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias arrived in Greece, he appointed Makriyannis "General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese", based in Argos, in 1828. It was during this period, and more specifically on 26 February 1829, that he started writing his Memoirs. After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830, Makriyannis was given the rank of brigadier.However, he slowly came to oppose the Governor's policies and eventually broke with him. He opposed what he considered Kapodistrias's personal authoritarianism and, on a more personal level, was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state. Influenced by Ioannis Kolettis, he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government, using the troops under his command, but had no success. Finally, in August 1831, the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of secret organizations and that they were loyal servants of the government's commands. Makriyannis considered this to be degrading, and tried to author his own version of an oath instead. This, however, was not accepted by the government, and he was consequently stripped of his positions. His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor's assassination on 9 October 1831.He took the side of the "Constitutionalists" and fought against the governor's brother and successor Augustinos Kapodistrias. He did, however, condemn the assassination itself in the strongest terms. Reign of King Otto
Otto, Prince of Bavaria, was chosen as the first King of Greece in 1832, under the name Othon. His arrival in Nafplio, then the Greek capital, was hailed enthusiastically by Makriyannis. This attitude is exemplified in his Memoirs:  The hopes he had for the new regime, however, were soon to be dispelled. King Otho was underage and Bavarian regents were named to rule on his behalf during the first months of his rule. During the regency, Makriyannis came into conflict with the War Minister, the Bavarian Heideck, due to the latter's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence.In the newly restructured Greek Army, there was little place left for the irregular bands of klephts. These guerilla-styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war, and Makriyannis considered their exclusion from the newly formed army disrespectful. Furthermore, most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military, and found themselves in a dire financial situation. Makriyannis also believed that the Prime Minister, the Bavarian von Armansperg, was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state. As a consequence, Makriyannis briefly retired from active politics. After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on 27 December 1833, Makriyannis was elected to the city council of Athens (the city becoming the new capital in 1834). In that capacity he harshly criticised, to the extent that it was possible, what he perceived as omissions and authoritarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet.He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule, even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of colonel. During the King's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage to Queen Amalia (late 1836 – early 1837), public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak. The newspapers Athena and Elpis criticized him severely, and some politicians called for his removal. Makriyannis, in his capacity as President of the Athens city council, proposed, in January 1837, the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution. Not long before that, at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence, such as Kountouriotis, Kolokotronis and others, Makriyannis had toasted the health of the royal couple, adding "may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws, in accordance with the fatherland's sacrifices". Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the city council, fired Mayor Petrakis and had Makriyannis placed under house arrest. Sometime during this period, Makriyannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter and veteran of the War of Independence, Panaghiotis Zographos.The profits

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Yannis Makriyannis
Yannis Makriyannis
Yannis


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 from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war. Meanwhile, the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread, as was discontent with King Otto's Bavarian administration. The situation escalated in the 3 September 1843 Revolution that led to the granting of the first Constitution. <mask> was one of the three leaders of the movement. He played a crucial part in paving the way for this, having started as early as 1840. After its granting, he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet. He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National (Constitutional) Assembly, and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him.He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings. Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly's work, however, he retired from politics. For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution, Makriyannis was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 50 drachmas commemorative coin issued in 1994 for the 150th anniversary of this historic document. There are three versions of the coin, each featuring one of the three leaders of the 3 September movement: one features Makriyannis, one colonel Dimitrios Kallergis, and one minister (and later prime minister) Andreas Metaxas. Makriyannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850, so information about the rest of his life, including his trial, comes from other sources. He was always outspoken about his views, and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents. He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence, and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho.Furthermore, the King never quite forgave him for his part in the 3 September movement. When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843, Makriyannis refused, saying "I am not a slave". Eventually, in 1852, he was accused of planning to "overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King". On 13 April 1852 he was placed under house arrest, heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own. On 16 March 1853 he was sentenced to death, in what has been called a "pre-fabricated trial". According to Vidal-Naquet, the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence. Furthermore, the president of the tribunal, Kitsos Tzavelas, was a personal enemy of Makriyannis.Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence, and requested the King to extend royal clemency. His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King, but he only spent 18 months in prison. King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty, and later to ten years. He was finally pardoned and released on 2 September 1854, thanks to the Crimean War. The blockade of Peiraeus by the French and British fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War, despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King. Thus, Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makriyannis released. Makriyannis suffered greatly in prison, and after his release suffered from hallucinations.His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens. On 10 October 1862 a revolution broke out, which led to the eviction of King Otho I from the country. Makriyannis's son, the future general Othon Makriyannis, reportedly presented his father with the King's golden crown. Makriyannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial, and was re-elected as a representative of Athens to the new National (Constitutional) Assembly of 1864. He was promoted to the rank of general on 20 April 1864, and died on 27 April. Literary work

Assessment and significance

Makriyannis concluded work on his Memoirs in the years before his imprisonment; the last entries seem to be from September or October 1850, as evinced by his references to the events of that period. In the text of the Memoirs, one can see not only the personal adventures and disappointments of his long public career, but, more significantly, his views on people, situations and events, phrased clearly and quite often passionately.They were first published in 1907 by <mask> Vlahogiannis, while some fragments of them had earlier been published in the newspaper Acropolis in 1904. Spyridon Lambros, in 1908, noted his straightforwardness and slight egotism, along with his holding firm to his own opinion (as quoted by Sphyroeras). Kostis Palamas, in 1911, called his work "incomparable in its kind, a masterpiece of his illiterate, but strong and autonomous mind" (ibid). Makriyannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education, and, according to his own testimony, mastered writing shortly before he started writing his Memoirs, while he was stationed in Argos. Makriyannis, having been ignored by history, and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence, had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research. Despite this, after the initial interest in the newly published Memoirs, they were hardly cited for almost 40 years. One could say that Makriyannis was forgotten, not only as a fighter, but also as the author of a text written in Demotic Greek; a text that, besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence, is also a treasure-house of linguistic knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time.Makriyannis's reputation was revived during the German occupation of Greece. In 1941, Yorgos Theotokas published an article on the general, calling his Memoirs "a monument of Modern Greek literature" because they were written in pure Demotic Greek. Two years later, in 1943, the Greek Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis gave a lecture on him, saying:
According to the National Book Centre of Greece, Seferis also stated that Makriyannis, along with Alexandros Papadiamantis, is one of the two greatest masters of modern Greek prose. Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his Memoirs, and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter, and with good reason, according to Sphyroeras. Spyros Asdrachas has noted that:

The general's objectivity, however, has often been questioned. Vlahogiannis, in his preface to the Memoirs, praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality. While always straightforward, Makriyannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with.He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis, while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of. According to Sphyroeras, however, his judgements do not stem from selfishness, but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece. A few months after completing his Memoirs, on New Year's Eve in 1851, Makriyannis started to write another "history", as he called it, which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852, when he was under house arrest. This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis, and was finally published in 1983 by Angelos Papakostas, aptly titled Visions and Wonders. It has, according to Papakostas, far less historical significance than the Memoirs. The events described therein are given briefly, and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his Visions, on which he particularly insists. Vlahogiannis, according to Sphyroeras, considered the manuscript to be an overzealous work of a deranged mind, and that is the reason he did not publish it.The work, however, is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul, who, being isolated at the age of 54, instead converses with God, the Panagia, and the saints. It also shows Makriyannis's deep religious feeling; he turns away from guns, instead seeking the nation's salvation through divine intervention. Furthermore, as Sphyroeras points out, the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter, and is, as the Memoirs, a significant source of linguistic and cultural information. Works
Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs) first published: Athens: 1907
Ὁράματα καὶ Θάματα (Visions and Wonders) first published: Athens: 1983

Notes

References
Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios (in Greek). Général Macriyannis, Mémoires, (preface by Pierre Vidal-Naquet), Albin Michel (in French). George Seferis, Dokimes (Essays) in 3 vols. (vols 1–2, 3rd ed.(ed. G.P. Savidis) 1974; vol 3 (ed. Dimitri Daskalopoulos) 1992) (work first published 1944) (in Greek). National Book Centre of Greece's biography of Makriyannis (affiliated with Ministry of Culture; in Greek). General <mask>, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1907 (preface by <mask> Vlahogiannis; in Greek). General <mask>, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1957 (first published 1907; preface by Spyros Asdrachas; in Greek).<mask>, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: Papyros, 1996 (first published 1907; preface by V. Sphyroeras; in Greek). General <mask>, Makriyannis: The Memoirs of General Makriyannis 1797–1864 (ed. & trans. H.A. Lidderdale), Oxford: OUP, 1966 (in English). <mask>, Ὁράματα καὶ Θάματα (Visions and Wonders; ed. Angelos Papakostas), Athens: 1983 (in Greek).Yorgos Theotokas, General <mask>, Nea Estia 1941 (in Greek). External links
Significant parts of the "Memoirs" (in Greek) and a painting of the general. The text of the "Memoirs" on the Greek Wikisource in monotonic. The Ἀπομνημονεύματα in polytonic. "Miracles of the Divine Providence", commonly known as "Visions and Miracles". An image of the 50 drachma coin featuring General Makriyannis. 1797 births
1864 deaths
Greeks of the Ottoman Empire
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Greece
Greek generals
Greek writers
Greek revolutionaries
Greek military leaders of the Greek War of Independence
Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens
French Party politicians
People from Phocis
Members of the Royal

masks:
Makriyannis
Yannis
Makriyannis
Yannis
Makriyannis
General Makriyannis
Makriyannis
General Makriyannis
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