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<mask> (; 18911942) was an early Burmese artist born in Thayet and raised in Mandalay who mastered western painting. He and his student, Saya Saung, are largely responsible for creating the foundations and identity of a Western-style painting circle within the Mandalay School. The Mandalay School, when examined as a whole, included diverse artistspainters who devoted themselves to Western-style painting as well as professional Traditional Burmese painters whose specialty and livelihood came from painting Buddhist works for temples and other religious buildings. Almost all the Traditional painters dabbled in or heavily experimented in Western-style painting from time to time. Early life and education

<mask> was born to a well-known silversmith by the name of U Kyin who was awarded a gold medal by a British viceroy of Burma. He attended St. Peter's High School in Mandalay and then entered Judson College in Rangoon in about 1911 or 1912. Judson College later merged with University College to become Rangoon University in 1920; thus, Burmese sources often mistakenly or casually claim that <mask> attended Rangoon University although the university had not yet been established when <mask> was a college student.<mask>'s skills as an artist were noticed by influential persons by the time he attended Judson College or during that time. Around the year 1912, while working on his B.A. at Judson, two British academics in Rangoon took interest in <mask>'s artistic careera Mr. A.R. Morris, headmaster of Insein Engineering School (also referred to as the Institute of Technology at Insein), and Martin Ward, a university physics professor who later became the first chairman of the Burma Art Club (BAC). The two drafted a plan to send <mask> to Bombay to study art, but <mask> wanted to complete his B.A. first, and the project was postponed. The start of World War I scuttled these plans entirely.<mask>'s health was frail, and he subsequently fell ill, quit his university studies, and took a job as an art instructor at St. Paul's High School in Rangoon. Early painting influences

The history of <mask>'s early training as a painter is a patchwork of contradictory claims. For example, Ludu Daw Amar and Ko Ko Naing describe <mask> as self-taught and maintain that he learned painting by studying from books. Min Naing, on the other hand, mentions that the doyen of Traditional painting in Burma at the turn of the century, Saya Chone (18661917), was an instructor of <mask> while <mask> taught at St. Paul's High School and offers convincing details about their interaction. Nyan Shein claims that <mask> (c. 1877  fl. 1924) was one of <mask>'s teachers, and Ko Ko Naing acknowledges the influence that the three early British chairmen and teachers of the Burma Art Club (BAC)—Martin Ward, Martin Jones, and E.G.N. Kinch—had on <mask>, which is almost certainly true.The BAC was informally organized in 1913 as a venue where amateur British colonial painters in Burma might meet and exchange skills, and became more officially established in 1918. Toward the later date, the BAC began to train Burmese painters. <mask> was one of the earliest Burmese members of the club, and he picked up much from its lectures. Ko Ko Naing and Amar's claim that <mask> was self-taught is accurate in the sense that <mask> was self-taught to a degree. He won scholarships or painting competitions when he was a youngster before he encountered <mask>, Saya Chone or British painters. Daw Amar nudges up to <mask>'s connection to both Saya Chone and <mask>n. She states that <mask> was very good at painting Traditional Burmese arabesque, one of the skills which Min Naing claims he learned from Saya Chone.She also mentions that <mask> was the first Burmese painter to illustrate school textbooks, and that when <mask>n's illustrations became outdated, <mask> was hired by Macmillan to illustrate “Burmese Peacock” readers, but she stoutly emphasizes that <mask> accomplished these illustrations on his own, without instruction. She goes on to say, however, that <mask>n learned painting techniques from B.H. Wiles (a European painter in Burma who also taught Maung Maung Gyi) and adds that <mask> was also friendly with Wiles. One must wonder if these three painters sometimes kept company, and if <mask> not only learned something from <mask>n but also Wiles. Despite <mask>'s training with Saya Chone, as Min Naing contends, <mask> did not take this training far. On the contrary, he became a somewhat obsessive and dogmatic follower of Western-style British painting, particularly transparent watercolor painting, his specialty. G. Hla Maung quotes <mask> as telling Saya Saung, his student, that good painters “never use many colors” and other writers state, variously, that he was afraid of the colors green and violet, but passionate about orange and red.In Burmese Painting: A Linear and Lateral History, Ranard claims that <mask>'s "strict canon" regarding color likely derived from British sources, directly or obliquely, through exposure to the work of J. J. Hilder (see below), from his British teachers at the Burma Art Club, or in England where <mask> studied at the Royal College of Art in the late 1920s. As Ranard puts it, "...his British patrons might well have said such things, the distaste for gaudy over-use of color being so common to the British." Influence of J J Hilder

<mask> came in contact with the work of the Australian painter Jesee Jewhurst Hilder (18811916) some time after Hilder's death in 1916. After Hilder's death, two books containing images of his watercolor paintings appeared, J.J. Hilder, Watercolorist, a catalog in 1916, and The Art of J.J. Hilder in 1918. One of these books fell into <mask>'s hands, probably the latter, and left a deep impact on him. The book also came into the possession of Saya Saung (18981952), <mask>'s Mandalay student, and richly influenced Saya Saung as well. There is some uncertainty about which painter actually encountered Hilder's work first and the date at which the encounters occurred.G. Hla Maung, Nyan Shein, and Amar all state or suggest that <mask> first discovered Hilder's work, while Ko Ko Naing is the single detractor, claiming that Saya Saung became a student of <mask> after Saya Saung started using Hilder's paintings for learning exercises. In Burmese Painting: A Linear and Lateral History, Ranard speculates that Hilder's landscapes of Australia, done in subdued color in the British style, may have appealed to <mask> because these works resembled the brownish orange landscapes of Burma. He also draws parallels between the tragic history of both artists, their high-strung temperaments, their lives marked by “asthenia”, and their “aesthetic austerity” (which may have drawn them to the purity of watercolor transparency, unmixed with white). Hilder became tubercular at a young age, suffered greatly as a result, and died young. He was an artist of high standards who was often critical of his own work (destroying much of it) and touchy and short-tempered with friends. <mask>'s life was also troubled. His right hand was emaciated from birth and he was forced to paint with his left hand, and was so sensitive about his physical deformity that he often hid his left hand in his longyi.He loved romantically only once, but on the eve of his marriage to the woman, the lady died. The event (circa 1922) severely scarred him and he remained a bachelor the rest of his life. Amar remarked of <mask> that he was “taciturn” and had little sense of humor. G. Hla Maung quotes <mask> as likening the agony of the artist to the experience of man who “sees a heavy saw falling upon his feet ... [who] feels pain even before he is actually hurt.”

Trip to London

<mask> is often quoted hand-in-hand in Burma with <mask> (18971945) because the two painters were the earliest Burmese artists to receive formal, academic education in Western-painting. In the 1920s, both studied at the Royal College of Art in London. However, <mask>'s experience preceded <mask>'s. <mask> left for London in 1921, but only spent a year or so at the Royal College of Art, partly because he could not follow the lectures in English and partly because the training at the college was tedious and slow.<mask> wanted to graduate to oil painting quickly, but realized it would take years for this to occur at the college. Martin Ward, one of <mask>'s sponsors in Burma, came to his rescue. While on a trip to England, Ward managed to have <mask> transferred to the Yellow Door School, the private academy of London artist Frank Spenlove-Spenlove (18671933). <mask>'s sojourn to England began later, in 1927, while <mask> was on his second trip for studies in London. <mask>, whose English was good, did not have the difficulties that <mask> had had at the Royal College of Art,  and, in addition, <mask>'s instruction there in watercolor painting and etching apparently suited him. <mask> was a student with more practical aims, whereas <mask> was adept at art history and theory. <mask> graduated easily from the school in three years with an ARCA (Associate of the Royal College of Art), apparently not studying oil painting there.In addition to Hilder, <mask> was also attracted to the watercolor works of Sir William Russell Flint (18801969) and owned one of Flint's books. <mask>'s discovery of Flint's works may have occurred while he was in London, where Flint was a painter of repute, later becoming president of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours from
1936 to 1956. Ba Nyan  Ba Zaw rift in Burma

Both <mask> and <mask> returned to Burma in 1930 (<mask> from approximately eight years of study in London and <mask> from three). It was <mask>, not <mask>, however, who received triumphant accolades in Burma, holding a famous exhibition at the Governor's House only months after his return. In London <mask> had mastered the arts of oil painting and gouache, while <mask>, who had remained at the Royal College of Art, refined his techniques in watercolor. <mask> began to surprise Burmese painters with his techniques in thick, impasto oil and in gouache; <mask>, on the other hand, left as a watercolorist and returned as one. Thus, the two painters began to divide the Burmese art community into camps, one following the new styles that <mask> was introducing and the other stubbornly sticking to the transparent watercolor techniques that had been introduced at the Burma Art Club at least a decade earlier and remained the domain of <mask>.Appearance of Rangoon School and Mandalay School

<mask>, from southern Burma, became a Rangoon painter and his new techniques took root there. <mask> was a Mandalay painter (though he lived in Rangoon) and his major protégé was Saya Saung (18981952), who lived part of the year in Rangoon and part of the year in Mandalay. As was common among Mandalay artists, both <mask> and Saya Saung maintained allegiances to Mandalay, and through Saya Saung, transparent watercolor paintingoften “wash” stylebecame the de rigueur expertise of Mandalay painters. Mandalay painters were very proud of these skills to the extent that Amar, a Mandalay writer, claimed that <mask>, who painted watercolor in gouache, was not recognized as a true watercolor painter. Out of the rift between <mask> and <mask>yan, a Rangoon School and a Mandalay School of painting emerged, the former tied to the instruction of <mask>, which focused on oil painting and occasionally gouache, and the latter, derived from <mask> who passed on his skills to Saya Saung, which painted in the English watercolor style. However, in the 1950s and 60s, the Mandalay painters rebelled against their Ba Zaw  Saya Saung legacy, and began a movement in expressionist and abstract painting in both watercolor and oil, spurred on by the Mandalay painters <mask> (190372) and, particularly, Kin Maung (Bank) (c. 1908  83). <mask>'s oeuvre

Watercolors and surviving pencil sketch

Very little can be said about <mask>'s works in spite of his great influence on Burmese painting because, to date, only about five of his works have surfaced.Three of the works are watercolors on permanent display in the collection of the National Museum of Myanmar, one of which appears in Ranard's Burmese Painting: A Linear and Lateral History. It is a watercolor landscape bearing the orange, brown and yellowish tones that one might expect of a painter influenced by J. J. Hilder. The works in the National Museum have historical importance, but they cannot be called remarkable. Two additional Ba Zaw pieces emerged in Burma in the years after 2000. One is a pencil sketch on paper that appeared in Myanmar Painting: From Worship to Self-Imaging by Ma Thanegi et al., and the other is a monochrome watercolor from a private collection that appears in Ranard's Burmese Painting. The pencil sketch is a dark work of dense massa landscape with a single isolated figurethat is apparently a funeral scene and clearly shows emotive skills. The monochrome watercolor is a portrait of the famous Burmese general Maha <mask>, who died in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 18241826, sitting proudly astride a horse.Etchings

As a result of his training at the Royal College of Art, <mask> also became an enthusiastic etcher. According to G. Hla Maung, Ko Ko Naing, and Amar, he worked on copper plates but Nyan Shein claims he used a sharp stylus on bronze plates. The location of <mask>'s etching works, inside or outside of Burma, is not known. Cartoons

<mask> also made a large impact in Burma in the art of cartoon, his works appearing in Thuriya magazine. He began drawing such art in the 1920s, and became a teacher to the Burmese cartoonist of note, Hein Soon (19021989). As cartoon art and caricature were popular among the British amateur painters at the Burma Art Club, it was at the BAC that <mask> most likely honed such skills. Martin Jones, who was one of the early British members of the BAC, is said to have been the first painter in Burma to draw and publish cartoons in Burmese publications.Such works can be found in Ballads of Burma, reprinted in recent years. Martin Jones was a close friend and patron of <mask>. Reference to oil paintings

Nyan Shein, the art writer and student of <mask>, claims that <mask> also painted in oil, but this is not a widely documented point. Popularity of works

Amar claims that <mask>'s work sold in large numbers to colonials in Burma, but oddly none of these paintings (unlike those of Saya Saung) have appeared in the hands of UK auctioneers or dealers in recent years. Amar also alleges that <mask> was so successful that he was the only artist of his era in Burma to own an automobile. End of life

In 1930 or 1931, the Teachers Training College opened in Rangoon and <mask> was chosen as the art lecturer there. <mask> accepted the position but had to give it up when he had a stroke while painting at the Shwedagon Pagoda in the year given as 1932.He was unable to handle his duties at the Teachers Training College, and his position there was taken over by San Win. Min Naing also mentions that <mask> became chairman of the Burma Art Club in 1933, adding that <mask> was also forced to give up this position due to his stroke. Min Naing's 1933 date for <mask>'s selection as chairman of the BAC is at odds with the 1932 date (given by others) of the stroke which severely debilitated him. <mask> lived on for almost ten more years, struggling to paint but mentally impaired. Nyan Shein offers a sad picture of him in his last years, visiting artists, clutching a book by J. J. Hilder in his hands. It is said that during these last years, he lived with Saya Saung and that two of his other students, Saya Mya and Hein Soon, also helped to take care of him. Nyan Shein gives <mask>'s date of death as 1943, but Amar claims that her husband found <mask>'s obituary in the newspaper and that he died on 11 December 1942.Museum collections
 National Museum of Myanmar

See also

 <mask>
 Saya Saung
 Jesse Jewhurst Hilder
 Burma Art Club
 Ba Thet
 Kin Maung (Bank)
 Sir William Russell Flint
 Frank Spenlove-Spenlove

Notes

References

1891 births
1942 deaths
Burmese artists
People from Mandalay
20th-century Burmese painters
Associates of the Royal College of Art

masks:
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Ohn
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Ohn
Ba Zaw
Ba Oh
Ba Zaw
Ba Ohn
Ba Oh
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Oh
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Oh
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Nyan
Ba Nyan
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba N
Ba Nyan
Ba Zaw
Ba Thet
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Bandula
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Zaw
Ba Nyan


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<mask> (1914 in Mexicali, Baja California – March 1998), later  <mask>, was a Mexican American leader who helped organize resistance against discrimination in the American Southwest during the Great Depression. She was the daughter of immigrants who had fled revolution in Mexico to settle in California. She grew up in Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley. Her mother emphasized the importance of education and urged <mask> to "Rely on yourself, be independent." In 1938 when <mask> was 18 years old, she entered the University of California, Los Angeles. She planned to study medicine, but activism on behalf of the Mexican American community took up most of her time and effort. <mask> gave up her studies at UCLA to become an organizer, and her style was described by veteran longshoremen's leader Bert Corona as "gutsy, flamboyant, and tough".Aided by her husband <mask>, a Hollywood screenwriter and an activist himself, she began to lead boycotts of companies that did business in Mexican American communities but did not hire Mexican American workers. These activities brought her attention from a Mexican American group  El Congreso de Pueblos de Habla Española (Spanish-speaking congress), which was formed in 1938. El Congreso was organizing Hispanic migrants to stand up for their rights. In 1939 El Congreso leaders asked <mask> <mask> to help them to establish a branch in Los Angeles which represented a major effort by the Mexican American generation of the time, to form a working class movement that was aimed at securing basic rights for all Mexican and Spanish speaking people in the United States. Early life
<mask> <mask> had been involved in revolutionary activism from a young age. Her father Plumo <mask>, had been an officer in “Pancho” Villa's revolutionary army, but it was her mother's passion for activism and commitment to helping others that most strongly influenced her life. Fierro had been raised by her mother, who had immigrated to the United States when Josefina was a baby.Because Josefina's mother's family were followers of the radical Mexican anarchist Ricardo Flores Magón, she had been taught to speak against injustice, to fight for what was right and to treat everyone with “dignity and respect”. According to <mask> <mask>'s Mother would smuggle ammunition inside of Josefina's stroller back and forth from California to Mexico to support the Anarchist Ricardo Flores Magon. Her Father Plumo <mask> later gained an inheritance, in turn allowing Josefina to be able to go to the University of California, Josefina realized that she could make money without a form of higher education; leading her to drop out of UCLA. This is a reason that Josefina did not wish to meet with her parents, as well as a very short marriage that lead to an illegal abortion that left <mask> Sterile. Personal life and activism
After high school graduation, <mask> <mask> decided to move to Los Angeles to live with an aunt; there she met and fell in love with Hollywood actor <mask>. <mask>, who was blacklisted with several other actors in Hollywood due to allegations of having ties with the Communist Party, inspired <mask>'s activism further. After marrying <mask>, Josefina found herself in the midst of a campaign that defended Mexican immigrants and Mexican American rights against discrimination during the 1930s.In 1938, at the age of eighteen, <mask> <mask>, who would become executive secretary, collaborated with Luisa Moreno and founded El Congreso de Pueblos de Habla Española, a Mexican civil rights organization that worked to fight for civil rights of Mexican immigrants and Mexican Americans and worker rights as well <mask> <mask> took her and her husband's platform to Hollywood and used it to fund-raise revenue for El Congreso. The networking that she made in Hollywood, brought in actors and other celebrities to help raise the revenue for the organization. <mask> <mask>, with Luisa Moreno, actively worked on issues that targeted the needs of lower-income and non-bilingual Mexicans to help them receive basic civil rights in the United States. Although El Congreso did not last very long, <mask> <mask>'s activism did not end with its dissolution. In 1942, during the “Sleepy Lagoon” trial, after receiving complaints of cruel punishment from parents of the boys held in custody, <mask> <mask> organized a committee for the defendants. The committee became known as the Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, and raised money so that those on trial could hire a lawyer to represent and defend them. <mask> <mask> was in Los Angeles in 1943 at the start of the Zoot Suit Riots.She said of the violence, "I never believed that I could see a thing like that... I went downtown and my husband and I were standing there and we saw all these policemen hanging around... and hundreds of taxis with sailors hanging on with clubs in their hands, bullies just beating Mexicans on Main Street. And we went up and asked a cop to stop it: he says, 'You better shut up or I'll do the same to you.' You can't do a thing when you see people and the ambulances coming to pick them up and nobody is stopping the slaughter. It's a nightmare. It's a terrible thing to see." Societal structure in the home of Mexican American women
Mexicans would cross the border into the United States.Many of them without a form of higher education. Married women who arrived as immigrants may have wanted to pursue a higher education. An education that was not available to them within Mexico. In Mexican Households the males were predominantly in charge of the household affairs. This Societal Authority will later be passed down to the newer Mexican American generations. The Authority that the males' held were able to halt a woman's educational progress. These limits were very common within Mexican as well as Mexican American households.The view of masculinity for both Mexican and Mexican American men in the 1940s was based greatly on the ability to provide. This traditional view could have been tarnished if their female spouse were to get a higher education that lead to a higher paying job. This ideological viewpoint that their Masculine counterparts have also affected their daughters. It is a common occurrence to see a father rely more on a son than a  daughter. Gender discrimination within a Mexican American Household, similar to the association of masculinity and beaning a major provider for the family will be passed from earlier generations to newer ones. The sons would view their Male Privilege  as the ability to use and ignore women within their family as women in general. Fathers showed blatant favoritism for their sons who would presumably take charge of their own families, while the daughters would be seen as an object that stands in the shadow of their future husbands success.Daughters looked to their Mothers' for guidance. In the Mexican American Patriarchal society; Mothers had trouble navigating the margins of tradition. Parents usually want what is best for their children. Mothers who have lived their life under a Patriarchal household may not know how to push their daughters towards an independent lifestyle. one in which they did not have to follow their footsteps and obey their future male spouse. Mexican Immigrants into Los Angeles
Los Angeles California like its country viewed Mexican Immigrants in a negative connotation. The majority of  Los Angeles residence viewed Mexican immigrants as an expendable work force that would settle for very low wages.The citizens of Los Angeles were enraged by the immigrants swarming their county.Los Angeles viewed Mexican Americans as unclean and vulgar, if not unpatriotic. They supposedly took everything from the Anglo Americans. Segregation was in every aspect of life in Los Angeles, due to the belief that Mexican immigrants were seen as an unwanted race within Los Angeles. These views became apparent especially during the 1940's and 1950's when the zoot suit riots were at their peak. The gap between the Anglo Americans and the Mexican Americans grew into a chasm. Los Angeles viewed Mexican American woman as obscene temptresses who want to lower their Anglo society into vulgarity. Both Male and Female Mexican Americans during the 1940's were viewed as zoot suiters, because they were Mexican.Instead of their style. The Great Depression struck Mexican immigrants harshly. Without their jobs, Los Angeles tried to send them back to Mexico; Although this was not the only reason, nor their only attempt. Segregation existed in the school system as the children of Mexican immigrants were not viewed the same as Anglo American children, nor were they treated the same. The Anglo American parents opposed the equal treatment between races. There was also segregation among diseases. Anglo Americans believed that the spread of Mexican immigrants also contaminated Los Angeles with disease both physically as well as metaphorically.Notes

References

Mexican Americans (pg 145-46,147) (1990) Mario T. García
From Out Of The Shadows (pg 96-98) (1998) Vicki L. Ruiz

Further reading

External links
 Macmillan/McGraw-Hill: California Vistas 2007

American people of Mexican descent
1914 births
1998 deaths
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
People from Calexico, California
Activists from California

masks:
Josefina Fierro
Josefina Fierro de Bright
Josefina
Fierro
Fierro de Bright
John Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Josefina
Fierro
Fierro
Carlos Larralde
Josefina
Fierro
Josefina
Josefina
Fierro
John Bright
Bright
Fierro
Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Fierro
de Bright
Fierro
de Bright


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<mask>  (April 30, 1905 – July 28, 1988) was a Spanish painter. He was born in Écija and died in Madrid, where he spent most of his life. Childhood and early years
He showed very early a deep interest for fine arts and took drawing lessons from local painters in Écija (Sevilla). His retail merchant parents were conscious of his strong vocation and, realising that his dream was to become a painter, they eventually gave their consent to his departure for Madrid. When he was only 14 years old he moved to the capital to enter the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. He prepared his accession exams drawing and copying sculptures in the Museo Nacional de Reproducciones Artísticas. At fifteen, the minimum age for admission, he succeeded at his first attempt to enter the Academy and immediately enrolled in oil painting, encaustic, tempera, etching, watercolour and sculpture.He completed the five compulsory years in the Academy and then remained two more years, developing teaching activities, to finally achieve a master's degree. Among his fellow students were Salvador Dalí, with whom he developed a close friendship fuelled by their reciprocal admiration. Artistic education
His teachers in the Academy included Cecilio Plá and José Benedito (painting), José Moreno Carbonero and Julio Romero de Torres (drawing) and Francisco Esteve Botey (etching). Between 1924 and 1927, he was awarded with a fellowship from the Fundación Molina Higueras and also twice obtained a scholarship to join the Artist's Summer Residence in el Paular (Madrid). His work, presented in a common exhibition with other resident artists, was accredited with a diploma with honours. He also obtained two residence scholarships to visit during the summer the Artist's Residence of the Alhambra (Granada). At the closing exhibition hosted by the residence, he met Federico García Lorca, Manuel de Falla and Daniel Vázquez Díaz, who highly praised his paintings.In 1930, the Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas awarded him a scholarship to visit Paris and its drawing academy. In 1932, he participated for the first time in the Exposición Nacional (National Exhibition) and was awarded the Bronze Medal for his work "Portrait". In the same year, he presented a colour aquatint at the International Exhibition of Venice. In 1933, he obtained a position as a drawing teacher in a high school in Elche, but he resigned after only one year and returned to Madrid. In 1934, he won the Silver Medal in the Exposición Nacional for his picture "Chinese mannequin", painted in the Museo Arqueológico de Madrid. In 1935, he was appointed head of studies in the Escuela de Artes Aplicadas y Oficios Artísticos de Madrid, in the graphic design section. The Spanish Civil War years
During the Spanish Civil War, he joined the teacher's union FETE-UGT and the Alianza de Intelectuales Antifascistas (Alliance of Antifascist Intellectuals) which included among its leading figures the poet Rafael Alberti.During this period, graphic artists contributed to the war effort producing signs, notices and placards for the Republican Army. As public servants enlisted in the popular militias, he joined the Quinto regimiento (Fifth Regiment). He was a comrade of great poets, such as the forgotten and much admired by him Antonio Aparicio (later forced into exile) and Miguel Hernández. During these years, he carried out an intense artistic activity. In 1937, he participated in the Paris International Exposition with a painting featuring the shooting of Federico García Lorca. This canvas, later displayed in the Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in an exhibition commemorating the Spanish pavilion of the International Exposition, was hosted by the Museo de Arte Moderno of Barcelona. In 1943, the Real Academia de San Fernando awarded him the Conde de Cartagena fellowship.Plenitude
In 1946, his work "Portrait" received the First medal in the Salón de Otoño (Madrid). The following year, he was awarded the Second prize in the National Painting Contest and, in 1948, he won the First prize with his work "Bathers". In 1950, he obtained a faculty position as art lecturer on drawing in the Escuela de Artes Aplicadas y Oficios Artísticos de Madrid and was awarded the first prize in the national competition organised by the Unión Española de Explosivos for his painting "The Sorcerer". That year, commissioned by the Unión Española de Explosivos, he painted the rock salt mines of Cardona (Barcelona). In 1951, his painting "Sleeping Dancer", later purchased for a private collection in Mexico, received the second prize in a public vote organised during the Primera Bienal Hispanoamericana de Arte (Madrid). In 1952, he was awarded the second medal for etching in the Exposición Nacional de Bellas Artes (National Exhibition of Fine Arts). In 1954, he received a scholarship to develop pedagogic studies about drawing in France and Italy.In 1955, he received the first prize in the Fine Arts Exhibition of Linares (Jaén). In 1958, he participated in a competition to design the tapestry cartoons intended for the Valley of the Fallen National Monument, in Cuelgamuros (Madrid), obtaining the first prize. In 1962, he was appointed director of the Escuela 7ª de Artes y Oficios Artísticos de Madrid. He could be defined as a complete painter, as he addressed all the possible subjects, including landscapes, still lifes, figures and portraits using the most diverse techniques, from watercolour to fresco. He worked in his artist's studio in the Madrilenian street of Hortaleza, where he took full advantage of the particular light and orientation of his penthouse, which became a sort of magic box that produced his still lifes and figures, all painted from life. He often travelled to Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and the Basque Country and became a passionate lover of the Spanish northern coast, where he painted the many landscapes he used to present in the Salones de Otoño. In 1942, he married in Llanes (Oviedo) his wife Isabel Fernández-Pola, a member of a family of Llanes intellectuals.He was a great portrayer and many of his works are nowadays hosted in different private collections. In 1968, the cessation of the National Exhibitions and the Salones de Otoño and his bad relationship with art critics, especially embittered after the publication of his article "I, a Spanish painter" – which included a ferocious criticism of contemporary pictorial movements – drove him to withdraw from all public exhibitions and motivated his refusal to sell any painting in Spain. In fact, most of his production was thereafter sold in the United States. Nonetheless, he continued painting assiduously until his last days. In 1975, he retired from the Artes y Oficios Artísticos de Madrid. A street named Pintor Fernando Briones was dedicated to him in his birthplace, Écija (Sevilla). Individual exhibitions
 1943 – Salón Cano.1945 – Sala Vilches. 1946 – Salón Cano. 1949 – Salón Dardo. 1949 – University of Oviedo. 1952 – Salón Dardo. 1955 – Salón Dardo. 1957 – Sala Vilches.1962 – Salón Cano. A No-Do (news and documentaries newsreel) featuring his work was filmed in his studio. Collective exhibitions
 1924 – Palacio de Biblioteca y Museos, Fellows of the Residence of el Paular (Madrid). 1925 – Salón de Exposiciones del Museo de Arte Moderno, "Landscape and Figures by the Fellows of the Residence of el Paular and Asturias". 1927 – Ateneo de Granada, "Landscape’s Exhibition by the Fellows of the Residence of la Alhambra (Granada)". 1932 – Exposición Nacional, bronze medal. 1933 – Círculo de Bellas Artes, exhibition of paintings and sculptures.1934 – Exposición Nacional, "Chinese mannequin" and "Women brushing their hair", silver medal. 1942 – Salón de Otoño, "Flora". 1943 – Sala Vilches, New modern painters. 1944 – Salón de Otoño, "Country girls". 1945 – Exposición Nacional, "Melancholic Pierrot". Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno, Vases and Still lifes by the Association of Painters and Sculptors, "Children portraits". 1946 – Sala Macarrón, Collective Exhibition by the Association of Painters and Sculptors, "Women portraits".Salón Cano, Artists Exhibition. 1947 – Sala Kebos, Paintings and Drawings by the Association of Painters and Sculptors, "Composition with figures". Sala Greco, bullfighting scenes, National Contest, second prize (encaustic). 1948 – Ministerio de Agricultura, Mural painting National Contest, first prize. 1949 – Círculo de Bellas Artes, Annual Grand Prix Exhibition, National Exhibition, "Painter", "Dancer" and "The Truth". 1950 – Unión Española de Explosivos Grand Contest. First prize in the National Exhibition, "Fernandito and Maribel" and "The Musician Angel".1951 – Morocco and Colonies, Paintings of Africa, Bienal Hispanoamericana de Arte, Madrid. 1952 – Association of Spanish engravers, Goya and the Spanish etching in America. Sala Los Sótanos, three painters. Reliable sources
 en artprice.com [<mask>es <mask>]
 http://www.maxam.net/en/fundacion/coleccion_maxam/artistas/briones_carmona_fernando

1905 births
1988 deaths
20th-century Spanish painters
20th-century male artists
Spanish male painters
People from Écija

masks:
Fernando Briones Carmona
Fernandorion
Carmona


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<mask> (25 November 1922 – 7 September 2013) was a Czech composer and essayist. Hurnik was born in Poruba, now part of Ostrava. He entered the Prague Conservatory, then went on to the Prague Academy of Arts, where he studied with Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová, daughter of Vilém Kurz. His 1952 Sonata da camera, for flute, oboe, cello and harpsichord, has been recorded on Cedille Records. A 2008 Supraphon CD (SU 3944-2) contains two of <mask>'s instrumental compositions: the colorful ballet music Ondráš, written in 1951, and  his Four Seasons Chamber Suite, written in 1952. Both are performed by the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra led by Karel Ančerl. He is father of <mask>, brother-in-law of Petr Eben and uncle of Marek Eben.<mask> <mask> died in Prague on 7 September 2013 at the age of 90. 4 (published 1949)
 Partita in A for flute and harpsichord (or piano) (1950); also orchestrated; dedicated to Czech flautist Václav Žilka
 Sonata for viola and piano, Op. 26 (1951)
 Čtvero ročních dob (The Four Seasons), Suite for wind quintet or 12 instruments (1952)
 Sonata da camera for flute, oboe, cello and harpsichord or piano (1952)
 Esercizi for flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon (1956)
 Malý faun (Little Faun; Le petit faune), 5 Pièces en forme de suite for flute and piano (1956)
 Moments musicaux, Suite for 11 wind instruments (1962)
 Concerto for oboe and piano (1964)
 Vánočńí koledy (Christmas Carols) for violin and piano (1968)
 Gloria di flauti for 2 flutes (1972)
 Concertino for violin and piano (1973)
 Concertino for 2 violins and piano (or harpsichord) (1981); also orchestrated
 Obrázky (Little Pictures), Very Easy Pieces for flute (or recorder, or oboe) and piano (1984)
 Sonatina for double bass (or bassoon) and piano (1985)
 Wind Quintet No. 2 (published 1943)
 Preludia (Preludes), Op. 3 (1940); words by František Vrba
 Dívčí písně (Girl's Songs) for medium voice and piano, Op.

masks:
Ilja Hurník
Hurník
Lukáš Hurník
Ilja
Hurník


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<mask> or Brăilean (September 14, 1882 – October 3, 1947) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian sociologist and politician. A native of the Bukovina region, he attended Czernowitz University, where he studied philosophy and classical languages, subsequently earning a doctorate. Ending up as a translator in Vienna, he fought for Austria during World War I. At the conclusion of hostilities, returned to the renamed Cernăuți, now part of Greater Romania. There, he soon became a professor of sociology, leading a "Cernăuți School" of academics during the interwar period. Meanwhile, he was involved in nationalist politics, supporting Alexandru Averescu, Nicolae Iorga and, ultimately, the extremist Iron Guard, of which he was among the most prominent intellectual backers. A theoretician of organicism, corporatism, and antisemitism, he inspired the creation of Iconar, a literary society, and founded the review Însemnări Sociologice.He was elected to the Romanian Senate in 1937, and reached the apex of his political career during the short-lived National Legionary State of 1940–1941. He served as Education and Arts Minister under this regime, targeting the country's Jewish community and his various political opponents. In the wake of the Legionnaires' rebellion, he was arrested, tried and acquitted, but later arrested again and interned. Freed yet again in 1944, he was placed under house arrest following the King Michael Coup that August, and, increasingly ill with ulcers, was tried before one of the Romanian People's Tribunals in 1946. Given a twenty-year sentence for war crimes, he died the following autumn at Aiud Prison, shortly before the establishment of a communist regime that suppressed his publications for the more than four decades of its existence. Biography

Origins and education
Born in Bilca, Suceava County, a village located in Austrian-ruled Bukovina not far from Rădăuți, Brăileanu was the ninth of twelve siblings. His father Gheorghe (1839–1902) was the director of the local primary school for at least forty years.Gheorghe's father Ioan, born in 1807, had been a simple peasant, but two of his sons became teachers, and the third a Romanian Orthodox priest. <mask>'s mother, Maria (née Polonic) was the daughter of a shoemaker from Suceava, and married his father in 1865. The first serious tragedy in his life came when his sister Ilenuța died, leaving the entire family despondent. Another two beloved siblings died of diphtheria in late 1893, leaving him a mature individual at an early age. His mother predeceased his father, so that both parents had died by the time he was twenty. The young Traian was a voracious reader, his interests including classical literature, German literature, other European literatures in German translation, Romanian literature and Romanian history, including Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol's Istoria românilor. He was attached to his brother Constantin, who settled in the Romanian Old Kingdom, which he represented as consul at Bitola and Thessaloniki; an employee of the Romanian Foreign Ministry, his son was killed in action during World War I.

<mask> attended three grades of primary school in his native village, followed by a fourth grade in 1892–1893 at Rădăuți, where he and a number of Romanian classmates spent the year perfecting their German and preparing for admission to the local German High School.He passed the entrance examination easily, entering the school in the autumn of 1893. German was the language of instruction; Latin and Greek the principal subjects. Upon graduation in 1901, he was fluent in all three. Entering Czernowitz University, he took courses in philosophy and classical philology, the subjects of his degree. His professors included Richard Wahle and Ion G. Sbiera. Initially, he shared a rented room with two older sisters of his, who were attending a normal school. In late 1902, after starting his second year of university, he went to the Romanian capital Bucharest to bury his father, who had sought medical treatment there.As a student, he was associated with Societatea Academică Junimea, a Romanian youth movement. In December 1901, already a member of the local chapter, he was selected as editor-in-chief of its satirical-humorous newsletter. Under his aegis it appeared bimonthly, and some issues were written entirely by Brăileanu. In 1904, he was named president of the society's literary section. In this capacity, together with Ion Nistor and George Tofan, he founded Junimea Literară, a literary journal. There, he published a short story, a series of humorous sketches and several poems. The magazine had a nationalist and Sămănătorist agenda, and, according to Nistor, sought to counterbalance Austria's "hatred and contempt for all things [Romanian]".Another member, Romulus Cândea, described the society and its magazine as preservers of "the nationalist flame" and "the Romanianist line". Upon graduation, <mask> became a teacher at a German-language high school in Czernowitz, but, not finding the daily routine suitable to his studies, left after completing the 1905–1906 academic year. He then performed his military service in the Austrian Army, first at Czernowitz and then at the officers' school in Lemberg. For a time, he held a series of low-paid jobs, including that of journalist. Around 1908, he was penning articles for various newspapers secretly run by Aurel Onciul, a controversial leader of the Democratic Peasants' Party. In November 1909, Brăileanu obtained a doctorate in philosophy magna cum laude, his adviser being Wahle. The same year, he became engaged to Emilia Silion, of an old Bukovina family; the couple, who married in 1910, had three sons and a daughter.Academic beginnings
Thanks to his elder brother, in 1909 he obtained a position as translator at the Romanian Legation in Vienna, where he remained until 1914. During this period, he took courses at the University of Vienna and undertook research at its library. In 1912, he published a work of epistemology, followed by one on ethics (Die Grundlegung zu einer Wissenschaft der Ethik) in 1919. During that interval, he became especially interested in the work of Vasile Conta, a 19th-century metaphyisician and political thinker. Writing in 1915, Ana Conta Kernbach identified <mask> as one of "the few young men who are researching [Conta's] work". Upon the outbreak of World War I, <mask> was drafted into the Austrian Army. Wounded, he was hospitalized in Bohemia, then moved to Lemberg with his regiment, after which he returned to Vienna.Meanwhile, his wife and the two children had taken refuge in Siret and then in Suceava, later returning to Austria. The union of Bukovina with Romania occurred at the end of World War I, and he immediately left Vienna for his native province, upon his older brother's urging. Beginning in 1919, <mask> was a librarian at his alma mater in what was now Cernăuți. He occupied this role until 1921, while in 1920, he became a lecturer. In 1924, he was named full professor at the department of sociology, ethics and politics. As an academic, his objective was to write survey texts of sociology, then ethics and finally politics. His introduction to sociology, published in 1923, was noted for on the sociological work of Conta, whom he identified as the founder of Romanian philosophy, and a personal guide.Following Conta, <mask> described a holistic social system of organic unity, grouping "social tissues", for which he eventually coined the term "human community". While ethics dealt with individual behavior, the community was the inextricable object of sociology. His first major success, this work drew positive reviews from, among others, Nicolae Iorga. Nicknamed "Socrates" by his admiring students, he was known to appreciate the term, considering the Greek philosopher a model. Politically, he was, after 1919, involved in nationalist movements within the nascent Greater Romania. <mask> was at first a follower of Alexandru Averescu and his People's League, the Bukovina wing of which he led. He was involved in a lengthy dispute with a Nicolai Mitenco, after deposing him as editor of Țărănimea newspaper and "purging" the party of undesirables.In September 1924, with an article he published in Societatea de Mâine, Brăileanu sought to identify the political problems of Greater Romania as they affected Bukovina's society. It suggested that, in the new political climate, "entirely stunted by the supremacy of timely politics, or what we call politicking", Romanian intellectuals were "caving in to a despotic domination by the bankers". He claimed that the Bukovina Jews were a parasitical class, 90% of whom "made a living from the stupidity of the native population", and justified economic antisemitism as a reaction to historical "imbalance". Nonetheless, he argued in favor of complete Jewish assimilation, including "long processes of interbreeding" with Romanians and a renewed social organization, based on the "division of labor" (with references to Conta and Émile Durkheim). Joining the Iron Guard
<mask> eventually quit the People's League due to internal maneuvers that displeased him. Then, he entered the Democratic Nationalist Party of Iorga, whom he sincerely respected, and organized the party's Bukovina chapter from 1922 to 1925. He left this party too, unhappy with certain mergers it had undergone.Progressively, <mask> identified with the extreme right, claiming that the political mainstream took a "soft attitude" toward ethnic minorities. He migrated to the antisemitic National-Christian Defense League (LANC), which he left following a disagreement with its leader A. C. Cuza. In 1926–1927, <mask> was member of the small political group called "Statutory LANC", which, as academic Lucian Butaru noted, was home to "shady figures of the Romanian political and cultural life", including Ion Zelea Codreanu and Corneliu Șumuleanu. At the time, he presided over a commission which investigated the clashes between Romanian authorities in Bukovina and Jewish students who had failed the Romanian Baccalaureate. He wrote an angry report, noting that Jews were ignorant of "the history and geography of the fatherland", and claiming that the riots were "premeditated". His antisemitic bias was brought up publicly by Mayer Ebner, the Jewish community spokesman, and may have led to <mask>'s eventual dismissal. This came in July 1927, when the governing National Liberal Party reasserted control over his university.<mask> was one of the editors of Gheorghe Alexianu's Bucovina, a review of law, sociology, and criminology, and contributed to Ion Petrovici's philosophical journal, Minerva, with an essay on the sociology of Vilfredo Pareto. By then, his sociological work intertwined with his politics. As noted by historian Lucian Nastasă, he was one of the Romanian academics whose work exemplifies "strongly nationalistic and extremist ideologies". In his 1928 Politica, considered the first Romanian volume of political theory, he suggested the establishment of a military dictatorship to consolidate the Romanian monarchy. <mask> most likely joined the Iron Guard (or "Legionary Movement"), a radical antisemitic and fascist group, upon its founding in 1927. He entered its senate in 1930, helping to consolidate the movement's intellectual prestige, and is seen by some as its most important theoretician after Nae Ionescu. Possibly radicalized under the influence of racial eugenicist Iordache Făcăoaru, Brăileanu's views on minority issues were recast into a scientifically racist sociological theory, which postulated that Jews were not capable of being integrated into any other nation.His support for racial determinism led him to conclude that "the variation of social types" was only a historical action of environmental and demographic factors, and that, in all other respects, individuals of the same race were identical. Brăileanu also founded the literary society Iconar, noted for its strong xenophobia, which eventually divided itself into a far-right wing, under <mask>, and a more moderate one, supportive of the National Liberals. Writing in 1936 for Marta Rădulescu's Revista Mea, he demanded a neo-traditionalist and nationalist revival in Romanian art, placed in service to "the Church and the State", and rejecting "kike commercialism". According to literary historian Rodica Ilie, his call to "purge Romanian society of corrupting influences" was a "trope" shared by extreme nationalists and communists of the day, the latter of whom targeted "bourgeois seductions" rather than "Jewish spirituality". Throughout the interval, <mask> carried on with his research, writing textbooks of sociology and ethics for the high school level. A translator from German and Greek, he was especially drawn to Immanuel Kant and Aristotle. <mask>'s translation of the Critique of Pure Reason appeared in 1930, being hailed by philosopher Tudor Vianu as one of the prime achievements of its era, but criticized by Ernest Bernea as "confusing" and "fragmentary".There followed more works on ethics (1935–1936) and the history of sociological doctrines (1936–1937). From 1931 to 1933, he was dean of the Philosophy and Letters Faculty. He had ties to foreign sociologists, and in 1937 became a member of the Columbia University-affiliated Academy of Political Science. In addition, from 1933 he was assistant professor in the history of philosophy department, replacing the deceased Vasile Gherasim. He was made a commander of the Order of the Crown in 1933. Însemnări Sociologice and senatorial mandate
<mask> ultimately became the unchallenged leader of a sociological school at Cernăuți, akin to those led by Dimitrie Gusti at Bucharest, Virgil Bărbat at Cluj and Petre Andrei at Iași. During this time, he founded Însemnări Sociologice magazine.As noted by various historians, it should be seen as largely dedicated to supporting the Iron Guard platform. <mask>'s articles there combined a condemnation of the multi-party system with the theory of "Judaeo-communist revolution", arguing that the former would inevitably lead to the latter, and proposed instead a corporate state headed by the Guard. Leon Volovici concludes that Însemnări Sociologice "did not differ from Legionary propaganda", with its ample references to "the Internationale of the yids", anti-Masonic lore, and calls for racial segregation ("complete, biological and spiritual separation from the Jews"). <mask> himself proudly acknowledged that there was little difference between his Guardist credo and his sociological work, describing Însemnări Sociologice as providing "Legionary doctrine" with "all the support of social science". "Doctrines", he argued, always took precedence over scientific observation, since "they determine the lives of individuals and peoples." Brăileanu's writings, including his articles in teachers' magazines, shifted toward developing a Romanian "elite theory" and the role of state pedagogy in cultivating a fresh political establishment. His idea of corporatism differed from that espoused by Mihail Manoilescu, arguing a strong dictatorship by an "ascetic elite", with a charismatic leader, could set up the Romanian corporations, but never the other way around.He saw his "meritocratic aristocracy" embodied in Ion Moța and the other five Iron Guard men who left as volunteers for the Spanish Civil War. Invoking the examples set by Italian fascism and Nazism, <mask> argued that educating the masses to accept leadership and social selection "without a murmur" was far more beneficial than perpetuating universal suffrage. In a June 1937 article for Buna Vestire, he identified international fascism as the quintessential enemy of communism and Jewishness, and postulated that freedom was only possible within nationalism. Unlike other Guard intellectuals, he was skeptical of territorial expansionism, writing that, as Greater Romania, the Romanian state had reached its "natural borders" and economic self-sufficiency. His complaint was that the entity had not yet become a "nation state". Like the rest of the Guard, <mask>

masks:
Traian Brăileanu
Traian
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu
Brăileanu


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 found himself in conflict with King Carol II and the political factions who supported him, leading to a series of violent clashes and retaliatory murders. In 1936, he was one of 50 "nationalist luminaries" invited at the Guard's student congress in Târgu Mureș.The event ended with mass arrests for conspiracy, during which time <mask> was asked to serve as the Guard's defense witness. According to one report, Însemnări Sociologice was banned in February 1937. The Guard itself was also outlawed, but reemerged under the guise of the "Everything for the Country Party". Although by then a secondary figure, cut off from the major political centers, <mask> was deeply involved in its creation, in recruiting youth, and in organizing charity campaigns, his activities closely monitored by the Romanian Police. He was particularly enthusiastic about the Guard's work-camp network, deeming them the "formative school of the Legionary Romanian". <mask> was still the inspiration behind Iconar, described in police records as "a camouflaged Legionary newspaper of the defunct Iron Guard". Other magazines he edited included Cugetări, Poporul, Gazeta Poporului and Înălțarea, the last at Sibiu between 1940 and 1941.<mask> was sent to the Romanian Senate following the general election of December 1937, having presented himself on Legionary lists for both Cernăuți and Câmpulung Moldovenesc. Nationally, the split vote resulted in minority rule by a LANC successor, the National Christian Party (PNC), with the king's endorsement. Writing in Însemnări Sociologice in January 1938, <mask> complained that the PNC's antisemitic program was incomplete, since it failed to target liberal democracy, "that which has made kikes all-powerful". The LANC, he noted, had been too moderate, "demagogic and corrupt"; the Iron Guard would need to reemerge and "turn chaos to order". He nevertheless displayed his and his party's loyalty toward the king, explaining for Buna Vestire that "the monarch represents the supreme principle of order and the political hierarchy". <mask> eventually lost his Senate seat the establishment of a single-party regime, the National Renaissance Front (FRN), in February 1938. He withdrew from political life, while his Iconar disciples sought a rapprochement with the FRN chapter in Ținutul Suceava.He focused on a synthesis of his sociological theory, with Teoria Comunității Omenești ("The Theory of Human Community"), published in 1939 by Editura Cugetarea (second edition 1941). The work also signified his distancing from both holism and the mainline, positivist, sociological school of Bucharest, turning to phenomenological sociology and pragmatism, with more or less explicit borrowings from Edmund Husserl and William James. Iron Guard Minister

Due to the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in the summer of 1940, <mask> was obliged to flee his home, and his entire personal library was lost. He then entered the University of Bucharest as a professor. From his new home in Bucharest, <mask> was consulted by the FRN regime and Prime Minister Ion Gigurtu, helping them draft Romania's first set of antisemitic laws. A month later, the FRN dictatorship crumbled, and Carol II abdicated; the Guard seized the opportunity and proclaimed its National Legionary State, with Ion Antonescu as the Conducător. <mask> took over two ministerial portfolios, fused into one: the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs and the Ministry of the Arts.His deputy was a Bucharest sociologist, <mask> Herseni. The staff he appointed also included other Guard affiliates: Făcăoaru, Haig Acterian, Vasile Băncilă, Dan Botta, Eugen Chirnoagă, Vladimir Dumitrescu, and Radu Gyr. Reportedly, <mask>'s appointment prefigured later conflicts between the Guard and Antonescu: the latter disliked <mask>'s radicalism, but yielded to pressures from Horia Sima, the Guard Commander. After assuming office, <mask> ordered changes in his ministry, but upheld and expanded upon the Gigurtu laws, equating interwar democracy with "the establishment of foreign and Kike rule". On his orders, Jewish students were expelled from Romanian high schools, excepting only those who could present proof that they were the direct descendants of war veterans; he allowed for the creation of a private-run, fully segregated, Jewish educational system. This policy enlisted protests from Jewish community leaders such as Wilhelm Filderman and Alexandru Șafran. Their protests, which went unanswered, noted that Brăileanu's criteria for segregation were more intransigent than the Nuremberg Laws in Nazi Germany.<mask> similarly ordered the segregation of Jewish actors, who were sacked from all Romanian theaters, public or private, "without restriction or exception". They could only be employed by "Jewish theaters", which had to advertise their racial makeup, and could only perform in plays screened for "anti-patriotic" content. Speaking at the time, the minister intimated his goal of outlawing Judaism, and hinted at the possibility of destroying synagogues, finding that these were "too many, if compared to the number of kikes." One other decree issued during his term banned Romanian pupils from purchasing schoolbooks from Jewish-owned businesses, while another dismissed eleven Jewish high school teachers. <mask> also went after one of his FRN predecessors, the left-wing sociologist Andrei, declaring him an undesirable, banned from teaching in all public schools. In October 1940, he countersigned the order to arrest Andrei, who was thus shamed into committing suicide. <mask> annoyed Antonescu by insisting on minute details of cultural and religious policy: he wanted to rename villages whose name still honored Ion G. Duca, demanded the removal of frescoes depicting Carol II, and also proposed to shut down the Bucharest Crematorium, which he saw as anti-Christian.According to various reports, his Ministry encouraged the display of propaganda material in high schools, allowing teachers to put up portraits of the Guard's assassinated founder, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. The Guard was allowed to recruit young students, grouped into "Cross Brotherhoods"; teachers were prevented from interfering with their paramilitary activities, even when students skipped classes. Enlistment therein was facilitated by rumors that non-members would be barred from entering universities. Brăileanu's other decrees lifted academic freedom, allowing the Ministry to intervene in college policy, and prioritized the academic employment of people who, like himself, were known Guard members or had been jobless since the Soviet occupation. He disbanded the National Student Front, the sole student association established under the FRN, and lifted bans on other student associations. However, these were effectively centralized into the National Union of Christian Students, which answered directly to Brăileanu, and the Student Front property was handed over to the Guard. Creating "review boards" presided over by Herseni, Chirnoagă and Făcăoaru, Brăileanu also presided over the purge of former FRN men, Jews, and known leftists, and personally stripped George Călinescu, Iorgu Iordan and Bazil Munteanu of their university chairs.He also ordered the immediate pensioning of all teachers aged 65 and over. This measure was designed to hurt Iorga, who had emerged as a major adversary of the Guard. Brăileanu's tenure at the twin Ministries is described by historian Marian Ștefan as a "vast program for the political influencing of both teaching body and youth." He was applauded by Sima as a "doctrinaire of nationalism" and "one of the prime representatives of our race". Co-opted on the Guard's executive committee, or "Legionary Forum", he was still particularly interested in the creation of a new Guardist elite. Unlike Sima, he saw in it a conservative rather than revolutionary force, lecturing on the topic and having his ideas reprinted in Universul. He also attended to problems of school organization, took steps to enhance theological education, and envisaged a state-sponsored translation program of the classics.Like Sima and painter Alexandru Bassarab, he also promoted the ideal of a new "Legionary art", which advertised itself as the true representative of Romanian values. He described Codreanu as the national "educationist" and "great reformer of our times", and overall a "holy torch" of the Romanian people. Downfall
Together with Sima and Herseni, <mask> sought to establish full Guardist control over cultural institutes such as Accademia di Romania, but their moves were vetoed by Antonescu, who favored a more conservative approach. <mask> had a tense relationship with another one of Antonescu's proteges, Sextil Pușcariu, who led the Romanian Institute in Berlin and had been given discretionary powers. Antonescu also asked <mask> to tone down his purge of academia, and the latter threatened with his resignation. Horrified by the Guard's assassinations of Iorga and Virgil Madgearu, in late November, he again tendered his resignation, but was persuaded to reverse his decision—allegedly, he agreed so that he could spare the country even greater chaos. The Guard and Antonescu still clashed over issues of political control, until, in January 1941, tensions exploded as the Legionary rebellion.During these events, the "Cross Brotherhoods" were activated in various schools, and some of their members took up arms against Antonescu's more conservative faction. The university student corps was also highly active during the events, and later organized an underground movement against Antonescu. Within seven days, however, Antonescu had retaken control of the country and purged his government of Guardist ministers. <mask>'s immediate successor was an apolitical figure, Radu R. Rosetti, who proceeded to undo the politicization of schools and universities. However, as Rosetti himself noted, the Ministry was in effect under Antonescu's direct control. Faced with ministerial suggestions for toning down the repression of Jews, Antonescu remained adamant that segregation was a valuable policy, and devised a system for its perpetuation. Arrested during the counter-coup, <mask> was jailed in a former Bucharest barracks.He was sought after as an expert in Nazi Germany: in May, Ernst Krieck, the racial scientist, invited him over as a visiting scholar. <mask> was tried in June 1941 for "corrupting the youth" or "encouraging dissent among the military". After acting as his own attorney, he was acquitted of the more serious charge of treason, but sentenced to six months in jail for the lesser accusation. A nephew of his, Virgil Procopovici, who had been visibly active in the Guard, was also detained at that time. In December 1942, when rumors spread that Sima was preparing to return from exile with Nazi support, <mask> was re-arrested, alongside some 1,500 other Guard figures, and interned at Târgu Jiu. He arrived there together with his former subordinates Gyr and Petre P. Panaitescu, and found themselves cold-shouldered by left-wing inmates. One of these was journalist Zaharia Stancu, who made a point of noting that <mask> looked "ill and profoundly miserable."Unusually, <mask> shared lodgings with a group of Jewish inmates such as Alexandru Albescu. Despite pleas from prominent members of the establishment, he was not released, whereas other detainees, including Gyr, left in February 1943. <mask> was again freed in the spring of 1944 and repeatedly offered a chance to emigrate, which he declined. The year 1941 marked the end of <mask>'s teaching career; he was forced to retire following his acquittal. Meanwhile, he continued his studies from 1941 to 1945, especially working on translations. In 1944, the official publishing company, Casa Școalelor, issued his Romanian version of the Nicomachean Ethics—according to literary critic Adrian Marino, it was a "failed attempt", and "downright impossible". Philosopher Cristian Ducu also notes <mask>'s inconsistent translation of the term ergon, which results in "grave errors at the conceptual level."Postwar trial and death

Following the King Michael Coup of August 1944, General Nicolae Rădescu, soon to become prime minister, pointed to <mask> as among those guilty of the "national disaster" that had befallen the country. He was placed under house arrest, and was held under permanent watch in the room where he lay bedridden with a duodenal ulcer. In 1945, he was removed from his house, detained and taken to police headquarters. Hospitalized following a hemorrhage, he remained under medical care until his trial. This took place in May of the following year, when <mask> and Antonescu were among the 24 politicians brought before Romanian People's Tribunals, collectively charged with "bringing disaster upon the country". At the time, the Communist Party organ, Scînteia, described <mask> as "flushed out, disjointed, his baldness sowed with grey bristle hairs as on a worn-out brush, his mouth toothless, words emerging inconsistent, gelatinous". As argued by political scientist Ruxandra Cesereanu, such portrayals meant to induce the notion that <mask> was already dead to the world, a "living corpse".<mask> was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment; another official jailed at the same trial was Ion Petrovici, a successor of his at the Education Ministry. First held at Văcărești Prison before being moved to Aiud Prison, <mask> continued working on translations of Aristotle, as well as on a memoir covering the early part of his life. In 1947, he developed a severe ulcer and, gravely ill, was taken to the Brașov prison hospital. In June, a committee of doctors decided he did not require a hospital stay, and he was returned to Aiud. He died there, most likely on October 3. Shortly before, the prison doctor had refused to send him for an operation, and he was not allowed to access a package his relatives had sent. His family managed to bring the body to Bucharest, where he was buried in an Orthodox ceremony at Sfânta Vineri Cemetery.Others who occupy the same gravesite include his wife, who lived until 1972, and his father. Publication and analysis of his works was entirely suppressed under the communist regime that followed his death. Some exceptions were made under the national communism of the 1980s, when Mihu Achim recovered him as a reference for "national sociology". By 1990, following the anticommunist Romanian Revolution, <mask>'s works were again the object of public scrutiny. Controversially, sociologist Dan Dungaciu published a piece honoring <mask> and his theory of the elites in a May 1993 issue of Mișcarea, the neo-fascist newspaper. In 1997, the Romanian Academy's sociological institute held a session dedicated to <mask>. His ancestral home in Bilca was reopened as a local museum.<mask>'s one daughter was married to his assistant Leon Țopa (1912–1996). Late in his life, Țopa was interviewed by Dungaciu, arguing that <mask> should be understood as a sociologist, beyond his political commitments. <mask>'s nephew Virgil Procopovici survived both his jailing under Antonescu and a renewed communist imprisonment from 1948, and, in 1999, reemerged as a legatee of the Iron Guard, republishing Guardist literature that he had kept hidden for the previous 50 years. Selected bibliography
Despre condițiile conștiinței și ale cunoștinței ("On the Conditions of Consciousness and Knowing"; 1912)
Die Grundlegung zu einer Wissenschaft der Ethik ("The Foundation of a Science of Ethics"; 1919)
Introducere în sociologie ("Introduction to Sociology"; 1924)
Sociologie generală ("General Sociology"; 1926)
Etică și sociologie. Contribuții la soluționarea problemei Individ și Societate ("Ethics and Sociology. Contributions to the Solution of the Problem of the Individual and Society"; 1928)
Politica ("Politics"; 1928)
Etica ("Ethics"; 1935)
Sociologia și arta politică ("Sociology and the Art of Politics"; 1937)
Teoria Comunității Omenești ("The Theory of Human Community"; 1939, 1941)
Sociologia și arta guvernării. Articole politice ("Sociology and the Art of

masks: Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Traian Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu Brăileanu


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<mask> (born July 26, 1942) is an American author and journalist whose writing against the Church of Scientology resulted in harassment from Scientologists. An early critic of the church, she published The Scandal of Scientology in 1971. She endured many years of attacks from church leadership and their agents, including lawsuits, smear campaigns, overt and covert surveillance, outright threats, and even a criminal frame-up. Church founder and leader L. Ron Hubbard was reportedly obsessed with her and personally plotted against her. The Church of Scientology instituted a total of nineteen lawsuits against <mask> from all over the world. She countersued them three times before finally settling with the church in 1985.

<mask> has authored or co-authored nearly two dozen books, covering a wide range of topics including travel, missing persons, psychics, and pets, in addition to Scientology. Her books have sold close to half a million copies in total.Early life
<mask>'s birth parents were Chaim and Ruchla (née Minkowski) Bucholc, Polish Jews who immigrated to Antwerp, Belgium in the late 1920s. Paula "<mask>" was born on July 26, 1942, during the Nazi occupation of Belgium. Chaim, a skilled leatherworker, was arrested four days before her birth; Ruchla was arrested that October. Both perished that year at Auschwitz-Birkenau. Family friends kept Paula and her older sister Sarah in hiding for months, but Nazi troops eventually found them. Just before they were to be sent to Auschwitz in the summer of 1943, friends of Chaim's and other benefactors secured their release by bribing Nazi officials. <mask> and Sarah spent years in various orphanages in Belgium.Sarah (later known as "Suzy") was eventually adopted by an aunt who could not afford to support both sisters. An American Jewish couple, Ted and Stella (née Toepfer) <mask>, arranged for <mask> to come live with them in New York City in 1948. The adoption was formalized in 1950, at which time <mask> was also naturalized. Education
Though she spoke only French when she arrived in the United States, <mask> adopted English quickly, reading voraciously and writing by age 8. She graduated from Brandeis University with a psychology degree in 1964, having also completed a summer course in comparative religion at Harvard. After graduation she returned to Harvard for several months to work on a schizophrenia study. She later earned a master's degree from The City College of New York.Early career
Early in her career, <mask> distinguished herself in her work for advertising agencies, including the prestigious BBDO. She enjoyed the challenge of working in the field of copywriting. However, she soon began to pursue magazine writing and the colorful lifestyle surrounding it. By age 26, she had already sold stories to TV Guide, Cosmopolitan, and The Washington Post. As a freelancer, she was always on the lookout for new and interesting subjects for her writing. In 1970 her writing about her adventure as "the first female stowaway" on a cruise liner caught the attention of several major media outlets. Conflict with Scientology
<mask>'s interest in Scientology began with a disturbing visit from a former BBDO colleague.The man told her that through his involvement with Scientology, he had learned he was the reincarnation of Jesus Christ. After that he announced, "God has decided to rape you," but <mask> managed to get him out of her apartment without incident. She called a former boyfriend who had himself experimented with Scientology and told him about the visitor's claim that he was Jesus. "Maybe he really is," the ex-boyfriend said. <mask>, thinking she may have stumbled on an intriguing story subject, signed up for an introductory "Communication Course" at the local Scientology "org". Between sessions she explored the facility, asking questions and even taking several documents from an office. One document listed people deemed "Suppressive Persons"—enemies of Scientology.She began work on a Scientology article in earnest. She later said of her motivation to write about Scientology: "I had a master’s degree in psychology and had studied comparative religion at Harvard for a summer and what I learned during my research about the group founded by L. Ron Hubbard was both fascinating and frightening. The story cried out to be told." Queen magazine article
Through interviews with former church members, <mask> learned much about the organization's internal methods of control and the harassment of those who left. When the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) raided the Washington, D.C. church in 1963, agents and police seized thousands of pages of documents, from which <mask> gleaned additional insights. She also procured a copy of the Anderson Report, a damning 1965 indictment of the church from the Australian state of Victoria, which denounced the church's methods as psychologically abusive and recommended banning it. The church's already litigious reputation made many publications wary of Scientology stories.Nevertheless, London's Queen magazine eventually included <mask>'s article, "The Tragi-Farce of Scientology", in its December 1969 issue (its last issue before it was absorbed into Harper's Bazaar). While it mainly addressed the harassment of Scientology critics, it was the first Scientology story to delve into sexual misconduct by church auditors. Shortly after its publication, <mask> received two anonymous, telephoned death threats warning her to stop writing about Scientology. The Scandal of Scientology

<mask> leveraged her research for the magazine article to produce a 22-chapter book, The Scandal of Scientology, subtitled "A chilling examination of the nature, beliefs, and practices of the 'now religion'". She pitched this exposé as a trove of "exciting, interesting, unknown, controversial material". Despite multiple lawsuit threats from the Church of Scientology, Tower Publications released the book in June 1971. Its Appendix "The Scientologist's Story" included author questions with answers provided by David Gaiman, then the Public Relations Director of Scientology in England.Soon after publication, the church sued <mask> for libel over the Queen magazine article, though Harper's Bazaar settled the matter quickly. In December, the church followed with a lawsuit against the book itself in Los Angeles Superior Court, alleging "untrue, libelous, and defamatory statements about the Church." Tower Publications would buy itself out of the lawsuit in late 1973, to <mask>'s disappointment. A Scientology defector would later claim she saw a copy of The Scandal of Scientology in the lounge of the Apollo, the flagship of Scientology's Sea Org. Attacks by the Guardian's Office
By early 1971, <mask> was being targeted by the Guardian's Office (GO) of the Church of Scientology (since superseded by the Office of Special Affairs, or OSA). This organization, linked to church founder L. Ron Hubbard's wife Mary Sue, was the church's sophisticated spy and intelligence operation. They heard about <mask>'s book and tried to stop its publication through various means.They used the church's legal apparatus to threaten her publisher with lawsuits. While she was visiting Scotland for a travel story, dozens of strangers staked out her hotel, and some followed, photographed, or called her; David Gaiman, also a GO operative, even met her at the airport with fake writs for libel. Early in 1972, a GO memo referred to <mask> as "an unhandled attacker of Scientology", and the organization stepped up its surveillance and harassment. They researched her past, her personal life, and even her college grades. <mask> received many obscene phone calls and some threatening ones. Damage to her telephone lines suggested someone had eavesdropped on her. In March, <mask> sued the New York Church of Scientology for $15.4 million, hoping to stop the harassment.Also in March, <mask> was named as one of 18 defendants in another church lawsuit, which alleged a conspiracy to produce Robert Kaufman's book Inside Scientology. This connection put her in contact with L. Ron Hubbard, Jr. (a.k.a. "Nibs"), son of the church founder and a prominent Scientology defector. Together they collaborated on a long essay, "A Look Inside Scientology", while staying with <mask>'s parents. <mask>, Nibs, and Kaufman discussed their work on multiple radio and television programs. Internal GO memos suggest the organization considered plans to ruin <mask>'s father Ted's finances and diamond business, "thus cutting off one of P.C. 's financial supports".An imposter had her phone briefly disconnected. A scandal sheet circulated accusing <mask> of sexual deviancy and writing pornography. All this, in addition to the lawsuits, impeded her ability to work. At her lawyer's behest, she began compiling a harassment diary in 1972 to support her lawsuit. Operation Dynamite / Operation Lovely
In 1972 the GO launched "Operation Dynamite" to "[attempt] commitment procedures" on <mask>. A critical sequence of developments and suspicious events occurred in December 1972:

 6th: <mask> signed a petition offered to her by a canvasser named "Margie". 8th: The Church of Scientology in New York received the first of two poorly-written bomb threats.The church alerted the FBI, naming <mask> as a possible suspect. 13th: The second threat was hand-delivered to the church. 15th: <mask> moved to a new apartment. 19th: <mask>'s cousin was attacked by an armed intruder while staying at <mask>'s old apartment. In February 1973, anonymous flyers appeared all over <mask>'s new apartment building accusing her of various sexual perversions, including pedophilia. <mask> suspected her ex-boyfriend from BBDO had provided the Church of Scientology with certain details mentioned in the letter—details also hinted at in the first bomb threat. The pedophilia claim was oddly similar to an incident involving a church auditor that she had researched for her book.Soon after, <mask> received a federal grand jury subpoena and learned that she was a prime suspect in the bomb threats. At the hearing, the prosecutor revealed that <mask>'s fingerprint was found on the second bomb threat letter. Both letters were also linked to <mask>'s typewriter. Nibs had reconciled with Scientology in the fall of 1972 and probably provided intelligence on <mask>. Details about <mask> in the first bomb threat letter suggested he may have helped write it. He had also had access to her typewriter while they were collaborating. <mask> would later see letters from Nibs to his father in which he claimed to be actively working against his father's "enemies".Such individuals fell under Scientology's Fair Game policy, meaning they "[m]ay be deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist...[and] tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed." <mask>'s fingerprint on the second letter may have come from Nibs, or from the petition she signed in early December. On May 17, 1973, <mask> was indicted in connection with the threats. By this time, the GO had come to refer to the campaign against <mask> as Operation Lovely, since her code name in internal GO correspondence was "Mrs. Lovely". While she awaited trial, <mask> depended heavily on several close friends, two of whom turned out to be agents of the Church of Scientology. "Paula" had been introduced to her by "Margie", the canvasser from December. Paula disappeared soon after <mask> discovered a photo of a woman who resembled her in Scientology's Freedom magazine."Jerry" often stayed in her apartment and would eventually move in for several months, during which time he reported regularly to the GO. In one GO memo he noted that if <mask> became depressed enough to commit suicide, "Wouldn't this be a great thing for Scientology?" On several occasions, he tried to coax <mask> to stand with him on the dangerous ledge of her 33rd-floor apartment. "Jerry" disappeared after <mask> found his name in a Scientology publication and confronted him about it. Later, former Scientology operatives would identify him as a man using the alias "Don Alverzo", the Church's most senior spy at the time. Meanwhile, the smear campaign continued. In March, a smear letter was sent to her parents.Similar letters addressed to her boyfriend, which also threatened his career, would eventually destroy their relationship. The United States of America vs. <mask>

masks:
Paulette Cooper
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 <mask> never went to trial. <mask> made a deal with the U.S. Attorney's office in which she admitted no guilt. On September 16, 1975, the U.S. Attorney's Office formally filed a nolle prosequi in the case. Though she avoided a trial, she still feared the indictment becoming public and damaging her career prospects. <mask> had failed a polygraph early on, but she passed a truth-serum test shortly before the indictment was dropped. She was ultimately vindicated when the FBI raided Scientology offices in 1977 and recovered documents relating to the operation.Operation Freakout

The GO's harassment of <mask> continued into 1974. Her father's office received copies of pages from the diary she had kept as a teenager—and still had in her possession. In early 1975 GO agents broke into the office of <mask>'s college psychiatrist and stole her records. Later that year, <mask> began receiving copies of her medical records in the mail from anonymous senders. The church compiled a detailed internal report on her that year. L. Ron Hubbard was reportedly "obsessed" with <mask>. "He thought [she] was working for every group he could imagine that was against Scientology," said Bill Franks, a Scientology member tasked with dismantling the GO after its leaders were imprisoned."He just thought she was the antichrist." On one occasion in 1975, Hubbard was overheard referring to her as "That bitch, <mask> <mask>!" In 1976, Hubbard and his operatives in the GO, frustrated by their failure to silence <mask>, developed an ambitious new campaign to discredit her. Dubbed Operation Freakout, its goal was to have <mask> "incarcerated in a mental institution or jail or at least to hit her so hard that she drops her attacks." The plan included staging multiple tightly coordinated incidents involving imposters, false reports, and planted items. Central to the plot was another series of bomb threat letters. One, full of vitriol concerning the treatment of Israel, was to be delivered to an Arab embassy.Another would be addressed to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. The new campaign included another scheme to get <mask>'s fingerprint on a piece of paper. <mask> suspected such an attempt when a stranger approached her in a bar with a clipboard. Around the same time, she learned that someone impersonating her had made phone calls to friends. In the end, Operation Freakout was never implemented, at least not fully. <mask> may have complicated the plan by moving to Los Angeles to assist with her defense in a Church of Scientology lawsuit there. An affidavit by a former Scientologist alleges that in 1977 the church was plotting to assassinate <mask>.However, no other source corroborates this, despite voluminous GO documentation about the attempts to ruin her life and reputation. Lawsuits
Over the course of its conflict with <mask>, the Church of Scientology sued her nineteen times, operating in courts all over the world. <mask> ultimately counter-sued the church three times. In Church of Scientology of California vs <mask> <mask>, et. al., filed in December 1971 in Los Angeles Superior Court, the plaintiff alleged that The Scandal of Scientology made "untrue, libelous, and defamatory statements about the Church." The case was due to go to trial in 1976, by which time the book's publisher had long-since reached a separate settlement with the church. Despite a strong defense, <mask>, homesick and weary of litigation, also decided to settle.As part of the deal signed on December 5, 1976, <mask> surrendered the copyright for her book to the church and agreed to no longer comment on it publicly. In return, the church dropped all its remaining lawsuits against <mask>. In the weeks leading up to the settlement, dozens of Scientologists tried to influence the course of events. They regularly camped outside <mask>'s lawyer's office and filled the courtroom, hoping to steer the thoughts of the lawyer and the judge in the church's favor. On July 8, 1977, the FBI raided Church of Scientology facilities in D.C. and Los Angeles in response to Operation Snow White, the church's program to collect intelligence and steal documents related to Scientology from federal agencies. Documents seized in the raid detailed other criminal activities, and the FBI reached out to <mask> for help with the investigation. As she assisted them, she came upon a photo of her vanished friend "Paula", confirming she had been a church agent.In April 1978, the Washington Post published a pair of articles based on the seized documents. One covered <mask>'s frame-up in detail. In the first article, author Ron Shaffer wrote: "The 'attack and destroy' campaign carried out by the Church of Scientology's 'Guardian's Office' to silence critics has involved illegal surveillance, burglaries, forgeries and many forms of harassment, according to sources close to an intensive federal investigation of the Scientologists' activities." The Church of Scientology of California falsely accused <mask> of helping prepare the Post stories, an alleged violation of the 1976 settlement terms. The church filed yet another lawsuit against her on May 25, 1978, and the New York church did the same the following month. <mask> counter-sued in both cases. On March 9, 1981, <mask> sued the Boston church and L. Ron and Mary Sue Hubbard for $25 million.In August the church filed its 18th lawsuit against her for discouraging celebrity support of a benefit auction for a new Celebrity Centre in Los Angeles. Around the same time, however, changes in church leadership created a push to settle all outstanding lawsuits and charges. In February 1985, <mask> finally settled with the church for an undisclosed amount. On a couple of occasions, even after the settlement, the church strangely tried to bribe <mask> to spy for them. Clearwater Hearings

The Church of Scientology had been plotting to take over the city of Clearwater, Florida since 1975, looking to establish a literal safe harbor for L. Ron Hubbard. The citizenry pushed back. <mask> was one of the speakers at an anti-Scientology rally in Clearwater that drew 10,000 local residents.On June 1, 1980, the news magazine program 60 Minutes aired a segment about Scientology's takeover of Clearwater. <mask> was interviewed for the story and described her indictment ordeal. In the same program, Scientology leader David Gaiman claimed that <mask>'s harassment was the fault of "overzealous" Scientologists and that Hubbard had not been involved in it—despite Hubbard's own policy letters encouraging such activity. On May 8, 1982, <mask> testified at the Clearwater Hearings, held by city officials over five days to investigate the Scientology takeover. She detailed her history with the church, describing a more than a decade of harassment, lawsuits, and threats. "It was an incredible vindication to look at these [FBI-seized] documents and see that everything I had said about Scientology since 1968 was true, and that they had turned out to be worse than anything I had said or imagined." Activism
During the 1970s, some former Scientologists and distraught family members sought out <mask> for help.She connected them with newspaper reporters and magazine writers and encouraged them to tell their stories. She also encouraged fellow journalists to cover the church critically. In the early 1980s <mask> published a newsletter entitled "Scientology Clearing-House: A Quarterly Summary of Scientology news (non-objectively) edited by <mask> <mask>". After the final legal settlement with the church in 1985, <mask> went silent about Scientology for a while. The church's litigious response to a 1991 TIME magazine article caused the mainstream media to avoid stories about Scientology for about fifteen years. During this time, though, alt.religion.scientology (ARS) formed on Usenet and began publishing secret church teachings. In 1995 an ARS regular posted the complete text of The Scandal of Scientology online.After this, <mask> would occasionally contribute to ARS (and elsewhere online) She started reaching out again to journalists writing about Scientology. In the 2000s, mainstream media interest in Scientology began growing again, in part due to the antics of celebrity adherent Tom Cruise. <mask> wrote an article entitled "The Scandal of the Scandal of Scientology", published in 2007 in Byline magazine, the publication of the New York Press Club. In 2011 The Village Voice wrote at length about <mask>'s ordeal with Scientology. This article, plus subsequent writing about her early life in Belgium, garnered additional media interest. Also in 2011, <mask> learned that a Vanity Fair journalist she considered a friend had been secretly working for the church for two decades; among other services, he had spied on <mask>. In May 2015, Tony Ortega, a writer for The Village Voice, published a biography of <mask> entitled The Unbreakable Miss Lovely: How the Church of Scientology tried to destroy <mask> <mask>.<mask> continues to speak out about the Church of Scientology today, enjoying high regard from online activists, ex-Scientologists, and others. Career
As a journalist, <mask> has written hundreds of stories on a variety of subjects. She produced many of these for the National Enquirer, which employed her beginning in 1974; though she avoided assignments that invaded the privacy of celebrities, she pursued Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis for years, once ending up in the foreground of a photo of Onassis published by the New York Post. On one occasion, she visited Africa as part of her travel writing and investigated the history of the slave trade. She currently writes a column about pets for the Palm Beach Daily News. <mask> has also authored or co-authored nearly two dozen books, covering a wide range of topics including travel, missing persons, psychics, and her favorite subject, pets. Her 1973 book The Medical Detectives, an early and thorough exploration of forensic science, earned <mask> an Edgar Award in nonfiction from Mystery Writers of America.She has also ghost-written several books, including one for Margaret Truman, daughter of President Harry S. Truman. <mask> wrote a one-act, one-woman play about her Church of Scientology frame-up entitled "The Perils of Paulette". Staged in 1997, it garnered a Chicago Dramatist Award. Personal life
As part of her career, <mask> moved in celebrity circles. At various times she dated television personality Allen Funt, writer Jerzy Kosinski, and author Ira Levin. <mask> married television producer Paul Noble on May 17, 1988. They live in Palm Beach, Florida with their two shih-tzus.The couple have authored four books together. <mask>'s sister Suzy now lives in New York. She has two children, named after their parents. Awards
In 1992, the American Society of Journalists and Authors awarded her their highest honor, the prestigious Conscience-in-Media Award. Selected bibliography
 The Scandal of Scientology. Tower Publications, 1971. The Medical Detectives.D. McKay Co., 1973. Let's Find Out About Halloween. Reader's Digest Services, 1977. The 100 Top Psychics in America (co-written by Paul Noble). Pocket Books, 1996. 277 Secrets Your Cat Wants You to Know (co-written by Paul Noble). Ten Speed Press, 1997.The Most Romantic Resorts for Destination Weddings, Marriage Renewals & Honeymoons (co-written by Paul Noble). S.P.I. Books, 2002. Battlefield Scientology: Exposing L. Ron Hubbard's dangerous "religion" (co-written by Tony Ortega) Polo Publishing of Palm Beach, 2018. See also

 The Scandal of Scientology
 Office of Special Affairs (OSA), formerly the Guardian's Office (GO)
 Operation Freakout
 Fair Game (Scientology)

References

External links
The Scandal of Scientology by <mask> <mask>
"The Tragi-Farce of Scientology" by <mask> <mask>
Scientology documents about <mask> <mask> seized by the FBI. <mask> <mask>'s website
 <mask> <mask>'s description of her frame-up

Media
Video of <mask> <mask>'s testimony at the Clearwater Hearings - May 8, 1982
Transcript of Clearwater Hearings testimony

Critics of Scientology
Living people
1942 births
American adoptees
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Jewish American writers
Belgian emigrants to the United States
Belgian Jews
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women

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Cooper
Cooper
Cooper
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper
Paulette
Cooper