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 With each unable even to understand each other's standpoint, it was inevitable that Paget would suffer and he was suspended from the ministry for two years. Henry Newcome included a story from this period in <mask>'s ministry in a collection of what he knew to be tall tales. Old Mr. Rootes told me several the like. As, an apparitor at Blakeley, when old Mr. Paget was there, came in among the communicants and took all their names, and bragged that he would present them all at the visitation. The next Lord's day he resolved to go to Bolton to entrap Mr. Gosnall and his communicants in like manner.On the Sabbath morning when he was getting up, something, as he thought, gave him a dust on the neck; he fell immediately sick, and died within two hours. Some godly men came in when he was dead, as neighbours, and providentially saw the paper and burned it ; and so the mischief by him was prevented. Divine interventions or not, Paget was pursued by misfortune as well as the ecclesiastical authorities. In 1628 his wife died and was buried at Bowdon in Cheshire: this was one of the villages where Paget and other Puritan ministers held their monthly exercises and was close to Dunham Massey, the home of the leading Presbyterian layman in Cheshire George Booth. From 1625 the country had been ruled by Charles I's, who was perceived as an Arminian, opposed on a much deeper level to the Puritans, and closely supported by William Laud, whom he initially appointed Bishop of London. From 1629 the country was subjected to Thorough, an attempt at Absolute monarchy, with no Parliaments summoned for eleven years. In 1631 the Court of High Commission moved to serve Paget and other ministers with attachments for the various fines they had incurred, which increased at each hearing, and ordered they be imprisoned at York until they could offer securities.<mask> and his family were forced to go into hiding. With still higher fines and costs mounting, they fled, taking refuge in the Dutch Republic, where his brother John was pastor of the English Reformed Church, Amsterdam. Amsterdam

Exiled minister
<mask> and his children took up residence in Amsterdam and lived among expatriate and exiled English-speaking Protestants. They looked on the surrounding Dutch community and the Presbyterians of Scotland as allies in the Calvinist cause. The eldest son, Nathan, was sent for his higher education first to the University of Edinburgh and later to Leiden University. <mask> was greatly involved in polemics against an emerging Independent or Congregationalist strain among the English Calvinists. Elements in his congregation proposed bringing in <mask> and John Davenport as assistant ministers to balance Paget's determined Presbyterianism.It is unclear exactly how <mask> made a living, but it is known that <mask> and his wife Briget were wealthy, with two houses in Amsterdam and shares in the state-sponsored Dutch West India Company, which made large profits from the Atlantic slave trade. <mask> was evidently well-enough provided for to remarry and a son, named <mask>, was born in 1635. Another minister in the Amsterdam church alongside the Pagets was the veteran Julines Herring, who had served at Shrewsbury, where he clashed with Bishop Morton, and at Wrenbury, where he was one of the Cheshire ministers persecuted by Bridgeman. It seems that <mask> both assisted his brother and saw himself as his brother's spiritual heir. When John died sine prole in 1638 <mask> succeeded him as pastor. Briget, John's widow, moved to the Calvinist stronghold of Dordrecht to live with Robert Paget: he was John and <mask>'s nephew, whom she and John had adopted as a son. There she acted as John's literary executor.In 1639 she published  his Meditations of Death in, adding her own preface and dedicating it to Charles I's sister, Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia, the Protestant heroine of the Thirty Years' War. The political relevance of drawing attention to Elizabeth and her friendship for exiled Puritans cannot have been lost. Charles I himself was trying to impose the Prayer Book on Scotland, initially it seemed with success, inflicting a major defeat on the Calvinists. However, the fierce reaction of the Covenanters and their victories in the Bishops' Wars forced the king to bring Thorough to an end and to seek support from Parliament. Political intervention

In 1641 <mask> made a significant intervention in the English political situation by arranging for the publication in London and presentation to the Long Parliament of his brother's book: A Defence Of Church-Government, Exercised in Presbyteriall, Classicall, & Synodall Assemblies. The intervention had a very specific context that made his own experience relevant. A petition from Cheshire had asked Parliament to do away with bishops, canon law, the Prayer Book, and the Thirty-Nine Articles.This was countered by another Cheshire petition, advocating continuation of episcopacy and denouncing all Puritans as "Schismatiques and Separatists." The conservative petition was published by Sir <mask>, 1st Baronet with a dossier of supporting documents under the title A Remonstrance Against Presbytery. <mask> prefaced the book with  his own "Humble Advertisement", intended to provide a context for it. Examination of the finished product immediately reveals <mask>'s work to have been printed entirely separately from the rest of the book: it is unnumbered and is a much cruder and more rushed piece of typesetting. Moreover, the book already had a preface by <mask>, written in Dordrecht or Dort, under the heading "The Publisher to the Christian Reader." This suggests that it was one of Briget's editions, turned to an unintended purpose. The title page of the book explains that it advocates the "Authority of Classes and Synods, against the Patrons of Independencie: answering in this poynt Mr Davenport..." It was originally a response to <mask>'s problems at the Amsterdam church in the previous decade.<mask> began with a reference to the profound change in circumstances. It is the divine observation of Ecclesiastes the Sonne of David King in Ierufalem, To every thing there is a season: A time to keepe silence, and a time to speake. Truly it hath seemed to be a time to keepe silence in some by-gone yeeres in England, when the prudent Ministers of God were necessitated to keepe silence through the evill of the times, having beene made offenders for a word, as if their do&rine had beene conspiracy against the State, and the land not able to beare all their words. Paget went on to outline the experiences of the Puritan clergy in the Diocese of Chester, focussing on his own confrontations with Morton and Bridgeman. This gave way to a detailed critique of Aston's book containing the Cheshire royalist petition. Paget was concerned to distinguish Presbyterianism carefully from Independency. This was one of the themes of a series of "Animadversions" that brought his preface to an end.Countering fears that Presbyterianism was incompatible with good order, he was able to point out that "The United Netherlands doe finde by experience that Presbytery is no way to conducible to Anarchie." However, he also criticized the framers of the earlier anti-episcopal petition for being equally confused as to the distinctions between different traditions of Puritanism. Neither the Petition, nor Positions añexed to the Remonstrance doe seeke for Presbytery, but seeme rather to affect a popular government. The Patrons of popular government (contended for in the positions) are for the most part either Separatists, or Semi-separatists, who are as opposite to Presbyteriall government, as they are to Prelacy; as is well knowne to them that know them. And therfore it behooveth Cheshiremen to give righteous judgement, when they take upon them to censure, & in-no-wise confound & jumble together opiniõs & defenders of them soe directly opposite. Further publishing
The changed political situation had already allowed <mask>'s son <mask> to return to England, where he was admitted to the College of Physicians in 1640. With the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, his career blossomed at Cambridge, inside the area controlled by Parliament.He signed the Solemn League and Covenant, as Parliament demanded in order to cement its alliance with the Scottish Covenanters. He also married Elizabeth Cromwell, the cousin of a minor Roundhead commander called Oliver Cromwell. <mask> remained in Amsterdam throughout these difficult years, continuing to tend his flock, and writing for the now much wider market for English Puritan literature. In 1643 he published A Demonstration of Family Duties, a guide for Puritan parents that portrayed the family as a mutually sustaining community sharing a regulated common life:
because the members of the family do usually and for the most part share and partake more or less both in the welfare and in the miseries of one another mutually. And therefore they ought to use the means that God has sanctified and ordained for the mutual good and benefit of one another. As family members were generally together in the morning and evening, these would be the best times for them to take part together in religious exercises. The very regularity of the daily round was important as it allowed the head of the family to embed the family in a wider social network, bringing in "some godly brethren and christian neighbours, for the more solemn performance of religious duties together."Shrewsbury

Appointment
Probably in 1645 Paget became aware of overtures from Shrewsbury. The town had fallen to the Parliamentarians as a result of a daring operation planned by Willem Reinking, a Dutch professional soldier, under the direction of its parliamentary committee, on 21 February. Royalist and Laudian clergy were purged from the town and the surrounding areas and replacements sought. Initially the centre of interest in Amsterdam was Julines Herring, who was probably invited back by <mask>, the merchant and former bailiff who had first introduced him to Shrewsbury around 1617. However, both Rowley and Herring were dead by the summer of 1645. Attention then turned to Paget: presumably Herring had recommended him. Some time in 1646 the congregation of St Chad's Church elected him as their minister, "for this was now become the mode of appointment," as Owen and Blakeway, both later Anglican clergymen in the town, remark in their 1825 History of Shrewsbury.The previous incumbent was one Lendall (forename unknown), who was perhaps appointed under the first royalist governor, Sir Francis Ottley. He seems to have been treated as a prisoner of war on the capture of the town and removed under an Act of 16 December 1642 ordering sequestration of the livings of those who joined the king's army. <mask> was definitely working at St Chad's by 4 November, when the parish register records the burial of "John, s. of Mr. <mask>, minister, of Chad's." It was not <mask>'s only loss in his early years at Chad's: a daughter, Hanna, was buried on 15 May 1648. The entries shows that the honorific "Saint" was no longer being used in the name of the church, in line with Puritan practice, which allowed it only for New Testament personages, or sometimes just for the Twelve Apostles. Chad's was a demanding parish. It had been an important collegiate church in the Middle Ages, with a Dean and chapter and still had a very large parish, stretching out into the countryside south of Shrewsbury.The parish register shows that the birth, marriage and death rites involved considerable work, even in normal times. Between 21 and 28 March 1647, an entirely typical period, Paget must have conducted 11 baptisms, and 7 funerals and   In April "It rayned in this month sutch store of raine,
was sutch a flood as hath seldom bin the like." In December "23 of this month was a woman
burned in the quorell for poysong her husband" – a disturbing event even in a time of war and violence. There were numerous drownings in the River Severn even in normal times. To add to the work, the neighbouring church of Julian had been provided with preachers only occasionally for many decades. Richard Lee, a minister who had made his name in the Puritan opposition at St Peter's Collegiate Church, was curate there for a time in 1642: forced out with the other Puritan clergy, he had since refocused his efforts in Wolverhampton. There had been no other regular incumbent since 1609 and the congregation generally relied on the minister of Chad's.The Shropshire Presbyteries

Parliament had ordered that Presbyteries should be established in every county in June 1646. Shropshire had a complete system of six classes, based in Shrewsbury, Oswestry, Bridgnorth, Whitchurch, Ludlow and Chirbury. It was among only eight counties that got so far as to attempt implementation of a full Presbyterian polity. The scheme is recorded in a document entitled The Severall Divisions and Persons for Classicall Presbyteries in the County of Salop, issued over the signature of Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester. "Cedds parish," the rendering used for Chad's, was allocated to the First Classis, along with the other Shrewsbury parishes and the surrounding rural parishes, and Paget was named as one of the eight ministers or teaching elders of the classis. Paget was the oldest and most experienced of the classis ministers in the town: Barbara Coulton writes that "Paget was to be a magisterial figure in Shrewsbury." The incumbent of Alkmund's was <mask> and Samuel Fisher was the pastor

masks:
Paget
Paget
Thomas Paget
John Paget
Thomas Hooker
Thomas
John Paget
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas
Thomas Paget
Thomas Aston
Thomas Paget
Thomas
Robert Paget
John Paget
Thomas Paget
Thomas
Nathan Paget
Thomas
Thomas Rowley
Paget
Thomas Padgett
Paget
Thomas Blake


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 at Mary's: both were to become significant Puritan controversialists but were considerably younger than Paget.The lay elders were headed by the mayor of Shrewsbury and included Richard Pigot, the headmaster of Shrewsbury School, whom Paget must have known already, as Pigot was head of Northwich School when <mask> was a student. The key figure among the elders was, however, Humphrey Mackworth of Betton Strange, the military governor of the town. Mackworth was one of Paget's parishioners and had a history of involvement in ecclesiastical politics stretching back to the 1620s, when he had opposed Peter Studley, the Laudian vicar of St Chad's and refused to kneel for communion. Although the Shropshire scheme gave every appearance on paper of being well thought-out, it seems that for most of the county it never took real effect. Only the Fourth or Whitchurch Classis (also called the Bradford North Classis, after the hundred it occupied) became fully operational, ordaining 63 ministers over the twelve years of its existence. Shrewsbury under Mackworth soon began to follow a very different path and Paget seems to have been a close ally. Division and conflict

1648 saw, signs of division appear in Shropshire.With the king implicated in the outbreak of a Second English Civil War and Presbyterianism tainted by the invasion of the Scottish Engagers, the Independents in the New Model Army began to put pressure on Parliament for a more radical turn. Seeing the threat, fifty-seven Shropshire ministers signed a denunciation of Independency, entitled A Testimony of the Ministers in the Province of Salop to the Truth of Jesus Christ and to the Solemn League and Covenant: as also against the Errors, Heresies and Blasphemies of these times and the Toleration of them. This was sent to the London province for the attention of Parliament. All of the other ministers of the Shrewsbury Classis signed it, except Paget. Presbyterianism had been Paget's fixed position for so long and so publicly that this must have come as a surprise. However, it was only the beginning. 1648 also saw Mackworth's vigilance save the town from a royalist insurgency instigated by John Byron, 1st Baron Byron, and, after Pride's Purge removed the moderate Presbyterian majority, leaving a Rump Parliament, he and his officers petitioned Parliament to bring the king to justice.He supported the regicide and the establishment of a republican regime, the Commonwealth of England. Paget had important family links to Oliver Cromwell, who increasingly set the pace politically, as well as apparently close relations with his chief parishioner. Using the pseudonym "Theophilus Philopatrus" he published a pamphlet entitled A Religious Scrutiny, justifying the regicide. The Law and Minde of God, touching the capital punishment of the polluting and crying sin of wilful murder, whosoever is the committer of it, yea, though he be blood-guilty King, may not by a Magistrate looked upon as one to be dispensed withal. He concluded with an allusion to : "The Valley of Achor is given for a door of hope." To a biblically literate Puritan, this evoked the example of  Achar in , who was stoned to death after his defiance of God brought disfavour and disaster to the whole people. The implication seems to be that regicide was a cleansing act that restored the  Covenant between God and England.When Parliament prescribed a new oath of allegiance to the state for, among others, all ministers of religion, Paget found himself at odds with neighbouring ministers. In its 1650 form, the Oath of Engagement ran: "I do declare and promise, that I will be true and faithful to the Commonwealth of England, as it is now established, without a King or House of Lords." This plainly contradicted the Solemn League and Covenant, which had envisaged a Presbyterian national church headed by a sympathetic monarch. This was too much for both Blake and Fisher, who both used their pulpits to denounce the Engagement and refused to subscribe. Mackworth, on the other hand, all but denied his Presbyterian relative Sir Robert Harley permission to settle in Shrewsbury because he refused the Engagement. Paget re-published his earlier pamphlet on the regicide in a revised edition to support the new republican order. In it he expressed an entirely unsentimental and purely instrumental view of the Solemn League and Covenant, which had played such an important part in the lives of Presbyterians who, like Blake and Fisher, had lived through the Civil War.All such oaths, he maintained, were devised for "the just safety and preservation of the Common-wealth of England." However, he continued to advocate a Presbyterian polity as the best way of organizing the Church. For months the rival ministers of Shrewsbury continued to preach entirely opposed policies, evidently so fiercely that it was noted in London. Referring to correspondence received in March 1650, Bulstrode Whitelocke, Keeper of the Great Seal and a friend of Mackworth, wrote

From Shrewsbury, that the ministers preach much against the present government, and to encourage the people to sedition, and to rise for their king. That at the day of the public fast kept in one of their churches, there was another mock fast kept in the other two churches by agreement of the ministers, and two sermons preached in them purposely to disturb the fast enjoined by authority. This was alarmist, but genuinely alarming was Whitelocke's note in July: "Letters that the plague was broken out in Shrewsbury." Although news only reached London in July  The outbreak of bubonic plague began a month earlier, as a marginal note in Chad's register makes clear.The plaige begun in Shrowsbure the 12 of June 1650 in Frankwell, at John Conie's howse — <mask> Esqre., Maior of Shrowsbury. This followed an entry recording the death of "John, s. of Richard Scrawley, a Irishman." Chad's parish register alone records 251 deaths, many of which took place in the pest-house. Owen and Blakeway's calculations show a peak in the summer months, with 76 in August, and a fairly rapid decline in the winter, tailing off to just two plague deaths in January 1651. Pressure from the government peaked exactly as the plague reached its most lethal stage. It was on 16 August that the Council of State wrote to Mackworth ordering him "to turn out of his garrison all such persons as, either in the pulpit or elsewhere, by seditious words endeavour to stir up sedition and uproar among the people." A week later the Council was more specific, naming Blake and Fisher, ordering Mackworth to detain them and to "examine them as to their former and late offences."The two dissident ministers were forced to leave the town late in the year. leaving <mask> the sole serving minister in the centre of Shrewsbury for some time. It seems that normal life was resumed fairly quickly, Whitelocke noting as early as December 1650 news "Of the ceasing of the plague in Shrewsbury, and thereupon that the markets were as full as ever." However, Shrewsbury faced another emergency in August 1651 as the Third English Civil War approached its final stage. The Scottish army of Charles II of Scotland camped a few miles away at Tong, when, as Whitelocke noted, "the king sent a summons to colonel Mackworth, governor of Shrewsbury, inviting him to surrender that garrison to him; but the governor returned him a peremptory denial." There is no trace of an incumbent at Alkmund's before 29 August 1651, just after the king's army moved on, when the corporation agreed to add £5 towards the salary of Richard Heath, and it was not until January 1653 that Francis Tallents was installed at Mary's. <mask>, Heath and Tallents were all appointed as ministers "assistant" to the Commissioners who were empowered by an ordinance of 22 August to eject "scandalous, ignorant, and insufficient or negligent ministers and schoolmasters."About six were actually ejected by the commissioners over  the next two years. Old age and new voices

Considerable changes in the balance of power now undermined Paget's local supremacy. Mackworth had spent much of 1654 in London as a member of the Protector's Council but died near the end of the year. The new governor, the younger Humphrey Mackworth, did not wield the same monopoly of power as his father. Under the Rule of the Major-Generals, Shropshire fell into the area governed by the Independent James Berry and he brought to the fore <mask>, a leading local Presbyterian. Hunt was on good terms with Richard Baxter and they explored ways of opening up the pulpits to fresh preachers. Baxter visited and encouraged John Bryan, who was having a hard time with a conservative congregation at Holy Cross, the former Shrewsbury Abbey, just to the east of the town.Hunt and Baxter also planned to bring Henry Newcome to Shrewsbury. The congregation of Julian's wanted to secure one of these fresh voices and began to spend considerable sums on improvements to the church, as well as making a direct approach to Newcome. Baxter wrote to Newcome, making clear that Paget's parish was the ultimate target. Their desire is that you would take up with about £80 or £100 per annum for a while that you may be ready to succeed Mr. Paget (who is old and sickly), if God shall so order it, in the greatest congregation, where is a fuller maintenance. Newcome's reply, dated 27 September 1656, made clear that he regarded Paget as a major obstacle to his acceptance in the town. Mr. Paget is too well known to be a man of much frowardness, and he might create much unquietness if I should come thither to another church, with any intention of succeeding him. Which, when I was at Shrewsbury, was known to him ; and, through the indiscretion of some honest men, every thing was so public, that I was much troubled how to carry when I was there.On 31 October Baxter wrote to Newcome, acknowledging that Paget was a difficult man, although he was not sure he really resented Newcome:
I doubt not of the ministers' readiness to invite you, (except Mr. Paget, whom I have no mind to deal with about it, though, for aught I know, he also may consent.) A month later Baxter was still pleading with Newcome, writing that "Mr. Bryan is in danger of being removed (as they tell me); and Mr. Paget is not long for this world." However, he had not found Paget quite so fearsome as he had supposed: "I hope Mr. Paget is not altogether so morose as some report him. I went to him after I writ to you last, and found him very fair and placable…" However, nothing came of the attempt to recruit Newcome as a minister to Shrewsbury. Stockport

<mask> finally left Chad's for a well-paid and easier post. After the death of Oliver Cromwell on 3 September 1658, his son and successor, Richard Cromwell, reinstated as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster the ardent republican John Bradshaw. One of the livings at Bradshaw's disposal was the rectory of Mary's Church, Stockport and he presented Paget to it.Paget automatically lost Chad's as soon as he accepted Stockport. A marginal note in Chad's parish register for 1658/9 relates that: "March 27, Mr. John Bryan was chossen minr. by the whole parish, being the next lord's day after that Mr. Paget had loste the place." Newcome and Paget must have formed a fairly cordial relationship at this stage, as Newcome, a minister of the Collegiate Church in Manchester, visited Stockport to preach every Friday afternoon  until the Great Ejection of 1662. Thus Newcome and Heyricke were able to visit Paget socially, sitting in the rectory at Stockport to hear the old man reminisce about the resistance to Bishop Morton, its former occupant. However Paget did not survive long in his new post. He lived to see the restoration of the monarchy but was spared the Ejection.It seems likely his deteriorating health forced him to resign some time before his death, as his successor, Henry Warren, was instituted on 21 September 1660. Death

Paget died in October 1660. His will, proved on 16 October, left his property to his sons, Nathan and <mask>, but mentions also three surviving daughters, Dorothy, Elizabeth and Mary. Paget nominated as supervisor of the will his "cousin" <mask>, an apothecary of Manchester who was actually a nephew of Margery Gouldsmith, his first wife. Marriages and family

Paget married twice. Margery Gouldsmith or Goldsmith was from Nantwich and married Paget on 6 April 1613 and died in 1628. This marriage produced at least four known children, including
 <mask>, a noted physician, who married Elizabeth Cromwell, and was a close friend of John Milton.He introduced Milton to his cousin Elizabeth Minshull, who later became the poet's third wife. Dorothy
 Elizabeth. The name of <mask>'s second wife seems to be unknown. At least three children of the marriage are known. <mask>, a minister. He seems to have been born between 1635 and 1638 and became clerk of Shrewsbury School. John, who died in childhood at Shrewsbury in 1646.Hanna, who was buried at Shrewsbury in 1648. Footnotes

References

Mapping <mask>'s life

1660 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
17th-century English Puritan ministers
English Jacobean nonconforming clergy
17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
English Presbyterian ministers of the Interregnum (England)
Christianity in Manchester
Religion in Shropshire
Religion in Cheshire
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
English religious writers
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
Roundheads
17th century in Shropshire
17th century in Lancashire
17th century in Cheshire
1587

masks:
Nathan Paget
Thomas Heayes
Paget
Paget
Thomas Hunt
Paget
Thomas
Thomas Minshull
Nathan Paget
Paget
Thomas
Thomas Paget


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<mask>. (1874–1953) was an American professor of political science at the University of Chicago, founder of the behavioral approach to political science, a trainer of many graduate students, a prominent intellectual in the Progressive Movement, and an advisor to several US Presidents. Upon his death, The New York Times called him "one of the outstanding political scientists in the country". Early life and education
<mask> was born in Hopkinton, Iowa, on November 15, 1874, to <mask> and <mask>. The Merriams traced their lineage to Scottish immigrants who settled in Massachusetts in 1638. The father moved to Iowa in 1855, and served with the 12th Iowa Infantry Regiment in the American Civil War. <mask> and Margaret (both Presbyterians) were married in 1868. <mask><mask>. owned a dry goods store and was postmaster and president of the school board in Hopkinton.<mask>.'s elder brother was John C<mask> (who became a noted paleontologist), and he had a younger sister, Susan Agnes <mask>. <mask> attended public school in Hopkinton. He graduated from Lenox College in 1893 (his father was a trustee of the school), taught school for a year, and then returned to college to receive his Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Iowa in 1895. He received his master's degree in 1897 and Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1900 from Columbia University. He studied in Paris and Berlin in 1899 while completing his PhD. Among his mentors from whom he adopted much of his early political thought were Frank Johnson Goodnow, Otto von Gierke, and James Harvey Robinson. He married Elizabeth Hilda Doyle (of Constable, New York) in 1900.Career

Academic career and contributions
<mask> joined the faculty at the University of Chicago in 1900 as the first member of the political science faculty. He authored A History of American Political Theories in 1903, a notable analysis of American political movements which strongly supported the emerging Progressive movement. He moved up quickly in the department, reached the rank of full Professor in 1911, and served as chairman of the department of political science from 1911 until his retirement. From 1907 to 1911, he served as chairman of the College of Commerce and Administration (the precursor to the Booth School of Business). Merriam significantly influenced the discipline of political science in the United States during his years in academia. As two political scientists noted in their study of the discipline in 1985, "Merriam's hand can be seen in virtually every facet of modern political science." "As much as any single scholar during this period, Merriam set the standard for how American democracy should be studied within the academy" was the assessment of Merriam's thinking on the discipline by another political scientist in 2008.The political scientist Gabriel Almond concluded, "The Chicago school is generally acknowledged to have been the founding influence in the history of modern political science, and <mask><mask> is generally recognized as the founder and shaper of the Chicago school." <mask> was a leading advocate of the use of data and quantitative analysis in the practice of political science (even though he himself had almost no training in mathematics or statistics), and he founded the behavioralistic approach to political science. Merriam "denied the utility of theory" and advocated instead a "practical" political science aimed at creating a more harmonious, democratic, and pluralistic society. A corollary to this thinking was his "vision of social scientists as technical advisors to society's political leaders." Merriam also deeply influenced the administration of political science in academia. He assembled a faculty that represented some of the best scholars of the day, and he and the faculty produced some of the brightest political scientists of the next generation, creating a department that dominated the discipline for 30 years. His influence was such that the department's structure, personnel, and reputation largely did not survive his retirement in 1940.He also pushed the discipline to move away from European-style theoretical discussion and into actual research, and he established the first social science interdisciplinary research institutes in the United States. He was also a leader in pursuing private grants and foundation money as a means of funding this research. According to Harold Lasswell, Merriam also promoted use of concepts from psychology to the field of political science. <mask> was a critic of the states system in the United States. He argued that the states system was a problem for cities, as the state governments neither governed the cities nor allowed the cities to govern themselves. Local political career
<mask> was a member of the Chicago City Charter Convention of 1906. He was commissioned by the City Club of Chicago in 1906 to study Chicago's tax system, and later served as a vice president of that influential organization.He served as a Chicago City Council Alderman for the old 7th Ward from 1909 to 1911, winning office (in part) due to the success of his 1903 textbook. He served on two key committees (Crime and Finance), and also served on three important city commissions (City Expenditures, Harbor, and Waste). While serving on the Harbor Commission, he became acquainted with Frederic Delano, uncle of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He left office in 1911 to run (unsuccessfully) as a Republican for Mayor of Chicago. His campaign manager was Harold Ickes. Although he won the Republican primary by a very wide margin, he narrowly lost the general election to Carter Harrison Jr. <mask> and Ickes helped co-found the Illinois Progressive Party, and they supported Robert M. La Follette for president until Theodore Roosevelt defeated him for the Progressive Party nomination. He campaigned for former President Theodore Roosevelt under the "Bull Moose" ticket in 1912.He again served as an Alderman from 1913 to 1917, albeit as an Independent rather than a Republican. In 1916, he established the Bureau of Public Efficiency, a private organization which helped establish many quasi-public corporations and organized the Chicago Park District. <mask> lost his bid for re-election as alderman after being defeated in the Republican primary by just five votes in 1917. He unsuccessfully ran again for mayor in 1919, losing the Republican primary to incumbent William Hale Thompson. Federal service

<mask><mask> was an advisor to several presidents, and had a lengthy career in federal service. In 1911, President William Howard Taft offered him a seat on the Commission on Economy and Efficiency, a body established under the authority of the Civil Appropriations Act of 1910 to study the administration of the executive branch, but Merriam declined. In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked him to serve on the newly formed Tariff Commission (now the United States International Trade Commission), but again he declined federal service.During World War I, the 43-year-old <mask> joined the US Army Signal Corps, was commissioned a captain, and served on the federal government's Aviation Examining Board for the Chicago region. He was also on the federal government's Committee on Public Information, an independent government agency created to influence US public opinion and encourage American participation in World War I. From April to September 1918, he was American High Commissioner for Public Information in Rome, Italy, where he developed propaganda designed to sway Italian public opinion. His mission was not only to encourage the Italian public to keep Italy in the war on the Allied side but also to undermine support for socialist and communist political parties. He may even have used Rockefeller Foundation money to help convince socialist leader Benito Mussolini to support the war. During his time in Rome, however, Merriam usurped the prerogatives of the US ambassador and embassy staff, and his repeated clashes caused him to be sent back to the United States after just six months in the post. Merriam claimed to be deeply shaken by his experiences in Italy, although he did not make clear in what way his views had changed.He also engaged in an extramarital affair while overseas, which led to marital problems. Back in Chicago, <mask> coordinated and edited a series of comparative studies by political scientists on the use of expertise in policy making, civic education, and public opinion. <mask>'s contribution to the series, The Making of Citizens (1934), was highly laudatory of Soviet Russia, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy's use of these tools to strengthen the sense of national purpose and achieve policy goals. <mask> was highly critical of these regimes, though, and felt that a more scientific approach would avoid the messianism on which these governments relied and strengthen democratic and pluralistic norms. He co-founded the Local Community Research Committee (LCRC) in 1923 with money from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, he set up programs to collecting data on urban problems, and disseminating current policy ideas. He also helped organize the Social Science Research Council (an outgrowth of the LCRC) in 1923 with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, and served as its first president in 1924. In 1929, he co-founded (again, with a grant from the Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation) the Public Administration Clearing House, an umbrella group which fostered collaboration and communication among associations in the field of public administration.<mask> served as president of the American Political Science Association in 1925. That same year, he authored the book New Aspects of Politics, which called for marshalling the resources of political science research in a search for solutions to pressing social issues. <mask> returned to government service in 1929, serving as vice chairman on President Herbert Hoover's President's Research Committee on Social Trends (PRCST). A landmark federal research initiative into demographics and emerging social issues, the PRCST "altered the direction and use of social science research in the United States." His relationship with Ickes allowed him to continue his service in the nation's capital under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Great Depression, he was considered the country's most influential political scientist. In July 1933, Harold Ickes (now United States Secretary of the Interior) appointed <mask> to serve on the National Planning Board (and its successors, the National Resources Board and the National Resources Planning Board) <mask> was the body's most influential member.In this capacity, he helped draft proposals for an expansive welfare state. Although President Roosevelt approved of the plans and proposed implementing them in his "Four Freedoms" speech of January 6, 1941, the proposals were politically not viable and were never adopted. In 1934, <mask> served on the Commission of Inquiry on Public Service Personnel, a research group established by the Social Science Research Council to research, analyze, and make proposals regarding the federal civil service and civil service reform (with an eye to the innovations made by the Tennessee Valley Authority). The body was funded by the Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, and Luther Gulick was the Commission's research director. The group made a number of important proposals regarding civil service reform, although not all were adopted. It did spark interest in the merit system, and many of its civil service reform proposals were adopted by several states. <mask> believed that part of the success or failure of the National Planning Board's proposals depended on the administrative capacity of the executive branch to adopt and push for the recommended policies.Therefore, <mask> began lobbying President Roosevelt for a commission to study the structure and functions of the executive. Roosevelt was very receptive to the idea. The Supreme Court had struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act (a key legislative accomplishment of the New Deal) in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), and significantly limited the president's power to remove members of independent executive agencies in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935). <mask> assured the president that if he established a committee to review the administration of the executive branch, the

masks:
Charles Edward Merriam Jr
Charles Merriam
Charles Edward Merriam
Margaret Campbell Kirkwood Merriam
Charles
Charles E
. Merriam Sr
Charles Jr
. Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Charles E
. Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Charles E
. Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
Merriam
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Merriam
Merriam


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 committee's report could be written in such a way as to justify the president's reorganization goals while couching them in the neutral language of academic research. On March 22, 1936, Roosevelt established the Committee on Administrative Management (commonly known as the Brownlow Committee) and charged it with developing proposals for reorganizing the executive branch. Besides himself, the three-person committee consisted of Louis Brownlow, and Luther Gulick. On January 10, 1937, the committee released its report.Famously declaring "The President needs help," the committee's report advocated a strong chief executive, including among its 37 recommendations significant expansion of the presidential staff, integration of managerial agencies into a single presidential office, expansion of the merit system, integration of all independent agencies into existing Cabinet departments, and modernization of federal accounting and financial practices. Retirement and death
<mask> retired from the University of Chicago in 1940, at the age of 66. He was the last director of the Lucy Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fund, acting in that capacity from 1940 until its merger with the Rockefeller Foundation in 1949. <mask> died on January 8, 1953, at Hilltop Hospital in Rockville, Maryland, after a long illness. He was survived by his daughter and three sons. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery. The University of Illinois picks a distinguished academic to honor with the <mask> E. Merriam Award for Outstanding Public Policy Research.Notable works
<mask> was a prolific author during his lifetime. Some of his more notable works include:
 A History of American Political Theories. New York: MacMillan, 1903. The American Party System: An Introduction to the Study of Political Parties in the United States. New York: MacMillan, 1922. Non-Voting: Causes and Methods of Control. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1924.New Aspects of Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. The Making of Citizens: A Comparative Study of Methods of Civic Training. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. Civic Education in the United States. New York: Scribner, 1934. Notes

References

Footnotes

Bibliography
 Adams, David K. Reflections on American Exceptionalism.Staffordshire, England: Ryburn, 1994. Adcock, Robert. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1880. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007. Almond, Gabriel A. Ventures in Political Science: Narratives and Reflections. Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 2002.Axelrod, Alan. Selling the Great War: The Making of American Propaganda. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Bachin, Robin Faith. Building the South Side: Urban Space and Civic Culture in Chicago, 1890–1919. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Biddle, Jeff."Social Science and the Making of Social Policy: Wesley Mitchell's Vision." In The Economic Mind in America: Essays in the History of American Economics. Malcolm Rutherford, ed. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 1998. Bishop, Glenn A. and Gilbert, Paul T. Chicago's Accomplishments and Leaders. Chicago: Bishop Pub. Co., 1932.Bukowski, Douglas. Big Bill Thompson, Chicago, and the Politics of Image. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1998. Calabresi, Steven G., and Yoo, Christopher S. The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power From Washington to Bush. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008. Catledge, Turner. "Capitol Startled."New York Times. January 13, 1937. Ciepley, David. Liberalism in the Shadow of Totalitarianism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006. Costigliola, Frank. Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic, and Cultural Relations With Europe, 1919–1933.Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984. Creel, George. How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information That Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe. Whitefish, Mont. : Kessinger Publishing, 2008. Crick, Bernard. The American Science of Politics.Reprint ed. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2003. Crowther-Heyck, Hunter. Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. Davis, David Howard. Ignoring the Apocalypse: Why Planning to Prevent Environmental Catastrophe Goes Astray.Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2007. Dickinson, Matthew J. Bitter Harvest: FDR, Presidential Power, and the Growth of the Presidential Branch. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Domhoff, G. William. Who Really Rules? : New Haven and Community Power Reexamined.New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978. "Dr. C.E<mask>, Noted Educator." New York Times. January 9, 1953. Duck, Leigh Anne. The Nation's Region Southern Modernism, Segregation, and U.S.Nationalism. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2009. Featherman, David L. and Vinovskis, Maris. Social Science and Policy-Making: A Search for Relevance in the Twentieth Century. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2001. Felbinger, Claire L., and Haynes, Wendy A. Outstanding Women in Public Administration: Leaders, Mentors, and Pioneers.Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2004. Fesler, James W. Elements of Public Administration. Alcester, Warwickshire, U.K.: Brownell Press, 2007. Fosdick, Raymond Blaine. The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1989."Foundation Lists $886,500 in Grants." New York Times. October 31, 1940. Galligan, Brian; Roberts, Winsome; and Trifiletti, Gabriella. Australians and Globalisation: The Experience of Two Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Gargan, John J. Handbook of State Government Administration.Florence, Ky.: CRC Press, 1999. Garson, George David. Group Theories of Politics. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1978. Gates, Richard. Early Urban Planning. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2004.Geiger, Roger L. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities: 1900–1940. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2004. Guttenberg, Albert Z. The Language of Planning: Essays on the Origins and Ends of American Planning Thought. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1993. Hollinger, David A. Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Intellectual History.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996. Karl, Barry Dean. Executive Reorganization and Reform in the New Deal: The Genesis of Administrative Management, 1900–1939. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963. Karl, Barry Dean. <mask><mask> and the study of politics (1974) the standard scholarly biography
 Klausen, Jytte. War and Welfare: Europe and the United States, 1945 to the Present.New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Kloppenberg, James T. and Fox, Richard Wrightman. A Companion to American Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. Maisel, Louis Sandy. The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002.Manning, Martin. Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2004. Mark, Stephen R. Preserving the Living Past: John C. Merriam's Legacy in the State and National Parks. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2005. Merry, John F. History of Delaware County, Iowa, and Its People. Chicago: S.J.Clarke Pub. Co., 1914. Milkis, Sidney M. The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism. Amherst, Mass. : University of Massachusetts Press, 2002. Moe, Ronald C. Administrative Renewal: Reorganization Commissions in the 20th Century. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2003. Niemei, Richard G. and Junn, Jane. Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. "$1,032,000 Grants By Spelman Fund." New York Times. April 17, 1947.Oren, Ido. Our Enemies and U.S.: America's Rivalries and the Making of Political Science. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003. Pearson, Sidney A., Jr. "Introduction to the Transaction Edition." In <mask>, <mask>. A History of American Political Theories. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2008. Pegram, Thomas R. Partisans and Progressives: Private Interest and Public Policy in Illinois, 1870–1922.Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1992. Pope, <mask>; <mask>, <mask>; Gildersome-Dickinson, C.E. ; and <mask>, James Sheldon. Merriam Genealogy in England and America: Including the "Genealogical Memoranda" of <mask> <mask>, the Collections of James Sheldon <mask>, etc. Boston: Pope, 1906. Porter, Roy. The Cambridge History of Science.New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. "The President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency." American Political Science Review. 5:4 (November 1911). "President Orders Own Survey to Cut New Deal Activity." New York Times. March 23, 1936."Records of the National Resources Planning Board (NRPB), 1931–1943." Record Group 187. Guide to Federal Records in the National Archives of the United States. Compiled by Robert B. Matchette, et al. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1995. Reagan, Patrick D. Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890–1943. Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000. Roelofs, Joan. Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2003. Rossini, Daniela. Woodrow Wilson and the American Myth in Italy: Culture, Diplomacy, and War Propaganda. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008.Ruble, Blair A. Second Metropolis: Pragmatic Pluralism in Gilded Age Chicago, Silver Age Moscow, and Meiji Osaka. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Rudalevige, Andrew. The New Imperial Presidency: Renewing Presidential Power After Watergate. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2005. Rudolph, Lloyd I., and Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber.Making U.S. Foreign Policy Toward South Asia: Regional Imperatives and the Imperial Presidency. New Delhi: Concept Pub. Co., 2008. Sawyers, June Skinner. Chicago Portraits: Biographies of 250 Famous Chicagoans. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1991. Schnietz, Karen E. "The 1916 Tariff Commission: Democrats' Use of Expert Information to Constrain Republican Tariff Protection."Business and Economic History. 23:1 (Fall 1994). Seidelman, Raymond and Harpham, <mask>. Disenchanted Realists: Political Science and the American Crisis, 1884–1984. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1985. Shafritz, Jay M. "The Brownlow Committee." In The Dictionary of Public Policy and Administration. Jay M. Shafritz, ed.Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004. Smelser, Neil J. and Gerstein, Dean R. Behavioral and Social Science: Fifty Years of Discovery. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. Smith, Mark C. Social Science in the Crucible: The American Debate Over Objectivity and Purpose, 1918–1941. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1994. "Spelman Fund Aid of $657,800 Listed." New York Times.December 28, 1949. Sundquist, James L. The Decline and Resurgence of Congress. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981. Suny, Ronald Grigor. The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 3: The Twentieth Century.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. United States Army. Iowa Infantry Regiment, 12th (1861–1865). Reunion of Twelfth Iowa Vet. Vol. Infantry. Dubuque, Ia.: The Regiment, 1903. U.S. President's Committee on Administrative Management. Report of the President's Committee. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1937. Utter, Glenn H. and Lockhart, <mask>. American Political Scientists: A Dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.External links

 "<mask><mask> – Political Science." The University of Chicago Faculty: A Centennial View. University of Chicago. – Biography and photographs
 "<mask> Merriam." Burial record at Arlington National Cemetery. Guide to the Charles E. Merriam Papers 1893–1957 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

1874 births
1953 deaths
American political scientists
People from Delaware County, Iowa
Chicago City Council members
Columbia University alumni
American people of Scottish descent
University of Chicago faculty
University of Iowa alumni
Illinois Progressives (1912)
American city managers
United States Army personnel of World War I
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
Illinois Republicans
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Social Science Research Council
Lenox

masks:
Charles Merriam
Charles Merriam
Charles
Merriam
. Merriam
Charles E
. Merriam
Merriam
Charles E
Charles Henry
Merriam
Charles Pierce
Merriam
Charles Pierce
Merriam
Merriam
Edward J
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. Merriam
Charles Edward


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<mask> (July 11, 1924 – February 10, 2012) was a Mozambican-born, Italian painter and sculptor. <mask>' work displays a deep African sensibility with saturated colours and bold compositions of mask-like figures and geometric forms. She has been acknowledged for highlighting 'the social criticism and nationalistic fervour that influenced other Mozambican artists of her time'. Personal life
<mask> was born in Maputo (formerly known as Lourenço Marques), Mozambique, on July 11, 1924 to an African mother, whose family was locally known, and a Portuguese father, who was a fieldworker. She was educated in Maputo, but after her second year of senior high school, she relocated to Lisbon to complete secondary school, where she studied painting and drawing with Lino António and Celestino Alves and earned a degree in painting and sculpture. Around that time she met artists such as Marcelino Vespeira, Carlos Botelho, Albertina Mantua, Costa Pinheiro, Júlio Pomar and Nuno Sampayo. In 1953 <mask> returned to Mozambique, where she married poet Virgilio de Lemos, with whom she had twin sons.<mask> taught Artistic Drawing at General Machado Girls’ Technical School for nine years. Although she was appreciated for her innovative teaching skills, these would occasionally enter in conflict with the school ruling system. In 1955 de Lemos published an anti-colonial poem that resulted in a trial for desecration of the Portuguese flag. He subsequently joined the Mozambican Resistance (1954–61) and was arrested for subversion. The events reinforced <mask>' sympathy for the weak and oppressed fringes of the population  – a subject that would often recur in her art. During this period of her life, cultural nationalism became a large influence for both her artwork and personal ideology. In 1956, <mask> painted a mural called "Pavilhão da Evocação Històrica" which was inaugurated on the occasion of an official visit of António de Oliveira Salazar to Maputo.Three years later, she was nominated president of the “Nùcleo de Arte” of Maputo and Vice President of “Direcção” of “Nùcleo de Arte”. Due to her association with de Lemos, and with the outbreak of the Mozambican War of Independence in sight, <mask> was forced to leave Mozambique in 1961. After a short period of time in Lisbon, she moved to Rome. In 1964 she married Francesco Confaloni, a computer engineer and art lover. During those times she befriended some of the protagonists of the Italian art scene, including Marino Marini, Renato Guttuso, Carlo Levi and Antonio Scordia. In 1965 <mask> obtained Italian citizenship. In 1979 <mask> paid a visit to Mozambique for the first time since her departure, and in 1982 her work was the subject of a large exhibition at the Museu Nacional de Arte Moderna in Maputo.In 1986 her first retrospective opened at Palazzo Venezia in Rome. In 1993 she was honoured as Commander for Merits by the President of the Republic of Portugal Mario Soares in Lisbon. In 1995 <mask> was the winner of the Gabriele D'Annunzio Prize in Rome. In 2002 she was honoured by Italian President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi for her contributions to the art. <mask>' last public appearance was at the Venice Biennale in 2011. She died in Rome in 2012 at the age of 86. Mozambican President Armando Guebuza described <mask> as 'a humble, creative, combative and generous woman, who always demanded of herself that she surpass her previous achievements'.Work
<mask>' work was influenced by multiple sources, including Mozambican art and Portuguese modernism. Between 1946 and 1956, she embraced the art of Western painters and South American graffiti artist. Following Picasso's death in 1970, <mask> paid tribute to him with an intense painting that symbolized political repression in Spain. Once Lopes became grew closer to antifascist circles, she started opposing the idea of "arte negra (black art) and found inspiration in the poetry of José Craveirinha and Noémia de Sousa, incorporating social themes into her work. Lopes’ work was also deeply influenced by the political events that affected her home country, in particular during the period that followed the independence and the civil war between FRELIMO and RENAMO. Much of Lopes' work featured African fairy tales and stories that relate to the political events occurring at the time of production. Awards

1950 – Painting Prize, Lourenço Marques (Mozambique)

1953 – Medalha de Prata, Lourenço Marques (Mozambique)

1953 – Prémio Empresa Moderna, Lda., Lourenço Marques (Mozambique)

1958 – First Classified (Maior Mérito Artistico), Beira (Mozambique)

1974 – Trullo D’Oro, Fasano di Puglia, Brindisi

1974 – La Mamma nell’arte, Comunità di Sant’Egidio, Rome

1975 – International Painting Prize, International Center of Mediterranean Art and Culture, Corfu (Greece)

1978 – Leader d’arte.

masks:
Bertina Lopes
Lopes
Lopes
Lopes
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Lopes
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<mask> (, November 11, 1849 — October 27, 1918) was a Russian architect and educator responsible for some of the most ambitious architectural projects realized in Imperial Russia and Bulgaria at the turn of the 20th century. An accomplished eclecticist, <mask> practiced Art Nouveau, Byzantine, Russian Revival styles and collaborated with leading structural engineers of his period in creating new types of commercial buildings. Training and early career

<mask> was born in Moscow and graduated from the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in 1874. He furthered his education at the Imperial Academy of Arts (1874–78), winning the Academy scholarship for a five-year study tour of Italy, France and Switzerland (1878–1883). In 1887 he was awarded title of Academic of Architecture for his study of Cappella Palatina (1887, revised edition 1911). The first buildings by <mask> were built in Rostov-on-Don; the block-sized Moskovskaya Hotel, Rostov City Hall, and the Gench-Ogluev House (1883) were at that time the largest structures in the city. These buildings followed the European eclectic tradition.Upper Trading Rows

In 1889 <mask> won an open competition to design the Moscow Upper Trading Rows (now GUM) on Red Square, his first large, and perhaps his most conspicuous project. It was "a turning point in Russian architectural history, not only because it represented the apogee of the search for a national style but also because it demanded advanced functional technology applied on a scale unprecedented in Russian civil architecture." <mask> provided overall planning and architectural design, Vladimir Shukhov – structural design. According to William Craft Brumfield, "that the enormous Upper Trading Rows functioned, if imperfectly, is a tribute both to Shukhov's design and to the technical proficiency of Russian architecture toward the end of the century. The use of reinforced concrete for the interior walls and vaulting eliminated the need for thick masonry support walls and provided the space for circulation and light. For maintenance, there was a network of basement corridors, beneath which was a subbasement with heating boilers and an electrical generating station. Every element of professional architecture, from educational institutions to the open competition system, contributed to the project."Critics noted disjunction of functional concrete and steel structure and elaborate Russian Revival styling that consumed 40 million bricks. While upper floor galleries benefited from Shukhov's skylights, lower level suffered from inadequate ventilation, and, as a result, demand for shop space in the building did not meet the expectations. 1896 Exhibition

In 1895 <mask> was appointed chief architect of the 1896 All-Russian Exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod, an event heralded as the guiding light for the upcoming 20th century. Master plan and principal pavilions of the exhibition are credited personally to <mask>. Most pavilions relied on novel steel frame load-bearing structures designed by Shukhov; they "represented the most advanced use of metal-frame construction for their time and possibly the first use of a metal membrane roof" (Shukhov Rotunda). <mask>'s Pavilion of Arts was based on traditional structure, but stylistically predated Charles Girault's Petit Palais (1900) and is considered the forerunner of emerging Russian Art Nouveau. When the Pavilion was eventually torn down, its framing and finishes were reused for the People's House theater in Saint Petersburg.Moscow Ring Railroad

Around 1900 <mask> joined the team of engineers and architects (Peter Rashevsky, Lavr Proskuryakov, Nikolai Markovnikov) of the Moscow Smaller Ring Railroad, a 54 kilometer ring freight line around the city. <mask> provided architectural design to 20 stations of the Ring, employee housing, warehouses, roundhouses and water towers, as well as to two of Proskuryakov's bridges (now demolished, see Andreyevsky Bridge and Krasnoluzhsky Bridge). Regular traffic on the Ring commenced in July 1908. Station designs by <mask> mixed motifs of Vienna Secession, Victorian Gothic and traditional eclecticism leaning to neoclassicism yet were clearly styled as a cohesive ensemble. All were built in unfinished red brick with white decorative inserts in line with industrial architecture of the period. Cathedrals

Pomerantsev lost the 1893–1894 competition for the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Warsaw to Leon Benois; both architects filed Russian Revival proposals, however, Pomerantsev leaned to "red brick" churches of Alexander II period covered with ornamental cliches and crowned with Thon-styled dome; draft by Benois was a refined nod to Vladimir Rus architecture. In 1907-1911 <mask> designed the new building for Moskovsky Rail Terminal, retaining Thon's original facade; the project did not materialize.In 1898 <mask> designed Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia. The Neo-Byzantine cathedral, rated for 5,000 worshippers, was built to commemorate Russian dead of the 1877–1878 war. Work began in 1882, although most of the structure was actually built in 1904–1912. <mask>' last major work was also a church dedicated to Saint <mask> (his own patron saint). It was the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in the remote Miusskaya Square of Moscow. The large 17-dome Russian Revival church was conceived in 1900 by <mask> and Victor Vasnetsov to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Emancipation reform of 1861. <mask> himself contributed financially to the construction that dragged from 1910 until the February Revolution.In 1934 Arkady Mordvinov and Alexey Dushkin proposed conversion of the unfinished cathedral into the Radio House skyscraper; the plan never materialized and the dilapidated concrete shell was torn down in 1952. Educator

<mask> joined the faculty of the Academy in 1888; in 1893 he was elected full member of the Academy. <mask> headed a department of its Art College since 1893 and briefly headed the Academy itself in 1899-1900. Since 1899 <mask> also served as visiting professor at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. In 1893 the Academy reformed its architectural school, creating three parallel graduate workshops, and assigned Leon Benois, <mask> and Antony Tomishko (after the death of Tomishko in 1900 his seat was awarded to Mikhail Preobrazhensky. The first graduation under the new rules (1896) was not good for <mask>; only one of his students passed the bar compared to ten for Benois and ten for Tomishko. Although <mask> was the eldest of three professors, Benois was clearly more popular among students, and his workshop regularly had more regular students than <mask>’s (1902: 27 vs. 14, 1903: 22 vs. 9 etc.).His best known alumni included Ivan Rylsky, <mask> and Sergey Serafimov. References and notes

References

Russian architects
1849 births
1918 deaths
Art Nouveau architects

masks:
Alexander Nikanorovich Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Pomerantsev
Alexander Nevsky
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Pomerantsev
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Alexander Tamanyan


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<mask><mask> is an American physician, researcher, senior scholar and adjunct professor of infectious diseases at Georgetown University, and a research associate in anthropology at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, where he has co-organised an exhibition on eight viral outbreaks. <mask> comes from a military family in California. He graduated in psychology from Dartmouth College in 1977, and after gaining an M.D. in 1982, he worked with people in San Francisco who had a previously unknown disease, later known as HIV/AIDS. He subsequently gained a masters in public health from Harvard School of Public Health. He spent much of the 1990s studying HIV and vaccines. As chief of infectious diseases at the Washington Hospital Center, he had worked on preparations on what to do should there be an intentional release of an infectious agent.This came into operation when following the September 11 attacks of 2001, stockpiles of antibiotics were ready for the subsequent anthrax attacks. He later devised a staging system for inhalation anthrax and advocated the stockpiling of chest drains for its treatment should toxic fluid accumulate around the lungs. In 2003, Lucey was involved in a campaign to administer smallpox vaccinations to hundreds of thousands of workers. The following year, he gave testimony following reports of high lead levels in Washington DC's public water system. The 'Lead Free Drinking Water Act of 2004' was introduced the following month. He has analysed, monitored and responded to several emerging infectious diseases, including the SARS outbreaks of 2003 in China, Hong Kong and Canada, the subsequent H5N1 bird flu in South East Asia and Egypt, H1N1 flu in Egypt, nipah virus in Bangladesh, MERS in the Middle East and Republic of Korea, Ebola in Western Africa, Zika in Brazil, yellow fever in China, chikungunya in Pakistan, H7N9 in China and plague in Madagascar, followed by the 2018–20 Ebola epidemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease, caused by SARS-CoV-2, which began in 2019. His awards include the 2001 Walter Reed Medal, and the United States Department of the Army's Commander's Award for Public Service, for the care he gave to those injured at The Pentagon on September 11, 2001.Early life and education
<mask><mask> was born at Castle Air Force Base, into a military family in Merced County, California and spent his childhood in various parts of the United States including Florida, Ohio, Virginia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania and North Dakota. In 1973, he joined Dartmouth College, from where he graduated in psychology in 1977. He then gained admission to study medicine at Dartmouth Medical School, now known as Geisel School of Medicine, when as a medical student in 1979, he spent two months at the Baragwanath Hospital, Soweto, South Africa, recalling later that this was his "first exposure to infectious disease". Early medical career

He gained an M.D. in 1982, following which he began his early training at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), where he worked with people who were suffering from a previously unknown disease, later known as HIV/AIDS. In 1988 he gained a masters in public health from Harvard School of Public Health, where he had gained a fellowship of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. From 1988 to 1990 he was attending physician at United States Air Force, Wilford Hall Medical Center, San Antonio, Texas.From 1992 to 1998, he was attending physician in infectious diseases and internal medicine at the National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda. In 1993, while he was studying HIV at the National Institutes of Health campus, he became a fellow of the American College of Physicians, Three years later, he was appointed to work on biodefense vaccines, vaccines for hepatitis A and B, and vaccines for Lyme disease and HIV, at the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research at the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Subsequently, in 1998, he was appointed to HIV research as viral immunologist at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. Washington Hospital Center
In 2001, as chief of infectious diseases at the Washington Hospital Center during the September 11 attacks, he had worked on preparations on what to do should there be an intentional release of an infectious agent. Anthrax

Lucey contributed to the preparedness of the hospital for the subsequent 2001 anthrax attacks by arranging stock piles of antibiotics. Several media companies and two U.S. senators had received letters containing anthrax spores, infecting 22 people in total, five of whom died. Of these cases, 11 involved the skin and 11 were in the lungs (inhalation anthrax).Antibiotics needed to be given quickly. Noting that the first case of anthrax presented with meningitis, Lucey emphasised that should a diagnosis of anthrax meningitis ever be made, a public health response should be triggered. He has published works on inhalation anthrax, particularly the staging of the disease which he divided into four: "asymptomatic, early-prodromal, intermediate-progressive and late-fulminant", with survival being more likely with earlier administration of antibiotics. Learning from the experiences of medical professionals who treated the victims of the 1979 anthrax outbreak in the city of Sverdlovsk, he developed an understanding of treating anthrax affecting the lungs by draining the resulting infected and toxic lung fluid, and injecting antibiotics directly into the pleural space. As a result, he has endorsed the stock-piling of items ready to perform pleural drainage should it be necessary. A later study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine, showed the importance of detecting anthrax early and administering  antibiotics within hours of a bioterrorist attack, as well as stockpiling chest drains to perform lung fluid drainage. Smallpox vaccination program

In 2003, Lucey was involved in a campaign to administer smallpox vaccinations to hundreds of thousands of workers.Despite the mounting cost of the campaign and doubts about it being necessary, <mask> in 2003, as director of the Center for Biologic Counterterrorism and Emerging Diseases at the Washington Hospital Center, endorsed the vaccination of healthcare workers and stated that "the threat is definitely real. This is a dangerous time," and advised "for ourselves to be protected, and to then be able to take care of patients and contribute to a large-scale vaccination program." Lead contamination
In February 2004, a few days after starting work with biodefense at the Washington DC department of health, <mask> was present at a taskforce meeting on the high lead levels in Washington DC's public water system. He became involved in the subsequent investigations and gave testimony on April 7, 2004, to the Fisheries, Wildlife, and Water Subcommittee. The 'Lead Free Drinking Water Act of 2004' was introduced the following month. Georgetown University Medical Center

Since 2004, as adjunct professor of medicine and infectious diseases at Georgetown University Medical Center (GUMC), he has taught students on bioterrorism and emerging infectious disease. In 2014, he became a senior scholar with the O’Neill Institute for National and Global Health Law at Georgetown University.In the same year, as an anthropology research associate, he co-organised an exhibition on epidemics at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Along with the institute's team, he worked with 30 colleagues from around the world to produce an exhibit of eight viral outbreaks, beginning with the quote "our world is interconnected more than ever before – by global travel and trade, technology, and even our viruses", and ending with "what's next is already here; we just haven't recognized it yet". Emerging infectious diseases
Science writer, Laura Stephenson Carter, wrote in the 2012 alumni album of Dartmouth College, that for over 30 years Lucey has been "chasing things you wouldn't want to catch". He coined the term "pan-epidemic", and between 2003 and 2016, he spent time researching infectious disease outbreaks in several countries. SARS 2003
In 2003 he worked on the SARS outbreaks in Guangzhou China, Hong Kong and Toronto, Canada, where the affected hospitals came to be known as SARS hospitals. At the time, regarding personal protective equipment, Lucey stated that "getting all hospital workers to comply with standard infection control procedures—all the time—was a key to stopping an outbreak of SARS in 2003 ... someone stood there and monitored you to make sure you followed, step by step by step, putting it on properly and taking it off." Bird flu
Subsequently, he worked on the H5N1 bird flu outbreak in Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Egypt, and the H1N1 flu in Egypt.MERS

He worked on MERS in the Middle East and Republic of Korea. Having studied MERS, he considers it “in terms of a super-spreading event rather than a super spreader”. Ebola in Western Africa
He treated people with ebola during the ebola outbreak in Liberia, Guinea and Sierre Leone, where he helped in the isolation unit at Connaught Hospital in Freetown. Zika
In 2016, in the Journal of the American Medical Association, <mask> and his colleague Larry Gostin called for the zika epidemic in the Americas to be announced a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC), criticizing the WHO for not escalating their response sooner, and stating that "it is far better to be overprepared than to wait until a zika epidemic spins out of control". Nipah virus
Lucey visited Bangladesh during its nipah virus outbreak of 2004, caused by the consumption of date palm sap contaminated by fruit bats. More than a decade later, when in 2018, nipah occurred in Kerala, India, where it had never previously emerged, he responded that “the medical and public health response in Kerala prevented it from becoming much worse”. His report in 2018, published in the International Journal of Infectious Diseases, called the incident in Kerala "a bellwether of that potential risk of a Nipah pandemic".He warned of a potential epidemic of nipah virus, and stated at the time that "immediate enhanced preparation measures should include training on personal protective equipment (PPE), infection prevention and control, diagnostic testing, and clinical management protocols". The report advocated the need for countries that had no past experience of nipah outbreaks, to make preparations. Yellow fever
On the question of whether Asia will ever encounter an outbreak of yellow fever, Lucey showed concern when, in 2016, an outbreak in Angola led to several infected travellers reaching China. He worked on yellow fever during that outbreak, highlighting difficulties should mass quantities of vaccine be required. Other emerging infectious diseases
Other involvements have included the chikungunya outbreak in Pakistan, H7N9 influenza in China and the plague in Madagascar. He was one expert who called for the 2018-20 ebola epidemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to be declared a PHEIC in July 2019. COVID-19 pandemic

Reporting on his views of the ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease, caused by SARS-CoV-2, which began in 2019, Lucey recalled that "the SARS outbreak in Toronto in 2003 started with one missed case".The new coronavirus outbreak, reported by the World Health Organization on December 31, 2019, has been associated with the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, a wet market in Wuhan, China. When Chinese researchers published their report in January 2020 in The Lancet, on the first 41 confirmed cases of the new coronavirus, Lucey hypothesised that if the data was accurate, with 12 of the 41 with no direct link to the market and the earliest reported onset of symptoms being December 1, 2019, and with a calculated incubation period of up to two weeks, the virus may have already been quietly circulating among humans from at least November 2019 and "the virus came into that marketplace before it came out of that marketplace". His analysis of the Chinese report was published in a paper titled "Coronavirus — Unknown Source, Unrecognized Spread, and Pandemic Potential" in Think Global in January 2020. Awards
In 1982, while at Dartmouth Medical School, he gained membership to the AOA Medical Honor Society. In 1988, he received the young investigator award from the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. For his work in preparing the city of Washington for the anthrax attacks, Lucey received the Walter Reed Medal in 2001. The following year the United States Department of the Army awarded him the Commander's Award for Public Service, for the care he gave to those injured at The Pentagon on September 11, 2001.In 2003, he received a Distinguished Service Award from the District of Columbia Hospital Association for Bioterrorism Preparedness. In the same year, the Medical Society of the District of Columbia awarded him their Meritorious Service Award. Selected publications
 "Development and evaluation of a quantitative, touch-down, real-time PCR assay for diagnosing Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. American Society for Microbiology. Vol. 40, Number 2 (February 2002), pp.490–494. . Hans Henrik Larsen et al. "The emerging zika pandemic: enhancing preparedness". Journal of the American Medical Association. Vol. 315, No. 9 (March 1, 2016), pp. 865–866. .Co-authored with Lawrence O. Gostin. "One health education for future physicians in the pan-epidemic “Age of Humans”". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. Vol. 64 (November 2017), pp. 1–3. . Co-authored with  Sabrina Sholts, Halsie Donaldson, Joseph White, and Stephen R. Mitchell."Enhancing preparation for large nipah outbreaks beyond Bangladesh: Preventing a tragedy like Ebola in West Africa". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. Vol. 72 (July 2018), pp. 69–72. . Co-authored with Halsie Donaldson. "Boosting Global Yellow Fever Vaccine Supply for Epidemic Preparedness: 3 Actions for China and the USA".Virologica Sinica. Vol. 34, Issue 3 (June 2019), pp. 235–239. . Co-authored with K. R. Kent. "Coronavirus—unknown source, unrecognized spread, and pandemic potential". Think Global Health.(February 6, 2020). Co-authored with K. R. Kent. References

External links

 S&ED Preview & Korea's MERS Response. Lucey's response to MERS (interview)
 <mask> - Lessons from Traveling to Zika, Ebola, MERS, FLU, and SARS Pandemics. YouTube video 2015
 This Earth Day, the Planet’s Health is Your Health. Smithsonian Institution (2017)
 Defending Against Aerosol Anthrax Attacks on US Cities
 “Much more must be done to implement post-Ebola reforms”. The British Medical Journal Opinion.January 23, 2017
 Anthrax: Diagnosis, Clinical Staging, and Risk Communication. Presentation February 16, 2017

Living people
American infectious disease physicians
People from Merced County, California
Harvard School of Public Health alumni
Date of birth unknown
Disaster preparedness
Physicians from California
Writers from California
21st-century American writers
Year of birth missing (living people)

masks:
Daniel R
. Lucey
Lucey
Daniel R
. Lucey
Lucey
Lucey
Lucey
Daniel Lucey


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<mask> (高緯) (557–577), often known in history as Houzhu of Northern Qi ((北)齊後主), courtesy name Rengang (仁綱), sometimes referred to by his later Northern Zhou-created title of Duke of Wen (溫公), was an emperor of Northern Qi. During his reign, Northern Qi's imperial administration was plunged into severe corruption and wastefulness, with the military suffering after <mask> killed the great general Hulü Guang in 572. Rival Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou launched a major attack in 576, and Northern Qi forces collapsed. <mask>, who formally passed the throne to his son <mask>, was captured while trying to flee to Chen Dynasty, and later that year, the Northern Zhou emperor executed him and almost all members of his clan. Background
<mask> was born in 557, when his father <mask> was the Prince of Changguang under Emperor Wenxuan, <mask>'s older brother. <mask>'s mother was <mask>'s wife Princess Hu, and he was her first son, but not his father <mask>'s first son—as <mask>'s concubine Lady Li also gave birth several hours earlier on the same day Princess Hu did, to <mask> (高綽). However, as Princess Hu was his wife, <mask> publicly announced that <mask> was born first and treated him as the first-born.Thereafter, he was named <mask>'s heir apparent. In 561, another older brother of <mask>, Emperor Xiaozhao, died, leaving instructions for the throne to be passed to <mask>. <mask> therefore took the throne (as Emperor Wucheng). In 562, he created his wife Princess Hu empress and created <mask> crown prince. While <mask> was crown prince, he married the daughter of the key general Hulü Guang as his wife and crown princess. In 565, with astrological signs indicating that the imperial position should be changed, Emperor Wucheng's favored officials He Shikai and Zu Ting, wanting to ingratiate themselves with Empress Hu and <mask> as well, suggested that Emperor Wucheng avoid the ill fortune by passing the throne to <mask>. Emperor Wucheng agreed, and <mask>, at age eight, became emperor, although Emperor Wucheng, carrying the title of Taishang Huang (retired emperor), retained the actual powers.Emperor Wucheng created <mask>'s wife Crown Princess Hulü empress. Early reign (with Emperor Wucheng as regent)
In spring 567, <mask> celebrated his rite of passage. <mask> was considered a young man of weak personality, and while <mask> was emperor, Emperor Wucheng and Retired Empress Hu both greatly favored his younger brother, <mask> the Prince of Dongping, honoring <mask> with many high offices and making sure that <mask> received all of the same supplies as his emperor brother did. <mask> was considered intelligent and decisive, and he once asked Emperor Wucheng, "My brother is weak in personality. How can he lead the empire?" Both Emperor Wucheng and Retired Empress Hu considered deposing <mask> and making <mask> emperor, but did not actually do so. Around the year 569, Emperor Wucheng suffered a major illness and died suddenly, after entrusting the important matters to He Shikai.He Shikai, after initially not announcing Emperor Wucheng's death, did after several days. Retired Empress Hu now carried the title of empress dowager. Middle reign
After Emperor Wucheng's death, while <mask> formally took on imperial authorities himself, the government was led by a group of eight high-level officials—He Shikai, Lou Dingyuan (婁定遠), Zhao Yanshen (趙彥深), <mask> (高文遙), Tang Yong (唐邕), Qilian Meng (綦連猛), <mask>gong, and Empress Dowager Hu's cousin Hu Changcan (胡長粲). However, infighting soon developed, as by spring 569, Emperor Wucheng's cousin <mask> (高叡) the Prince of Zhao Commandery, Emperor Wucheng's brother <mask> (高潤) the Prince of Fengyi, Emperor Wucheng's nephew <mask> the Prince of Ande, Lou, and <mask>o, were all recommending that He Shikai, who was clearly the most powerful of the eight, be made a provincial governor. <mask>, in particular, was most critical of He Shikai for being corrupt and immoral, as it was an open secret that He Shikai was having an affair with Empress Dowager Hu. Faced with the officials' pressure, He Shikai agreed to be sent out to the provinces (along with <mask>o), and it was announced that after Emperor Wucheng's burial, He Shikai would be made the governor of Yan Province while <mask>o would be made the governor of Western Yan Province (西兗州, roughly modern Anyang, Henan). After Emperor Wucheng's burial, <mask> pressured He Shikai to leave Yecheng as quickly as possible, despite Empress Dowager Hu's desire to keep He Shikai for 100 days after Emperor Wucheng's burial.He Shikai bribed Lou and was permitted to meet Empress Dowager Hu and <mask> once more—and he persuaded them that the high level officials were intending harm to them and that they could only trust him. <mask> thus issued an edict rebuking <mask>. When <mask> nevertheless entered the palace to try to pressure Empress Dowager Hu and <mask> to remove He Shikai. Empress Dowager Hu, instead, arrested <mask> and had the guard commander Liu Taozhi (劉桃枝) strangle <mask>. Thereafter, He Shikai's power went unchecked. The other favorite associates of <mask> included <mask>'s wet nurse Lu Lingxuan and her son Mu Tipo, as well as Zu Ting. In summer 570, <mask>'s concubine Consort Mu Sheli gave birth to his first son, <mask>ng, and <mask> declared a general pardon.Lady Lu, who was also Consort Mu's adoptive mother, wanted <mask> to eventually be crown prince and emperor, but was afraid that Empress Hulü would oppose the plan, so she gave <mask>ng to Empress Hulü for her to raise. In winter 570, <mask> created <mask> crown prince. During much of Emperor Wucheng's and <mask>'s reign up to this point, rival Northern Zhou had gradually encroached on Northern Qi territory, making minor gains on the borders. In winter 570, Hulü Guang launched a counterattack and captured significant amounts of territory north of the Fen River (汾水, flowing through modern Linfen, Shanxi). He then also defeated Northern Zhou troops at Yiyang (宜陽, in modern Luoyang, Henan). On his way back to the capital Yecheng (鄴城, in modern Handan, Hebei), <mask> ordered his troops demobilized even though many of the soldiers had not received rewards. However, he received an order to demobilize his troops.Hulü Guang submitted a secret petition to <mask>, requesting the emperor to send imperial messengers to the army to honor the soldiers. <mask> did not act immediately, however, and the army approached Yecheng without receiving any words from the emperor. <mask> was displeased that Hulü Guang brought the army close to the capital, and he summoned Hulü to the palace before sending messengers to honor the soldiers and demobilizing them. Later in 571, <mask>'s brother <mask>, now the Prince of Langye, angry at the hold that He Shikai had on power, killed him, and further mobilized his troops to consider seizing power and killing Lady Lu and her son Mu Tipo, who had also become powerful. Hulü, while he approved of <mask>'s killing of He Shikai, was still loyal to the emperor, and he intervened on the emperor's side, ordering <mask>'s troops to disband, and they collapsed. Hulü seized <mask> and took him to the palace. At Hulü's urging, <mask> spared <mask> initially, although in winter 571 he nevertheless had Liu Taozhi suffocate <mask>, and <mask>'s four posthumous sons were also killed.Also in winter 571, after discovering that Empress Dowager Hu had been conducting an affair with the Buddhist monk Tanxian (曇獻), he executed Tanxian and put Empress Dowager Hu under house arrest, disallowing the nobles from visiting her. In spring 572, in order to placate her, however, he posthumously honored <mask> with the unusual title "Emperor Gong'ai of Chu" and honored <mask>'s wife Princess Li "Empress of Chu." Zu and Lady Lu tried to have Lady Lu made empress dowager to replace Empress Dowager Hu, but <mask> did not do so. Empress Dowager Hu, in order to please her son, summoned the daughter of her brother Hu Changren (胡長仁) to the palace and dressed her in the best clothes. <mask> saw her and was infatuated with her, and he took her as a concubine. In 572, Empress Hulü gave birth to a daughter, and <mask>, wanting to please Hulü Guang, initially claimed that she gave birth to a son, but eventually had to admit that the child was a daughter. By this point, Hulü Guang was in serious conflict with the powerful officials Zu and Mu.He disliked Zu, and he often complained to his generals that Zu rarely consulted military generals. Once, when he was resting at a governmental building, Zu, who had blinded during a period of imprisonment during Emperor Wucheng's reign, rode past him without realizing that Hulü was there, and never got off the horse as demanded by customs of the time. Hulü angrily stated, "Who does he think he is?" Zu, realizing that Hulü disliked him, bribed Hulü's servant and asked the servant about Hulü's opinion of him. The servant stated, "Ever since you came into power, the Minister Prince [a reference to Hulü, as Hulü carried the title of Prince of Xianyang] each night sighed and stated, "With a blind man in power, the empire will surely be destroyed." Meanwhile, Mu had once requested to marry Hulü's daughter by a concubine, but Hulü refused. Further, when Mu requested that <mask> grant him the public fields at Jinyang, Hulü publicly opposed the action as being detrimental to the grazing of the army's horses.Zu and Mu therefore both despited Hulü. They therefore fostered suspicion of Hulü in the emperor's mind, and that suspicion was exacerbated by the fact that Empress Hulü was not favored by <mask>. At the same time, the Northern Zhou general <mask>an, wanting to try to exploit <mask>'s suspicions, decided to try to create a sense that Hulü would rebel. He wrote two songs in couplets, one of which read:

A hundred sheng [(升, a measurement unit -- and 100 sheng made up one hu (斛))] will fly up to the heavens,
A bright moon [(明月, mingyue, Hulü's courtesy name)] will shine over Chang'an [Northern Zhou's capital]. The other read:

The high [(高, gao)] mountain will collapse on its own,
The daimyo oak [(槲, hu)] will stand straight on its own. He sent spies to spread the songs near Yecheng, and the songs soon became popular. Zu, exploiting the situation himself, added two more lines:

The blind man will bear a great axe,
The talkative woman will be unable to speak.Both Zu and Lady Lu then reported the song to <mask> to further foster his suspicion of Hulü. <mask> consulted another favorite, Han Zhangluan, who believed that he should not suspect Hulü, so <mask> initially took no action. Zu, however, would not relent, and he had Hulü's subordinate Feng Shirang (封士讓) make a secret submission indicating that when Hulü had brought the army close to Yecheng in 571, he was plotting a coup. <mask> believed it this time, and under Zu's suggestion, he awarded Hulü a horse, and then, as Hulü arrived at the palace to thank the emperor, he had Liu Taozhi seize Hulü and strangle him to death. Hulü's clan was nearly all slaughtered—including his brother and fellow general Hulü Xian (斛律羨) and his sons Hulü Wudu (斛律武都), Hulü Shixiong (斛律世雄), and Hulü Hengqie (斛律恆伽). Only his grandson Hulü Zhong (斛律鍾), who was only a few years old, was spared. Empress Hulü was deposed and confined to a subsidiary palace.Late reign
After Empress Hulü was deposed, Lady Lu wanted Consort Mu to be empress, but Empress Dowager Hu wanted her niece Empress Hu to be empress. She, however, did not believe she had enough persuasive power, and so she had to flatter Lady Lu and give her gifts. Lady Lu also saw that <mask> favored Empress Hu, and so agree to jointly suggest, with Zu Ting, that Consort Hu be created empress, and <mask> did so. He favored Empress Hu so greatly that he made clothes for her out of pearls, although those clothes were later destroyed in a fire. However, Lady Lu did not relent in her hopes of making Consort Mu empress, stating to <mask>, "How can a son be crown prince and a mother be a servant girl, a concubine?" But as <mask> favored Empress Hu, she could not carry out her wishes. She therefore engaged witches to use witchcraft on Empress Hu.It was said that within a month, Empress Hu began to show symptoms of psychosis, often mumbling to herself or laughing without cause. <mask> began to fear and dislike her. In winter 572, Lady Lu put Consort Mu in empress clothing and put her in a tent, surrounded with magnificent jewelry, and then told <mask>, "Let me show you a holy woman." When <mask> saw that it was Consort Mu, Lady Lu stated, "For a woman this beautiful not to be empress, who would be qualified to be empress?" <mask> agreed with her, and he created Consort Mu "Right Empress" and gave Empress Hu the title "Left Empress. Around the new year 573, Lady Lu further falsely told Empress Dowager Hu that Empress Hu had denigrated Empress Dowager Hu's moral character—and Empress Dowager Hu, in anger, without verifying the information, ordered Empress Hu expelled from the palace, and then had <mask> depose her. Thereafter, it was said that Lady Lu and Mu Tipo were so powerful and so corrupt that they were openly taking bribes and selling the imperial offices, and all that they wished were carried out.By spring 573, Mu Tipo, <mask>, and Han Zhanglauan were referred to as "the Three Nobles", and they controlled the government. The issue of corruption became severe, and with <mask> himself living in luxury and waste, constantly building palaces and tearing them downand rebuilding them, the Northern Qi imperial treasury was at a state of exhaustion. In spring 573, <mask> created Right Empress Mu sole empress. Also in spring 573, Zu Ting, knowing that <mask> had a love of literature, with <mask>'s approval, established the Wenlin Hall (文林館), headed by the officials Li Delin and Yan Zhitui (顏之推). They retained a group of literarily-capable men and authored one of the great compendia of the era, the Xiuwendian Yulan (修文殿御覽). In summer 573, rival Emperor Xuan of Chen launched a major attack across the Yangtze River, commanded by the general Wu Mingche. <mask> went against the advice of the officials Wang Hong (王紘), who advocated passive resistance while reducing tax burdens to strengthen the people's resolve, and Zhao Yanshen, who advocated commissioning the Liang Dynasty general Wang Lin, who had long wanted to reestablish Liang at Chen's expense, with an army.Rather, <mask> sent reinforcements to the attacked provinces—but only in small amounts, not sufficient to resist Chen forces—with the main force commanded by <mask> (尉破胡) and Zhangsun Honglüe (長孫洪略) defeated by Wu's troops. Wang, who accompanied <mask> as a consultant, was then ordered to go to Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) to defend that city against attack—but with severe limitations on his authority. Soon, Shouyang fell, and Wang was captured and executed by Wu. All of Northern Qi's territory between the Yangtze and the Huai River fell into Chen control. Despite the losses, however, Mu Tipo and Han advocated continued epicurean lifestyle on <mask>'s and their own parts, with Mu famously stating, "Even if we lost all territory south of the Yellow River, we can still be like Qiuzi (龜茲, a city state in modern Xinjiang). But what is more piteous is that a human life is like borrowed time, and we should use all this short period to seek pleasure. Why worry about Shouyang?"<mask> agreed, and continued to spend his days feasting. During the Chen attack, Zu, who had become embroiled in conflict with Lady Lu,

masks:
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Heng
Gao Wei
Gao Zhan
Gao Zhan
Gao Wei
Gao Zhan
Gao Zhan
Gao Zhan
Gao Chuo
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Gao Wei
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Gao Wei
Gao Wenyao
Gao Ana
Gao Rui
Gao Run
Gao Yanzong
Gao Wenya
Gao Rui
Gao Wenya
Gao Wenya
Gao Rui
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Rui
Gao Rui
Gao Wei
Gao Rui
Gao Rui
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao He
Gao Wei
Gao Heng
Gao He
Gao Wei
Gao Heng
Gao Wei
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Gao Yan
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Gao Yan
Gao Wei
Gao Yan
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Gao Yan
Gao Wei
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Gao Wei
Wei Xiaoku
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei
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Gao Anagong
Gao Wei
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Wei Pohu
Wei
Gao Wei
Gao Wei