text_chunks:
 middle age, and he planned a run for presiding judge in 1926. <mask> won the job in 1926 with the support of the Pendergast machine, and he was re-elected in 1930.As presiding judge, <mask> helped coordinate the Ten Year Plan, which transformed Jackson County and the Kansas City skyline with new public works projects, including an extensive series of roads and construction of a new Wight and Wight-designed County Court building. Also in 1926, he became president of the National Old Trails Road Association, and during his term he oversaw dedication of 12 Madonna of the Trail monuments to honor pioneer women. In 1933, <mask> was named Missouri's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the Civil Works Administration) at the request of Postmaster General James Farley. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. The appointment confirmed Pendergast's control over federal patronage jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between <mask> and Roosevelt's aide <mask> and assured <mask>'s avid support for the New Deal. U.S.Senator from Missouri

After serving as a county judge, <mask> wanted to run for Governor or Congress, but Pendergast rejected these ideas. <mask> then thought he might serve out his career in some well-paying county sinecure; circumstances changed when Pendergast reluctantly backed him as the machine's choice in the 1934 Democratic primary for the U.S. Senate from Missouri, after Pendergast's first four choices had declined to run. In the primary, <mask> defeated Congressmen John J. Cochran and Jacob L. Milligan with the solid support of Jackson County, which was crucial to his candidacy. Also critical were the contacts he had made statewide in his capacity as a county official, member of the Freemasons, military reservist, and member of the American Legion. In the general election, <mask> defeated incumbent Republican Roscoe C. Patterson by nearly 20 percentage points in a continuing wave of pro-New Deal Democrats elected following the Great Depression. <mask> assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast". He referred patronage decisions to Pendergast but maintained that he voted with his own conscience.He later defended the patronage decisions by saying that "by offering a little to the machine, [he] saved a lot". In his first term, <mask> spoke out against corporate greed and the dangers of Wall Street speculators and other moneyed special interests attaining too much influence in national affairs. Though he served on the high-profile Appropriations and Interstate Commerce Committees, he was largely ignored by President Roosevelt and had trouble getting calls returned from the White House. During the U.S. Senate election in 1940, United States Attorney Maurice Milligan (former opponent Jacob Milligan's brother) and former governor <mask> both challenged <mask> in the Democratic primary. <mask> was politically weakened by Pendergast's imprisonment for income tax evasion the previous year; the senator had remained loyal, having claimed that Republican judges (not the Roosevelt administration) were responsible for the boss's downfall. St. Louis party leader Robert E. Hannegan's support of <mask> proved crucial; he later brokered the deal that put <mask> on the national ticket. In the end, <mask> and Milligan split the anti-Pendergast vote in the Senate Democratic primary and <mask> won by a total of 8,000 votes.In the November election, <mask> defeated Republican Manvel H. Davis by 51–49 percent. As Senator, <mask> opposed both Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. Two days after Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, he said:

Truman Committee

In late 1940, <mask> traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his chairmanship of the Committee on Military Affairs Subcommittee on War Mobilization to start investigations into abuses while the nation prepared for war. A new special committee was set up under <mask> to conduct a formal investigation; the Roosevelt administration supported this plan rather than weather a more hostile probe by the House of Representatives. The main mission of the committee was to expose and fight waste and corruption in the gigantic government wartime contracts. <mask>'s initiative convinced Senate leaders of the necessity for the committee, which reflected his demands for honest and efficient administration and his distrust of big business and Wall Street.<mask> managed the committee "with extraordinary skill" and usually achieved consensus, generating heavy media publicity that gave him a national reputation. Activities of the Truman Committee ranged from criticizing the "dollar-a-year men" hired by the government, many of whom proved ineffective, to investigating a shoddily built New Jersey housing project for war workers. The committee reportedly saved as much as $15 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ), and its activities put <mask> on the cover of Time magazine. According to the Senate's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "<mask> erased his earlier public image as an errand-runner for Kansas City politicos", and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri's <mask>. <mask>." Vice Presidency (1945)

Roosevelt's advisors knew that Roosevelt might not live out a fourth term and that his vice president would very likely become the next president. Henry Wallace had served as Roosevelt's vice president for four years and was popular among Democratic voters, but he was viewed as too far to the left and too friendly to labor for some of Roosevelt's advisers.The President and several of his confidantes wanted to replace Wallace with someone more acceptable to Democratic Party leaders. Outgoing Democratic National Committee chairman Frank C. Walker, incoming chairman Hannegan, party treasurer Edwin W. Pauley, Bronx party boss Ed Flynn, Chicago Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly, and lobbyist George E. Allen all wanted to keep Wallace off the ticket. Roosevelt told party leaders that he would accept either <mask> or Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas. State and city party leaders strongly preferred <mask>, and Roosevelt agreed. <mask>gast". <mask>'s nomination was dubbed the "Second Missouri Compromise" and was well received. The <mask> ticket achieved a 432–99 electoral-vote victory in the election, defeating the Republican ticket of Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York and running mate Governor John Bricker of Ohio.<mask> was sworn in as vice president on January 20, 1945. After the inauguration, <mask> called his mother, who instructed him, "Now you behave yourself." <mask>'s brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. On April 10, 1945, <mask> cast his only tie-breaking vote as president of the Senate, against a Robert A. Taft amendment that would have blocked the postwar delivery of Lend-Lease Act items contracted for during the war. Roosevelt rarely contacted him, even to inform him of major decisions; the president and vice president met alone together only twice during their time in office. In one of his first acts as vice president, <mask> created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his."He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top-secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. In an event that generated negative publicity for <mask>, he was photographed with actress Lauren Bacall sitting atop the piano at the National Press Club as he played for soldiers. <mask> had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. <mask>, presiding over the Senate, as usual, had just adjourned the session for the day and was preparing to have a drink in House Speaker <mask>'s office when he received an urgent message to go immediately to the White House, where Eleanor Roosevelt told him that her husband had died after a massive cerebral hemorrhage. <mask> asked her if there was anything he could do for her; she replied, "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the one in trouble now!" He was sworn in as president at 7:09 pm in the West Wing of the White House, by Chief Justice Harlan F<mask>.Presidency (1945–1953)

<mask> delegated a great deal of authority to his cabinet officials, only insisting that he give the final formal approval to all decisions. After getting rid of the Roosevelt holdovers, the cabinet members were mostly old  confidants. The White House was badly understaffed with no more than a dozen aides; they could barely keep up with the heavy work flow of a greatly expanded executive department. <mask> acted as his own chief of staff on a daily basis, as well as his own liaison with Congress—a body he already knew very well. He was not well prepared to deal with the press, and never achieved the jovial familiarity of FDR. Filled with latent anger about all the setbacks in his career, he bitterly mistrusted the journalists. He saw them as enemies lying in wait for his next careless miscue.<mask> was a very hard worker, often to the point of exhaustion, which left him testy,  easily annoyed, and on the verge of appearing unpresidential or petty. In terms of major issues, he discussed them in depth with top advisors. He mastered the details of the federal budget as well as anyone. <mask> was a poor speaker reading a text. However,  his visible anger made him an effective stump speaker, denouncing his enemies as his supporters hollered back at him “Give Em Hell, <mask>!”

<mask> surrounded himself with his old friends, and appointed several to high positions that seemed well beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury, Fred Vinson and <mask>. His closest friend in the White House was his military aide <mask>. Vaughan, who knew little of military or foreign affairs and was criticized for trading access to the White House for expensive gifts. <mask> loved to spend as much time as possible playing poker, telling stories and sipping bourbon.Alonzo Hamby notes that:

First term (1945–1949)

Assuming office and the atomic bomb

On his first full day, <mask> told reporters: "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now. I don't know if you fellas ever had a load of hay fall on you, but when they told me what happened yesterday, I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me." <mask> asked all the members of Roosevelt's cabinet to remain in place, and told them he was open to their advice. He emphasized a central principle of his administration: he would be the one making decisions, and they were to support him. Although <mask> was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that he had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that Secretary of War <mask> told him the details. <mask> benefited from a honeymoon period from the success in Europe and the nation celebrated V-E Day on May 8, 1945, his 61st birthday. <mask> journeyed to Berlin for the Potsdam Conference with <mask>.He was there when he learned the Trinity test—the first atomic bomb—on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to <mask> that he was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, <mask> was already aware of the bomb project—having learned about it through atomic espionage long before <mask> did. In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the Potsdam Declaration. With the invasion of Japan imminent, <mask> approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. <mask> always said attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; military estimates for the invasion of Japan were that it could take a year and result in 250,000 to 500,000 U.S. casualties. Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead.The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 9 and invaded Manchuria. Japan agreed to surrender the following day. Supporters of <mask>'s decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives of prisoners, civilians, and combatants on both sides that would have been lost in an invasion of Japan. Critics have argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional attacks or a demonstrative bombing of an uninhabited area would have forced Japan's surrender and therefore assert that the attack constituted a crime of war. <mask> defended his decision to use atomic bombs during the war:

<mask> continued to strongly defend himself in his memoirs in 1955–1956, stating many lives could have been lost had the United States invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."Strikes and economic upheaval

The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and <mask> was intent on diminishing military services as quickly as possible to curtail the government's military expenditures. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, proposals were met with skepticism and resistance, and fears existed that the nation would slide back into depression. In Roosevelt's final years, Congress began to reassert legislative power and <mask> faced a congressional body where Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful voting bloc. Dormant stressors during the war emerged as polarizing issues under <mask>'s administration. Strikes and labor-management conflicts destabilized major industries while severe housing and consumer good shortages added to public stress over inflation which peaked at six percent in a single month. <mask>'s response to the widespread dissatisfaction and protest of U.S. citizens was generally seen as ineffective.The cost of consumer goods increased rapidly due to the removal of depression-era limits on the prices of everyday items while producers of the remaining price-controlled commodities struggled due to the artificially low prices of their goods. In 1945 and 1946, farmers refused to sell grain for months even though it was desperately needed in the United States and to stave off starvation in Europe. Similarly, industrial laborers sought wage increases. In January 1946 a steel strike involving 800,000 laborers became the largest in the nation's history. It was followed by a coal strike in April and a rail strike in May; however, public opinion on labor action was mixed with one poll reporting a majority of the public in favor of a ban on strikes by public service workers and a year's moratorium on labor actions. When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, <mask> seized the railroads in an attempt to contain the issue, but two key railway unions struck anyway. The entire national railroad system was shut down, immobilizing 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day.For two days, public anger mounted and <mask> himself drafted an irate message to Congress that called on veterans to form a lynch mob and destroy the union leaders:

His staff was stunned, but top aide Clark Clifford revised the original draft and <mask> delivered a toned-down version of the speech to Congress. <mask> called for a new law, where any railroad strikers would be drafted into the army. As he concluded his congressional address, he received a message that the strike had been settled on presidential terms;

masks:
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry Hopkins
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Lloyd Stark
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Stark
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry S
Truman
Truman
Truman
Trumander
Truman
Roosevelt Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Sam Rayburn
Truman
. Stone
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry
Truman
John Snyder
Harry H
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Henry Stimson
Truman
Truman
Joseph Stalin
Stalin
Stalin
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman


text_chunks:
 nevertheless, a few hours later, the House voted to draft the strikers. Taft killed the bill in the Senate. After the settlement of the railway strike, labor action continued as an undercurrent of <mask>'s presidency. The president's approval rating dropped from 82 percent in the polls in January 1946 to 52 percent by June. This dissatisfaction with the <mask> administration's policies led to large Democratic losses in the 1946 midterm elections, and Republicans took control of Congress for the first time since 1930.The 80th Congress included Republican freshmen who would become prominent in U.S. politics in the years to come including Wisconsin Senator Joe McCarthy and California Congressman Richard Nixon. When <mask> dropped to 32 percent in the polls, Democratic Arkansas Senator William Fulbright suggested that <mask> resign; the president said he did not care what Senator "Halfbright" said. <mask> cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy but fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the Taft–Hartley Act which was enacted over <mask>'s veto. <mask> twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947. Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. In one notable instance of bipartisanship, Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, which replaced the secretary of state with the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate as successor to the president after the vice president.As he readied for the 1948 election, <mask> made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating for national health insurance, and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program which he termed a moral priority. His economic and social vision constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "Fair Deal." <mask>'s proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the Housing Act of 1949, was ever enacted. Many of the New Deal programs that persisted during <mask>'s presidency have since received minor improvements and extensions.Marshall Plan, Cold War, and China

As a Wilsonian internationalist, <mask> supported Roosevelt's policy in favor of the creation of the United Nations and included Eleanor Roosevelt on the delegation to the first UN General Assembly. With the Soviet Union expanding its sphere of influence through Eastern Europe, <mask> and his foreign policy advisors took a hard line against the USSR. In this, he matched U.S. public opinion which quickly came to believe the Soviets were intent upon world domination. Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, <mask> listened closely to his top advisors, especially George Marshall and Dean Acheson. The Republicans controlled Congress in 1947–1948, so he worked with their leaders, especially Senator Arthur H. Vandenburg, chairman of the powerful Foreign Relations Committee. He won bipartisan support for both the Truman Doctrine, which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the Marshall Plan, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, <mask> used an ideological argument, arguing that communism flourishes in economically deprived areas.As part of the U.S. Cold War strategy, <mask> signed the National Security Act of 1947 and reorganized military forces by merging the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (later the Department of Defense) and creating the U.S. Air Force. The act also created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council. In 1952, <mask> secretly consolidated and empowered the cryptologic elements of the United States by creating the National Security Agency (NSA). <mask> did not know what to do about China, where the Nationalists and Communists were fighting a large-scale civil war. The Nationalists had been major wartime allies and had large-scale popular support in the United States, along with a powerful lobby. General George Marshall spent most of 1946 in China trying to negotiate a compromise, but failed.He convinced <mask> the Nationalists would never win on their own and a very large-scale U.S. intervention to stop the Communists would significantly weaken U.S. opposition to the Soviets in Europe. By 1949, the Communists under Mao Zedong had won the civil war, the United States had a new enemy in Asia, and <mask> came under fire from conservatives for "losing" China. Berlin airlift

On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three Western-held sectors of Berlin. The Allies had not negotiated a deal to guarantee supply of the sectors deep within the Soviet-occupied zone. The commander of the U.S. occupation zone in Germany, General Lucius D. Clay, proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to West Berlin with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. <mask> believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war. He approved Ernest Bevin's plan to supply the blockaded city by air.On June 25, the Allies initiated the Berlin Airlift, a campaign to deliver food, coal and other supplies using military aircraft on a massive scale. Nothing like it had ever been attempted before, and no single nation had the capability, either logistically or materially, to accomplish it. The airlift worked; ground access was again granted on May 11, 1949. Nevertheless, the airlift continued for several months after that. The Berlin Airlift was one of <mask>'s great foreign policy successes; it significantly aided his election campaign in 1948. Recognition of Israel

<mask> had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East and was sympathetic to Jews who sought to re-establish their ancient homeland in Mandatory Palestine. As a senator, he announced support for Zionism; in 1943 he called for a homeland for those Jews who survived the Nazi regime.However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the Arabs, who were opposed to the establishment of a Jewish state in the large region long populated and dominated culturally by Arabs. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal warned <mask> of the importance of Saudi Arabian oil in another war; <mask> replied he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil. U.S. diplomats with experience in the region were opposed, but <mask> told them he had few Arabs among his constituents. Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism, as promised by the <mask> Doctrine. Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, <mask> was undecided on his policy and skeptical about how the Jewish "underdogs" would handle power. He later cited as decisive in his recognition of the Jewish state the advice of his former business partner, Eddie Jacobson, a non-religious Jew whom <mask> absolutely trusted. <mask> decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State George Marshall, who feared it would hurt relations with the populous Arab states.Marshall believed the paramount threat to the United States was the Soviet Union and feared Arab oil would be lost to the United States in the event of war; he warned <mask> the United States was "playing with fire with nothing to put it out". <mask> recognized the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after it declared itself a nation. Of his decision to recognize the Israeli state, <mask> said in an interview years later: "Hitler had been murdering Jews right and left. I saw it, and I dream about it even to this day. The Jews needed some place where they could go. It is my attitude that the American government couldn't stand idly by while the victims [of] Hitler's madness are not allowed to build new lives." NAACP speech
Under his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Fair Employment Practices Committee was created to address racial discrimination in employment, and in 1946, <mask> created the President's Committee on Civil Rights.On June 29, 1947, <mask> became the first president to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The speech took place at the Lincoln Memorial during the NAACP convention and was carried nationally on radio. In that speech, <mask> laid out the need to end discrimination, which would be advanced by the first comprehensive, presidentially proposed civil rights legislation. <mask> on "civil rights and human freedom", declared:

In February 1948, <mask> delivered a formal message to Congress requesting adoption of his 10-point program to secure civil rights, including anti-lynching, voter rights, and elimination of segregation. "'No political act since the Compromise of 1877,' argued biographer Taylor Branch, 'so profoundly influenced race relations; in a sense it was a repeal of 1877.'" 1948 election

The 1948 presidential election is remembered for <mask>'s stunning come-from-behind victory. In the spring of 1948, <mask>'s public approval rating stood at 36 percent, and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election.The "New Deal" operatives within the party—including FDR's son, James Roosevelt—tried to swing the Democratic nomination to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a highly popular figure whose political views and party affiliation were totally unknown. Eisenhower emphatically refused to accept, and <mask> outflanked opponents to his own nomination. At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, <mask> attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor Hubert Humphrey of Minneapolis—as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses—convinced the convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which <mask> approved wholeheartedly. All of Alabama's delegates, and a portion of Mississippi's, walked out of the convention in protest.Unfazed, <mask> delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which <mask> called the "Do Nothing Congress," and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it." Within two weeks of the 1948 convention <mask> issued Executive Order 9981, racially integrating the U.S. Armed Services and Executive Order 9980 to integrate federal agencies. <mask> took a considerable political risk in backing civil rights, and many seasoned Democrats were concerned the loss of Dixiecrat support might destroy the Democratic Party. South Carolina Governor <mask> Thurmond, a segregationist, declared his candidacy for the presidency on a Dixiecrat ticket and led a full-scale revolt of Southern "states' rights" proponents. This rebellion on the right was matched by one on the left, led by Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket. Immediately after its first post-FDR convention, the Democratic Party seemed to be disintegrating. Victory in November seemed unlikely as the party was not simply split but divided three ways.For his running mate, <mask> accepted Kentucky Senator Alben W. Barkley, though he really wanted Justice William O. Douglas, who turned down the nomination. <mask>'s political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony." They told <mask> to speak directly to the people, in a personal way. Campaign manager William J. Bray said <mask> took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul." The campaign was a  presidential odyssey. In a personal appeal to the nation, <mask> crisscrossed the United States by train; his "whistle stop" speeches from the rear platform of the observation car, Ferdinand Magellan, came to represent his campaign. His combative appearances captured the popular imagination and drew huge crowds.Six stops in Michigan drew a combined half-million people; a full million turned out for a New York City ticker-tape parade. The large, mostly spontaneous gatherings at <mask>'s whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican Thomas Dewey's apparent impending victory as a certainty. The three major polling organizations stopped polling well before the November 2 election date—Roper in September, and Crossley and Gallup in October—thus failing to measure the period when <mask> appears to have surged past Dewey. In the end, <mask> held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the president had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none.The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic <mask> held aloft the erroneous front page of the Chicago Tribune with a huge headline proclaiming "Dewey Defeats <mask>." Full elected term (1949–1953)
<mask>'s second inauguration was the first ever televised nationally. Hydrogen bomb decision
The Soviet Union's atomic bomb project progressed much faster than had been expected, and they detonated their first bomb on August 29, 1949. Over the next several months there was an intense debate that split the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with the development of the far more powerful hydrogen bomb. The debate touched on matters from technical feasibility to strategic value to the morality of creating a massively destructive weapon. On January 31, 1950, <mask> made the decision to go forward on the grounds that if the Soviets could make an H-bomb, the United States must do so as well and stay ahead in the nuclear arms race. The development achieved fruition with the first U.S. H-bomb test on October 31, 1952, which was officially announced by <mask> on January 7, 1953.Korean War

On June 25, 1950, the North Korean army under Kim Il-sung invaded South Korea, starting the Korean War. In the early weeks of the war, the North Koreans easily pushed back their southern counterparts. <mask> called for a naval blockade of Korea, only to learn that due to budget cutbacks, the U.S. Navy could not enforce such a measure. <mask> promptly urged the United Nations to intervene; it did, authorizing troops under the UN flag led by U.S. General Douglas MacArthur. <mask> decided he did not need formal authorization from Congress, believing that most legislators supported his position; this would come back to haunt him later when the stalemated conflict was dubbed "Mr. Truman's War" by legislators. However, on July 3, 1950, <mask> did give Senate Majority Leader <mask>. Lucas a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea". Lucas stated Congress supported the use of force, the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and the consensus in Congress was to acquiesce.<mask> responded he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers," and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced." By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation. Responding to criticism over readiness, <mask> fired his secretary of defense, Louis A. Johnson, replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, <mask> decided on a "rollback" policy—conquest of North Korea. UN forces led

masks:
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Strom
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Scott W
Truman
Truman
Truman


text_chunks:
 by General Douglas MacArthur led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the Battle of Inchon that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the Yalu River boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices. China surprised the UN forces with a large-scale invasion in November.The UN forces were forced back to below the 38th parallel, then recovered. By early 1951 the war became a fierce stalemate at about the 38th parallel where it had begun. <mask> rejected MacArthur's request to attack Chinese supply bases north of the Yalu, but MacArthur promoted his plan to Republican House leader Joseph Martin, who leaked it to the press. <mask> was gravely concerned further escalation of the war might lead to open conflict with the Soviet Union, which was already supplying weapons and providing warplanes (with Korean markings and Soviet aircrew). Therefore, on April 11, 1951, <mask> fired MacArthur from his commands. The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur was among the least politically popular decisions in presidential history. <mask>'s approval ratings plummeted, and he faced calls for his impeachment from, among others, Senator Robert A. Taft.Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused <mask> of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt and all of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, publicly supported <mask>'s decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress, a speech the president called "a bunch of damn bullshit." <mask> and his generals considered the use of nuclear weapons against the Chinese army, but ultimately chose not to escalate the war to a nuclear level. The war remained a frustrating stalemate for two years, with over 30,000 Americans killed, until an armistice ended the fighting in 1953. In February 1952, <mask>'s approval mark stood at 22 percent according to Gallup polls, which is the all-time lowest approval mark for a sitting U.S. president, though it was matched by Richard Nixon in 1974. Worldwide defense

The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by <mask>'s approval of NSC 68, a secret statement of foreign policy.It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the United States and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by Paul Nitze, who consulted State and Defense officials and was formally approved by President <mask> as the official national strategy after the war began in Korea. It called for partial mobilization of the U.S. economy to build armaments faster than the Soviets. The plan called for strengthening Europe, weakening the Soviet Union, and building up the United States both militarily and economically. <mask> was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations not under Soviet control following World War II. The treaty establishing it was widely popular and easily passed the Senate in 1949; <mask> appointed General Eisenhower as commander. NATO's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the world's democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic ideals.The United States, Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories. The alliance resulted in the Soviets establishing a similar alliance, called the Warsaw Pact. General Marshall was <mask>'s principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist Chinese forces in the Chinese Civil War against their communist opponents. Marshall's opinion was contrary to the counsel of almost all of <mask>'s other advisers—Marshall thought propping up Chiang's forces would drain U.S. resources necessary for Europe to deter the Soviets. When the communists took control of the mainland, establishing the People's Republic of China and driving the nationalists to Taiwan, <mask> would have been willing to maintain some relationship between the United States and the new government but Mao was unwilling. <mask> announced on January 5, 1950, that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC. On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, <mask> ordered the U.S. Navy's Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan.<mask> usually worked well with his top staff - the exceptions were Israel in 1948 and Spain in 1945–1950. <mask> was a very strong opponent of Francisco Franco, the right-wing dictator of Spain. He withdrew the American ambassador (but diplomatic relations were not formally broken), kept Spain out of the UN, and rejected any Marshall Plan financial aid to Spain. However, as the Cold War escalated, support for Spain was strong in Congress, the Pentagon, the business community and other influential elements especially Catholics and cotton growers. Liberal opposition to Spain had faded after the Wallace element broke with the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO became passive on the issue. As Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on <mask>, the president, stood alone in his administration as his own top appointees wanted to normalize relations. When China entered the Korean War and pushed American forces back, the argument for allies became irresistible.Admitting he was "overruled and worn down," <mask> relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available. Soviet espionage and McCarthyism

In August 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at Time magazine, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). He said an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with Alger Hiss, until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the <mask> presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath. The Soviet Union's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude subversion by Soviet spies was responsible and to demand that communists be rooted out from the government and other places of influence. Hoping to contain these fears, <mask> began a "loyalty program" with Executive Order 9835 in 1947.However, <mask> got himself into deeper trouble when he called the Hiss trial a "red herring". Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused the State Department of harboring communists and rode the controversy to political fame, leading to the Second Red Scare, also known as McCarthyism. McCarthy's stifling accusations made it difficult to speak out against him. This led President <mask> to call McCarthy "the greatest asset the Kremlin has" by "torpedo[ing] the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States." Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 percent of the people in 1946 and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952. <mask> was reluctant to take a more radical stance, because he felt it could threaten civil liberties and add to a potential hysteria. At the same time, he felt political pressure to indicate a strong national security.It is unclear to what extent President <mask> was briefed of the Venona intercepts, which discovered widespread evidence of Soviet espionage on the atom bomb project and afterward. <mask> continued his own loyalty program for some time while believing the issue of communist espionage was overstated. In 1949, <mask> described American communist leaders, whom his administration was prosecuting, as "traitors", but in 1950 he vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Act. It was passed over his veto. <mask> would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible" mistake. Blair House and assassination attempt

In 1948, <mask> ordered an addition to the exterior of the White House: a second-floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the Truman Balcony. The addition was unpopular.Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space. Meanwhile, structural deterioration and a near-imminent collapse of the White House led to a comprehensive dismantling and rebuilding of the building's interior from 1949 to 1952. Architectural and engineering investigations during 1948 deemed it unsafe for occupancy. President <mask><mask>, his family, and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street into Blair House during the renovations. As the newer West Wing, including the Oval Office, remained open, <mask> walked to and from his work across the street each morning and afternoon. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate <mask> at Blair House. On the street outside the residence, Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, Leslie Coffelt.Before he died, the officer shot and killed Torresola. Collazo was wounded and stopped before he entered the house. He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in 1952. <mask> commuted his sentence to life in prison. To try to settle the question of Puerto Rican independence, <mask> allowed a plebiscite in Puerto Rico in 1952 to determine the status of its relationship to the United States. Nearly 82 percent of the people voted in favor of a new constitution for the Estado Libre Asociado, a continued 'associated free state.' Steel and coal strikes

In response to a labor/management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, <mask> instructed his Secretary of Commerce, Charles W<mask>, to take control of a number of the nation's steel mills in April 1952.<mask> cited his authority as Commander in Chief and the need to maintain an uninterrupted supply of steel for munitions for the war in Korea. The Supreme Court found <mask>'s actions unconstitutional, however, and reversed the order in a major separation-of-powers decision, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. <mask> (1952). The 6–3 decision, which held that <mask>'s assertion of authority was too vague and was not rooted in any legislative action by Congress, was delivered by a Court composed entirely of Justices appointed by either <mask> or Roosevelt. The high court's reversal of <mask>'s order was one of the notable defeats of his presidency. Scandals and controversies

In 1950, the Senate, led by Estes Kefauver, investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the Internal Revenue Bureau (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950, with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General J. Howard McGrath fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, <mask> fired McGrath.<mask> submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but corruption was a major issue in the 1952 presidential election. On December 6, 1950, Washington Post music critic Paul Hume wrote a critical review of a concert by the president's daughter <mask>:

<mask> wrote a scathing response:

<mask> was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president. In 1951, William M. Boyle, <mask>'s longtime friend and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, was forced to resign after being charged with financial corruption. Civil rights

A 1947 report by the <mask> administration titled To Secure These Rights presented a detailed ten-point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the UN Charter being passed in 1945, the question of whether international human rights law could be applicable also on an inner-land basis became crucial in the United States. Though the report acknowledged such a path was not free from controversy in the 1940s United States, it nevertheless raised the possibility for the UN-Charter to be used as a legal tool to combat racial discrimination in the United States.In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as voting rights and fair employment practices. This provoked a storm of criticism from southern Democrats in the runup to the national nominating convention, but <mask> refused to compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates ... but my very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in Mississippi and beaten." Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African-American veterans upon their return from World War II infuriated <mask> and were major factors in his decision to issue Executive Order 9981, in July 1948, requiring equal opportunity in the armed forces. In the early 1950s after several years of planning, recommendations and revisions between <mask>arran Internal Security Act. It was passed over his veto. Administration and cabinet

International trips

<mask> made five international trips during his presidency. 1952 election

In 1951, the United States ratified the 22nd Amendment, making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause did not apply to <mask>'s situation in 1952 because of a grandfather clause excluding the amendment's application to the incumbent president. Therefore, he seriously considered running for another term in 1952 and left his name on the ballot in the New Hampshire primary. However all his close advisors, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls, talked him out of it.At the time of the 1952 New Hampshire primary, no candidate had won <mask>'s backing. His first choice, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, had declined to run; Illinois Governor Adlai <mask> had also turned <mask> down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old, and <mask> distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the <mask> administration scandals. <mask> had hoped to recruit General Eisenhower as a Democratic candidate but found him more interested in seeking the Republican nomination. Accordingly, <mask> let his name be entered in the New Hampshire primary by supporters. The highly unpopular <mask> was handily defeated by Kefauver; 18 days later the president formally announced he would not seek a second full term. <mask> was eventually able to persuade <mask> to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the 1952 Democratic National Convention. Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as <mask>'s failures: "Korea, communism and corruption".He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington," and promised to "go to Korea." Eisenhower defeated <mask> decisively in the general election, ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While <mask> and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, <mask> felt annoyed Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign. Similarly,

masks:
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry S
. Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
. Sawyer
Truman
Truman
Sawyer
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Margaret Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
TrumanC
Truman
Truman
Truman
Stevenson
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Stevenson
Truman
Stevenson
Truman
Truman


text_chunks:
 Eisenhower was outraged when <mask> accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces ... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism" within the Republican Party. Post-presidency (1953–1972)

Financial situation

Upon leaving the presidency, <mask> returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the Wallace home he and Bess had shared for years with her mother. He taught occasional courses at universities, including Yale, where he was a Chubb Fellow visiting lecturer in 1958. In 1962, <mask> was a visiting lecturer at Canisius College.As a former president, <mask> decided that he did not wish to be on any corporate payroll, believing that taking advantage of such financial opportunities would diminish the integrity of the nation's highest office. He also turned down numerous offers for commercial endorsements. Once <mask> left the White House, his only income was his old army pension: $112.56 per month (). Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President <mask> himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and he received no pension for his Senate service. He then found a lucrative book deal for his memoirs. The writing was a struggle for <mask> and he went through a dozen collaborators during the project, not all of whom served him well, but he remained heavily involved in the end result.For the memoirs, <mask> received a flat payment of $670,000. The memoirs were a commercial and critical success. They were published in two volumes: Memoirs by <mask><mask>: Year of Decisions (1955) and Memoirs by <mask><mask>: Years of Trial and Hope (1956). In 1958, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension to each former president, and it is likely that <mask>'s claim to be in difficult financial straits played a role in the law's enactment. The only other living former president at the time, Herbert Hoover, also took the pension, even though he did not need the money; reportedly, he did so to avoid embarrassing <mask>. Bess <mask>'s personal papers were made public in 2009. They show that <mask> likely had a net worth of $7500 when selected as vice presidential candidate.By the end of his presidency, however, he estimated his own wealth at $650,000. In a December 1953 draft will he wrote, "Bonds, land, and cash all come from savings of presidential salary and free expense account. It should keep you and Margaret comfortably.”

Truman Library

Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own presidential library, but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. <mask> worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate—a practice adopted by his successors. He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized, and was proud of the bill's passage in 1957. <mask>, in his book on the life of former presidents, wrote that <mask> was a well-read man, especially in history. <mask> added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history.Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States—one of the greatest of any former president." Politics
<mask> supported Adlai <mask>'s second bid for the White House in 1956, although he had initially favored Democratic Governor W. Averell Harriman of New York. He continued to campaign for Democratic senatorial candidates for many years. In 1960 <mask> gave a public statement announcing he would not attend the Democratic Convention that year, citing concerns about the way that the supporters of John F. Kennedy had gained control of the nominating process, and called on Kennedy to forgo the nomination for that year. Kennedy responded with a press conference where he bluntly rebuffed <mask>'s advice. Despite his supportive stance on civil rights during his presidency, <mask> expressed criticism of the civil rights movement during the 1960s. In 1960, he stated that he believed the sit-in movement to be part of a Soviet plot.<mask>'s statement garnered a response from Martin Luther King Jr., who wrote a letter to <mask> stating that he was "baffled" by <mask>'s accusation, and demanded a public apology. <mask> would later criticize King following the Selma march in 1965, believing the protest to be "silly" and claiming that it "[couldn't] accomplish a darn thing except to attract attention." Upon turning 80 in 1964, <mask> was feted in Washington, and addressed the Senate, availing himself of a new rule that allowed former presidents to be granted privilege of the floor. Medicare
After a fall in his home in late 1964, <mask>'s physical condition declined. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare bill at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and gave the first two Medicare cards to <mask> and his wife Bess to honor the former president's fight for government health care while in office. Death

On December 5, 1972, <mask> was admitted to Kansas City's Research Hospital and Medical Center with pneumonia. He developed multiple organ failure, fell into a coma, and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26, at the age of 88.Bess <mask> opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at Washington National Cathedral. Bess died in 1982 and is buried next to <mask> at the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri. Tributes and legacy

Biographer Robert Donovan has tried to capture <mask>'s personality:

Legacy

Citing continuing divisions within the Democratic Party, the ongoing Cold War, and the boom and bust cycle, journalist <mask> in 1952 stated: "After seven years of <mask>'s hectic, even furious, activity the nation seemed to be about on the same general spot as when he first came to office ... Nowhere in the whole <mask> record can one point to a single, decisive break-through ... All his skills and energies—and he was among our hardest-working Presidents—were directed to standing still." When he left office in 1953, <mask> was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22% in the Gallup Poll of February 1952 was lower than Richard Nixon's 24% in August 1974, the month Nixon resigned, but matched by Nixon's all-time low in January 1974.U.S. public feeling towards <mask> grew steadily warmer with the passing years; as early as 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by Arthur M<mask> <mask>. ranked <mask> among the "near great" presidents. The period following his death consolidated a partial rehabilitation of his legacy among both historians and members of the public. <mask> died when the nation was consumed with crises in Vietnam and Watergate, and his death brought a new wave of attention to his political career. In the early and mid-1970s, <mask> captured the popular imagination much as he had in 1948, this time emerging as a kind of political folk hero, a president who was thought to exemplify integrity and accountability which many observers felt was lacking in the Nixon White House. This public reassessment of <mask> was aided by the popularity of a book of reminiscences <mask> had recounted to journalist Merle Miller beginning in 1961, with the agreement that they would not be published until after <mask>'s death. <mask> has had his latter-day critics as well. After a review of information available to <mask> about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan concluded in 1997 that <mask> was "almost wilfully obtuse" concerning the danger of communism in the United States.In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby wrote that "<mask> remains a controversial president." Historian Donald R. McCoy wrote in 1984:

However, the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused <mask> advocates to claim vindication for his decisions in the postwar period. According to <mask> biographer Robert Dallek, "His contribution to victory in the cold war without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near-great president." The 1992 publication of David McCullough's favorable biography of <mask> further cemented the view of <mask> as a highly regarded chief executive. <mask> has fared well in polls ranking the presidents. He has never been listed lower than ninth and was ranked fifth in a C-SPAN poll in 2009. Sites and honors

In 1959, he was given a 50-year award by the Masons, recognizing his longstanding involvement: he was initiated on February 9, 1909, into the Belton Masonic Lodge in Missouri.In 1911, he helped establish the Grandview Lodge, and he served as its first Worshipful Master. In September 1940, during his Senate re-election campaign, <mask> was elected Grand Master of the Missouri Grand Lodge of Freemasonry; <mask> said later that the Masonic election assured his victory in the general election. In 1945, he was made a 33° Sovereign Grand Inspector General and an Honorary Member of the supreme council at the Supreme Council A.A.S.R. Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters in Washington D.C. He was also a member of the Shriners and the Royal Order of Jesters, two affiliated bodies of Masonry. <mask> was also an honorary member of The Society of the Cincinnati, a member of Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) and the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Two of his relatives were Confederate States Army soldiers.The airport in Charlotte Amalie, United States Virgin Islands, was known as Harry S Truman Airport from 1948 until 1984, when it was renamed to honor Cyril Emmanuel King, the second elected governor of the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 1953, <mask> received the Solomon Bublick Award of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1956, <mask> traveled to Europe with his wife. In England, he met with Churchill and received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree from Oxford University. Across Britain he was hailed; London's Daily Telegraph characterized <mask> as the "Living and kicking symbol of everything that everybody likes best about the United States." In Athens, Greece, a 12-foot-tall bronze statue of <mask> was erected in 1963 with donations from Greek-Americans. The Truman Sports Complex, completed in 1973, which contains the home stadiums for the Kansas City Chiefs and Kansas City Royals and is located close to Kansas City's border with Independence, is named after the former president.In 1975, the Truman Scholarship was created as a federal program to honor U.S. college students who exemplified dedication to public service and leadership in public policy. A member institution of the City Colleges of Chicago, Harry S Truman College in Chicago, Illinois, opened in 1976, is named in his honor for his dedication to public colleges and universities. In 1984, <mask> was posthumously awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal. In 1991, he was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. Since 1986, <mask> the Tiger has been the official mascot of the University of Missouri's Missouri Tigers athletic programs. Despite <mask>'s attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949 Revolt of the Admirals, an aircraft carrier, , was named for him in February 1996. The 129th Field Artillery Regiment is designated "<mask>'s Own" in recognition of <mask>'s service as commander of its D Battery during World War I.On July 1, 1996, Northeast Missouri State University became Truman State University—to mark its transformation from a teachers' college to a highly selective liberal arts university and to honor the only Missourian to become president. In 2000, the headquarters for the State Department, built in the 1930s but never officially named, was dedicated as the Harry S Truman Building. In 2001, the University of Missouri established the Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs to advance the study and practice of governance. In 2004, the President <mask> S. <mask> Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three-year appointment at Sandia National Laboratories. Sites associated with <mask> include:
 Harry S. Truman National Historic Site includes the Wallace House at 219 N. Delaware in Independence and the family farmhouse at Grandview, Missouri (<mask> sold most of the farm for Kansas City suburban development including the Truman Corners Shopping Center). Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site is the house where <mask> was born and spent 11 months in Lamar, Missouri. Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum – The presidential library in Independence
 Harry S. Truman Little White House – <mask>'s winter getaway at Key West, Florida

Alleged critique of the CIA
Conspiracy theorists and some mainstream critics of the CIA have stated that on December 22, 1963, a month after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, <mask> wrote an  in The Washington Post calling for the responsibilities of the CIA to be scaled back significantly, but no reliable source has produced the original .The alleged  is sourced from at least as early as 2002 on conspiracy theorist Mae Brussell's website. A 2007 book on conspiracy theories about JFK's death claims it was reprinted in 1975 by the Los Angeles Times and provides a "facsimile". In 2009, former CIA analyst Ray McGovern claimed that the Post only ran the  in its morning edition. In 2015, M. J. Rosenberg and Peter Fenn cited it in opinion pieces for Al Jazeera and U.S. News, respectively. Other sources, including Washington Post contributor Monte Reel, have since repeated portions of the alleged . According to the sources listed above, the op-ed calls for scrapping paramilitary actions, notably including the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba and similar U.S. interventions in the internal politics of other countries, further suggesting that the CIA had shifted from defending freedom to destroying it. For context, CIA historian Nicholas Dujmovic states that "there were 81 covert actions approved by the NSC and carried out by CIA during <mask>'s term, including significant paramilitary operations in the Korean War."<mask> allegedly wrote: "For some time I have been disturbed by the way the CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. ... I never had any thought when I set up the CIA that it would be injected into peacetime cloak and dagger operations." See also
 Electoral history of <mask><mask>
 <mask> (film)
 Truman Day
 List of presidents of the United States
 "<mask>", a 1975 hit song by the band Chicago

Notes

References

Bibliography

Biographies of <mask>

 Margolies, Daniel S. ed. A Companion to <mask><mask> (2012); 614pp; emphasis on historiography; see <mask><mask>, "<mask> in Historical, Popular, and Political Memory," pp 9–25. excerpt

Books

 Haas, Lawrence J. <mask> & Arthur: <mask>, Vandenberg, and the Partnership That Created the Free World (2016)

Primary sources
  online
  online v 2

Journals

  reprinted in

Time

The Washington Post

The New York Times

Harry S. Truman Library & Museum

  Originally published in the Independence Examiner, Truman Centennial Edition.Online sources
  Roberts, Christopher N.J.: William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights (1949), published by Arbeitskreis Menschenrechte im 20. Jahrhundert, published at "Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte". Retrieved November 4, 2017.

  searches run from page, "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select U.S. District Courts (or U.S. Circuit Courts) and also

masks:
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry S
. Truman
Harry S
. Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Max Skidmore
Truman
Skidmore
Truman
Stevenson
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry
Truman
Samuel Lubell
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
. Schlesinger
Sr
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Truman
Harry S
. Truman
Truman
Harry Truman
Truman
Harry S
. Truman
Sean J
. Savage
Truman
Harry
Truman


text_chunks:
<mask> (; born 16 May 1972) is a Polish lawyer and politician who has served as President of Poland since 2015. Prior to assuming the presidency, he was elected to the Sejm from 2011 to 2014 and European Parliament from 2014 until 2015. <mask> was the presidential candidate for the Law and Justice (PiS) party during the 2015 presidential election in May 2015. In the first round of voting, <mask> received 5,179,092 votes—34.76% of valid votes. In the second round of voting, he officially received 51.55% of the vote, defeating the incumbent president Bronisław Komorowski, who received 48.45% of the vote. On 26 May 2015, <mask> resigned his party membership and the European Parliament as the president-elect. On 24 October 2019, he received official support from PiS ahead of his re-election campaign in 2020.He finished first in the first round and then went on to defeat Rafał Trzaskowski in the runoff with 10,440,648 votes, or 51.03% of the vote. Early life and education
<mask> was born on 16 May 1972 in Kraków to Janina Milewska and Jan Tadeusz <mask>, professors at the AGH University of Science and Technology. His grandfather fought in the Polish–Soviet War and later was a member of the Home Army during the Second World War. Between 1987 and 1991 <mask> attended Jan III Sobieski High School, Kraków, where he studied Humanities. He subsequently studied law at the Jagiellonian University. In October 2001, holding Master of Law degree, he was appointed as a research assistant in the Department of Administrative Law of the Jagiellonian University's Faculty of Law and Administration. In January 2005, <mask> also obtained a Doctor of Law degree (LL.D.)at the Jagiellonian University. Due to complications in his political career, he has been mostly on unpaid leave from the university since September 2006, except for a 13-month interval beginning in September 2010, when he returned to the university. Additionally, <mask> worked as a lecturer at Mieszko I College of Education and Administration in Poznań. Political career

<mask> began his political career with the now-defunct Freedom Union Party in the early 2000s. After the 2005 parliamentary elections, he joined the Law and Justice Party (PiS). From 2006 to 2007, <mask> was an undersecretary of state in the Ministry of Justice. Then, from 2007 to 2008, <mask> was a member of the Polish State Tribunal.From 2008 to 2010, during the presidency of Lech Kaczyński, <mask> was an undersecretary of state in the Chancellery of the President of the Republic of Poland. In 2010, he was an unsuccessful candidate to become the Mayor of Kraków as a PiS candidate, but was more successful in the 2011 parliamentary election, where he received 79,981 votes for the Kraków area, and thus became member of the Sejm. In September 2013, the news magazine Polityka commended <mask> for being one of the most active members of parliament, at the time, describing him as being open to opposition arguments and as refraining from personal attacks, as part of his role at the Commission for Constitutional Responsibility, although later he was accused of severely limiting free speech and communications during his Presidency. <mask> remained a member of the Sejm until he was elected to the European Parliament in 2014. 2015 presidential campaign

As Bronisław Komorowski's first presidential term was expiring, Komorowski was able to seek re-election in a scheduled presidential election. <mask> was Komorowski's Law and Justice rival in the election. In the first round of the 2015 presidential election, <mask> came first, receiving 5,179,092 votes and thus 34.76% of valid votes.In the second round <mask> took 51.55% of the vote against the 48.45% share of his rival, then-incumbent president Bronisław Komorowski. On 26 May 2015, he officially resigned from party membership. 2020 presidential campaign

In the first round of the 2020 presidential election, <mask> appeared to come in first, receiving almost 44% of the votes. Warsaw mayor Rafał Trzaskowski came in second, with just over 30% of the vote. The second round took place on 12 July. <mask> won reelection narrowly against Trzaskowski in the 2nd round. He got 51% of the vote to Trzaskowski's 49%.Presidency (2015–present)

The five-year term of <mask> <mask> began on 6 August 2015 with taking an oath of office during a National Assembly session. <mask> rejected the European Union's proposal of migrant quotas to redistribute asylum seekers, saying: "I won't agree to a dictate of the strong. I won't back a Europe where the economic advantage of the size of a population will be a reason to force solutions on other countries regardless of their national interests". In September 2015 Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz declared that Poland, as an expression of "European solidarity", would take in 2,000 people over the next two years, mainly from Syria and Eritrea (out of 3,700 originally requested). <mask> and Croatian President Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović were the originators of the Three Seas Initiative. <mask> repeatedly met with general secretary of the Communist Party of China and China's leader, Xi Jinping, stating that "Polish companies will benefit hugely" from China's Belt and Road Initiative. <mask> and Xi signed a declaration on strategic partnership in which they reiterated that Poland and China viewed each other as long-term strategic partners.<mask> said that he hopes Poland will become a gateway to Europe for China. In September 2017, his approval rating stood at 71% and in February 2018, at 72%, a record surpassed only by Aleksander Kwaśniewski, whose approval ratings surpassed 75% from 1995 to 2005. Pardon of Mariusz Kamiński

In November 2015, basing on Art. 139 of the Constitution of Poland, <mask> pardoned former Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) head Mariusz Kamiński and three CBA officers convicted by a court of 1st instance in the so-called "Land Affair", marking the first pardon granted by a president before reaching a final verdict. In the opinion of some lawyers (including professors Jan Zimmermann – <mask> Duda's doctorate promoter, Leszek Kubicki – former Minister of Justice and <mask> Zoll – former president of the Constitutional Tribunal), <mask> breached the Constitution of Poland with personal biases. Constitutional crisis

<mask> <mask> has refused to swear in any of the five Constitutional Tribunal judge candidates selected by the Sejm of the VII term. Three of those were selected since 7 November 2015 whose election was declared constitutional.On 3 and 9 December 2015 <mask> swore in five other candidates for the same office selected by the Sejm of the VIII term. On 28 December 2015, <mask> signed the Constitutional Tribunal bill (passed on 22 December 2015 by the Sejm), which unequivocally breaches the Constitution of Poland in the opinion of the National Council of the Judiciary of Poland, the Public Prosecutor General and the Polish Ombudsman. In June 2016, <mask> rejected appointing 10 judges selected by the National Council of the Judiciary of Poland while replacing much of the cabinet. Controversy Over Institute of National Remembrance Act
In February 2018, <mask> said that he would sign into law Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, making it illegal to accuse 'the Polish nation' of complicity in the Holocaust and other Nazi German atrocities, a measure that has roiled relations with Israel with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu going as far as accusing the Polish government of "Holocaust denial". Stance on LGBT rights

In June 2020, <mask> said that he would not allow gay couples to marry or adopt children, while describing the LGBT movement as "a foreign ideology" and comparing it to indoctrination in the Soviet Union. He also pledged he would ban LGBT teaching in schools. In response to <mask>'s comments, former Prime Minister of Belgium Elio Di Rupo publicly asked the European Commission for an official reaction.Soon after his comments, <mask> invited presidential candidate Robert Biedroń (who requested meeting the President) and an LGBT activist, Bartosz Staszewski, to the Presidential Palace, though Robert Biedroń eventually did not take the invitation saying he won't until President <mask> apologizes. According to Staszewski, during their meeting <mask> cited freedom of speech as a defence for his words about "LGBT ideology". On 4 July 2020, <mask> proposed changing the constitution to ban LGBT couples from adopting children. On 6 July 2020, he signed a document with a presidential draft of the amendment to the Polish Constitution. Foreign policy

On 4 November 2015, during a meeting with the President of Romania Klaus Iohannis in Bucharest, Romania, both leaders established Bucharest Nine, an organization created due to Russian expansionism over Ukraine. It has 9 members, which are Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia, apart from Poland and Romania. In 2017, <mask> met with President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, in which he praised Erdoğan's response to the European refugee crisis.<mask> reiterated Poland's support for Turkey being admitted to the European Union. <mask> stated that "I hope Turkey's and the EU's paths continue to lead in the same direction and that the membership, Turkey's full membership of the EU, will be the ultimate result of this common direction". In May 2019, <mask> visited Azerbaijan where he met with President Ilham Aliyev. He said that "gas and oil alike will flow... from Azerbaijan also to Poland. They will flow via Azerbaijan where the transportation corridors that are currently under construction constitute and will constitute the elements" of China's Belt and Road Initiative. U.S. President Donald Trump praised <mask>, saying: "He's doing a terrific job," and assisting him in his next Presidential campaign promises to make "American changes" throughout Poland. In September 2019, Trump and <mask> agreed to send 1,000 U.S. troops to Poland.On 24 June 2020, Trump said at a press conference with <mask> that the United States plans to move some U.S. troops from Germany to Poland. Trump said that "Poland is one of the few countries that are fulfilling their obligations under NATO — in particular, their monetary obligations — and they asked us if we would send some additional troops. They're going to pay for that." In October 2020, <mask> expressed deep concern over the escalation of hostilities between Azerbaijan and Armenia in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh and called on both sides to "cease military operations and engage in dialogue". Personal life
<mask> is married to Agata Kornhauser-<mask>, a teacher of German at Jan III Sobieski High School in Kraków. They met at a party while they were students in high school. The couple have been married since 21 December 1994.They have one daughter, Kinga, who was born in 1995. In September 2020, <mask> appointed her to be an adviser on social issues. <mask>'s father-in-law is Julian Kornhauser, a well-known writer, translator and literary critic. <mask> participated in the Polish Academic Championships in the Alpine skiing while being a university student. <mask> is a Roman Catholic. He took part in religious ceremonies on many occasions, including Midnight Mass, the blessing of food on Holy Saturday, and the Corpus Christi procession in Kraków.

masks:
Andrzej Sebastian Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Andrzej
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Andrzej
Andrzej
Duda
Andrzej
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda
Duda


text_chunks:
<mask> (2 August 1948 – 29 November 2009) was an English novelist and author best known for his works of Celtic, Nordic, Gothic and Pictish fantasy literature, predominantly in the fantasy subgenre of mythic fiction. <mask> broke into print in 1968. His science fiction and fantasy works explore philosophical, psychological, anthropological, spiritual and woodland themes. He received three BSFA awards and won the World Fantasy Award in the category of Best Novel of 1985. Early life
<mask>, the eldest of five children, was born in Hythe, Kent. His father, <mask>, was a police officer and his mother, <mask>, was a nurse. At the age of seven he started attending Gillingham Grammar School in the Medway Towns.He recalled that as a young adult he had jobs including banana boatman, construction worker and slate miner. <mask> earned a Bachelor of Science from University College of North Wales, Bangor, with honours in applied Zoology (1967–1970). He continued his education, earning a Master of Science in Medical Zoology at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine in 1971. He conducted research at the Medical Research Council in London from 1971 to 1974, while also doing part-time writing and producing a science fiction fanzine. He became a full-time writer during 1976 and lived out the rest of his life in North London. Career

<mask>'s first published story, "Pauper's Plot", appeared in the magazine New Worlds in 1968. His first novel was a science fiction work, Eye Among the Blind, published in 1976.During the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s <mask> wrote many fantasy and science fiction novels along with a number of short stories, most of which were published under a pseudonym. <mask>'s pseudonyms included <mask>, Chris Carlsen, Richard Kirk, <mask>, Ken Blake, and Steven Eisler. These included some adaptions of television scripts for novelisations of television series including The Professionals. During this same period he wrote the text for Space Wars, Worlds and Weapons, a large format book in which he provided essays concerning the tropes of science fiction (and, in one chapter, sword and sorcery), accompanied by colour reproductions of related artwork. In 1980 <mask> wrote Tour of the Universe with Malcolm Edwards. The rights were subsequently sold for a space shuttle simulation ride at the CN Tower, also called the Tour of the Universe. <mask> wrote The Dark Wheel, the first novella to be included for distribution with a video game, Elite, in 1984.He wrote an adaptation of The Emerald Forest, a film directed by John Boorman, and novelised episodes of the Granada Television series Bulman. <mask>'s breakthrough novel Mythago Wood was published in 1984. It began the Ryhope Wood series, which continued until the appearance of Avilion in 2009. <mask> was guest of honour at the annual Novacon in 1984, and a limited-edition chapbook featuring his fantasy story 'Thorn' was presented to the first 500 attendees. Between 2001 and 2007 <mask> produced a trilogy of fantasy novels, the Merlin Codex, consisting of Celtika, The Iron Grail and The Broken Kings. <mask> wrote, edited or contributed to a number of nonfiction works, including Alien Landscapes, Tour of the Universe, Horror: 100 Best Novels and Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (a different publication than The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction published in 1979, edited by Peter Nicholls). Death
<mask> died in hospital on 29 November 2009 at the age of 61, having been in intensive care since his collapse with an E. coli infection on 18 November 2009.In 2013 a joint volume of poetry with Garry Kilworth (with whom he collaborated on the award-winning novella "The Ragthorn") was published by PS Publishing, Poems, Peoms and Other Atrocities. Critical reception
David Pringle described Eye Among the Blind, <mask>'s first science fiction novel, as a "dogged, detailed, somewhat slow-moving planetary mystery". Ursula K. Le Guin called the same novel "As strong a treatment of a central theme of science fiction – alienness, and the relation of the human and the alien – as any I have read." According to Michael D. C. Drout, <mask>'s Ryhope Wood series is a significant part of the fantasy genre, displaying the power and aesthetic standards of Tolkien's fantasy without being either a "close imitation of" or a "reaction against" Tolkien. Drout considers <mask>, along with Ursula K. Le Guin, a worthy inheritor of the fantasy tradition created by Tolkien. Patrick Curry placed <mask> in a quartet of noteworthy fantasy authors, alongside Le Guin, John Crowley and Marion Zimmer Bradley, for writing fantasy books that come close to Tolkien's breadth and depth of imagination, and "in some respects surpass Tolkien". David Langford offers praise for most of <mask>'s work, but regarded Merlin's Wood less highly: "the overall narrative is flawed, distorted by its weight of undeserved loss and inaccessible healing".Book covers
The covers of <mask>'s books were produced by a variety of illustrators. The original UK and US covers of Mythago Wood were illustrated by Eddi Gornall and Christopher Zacharow, respectively; Geoff Taylor illustrated the original UK covers for the Mythago Wood sequels Lavondyss, The Bone Forest, The Hollowing and Merlin's Wood. Illustrators of subsequent covers and editions include Jim Burns, Tom Canty, John Howe, Alan Lee, John Jude Palencar, Larry Rostant and Ron Walotsky. John Howe stated: "<mask> is to me one of the best Celtic fantasy authors alive today." Awards
 The novella Mythago Wood won the BSFA Award for Best Short Story in 1981 along with the World Fantasy Award for Best Novella in 1982. The novel Mythago Wood won the BSFA Award for Best Novel in 1984 along with the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel in 1985. Mythago Wood was published as part of the Masterpieces of Fantasy series by Easton Press, who describe themselves as releasing 'works of lasting meaning, beauty and importance.'Lavondyss won the BSFA Award for Best Novel in 1988. The Bone Forest was nominated for the World Fantasy Award in the category of Best Collection in 1992. The Ragthorn, coauthored with Garry Kilworth, won the World Fantasy Award in the category of Best Novella in 1992 and was nominated for the BSFA Award for Best Novel in 1994. The Fetch won the HOMer Award for horror novel in 1992. The Iron Grail won the Czech Academy of Science Fiction Fantasy and Horror Award in the category of Best Novel in 2002. La Forêt des Mythagos, i.e. the Mythago Wood collection, won the Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire in the category of Prix spécial in 2003.The short story "Scarrowfell" in Dans la vallée des statues & autres récits (Denoël, 2004), translated into French by Philippe Gindre, won the Imaginales award (Prix Imaginales) in the Short Story category in 2004. Celtika won the Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire in the Foreign Language Novel category in 2004.

masks:
Robert Paul Holdstock
Holdstock
Robert Holdstock
Robert Frank Holdstock
Kathleen Madeline Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Robert Holdstock
Robert Faulcon
Robert Black
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock
Holdstock


text_chunks:
His Highness <mask>-Mulk KCIE (29 September 1897 – 29 July 1943) was the eldest son of Mehtar Shuja ul-Mulk, who succeeded him in 1936. He ruled the princely state of Chitral from 1936 to 1943. Early life and education
<mask>-Mulk was born in the royal fort at Chitral on 29 September 1897. He was the eldest son of Mehtar Shuja ul-Mulk. He spent his early days in the Chitral fort under the tutelage of several teachers who trained him in Persian, Urdu, English and Arabic. In 1916 he enrolled in Islamia College Peshawar, from where he did his Matriculation. He later completed his Bachelor of Arts with a distinction, earning first position in the North West Frontier Province.For the feat he received the Chelmsford Gold Medal. Starting from a young age <mask> was education oriented and had advanced political ideas. Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)
As the Third Anglo-Afghan War unfolded, the southern borders of Chitral were attacked. The Chitral Scouts and Bodyguards with <mask> ul-Mulk as Colonel Commandant (Col. Cdt) fought off the advancing army. He personally lead a force of over a thousand men up the valley of Urtsun, over a pass with the intention of surprising the Afghan forces and cutting them off. To the credit of the young prince, the Chitral forces along with the Kurram Militia were the only legions fighting along the Durand Line which did not disband or disburse during the conflict. The success of the campaign brought <mask> a good name in British circles with Shuja ul-Mulk being rewarded reverently for the war efforts.Life as crown prince
When Shuja ul-Mulk went for pilgrimage to Mecca (1923-1924), <mask> ul-Mulk acted as Regent and administered the affairs of the state. Upon his father’s return he became Governor of Mastuj, which post he retained till his accession. On 10 September 1924 he was commissioned as Honorary Lieutenant in the British Indian Army and was attached to the 6th Royal Battalion Frontier Force Regiment. He was later attached to the 13th Frontier Force Rifles (1926-1927). In 1932 he was elected as a life member of the Royal Society for Asian Affairs. On 1 January 1934 he was promoted as Honorary Captain of in the British Indian Army. During this period he was also inducted into the Indian Civil Service (ICS) as an Assistant Commissioner.A career that he seriously contemplated pursuing before circumstances obliged him to forgo the option. Accession to the throne
On 13 October 1936 Sir Shuja ul-Mulk died suddenly in Chitral of heart failure. <mask> ul-Mulk being the eldest son, succeeded him and was proclaimed Mehtar with full powers at a durbar attended by the Political Agent Malakand Major Johnson on 19 October 1936. Shuja ul-Mulk had died leaving a comparatively stable atmosphere for his successor. Upon becoming the ruler of Chitral he automatically acquired the title of His Highness (which was then hereditary). However the honorific title of Sir would be bestowed several years later when he was Knighted. Reign (1936-1943)
<mask> ul-Mulk ruled for about seven years, in which he proved to be an enlightened chief.He immediately set up the first school in Chitral in 1937. In 1939, he proceeded on a pilgrimage to Saudi Arabia. On the way there he met Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III at Bombay. Upon completion of Hajj and while returning, he visited the State of Hyderabad and was received with official protocol by Sir Muhammad Akbar Nazar Ali Hydari the Prime Minister of Hyderabad. He also met the Nizam of Hyderabad before returning to Chitral. Soon after his return to Chitral, news broke out of World War II starting in Europe. In India, the Viceroys War Purpose Fund was being collected, into which the Mehtar made a donation of 30,000 Indian Rupees.The Governor of the North West Frontier Province welcomed the initiative. <mask> was promoted as Hon Major in the British Indian Army in 1940. In October 1940, the governor of NWFP Sir George Cunningham accompanied by the Political Agent Malakand visited Chitral. Massive celebrations were held in their honor. At the conclusion of their visit two demands were placed before the Governor by <mask> ul-Mulk. The area of Yasin and Ghizer which were part of Chitral at the time of Aman ul-Mulk were taken away by the British in 1895. These areas, it was pleaded, should be returned to Chitral.All outside forces serving in the defense of Chitral should be replaced by local recruits. Sir George assured the Mehtar that both demands would be considered and eventually the second was accepted. <mask> was made a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire (KCIE) on 1 January 1941. In February the same year, he traveled to Delhi and met the Viceroy Victor Hope, the Marquess of Linlithgow. He also met leaders of the All-India Muslim League and Indian National Congress including Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Mohandas Gandhi, Sir Zafarullah Khan, Sir Shah Muhammad Sulaiman and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. On 1 January 1943, he was promoted to the rank of Honorary Colonel in the British Indian Army. Until then, <mask> had also served as Honorary Colonel Commandant of the Chitral State Scouts (1936-1943).He had no sons but left behind two daughters, one of whom would marry Nawab Bahadur Mohammad Saeed Khan of Amb and the other her cousin, Saif-ur-Rahman later Mehtar of Chitral. Literary pursuits
<mask> ul-Mulk was a scholar of Persian literature and published several volumes of poetry and prose, he was a close associate of several prominent literary figures of British India, including Sir Mohammad Iqbal. Perhaps his most accomplished work is a Persian treatise on Darwinism in the light of the Quran, Sunnah and Sufi mysticism. The Tarikh-i-Chitral written in Persian by Mirza Muhammad Ghufran was revised and enlarged as the Nayi Tarikh-i-Chitral with the additional research of <mask> ul-Mulk by Mirza Ghulam Murtaza. <mask> is believed to have taken a personal and keen interest in the expansion of the text. Death
<mask> ul-Mulk, died in 1943 without leaving a male heir. He had reigned for seven years and was succeeded by his brother, Muzaffar ul-Mulk.Disambiguation
Sir <mask> ul-Mulk is not to be confused with <mask>-ul-Mulk the 22nd Chief Justice of Pakistan. The latter's father Kamran Khan, was a wealthy and respectable businessman from Swat who had his business branches throughout N.W.F.P including the State of Chitral. Kamran Khan, upon learning about the royal family of Chitral is believed to have developed a liking for the surname ul-Mulk and named his sons Shuja-ul-Mulk, <mask>-ul-Mulk and Rafil-ul-Mulk (the first two being after Chitral's ex-rulers). There is no lineal connecting between the families or Sir <mask> ul-Mulk and <mask>-ul-Mulk for that matter. References

1897 births
1943 deaths
19th-century Indian royalty
20th-century Indian royalty
Indian knights
Indian royalty
Islamia College University alumni
Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Mehtars of Chitral
Nawabs of Pakistan
Pakistani royalty
Princely rulers of Pakistan

masks:
Sir Nasir ul
Nasir ul
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Justice Nasir
Nasir
Nasir
Justice Nasir


text_chunks:
<mask> (1729, Alcalá de Henares, Spain – July 7, 1815, Mexico City) was a Spanish military officer and, from September 16, 1808 to July 19, 1809, viceroy of New Spain. Military career
Born in Alcalá de Henares in 1729 (some sources say 1727), <mask> entered the military in 1742. As a cadet and lieutenant he took part in action in Portugal, Italy and Morocco. He fought bravely in the attack on the fort of Yaqueví, Santo Domingo. In 1764 he went to New Spain, as sergeant major in an expedition headed by Lieutenant General <mask>lba. In New Spain he participated in the organization and instruction of provincial troops. Later he transferred to the office of sergeant major of the regiment of Mexico City, a position he held for 23 years.In 1783 he was promoted to colonel and in 1789 to brigadier. By this time old and sick, Viceroy Miguel José <mask> promoted him to field marshal in anticipation of his retirement. The coup against Iturrigaray
The pro-Spanish (anti-independence) party headed by Gabriel J<mask> Yermo deposed Viceroy <mask> Iturrigaray on September 15, 1808 for his pro-independence sympathies. This was the first coup in Mexico's history. In accordance with custom, the Audiencia of Mexico named the oldest and highest-ranking military officer in the colony as Iturrigaray's replacement. This was octogenarian Marshal <mask> <mask>. No one was better suited to lead the colony in times of turmoil.<mask> was tall in stature, courageous, charismatic, prestigious, and an intellectual. As viceroy, he had risen to a position for which he had more than enough skill to perform. He reined in the "Parianeros", as the followers of Yermo were popularly known. <mask> signed all the documents delivered to him by members of the Audiencia if he deemed beneficial. Anything else he discarded. The first of these were arrest warrants for criminal leaders in the independence movement — Juan Francisco Azcárate <mask>, councilman in the Mexico City government, Francisco Primo <mask> y Ramos, also a councilman, José Beye Cisneros, the abbot of Guadalupe, Canon Beristáin, Licenciado Cristo, Iturrigaray's secretary, and Fray Melchor <mask>lamantes. Verdad y Ramos was found dead in his cell in the archbishop's prison on October 4, 1808.Reports differed on the cause of death — hanging or poisoning. Five days later Fray Talamantes died of yellow fever in San Juan de Ulúa as he was being transferred under guard to Spain. Cristo was fired from his position in the war office. Azcárate remained in prison until 1811, when he was freed. <mask>'s administration of New Spain
Garibay also created a committee to investigate the anarchist outbreak (the anarchist movement). He dispersed the troops concentrated at Jalapa (Veracruz) by his predecessor. He ordered the sculptor Manuel Tolsá to cast 100 cannons and to manufacture other kinds of arms.He suspended the Cédula de la Caja de Consolidación, which had appropriated the income of religious estates and foundations to the government, and which had been a considerable source of discontent in the colony. The Parianeros, realizing Viceroy <mask>'s control over his countrol, they put on airs as saviors of the fatherland. They organized militarily, under the name Realistas Fieles (Faithful Royalists) or Patriotas de Fernando VII (Patriots of Ferdinand VII). They adopted blue jackets like shopkeepers' robes, and for this reason were mockingly known as Los Chaquetas (The Jackets). Viceroy <mask> not only controlled the government; he also tried to prevent the Parianeros from committing outrages and abuses against anyone they singled out. These abuses became so grave that Viceroy <mask> dissolved the Voluntarios de Fernando VII and at the same time enlisted a regiment of dragoons under his personal command. Although the new government at first did not grant formal recognition to any of the various anti-Napoleonic governing juntas in Spain, as a practical matter it accepted the authority of the Junta of Seville, and followed all of its directives.When victories over the French allowed a measure of unification of control in Spain, New Spain recognized the Junta of Aranjuez. <mask> sent a donation of 200,000 pesos to Aranjuez as a contribution to the war, in addition to the 90,000 pesos of the regular payment. The Junta of Aranjuez provided that each of the Spanish colonies send a representative to participate in its deliberations. This provision had a counterproductive effect in New Spain. The Spanish party feared it was the beginning of colonial autonomy, a position it had long opposed. The Criollos deemed a single representative much too minor a concession to be of value. Visitors to New Spain from the United States were viewed with suspicion, for Joseph Bonaparte was known to send French agents into the colonies to foment rebellion in favor of his regime.A brother of Ferdinand VII (recognized as king by the Spanish population and the Spanish colonies), was held a prisoner in France because his sister, Carlota Joaquina, had tried to get the Junta of Aranjuez to accept her son <mask> as regent of New Spain. Once the alliance with Britain allowed secure commerce with Spain, <mask> ordered the construction of many merchant ships to carry it. His retirement
The Supreme Junta of Spain replaced <mask> with Francisco Javier <mask> y Beaumont, archbishop of Mexico, after ten months. <mask> wanted to return to Spain, but his financial state would not permit it. He then lived, retired from public life, on a monthly pension of 500 pesos granted by Yermo, who was a rich landowner. Later the Crown awarded him the Cross of Carlos III and a pension of 10,000 pesos annually, with the grade of lieutenant general for his contributions to king and country. He died in Mexico City in 1815.For most of his life <mask> <mask> lived in the state of Michoacan, Mexico. His brother lived in the state of Jalisco, Mexico. References
 "<mask>, <mask>," Enciclopedia de México, v. 6. Mexico City: 1987. García Puron, Manuel, México y sus gobernantes, v. 1. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrua, 1984. Orozco L., Fernando, Fechas Históricas de México.Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1988, . Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes <mask>. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, . External links

Viceroys of New Spain
Spanish generals
1729 births
1815 deaths
People from Alcalá de Henares
People from Michoacán
1800s in Mexico
1800s in New Spain

masks:
Pedro de Garibay
Pedro de Garibay
Juan de Villa
de Azanza
. de
José de
Pedro de
Garibay
Garibay
Garibay
y Ledesma
de Verdad
de Ta
Garibay
Garibay
Garibay
Garibay
Garibay
Pedro
Garibay
Garibay
de Lizana
Garibay
Pedro de
Garibay
Garibay
Pedro de
de México