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<mask> (alias 'Sonja Lüneburg': 26 October 1926 – 18 February 2004) was an East German spy. Infiltrated into West Germany from Colmar (France) in 1966 or 1967, she moved to Bonn in 1969 and obtained work as a secretary with a senior politician. Her espionage career ended abruptly in 1985 when she lost her (false) passport during a vacation in Rome. Fearing that the passport had fallen, or could fall, into the hands of western counter-intelligence services, which would lead to her unmasking, her handlers hurriedly ordered her back: she was smuggled into East Germany near Lübeck within the week. Life

Provenance and early years
<mask> was born in Lauban, a small manufacturing town in Silesia and to the west of Breslau (as Wrocław was known at that time). Her father was a railway worker. She was six when the Nazi Party took power and nineteen when the war ended and she watched a "death march" of surviving former inmates from the Auschwitz concentration camp being forcibly moved towards the west in order that they should not be found still inside the concentration camps by the Soviet forces invading from the east.Teaching career
Between 1942 and 1945 she attended teacher training colleges in Lauban, Neustadt (Neisse) and then Löbau, which was a short distance away but, critically, on the western bank of the Neisse River. During 1944/45 Silesia had been the scene of extensive ethnic cleansing and frontier changes implemented in April/May 1945 meant that the entire region was now part of Poland. A large chunk of what had been central Germany was now administered as the Soviet occupation zone and it was here that <mask>, despite not having completed her training, embarked on a career as a teacher and, later, as a school head. Between 1950 and 1960 she undertook, and apparently completed, the rest of her teacher training by correspondence course with the party's "Karl Marx" Academy in Potsdam. She had already, in 1946, joined the Socialist Unity Party ("Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands" / SED), created in April of that year and by October 1949, when the Soviet occupation zone was rebranded and relaunched as the Soviet sponsored German Democratic Republic (East Germany), well on the way to becoming the ruling party in a new kind of one-party dictatorship. Espionage
In 1960 she took a job in the Ministry for popular training and education where Margot Honecker was already installed as a "deputy minister" and exercising her powerful influence. The way now lay open to an academic career, but <mask> made other choices.One of her colleagues was in the habit of making his apartment available as a "conspirative apartment" (konspirative Wohnung) to the Ministry for State Security ("Stasi"), where a local Stasi officer might conduct discreet meetings with informers. The colleague was getting married, however, and wished to end the arrangement in case it might interfere with married life. He suggested that <mask>ch might wish to make her apartment available for the discreet meetings in place of his. She was known to be a committed government supporter and, as expected, agreed. The next event of significance occurred when the Stasi officer, before leaving the apartment at the end of one of his meetings, stopped to ask Olbrich directly if she would be prepared to move across to the west and obtain information for the East German authorities. The offer reflected her unquestioning support for the regime, and after a few days of consideration she agreed unconditionally to serve her country as requested. There followed a further period of preparation during which her suitability for an espionage mission was more systematically assessed.It was also necessary to arrange an alternative identity. Sonja Lüneburg (born Sonja Lydia Goesch: 1924-1996) was a Berlin hairdresser. In 1950 she crossed from the eastern (Soviet administered) half of Berlin to the western sector. Thousands were doing the same at this time, and there were not yet any significant physical barriers preventing migration from east to west. Motives are generally believed to have been economic, but sources indicate that Sonja Lüneburg moved to the west for love. Sixteen years later, her relationship in the west having broken apart, she made the mistake of returning to her former home in East Berlin. She submitted her passport for inspection at the Weissensee frontier crossing.It was retained. Evidently her age and other attributes corresponded to the profile the Ministry for Security officials had been looking out for. The committed East German socialist <mask> had already become a "peace activist", having joined the Stasi Intelligence Service (Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung, /HVA) in 1962 or 1963, and is identified in Stasi files from between 1962 and 1988 under the code name "Anna". For her mission to the west, however, she needed a complete identity. Sonja Lüneburg's identity was available. <mask> learned the necessary details of her new identity in preparation for her move to the west. While all this was going on the real Sonja Lüneburg applied for permission to leave the country permanently, but the authorities had by now become acutely aware of a shortage of working age population, resulting both from the slaughter of war and from the exodus during the 1950s of several million East Germans wishing to become West Germans.Flight from the (East German) republic was by this time not permitted, and Lüneburg's request was declined. Instead, the Ministry for State Security had her held in a detention centre for nearly a year and then placed in a psychiatric institution where she was treated with a series of injections, tablets and electric shocks. She was wrecked. The doctors diagnosed paranoid schizophrenia. She was finally released in November 1974, but readmitted to an institution less than a year later. In 1983 she was transferred to a retirement home where according to reports she took to identifying herself as "Empress Sonja". In 1993, it was reported that the real Sonja Lüneburg was still alive, still institutionalised, but living by now in a retirement home in Berlin (Wilhelm-Kuhr-Straße), finding her only comfort in the "Cabinet" cigarettes which she chain smoked.The real Sonja Lüneburg died in 1996. The woman who stole her identity seems never to have shown any very deep concern over what happened to the real Sonja Lüneburg. In 1967 (the false) Sonja Lüneburg was taken to West Germany, using an indirect route via Colmar in Alsace. For the next two years she lived in Hamburg where she had obtained work with an insurance company. Outside office hours she was undergoing intense further training. She undertook several overseas foreign trips to London, Sweden and France, enabling her to gain a detailed knowledge of how frontier formalities worked. She was still in Hamburg in 1969 when, on the urgent recommendation of her Stasi handler, she replied to a newspaper job advertisement for a secretarial job in Bonn - then the West German capital.Her application was successful, and she found herself working, between 1969 and 1972, as secretary for William Borm, a FDP member of the West German parliament ("Bundestag"). An irony of which neither of them was aware at the time was that Borm was also on the Stasi payroll. Sources are in some respects imprecise as to how <mask> was able to pass information to the East German authorities from her secretarial work, but she presumably used the miniature (by the standards of the times) camera with which she had been issued to photograph documents that passed across her desk. After German reunification, which took place in 1990, Stasi records were made accessible to scholars. One of these, Helmut Müller-Enbergs, calculated that between December 1970 and July 1985, 492 items were passed to the Stasi from Agent "Anna" of which 394 were identified as documents. Most were "position papers" and minutes of meetings between members of the FDP party leadership. Many had been annotated "very good" and 29 contained information that it had been thought appropriate to pass to the leadership of East Germany's ruling SED party.As William Borm approached retirement age his work load declined, but he was able to recommend his efficient secretary to colleagues. In 1972 she transferred to the party general secretary, Karl-Hermann Flach. However, Flach suffered a stroke and died at the unexpectedly young age of 44. His successor as party general secretary was Martin Bangemann who inherited not merely the job but also his predecessor's secretary, known in the west as Sonja Lüneburg. Bangemann was also, between 1973 and 1984, a member of the European Parliament. Olbrich, urged on by her East German handlers, convinced him that she could work as his secretary both on Bonn and in Brussels. In the words of her ultimate boss, East Germany's legendary spy chief Markus Wolf (who in their retirements became a neighbour), "for <mask> there were now many pressures.... Each day she commuted hither and yonder between offices and apartments in the federal capital and in Brussels, striving not to neglect the interests either of her [western] boss nor of ours [as her spymasters]".Beyond her allotted tasks she was taking time carefully to make notes of important meetings, photocopying critical documents. She would photograph even her own handwritten notes of meetings in order to make them small enough to be more easily transported. For years, each month she would pack two or three photographic film rolls each of 36 images in a little envelope which she then left in the toilet of a train travelling to the east. This meant that sometimes when she travelled by train she took a slightly indirect route in order to be on the correct express train from West Germany's busiest Railway station at Cologne to East Berlin. In 1984, after an election which had led the FDP to "change sides" and join the governing coalition, Martin Bangemann became West Germany's Minister for Economics. His secretary occupied the office directly outside the minister's own, and the usefulness to her handlers of the documents crossing her desk increased further. The relationship between the minister and the spy became close.There are pictures of <mask> accompanying the Bangemann family on Mediterranean sailing holidays. The Bonn espionage career ended abruptly in July 1985. Returning from a visit East Germany via an indirect route, in an uncharacteristic moment of carelessness she left her travel bag in a Rome taxi. Along with her clothes, the bag contained an implausibly large amount of cash - 5,000 West German Marks - and a forged passport containing her photograph. Probably, as she ruefully related later, the taxi driver would be interested only in the cash. But she could not be sure. After a brief period of reflection in East Berlin the decision was taken by Markus Wolf himself that she should return to East Germany, which she did on 3 August 1985.In Lübeck she met a "smuggler" employed by the Stasi, who as she later wrote, was more normally involved in helping East Germans escape to the west. He took her by boat to a point in the (normally deadly) frontier defences between East and West Germany. East German border officials were waiting for them. She was escorted safely across the wide strip of open land on the East German side of the Inner German border. She was welcomed beyond the militarised strip with a glass of brandy. Following her disappearance from her apartment in Bonn it was searched. Colleagues and contacts were interviewed.From the western perspective (the false) Sonja Lüneburg was recorded as "missing" till 1991. <mask>'s own memoir was finally published ten years after her death in 2013, which has encouraged the appearance of several thoughtful contributions on her years as a spy. Sources nevertheless remain very largely silent over what happened to her between her sudden return to East Germany in 1985 and German reunification in 1990. It is recorded that she was showered with awards and medals, along with a cash reward for her years of faithful and, it would appear, productive espionage. The retired spy
By the time of the changes of 1989/90 <mask> was living in an apartment block in Bernau, just outside Berlin. After reunification it was a former colleague from the Stasi Intelligence Service (Hauptverwaltung Aufklärung, /HVA) who denounced her. She was  arrested on 11 June 1991 and spent two months held in investigatory detention, before being released on bail.When she faced the regional high court in Düsseldorf she took the opportunity to share her belief that she "had done something that was right and important". She had wanted to "secure the peace in Europe". Writing later of the uncomprehending reaction by the prosecuting team at her Düsseldorf trial, she would observe "they simply could not grasp my motives, because they were prisoners of their own prejudices". In 1992 she was sentenced to a thirty-month jail term. However, she was released in 1994 and returned to her home in Bernau. One reason that <mask>'s story is relatively widely known is that she featured prominently in a 2003 memoir published by the retired former spy chief Markus Wolf. In retirement the two became friends.Commentators observed that when Wolf  took trips out of town it was <mask> who was called upon to look after his domestic cats. She also remained on friendly terms with Martin Bangemann, probably the most high-profile target of her successful career in espionage. Even at her trial, in 1992, he came to see her and greeted her with a hand shake in the court room. At Christmas in 1999 he sent her a copy of a political book with a note:  "Dear Sonja - Your part in the story is only briefly set out. Happy Christmas, Health and Fortune, also for 2000. Warm greetings". <mask> died on 18 February 2004 at Bernau bei Berlin.References

People from Upper Lusatia
People from Silesia
East German spies
People convicted of spying for East Germany
Socialist Unity Party of Germany members
1926 births
2004 deaths

masks:
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbri
Johanna Olbrich
Olbrich
Olbrich
Johanna
Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich
Johanna Olbrich


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<mask> or <mask> (1968 – August 30, 1999) was a mentally ill Breslover Hasid who was shot and killed outside his apartment in Borough Park, Brooklyn by four officers of the New York City Police Department, who fired on him at least 12 times. The killing was highly controversial, because although <mask> was armed at the time, the weapon he brandished was a claw hammer, and accounts of the incident varied widely. Background

Early life
<mask> was born to <mask>, a dentist, and his wife Doris, a divorce mediator. He had a brother named Glenn. At one point, Norman and Doris divorced, whereupon Doris married Howard Boskey, a psychiatrist. <mask> grew up in a comfortable suburban home in Dix Hills, New York. College years and mental illness

In 1991, while <mask> was a third-year medical student at Mount Sinai Medical School in New York City, a routine urine test revealed that he had IgA nephropathy, an immune system disease that could lead to kidney failure.The revelation shook <mask> deeply, causing him to drop out of medical school. He read books on philosophy and immersed himself in music in a quest for meaning in life. <mask> decided to explore a path to spiritual enlightenment in his own religion of Judaism, and he promptly moved to Israel. During his seven years there, he vacillated between various Jewish sects, starting with a conventional Orthodox yeshiva in Jerusalem, continuing on to Chabad, and then to a Na Nach yeshiva in Safed. Eventually, <mask> went back to the more mainstream Breslov Hasidic group. The diagnosis also triggered immobilizing depressions in <mask>, which later developed into serious mental illness. <mask>'s mental health history included three involuntary commitments at a hospital on Long Island, where he had made threats to his parents, and evinced signs of paranoid schizophrenia.He once became very agitated, and kicked a hole in the wall of his room at his mother's house, saying afterward, "I can't believe I did that. I love this house. I grew up in this house." Borough Park

<mask>'s spiritual quest led him into taking up residence on 46th Street in the Borough Park section of Brooklyn, New York, a neighborhood with a prominent Orthodox Jewish population. At times, <mask> would enjoy music, or the quiet grace of celebrating the Shabbat with friends. During other times, when he neglected to take his medication, he wouldn't look up from his prayer book or his food. In 1997, <mask> entered a residential program for the mentally ill in Borough Park, but soon checked himself out, against the advice of doctors, who said they did not believe he was capable of living on his own.He took computer training courses with plans to go into business designing web pages. <mask> would often be seen walking around talking to himself, and wearing heavy clothes in mid-summer. He procured a claw hammer, which he called his "staff", carved on it the tetragrammaton, and danced around with it in prayer. He meditated while playing loud music, or prayed so loudly that the neighbors complained. In the beginning of August 1999, three weeks before his death, <mask> met a female acquaintance from Israel, Netanya Ullman, on the New York City Subway, and they decided to get married. On August 29, 1999, <mask> struck a neighbor's passing car with his hammer. When the driver stopped and rolled down his window, <mask> swung at him and broke his nose.The neighbor filed a complaint with the police. Police shooting and death
During the late afternoon of August 30, 1999, neighbors called police complaining that <mask> had been playing music too loud, and dancing almost naked in the street. By the time police arrived, he was back inside his basement apartment with a friend, a homeless man named Percy Freeman, with whom <mask> had been smoking marijuana. He waved the hammer at them, which may have appeared at first to be a flute. At 6:40 p.m., police received an anonymous 9-1-1 call about a man living at 1619 46th Street, <mask>'s address, who was menacing neighborhood children with a hammer. When police arrived, they asked Freeman to leave the apartment. Freeman came up the stairs, and told police "Don't worry about the hammer, it's a religious object," as officers wrestled him to the ground and handcuffed him.The officers called for the Emergency Service Unit, standard procedure in the New York City Police Department in situations involving a mentally disturbed person. They ordered <mask> to come out, which he refused to do. Officers then entered the apartment, and tried to contain him. <mask> by this time had ceased wearing his prescription glasses, and may not have recognized his intruders as cops. <mask> threatened them with the hammer, and took a swing or two at them. Failing to pacify him, Officer Daniel Gravitch shot a half-ounce of pepper spray in <mask>'s eyes. At 6:48:20 p.m., Sergeant Joseph Memoly, just arriving on the scene, put in a second call for the Emergency Service Unit.<mask> was either forced outside, or broke free from the officers. According to police, he then ran up a narrow stairway from the apartment, struck Sergeant Terrence O'Brien with the hammer several times on his left arm, then rushed past other officers. He stood on the sidewalk, wearing a tallit and tefillin, with the hammer raised over his head. Six officers who responded to the radio calls stood on their feet, guns drawn, in a rough semicircle around him. They shouted at him, one officer "almost pleading" to drop the hammer. There was a distinct single shot, followed closely by a volley of 12 shots, which were fired by Seargent Memoly and Officers Martin Sanabria and William Loshiavo, whereupon <mask> fell dead. Alternatively, <mask> took a step forward, was screaming while swinging the hammer, and kept coming at the officers.He was striking a fallen police sergeant with the hammer when he was shot. At 6:48:27 p.m., Sergeant O'Brien radioed: "Perp down." Officers later found strange scribblings on the wall of the apartment. One spelled out the word "POLICE" as "Pointedly Off-wing Litigating Intensely Careful Errand-deliverers." Reactions

In the aftermath of the killing, many neighborhood residents gathered in the street, chanting "Justice" while occasionally throwing objects at police. Many demanded to know why Mayor Rudy Giuliani did not go to Brooklyn to address their concerns about police brutality. One witness at the scene said of the police, "If I had been in their shoes I would have done the same thing."City Councilman Noach Dear called for an investigation. He said that the police needed to re-examine their methods for dealing with the mentally ill, but there were no easy answers. At a news conference the following morning at City Hall attended by Mayor Giuliani and Jewish community leaders, Police Commissioner Howard Safir stated that seven independent witnesses confirmed that <mask> hit Sergeant O'Brien with the hammer. Legal proceedings
On November 1, 1999, a Brooklyn grand jury declined to indict the four officers involved in the shooting, citing the fact that <mask> presented a threat to the officers, and had refused orders to drop the hammer. <mask>'s mother, <mask>-Boskey, filed a federal suit through her attorneys, claiming <mask>'s civil rights had been violated by the officers. However, on June 5, 2001, the Justice Department declined to file charges, announcing instead that they agreed that excessive force had not been used. Civil proceedings

In October 2003, <mask>-Boskey's lawsuit against the NYPD reached Federal Court.However, the <mask> family had another setback when on November 17, 2003, the jury supported the police officers' version of the shooting, and found the officers and the city not liable in <mask>'s death. However, on September 9, 2004, federal judge Sterling Johnson Jr. a former police officer, found serious issues with the police officers' version of the events leading up to <mask>'s shooting, as well as the truthfulness of their testimony, overturning the jury verdict, and ordering a new trial. The <mask> Family declined to pursue another trial for family health reasons, announcing their decision on August 27, 2006. However, they continue to seek justice for Gidone. See also

 Shooting of Amadou Diallo – a high-profile police shooting in the Giuliani era

References

External links

1999 in New York City
1990s crimes in New York City
20th century in Brooklyn
August 1999 crimes
August 1999 events in the United States
Crimes in Brooklyn
Deaths by firearm in Brooklyn
Deaths by person in New York City
New York City Police Department corruption and misconduct
Police brutality in the United States

masks:
Gidone Busch
Gary Busch
Busch
Gidone Busch
Norman Busch
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Busch
Busch
Busch
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Busch
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Doris Busch
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<mask> (born 1972 in Lahore, Pakistan) is a female contemporary visual artist, working with miniature painting, textiles, video and site specific installations in architectural spaces. <mask> is one of a generation of artists from Pakistan who have transformed the tradition of miniature painting into an internationally celebrated form of contemporary art. In recent years, <mask>’s practice has extended to significantly larger paintings, murals and installations. She is a member of what has come to be called the Pakistani 'neo-miniature' school. Biography

<mask> graduated from the National College of Arts, Lahore in 1993 and completed her post-graduate degree Fine Art degree from Rijksakademie, Amsterdam in 2003. <mask> was schooled in classical miniature painting and has become a leading figure in developing the contemporary miniature. She has described her two-year fellowship at the Rijksakademie as a real learning experience, due to the culture shocks she encountered.She has described how the reaction from audiences in Amsterdam to her miniatures differed compared to reactions in Pakistan:  My miniatures were considered beautiful and exotic but beyond that the viewers could not read anything significant in them. They would ask me, is it about religion, ethnicity or typical oriental traditions? It was surprising to discover the difference in perception, in Pakistan my miniature was labeled as unconventional and modern while western audiences considered them archaic.As a result, her experience in Amsterdam led her to change her style and adopt more contemporary mediums to make her work more accessible to her hosts. Work
<mask> works with paintings, murals, video, installations, and textile works. She was initially trained as a traditional miniaturist, and is known for reviving old techniques in contemporary ways. Themes
Many of <mask>'s works deal with the theme of gender. Her work has been described as having a 'feminine sensibility', coming partly from references to traditionally feminine crafts such as textiles and needlework.This comes both from her use of textiles in her work, but also from her focus on repeated geometric patterns, taken from traditional Islamic patterns, combined with floral motifs. In keeping with the theme of gender, she has also made repeated use of the theme of the covered or uncovered female figure, using motifs such as curtains, burqas, and flowers. This theme took on a new dimension after her fellowship at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam, where she encountered familiar patterns of male dominance and female submissiveness, but with new dimensions. Her flower and curtain symbols took on new meanings: the red-light district, for example, had different types of curtains, drawn to indicate the conduct of business. After 9/11, a new political dimension appeared in her work. Conversation, for example, is a video installation made during <mask>'s time at the Rijksakademie. The work was about her response to the violence inflicted on Afghanistan in the name of counter-terrorism.Throughout the work, a rose is slowly embroidered by a brown-skinned hand, while at the same time another rose is unpicked, removed, and subsequently erased by a white hand using a needle. Awards

<mask> received the Alice Award (artist book category) in 2012, and was a finalist for the Jameel Art Prize in 2011, winning the People’s Choice Award in 2011. She is among a handful of Pakistani artists who have had solo shows of their work, including 'Two worlds as one' Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen (2016); Garden of ideas, Aga Khan Museum, Toronto (2014); Larger Than Life, Whitworth Art Gallery, United Kingdom (2012); Larger Than Life, Corvi-Mora, London (2012); Pattern to Follow, Chawkandi Art, Karachi (2010); Conversations, Pump House Gallery, London (2008). She participated at the 2009 Venice Biennale, the 2011 Sharjah Biennial and 2013 Moscow Biennale. 8, Issue 3; Jan 2005) (magazine), Asian Art Newspaper, London, 2005
 Book: Art Tomorrow (monograph) Marc Parent/Terrail, Paris, 2002
 Book: Unveiling the Visible: Lives and Works of Women Artists of Pakistan (monograph), Sang-e-Meel Publication, Lahore, 2001
 Article: "Reinventing Tradition" by Rachel Duffell, Kee Magazine, 2010
 Article: "Reading Through the Lense of the Political: Contemporary Art in Pakistan", Asia Art Archive, Sep 2009
 Article: Pakistan's Contemporary Painting Workshop, HK, Quintessentially: Insider, 2007

References

External links
https://facebook.com/aishakhalid72/
https://www.summeracademy.at/en/a-short-interview-with-aisha-khalid/
https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/art/aisha-khalid-is-up-for-the-challenge-1.369575

20th-century Pakistani artists
21st-century Pakistani artists
1972 births
Living people
People from Lahore
National College of Arts alumni

masks:
Aisha Khalid
Khalid
Khalid
Khalid
Khalid
Khalid
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<mask> (July 5, 1811 – April 22, 1888) was an American pioneer who led a large group of settlers along the Oregon Trail to the Oregon Country. He was an influential member of the early government of Oregon, and helped establish the Applegate Trail as an alternative route to the Oregon Trail. Early life
<mask> was born in Henry County, Kentucky, on July 5, 1811. In 1821, he moved with his family to Missouri where he soon was employed in the law office of Edward Bates. He attended seminary in Illinois, worked as a schoolteacher, clerk, and deputy surveyor to the Missouri Surveyor General, where he met Jedediah Smith, William Sublette, and David Edward Jackson—men who were instrumental in blazing the Oregon Trail. <mask> married Cynthia Ann Parker on March 13, 1831 and settled outside Osceola, Missouri on the Osage River the next year. His farmstead lasted for twelve years, with the labor force primarily slaves from neighboring farms, despite Applegate not owning any personally.The Great Migration
Along with his brothers Charles and Lindsay and their families, he joined what became known as the "Great Migration of 1843" on the Oregon Trail. He became one of the leaders of the expedition after it split into two parties over a dispute about whether the large amounts of livestock being driven by some members of the group would slow down their travel. Applegate's party became known as the "cow column" and the other party was called the "light column". He memorialized the journey in an essay that gained in fame in the ensuing decades, "A Day with the Cow Column in 1843". After leaving their guide Marcus Whitman at his mission and abandoning their wagons at Fort Walla Walla, the <mask> brothers built boats for traveling down the Columbia River to Fort Vancouver. Near The Dalles, a boat capsized and <mask> and Lindsay each lost a son to drowning. Lindsay later wrote, "We resolved if we remained in the country, to find a better way for others who might wish to emigrate."Settlement and involvement in politics
In 1844, <mask> started a farm in present-day Polk County, and also built a mill and worked as a surveyor, including surveying the site of Oregon City. During the elections for the Legislative Committee of the Provisional Government of Oregon 1845, <mask> was elected without his prior knowledge as the representative of Yamhill County (one of five counties in Oregon at the time). Soon, he was appointed, along with David Hill and Robert Newell, to draft a revision of the Organic Laws, eventually being voted and adopted by the settler population. The Provisional Government had tense relations with the Hudson's Bay Company centered on Fort Vancouver across the Columbia River, and <mask> led the way for a political settlement. He created a new oath for members of the government that was inclusive for British subjects as well as American citizens. In a meeting with John McLoughlin and James Douglas, the Yamhill legislator was able to induce the men to join the Provisional Government. A previous episode of an American squatting on Fort Vancouver's farmland and his subsequent threat of burning the Fort down helped produce the agreement.The Provisional Government was to tax the Hudson's Bay Company only on transactions with the settlers. Douglas was one of the judges elected to the newly established Vancouver district, encompassing the lands of north of the Columbia. Upon hearing of an upcoming battle between two men over a woman, Applegate was able to get dueling banned. The Cayuse War was one of the last series of events in Oregon that Applegate was active in. After the Whitman massacre, a commission led by Applegate contacted Douglas to request a loan from the HBC, to fund a military intervention. Douglas stated that he was not authorized to make a loan, but recommended the peace keeping mission of Peter Ogden sent to the Cayuse. A loan of $999.41 was raised from the contributions of Applegate, Asa Lovejoy and George Abernethy, with others raised as well.Due to the isolation of the settler communities in the Willamette Valley Joseph Meek and Applegate were appointed to request aid from other parts of the United States. Meek traveled to Washington, D.C. to deliver a memorial written by <mask> appealing for military support. While attempting to reach his destination of California, Applegate had to turn back due to the mountain passes being impossible to traverse in the winter. Applegate Trail

A safer alternative to boating the Columbia River was still needed for settlers wishing to reach the Willamette Valley. The Barlow Road was safer than the river passage, but was considered to be worst stretch of the entire Oregon Trail. Another attempt at finding an alternate route, the Meek Cutoff, resulted in the deaths of at least 23 people. <mask> wrote legislation that authorized him to survey a southern route to the Willamette Valley that would avoid the Columbia River.Daniel Waldo, one of Applegate's fellow emigrants from the Great Migration of 1843, was made the expedition's outfitter. Also known as the South Road, the Applegate Trail started at Fort Hall in present-day Idaho and followed the Humboldt River before crossing the Klamath Basin. <mask> traveled along the trail in 1846, its first year, and later accused <mask> of starving his party to give him a stronger negotiating position for giving relief. <mask> was however defended by men who surveyed the road. Later life
<mask> settled on a land claim in the Umpqua Valley in 1849. He named the place Yoncalla after the local Indian tribe. In 1857, he represented Umpqua County at the Oregon Constitutional Convention though he withdrew from the gathering before it was complete.In an address in 1865, <mask> expressed a then-progressive position that "Every member of the commonwealth, no matter of which sex, what color or where born, if free from the tutelage imposed by the domestic relations should have the right to vote, if morally and mentally qualified to do so." <mask> died on April 22, 1888 and is buried in a small private cemetery near Yoncalla, Oregon with his wife. Footnotes

Further reading
 Joseph Schafer, "<mask>: Pioneer, Statesman and Philosopher," Washington Historical Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 4 (July 1907), pp. 217–233. External links

 <mask>—Pioneer from the Oregon Encyclopedia
 from End of the Oregon Trail Interpretive Center

1811 births
1888 deaths
Oregon Trail
Members of the Oregon Constitutional Convention
Members of the Provisional Government of Oregon
Oregon pioneers
American explorers
People from Henry County, Kentucky
People from Osceola, Missouri
People from Yoncalla, Oregon
Oregon Republicans

masks:
Jesse Applegate
Jesse Applegate
Applegate
Applegate
Jesse
Jesse Applegate
Applegate
Applegate
Applegate
Applegate
Jesse Thornton
Applegate
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Jesse Applegate
Jesse Applegate


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<mask> of Auvergne, also called <mask> (died 7 January 1234), was a French nobleman, prelate and poet from the Auvergne. He served as bishop of Clermont from 1195 until 1227 and thereafter as archbishop of Lyon until his death. He was also a troubadour, composing poetry in Occitan. <mask> was involved in several feudal conflicts between 1195 and 1211. Twice imprisoned (1199, 1207) and accused of murder and rapine, his disputes with family and vassals drew intervention from both king and pope. He emerged victorious and in control of the city of Clermont itself. He also added lands and castles to his diocese and took part in the Albigensian Crusade (1209).After his election as archbishop, he was imprisoned a third time for interfering with the marriage politics of the count of Champagne, but was soon liberated by his friends. He was less successful in Lyon, where his pontificate is marked by disputes with the rising merchant class. His health declined in his final two years. <mask>'s known literary career fell between 1195 and 1212. He is describes as lo Vesques de Clarmon ('the bishop of Clermont') in the songbooks. Little of his poetry survives and all that does concerns disagreements with his cousin, Dalfi d'Alvernhe. Dalfi states that the bishop had a lady lover and the bishop hints at Dalfi's sexual inadequacy, but it is difficult to know what reality lies behind their joking exchange.Family and early life
<mask> was born into the highest nobility of France. He was a younger son of Count <mask> of Auvergne and Matilda, daughter of Duke Odo II of Burgundy. His elder brothers were Counts William X and Guy II. He was a cousin of the troubadour Dalfi d'Alvernhe, a first cousin of Duke Odo III of Burgundy and a first cousin once removed of King Philip II of France (through the latter's grandmother, Matilda of Carinthia). He was also related to the counts of Forez and thus to Archbishop Renaud of Lyon. Prior to his election as bishop, <mask> was the dean of the chapter of the cathedral of Autun. Autun lay within the ecclesiastical province of Lyon.Bishop of Clermont
<mask> was elected bishop of Clermont in 1195. In 1197, he dedicated the Abbey of Le Bouchet, founded by his father. Between 1197 and 1201 <mask> was involved in a quarrel with his brother Guy in which both resorted to force. In 1197, <mask> excommunicated his brother and placed his lands under interdict. He then ravaged his lands with hired soldiers for the next two years. At the same time, <mask> got into a dispute with the troubadour Pons de Capduelh over the castle of Vertaizon, which Pons had received from his wife as a dowry some time before 1196 and which the bishop claimed as a fief. In 1199, Guy wrote to Pope Innocent III requesting intervention.Before receiving a response, he engineered <mask>'s capture. Pons seized the bishop and imprisoned him in Vertaizon before handing him over to Guy. The bishop was accused of murder, arson and pillage. When Innocent learned of his imprisonment, he authorized the archbishop of Bourges, Henry de Sully, to absolve Guy on condition of penance for his own excesses. Henry reconciled the brothers in July 1199, and mediated a peace agreement signed in May 1201. As bishop, <mask> sought to increase his hold on his castles and to expand his diocese's territory. In 1199, Count Guy did homage to his brother for the castle of Lezoux.In 1202, Guy committed the city of Clermont to the bishop's keeping until he had made peace with King Philip. Guy had sided with the English in the Anglo-French War of 1202–1204. <mask> thus became the first bishop to govern the city directly, a position subsequent bishops retained down to 1552. In 1205, Innocent III opened an inquiry into the dispute between <mask> and Pons, which was still unresolved. At this, King Philip II intervened to force Pons' wife to turn the castle over to <mask>. In 1211 Pons and his wife, with their three sons, three daughters and three sons-in-law, sold Vertaizon to the bishop for 7,650 marks, of which 7,000 were to be retained by the bishop as compensation for his unlawful imprisonment. In 1206, <mask> and Guy again fell into dispute.In 1207, Guy again imprisoned his brother. Although excommunicated by the pope, he only released <mask> after King Philip marched an army against him. He had to pay reparations and give security. In 1207, <mask> acquired the fiefs of Montmorin and Mauzun from the king. A castle was begun at Mauzun imitating the royal style introduced into the Auvergne by Philip. <mask> participated in the Albigensian Crusade with his own troops. In July 1209, he and Guy were among the leaders of the army that marched out of Lyon.They had returned to the Auvergne before the end of the year. In 1211, according to the Chronicle of Bernard Ithier, a new dispute arose between <mask> and Guy, during which the count destroyed the monastery of Saint-Pierre de Mozac. A royal army under Guy II of Dampierre and Archbishop Renaud of Lyon captured nearly all of Count Guy's possessions and confiscated his fiefs. This was the end of his disputes with his brother. In May 1212, a document issued by <mask> indicates that Philip had given him the castle of Lezoux, the castle "between two river" (inter duos rivos) and that of Dallet. In 1215, <mask> again joined the Albigensian Crusade, this time accompanied by Géraud de Cros, archbishop of Bourges. He returned to his diocese in 1216.In 1217, with Countess Blanche of Champagne as his guarantor, he swore an oath of fealty to the king. In 1217, as he was preparing to depart on the Fifth Crusade, Duke Odo III of Burgundy placed his six-year-old son and heir, the future Hugh IV, under the guardianship of <mask> and William of Joinville. When Odo died suddenly in 1218, <mask> became the guardian of the young duke. In 1225, <mask> attended the Council of Bourges. During his long episcopate in Clermont, the Franciscans set up in Montferrand and the Dominicans in Clermont itself (1219). He was succeeded at Clermont by his nephew, Hugh, in April 1227. Archbishop of Lyon
In 1227, <mask> was elected to succeed Renaud de Forez (died 23 October 1226) as archbishop of Lyon in the Holy Roman Empire after a vacancy of several months.The papal bulls conferring on him the pallium and informing his suffragans of his election are dated 3 and 7 April 1227. <mask> has been accused of paying little attention to Lyon. Early in his pontificate, in his capacity as tutor to the young duke of Burgundy, he had advised Alice of Vergy, Hugh's mother and the regent of Burgundy, that Hugh should be married to Yolanda, daughter of Count <mask> II of Dreux. This marriage alliance violated an agreement Alice had made with Count Theobald IV of Champagne. In response, a furious Theobald took <mask> hostage in 1227. Yolanda's uncle and <mask>'s personal friend, Count Henry II of Bar, liberated the imprisoned bishop. By this stage of his career, <mask> was an elderly and even "esteemed" man.In 1230, Theobald agreed to pay the bishop 1,000 marks of silver in compensation to the bishop. Numerous documents and diplomas exist from <mask>'s pontificate in Lyon. He practised nepotism, appointing his nephew Hugh to the seneschalcy. He brokered an agreement between the monasteries of Saint-Martin d'Ainay and Saint-Martin de l'Île Barbe over the possession of Cuire. He imposed new taxes on wine, which caused the burgers of Lyon to complain and created the first stirrings of the communal movement in Lyon. The letter written by Pope Gregory IX to <mask> on 28 September 1229 is an important witness to the evolution of the crusading movement, since for the first time Gregory offered the remission of sins to those who took part in the War of the Keys against the Emperor Frederick II. <mask>, calling himself "aged and ill", made out his will in 1232.He died on 7 January 1234 during a particularly harsh winter. He was buried in the cathedral of Lyon. There was a divided election following his death and the pope had to intervene to appoint an archbishop, Raoul de La Roche-Aymon, in 1235. Troubadour

Three poems by lo Vesques de Clarmon are known: two coblas and one sirventes. They can all be found in the Occitan chansonnier H, with the sirventes also preserved in chansonnier D. They are:
Coms que vol enseignar
Peire de Maensac, ges lo reis no seria
Per Crist, si·l  fos meus

All three pieces are directed against his cousin Dalfi. Coms que was written around 1199. Peire de Maensac, which is the sirventes and the only one longer than a single stanza, criticises Dalfi for anti-social behaviour and also criticises Dalfi's joglar, the Peire de Maensac of the opening line, for not acting like a knight.It can be dated to 1212 because of a reference to the Albigensian Crusade. Per Crist and Dalfi's response are part of a private joke, full of innuendo. It can be dated no more precisely than between 1195 and 1209. The compiler of the chansonnier has supplied razos (explanations) for the lyrics, but these are certainly not based on an actual understanding of the reality that lies behind the text. He says that <mask> loved the wife of Sir Chantart de Caulec from Pescadoires, based on his reading of Dalfi's poem. The bishop's poem, with strong sexual undertones, chides Dalfi for not supplying his lover with all the bacon she asked for. The first four lines are:

Outside of his and Dalfi's poems, <mask>'s feud with his brother is mentioned in a poem by Giraut de Borneil.Notes

Sources

12th-century births
1234 deaths
Bishops of Clermont
Archbishops of Lyon
People of the Albigensian Crusade
French troubadours
People from Auvergne

masks:
Robert
Robert de la Tour
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert IV
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
Robert
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<mask> (23 February 1897 – 21 January 1984) was a noted Australian aircraft designer and pilot whose aircraft were distinguished by speed and grace. Percival went on to set up the Percival Aircraft Company, a British aircraft company in his own name. Early years
<mask> was born in 1898 at Albury, New South Wales, the son of <mask>, née Wikner and <mask>, a butter manufacturer. <mask>'s maternal great uncle was the Swedish philosopher Pontus Wikner. As a child Percival assisted at his family's farm, on the flats of the Hawkesbury River at Richmond, New South Wales. He also became fascinated by aviation, especially after seeing an aeroplane for the first time in 1911, when a local dental surgeon and pioneer aviator, William Ewart Hart, landed on the council field in Richmond, near the Percival property. After helping to maintain Hart's aircraft, Percival received, as a reward, his first flight.By 1912, when he was 14, <mask> had designed, produced and flown his own gliders. He attended Fort Street High School, in Sydney. Percival left school at the age of 15, to become an apprentice engineer at a Sydney firm. He later enrolled at Sydney Technical College, before undertaking a short course in aeronautical engineering at Sydney University. First World War
In December 1915, Percival volunteered for overseas service with the Australian Imperial Force, as a Private with the 7th Light Horse Regiment. After being promoted to temporary Sergeant, he embarked in April 1916 for Palestine. Percival requested a transfer from the AIF to pilot training with the British Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and was accepted in November 1916.After going solo in 20 minutes in 1917, <mask> was assigned to No. 60 Squadron, a scout (fighter) unit in France, commanded by the Canadian ace Billy Bishop. <mask> was noted for his flying skills and after he was promoted to Captain, transferred to No. 111 Squadron as one of its founding members. With 111 Sqn he saw service in the Middle East and Greece. In 1918, while serving in Egypt, <mask> designed his first powered aircraft, "a special-purpose aircraft based on the Bristol F.2B, with the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine". In August 1919 he was elected as a member of the Royal Aero Club.Inter-war period
Following the First World War, <mask> returned to Australia with three surplus aircraft, two Avro 504s and a de Havilland DH.6 aircraft to do film work, stunt flying and barnstorming plus charter flights, operating his own charter company. A number of notable flights occurred: in 1921, he surveyed the Melbourne-Brisbane route in an Avro 504, in 1923, he won the Melbourne to Geelong Race. In Australia, Percival began to take a further interest in aircraft design; he built the winning entry in the 1924 Australian Aero Club competition to design a light aircraft. In 1926, flying an aircraft that he helped design, he competed in a Federal Government challenge for both design and piloting skills, winning £940 in prize money. Later in the same year, Percival was involved in a landmark series of proving flights that helped establish the use of carrier-borne fighters, culminating in him taking off in a Sopwith Pup from the turret of the USS Idaho battleship, at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Percival returned to England in 1929 where he was appointed as an Air Ministry test pilot, specializing in amphibians, seaplanes and Schneider Trophy racers and went on to set up his own firm, the Percival Aircraft Company, to produce his aircraft designs. <mask> was also very active as a pilot during the interwar period; not only did he compete with regular success, but his designs were widely used by other racing and record-setting pilots who held his products in very high regard.Noted racing pilots of the time who also flew Percival's machines included C.W.A. Scott, Jim and Amy Mollison, Charles Gardner and Giles Guthrie. Many came to Percival to have their machines specially built and modified for the task in hand – usually to extend their already long range. <mask> was a noted character on the air racing scene at the time, and was often referred to in the aeronautical press of the day as "The Hat," an epithet resulting from his omnipresent hat, which, characteristically (and resplendent in a lounge-suit), he also wore while flying. He was respected as a highly competitive and able pilot, taking great pride in being awarded the prize for "fastest time" in handicap air racing, as well as being a rather fiery, impatient and irascible businessman and employer. During this period, <mask> served in the Reserve of Air Force Officers, 1929–1939 and was a founding member of the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators. Percival Aircraft Company
Percival's interest in aircraft technology led him to design the Saro Percival Mail Carrier (1930), one of a series of collaborative projects with Saunders Roe Ltd. Having had interests in the company which he sold in 1932, Percival began searching for an established manufacturer to produce a "light" aeroplane that he had designed which he called the "Percival Gull."Finding no company willing and able to take on production, <mask> consequently started his own aircraft company as the Percival Aircraft Company. In collaboration with Lt. Cdr E.B.W. Leake (who was to become co-founder of Percival Aircraft), he arranged for the prototype Gull (registered as G-ABUR) to be produced by the Lowe-Wylde British Aircraft Company of Maidstone, Kent. Running the business from his private address in London (20, Grosvenor Square), <mask> then arranged for series production to be contracted out to George Parnall & Sons, of Yate, Gloucestershire, an arrangement that lasted two years. Percival Aircraft was officially formed in 1933. In 1934, after 24 Gulls had been produced at Parnalls, Percival set up his own factory at London Gravesend Airport, Kent. <mask>'s aircraft were renowned for their graceful lines and outstanding performance.As a noted test pilot, Percival continued to fly his own creations; in 1935, he flew a Gull from England to Morocco and back to England, winning the Oswald Watt Gold Medal. He was the first pilot to fly from Britain to Africa and back in one day. He left Gravesend at 1.30am and returned to Croydon at 6.20pm. "Day trips in the future will be as commonplace as trips to Margate" he said in a broadcast at nine o'clock. Other famous aviators were associated with Percival aircraft; in 1933, Charles Kingsford Smith flew a Percival Gull Four named Miss Southern Cross from England to Australia in the record breaking time of 7 days, 4 hours and 44 minutes. The New Zealand aviator, Jean Batten, also used the Percival Gull to fly from England to Australia in October 1936. A pure racing derivative of the Gull series, the Percival Mew Gull flown by other illustrious pilots such as Alex Henshaw and Tom Campbell Black would go on to set many speed and distance records in the 1930s.In late 1936, Percival transferred production to larger facilities at the newly built Luton Corporation Airport in Bedfordshire. A two-bay hangar was constructed to accommodate the workshops while the design offices were set up in the original Georgian farmhouse situated nearby. Production at Luton was then primarily focused on the Vega Gull. A small twin-engined machine, the Q6 was also produced in limited quantities, using a pair of de Havilland Gipsy Six Series II powerplants equipped with variable-pitch airscrews. Again, the same basic method of construction was employed and the finished result was an aesthetically pleasing and aerodynamically clean feederliner of its day that represented the final new design produced by the company prior to <mask> selling his interests in the company. In 1938 with war imminent, Percival developed a military communications and R/T operator training version of the Vega Gull known as the Proctor. This rugged three-seater was powered by a 205 hp Gipsy Queen II engine.During the Second World War, a great deal of Proctor production was sub-contracted out and the designs of other firms, including the Airspeed Oxford and de Havilland Mosquito were, in turn, produced by Percival Aircraft at Luton. In March 1940, <mask> resigned from the company, his dual roles being taken up by P.D. Acland (formerly Aviation Manager of Vickers Ltd.) who was appointed Managing Director and Arthur Bage who became the Chief Designer. During the war years, Percival served in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve. Later years
Percival Aircraft was bought in September 1944 by Hunting & Son Ltd; <mask> sold his interest in his company and moved to the United States to continue work on engine technology. From 1954, his old company began trading under the name Hunting Percival Aircraft Ltd; "Percival" was not dropped from the company name until 1957. Percival became a naturalized US citizen in 1948.He went to New Zealand in 1951, where he was involved with pioneering aerial application efforts. In 1954, Percival formed a new company, Edgar Percival Aircraft Limited, at Stapleford Aerodrome, England. The company's first design, the Edgar Percival E.P.9 was a utility aircraft well suited to agricultural use. A total of 21 were constructed before <mask> sold his company in 1960 to Samlesbury Engineering; the new company formed Lancashire Aircraft Company to continue aircraft construction of the E.P.9. At the time of his death in 1984, Percival was working on aviation projects in the UK and New Zealand. References

Notes

Bibliography

 Ellison, Norman H. Percivals Aircraft (The Archive Photographs Series). Chalford, Stroud, UK: Chalford Publishing Company, 1997. .
 <mask>, Robert."A Portrait of Percival." Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 12, No. 9, September 1984. Silvester, John. "Percival Aircraft 1933-1954 (Parts 1-4)." Aeroplane Monthly, Vol.11, No. 1–4, January–April 1983. Ord-Hume, Arthur W. J. G. "Percival aircraft : <mask>, the man & his legacy : from racing gulls to jet trainer", 2013, Stenlake. . External links
 Air Pioneers: <mask> Percival

1897 births
1984 deaths
Australian aerospace engineers
Aircraft designers
Australian Army officers
Australian military personnel of World War I
Australian World War I pilots
Fellows of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Fort Street High School
People from Albury, New South Wales
Royal Air Force officers
Royal Flying Corps officers
People with acquired American citizenship
Designers from London
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II

masks:
Edgar Wikner Percival
Percival
Blanche Hilda Leontina Percival
William Percival
Edgar Percival
Percival
Percival
Percival
Percival
Percival
Edgar Percival
Percival
Edgar Percival
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Percival
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Edgar Percival
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Edgar Percival
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<mask> of Alexandria (; , <mask>n ho Alexandreus, also known as <mask> of Alexandria ; c. 10 AD – c. 70 AD), was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is often considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition. <mask> published a well-recognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile (sometimes called a "Hero engine"). Among his most famous inventions was a windwheel, constituting the earliest instance of wind harnessing on land. He is said to have been a follower of the atomists. In his work Mechanics, he described pantographs. Some of his ideas were derived from the works of Ctesibius.In mathematics he is mostly remembered for <mask>n's formula, a way to calculate the area of a triangle using only the lengths of its sides. Much of <mask>'s original writings and designs have been lost, but some of his works were preserved including in manuscripts from the Eastern Roman Empire and to a lesser extent, in Latin or Arabic translations. Life and career
<mask>'s ethnicity may have been either Greek or Hellenized Egyptian. It is almost certain that <mask> taught at the Musaeum which included the famous Library of Alexandria, because most of his writings appear as lecture notes for courses in mathematics, mechanics, physics and pneumatics. Although the field was not formalized until the twentieth century, it is thought that the work of <mask>, in particular his automated devices, represented some of the first formal research into cybernetics. Inventions

<mask> described the construction of the aeolipile (a version of which is known as <mask>'s engine) which was a rocket-like reaction engine and the first-recorded steam engine (although Vitruvius mentioned the aeolipile in De Architectura some 100 years earlier than <mask>). It was described almost two millennia before the industrial revolution.Another engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel; the water was collected and its weight, pulling on a rope, opened temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert that the aeolipile was capable of useful work, which is not entirely false, air containing a trace of water vapor. However, this engine is far from a pure aeolipile. The first vending machine was also one of his constructions; when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine, a set amount of holy water was dispensed. This was included in his list of inventions in his book Mechanics and Optics. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out.The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve. A wind-wheel operating an organ, marking the first instance in history of wind powering a machine. <mask> also invented many mechanisms for the Greek theatre, including an entirely mechanical play almost ten minutes in length, powered by a binary-like system of ropes, knots, and simple machines operated by a rotating cylindrical cogwheel. The sound of thunder was produced by the mechanically-timed dropping of metal balls onto a hidden drum. The force pump was widely used in the Roman world, and one application was in a fire-engine. A syringe-like device was described by <mask> to control the delivery of air or liquids. In optics, <mask> formulated the principle of the shortest path of light: If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, the path-length followed is the shortest possible.It was nearly 1000 years later that Alhacen expanded the principle to both reflection and refraction, and the principle was later stated in this form by Pierre de Fermat in 1662; the most modern form is that the optical path is stationary. A stand-alone fountain that operates under self-contained hydro-static energy; now called Heron's fountain. A cart that was powered by a falling weight and strings wrapped around the drive axle. Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to <mask>. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development. <mask> knew of the principle that certain substances, notably air, expand and contract and described a demonstration in which a closed tube partially filled with air had its end in a container of water. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the water/air interface to move along the tube.Mathematics
<mask> described a method for iteratively computing the square root of a number. Today, however, his name is most closely associated with <mask>n's formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths. He also devised a method for calculating cube roots. He also designed a shortest path algorithm, that is, given two points A and B on one side of a line, find C a point on the straight line that minimizes AC+BC. In solid geometry, the Heronian mean may be used in finding the volume of a frustum of a pyramid or cone. Cultural references
In Arthur C. Clarke's 1953 novel Childhood's End, a model of the turbine is present in the Earth exhibit of the Overlords' museum of alien cultures. A 1979 Soviet animated short film focuses on <mask>'s invention of the aeolipile, showing him as a plain craftsman who invented the turbine accidentally
A 2007 The History Channel television show Ancient Discoveries includes recreations of most of <mask>'s devices
A 2010 The History Channel television show Ancient Aliens episode "Alien Tech" includes a discussion of <mask>'s steam engine
A 2014 The History Channel television show Ancient Impossible episode "Ancient Einstein"

Bibliography

The most comprehensive edition of <mask>'s works was published in five volumes in Leipzig by the publishing house Teubner in 1903.Works known to have been written by <mask> include:
Pneumatica (Πνευματικά), a description of machines working on air, steam or water pressure, including the hydraulis or water organ
Automata, a description of machines which enable wonders in banquets and possibly also theatrical contexts by mechanical or pneumatical means (e.g. automatic opening or closing of temple doors, statues that pour wine and milk, etc.) ): A Roman Miscellany. Essays in Honour of Anthony R. Birley on his Seventieth Birthday, Gdansk 2008, 92-130 (with a huge bibliography of over 300 titles and discussion of the communis opinio on <mask>). External links

 Webpage about <mask> by The Technology Museum of Thessaloniki
 Heron biography, The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive

 Heron of Alexandria in online Encyclopædia Britannica
 Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images preserved at The Internet Archive

 Reconstruction of Heron’s Formulas for Calculating the Volume of Vessels
 Spiritali di Herone Alessandrino From the John Davis Batchelder Collection at the Library of Congress
 Automata Critical edition, with translation and partial commentary by Francesco Grillo (PhD thesis, Univ. of Glasgow, 2019)
 The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria, from the Original Greek. Tr.and ed. by Bennet <mask> From the Collections at the Library of Congress

AD 10 births
70 deaths
1st-century Egyptian people
1st-century Greek people
1st-century writers
Ancient Egyptian engineers
Ancient Greek engineers
Ancient Greek inventors
Ancient Greek mathematicians
Ancient Greek science writers
Egyptian inventors
Egyptian people of Greek descent
Geometers
Hellenistic engineers
Roman-era Alexandrians
1st-century mathematicians

masks: Hero Hero Heron Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Hero Woodcroft


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<mask> (6 September 1901 – 13 November 1993) was an Irish republican activist. Early life
<mask> was born into a Roman Catholic family at 67 Hillman Street in Belfast on 6 September 1901, one of three children born to <mask>, a meat carver in a hotel, and Agnes Liggett; he had two elder brothers, Vincent and Felix. He joined the Fianna in his teens. His family had a very strong republican tradition and he claimed to be the great-grandson of the United Irishmen folk hero <mask>, who was executed for his part in the 1798 rebellion. Joins the IRA
<mask> was a member of the Belfast Brigade of the Irish Republican Army during the Irish War of Independence, 1919–1922. He was commandant of the Brigade's first battalion. In June 1920, he was involved in an attack on a Royal Irish Constabulary Police barracks at Crossgar, County Down.On Sunday August 22, 1920 in Lisburn,  <mask> was involved in the assassination of DI Oswald Swanzy, Royal Irish Constabulary  who was held responsible by Michael Collins for the assassination of Tomas McCurtain, Lord Mayor of Cork. <mask> was noted for his militancy, as he was in favour of armed attacks on British forces in Belfast. The Brigade's leaders, by contrast, in particular, Joe McKelvey, were wary of sanctioning attacks for fear of loyalist reprisals on republicans and the Catholic population in general. In addition, <mask> was in favour of conducting an armed defense of Catholic areas, whereas McKelvey did not want the IRA to get involved in what he considered to be sectarian violence. <mask> wrote later that in the end, 'the issue settled itself within a very short space of time, when the Orange mob was given uniforms, paid for by the British, and called the Ulster Special Constabulary'. The role of the USC (a temporary police force raised for counter-insurgency purposes) in the conflict is still debated, but republicans maintain that the organization was responsible for the indiscriminate killings of Catholics and nationalists. The Active Service Unit

On 26 January 1921, McCorley, was involved in the fatal shooting of three Auxiliary Division officers in their beds in the Railway View hotel in central Belfast.Shortly afterwards, <mask> and another IRA man, Seamus Woods, organized an Active Service Unit within the first battalion of the Belfast Brigade, with the intention of carrying out attacks, with or without the approval of the Brigade leadership. The unit consisted of 32 men. <mask> later wrote, 'I issued a general order that, where reprisal gangs [State forces] were cornered, no prisoners were to be taken'. In March 1921, <mask> personally led the ASU in the killing of three Black and Tans in Victoria Street in central Belfast. He was responsible for the deaths of two more Auxiliaries in Donegall Place in April. In reprisal for these shootings, members of the Royal Irish Constabulary assassinated two republican activists, the Duffin brothers in Clonard Gardens in west Belfast. Thereafter, there was what historian Robert Lynch has described as a, 'savage underground war' between <mask>'s ASU and RIC personnel based in Springfield Road barracks and led by an Inspector Ferris.Ferris himself was among the casualties, being shot in the chest and neck, but surviving. In addition, <mask>'s men bombed and burned a number of businesses including several cinemas and a Reform Club. In May 1921, however, 13 of <mask>'s best men were arrested when surrounded by British troops during an operation in county Cavan. They were held in Crumlin Road jail and sentenced to death. On 3 June, <mask> organized an attack on Crumlin Road jail in an attempt to rescue the IRA men held there before they were executed. The operation was not a success, however the condemned men were reprieved after a truce was agreed between the IRA and British forces in July 1921. Belfast Brigade leader

In April 1922, <mask> became leader of the IRA Belfast Brigade after Joe McKelvey went south to Dublin to join other IRA members who were against the Anglo-Irish Treaty.<mask> for his part, supported the Treaty, despite the fact that it provided for the partition of Ireland and the continued British rule in Northern Ireland. The reason for this was that Michael Collins and Eoin O'Duffy had assured him that this was only a tactical move and indeed, Collins sent men, money and weapons to the IRA in the North throughout 1922. However, <mask>'s command saw the collapse of the Belfast IRA. In May 1922, the IRA launched an offensive with attacks all across Northern Ireland. In Belfast, <mask> carried out an assault on Musgrave Street RIC barracks. He also conducted an arson campaign on businesses in Belfast. His men also carried out a number of assassinations, including that of Unionist MP William Twaddell, which caused the internment of over 200 Belfast IRA men.Civil War

To escape from the subsequent repression, <mask> and over 900 Northern IRA men fled south, to the Irish Free State, where they were housed in the Curragh. <mask> was put in command of these men. In June 1922, the Irish Civil War broke out between Pro and Anti-Treaty elements of the IRA. <mask> took the side of the Free State and Michael Collins. After Michael Collins was killed in August 1922, <mask>'s men were stood down. About 300 of them joined the National Army and were sent to County Kerry to put down anti-Treaty guerrillas there. In the Spring of 1923, <mask>, bitterly disillusioned by the brutal counter-insurgency against fellow republicans, resigned his command.He recalled he was, 'fed up', with the civil war. He later asserted that he 'hated the Treaty' and only supported it because it allowed Ireland to have its own armed forces. Both <mask> and Seamus Woods were severe critics of the Irish Free State inertia towards Northern Ireland after the death of Michael Collins. <mask> commented that when Collins was killed  "the Northern element gave up all hope." In 1936 he was instrumental in the establishment of the All-Ireland Old IRA Men's Organization, serving as Vice-President with President Liam Deasy (Cork No. 3 Brigade) and Secretary George Lennon (Waterford No. 2 Brigade).Coras na Poblachta

In the 1940s, <mask> was a founding member of Córas na Poblachta, a political party which aspired to a United Ireland and economic independence from Britain. He died on 13 November 1993 and is buried in the Republican Plot of Glasnevin cemetery. References

Robert Lynch, The Northern IRA and the Early Years of Partition, Irish Academic Press, Dublin 2006. Pearse Lawlor, 1920-1922 The Outrages, Mercier Press, Cork 2011. Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members
National Army (Ireland) officers
People of the Irish Civil War (Pro-Treaty side)
Paramilitaries from Belfast
1901 births
1993 deaths

masks:
Roger McCorley
Roger Edmund McCorley
Roger Edmund McCorley
Roddy McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley
McCorley


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<mask> (born January 21, 1956), professionally known as <mask>, is an American actress, activist, producer, and former model. She is the recipient of an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award, and has been nominated for a British Academy Film Award and a Primetime Emmy Award. In 2019, she received the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for her work fighting gender bias on- and off- screen in Hollywood. Early life
<mask> was born on January 21, 1956, in Wareham, Massachusetts. Her mother, Lucille (; June 19, 1919 – November 15, 2001), was a teacher's assistant, and her father, William F<mask> (November 7, 1913 – April 2, 2009), was a civil engineer and church deacon. Both were from small towns in Vermont. <mask> has an older brother, Danforth ("Dan").She became interested in music at an early age. She learned piano and flute and played organ well enough as a teenager to be organist at her Congregationalist church in Wareham. She attended Wareham High School and was an exchange student in Sandviken, Sweden, where she became fluent in Swedish. She studied at New England College, then earned a bachelor's degree in drama from Boston University in  Her first post-university work was as a window mannequin for Ann Taylor; she then signed with New York's Zoli modeling agency. <mask> is said to have adopted the nickname Geena after seeing shows with the characters Cheburashka and Gena the Crocodile (Swedish Druttem och Gena), which aired as a children's segment in a national television show in Sweden in the late 1970s. Career

Rise to fame (1982–1987)

<mask> was working as a model when she was cast by director Sydney Pollack in his film Tootsie (1982) as a soap opera actress, whom she has described as "someone who's going to be in their underwear a lot of time". It was the second most profitable film of 1982, received ten Academy Awards nominations and is considered a cult classic.She next won the regular part of Wendy Killian in the television series Buffalo Bill, which aired from June 1983 to March 1984; and had a writing credit in one episode. Despite the series' eleven Emmy Awards nominations, lukewarm ratings led to its cancellation after two seasons. <mask> concurrently guest-starred in Knight Rider, Riptide, Family Ties and Remington Steele, and followed with a series of her own, Sara, which lasted 13 episodes. During this period, she also auditioned for the 1984 science fiction/action film The Terminator, reading for the lead role of Sarah Connor, which eventually went to Linda Hamilton. In Fletch (1985), an action comedy, she appeared with Chevy Chase as the colleague of a Los Angeles Times undercover reporter trying to expose drug trafficking on the beaches of Los Angeles. She also starred in the horror comedy Transylvania 6-5000 as a nymphomaniac vampire alongside future husband Jeff Goldblum. They also starred in the sci-fi thriller The Fly (1986), loosely based on George Langelaan's 1957 short story of the same name, where <mask> portrayed a science journalist and an eccentric scientist's love interest.It was a commercial success and helped establish her as an actress. In 1987 she appeared with Goldblum again in the offbeat comedy Earth Girls Are Easy. Recognition and critical acclaim (1988–1992)

Director Tim Burton cast <mask> in his film Beetlejuice (1988) as one of a recently deceased young couple who become ghosts haunting their former house; it also starred Alec Baldwin, Michael Keaton and Winona Ryder. It made $73.7 million from a budget of $15 million, and <mask>'s performance and the overall film received mostly positive reviews. <mask> took on the role of an animal hospital employee and dog trainer with a sickly son in the drama The Accidental Tourist (1988), opposite William Hurt and Kathleen Turner. Critic Roger Ebert, who gave the film four stars out of four, wrote: "<mask>, as Muriel, brings an unforced wackiness to her role in scenes like the one where she belts out a song while she's doing the dishes. But she is not as simple as she sometimes seems [...]".The film was a critical and commercial success, and she received an Oscar as Best Supporting Actress for her appearance in it. <mask> appeared as the girlfriend of a man who, dressed as a clown, robs a bank in midtown Manhattan, in the comedy Quick Change (1990). Based on a book of the same name by Jay Cronley, it is a remake of the 1985 French film Hold-Up starring Jean-Paul Belmondo. Despite modest box office returns, the Chicago Tribune found the lead actors "funny and creative while keeping their characters life-size". <mask> next starred with Susan Sarandon in Ridley Scott's road film Thelma & Louise (1991), as friends who embark on a road trip with unforeseen consequences. A critical and commercial success, it is considered a classic, as it influenced other films and artistic works and became a landmark feminist film. <mask> received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her role.It also featured Brad Pitt in his breakout role as a drifter; in his 2020 acceptance speech for Best Supporting Actor, Pitt thanked director Ridley Scott and <mask> <mask> for "giving me my first shot." In 1992, <mask> starred alongside Madonna and Tom Hanks in A League of Their Own as a baseball player on an all-women's team. It reached number one at the box office, became the tenth highest-grossing film of the year in North America, and brought <mask> a Best Actress Golden Globe Award nomination. She played a television reporter in the comedy Hero (also 1992) alongside Dustin Hoffman and Andy Garcia. Although it flopped at the box office, Roger Ebert felt <mask> was "bright and convincing as the reporter (her best line, after surviving the plane crash, is shouted through an ambulance door: "This is my story! I did the research!")". Career downturn, hiatus, sitcom and other television roles (1993–2009)
In 1994's Angie, <mask> played an office worker who lives in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn and dreams of a better life.The film received mixed reviews from critics, who felt she could have been better in this movie or another one set in Brooklyn, and was a commercial failure. In her other 1994 release, Speechless, <mask> reunited with Michael Keaton to play insomniac writers who fall in love until they realize that both are writing speeches for rival candidates in a New Mexico election. Despite negative reviews and modest box office returns, she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Musical or Comedy for her performance. <mask> teamed up with her then-husband, director Renny Harlin, for the films Cutthroat Island (1995) and The Long Kiss Goodnight (1996), with Harlin hoping that they would turn her into an action star. While The Long Kiss Goodnight managed to become a moderate success, Cutthroat Island flopped critically and commercially and was once listed as having the "largest box office loss" by Guinness World Records. The film is credited to be a contributing factor in the demise of <mask> as a bankable star. She divorced Harlin in 1998 and took an "unusually long" two years off to reflect on her career, according to The New York Times.She appeared as Eleanor Little in the well-received family comedy Stuart Little (1999), a role she reprised in Stuart Little 2 (2002) and again in Stuart Little 3: Call of the Wild (2005). By the mid and late 1990s, <mask>'s film career had become less noteworthy and critical acclaim had waned. In a 2016 interview with Vulture, she recalled: "Film roles really did start to dry up when I got into my 40s. If you look at IMDb, up until that age, I made roughly one film a year. In my entire 40s, I made one movie, Stuart Little. I was getting offers, but for nothing meaty or interesting like in my 30s. I'd been completely ruined and spoiled.I mean, I got to play a pirate captain! I got to do every type of role, even if the movie failed." <mask> starred in the sitcom The <mask> <mask> Show, which aired for one season on ABC during the 2000–01 U.S. television season. She went on to star in the ABC television series Commander in Chief, portraying the first female president of the United States. While this role garnered her a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Drama Series in 2006, the series was cancelled after its first season; <mask> admitted she was "devastated" by its cancellation in a 2016 interview. "I still haven't gotten over it. I really wanted it to work.It was on Tuesday nights opposite House, which wasn't ideal. But we were the best new show that fall. Then, in January, we were opposite American Idol. They said, 'The ratings are going to suffer, so we should take you off the air for the entire run of Idol, and bring it back in May. I put a lot of time and effort into getting it on another network, too, but it didn't work". She was also nominated for an Emmy Award and a SAG Award for Outstanding Female Actor in a Drama Series. She was awarded the 2006 Women in Film Lucy Award.<mask> was the only American actor to be cast in the Australian-produced film Accidents Happen (2009), portraying a foul-mouthed and strict mother. She stated that it was the most fun she had ever had on a film set, and felt a deep friendship and connection to both of the actors who played her sons. Written by Brian Carbee and based on his own childhood and adolescence, the film received a limited theatrical release and mixed reviews from critics. Variety found it to be "led by a valiant <mask> <mask>", despite a "script that mistakes abuse for wit". Professional expansion (2010s)
Following a long period of intermittent work, <mask> often ventured into television acting, and through her organization, the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, saw her career expand during the 2010s. In 2012, she starred as a psychiatrist in the miniseries Coma, based on the 1977 novel Coma by Robin Cook and the subsequent 1978 film. She played a powerful female movie executive in the critically acclaimed comedy In a World... (2013), the directorial debut of Lake Bell.Bell found her only dialogue to be her favorite in the film and called it her "soapbox moment". In 2014, <mask>bli animated film When Marnie Was There, as she was drawn to the film's abundant stories and strong use of female characters. She played the recurring role of Dr. Nicole Herman, an attending fetal surgeon with a life-threatening brain tumor, during the 11th season of Grey's Anatomy (2014–15). In 2015, <mask> launched an annual film festival to be held in Bentonville, Arkansas, to highlight diversity in film, accepting films that prominently feature minorities and women in the cast and crew. The first Bentonville Film Festival took place from May 5–9, 2015. <mask> appeared as the mother of a semi-famous television star in the comedy Me Him Her (2016). In the television series The Exorcist (2016), based on the 1973 film of the same name, <mask> took on the role of grown-up Regan MacNeil, who has renamed herself Angela Rance to find peace and anonymity from her ordeal as a child.The Exorcist was a success with critics and audiences. In 2017, <mask> starred in the film adaptation Marjorie Prime, alongside Jon Hamm, playing the daughter of an 85-year old experiencing the first symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, and appeared as the imaginary god of a heavyset 13-year-old girl in the comedy Don't Talk to Irene. Vanity Fair felt that she "shine[d]" and stole "every scene" in Marjorie Prime, while Variety, on her role in Don't Talk to Irene, remarked: "There's no arguing the preternatural coolness of <mask> <mask>—a fact celebrated in self-conscious fashion by Don't Talk to Irene, a familiar type of coming-of-age film whose most distinguishing feature is the presence of the actress". In 2018, <mask> returned to Grey's Anatomy, reprising the role of Dr. Nicole Herman in the show's 14th season, and executive produced the documentary This Changes Everything, in which she was also interviewed about her experiences in the industry. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival, where it was named first runner-up for the People's Choice Award: Documentaries. In 2019, she joined the voice cast of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power as Huntara. Also in Netflix in 2019, she joined the cast of Glow as Sandy Devereaux St. Clair, a former showgirl turned entertainment director of the Fan-Tan Hotel and Casino.In 2022, <mask>' likeness will be used for the character of Poison Ivy in the DC Entertainment comic book series Batman '89, set between the events of Batman Returns (1992) and The Flash (2022). Personal life

Marriages and family

<mask> began dating restaurateur Richard Emmolo in December 1977 and moved in with him a month later. The two married on March 25, 1981, but separated in February 1983 and divorced on June 27, 1984. In 1985, she met her second husband, actor Jeff Goldblum, on the set of Transylvania 6-5000. The couple married on November 1, 1987, and appeared together in two more films: The Fly and Earth Girls Are Easy. <mask> filed for divorce in October 1990, and it was finalized the following year. After a five-month courtship, <mask> married filmmaker Renny Harlin on September 18, 1993.He directed her in Cutthroat Island and The Long Kiss Goodnight. <mask> filed for divorce on August 26, 1997, a day after her personal assistant gave birth to a child fathered by Harlin. The divorce became final in June 1998. In 1998, <mask> started dating Iranian-American craniofacial plastic surgeon Reza Jarrahy (born 1971), and allegedly married him on September 1, 2001. They have three children: a daughter, Alizeh (born April 2002), and fraternal twin sons, Kaiis and Kian (born May 2004). In May 2018, Jarrahy filed for divorce from <mask>, listing their date of separation as November 15, 2017. <mask> responded by filing a petition in which she claimed that she and Jarrahy were never legally married.Activism

<mask> is a supporter of the Women's Sports Foundation and an advocate for Title IX, an Act of Congress focusing on equality in sports opportunities, now expanded to prohibit gender discrimination in American educational institutions. In 2004, while watching children's television programs and videos with her daughter, <mask> noticed an imbalance in the ratio of male to female characters. She went on to sponsor the largest-ever research project on gender in children's entertainment (resulting in four discrete studies, including one on children's television) at the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Southern California. The study, directed by Stacy Smith, showed that there were nearly three male characters to every female one in the nearly 400 G, PG, PG-13, and R-rated movies analyzed. In 2005, <mask> teamed up with the non-profit group Dads and Daughters to launch a venture dedicated to balancing the number of male and female characters in children's television and movie programming. <mask> launched the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media in 2007, which works collaboratively with the entertainment industry to increase the presence of female characters in media aimed at children, and to reduce inequality in Hollywood and the stereotyping of females by the male-dominated industry. For her work in this field she received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Bates College in May 2009; and an honorary Oscar, the Academy's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, in 2019.In 2011, <mask> became one of a handful of celebrities attached to USAID and Ad Council's FWD campaign, an awareness initiative tied to that year's East Africa drought. She joined Uma Thurman, Chanel Iman and Josh Hartnett in television and internet ads to "forward the facts" about the crisis. Athletics
In July 1999, <mask> was one of 300 women who vied for a semifinals berth in the U.S. Olympic archery team to participate in the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics. She placed 24th and did not qualify for the team, but participated as a wild-card entry in the Sydney International Golden Arrow competition. In August 1999, she stated that she was not an athlete growing up and that she entered archery in 1997, two years before her tryouts. Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos

Awards and nominations

Notes

References

External links

 Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media

 Geena Davis  Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America

1956 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Massachusetts
American activists
American female archers
American feminists
American film actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women film producers
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Boston University College of Fine Arts alumni
David di Donatello winners
Female models from Massachusetts
Feminist artists
Film producers from Massachusetts
Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award winners
Mensans
New England College alumni
People from Wareham, Massachusetts

masks:
Virginia Elizabeth Davis
Geena Davis
Davis
. Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Geena
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Geena
Davis
Davis
Davis
Geena
Davis
Davis
Davishi
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Geena
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis
Davis


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<mask> (24 November 1949 – 30 June 2016) was an American artist, author, interior designer and celebrity spiritist. Life
Selig was the son of New York born American steel manufacturing industrialist and economic advisor <mask> and <mask>, a Texas commissioner of mental health under 3 United States presidents. He was born in Seguin, Texas, and later lived with his mother's family in the Hudson River Valley and in Manhattan. Selig's mother's cousin and wife became Selig's surrogate parents, who guided him into an international world of art and accomplished artists that built the foundation of his career. Another maternal family relation, New York publicist Lee Goode Kingsley, established Selig's relations in the art world. Charles Revson, his mother's cousin and co-founder of Revlon, invited 17-year-old Selig on board the Revlon yacht Ultima II in Acapulco and introduced him to many guests that later became his lifetime friends, including Merle Oberon, Babe Paley, Gloria Guinness, Dolores del Río, Ahmet Ertegun and his wife Mica, Chito and Jeanette Jaffe de Longoria, Prince Egon von Fürstenberg, jewelry designer Aldo Cipullo, Vogue magazine editor DD Ryan, and publicist Eleanor Lambert. Selig died of heart failure in 2016 after dinner and enjoying the company of dear friends in Mexico City.He had been residing in San Miguel de Allende in his adopted home of Mexico. Education
Selig was tutored in drawing and oil painting from the age of 5 in Texas, and spoke fluent Spanish by age 12. He began his esoteric anthropological studies in Mesoamerican Anthropology at the age of 16 at the University of the Americas in Mexico City, Mexico with German professor Baron Alexander von Wuthenau, who wrote 5 books on the racial origins of man in Mesoamerica. His formal education in the arts began with painting at the Colorado Academy in Denver, Colorado. He then studied at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky and at the University of Houston, the Parsons School of Design, the Art Students League of New York, the New York School of Interior Design and oil painting at the École des Beaux Arts in Paris. Selig was an apprentice of Mexican artist Pedro Friedeberg, who also uses Tantras and Mesoamerican cultural references in his works of art. In 1970, Friedeberg introduced Selig to his mentor, artist Bridget Bate Tichenor, in Mexico City.Tichenor, a painter in the magic realism school, spiritually adopted Selig and he was Tichenor's protégé until her death in 1990. Career
His first publication as author and illustrator was the bestselling Kundalini Awakening – A Gentle Guide to Chakra Activation and Spiritual Growth. Selig was a magic realist painter. His skills as a spiritist and painter led to the creation of a unique codex titled Relaxatia, an ancient Solar Kundalini paradigm that he rediscovered through Purépecha Nahaulli high priests in Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico. It is a codex of the human chakra system and the solar light spectrum, designed to activate Kundalini in color-coded paintings. Selig made commissioned portraits and works of art for Isabel Goldsmith-Patiño, eldest daughter of Sir James Goldsmith and granddaughter of Antenor Patiño, Prince Egon von Fürstenberg, Catherine Oxenberg and Kelly Le Brock, among others. Exhibitions featuring Selig's paintings include "100th Anniversary of Hollywood - Portraits of the Stars" held at the Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles, and "Organic Landscapes" sponsored by Versace in Beverly Hills.An E! True Hollywood Story featured <mask> and his close friendship with actress and fashion model Margaux Hemingway. He helped launch Hemingway's career in the 1970s, and established the initial marketing and public relations format that helped make her a global celebrity, introducing Hemingway to a circle of fashion professionals in New York City that included photographer Francesco Scavullo, designer Halston, Vogue editor Francis Stein and Marian McEvoy, a fashion editor for Women's Wear Daily. <mask> and Hemingway privately studied Solar Kundalini, yoga and meditation together at the Hemingway family's property in Ketchum, Idaho, adjacent to Sun Valley. Several years later, Hemingway made Selig the creative director for her 1990 Playboy magazine cover and pictorial by photographer Arny Freytag that was shot in Belize. <mask> was a Yoruba priest and spiritual consultant. He was the consultant of  paranormal phenomena for director Tobe Hooper and the production of  Spontaneous Combustion (1990), a film about  psychokinetic powers.It received a nomination for best film in the 1991 Fantasporto International Fantasy Film Awards. Selig performed an Afro-Cuban spiritual cleansing ritual in the 2013 documentary A Journey to Planet Sanity, a film about psychics and the paranormal. His background as an artist, spiritist and his trompe-l'œil painting were used in his work as interior designer. He trained with the New York City interior design team of Bunny Mellon and Cartier designer Aldo Cipullo, where he mastered trompe-l'œil painting techniques. His  first commissioned trompe-l'œil interiors were showcased in a 1971 House Beautiful article featuring Cipullo's residence in Manhattan. In 1977, Selig worked in fashion design and created the MU clothing collection in Mexico City, which was produced by artisans in Zihuatanejo. In California, he restored and decorated a suite of interiors in the Villa d'Este, a historic Italianate courtyard villa that was built circa 1928 for Cecil B. DeMille in West Hollywood.The early 20th-century Italian Renaissance style building, with its elaborately painted portico, ceiling decorations and frieze, was a former residence of silent film star Pola Negri. Selig specialized in Sekhem, utilizing an 8,000-year-old pre-dynastic Egyptian Neteru design theurgy with classical and modern design elements in the art of interior design harmonics. Selig contributed to Maureen Orth's book Vulgar Favors about the death of Gianni Versace. Selig had a home in Miami Beach, Florida, from 1996 to 2004, and was associated with Versace's circle of friends, spending the Sunday before Versace's death with him and a group on the 11th Street Beach in South Beach. In 2011, Selig contributed the first detailed biographical data of Bridget Bate Tichenor's mother Vera Bate Lombardi and her relationship to Coco Chanel for the book Sleeping With The Enemy – Chanel's Secret War by Hal Vaughan. Artist Pedro Friedeberg dedicated a chapter on <mask> in his book of memoirs De Vacaciones Por La Vida (Holiday For Life) with eight friends that included Salvador Dalí, Leonora Carrington, Kati Horna, Tamara de Lempicka, Mathias Goeritz, Edward James, and Bridget Bate Tichenor. His artwork was represented by Friedeberg Fine Arts in the USA, France, United Kingdom and Mexico.Friedeberg's 2013 Too Much is Not Enough exhibition at the Casa Diana Gallery in San Miguel de Allende featured Selig's Spiritual Guides series of paintings. Selig's artwork was included in Friedeberg's 2014 Manos por Mexico exhibition at the Franz Mayer Museum, where it drew over 18,000 visitors; it was later exhibited at the  Pinacoteca de Nuevo León in Monterrey. In 2014, a portrait painted by Selig was featured in the exhibition Joan Quinn Captured at the Brand Library and Art Center in  Glendale, California. A solo exhibition of Selig's latest Magic Talismans series of paintings opened on April 1, 2015, at the Sollano 16 gallery in San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, Mexico. In September 2015, the Museo de Arte Moderno in Mexico City displayed Selig's work in its 10-year anniversary exhibition 10 años de "Arte Vivo". An exhibition of Selig's  Magic Talismans paintings was presented at Art Basel 2015 in Miami Beach by the Bertil Bernhardt Design and Art Gallery. Painting technique
Selig's art was inspired and influenced by Mexican culture, along with Meso-American magical talisman symbols and mysticism, as were his European mentors who were Mexican expatriate Surrealists.Selig painted with an oil paint medium and used an easel. At age 20, the artist Bridget Bate TIchenor taught him an Italian 16th-century painting technique that she had learned from artist Paul Cadmus in 1944. The labor-intensive painting formula involved multiple transparent thin oil glazes, building layers applied with #000 sable brushes on egg-shell gesso, resulting in a deep, detailed and jewel-like three-dimensional finish. Mexican Surrealist Pedro Friedeberg introduced Selig to esotericism and shared many of his creative interests, helping build the foundation of Selig's career as an artist. Friedeberg guided Selig's perspective drawing and use of magical cosmograms and symbols. Selig's artwork can be considered both Surrealist and Magic Realist, but it does not adhere solely to the principles of Surrealism. His paintings juxtaposed spiritual themes that reflected his extensive 40-year background as an artist and spiritist.References

External links

<mask> website
The Peerage and <mask>g

1949 births
American occultists
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century male artists
Trompe-l'œil artists
American spiritual writers
Painters from California
American interior designers
Spiritism
Living people
People from Seguin, Texas
American portrait painters
American psychics
New Age writers
Artists from Texas
Babalawos
Parsons School of Design alumni
Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
University of Houston alumni

masks:
Zachary Selig
Marvin Selig
Eleanor Berg Selig
Selig
Selig
Selig
Zachary Selig
Zachary Selig
Zachary Seli