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 poverty, and obscurity. Others like Elsen, Matthews and Flemming suggest it was not Rodin, but her brother Paul who was jealous of her genius, and that he conspired with her mother, who never forgave her for her supposed immorality, to later ruin her and keep her confined to a mental hospital. Kavaler-Adler notes that her younger sister Louise, who desired <mask>'s inheritance and was also jealous of her, was delighted at her sister's downfall. Less well known than her love affair with Rodin, the nature of her relationship with Claude Debussy has also been the object of much speculation. Stephen Barr reports that Debussy pursued her: it was unknown whether they ever became lovers. They both admired Degas and Hokusai, and shared an interest in childhood and death themes.When Claudel ended the relationship, Debussy wrote: "I weep for the disappearance of the Dream of this Dream." Debussy admired her as a great artist and kept a copy of The Waltz in his studio until his death. By thirty, Claudel's romantic life had ended. Alleged illness and confinement
After 1905 Claudel appeared to be mentally ill. She destroyed many of her statues, disappeared for long periods of time, exhibited signs of paranoia and was diagnosed as having schizophrenia. She accused Rodin of stealing her ideas and of leading a conspiracy to kill her. After the wedding of her brother in 1906 and his return to China, she lived secluded in her workshop. Claudel's father approved of her career choice, and he tried to help and support her financially.But when he died on 2 March 1913, Claudel was not informed of his death. Instead, eight days later, on 10 March 1913, at the request of her younger brother Paul, she was admitted to the psychiatric hospital of Ville-Évrard in Neuilly-sur-Marne. The form read that she had been "voluntarily" committed, although her admission was signed only by a doctor and her brother. There are records to show that, while she did have mental outbursts, she was clear-headed while working on her art. Doctors tried to convince Paul and their mother that Claudel did not need to be in the institution, but they still kept her there. According to Cécile Bertran, a curator from the Musée Camille Claudel, the situation was not easy to judge, because modern experts who have looked at her records say she was indeed ill. In 1914, to be safe from advancing German troops, the patients at Ville-Évrard were at first relocated to Enghien.On 7 September 1914 Claudel was transferred with a number of other women, to the Montdevergues Asylum, at Montfavet, six kilometres from Avignon. Her certificate of admittance to Montdevergues was signed on 22 September 1914; it reported that she suffered "from a systematic persecution delirium mostly based upon false interpretations and imagination". For a while, the press accused her family of committing a sculptor of genius. Her mother forbade her to receive mail from anyone other than her brother. The hospital staff regularly proposed to her family that Claudel be released, but her mother adamantly refused each time. On 1 June 1920, physician Dr. Brunet sent a letter advising her mother to try to reintegrate her daughter into the family environment. Nothing came of this.<mask> visited his confined older sister seven times in 30 years, in 1913, 1920, 1925, 1927, 1933, 1936, and 1943. He always referred to her in the past tense. Their sister Louise visited her just one time in 1929. Her mother, who died in June 1929, never visited Claudel. In 1929 sculptor and Claudel's former friend Jessie Lipscomb visited her, and afterwards insisted "it was not true" that Claudel was insane. Rodin's friend, Mathias Morhardt, insisted that Paul was a "simpleton" who had "shut away" his sister of genius. <mask> died on 19 October 1943, after having lived 30 years in the asylum at Montfavet (known then as the Asile de Montdevergues, now the modern psychiatric hospital Centre hospitalier de Montfavet).Her brother Paul had been informed of his sister's terminal illness in September and, with some difficulty, had crossed Occupied France to see her, although he was not present at her death or funeral. Her sister did not make the journey to Montfavet. Claudel was interred in the cemetery of Montfavet, and eventually her remains were buried in a communal grave at the asylum. From the 2002 book, <mask>, A Life:  "Ten years after her death, <mask>'s bones had been transferred to a communal grave, where they were mixed with the bones of the most destitute. Joined forever to the ground she tried to escape for so long, <mask> never, ever, returned to her beloved Villeneuve. Paul's neglect regarding his sister's grave is hard to forgive...while Paul decided not to be burdened with his sister's grave, he took great pains, on the contrary, in choosing his own final resting place, naming the exact location – in Brangues, under a tree, next to his grandchild – and citing the precise words to be written on the stone. Today his admirers pay homage to his memory at his noble grave; but of <mask> there is not a trace.In Villeneuve, a simple plaque reminds the curious visitor that <mask> once lived there, but her remains are still in exile, somewhere, just a few steps away from the place where she was sequestered for thirty years." Musée <mask>l

The Musée <mask> was opened in March, 2017, as a French national museum dedicated to Claudel's work. It is located in her teenage home town of Nogent-sur-Seine. The Musée <mask>l displays approximately half of Claudel's 90 surviving works. Plans to turn the Claudel family home at Nogent-sur-Seine into a museum were announced in 2003, and the museum negotiated with the Claudel family to buy <mask>'s works. These include 70 pieces, including a bust of Rodin. Legacy

Though she destroyed much of her work, about 90 statues, sketches and drawings survive.She was at first censored as she portrayed sexuality in her work. Her response was a symbolic, intellectual style as opposed to the "expressive" approach normally attributed to women artists. Some authors argue that Henrik Ibsen based his last play, 1899's When We Dead Awaken, on Rodin's relationship with Claudel. In 1951, <mask> organised an exhibition at the Musée Rodin, which continues to display her sculptures. A large exhibition of her works was organised in 1984. In 2005 a large art display featuring the works of Rodin and Claudel was exhibited in Quebec City (Canada), and Detroit, Michigan, in the US. In 2008, the Musée Rodin organised a retrospective exhibition including more than 80 of her works.The publication of several biographies in the 1980s sparked a resurgence of interest in her work. <mask> (1988) was a dramatisation of her life based largely on historical records. Directed by Bruno Nuytten, co-produced by Isabelle Adjani, starring herself as Claudel and Gérard Depardieu as Rodin, the film was nominated for two Academy Awards in 1989. Another film, <mask>l 1915, directed by Bruno Dumont and starring Juliette Binoche as Claudel, premiered at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival in 2013. The 2017 film Rodin co-stars Izïa Higelin as  Claudel. Composer Jeremy Beck's Death of a Little Girl with Doves (1998), an operatic soliloquy for soprano and orchestra, is based on the life and letters of <mask>. This composition has been recorded by Rayanne Dupuis, soprano, with the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra.Beck's composition has been described as "a deeply attractive and touching piece of writing ... [demonstrating] imperious melodic confidence, fluent emotional command and yielding tenderness." Seattle playwright S.P. Miskowski's La Valse (2000) is a well-researched look at Claudel's life. Composer Frank Wildhorn and lyricist Nan Knighton's musical Camille Claudel was produced by Goodspeed Musicals at The Norma Terris Theatre in Chester, Connecticut in 2003. In 2005, Sotheby's sold a second edition La Valse (1905, Blot, number 21) for $932,500. In a 2009 Paris auction, <mask>'s Le Dieu Envolé (1894/1998, foundry Valsuani, signed and numbered 6/8) had a high estimate of $180,000, while a comparable Rodin sculpture, L'éternelle Idole (1889/1930, Rudier, signed) had a high estimate of $75,000. In 2011, the world premiere of Boris Eifman's new ballet Rodin took place in St Petersburg, Russia.The ballet is dedicated to the life and creative work sculptor Auguste Rodin and his apprentice, lover and muse, <mask>. In 2012, the world premiere of the play <mask>l took place. Written, performed and directed by Gaël Le Cornec, premiered at the Pleasance Courtyard Edinburgh Festival, the play looks at the relationship of master and muse from the perspective of <mask> at different stages in her life. In 2014, the Columbus Dance Theatre and the Carpe Diem String Quartet performed the premiere of Claudel, with music by Korine Fujiwara, original poetry by Kathleen Kirk, and choreography by Tim Veach. In 2019, to mark the 155th anniversary of Claudel's birth, Google released a Google Doodle commemorating her. See also
 <mask>, 1988 biographical fictional film with Isabelle Adjani (Camille) and Gérard Depardieu (Rodin), France, nominated for two Academy Awards
 <mask>, 2003 musical
 <mask>l 1915, 2013 French biopic written and directed by Bruno Dumont, starring Juliette Binoche as <mask>. Rodin, 2017 film, with Izïa Higelin portraying Claudel.References

References

Lenormand-Romain, Antoinette et al. <mask> and Rodin: Fateful Encounter. New York: Gingko Press, 2005. Mitchell, Claudine. “Intellectuality and Sexuality: <mask>, The Fin de Siecle Sculptress,” Art History 12#4 (1989): 419–447. Rivière, Anne & Bruno Gaudichon. <mask>: Catalogue raisonné.Paris: Adam Biro, 2001. Further reading
 (which contains material on Claudel)

 Wilson, Susannah. "Gender, Genius, and the Artist's Double Bind: The Letters of <mask>l, 1880–1910." Modern Language Review 112.2 (2017): 362-380. online

External links

 Review of 2008 Claudel exhibition at Musee Rodin, Paris
 <mask> and Rodin: Fateful Encounter at Detroit Institute of Arts 2005
 Claudel pages, including biography and timeline, at rodin-web.org
 <mask> at artcyclopedia.com
<mask>, Of Dreams and Nightmares
 <mask>'s The Age of Maturity, Ben Pollitt at Smarthistory
  «La dona artista i el poder : homenatge a <mask>» (audio, 1 h 50 mins). l'Arxiu de la Paraula. Ateneu Barcelonès, 2014. 1864 births
1943 deaths
19th-century French sculptors
19th-century French women artists
20th-century French sculptors
20th-century French women artists
Académie Colarossi alumni
Auguste Rodin
French women sculptors
Muses
People from

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Paul Claudel
Camille Claudel
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Camille Claudel
Camille Claude
Camille Claudel
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Paul Claudel
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<mask> (February 16, 1838 – March 27, 1918) was an American historian and a member of the <mask> political family, descended from two U.S. Presidents. As a young Harvard graduate, he served as secretary to his father, <mask>, Abraham Lincoln's ambassador to the United Kingdom. The posting influenced the younger man through the experience of wartime diplomacy, and absorption in English culture, especially the works of John Stuart Mill. After the American Civil War, he became a political journalist who entertained America's foremost intellectuals at his homes in Washington and Boston. During his lifetime, he was best known for The History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, a nine-volume work, praised for its literary style, command of the documentary evidence, and deep (family) knowledge of the period and its major figures. His posthumously published memoir, The Education of <mask>, won the Pulitzer Prize and went on to be named by the Modern Library as the best English-language nonfiction book of the 20th century. Early life
He was born in Boston on February 16, 1838, into one of the country's most prominent families.His parents were Charles Francis <mask>, Sr. (1807–1886) and Abigail Brooks (1808–1889). Both his paternal grandfather, John Quincy <mask>, and great-grandfather, <mask>, one of the most prominent among the Founding Fathers, had been U.S. Presidents. His maternal grandfather, Peter Chardon Brooks, was one of Massachusetts' most successful and wealthiest merchants. Another great-grandfather, Nathaniel Gorham, signed the Constitution. After his graduation from Harvard University in 1858, he embarked on a grand tour of Europe, during which he also attended lectures in civil law at the University of Berlin. He was initiated into the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity as an honorary member at the 1893 Columbian Exposition by Harris J. Ryan, a judge for the exhibit on electrical engineering. Through that organization, he was a member of the Irving Literary Society.During the Civil War
<mask> returned home from Europe in the midst of the heated presidential election of 1860. He tried his hand again at law, taking employment with Judge Horace Gray's Boston firm, but this was short-lived. His father, Charles Francis <mask>, Sr., was also seeking re-election to the US House of Representatives. After his successful re-election, Charles Francis asked <mask> to be his private secretary, continuing a father-son pattern set by John and John Quincy and suggesting that Charles Francis had chosen <mask> as the political scion of that generation of the family. <mask> shouldered the responsibility reluctantly and with much self-doubt. "[I] had little to do", he reflected later, "and knew not how to do it rightly." During this time, <mask> was the anonymous Washington correspondent for Charles Hale's Boston Daily Advertiser.London (1861–68)
On March 19, 1861, Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles Francis <mask>, Sr. United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. <mask> accompanied his father to London as his private secretary. He also became the anonymous London correspondent for the New York Times. The two <mask>es were kept very busy, monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and trying to obstruct the construction of Confederate commerce raiders by British shipyards (see Alabama Claims). <mask>'s writings for the Times argued that Americans should be patient with the British. While in Britain, <mask> was befriended by many noted men, including Charles Lyell, Francis T. Palgrave, Richard Monckton Milnes, James Milnes Gaskell, and Charles Milnes Gaskell. He worked to introduce the young <mask> to English society, with the help of his closest and lifelong friend Charles Milnes Gaskell and his wife Lady Catherine (nee Wallop).While in Britain, <mask> read and was taken with the works of John Stuart Mill. For <mask>, Mill's Considerations on Representative Government showed the necessity of an enlightened, moral, and intelligent elite to provide leadership to a government elected by the masses and subject to demagoguery, ignorance, and corruption. <mask> wrote to his brother Charles that Mill demonstrated to him that "democracy is still capable of rewarding a conscientious servant." His years in London led <mask> to conclude that he could best provide that knowledgeable and conscientious leadership by working as a correspondent and journalist. Return to America

In 1868, <mask> returned to the United States and settled in Washington, DC, where he began working as a journalist. <mask> saw himself as a traditionalist longing for the democratic ideal of the 17th and 18th centuries. Accordingly, he was keen on exposing political corruption in his journalism.Harvard professor
In 1870, <mask> was appointed professor of medieval history at Harvard, a position he held until his early retirement in 1877 at 39. As an academic historian, <mask> is considered to have been the first (in 1874–1876) to conduct historical seminar work in the United States. Among his students was <mask> Lodge, who worked closely with <mask> as a graduate student. <mask> was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1875. Author
<mask>'s The History of the United States of America (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889–1891) is a highly detailed history of the Jefferson and Madison administrations with a focus on diplomacy. Wide praise was given for its literary merit, especially the opening five chapters of volume 1, describing the nation in 1800. These chapters have also been criticized; Noble Cunningham states flatly, "<mask> misjudged the state of the nation in 1800."In striving for literary effect, Cunningham argues, <mask> ignored the dynamism and sophistication of the new nation. Such arguments aside, historians have long recognized it as a major and permanent monument of American historiography. It has been called "a neglected masterpiece" by Garry Wills, and "a history yet to be replaced" by the great historian C. Vann Woodward. In the 1880s, <mask> wrote two novels, starting with Democracy, which was published anonymously in 1880 and immediately became popular in literary circles in England and Europe as well as in America. (Only after <mask>'s death did his publisher reveal his authorship.) His other novel, published under the nom de plume of Frances Snow Compton, was Esther, whose heroine was believed to be modeled after his wife. During the late 1860s and early 1870s, <mask> edited, with the assistance of his brother Charles Francis <mask>, the major American intellectual-literary journal, The North American Review.During his tenure it published a number of articles exposing corrupt malpractices in finance, corporations and government, anticipating the work of the "muckrakers" by a generation. The brothers collected several of their most important essays in Chapters Of Erie (1871). This experience marked the public commencement of <mask>' critical observation of, and radical disenchantment with, the operations and ascendancy of corporations and centralized finance in the economic, social and political life of America. Summarizing the observations of a lifetime, he wrote to his brother Brooks on September 20, 1910 (vol. 6 p. 369-370, Letters, ed. Levenson et al. ):  "Our system of protection [of industry and commerce]... is fatal to our principles....  Railways, trusts, banking-system, manufactures, capital and labor, all rest on the principle of monopoly ...The suggestion that these great corporate organisms, which now perform all the vital functions of our social life, should behave themselves decently, gives away our contention that they have no right to exist. Nor am I prepared to admit that more decency can be attained through a legislature made up of similar people exercising similar illegal powers....  From top to bottom the whole system is a fraud.... The conviction of having reached this point where we have no choice but to go on in our own rot, drove me out of all share in public affairs twenty years ago..  Every one who has assumed such a share since then has only muddled and made the matter worse." In 1884, <mask> was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In 1892, he received the degree LL.D., from Western Reserve University. In 1894, <mask> was elected president of the American Historical Association. His address, entitled "The Tendency of History", was delivered in absentia.The essay predicted the development of a scientific approach to history, but was somewhat ambiguous as to what this achievement might mean. During the 1890s, <mask> exercised a profound and fruitful influence over the thought and writings of his younger brother Brooks. His own essay, The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, an offshoot of their decades long conversations and correspondence, was published years later. <mask> was an accomplished poet and in later life a friend of young poets—notably George Cabot Lodge  and Trumbull Stickney—but published nothing in his lifetime. His important poems "Buddha and Brahma" and "Prayers to the Virgin and the Dynamo" are included (respectively) in the Library of America's Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Anthologies and a half dozen sonnets, a Troubadour translation and one lyric are scattered through the letters. It is an open and intriguing question whether the Massachusetts Historical Society or other archives preserve more. In 1904, <mask> privately published a copy of his "Mont Saint Michel and Chartres", a pastiche of history, travel, and poetry that celebrated the unity of medieval society, especially as represented in the great cathedrals of France.Originally meant as a diversion for his nieces and "nieces-in-wish", it was publicly released in 1913 at the request of <mask> Cram, an important American architect, and published with support of the American Institute of Architects. He published The Education of <mask> in 1907, in a small private edition for selected friends. Only following <mask>'s death was The Education made available to the general public, in an edition issued by the Massachusetts Historical Society. It ranked first on the Modern Library's 1998 list of 100 Best Nonfiction Books and was named the best book of the 20th century by the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, a conservative organization that promotes classical education. It was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1919. Some center-right intellectuals view the book critically. Conservative journalist Fred Siegel considered the worldview expressed therein to be rooted in resentment of America's middle class."<mask>," wrote Siegel, "grounded the intellectual's alienation from American life in the resentment that superior men feel when they are insufficiently appreciated in America's common-man culture." Others view  <mask>'s critique of the commercialism, corruption and pecuniolatry of American mercantile culture as central. Personal life

Relations

Siblings
John Quincy <mask> (1833–1894) was a graduate of Harvard (1853), practiced law, and was a Democratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general court. In 1872, he was nominated for vice president by the Democratic faction that refused to support the nomination of Horace Greeley. Charles Francis <mask>. (1835–1915) fought with the Union in the Civil War, receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier general in the regular army. He became an authority on railway management as the author of Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878), and as president of the Union Pacific Railroad from 1884 to 1890. He collaborated with <mask> on the editing of The North Atlantic Review and other projects.<mask> (1848–1927) practiced law and became a writer. His books include The Gold Standard (1894), The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895), America's Economic Supremacy (1900), The New Empire (1902),  The Theory of Social Revolutions (1914), and The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1919). <mask>'s influence on and involvement with his youngest brother's thought and writing was profound and enduring. Louisa Catherine <mask>hn Her brother describes her death in 1870 from tetanus following a carriage accident in Bagni di Lucca in his Chaos Chapter of The Education of <mask>. She is buried in Florence's 'English' Cemetery. Social life and friendships
<mask> was a member of an exclusive circle, a group of friends called the "Five of Hearts" that consisted of <mask>, his wife Clover, geologist and mountaineer Clarence King, John Hay (assistant to Lincoln and later Secretary of State), and Hay's wife Clara. One of <mask>'s frequent travel companions was the artist John La Farge, with whom he journeyed to Japan and the South Seas.From 1885 until 1888, Theodore Frelinghuysen Dwight (1846–1917), the State Department's chief librarian, lived with <mask> at his home at 1603 H Street in Washington, D.C., where he served as <mask>'s literary assistant, personal secretary, and household manager. Dwight would go on to serve as archivist of the <mask> family archives in Quincy, Massachusetts; director of the Boston Public Library; and U.S. Consul at Vevey, Switzerland. Marriage to Marian "Clover" Hooper
On June 27, 1872, <mask> married Clover Hooper in Beverly, Massachusetts. They spent their honeymoon in Europe, much of it with Charles Milnes Gaskell at Wenlock Abbey, Shropshire. While there, exemplifying the New England civic conscience she and <mask> shared, Clover wrote "England is charming for a few families but hopeless for most ... Thank the Lord that the American eagle flaps and screams over us." Upon their return, <mask> went back to his position at Harvard, and their home at 91 Marlborough Street, Boston, became a gathering place for a lively circle of intellectuals.In 1877, his wife and he moved to Washington, DC, where their home on Lafayette Square, across from the White House, again became a dazzling and witty center of social life. He worked as a journalist and continued working as a historian. Her suicide
On Sunday morning, December 6, 1885, after a late breakfast at their home, 1607 H Street on Lafayette Square, Clover <mask> went to her room. <mask>, troubled by a toothache, had planned to see his dentist. While departing his home, he was met by a woman calling to see his wife. <mask> went upstairs to her room to ask if she would receive the visitor and found his wife lying on a rug before the fire; an opened vial of potassium cyanide, which Clover had frequently used in processing photographs, lay nearby. <mask> carried his wife to a sofa, then ran for a doctor.Shortly thereafter, Dr. Charles E. Hagner pronounced Clover dead. Much speculation and numerous theories have been given concerning the causes of Clover <mask>'s suicide. Her death has been attributed to depression over her father's death. Her suicide was also related to a family history of mental depression and suicide, a sense of frustration and lack of fulfillment as a cultured person and as a woman, and a feeling of intellectual inferiority over her husband's interest in and attention to another woman. The possibility of determining the validity of any or all of these causes was made more difficult by <mask>'s destruction of most of Clover's letters and photos following her death. His autobiography maintains a profound silence about his wife after her suicide. <mask>'s grief was profound and enduring.The event was life-shattering for <mask> and profoundly altered the course of his life. <mask>, his brother, Charles Francis <mask>, Clover's brother Edward, and her sister Ellen, with her husband Ephraim Gurney, were the attendees at a brief funeral service held on December 9, 1885, at the house on Lafayette Square. Interment services followed at Rock Creek Cemetery, but the actual burial was postponed until December 11, 1885, because of the inclement weather. A few weeks later, <mask> ordered a modest headstone as a temporary marker. Later he commissioned a monument for her tomb from his friend, the sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who created a masterpiece for her memorial. Relationship with Elizabeth Sherman Cameron
<mask> first met Elizabeth Cameron in January 1881 at a reception in the drawing room of the house of John and Clara Hay. Elizabeth was considered to be one of the most beautiful and intelligent women in the Washington area.Elizabeth had grown up as Lizzie Sherman, the daughter of Judge Charles Sherman of Ohio, the niece of Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman in Hayes's cabinet, and the niece of General William Tecumseh Sherman. Her family had pressured Lizzie into a loveless marriage with Senator J. Donald Cameron, brokering a prenuptial agreement that

masks:
Henry Brooks Adams
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Charles Francis Adams
Henry Adams
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John Adams
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Henry
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Henry
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Henry James
Henry
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Henry
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Henry Cabot
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Henry Adams
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Ralph Adams
Henry Adams
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Henry Adams
Adams
Adams II
Adams Jr
Henry
Brooks Adams
Henry
Adams Ku
Henry Adams
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Henry
Adams
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Henry
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Hooper Adams
Henry
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Henry Adams
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 provided her with the income from $160,000 worth of securities, a very large amount in 1878, equivalent to about $ million in . The arranged marriage on May 9, 1878, united the reluctant 20-year-old beauty with a 44-year-old widower with six children. Eliza, his eldest, who had served as her father's hostess, was now displaced by a stepmother the same age. The children never accepted her. The marriage was further strained by the Senator's coarseness and indifference and his fondness for bourbon and the world of political corruption he inhabited, which is reflected in <mask>'s novel Democracy. <mask> initiated a correspondence with Lizzie on May 19, 1883, when she and her husband departed for Europe.That letter reflected his unhappiness with her departure and his longing for her return. It was the first of hundreds to follow for the next 35 years, recording a passionate yet unconsummated relationship. On December 7, 1884, one year before Clover's suicide, <mask> wrote to Lizzie, "I shall dedicate my next poem to you. I shall have you carved over the arch of my stone doorway. I shall publish your volume of extracts with your portrait on the title page. None of these methods can fully express the extent to which I am yours." <mask>'s wife, Clover, who had written a weekly letter to her father throughout her marriage except for the brief hiatus during her breakdown along the Nile, never mentioned concerns or suspicions about <mask>'s relationship with Lizzie.Nothing in the letters of her family or circle of friends indicates her distrust or unhappiness with her husband in this matter. Indeed, after her death, <mask> found a letter from Clover to her sister Ellen which had not been posted. The survival of this letter was assured by its contents which read, "If I had one single point of character or goodness, I would stand on that and grow back to life. <mask> is more patient and loving than words can express—God might envy him—he bears and hopes and despairs hour after hour—<mask> is beyond all words tenderer and better than all of you even." On Christmas Day 1885, <mask> sent one of Clover's favorite pieces of jewelry to Cameron, requesting that she "sometimes wear it, to remind you of her." Later life and travels
Just before the end of 1885, <mask> moved into his newly completed mansion next door at 1603 H Street designed by his old friend, <mask> Richardson, one of the most prominent architects of his day. Following his wife's death, <mask> took up a restless life as a globetrotter, traveling extensively, spending summers in Paris and winters in Washington, where he commissioned the Adams Memorial, designed by sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens and architect Stanford White for her grave site in Rock Creek Cemetery.Death and burial
In 1912, <mask> suffered a stroke, perhaps brought on by news of the sinking of the , for which he had return tickets to Europe. After the stroke, his scholarly output diminished, but he continued to travel, write letters, and host dignitaries and friends at his Washington, DC, home. In the first volume of her autobiography Eleanor Roosevelt offers this vignette of <mask> in old age: "Occasionally we received one of the much-coveted invitations to lunch or dine at his house...  My first picture of this supposedly stern, rather biting Mr. <mask> is of an old gentleman in a victoria outside of our house on N Street. [His secretary] Aileen Tone and I were having tea inside, but Mr. <mask> never paid calls. He did, however, request that the children of the house come out and join him in the victoria; ... and they brought their Scottie dog and sat and chatted and played all over the vehicle. No one was ever able thereafter to persuade me that Mr. <mask> was quite the cynic he was supposed to be. One day after lunch with him, my husband [the future President] mentioned something which at the time was causing him deep concern in the Government, and Mr. <mask> looked at him rather fiercely and said:  'Young man, I have lived in this house many years and seen the occupants of that White House across the square come and go, and nothing that you minor officials or the occupant of that house can do will affect the history of the world for long!'...  <mask> loved to shock his hearers, and I think he knew that those who were worth their salt would understand him and pick out of the knowledge which flowed from his lips the things which might be useful, and discard the cynicism as an old man's defense against his own urge to be [still] an active factor in the work of the world." <mask> died at age 80 in Washington, DC. on March 27, 1918. He is interred beside his wife in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, DC. Views

Anglo-Saxonism
Considered a prominent Anglo-Saxonist of particularly the nineteenth-century, <mask> has been portrayed by modern historians as anxious about the immigration of the era into the United States, particularly from Eastern Europe. More starkly put, <mask> also wrote of his belief that "the dark races are gaining on us". He considered the U.S. Constitution itself as belonging to the Anglo-Saxon "race", and as an expression of "Germanic freedom".He went so far as to criticize fellow scholars for not being absolute enough in their Anglo-Saxonism, such as William Stubbs, whom he criticized for downplaying the significance, as he saw it, of "Germanic law" or hundred law in its contribution to English common law. <mask> was nevertheless highly critical of the English. He referred to them as a "besotted race" from whom nothing good could come and "wanted nothing so much as to wipe England off the earth." Antisemitism
<mask>'s attitude towards Jews has been described as one of loathing. John Hay said that when <mask> "saw Vesuvius reddening ... [he] searched for a Jew stoking the fire." <mask> wrote: "I detest [the Jews], and everything connected with them, and I live only and solely with the hope of seeing their demise, with all their accursed Judaism. I want to see all the lenders at interest taken out and executed."To one friend, he wrote: "Bombard New York. I know no place that would be more improved by it. The chief population is Jew, and the rest is German Jew." His letters were "peppered with a variety of antisemitic remarks", according to historian Robert Michael, as in the following citations from historian Edward Saveth:

"We are in the hands of the Jews", <mask> lamented. "They can do what they please with our values." He advised against investment except in the form of gold locked in a safe deposit box. "There you have no risk but the burglar.In any other form you have the burglar, the Jew, the Czar, the socialist, and, above all, the total irremediable, radical rottenness of our whole social, industrial, financial and political system." Edward Chalfant's definitive three-volume biography of <mask> includes an exhaustive, well-documented examination of <mask>'s "antisemitism" in its second volume, Improvement of the World. He shows that most of the time when <mask> says "Jews" he means "financiers." This accords with the historical English usage referenced by the second definition under the Oxford English Dictionary entry, a usage that was common in <mask>'s time and social milieu. It also accords with <mask>'s frequent laments that "the eighteenth-century fabric of a priori, or moral, principles" had been replaced with "a bankers' world" and that the "banking mind was obnoxious". <mask> esteemed individual Jewish personages. In the "Dilettantism" chapter of The Education of <mask> he wrote of historian Francis Palgrave that "the reason of his superiority lay in his name, which was Cohen, and his mind which was Cohen also".(Palgrave, the son of a Jewish stockbroker, had changed his name from Cohen upon marriage.) In the "Political Morality" chapter of the same volume he praises the Jewish statesman Benjamin Disraeli over the Gentiles Palmerston, Russell and Gladstone, writing: "Complex these gentlemen were not. Disraeli alone might, by contrast, be called complex." Historical entropy

In 1910, <mask> printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a "theory of history" based on the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of entropy. This, essentially, states that all energy dissipates, order becomes disorder, and the earth will eventually become uninhabitable. In short, he applied the physics of dynamical systems of Rudolf Clausius, Hermann von Helmholtz, and William Thomson to the modeling of human history. In his 1909 manuscript The Rule of Phase Applied to History, <mask> attempted to use Maxwell's demon as a historical metaphor, though he seems to have misunderstood and misapplied the principle.<mask> interpreted history as a process moving towards "equilibrium", but he saw militaristic nations (he felt Germany pre-eminent in this class) as tending to reverse this process, a "Maxwell's Demon of history." <mask> made many attempts to respond to the criticism of his formulation from his scientific colleagues, but the work remained incomplete at <mask>'s death in 1918. It was published posthumously. Robert E. Lee
<mask> said, "I think that Lee should have been hanged. It was all the worse that he was a good man and a fine character and acted conscientiously. It's always the good men who do the most harm in the world." The Virgin Mary
In Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres, <mask> argues that the previous nineteen hundred years of civilization dating from the birth of Christ had been dominated by the feminine, fertile image of the Blessed Virgin, and that the industrial "dynamo" was a masculine, destructive force which would upend history.Writings by <mask>
 1876. Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (with <mask> Lodge, Ernest Young and J.L. Laughlin). 1879. Life of Albert Gallatin. 1879. The Writings of Albert Gallatin (as editor, three volumes).1880. Democracy: An American Novel. 1882. John Randolph. 1884. Esther: A Novel (facsimile ed., 1938, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ). 1889–1891.History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (9 volumes). 1891. Historical Essays. 1893. Tahiti: Memoirs of Arii Taimai e Marama of Eimee ... Last Queen of Tahiti (facsimile of the 1901 Paris ed., 1947 Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ). 1904. Mont Saint Michel and Chartres.1911. The Life of George Cabot Lodge (facsimile ed. 1978, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ). 1918. The Education of <mask>. 1919. The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma.1930–1938. Letters (Edited by W.C. Ford, two volumes). 1982. The Letters of <mask>, Volumes 1–3: 1858–1892 (Edited by J.C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels and Charles Vandersee). 1988. The Letters of <mask>, Volumes 4–6: 1892–1918 (Edited by J.C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels and Charles Vandersee). Reprinted
Democracy: An American Novel, Esther, Mont Saint Michel and Chartres, The Education of <mask> (Ernest Samuels, ed.)(Library of America, 1983)
History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (Earl N. Harbert, ed.) (Library of America, 1986) Vol I (Jefferson) . Vol II (Madison) . See also
Maxwell's demon
The Education of <mask>

References

Further reading

 <mask>, James Truslow (1933). <mask>. New York: Albert & Charles Boni, Inc.
 <mask>, Marian Hooper (1936). The Letters of Mrs. <mask>, 1865–1883.Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. (Edited by W. Thoron). Baym, Max Isaac (1951). The French Education of <mask>. Columbia University Press. Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (Rutledge, 1999) 1:2–4
 Brookhiser, Richard (2002). America's First Dynasty: The <mask>es, 1735–1918.New York: Free Press. Brown, David S. (2020). The Last American Aristocrat: The Brilliant Life and Improbable Education of <mask>. Scribner. Cater, H.D., ed., (1947). <mask> and His Friends: A Collection of His Unpublished Letters. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.Chalfant, Edward (1982). Both Sides of the Ocean: A biography of <mask>, His First Life, 1838–1862. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books
 Chalfant, Edward (1994). Better in Darkness: A Biography of <mask>, His Second Life, 1862–1891. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books
 Chalfant, Edward (2001). Improvement of the World: A Biography of <mask>, His Third Life, 1891–1918. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books .Decker, William Merrill (1990). The Literary Vocation of <mask>. University of North Carolina Press. Donovan, Timothy Paul (1961). <mask> and <mask>: The Education of Two American Historians. University of Oklahoma Press. Dusinberre, William (1980).<mask>: The Myth of Failure. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Egerton, Douglas R. (2019). Heirs of an Honored Name: The Decline of the <mask> Family and the Rise of Modern America. New York: Basic Books. Harbert, Earl N. (1977). The Force So Much Closer Home: <mask> and the Adams Family.New York University Press. Harbert, Earl N., ed. (1981). Critical Essays on <mask>. Boston: G.K. Hall. Contributors include <mask> Commager, Ernest Samuels, Howard M. Munford, and Margaret J. Brown.Hochfield, George (1962). <mask>: An Introduction and Interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Hume, Robert A. (1951). Runaway Star: An Appreciation of <mask>. Cornell University Press.Jacobson, Joanne (1992). Authority and Alliance in the Letters of <mask>. University of Wisconsin Press. Jordy, William H. (1952). <mask>: Scientific Historian. New Haven: Yale University Press. OCLC 427157
 Kaplan, Harold (1981).Power and Order: <mask> and the Naturalist Tradition in American Fiction. University of Chicago Press. Le Clair, Robert Charles (1978). Three American Travellers in England: James Russell Lowell, <mask>, <mask>. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Levenson, J.C. (1957). The Mind and Art of <mask>.Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Lyon, Melvin (1970). Symbol and Idea in <mask>. University of Nebraska Press. O'Toole, Patricia (1990). The Five of Hearts: An Intimate Portrait of <mask> and His Friends, 1880–1918. New York: Clarkson.N. Potter. Rowe, John Carlos, ed., (1996). New Essays on the Education of <mask>. Cambridge University Press. Samuels, Ernest (1948). The Young Henry <mask>. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Samuels, Ernest (1958). <mask>: The Middle Years. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Samuels, Ernest (1964). <mask>: The Major Phase. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Samuels, Ernest (1989).<mask>. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. (Abridgement of the three above volumes.) Sayre, Robert F. (1964). Examined Self: Benjamin Franklin, <mask>, <mask>. Princeton University Press. Scheyer, Ernst (1970).The Circle of Henry Adams: Art & Artists. Wayne State University Press. Simpson, Brooks D. (1996). The Political Education of <mask> Adams. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Stegmaier, Mark J. (2012).<mask> in the Secession Crisis. Louisiana State University Press. Wagner, Vern (1969). The Suspension of <mask>: A Study of Manner and Matter. Wayne State University Press. Wasserstrom, William (1984). The Ironies of Progress: <mask> and the American Dream.Southern Illinois University Press. Wills, Garry (2005). <mask> and the Making of America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
 Young, James P. (2001). <mask>: The Historian as Political Theorist. University Press of Kansas. Zencey, Eric (1995).Panama. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux

External links

 Works by <mask>, at Hathi Trust
 Works by <mask>, at The University of Virginia American Studies Hypertext Project
 The Letters of <mask>
 <mask>, Globe Trotter in Space and Time

 Index entry for <mask> <mask> at Poets' Corner
 The Broken Arch, an unpublished work by Lorrie Tussman exploring the theme of unity in Western civilization based on the writings of <mask>
"Writings of <mask>" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History

1838 births
1918 deaths
19th-century American historians
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American novelists
<mask> political family
American expatriates in France
American male novelists
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Harvard University faculty
Harvard University alumni
Historians of the United States
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Novelists from Massachusetts
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography winners
Writers from Boston
American male biographers
American male non-fiction

masks:
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry
Henry
Henry
Henry
Adams
Adams
Henry Hobson
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Adams
Henry Cabot
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Brooks Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Steele
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry James
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry James
Henry
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Adams
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Henry Adams
Henry Adams
Henry Brooks
Adams
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Henry Adams
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<mask> (4 October 1834 – 9 May 1906) was an English concert and operatic soprano prominent from the 1850s to the 1880s. Born in northern England, she spent much of her childhood and later life in Belgium, where she studied at the Brussels Conservatory. After engagements in mainland Europe she made her London debut in 1856. Her singing career was mostly in concert, but in the first half of the 1860s she appeared in opera at Covent Garden and other leading London theatres. After she retired from performing, Lemmens-Sherrington became a teacher, at her old music college in Brussels, and at the Royal Academy of Music in London and the Royal Manchester College of Music. Early life
<mask> was born in Preston, England, in 1834. When she was a child her family moved first to the Netherlands and then to Belgium.She studied singing at Rotterdam and at the Brussels Conservatory. She began her London career on the concert platform, building a reputation as a concert singer in the second half of the 1850s. After successes in the Netherlands and France she sang in London for the first time in 1856, and was invited to return in successive years. In 1859 The Illustrated London News said of her:

In 1857 she married the Belgian organist and composer Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens, who founded the School of Church Music at Mechelen in 1878. They had two sons, who became engineers, and two daughters. One of them, Maggy Lemmens born in London on 7 September 1874 and died in Brussels on 29 March 1962, married a nephew of the architect Joseph Poelaert, René Poelaert, (1874–1946), stockbroker, director of the Central Mutual Fund and Public Funds, 5, Place de la Liberté, born 16 July 1874 in Brussels and died in Schaerbeek 12 December 1946, son of Constant Poelaert, lawyer at the Court of Appeal of Brussels (1827- 1898) and Ernestine Jacobs (1835–1882). Stage career

Lemmens-Sherrington's stage debut was in 1860, in the first production of a new opera, Robin Hood, by George Alexander Macfarren (libretto by John Oxenford).This was chosen by Edward Tyrrel Smith as the vehicle for an attempt to launch an English Opera at Her Majesty's Theatre, the English season to run concurrently with an Italian season on alternate nights. The singers engaged were Lemmens-Sherrington (Maid Marian), Mme Lemaire, Charles Santley, Mr Parkinson and John Sims Reeves (Locksley). The orchestra was conducted on English nights by Charles Hallé. The duet with Reeves, "When lovers are parted" and Marian's song "True love, true love in my heart" (the theme of which ran through the whole score) were "exquisitely warbled" and received enthusiastic applause. It was so successful that Reeves and Sherrington got a better box office even than Thérèse Tietjens and Antonio Giuglini on the alternate nights in Il trovatore and Don Giovanni. Immediately after this, with Santley, Janet Monach Patey and others, she appeared briefly in Wallace's The Amber Witch, but the bailiffs moved in, and on transfer to Drury Lane Theatre her role was taken by Euphrosyne Parepa-Rosa. In January to March 1864, at Her Majesty's, Lemmens-Sherrington sang Marguerite in Gounod's Faust, in the second year of the English production, in the cast with Santley (introducing Dio possente), Reeves (distinguished in Act 1) and Marchesi (Mephisto).In the Royal English Opera at Covent Garden she appeared in Macfarren's Helvellyn (also shared with Parepa-Rosa) and in Rose, or Love's Ransom. For the next two seasons she appeared in the Italian Opera at Covent Garden, appearing as Donna Elvira (Don Giovanni), Adalgisa (Norma), Élisabeth de Valois (Don Carlos), Isabella (Robert le diable) and Prascovia (L'étoile du nord). After this her career was principally on the concert platform; she frequently sang with Santley, Patey, Antoinette Sterling, Sims Reeves and Signor Foli, at the popular "ballad concerts" under the management of John Boosey. In 1871 she and her husband made an extensive tour with the popular French baritone Jules Lefort. In the same year Lemmens-Sherrington was one of the original group of musicians to be awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society. She was also among the first artists to have her singing voice recorded, including a duet with her husband. A description drawn from The Daily Telegraph shows that at a private hearing at The Crystal Palace on Good Friday 1878, "...both duets and solos were successfully tried by Madame Lemmens-Sherrington, M. Lemmens, Signor Foli, M. Manns and other skilled musicians, whose acute sense caused a phenomenon as yet unexplained—namely, that the musical sounds are reproduced in a higher key, half a tone being the difference.While M. Lemmens and his accomplished wife were singing a duet into the branched mouthpiece something caused them both to laugh, and this incident was faithfully reproduced by the machine"

Later years
At the time of her husband's death, in 1881, Lemmens-Sherrington was appointed professor of singing at the Brussels Conservatory, and in 1891 at the Royal Academy of Music. From that time onwards she frequently resided in England. She also taught at the Royal Manchester College of Music, where one of her pupils was the contralto Edna Thornton. In early 1889, just short of the 33rd anniversary of her first appearance in London, she appeared at the Royal Albert Hall in a performance of Peter Benoit's Flemish oratorio Lucifer. George Bernard Shaw, who was present, observed, "Madame Sherrington's method was always of the safest; and she has the advantage, not common among artists, of being a clever and sensible woman." "And, save once, when she pulled down the pitch during an unaccompanied chorus, and so made the entry of the organ an appalling catastrophe, there was no falling off to complain of." She received "a hearty spontaneous reception which she acknowledged with all her old grace."The work itself was a complete failure. On 1 November 1894 Lemmens-Sherrington came out of retirement to sing for the last time in public, in Haydn's Creation at a concert in Manchester honouring Hallé. The Manchester Guardian commented that though the voice was not as rich and powerful as it had been twenty years earlier, "an artist is always an artist, and in everything she sang last night, Madame Sherrington displayed the skill of an artist by her finished vocalisation." Her last years were spent in retirement at 7 Rue Capouillet, Brussels, where she lived with two sisters. She died there on 9 May 1906, at the age of 71. References

1834 births
1906 deaths
English operatic sopranos
19th-century British women opera singers
Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists
People from Preston, Lancashire
Musicians from Lancashire
Royal Conservatory of Brussels alumni
Academics of the Royal College of Music

masks:
Helen Lemmens Sherrington
Helen Sherrington


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<mask>va (; née Malinina; 28 March 1912 – 4 January 1943) was the first woman in the Soviet Union to achieve the diploma of professional air navigator. Raskova went from a young woman with aspirations of becoming an opera singer to a military instructor to the Soviet's first female navigator. She was the navigator to many record-setting as well as record-breaking flights and the founding and commanding officer of the 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment, which was renamed the 125th M.M. Raskova Borisov Guards Dive Bomber Regiment in her honor. Raskova became one of over 800,000 women in the military service, founding three female air regiments, one of which eventually flew over 30,000 sorties in World War II and produced at least 30 Heroes of the Soviet Union. Early life
<mask> was born to middle-class parents. Her father was operatic singer and singing instructor Mikhail Malinin () and her mother a teacher.Anna Lyubatovich, her mother's sister, was a known Russian singer as Tatyana Lyubatovich (). Her half-brother (through her father) was shipbuilding scientist Boris Malinin. Unlike the majority of Soviet airwomen, <mask> did not show any early interest in aviation. Becoming a pilot-navigator was her second choice. Raskova had originally wanted to become a musician, and her goal was to become an opera singer. In 1919, when she was seven, her father died from the injuries inflicted when he was struck by a motorcycle. She continued her drama and singing studies, but later she fell victim to a middle ear infection that left her unable to continue singing.She decided to quit music and to devote herself to studying chemistry and engineering in high school. After graduation in 1929, to help her family, she started work in a dye factory as a chemist. She married an engineer, Sergey Raskov, whom she met at the dye factory, so changing her name to <mask>. She had a child, Tanya, in 1930. The following year she started to work in the Aero Navigation Laboratory of the Air Force Academy as a draftswoman. Raskova became a famous aviator as both a pilot and a navigator for the Soviet Union in the 1930s. She was the first woman to become a navigator in the Soviet Air Force in 1933.A year later, she started teaching at the Zhukovsky Air Academy, also a first for a woman. She taught male and later, female students military navigation. She was the subject of skepticism by many of her male students but was able to prove herself capable. Later, the Academy sent <mask> to Tushino for the Central Flying Club in order to receive flying lessons, which she completed in August 1935. When Raskova's training ended, she was able to become an instrument flying instructor and was allowed to teach command personnel advanced navigation. In 1935, she divorced. She set a number of long-distance records, a significant achievement in the eyes of the Soviet Union, which gave its aviators celebrity status.Most of these record flights occurred in 1937 and 1938, while she was still teaching at the air academy. The most famous of these records was the flight of the Rodina (Russian for "Motherland"), Ant-37 – a converted DB-2 long range bomber – on 24–25 September 1938. She was the navigator of the crew that also included Polina Osipenko and Valentina Grizodubova. From the start, the goal was to set an international women's record for a straight-line distance flight. The plan was to fly from Moscow to Komsomolsk (in  the Far East). When finally completed, the flight took 26 hours and 29 minutes, over a straight-line distance of  (total distance of ). However, the ordeal took 10 days when the plane was unable to find an airfield due to poor visibility.Because the navigator's cockpit had no entrance to the rest of the plane and was vulnerable in a crash landing, Raskova parachuted out before they touched down. She had forgotten her emergency kit and was unable to find the plane for 10 days, with no water and almost no food. The rescue crew had found the aircraft eight days after the landing, and was waiting when she found her way to it, after which all three women were taken to safety. On 2 November 1938, all three women were decorated with the Hero of the Soviet Union award, the first females ever to receive it and the only ones before World War II. World War II
When World War II broke out, there were numerous women who had training as pilots and many immediately volunteered. While there were no formal restrictions on women serving in combat roles, their applications tended to be blocked, run into red tape, etc. for as long as possible in order to discourage the applicants.<mask> is credited with having used her personal connections with Joseph Stalin to convince the military to form three combat regiments of women. Following a speech by <mask> on 8 September 1941 calling for women pilots to be allowed to fight, Stalin on 8 October 1941 ordered the formation of the all-female 122nd Aviation Corps. Not only would the women be pilots, but also support staff and engineers. After their training, the Group's three regiments received their formal designations as follows:

The 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment (586 IAP/PVO): This unit was the first to take part in combat (16 April 1942) of the  three female regiments. Equipped with Yakovlev Yak-1, Yak-7B and Yak-9, it flew 4,419 flights. destroying 38 enemy aircraft in 125 air battles. Commanders were Tamara Kazarinova and later Aleksandr Gridnev.The 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment, (later renamed the 125th Guards Bomber Aviation Regiment): Raskova commanded this unit until her death in a flying accident, while leading two other Petlyakovs to their first operative airfield, near Stalingrad, whereupon the unit was given to Valentin Markov. It started service as the 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment until it was given the Guards designation in September 1943. The unit was given the very best of the Soviet bombers, the Petlyakov Pe-2, while many male units used obsolete aircraft, which resulted in much resentment. The unit flew 1,134 missions, dropping over 980 tons of bombs. It produced five Heroes of the Soviet Union. The 588th Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (later renamed the 46th Taman Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment, nicknamed the "Night Witches" (die Nachthexen) by the Germans): This was the best known of the regiments and was commanded by Yevdokia Bershanskaya. It originally began service as the 588th Night Bomber Regiment (588 NBAP), but was redesignated in February 1943 as recognition for service which tallied 24,000+ combat missions by the end of the war.The regiment produced 24 Heroes of the Soviet Union. Their aircraft was the Polikarpov Po-2, a very outdated biplane. They were the only one of the three regiments to remain solely female throughout the war, a distinction they went to some lengths to maintain. <mask> died on 4 January 1943, when her aircraft crashed attempting to make a forced landing on the Volga bank, while leading two other Pe-2s to the first operative airfield near Stalingrad. The entire crew perished. She received the first state funeral of the war. Legacy
Her ashes were buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, beside Polina Osipenko's, on Red Square.She was posthumously awarded the Order of the Patriotic War I Class. An American ship, Ironclad (launched as Mystic in April 1919), that had taken part in Convoy PQ 17 was transferred to Russian ownership and renamed  in June 1943. A street was named after her in Moscow and Kazan respectively, as well as a square in Moscow, some schools and Young Pioneer detachments. There was a bust of her at the "M.M. Raskova"  Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots in Tambov, but that school ceased to function in 1997. In philately

See also

 List of female Heroes of the Soviet Union
 Kartamyshevskaya street of the Moldavanka historical district in Odessa, which was renamed M. Raskova street from 1953–1995. References

Bibliography

"Hero of the Soviet Union."New York Herald Tribune, Jan 23, 1943. .
"Many Nazi Planes are the Victims of Russian Women Fighter Pilots." New York Times, Jan 17, 1944. Sorokina, M. A. "People and Procedures: Toward a History of the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in the USSR", Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, Volume 6, Issue 4, (2005) 797–831. Strebe, Amy Goodpaster. "The American Women Airforce Service Pilots and Soviet Airwomen of World War II." Order No.1418728, San Jose State University, 2003. "RUSSIAN WOMAN FLIER KILLED ON ACTIVE DUTY: MAJOR RASKOVA, HEROINE OF SOVIET UNION, WIDELY KNOWN." New York Times, Jan 10, 1943. Pursley, Sasha D. "The Motherland Calls: The Taman' Guards Women's Aviation Unit in the Great Patriotic War." Order No. 3098757, University of California, Santa Cruz, 2003. External links
Biography on warheroes.ru

1912 births
1943 deaths
Russian women aviators
Russian aviation record holders
Russian navigators
Flight navigators
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Burials at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis
Russian people of World War II
Soviet World War II pilots
Soviet Air Force officers
Soviet military personnel killed in World War II
Women air force personnel of the Soviet Union
Soviet women in World War II
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
People from Moscow
Soviet aviation record holders
Soviet women aviation record holders

masks:
Marina Mikhaylovna Rasko
Marina Malinina
Marina
Raskova
Raskova
Raskova
Raskova
Raskova


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Sir <mask>  (born 9 February 1951) is a British civil servant who served as chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee and Head of Intelligence Assessment for Her Majesty's Government between 2007 and 2011. He resigned as the Prime Minister's Independent advisor on ministerial standards in November 2020. Early life

<mask> is the son of <mask>, <mask> of Kilmahew. Between 1964 and 1969 <mask> was educated at Harrow School, followed by obtaining a BA (Hon) degree in Mathematics from Clare College, Cambridge in 1972. In 1973 he also received an MSc degree in Statistics from University College London. Civil Service career
 1973 to 1992 – <mask> had various appointments in Customs & Excise and HM Treasury, aside from two years as a freelance computer consultant in Australia (1983–1985). 1992 to 1997 – he was the principal private secretary to the Prime Minister (John Major to April 1997, and Tony Blair to Aug 1997).1997 to 1999 – he was the British High Commissioner to Australia. 1999 to 2000 – he was e-Envoy for the British Government (succeeded by Andrew Pinder). 2001 to 2004 – he moved to Western Australia, where he worked on a range of IT, government and international issues. This included chairing of the inaugural iVEC board. Permanent Secretary of the Department for Constitutional Affairs

<mask> was the first Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Justice, having been the last Permanent Secretary of the Department for Constitutional Affairs from which it was created, together with the addition of HM Prison Service and the Office for Criminal Justice Reform, which were taken from the Home Office. <mask> served in both of these roles from 1 August 2004 to 15 November 2007. An historical attribute of the role of Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Justice and its predecessor departments (which included the Lord Chancellor's Department) is that it carries with it the role of Clerk of the Crown in Chancery, an ancient Office, which entails responsibility for overseeing the creation of Letters Patent under the Great Seal, discharged by the Crown Office, itself based in the House of Lords.The Clerk of the Crown in Chancery also has various other responsibilities, including the State Opening of Parliament, and the Prorogation of Parliament. Until the role of the Lord Speaker was carved out of that of the Lord Chancellor, the Clerk of the Crown in Chancery occupied one of Parliament's most prestigious rooms, adjacent to those of the Lord Chancellor. <mask> was the last Permanent Secretary and Clerk of the Crown in Chancery to enjoy this splendid room, which he agreed to surrender to the House Authorities so that they could provide suitable accommodation for the newly created Lord Speaker. The only alternative would have been for his political master, the Lord Chancellor, to have given up his room. On 17 October 2006, <mask> submitted oral evidence to the Constitutional Affairs Committee. He was questioned on the 're-organisation of the centre of the Department' (for constitutional affairs) which he stated in his annual report. <mask> was asked what he thought were the key changes he had made to the department since his two years in the post.He stated that the key changes to the Department for Constitutional affairs were structural. <mask> admitted the department faced big challenges and that there was a lot still to be done. <mask> was also questioned over the 'chaos' of the Oracle system (a computer system used by the department). On 6 February 2007 <mask> attended a meeting with the management board for the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO). His duty was to brief the board about the Department for Constitutional Affairs' approach to information rights and the ICO itself. In this meeting <mask> recognised inadequate pay as being a key issue in the ICO and across the Department for Constitutional Affairs. On 4 July 2007, before the Constitutional Affairs Committee, <mask> was asked whether he had written an article for MP Vera Baird in The Times.He denied the accusation. Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)

On 15 November 2007 he was appointed Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee and Head of Intelligence Assessment. <mask>'s role was to collect intelligence from the Security Service, MI5, the Secret Intelligence Service, MI6, GCHQ and other sources of intelligence, and present them to ministers as threats developed. He had access to the Prime Minister at all times and also top secret US and UK intelligence reports. <mask> was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 2012 New Year Honours. Independent advisor on ministerial standards

In November 2011 he was appointed by David Cameron as the Prime Minister's independent advisor on ministerial standards. In 2012 he said to a public administration committee of MPs that if ever he were "bypassed", he would step down.He resigned from the post on 20 November 2020 after PM Boris Johnson backed Priti Patel following a report <mask> had compiled that concluded that Patel's approach "amounted to behaviour that can be described as bullying" and that she had "not consistently met the high standards expected of her". Personal life

<mask> is responsible for a Grateful Dead lyric and song finder website. <mask> windsurfed to work in a suit and bowler hat down the River Thames during a train strike. He published his personal details on his own website, including his address, telephone number and details of family and friends, which was described by a security official as "a serious breach". <mask> lists bridge and computers as his interests. Illness

On 3 July 2008 it was reported that <mask> was unconscious and seriously ill in hospital after he collapsed at his home earlier in the week. Government sources said that there was no sign of foul play.It has been suggested by the media that <mask> was poisoned by one of several organisations, including Al Qaeda, or the Russian Government, but this was dismissed by New Scotland Yard. On 10 July 2008 a Cabinet Office spokesman said <mask> had regained consciousness but for now would remain in hospital to regain his strength. David Miliband MP briefly mentioned <mask> and his illness in Parliament (17 July 2008):

Very briefly, I would like to put it on record that I have known <mask> for 11 years now, and a couple of hon. Members referred to his recent illness and passed on their best wishes to him. I am delighted to say that he will be able to recognise the warmth and strength of that feeling when it is passed on to him in hospital. I am sure that we all wish him a speedy and full recovery from his illness. On 13 October 2008 he reportedly responded to an enquiry concerning a personal bookplate (designed by Anne Jope).The unusual bookplate depicts a skeletal figure operating a computer. References

External links
 Whitegum.com– personal website

1951 births
Living people
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
Civil servants in HM Customs and Excise
Civil servants in HM Treasury
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Private secretaries in the British Civil Service
Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Constitutional Affairs
Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Justice
Chairs of the Joint Intelligence Committee (United Kingdom)
High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to Australia
Principal Private Secretaries to the Prime Minister
Sons of life peers
Alumni of University College London

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<mask> (December 13, 1887 – September 2, 1964), also known as <mask>,  was one of the most decorated  United States Army soldiers of World War I. He received the Medal of Honor for leading an attack on a German machine gun nest, gathered 35 machine guns, killing at least 25 enemy soldiers and capturing 132 prisoners. <mask>'s Medal of Honor action occurred during the United States-led portion of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in France, which was intended to breach the Hindenburg line and force the Germans to surrender. He earned decorations from several allied countries during WWI, including France, Italy and Montenegro. <mask> was born in rural Tennessee, in what is now the community of Pall Mall in Fentress County. His parents farmed, and his father worked as a blacksmith. The eleven <mask> children had minimal schooling because they helped provide for the family, including hunting, fishing, and working as laborers.After the death of his father, <mask> assisted in caring for his younger siblings and found work as a blacksmith. Despite being a regular churchgoer, <mask> also drank heavily and was prone to fistfights. After a 1914 conversion experience, he vowed to improve and became even more devoted to the Church of Christ in Christian Union. <mask> was drafted during World War I; he initially claimed conscientious objector status on the grounds that his religious denomination forbade violence. Persuaded that his religion was not incompatible with military service, <mask> joined the 82nd Division as an infantry private and went to France in 1918. In October 1918, Private First Class (Acting Corporal) <mask> was one of a group of seventeen soldiers assigned to infiltrate German lines and silence a machine gun position. After the American patrol had captured a large group of enemy soldiers, German small arms fire killed six Americans and wounded three.Several of the Americans returned fire while others guarded the prisoners. <mask> and the other Americans attacked the machine gun position, killing several German soldiers. The German officer responsible for the machine gun position had emptied his pistol while firing at <mask> but failed to hit him. This officer then offered to surrender and <mask> accepted. <mask> and his men marched back to their unit's command post with more than 130 prisoners. <mask> was later promoted to sergeant and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. An investigation resulted in the upgrading of the award to the Medal of Honor.<mask>'s feat made him a national hero and international celebrity among allied nations. After Armistice Day, a group of Tennessee businessmen purchased a farm for <mask>, his new wife, and their growing family. He later formed a charitable foundation to improve educational opportunities for children in rural Tennessee. In the 1930s and 1940s, <mask> worked as a project superintendent for the Civilian Conservation Corps and managed construction of the Byrd Lake reservoir at Cumberland Mountain State Park, after which he served for several years as park superintendent. A 1941 film about his World War I exploits, <mask>, was that year's highest-grossing film; Gary Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of <mask>, and the film was credited with enhancing American morale as the US mobilized for action in World War II. In his later years, <mask> was confined to bed by health problems. He died in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1964 and was buried at Wolf River Cemetery in his hometown of Pall Mall, Tennessee.Early life and ancestry
<mask> <mask> was born in a two-room log cabin in Fentress County, Tennessee. He was the third child born to William Uriah <mask> and Mary Elizabeth (Brooks<mask>. William Uriah <mask> was born in Jamestown, Tennessee, to Uriah <mask> and Eliza Jane Livingston, who had moved to Tennessee from Buncombe County, North Carolina. Mary Elizabeth <mask> was born in Pall Mall to William Brooks, who took his mother's maiden name as an alias of William H. Harrington after deserting from Company A of the 11th Michigan Cavalry Regiment during the American Civil War, and Nancy Pyle, and was the great-granddaughter of Conrad "Coonrod" Pyle, an English settler who settled Pall Mall, Tennessee. <mask> and Mary Brooks married on December 25, 1881, and had eleven children: Henry Singleton, Joseph Marion, <mask>, Samuel John, Albert, Hattie, George Alexander, James Preston, Lillian Mae, Robert Daniel, and Lucy Erma. The <mask> family is mainly of English ancestry, with Scots-Irish ancestry as well. The family resided in the Indian Creek area of Fentress County.The family was impoverished, with <mask> working as a blacksmith to supplement the family's income. The men of the <mask> family farmed and harvested their own food, while the mother made all of the family's clothing. The <mask> sons attended school for only nine months and withdrew from education because <mask> needed them to help work on the family farm, hunt, and fish to help feed the family. When <mask> died in November 1911, his son <mask> helped his mother raise his younger siblings. <mask> was the oldest sibling still residing in the county, since his two older brothers had married and relocated. To supplement the family's income, <mask> worked in Harriman, Tennessee, first in railroad construction and then as a logger. By all accounts, he was a skilled laborer who was devoted to the welfare of his family, and a crack shot.<mask> was also a violent alcoholic prone to fighting in saloons. In one of the saloon fights his best friend was killed. <mask> also accumulated several arrests within the area. His mother, a member of a pacifist Protestant denomination, tried to persuade <mask> to change his ways. World War I

Despite his history of drinking and fighting, <mask> attended church regularly and often led the hymn singing. A revival meeting at the end of 1914 led him to a conversion experience on January 1, 1915. His congregation was the Church of Christ in Christian Union, a Protestant denomination that shunned secular politics and disputes between Christian denominations.This church had no specific doctrine of pacifism but it had been formed in reaction to the Methodist Episcopal Church, South's support of slavery, including armed conflict during the American Civil War, and it opposed all forms of violence. In a lecture later in life, <mask> reported his reaction to the outbreak of World War I: "I was worried clean through. I didn't want to go and kill. I believed in my Bible." On June 5, 1917, at the age of 29, <mask> registered for the draft as all men between 21 and 30 years of age were required to do as a result of the Selective Service Act. When he registered for the draft, he answered the question "Do you claim exemption from draft (specify grounds)?" by writing "Yes.Don't Want To Fight." When his initial claim for conscientious objector status was denied, he appealed. During World War I, conscientious objector status did not exempt the objector from military duty. Such individuals could still be drafted and were given assignments that did not conflict with their anti-war principles. In November 1917, while <mask>'s application was considered, he was drafted and began his army service at Camp Gordon, Georgia. From the day he registered for the draft until he returned from the war on May 29, 1919, <mask> kept a diary of his activities. In his diary, <mask> wrote that he refused to sign documents provided by his pastor seeking a discharge from the Army on religious grounds and similar documents provided by his mother asserting a claim of exemption as the sole support of his mother and siblings.Despite his initial, signed request for an exemption, he later disclaimed ever having been a conscientious objector. Entry into service
<mask> served in Company G, 328th Infantry, 82nd Division. Deeply troubled by the conflict between his pacifism and his training for war, he spoke at length with his company commander, Captain Edward Courtney Bullock Danforth Jr. (1894–1974) of Augusta, Georgia, and his battalion commander, Major G. Edward Buxton of Providence, Rhode Island, a devout Christian himself. Biblical passages about violence ("He that hath no sword, let him sell his cloak and buy one." "Render unto Caesar ..." "... if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight.") cited by Danforth persuaded York to reconsider the morality of his participation in the war. Granted a 10-day leave to visit home, he returned convinced that God meant for him to fight and would keep him safe, as committed to his new mission as he had been to pacifism.He served with his division in the St. Mihiel Offensive. Medal of Honor action

In an October 8, 1918, attack that occurred during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, York's battalion aimed to capture German positions near Hill 223 () along the Decauville railroad north of Chatel-Chéhéry, France. His actions that day earned him the Medal of Honor. He later recalled:
The Germans got us, and they got us right smart. They just stopped us dead in our tracks. Their machine guns were up there on the heights overlooking us and well hidden, and we couldn't tell for certain where the terrible heavy fire was coming from ... And I'm telling you they were shooting straight. Our boys just went down like the long grass before the mowing machine at home.Our attack just faded out ... And there we were, lying down, about halfway across [the valley] and those German machine guns and big shells getting us hard. Under the command of Cpl. (Acting Sergeant) Bernard Early, four non-commissioned officers, including Acting Corporal <mask>, and thirteen privates were ordered to infiltrate the German lines to take out the machine guns. The group worked their way behind the Germans and overran the headquarters of a German unit, capturing a large group of German soldiers who were preparing a counter-attack against the U.S. troops. Early's men were contending with the prisoners when German machine gun fire suddenly peppered the area, killing six Americans and wounding three others. Several of the Americans returned fire while others guarded the prisoners. From his advantageous position, <mask> fought the Germans.York recalled:
And those machine guns were spitting fire and cutting down the undergrowth all around me something awful. And the Germans were yelling orders. You never heard such a racket in all of your life. I didn't have time to dodge behind a tree or dive into the brush ... As soon as the machine guns opened fire on me, I began to exchange shots with them. There were over thirty of them in continuous action, and all I could do was touch the Germans off just as fast as I could. I was sharp shooting ... All the time I kept yelling at them to come down. I didn't want to kill any more than I had to.But it was they or I. And I was giving them the best I had. During the assault, a German officer led several Germans to the scene of the fighting and ran into <mask> who shot several of them with his pistol. Imperial German Army First Lieutenant Paul Jürgen Vollmer, commanding the 120th Reserve Infantry Regiment's 1st Battalion, emptied his pistol trying to kill York while he was contending with the machine guns. Failing to injure <mask>, and seeing his mounting losses, he offered in English to surrender the unit to <mask> who accepted. At the end of the engagement, <mask> and his seven men marched their German prisoners back to the American lines. Upon returning to his unit, York reported to his brigade commander, Brigadier General Julian Robert Lindsey, who remarked: "Well <mask>, I hear you have captured the whole German army."<mask> replied: "No sir. I got only 132." <mask>'s actions silenced the German machine guns and were responsible for enabling the 328th Infantry to renew its attack to capture the Decauville Railroad. Post-battle

<mask> was promptly promoted to sergeant and received the Distinguished Service Cross. A few months later, an investigation by <mask>'s chain of command resulted in an upgrade of his Distinguished Service Cross to the Medal of Honor, which was presented by the commanding general of the American Expeditionary Forces, General John J. Pershing. The French Republic awarded him the Croix de Guerre, Medaille Militaire and Legion of Honor. In addition to his French medals, Italy awarded <mask> the Croce al Merito di Guerra and Montenegro decorated him with its War Medal.He eventually received nearly 50 decorations. York's Medal of Honor citation reads:

In attempting to explain his actions during the 1919 investigation that resulted in the Medal of Honor, <mask> told General Lindsey "A higher power than man guided and watched over me and told me what to do." Lindsey replied "<mask>, you are right." Biographer David D. Lee (2000) wrote:

Homecoming and fame
Before leaving France, <mask> was his division's noncommissioned officer delegate to the caucus which created the American Legion, of which <mask> was a charter member. <mask>'s heroism went unnoticed in the United States press, even in Tennessee, until the publication of the April 26, 1919, issue of the Saturday Evening Post, which had a circulation in excess of 2 million. In an article titled "The Second Elder Gives Battle", journalist George Pattullo, who had learned of <mask>'s story while touring battlefields earlier in the year, laid out the themes that have dominated York's story ever since: the mountaineer, his religious faith and skill with firearms, patriotic, plainspoken and unsophisticated, an uneducated man who "seems to do everything correctly by intuition." In response, the Tennessee Society, a group of Tennesseans living in New York City, arranged celebrations to greet <mask> upon his return to the United States, including a 5-day furlough to allow for visits to New York City and Washington, D.C. York arrived in Hoboken, New Jersey, on May 22, stayed at the Waldorf Astoria, and attended a formal banquet in his honor.He toured the subway system in a special car before continuing to Washington, where the House of Representatives gave him a standing ovation and he met Secretary of War Newton D. Baker and the President's secretary Joe Tumulty, as President Wilson was still in Paris. <mask> proceeded to Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, where he was discharged from the service, and then to Tennessee for more celebrations. He had been home for barely a week when, on June 7, 1919, <mask> and Gracie Loretta Williams were married by Tennessee Governor Albert H. Roberts in Pall Mall. More celebrations followed the wedding, including a week-long trip to Nashville where York accepted a special medal awarded by the state. <mask> refused many offers to profit from his fame, including thousands of dollars offered for appearances, product endorsements, newspaper articles, and movie rights to his life story. Instead, he lent his name to various charitable and civic causes. To support economic development, he campaigned for the Tennessee government to build a road to service his native region, succeeding when a highway through the mountains was completed in the mid-1920s and named Alvin C. York Highway.The Nashville Rotary organized the purchase, by public subscription, of a  farm, the one gift that York accepted. However, it was not the fully equipped farm he was promised, requiring York to borrow money to stock it. He subsequently lost money in the farming depression that followed the war. Then the Rotary was unable to continue the installment payments on the property, leaving York to pay them himself. In 1921, he had no option but to seek public help, resulting in an extended discussion of his finances in the press, some of it sharply critical. Debt in itself was a trial: "I could get used to most any kind of hardship, but I'm not fitted for the hardship of owing money." Only an appeal to Rotary Clubs nationwide and an account of York's plight in the New York World brought in the required contributions by Christmas 1921.After the war
In the 1920s, <mask> formed the Alvin C. York Foundation with the mission of increasing educational opportunities in his region of Tennessee. Board members included the area's congressman, Cordell Hull, who later became Secretary of State under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo, who was President Wilson's son-in-law, and Tennessee Governor Albert Roberts. Plans called for a non-sectarian institution providing vocational training to be called the York Agricultural Institute. York concentrated on fund-raising, though he disappointed audiences who wanted to hear about the Argonne when he instead explained that "I occupied one space in a fifty mile front. I saw so little it hardly seems worthwhile discussing it. I'm trying to forget the war in the interest of the mountain boys and girls that I grew up among." He fought first to win financial support from the state and county, then battled local leaders about the school's location.Refusing to compromise, he resigned and developed plans for a rival York Industrial School. After a series of lawsuits he

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