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<mask> (; born Yuliya Stoyanova Krasteva, ; on 24 June 1941) is a  Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, semiotician, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who has lived in France since the mid-1960s. She is now a professor emerita at the  University Paris Diderot. The author of more than 30 books, including  Powers of Horror, Tales of Love, Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia, Proust and the Sense of Time, and the trilogy Female Genius, she has been awarded Commander of the Legion of Honor, Commander of the Order of Merit, the Holberg International Memorial Prize, the Hannah Arendt Prize, and the Vision 97 Foundation Prize, awarded by the Havel Foundation. Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural studies and feminism after publishing her first book, Semeiotikè, in 1969. Her sizeable body of work includes books and essays which address intertextuality, the semiotic, and abjection, in the fields of linguistics, literary theory and criticism, psychoanalysis, biography and autobiography, political and cultural analysis, art and art history. She is prominent in structuralist and poststructuralist thought. <mask> is also the founder of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee.Life
Born in Sliven, Bulgaria to Christian parents, Kristeva is the daughter of a church accountant. Kristeva and her sister attended a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns. Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria. Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and while a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to move to France in December 1965, when she was 24. She continued her education at several French universities, studying under Lucien Goldmann and Roland Barthes, among other scholars. On August 2, 1967, Kristeva married the novelist Philippe Sollers, born Philippe Joyaux. Kristeva taught at Columbia University in the early 1970s, and remains a Visiting Professor.She has also published under the married name <mask>. Work
After joining the 'Tel Quel group' founded by Sollers, <mask>  focused on the politics of language and became an active member of the group. She trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979. In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism. For example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Lacan. However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense; instead, she favors a subject always "in process" or "on trial". In this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis.She travelled to China in the 1970s and later wrote About Chinese Women (1977). The "semiotic" and the "symbolic"
One of Kristeva's most important contributions is that signification is composed of two elements, the symbolic and the semiotic, the latter being distinct from the discipline of semiotics founded by Ferdinand de Saussure. As explained by Augustine Perumalil, Kristeva's "semiotic is closely related to the infantile pre-Oedipal referred to in the works of Freud, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein, British Object Relation psychoanalysis, and Lacan's pre-mirror stage. It is an emotional field, tied to the instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words." Furthermore, according to Birgit Schippers, the semiotic is a realm associated with the musical, the poetic, the rhythmic, and that which lacks structure and meaning. It is closely tied to the "feminine", and represents the undifferentiated state of the pre-Mirror Stage infant. Upon entering the Mirror Stage, the child learns to distinguish between self and other, and enters the realm of shared cultural meaning, known as the symbolic.In Desire in Language (1980), <mask> describes the symbolic as the space in which the development of language allows the child to become a "speaking subject," and to develop a sense of identity separate from the mother. This process of separation is known as abjection, whereby the child must reject and move away from the mother in order to enter into the world of language, culture, meaning, and the social. This realm of language is called the symbolic and is contrasted with the semiotic in that it is associated with the masculine, the law, and structure. <mask> departs from Lacan in the idea that even after entering the symbolic, the subject continues to oscillate between the semiotic and the symbolic. Therefore, rather than arriving at a fixed identity, the subject is permanently "in process". Because female children continue to identify to some degree with the mother figure, they are especially likely to retain a close connection to the semiotic. This continued identification with the mother may result in what <mask> refers to in Black Sun (1989) as melancholia (depression), given that female children simultaneously reject and identify with the mother figure.It has also been suggested (e.g., Creed, 1993) that the degradation of women and women's bodies in popular culture (and particularly, for example, in slasher films) emerges because of the threat to identity that the mother's body poses: it is a reminder of time spent in the undifferentiated state of the semiotic, where one has no concept of self or identity. After abjecting the mother, subjects retain an unconscious fascination with the semiotic, desiring to reunite with the mother, while at the same time fearing the loss of identity that accompanies it. Slasher films thus provide a way for audience members to safely reenact the process of abjection by vicariously expelling and destroying the mother figure. Kristeva is also known for her adoption of Plato’s idea of the chora, meaning "a nourishing maternal space" (Schippers, 2011). Kristeva's idea of the chora has been interpreted in several ways: as a reference to the uterus, as a metaphor for the relationship between the mother and child, and as the temporal period preceding the Mirror Stage. In her essay Motherhood According to Giovanni Bellini from Desire in Language (1980), Kristeva refers to the chora as a "non-expressive totality formed by drives and their stases in a motility that is full of movement as it is regulated." She goes on to suggest that it is the mother's body that mediates between the chora and the symbolic realm: the mother has access to culture and meaning, yet also forms a totalizing bond with the child.Kristeva is also noted for her work on the concept of intertextuality. Anthropology and psychology
Kristeva argues that anthropology and psychology, or the connection between the social and the subject, do not represent each other, but rather follow the same logic: the survival of the group and the subject. Furthermore, in her analysis of Oedipus, she claims that the speaking subject cannot exist on his/her own, but that he/she "stands on the fragile threshold as if stranded on account of an impossible demarcation" (Powers of Horror, p. 85). In her comparison between the two disciplines, Kristeva claims that the way in which an individual excludes the abject mother as a means of forming an identity, is the same way in which societies are constructed. On a broader scale, cultures exclude the maternal and the feminine, and by this come into being. Feminism
Kristeva has been regarded as a key proponent of French feminism together with Simone de Beauvoir, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. Kristeva has had a remarkable influence on feminism and feminist literary studies in the US and the UK, as well as on readings into contemporary art although her relation to feminist circles and movements in France has been quite controversial.<mask> made a famous disambiguation of three types of feminism in "Women's Time" in New Maladies of the Soul (1993); while rejecting the first two types, including that of Beauvoir, her stands are sometimes considered rejecting feminism altogether. Kristeva proposed the idea of multiple sexual identities against the joined code  of "unified feminine language". Denunciation of identity politics
<mask> argues her writings have been misunderstood by American feminist academics. In <mask>'s view, it was not enough simply to dissect the structure of language in order to find its hidden meaning. Language should also be viewed through the prisms of history and of individual psychic and sexual experiences. This post-structuralist approach enabled specific social groups to trace the source of their oppression to the very language they used. However, Kristeva believes that it is harmful to posit collective identity above individual identity, and that this political assertion of sexual, ethnic, and religious identities is ultimately totalitarian.Novelist
<mask> wrote a number of novels that resemble detective stories. While the books maintain narrative suspense and develop a stylized surface, her readers also encounter ideas intrinsic to her theoretical projects. Her characters reveal themselves mainly through psychological devices, making her type of fiction mostly resemble the later work of Dostoevsky. Her fictional oeuvre, which includes The Old Man and the Wolves, Murder in Byzantium, and Possessions, while often allegorical, also approaches the autobiographical in some passages, especially with one of the protagonists of Possessions, Stephanie Delacour—a French journalist—who can be seen as <mask>'s alter ego. Murder in Byzantium deals with themes from orthodox Christianity and politics; she referred to it as "a kind of anti-Da Vinci Code". Honors
For her "innovative explorations of questions on the intersection of language, culture and literature", <mask> was awarded the Holberg International Memorial Prize in 2004. She won the 2006 Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thought.She has also been awarded Commander of the Legion of Honor, Commander of the Order of Merit, and the Vaclav Havel Prize. On October 10, 2019, she received an honoris causa doctorate from Universidade Católica Portuguesa. Scholarly reception
Roman Jakobson said that "Both readers and listeners, whether agreeing or in stubborn disagreement with <mask>va, feel indeed attracted to her contagious voice and to her genuine gift of questioning generally adopted 'axioms,' and her contrary gift of releasing various 'damned questions' from their traditional question marks." Roland Barthes comments that "<mask>va changes the place of things: she always destroys the last prejudice, the one you thought you could be reassured by, could be take [sic] pride in; what she

masks:
Julia Kristeva
Kristeva
Julia Joyaux
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Kristeva
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste


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 displaces is the already-said, the déja-dit, i.e., the instance of the signified, i.e., stupidity; what she subverts is authority -the authority of monologic science, of filiation." Ian Almond criticizes Kristeva's ethnocentrism. He cites Gayatri Spivak's conclusion that Kristeva's book About Chinese Women "belongs to that very eighteenth century [that] Kristeva scorns" after pinpointing "the brief, expansive, often completely ungrounded way in which she writes about  two thousand years of a culture she is unfamiliar with". Almond notes the absence of sophistication in Kristeva's remarks concerning the Muslim world and the dismissive terminology she uses to describe its culture and believers.He criticizes <mask>'s opposition which juxtaposes "Islamic societies" against "democracies where life is still fairly  pleasant" by pointing out that Kristeva displays no awareness of the complex and nuanced debate ongoing among women theorists in the Muslim world, and that she does not refer to anything other than the Rushdie fatwa in dismissing the entire Muslim faith as "reactionary and persecutory". In Impostures Intellectuelles (1997), physics professors Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont devote a chapter to Kristeva's use of mathematics in her writings. They argue that Kristeva fails to show the relevance of the mathematical concepts she discusses to linguistics and the other fields she studies, and that no such relevance exists. Alleged collaboration with the Communist Regime in Bulgaria
In 2018, Bulgaria's state Dossier Commission announced that Kristeva had been an agent for the Committee for State Security  under the code name "Sabina". She was supposedly recruited in June 1971. Five years earlier she left Bulgaria to study in France. Under the People's Republic of Bulgaria, any Bulgarian who wanted to travel abroad had to apply for an exit visa and get an approval from the Ministry of Interior.The process was long and difficult because anyone who made it to the west could declare political asylum. Kristeva has called the allegations "grotesque and false". On 30 March, the state Dossier Commission began publishing online the entire set of documents reflecting Kristeva's activity as an informant of the former Committee for State Security. She vigorously denies the charges. Neal Ascherson wrote:  "...the recent fuss about <mask>va boils down to nothing much, although it has suited some to inflate it into a fearful scandal... But the reality shown in her files is trivial. After settling in Paris in 1965, she was cornered by Bulgarian spooks who pointed out to her that she still had a vulnerable family in the home country.So she agreed to regular meetings over many years, in the course of which she seems to have told her handlers nothing more than gossip about Aragon, Bataille & Co. from the Left Bank cafés – stuff they could have read in Le Canard enchaîné... the combined intelligence value of its product and her reports was almost zero. The Bulgarian security men seem to have known they were being played. But never mind: they could impress their boss by showing him a real international celeb on their books..."

Selected writings

Linguistic and literature
Séméiôtiké: recherches pour une sémanalyse, Paris, Seuil, 1969 (trans. in Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art, New York, Columbia University Press, Blackwell, London, 1980)
Le langage, cet inconnu: Une initiation à la linguistique, S.G.P.P., 1969; new ed., coll. Points, Seuil, 1981 (trans. in 1981 as Language. The Unknown: an Initiation into Linguistics, Columbia University Press, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1989)
La révolution du langage poétique: L'avant-garde à la fin du 19e siècle: Lautréamont et Mallarmé, Seuil, Paris, 1974 (abridged trans.containing only the first third of the original French edition, Revolution in Poetic Language, Columbia University Press, New York, 1984)
Polylogue, Seuil, Paris, 1977 (trans. in Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art, New York, Columbia University Press, Blackwell, London, 1980)
Histoires d’amour, Denoël, Paris, 1983 (trans. Tales of Love, Columbia University Press, New York, 1987)
Le temps sensible. Proust et l’expérience littéraire, Gallimard, Paris, 1994 (trans. Time and Sense: Proust and the experience of literature, Columbia University Press, New York, 1996)
Dostoïevski, Buchet-Chastel, Paris, 2020

Psychoanalysis and philosophy
Pouvoirs de l’horreur. Essai sur l’abjection (trans. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, Columbia University Press, New York, 1982)
Au commencement était l’amour.Psychanalyse et foi, Hachette, Paris, 1985 (trans. In the Beginning Was Love. Psychoanalysis and Faith, Columbia University Press, New York, 1987)
Soleil Noir. Dépression et mélancolie, Gallimard, Paris, 1987 (trans. The Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia, Columbia University Press, New York, 1989)
Etrangers à nous-mêmes, Fayard, Paris, 1988 (Strangers to Ourselves, Columbia University Press, New York, 1991)
Lettre ouverte à Harlem Désir, Rivages, Paris, 1990, (trans. Nations without Nationalism. Columbia University Press, New York, 1993
Les Nouvelles maladies de l’âme, Fayard, Paris, 1993 (trans.New Maladies of the Soul. Columbia University Press, New York, 1995)
Sens et non sens de la révolte, Fayard, Paris, 1996 (trans. The Sense of Revolt, Columbia University Press, 2000)
 La Révolte intime, Fayard, 1997 (trans. Intimate Revolt, Columbia University Press, 2002)
Le Génie féminin: la vie, la folie, les mots, Fayard, Paris, 1999- (trans. Female Genius: Life, Madness, Words, Columbia University Press, New York, 2001–2004):
1. Hannah Arendt ou l’action comme naissance et comme étrangeté, vol. 1, Fayard, Paris, 1999
2.Melanie Klein ou le matricide comme douleur et comme créativité: la folie, vol. 2, Fayard, Paris, 2000
3. Colette ou la chair du monde, vol. 3, Fayard, Paris, 2002
Vision capitales, Réunion des musées nationaux, 1998 (trans. The Severed Head: capital visions, Columbia University Press, New York, 2012)

Autobiographical essays
Des Chinoises, édition des Femmes, Paris, 1974 (About Chinese Women, Marion Boyars, London, 1977
Du mariage considéré comme un des Beaux-Arts, Fayard, Paris, 2015 (Marriage as a Fine Art (with Philippe Sollers) Columbia University Press, New York 2016
Je me voyage. Mémoires. Entretien avec Samuel Dock, Fayard, Paris, 2016 (A Journey Across Borders and Through Identities.Conversations with Samuel Dock, in The Philosophy of <mask>, ed. Sara Beardsworth, The Library of Living Philosophers, vo. 36, Open Cort, Chicago, 2020)

Collection of essays
The Kristeva Reader, ed. Toril Moi, Columbia University Press, New York, 1986
The Portable Kristeva, ed. Kelly Oliver, Columbia University Press, New York, 1997
Crisis of the European Subject, Other Press, New York, 2000
La Haine et le pardon, ed. with a foreword by Pierre-Louis Fort, Fayard, Paris, 2005 (trans. Hatred and forgiveness, Columbia University Press, New York, 2010)
Pulsions du temps, foreword, edition and notes by David Uhrig, Fayard, Paris, 2013 (trans.Passions of Our Time, ed. with a foreword by Lawrence D. Kritzman, Columbia University Press, New York, 2019)

Novels
Les Samouraïs, Fayard, Paris, 1990 (trans. The Samurai: A Novel, Columbia University Press, New York, 1992)
Le Vieil homme et les loups, Fayard, Paris, 1991(trans. The Old Man and the Wolves, Columbia University Press, New York, 1994)
Possessions, Fayard, Paris, 1996 (trans. Possessions: A Novel, Columbia University Press, New York, 1998)
Meurtre à Byzance, Fayard, Paris, 2004 (trans. Murder in Byzantium, Columbia University Press, New York, 2006)
Thérèse mon amour : récit. Sainte Thérèse d’Avila, Fayard, 2008 (trans.Teresa, my love. An Imagined Life of the Saint of Avila, Columbia University Press, New York, 2015)
L’Horloge enchantée, Fayard, Paris, 2015 (trans. The Enchanted Clock, Columbia University Press, 2017)

See also

References

Further reading

Books about <mask>va
 Beardsworth, Sara, The Philosophy of <mask>, The Library of Living Philosophers, vol. 36, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Open Court, Chicago, 2020
Jardine, Alice, At the Risk of Thinking. An Intellectual Biography of <mask>, Bloomsbury, New York, 2020
Ivantcheva-Merjanska, Irene, Ecrire dans la langue de l'autre. Assia Djebar et <mask>va, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2015. Kelly Ives, <mask>va: art, love, melancholy, philosophy, semiotics and psychoanalysis, Crescent Moon, Maidstone, 2013
Becker-Leckrone, Megan, <mask>va And Literary Theory, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
 Beardsworth, Sara, Psychoanalysis and Modernity, Suny Press, Albany, 2004
Radden, Jennifer, The Nature of Melancholy: From Aristotle to Kristeva, Oxford University Press, 2000
 Lechte, John, and Margaroni, Maria, <mask>va: Live Theory, Continuum, 2004
 McAfee, Noëlle, <mask>va, Routledge, London, 2004
 Smith, Anna, <mask>va: Readings of Exile and Estrangement, St. Martin's Press, New york, 1996.Oliver, Kelly, Ethics, Politics, and Difference in <mask>'s Writing, Routledge Édition, New York, 1993
Crownfield, David, Body/Text in <mask>: Religion, Women, and Psychoanalysis, State University of New York Press, 1992
Oliver, Kelly, Reading Kristeva. Unraveling the Double-bind, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1983

External links

 Holberg Prize
 Interview with <mask> in Exberliner Magazine
 <mask>: A Bibliography by Hélène Volat
 Goodnow, Katherine J.(2015). <mask> in Focus: From Theory to Film Analysis Berghahn Books. 1941 births
Living people
20th-century French philosophers
21st-century French philosophers
21st-century French writers
20th-century Bulgarian women writers
20th-century Bulgarian writers
20th-century French women writers
20th-century French writers
21st-century French women writers
Writers from Sliven
University of Paris faculty
Bulgarian emigrants to France
Bulgarian literary critics
Bulgarian literary theorists
Bulgarian communists
Bulgarian novelists
Bulgarian women novelists
Bulgarian philosophers
French literary critics
Women literary critics
French literary theorists
French psychoanalysts
French women novelists
French feminists
Bulgarian feminists
Poststructuralists
French semioticians
Bulgarian semioticians
Feminist theorists
Feminist writers
Philosophers of sexuality
Postmodern feminists
Women and psychology
Continental philosophers
Women philosophers
French women philosophers
Women sociologists
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Commanders of the National Order of Merit (France)
Holberg Prize laureates
Columbia University faculty
Bulgarian atheists
Bulgarian women philosophers
Communist women writers
20th-century Bulgarian novelists
French people of Bulgarian descent
Corresponding Fellows of the British

masks:
Kristeva
Julia Kriste
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kriste
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste
Julia Kriste
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kristeva
Julia Kristeva
Kristeva


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<mask>, 10th Earl of Dunbar and March (1338–1422), 12th Lord of Annandale and Lord of the Isle of Man, was "one of the most powerful nobles in Scotland of his time, and the rival of the Douglases." Family
Pitscottie states that this <mask> is a son of John de Dunbar of Derchester & Birkynside, by his spouse Geiles (or Isabella), daughter of Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray (d. 1332). John was son of Alexander de Dunbar, Knt. (a younger son of Patrick de Dunbar, 7th Earl of March), although some genealogies place John as a son of Patrick de Dunbar, 8th Earl of March. If John's father Alexander was a younger brother of Patrick de Dunbar, "8th" Earl of March, then John is not a younger brother of Sir Patrick de Dunbar, 9th Earl of March. Scots Peerage identifies <mask> as the son of Sir Patrick de Dunbar and Isabella Randolph, the nephew of Patrick, 9th Earl of Dunbar through his marriage to Agnes Randolph. Sir Patrick was the 9th Earl's cousin, his father being Sir Alexander de Dunbar, son of the 7th Earl and younger brother of the 8th Earl.Through these relationships <mask> was both the nephew and cousin of the 9th Earl, and he has been described as both is historical records. <mask>'s mother Isabella and her sister Agnes Randolph (wife of the 9th Earl of Dunbar) were heiresses jointly of their brother, John Randolph, 3rd Earl of Moray. Each received half of the Randolph properties. On 28 June 1363 King David II confirmed a grant in which Patrick, Earl of Dunbar and his wife Agnes resigned half of the baronies of Tibbers and Morton in favor of <mask> Dunbar (he was not yet the 10th Earl), in this document <mask> is described as their cousin. <mask> received the other half of these same estates from his own mother Isabella through normal inheritance. <mask> appears as second witness, styled 'cousin' of Sir Patrick (rather than 'nephew') and his wife 'black' Agnes Randolph, in another charter signed at Dunbar Castle on 24 May 1367. <mask> is said to have succeeded his uncle Sir Patrick to become 10th Earl of Dunbar and this is true, yet it is not.Patrick, 9th Earl of Dunbar resigned the Earldom of Dunbar/March to the crown on 25 July 1368 and the crown re-granted the earldom to his 'cousin' <mask> Dunbar. Although <mask> was the nephew of Sir Patrick by marriage, it was through his relationship as cousin that he received the earldom, that is why the point is so often made that he was his cousin, when the more logical and closer relationship was nephew. He inherited through his blood relationship as cousin, not through his marriage relationship of nephew. "Robetus de Lawedre, consanguineus noster" (a cousin) witnessed a charter of "Georgii comitis Marchie" relating to Sorrowlessfield, a still extant property on the (A68) road south of Earlston, Berwickshire, in the reign (1390–1406) of Robert III, indicating both his extended family and that he was active in the management of the Dunbar family estates during Robert's reign. He married Christina, daughter of Alan de Wyntoun and had at least eight children, including:

 Sir <mask>, 11th Earl of Dunbar & March
 Dame Elizabeth de Dunbar, betrothed to David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, marriage annulled 1397
 Sir Gavin de Dunbar of Cumnock, Ayrshire. Columba de Dunbar, Bishop of Moray
 Patrick de Dunbar of Biel, Haddingtonshire, living 1452. John de Dunbar, believed to have died young
 Sir David de Dunbar of Cockburn, whose daughter, Marjorie/Margaret de Dunbar, married Alexander Lindsay, 4th Earl of Crawford
 Janet, who married as her first husband, Sir John Seton of Seton, Knt.,(died 1441) She married secondly, Adam Johnstone of that Ilk (in Annandale).<mask> Dunbar, 10th Earl of March, also had one known 'natural' son, Nicholas. Nicholas was imprisoned in the Tower in 1421, along with his half-brother David de Dunbar. The name of Nicholas' mother is not known. Nicholas de Dunbar, Esquire, petitioned the Pope in 1394 for a dispensation that he might be ordained. Campaigns and intrigue
The <mask> of March acquired the estates centred on the castles of Morton and Tibbers, with Morton likely becoming the centre of administration for both. The Earl of March accompanied James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas, in his incursion into England, and after the Battle of Otterburn (1388) he took command of the Scots, whom he conducted safely home. Broken Betrothal and Rift with Scotland

In 1395 the Earl's oldest daughter Elizabeth was betrothed by contract to David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, son of King Robert III and heir to the throne.A Papal mandate allowing the marriage was issued 10 August 1395, but the impatient couple were married before the Papal mandate arrived. The Church was not pleased and on 10 March 1397, the Pope issued a dispensation granting that they should be allowed to 'remarry' after a period of separation. Archibald Douglas, 3rd Earl of Douglas, 'The Grim', protested against the match, and through the influence of the Duke of Albany had the contract annulled. Instead of 'remarrying' Elizabeth de Dunbar, his wife of almost 2 years, Prince David married Marjory Douglas, daughter of <mask>. Understandably, this caused a huge rift. Not only had the Dunbar's lost a very important political alliance to their greatest rival but their oldest daughter had been irredeemably sullied. Elizabeth had lived with Prince David, as his wife, for nearly 2 years, luckily there had been no children born.Elizabeth de Burgh would live out the remainder of her days without marrying. Exile to England
In consequence of these events, <mask> renounced his properties in Scotland and his allegiance to Robert III and moved the entire family to England, joining the court of King Henry IV. On 28 June 1401, Henry granted, by Letters Patent, to "<mask> Dunbarre earl of the March of Scotland and Cristiana his wife" the lordship of Somerton in Lincolnshire, and the heirs male of their bodies, to be held by homage and military service. On the same day Henry gave "<mask> Dunbarre earl of the March of Scotland" £100 sterling per annum "of his special favour" and in October granted him 'costs' of £25/9s/7d; and granted his wife "Cristiana countess of Dunbarre" £40/19s/3d "for her charges and expenses coming from the North at his command, to prosecute certain matters touching her husband, herself, and their heirs". Battles
In 1401 he made a wasteful inroad into Scotland, and in June 1402 he was victorious against a small Scottish force at the Battle of Nesbit Moor. At the subsequent Battle of Homildon Hill he again fought on the English side. In the summer of 1403 the Percies declared open revolt against King Henry IV and raised their standard of revolt at Chester.A plan was hatched to seize the King's son, the young Prince of Wales, at Shrewsbury. The plan was foiled by the extreme speed with which Henry IV moved once he heard details of the revolt. "Egged on by his very competent and energetic ally, the renegade Scotsman, <mask>", he drove his men across the Midlands towards Shrewsbury, raising more troops as he went. The Battle of Shrewsbury took place on 21 July 1403, with Dunbar fighting on the side of Henry IV. It was a royal victory and the revolt was, for the moment, over. Estates
Thereafter in the same year "<mask> Dunbar earl of the March of Scotland" petitioned (Parliamentary Petitions, No.961) Henry IV stating that he had lost all his castles, lordships, goods and chattels in Scotland on account of his being his liegeman, and asked the King to "ordain in this parliament that if any conquest is made in the realm of Scotland, the petitioner may have restoration of his castles, &c., and also his special protection for all dwelling in the earldom of March who come to his allegiance hereafter". This was endorsed by the King.On 21 January 1403/4 "<mask> Dunbarre earl of the March of Scotland" received a £100 annuity from Henry IV. Between 14 and 18 August 1403, King Henry granted <mask> Dunbar, Earl of March, the ward of the manors and lordships of Kyme and Croftes in Lincolnshire, and a house and chattels in Bishopsgate, City of London, for life, which had previously belonged to the late Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, and was forfeited by his rebellion. Under a Letters Patent, "the King's cousin, <mask> Dunbarre, Earl of March of Scotland", for "his daily service and great costs" was given the manor of Clippeston in Shirewood by King Henry IV on 10 June 1405. In addition, on 14th of the following month, the King gave him the ward of the lands of the late Thomas Umfraville in Haysille on Humber in York, till the majority of Gilber his heir, or his heirs in succession if he dies in minority. In addition he shared in the forfeited estates of the attainted Thomas Bardolf, 5th Lord Bardolf (who later fell with Percy at the Battle of Bramham Moor in February 1408). However, as the following decree shows, <mask> did not retain them all: "27 April 1407. The King to the sheriff of Lincoln.Referring to the late plea in Chancery between Amicia wife of Thomas, late lord of Bardolf, and <mask> Dunbarre regarding certain lands in Ruskynton forfeited by Thomas, which had been granted by the King to <mask>, with the manor of Calthorpe, the half of Ancaster (and many others), wherein it was adjudged that Rusynton should be excepted from the grant and restored to her with the rents, etc., from 27 November 1405, drawn by <mask>, - the King orders him to restore the same to Amicia. Westminster. [Close, 9 Henry IV. m.17.]". Return to Scotland
Through the mediation of Sir Walter Haliburton of Dirleton, reconciliation with the Douglases was effected in 1408, and he was allowed to return to Scotland the following year, taking possession of his earldom of March, but said to be deprived of the lordship of Annandale. In 1411 he was one of the Scottish Commissioners for negotiating a truce with England, but is said to have died of a contagious fever, in 1420, at the age of 82. Contrary to this, he appears as the grantor in a charter dated 8 September 1422.In it he is identified as the <mask> of March, and one of the witnesses is described by the Earl as 'Christiana my spouse'. This indicates that <mask> the 10th was still alive and still Earl as of September 1422, as his son <mask> the 11th would have described Christiana and 'my mother'. References

 Townend, Peter, editor, Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 105th edition, London, 1970, p. 913. Cokayne, G. E., et al., The Complete Peerage, under 'Dirletoun'. 1338 births
1420 deaths
Scottish soldiers
Scottish expatriates in England
Scottish diplomats
Earls of March (Scotland)
14th-century Scottish earls

masks:
George de Dunbar
George
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George
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George de
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George de
Earl
Earl Douglas
George
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Earl
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George


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<mask> (1939–2011) was an American evangelist and performer, one of the leaders in the Jesus Movement of the late 1960s and 1970s. Early life
Palosaari was a first generation American whose Finnish father emigrated through Ellis Island, New York. Born to John Palosaari and Sara Bishop/LaVeck, in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, he grew up on a goat farm near Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, where he attended Oconomowoc High School. Jesus Movement

Palosaari became a Christian in Seattle, Washington during the Jesus Movement of the late 1960s. Trained in the faith by Linda Meissner, Palosaari and his wife Sue helped to form the nucleus of the Jesus People Army, establishing outposts in Yakima and Spokane, Washington; Boise, Idaho; and Vancouver, B.C. with Russell Griggs. In Milwaukee, the Palosaaris began a coffeehouse, "The Jesus Christ Power House," Sue started a newspaper, "Street Level," <mask> developed a new band, "Sheep," and they began a communal school called "Jesus People Discipleship Training Center" which grew to 200 members.At this time Meissner and Griggs joined the Jesus People Army to the Children of God (later called the Family International), although Palosaari unsuccessfully tried to dissuade them. In 1972, 60 members were sent to join Bill Lowery's tent ministry, "Christ is the Answer" (CITA), and a team of 30, including the band Charity, were sent out, later to reemerge in Chicago as Jesus People USA and "Rez Band". Earlier revivals in Racine, Wisconsin, and Duluth, Minnesota, now became autonomous communes. The Palosaaris and thirty members flew to Sweden as guests of the Full Gospel Business Men, in order to provide a foil for the Children of God in England. Upon arrival, the group spent substantial time in Finland, where Palosaari preached in Temppeliaukion Kirkko, the Stone Church in Helsinki. Sheep produced its first record, "Karitsat Jeesus-rock", in Helsinki, Finland, sung partly in Finnish. From there the group toured for the next six months through Western Europe, including Germany and the Netherlands.The Jesus People entered Great Britain in the fall of 1972 to participate with Russell Griggs and David Hoyt in an exposé of the Children of God, at the invitation of financier Kenneth Frampton. With Frampton's backing Palosaari, Hoyt and the group now calling itself the "Jesus Family", enlarged by half, created the rock musical, "Lonesome Stone," a musical history of the early "Jesus Freaks." The musical opened at London's Rainbow Theatre, eventually touring American air force bases throughout Germany, Great Britain, Canada, and the American Midwest, before closing four years later. While in England, Palosaari, Kenneth Frampton and British national, James Holloway, started what was for many years the largest Christian music festival in the world, Greenbelt. A year later, the Palosaaris, Owen and Sandie Brock, and Paul and Lydia Jenkinson met to form another commune on Vancouver Island, B.C., Canada calling themselves "Highway Missionary Society." Palosaari was the head elder of a council made up of men and women, developing their ideals of community, missionary work, and evangelism. The new group traveled constantly, and quickly formed a nucleus of followers.Palosaari put together the rock band Servant, which became the first Christian rock band to use lasers and an extensive light show. Servant produced six records and traveled throughout the U.S., Canada, and Great Britain, giving Petra their start when Petra opened for them. Community work also involved extensive showing of the movie Brother Sun, Sister Moon, about the life of Saint Francis of Assisi. Eventually the now enlarged communal group settled in Grants Pass, Oregon on land next to the Applegate River, where their interest in Christian community was supported through farming, work in town, and tree-planting. With Sue's effort, the community now formed a children's school. HMS sponsored Vietnamese and Laotian refugees coming into the country in the early 1980s. At this time Palosaari began Rooftop Records, producing one Servant album and sponsoring two other artists.Other work

Palosaari spent his early adult years in the Chicago and the Detroit theater, including The Unstabled Theater run by Edith Carroll Canter and Woodie King, Jr. (Actress Lily Tomlin got her start in the same theater company the year <mask> joined). After leaving HMS, the Palosaaris left to study and work with YWAM on the Big Island of Hawaii, and Oahu. <mask>i went to work in Texas with CITA, which he would continue to return to periodically over the next decade. During this time he also promoted new Christian rock groups, including Newsboys, PID, and Whitecross. In his later years Palosaari worked extensively in charitable fundraising. He narrated the movie Frisbee:  The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher, the story of one of the earliest and most well-known Jesus Freak leaders, Lonnie Frisbee, released in DVD form in January, 2007. Personal life

Palosaari was married four times.He married Joyce Warner in Detroit, in 1962, and moved to New York (Long Island) with his wife and stepson, Michael, about a year later. This union produced one son, Kent. <mask> and Joyce were divorced in 1967. <mask> and Jeanette Palosaari (not married) met in Wisconsin and became parents of a daughter, Sonja, in 1967. They moved together to southern California shortly after her birth. Shortly after his arrival in southern California <mask> moved to northern California. In 1970, <mask> married Susan Cowper, and had four children: Jedidiah, Seth, Cody, and Sophia.In 1981 <mask> and Sue's second oldest son, Seth, died in an automobile accident with two other members of the community. The couple was divorced in 1992. Five years later, Palosaari married Susan Mattson, who died in 2008. In March 2011 Palosaari married Jo Sappenfield. They lived in Palosaari's native state of Wisconsin until his death on May 25, 2011. Palosaari was a self-described Democrat and socialist, committed less to party and politics than to the ideals of social justice, living in poverty, communal living, and a religious lifestyle in which everything is given up for God. He considered himself a Christian Primitivist, trying to live in the 20th century with the ideals of the 1st century Christians.References

Sources
 Encyclopedia of Evangelism
 Jesus People USA Notes
 History of the Jesus Movement, by David de Sabatino
 The Jesus People Movement: An Annotated Bibliography and General Resource by David de Sabatino
 Di Sabatino, David, History of the Jesus Movement: McMaster University, 1995
 Greenbelt History
 Young, Shawn David, Hippies, Jesus Freaks, and Music (Ann Arbor: Xanedu/Copley Original Works, 2005). External links
  Servant
 Documentary of Lonnie's life

American evangelists
Jesus movement
The Family International
People from Oconomowoc, Wisconsin
1939 births
2011 deaths
American people of Finnish descent

masks:
James Michael Palosaari
Jim
Jim
Jim Palosaar
Jim
Jim
Jim
Jim
Jim


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<mask> (born 16 August 1960) is an Australian actor,  writer, producer and convicted child sex offender. He made his professional acting debut as an adolescent in the feature film The Devil's Playground (1976). Early life
<mask> was born 16 August 1960 in Melbourne, Australia. While still at school, <mask> was discovered by Fred Schepisi and cast in The Devil's Playground. He then went on to appear in films such as Mad Dog Morgan, opposite Dennis Hopper and Jack Thompson, and the Bruce Beresford film The Getting of Wisdom, as well as television series including Bellbird, The Sullivans and Twenty Good Years. <mask> moved to Sydney in 1979 after he was cast in Arcade as Robbie Stewart. Career

Television
Kewley appeared in numerous Australian television series including The Henderson Kids II, Prisoner, The Young Doctors, Thunderstone, Cop Shop, The Man From Snowy River, SeaChange, The Secret Life Of Us and Neighbours where he played Dr Adrian Ewart during 1995.From 1994 to 1995, he appeared in the critically acclaimed ABC-TV drama series Janus (1995 Logie Award Winner for Best Drama Series and Best Actor) where he played the lead role of Crown Prosecutor Vic Manoulis. In 1997, he began playing the recurring role of local Mount Thomas journalist Tony Timms in Blue Heelers until the series ended in 2006. And from 2000 to 2004, he played Detective Senior Sergeant Bryan Gray in the Nine Network's undercover police series Stingers (Best Drama Series – 2004 AFI Awards). In 2007, he appeared as Frank Parry QC opposite Jack Thompson and Colin Friels in the ABC-TV mini-series Bastard Boys, and began playing the recurring role of Adam Gardiner in the Nine Network's  outback drama McLeod's Daughters. In 2009/2010, he guest starred in popular Australian series like Bed of Roses and City Homicide. In June 2010, he was cast in the first movie spin-off of Australian series Underbelly, Underbelly Files: Tell Them Lucifer was Here, which tells the story of two murdered police officers. <mask> played one of the lead roles in the Screentime movie which premiered on Australia's Nine Network in February 2011.In 2013 he was cast as notorious Melbourne underworld figure Des 'Tuppence' Moran in the nine-part series Fat Tony & Co. which premiered on the Nine Network in Australia on Sunday 23 February 2014. Movies
He has starred in motion pictures including Amy (1998) opposite Rachel Griffiths, Disappearance (2002) a mystery thriller set in Nevada, in which he starred opposite Harry Hamlin and Susan Dey, and The X Team (2003) a snow-bound action adventure shot in the New Zealand Alps for Touchstone Pictures and Mandalay Pictures. He plays the lead role of US film producer Jerry Goldman in Frank & Jerry (2012); plays Professor Weston-Smith Gurrie in 10 Terrorists (2012) directed by Dee McLachlan; and stars as Roy Rogers in The Legend Maker (2014) directed by Ian Pringle. Comedy
For the Seven Network, he appeared in the situation comedy series Bligh and Wedlocked; for ABC-TV he was a regular in The Gerry Connolly Show sketch comedy series; made a number of appearances on Backberner; played one of the leads in the 1996 sit-com pilot Darling! and guest starred in episodes of The Adventures of Lano and Woodley, Pig's Breakfast, and the 2006 Hamish and Andy mock-current affairs series Real Stories. In 2008, he appeared on Rove Live, and had recurring roles on the ABC-TV sit-com Very Small Business and the Australian version of the Disney Channel's As The Bell Rings. In 2009, he starred in the eight-part comedy series Whatever Happened To That Guy?for The Comedy Channel on Foxtel and played the role of television network CEO Charles Kane in the pilot of the Foxtel comedy series I Can't Believe It's Not Better. Audience warm-ups
One of only a handful of television audience warm-up comedians working in Australia, <mask> has worked on dozens of classic Australian television shows from Young Talent Time and Candid Camera on Australia to Australia's Brainiest Kid, National Bingo Night and the Marngrook Footy Show. He has been the warm-up comedian for the AFL version of The Footy Show since it began in 1994, and as well as the weekly studio-based shows produced out of GTV 9 in Melbourne, he has also been part of all The Footy Show broadcasts live from Perth, Hobart, Adelaide and Sydney; the annual "Grand Final" specials in front of 13,000 people at Melbourne's Rod Laver Arena; the high-rating shows broadcast live from the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in London in 2001 and 2005; and "The Footy Show World Cup Spectacular", broadcast live from the classic Prinzregententheater in Munich, Germany, in 2006. Over the years he has also been the audience warm-up comedian for shows including The X Factor, 1 vs. 100, Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?, Backberner, Unreal TV, Quiz Master, Australia's Brainiest Celebrity Specials, In Melbourne Tonight, Comedy Inc, Difference Of Opinion and Temptation. Since 2011 he has been the audience warm-up artist for The Marngrook Footy Show. He is also often employed as the Master of Ceremonies at big television events like the annual Australian Film Institute Awards. And he has hosted pilots for his own television game shows including Punchlines (Seven Network), Pro-Am Quiz (Nine Network) and Run for the Money (Network Ten).Theatre
Kewley spent seven years at Nero's Fiddle Theatre Restaurant (1984–1990), five years at French Nickers Theatre Restaurant  (1991–1995) and ten years at Hunchbax Theatre Restaurant (1996–2006) performing in shows which he also wrote and directed. He created numerous shows at Hunchbax, including "Good Will Humping", "Forrest Hump", "Bravehump", "Raiders of the Lost Hump", "Dude, Where's My Hump? ", "The Spy Who Humped Me", "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Humpy", "The Full Humpy" and "Hump-erectomy," many of which were choreographed by Jodie Greenwood. In 2009, he appeared in the premiere of the Australian plays Friday Night, In Town and She's My Baby, and starred in the stage show Call Girl the Musical. In 2010, he was cast as 'Glad Hand' in the revival of West Side Story and (from August 2010 to January 2011) played the role at Melbourne's famous Regent Theatre, Perth's Burswood Theatre, Adelaide's Festival Theatre, and the Lyric Theatre in Brisbane. In 2011, as part of the 25th Annual Melbourne International Comedy Festival he starred in the play "It's All Fun and Games (Until Someone Gets Hurt)". Since 2011 he has played the lead roles in plays including Death of A Comedian, Equus, "Flesh Wound" and "Doomsday Devices".Producer
In 1986, he wrote and produced the short thriller The Lake, and co-produced and co-directed the comedy The Skateboard Saga (1987) which won the 1987 Film Victoria Trophy; was named Best Short Film at the 1987 Melbourne International Film Festival; won Best Film at the 1987 Ten Best On 8 Film Festival. He has produced over 200 television commercials and from 1989 to 1991 he was one of the writers and presenters and Associate Producer of Network Ten's Candid Camera On Australia and TVNZ's Candid Camera On New Zealand. In 2003, he wrote, directed and appeared in the short comedy film Image Is Everything, shot as part of the Celebrity Film-maker Challenge for the Newcastle Shoot Out in NSW. In 2000, he co-produced Funny By George: The George Wallace Story for ABC-TV, a one-hour documentary that detailed the life and times of George Wallace – Australia's great vaudeville performer and first comedy "movie star". In 2001, he co-wrote and produced Young Talent Time Tells All, which became one of the highest rating Network Ten programs of the year, and in 2003 he created and co-produced a three-hour "special edition" DVD titled Young Talent Time: The Collection for Universal Pictures. Radio
Between 2010 and 2013, Kewley appeared on Denis Walter's afternoon radio program on 3AW in a regular segment called Trivia with <mask>. Personal life

Child sex abuse allegations and conviction

In December 2014, Kewley was charged with, and on 26 November 2015 he pleaded guilty to, multiple child sex offences.His abuses took place between 1989 and 2011. Most of his 16 victims, boys aged 9 to 14, were assaulted in 2011 during a series of screen tests. On 17 May 2016, <mask> was sentenced to 23 months imprisonment on the charges which he pleaded guilty to. <mask>, then 55, pleaded guilty to 19 charges, including indecent acts with a child under 16, indecent assault, and making and possessing child pornography, which occurred between 1989 and 2011. On 28 November 2018, concerns were raised that <mask> had worked at a Victorian primary school during the Victorian state election. Community work
In 2006, <mask> was named Bega Valley Shire's Australia Day Ambassador. References

External links

1960 births
Living people
Australian male television actors
Australian male stage actors
Australian male film actors
Australian people convicted of child sexual abuse
Australian people convicted of indecent assault
Australian television presenters
People convicted of child pornography offenses
People educated at Haileybury (Melbourne)

masks:
Jeremy Leo Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Jeremy Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Kewley
Kewley


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<mask> (; 27 September 1940 – 30 November 2015) was a Moroccan feminist writer and sociologist. Biography
<mask> was born on 27 September 1940 in Fez, Morocco. She grew up in the harem of her affluent paternal grandmother along with various female kin and servants. She received her primary education in a school established by the nationalist movement, and secondary level education in an all-girls school funded by the French protectorate. In 1957, she studied political science at the Sorbonne in Paris and later at Brandeis University in the US, where she gained her doctorate in 1974. She returned to work at the Mohammed V University in Rabat and taught at the Faculté des Lettres between 1974 and 1981 on subjects such as methodology, family sociology and psychosociology. Further, she was a research scholar at the University Institute for Scientific Research at the same university.<mask>'s Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Muslim Society was written for her PhD thesis and later published as a book which recognizes the power of Muslim women in relation to the Islamic faith. <mask> is known for her sociopolitical approaches towards discussing gender and sexual identities, specifically those in Morocco and other Muslim countries. She is regarded as an influential feminist figure, as she was a renowned public speaker, scholar, teacher, writer, and sociologist. <mask> <mask> died in Rabat on 30 November 2015. Publications and their influence
<mask>'s first monograph, Beyond the Veil, was published in 1975. A revised edition was published in Britain in 1985 and in the US in 1987. Beyond the Veil has become a classic, especially in the fields of anthropology and sociology, on women in the Arab World, the Mediterranean area or Muslim societies in general.As an Islamic feminist, Mernissi was largely concerned with Islam and women's roles, analyzing the historical development of Islamic thought and its modern manifestations. Through a detailed investigation of the nature of the succession to Muhammad, she cast doubt on the validity of some of the hadith (sayings and traditions attributed to him), and therefore the subordination of women that she sees in Islam, but not necessarily in the Qur'an. In 1984, she contributed the text "The merchant's daughter and the son of the sultan" to the anthology Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology, edited by Robin Morgan. Her most famous book as an Islamic feminist, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Islam, is a quasi-historical study of the role of the wives of Muhammad. It was first published in French in 1987 and translated into English in 1991. The book was subsequently banned in Morocco, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. As a sociologist, Mernissi mainly undertook field work in Morocco.On several occasions in the late 1970s and early 1980s, she conducted interviews in order to map prevailing attitudes to women and their work. She did sociological research for UNESCO and ILO as well as for the Moroccan government. In the same period, Mernissi contributed articles to periodicals and other publications on women in Morocco and women and Islam from a contemporary as well as from a historical perspective. Her work has been cited as an inspiration by other Muslim feminists, such as those who founded Musawah and others. For Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women (1991), she interviewed peasant women, women labourers, clairvoyants and maidservants. In 1994, Mernissi published a fictional memoir, Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood (in the US, the book was originally titled The Harem Within: Tales of a Moroccan Girlhood, and is still known by that title in the UK). A recurring topic in her writings is the fictional character Scheherazade of Arabian Nights.Her article, The Satellite, the Prince, and Scheherazade: The Rise of Women as Communicators in Digital Islam explores cases in which women take part in online media, while Digital Scheherazades in the Arab World covers the topics of online activities shifting cultural ways. In these essays, she mentions how technology is quickly spreading – one of the main sources being the World Wide Web – and analyses the roles and contributions of women in this movement. She wrote extensively about life within harems, gender, and public and private spheres. Size 6: The Western Women’s Harem, is an essay from her book, Scheherazade Goes West: Different Cultures, Different Harems that discusses the repression and pressures women in different societies face merely based on their physical appearance. Whether she analyzes women in Moroccan society or in the West, she claims that they must live up to stereotypical,  culturally imposed standards, such as dress sizes. Mernissi compares the clothing size 6 to harems and states that these Western practices isolate and mistreat women. Ethnocentrism: Beyond the Veil
In 1975, Fatima <mask>'s first book, Beyond the Veil, was published, and it was revolutionary.Mernissi broke down the ethnocentric stereotypes Western society had developed towards Islam, especially Muslim women. She distinguished Muslim women from the homogenized group of ‘third-world women’ that Western feminism had created. Mernissi also fought to overcome Western assumptions that Muslim women were helpless victims of both their religion and the men of their religion. Western stereotypes ostracized Muslim men who did not fit the white, masculine, hegemonic mold dominating the first world society, developing racist ideas towards a religion that was believed to oppress women. However, Mernissi pointed out that Muslim women were not victims of their religious practices any more than Western women were victims of the patriarchy; both groups of women were oppressed by specific social institutions within a religion or society created to profit from the marginalization of others. Furthermore, Mernissi explained that Western women were veiled, just as Muslim women were, yet Western veils were much more discreet. She argued that youth and beauty veiled Western women, and once a woman no longer had these, she was hardly recognized by society.Mernissi broke down the ethnocentric approach Western Feminism had been utilizing and wrote to bring more clarity to the diversity necessary within the global Feminine movement. <mask>'s legacy is revolutionary because she created a space within an initially predominantly Western movement that allowed Muslim women to participate without compromising their religious practices. <mask>'s work highlighted how Western feminism could be detrimental to the empowerment of women around the globe if it lacked an intersectional approach to women's issues. Intersectionality: The Forgotten Queens of Islam
In the book The Forgotten Queens of Islam, Fatima Mernissi uses an intersectional approach to understand the positions of women throughout early Islamic history through social and political identities that created modes of discrimination. Her aim was to bring to light the significant contributions that women had made throughout early Islamic history and debunk the misconceptions about the absence of women as political and authoritative figures. She does this by exploring the leadership roles that women were involved in throughout Islamic history and alters the way women are portrayed in historiographies. She claims that women held powerful political positions despite religious titles that were given to men.This is exemplified through the many historical accounts that she provides about fifteen women and the active roles that they played in pre-modern Islam politics. For instance, the role that female slaves played in leading slave revolts against religious rulers without the use of violence (Mernissi, 1994). Moreover, Mernissi distinguishes between “Political Islam,” the period where radical change occurred and women's roles were disregarded or forgotten, and “Rislala Islam,” where women's lives were transformed (Mernissi, 1994). She was fundamental in contributing to the overall academic literature on women's visibility in Islamic history outside of their traditional roles by highlighting their involvement in politics, religion, and cultural change. Gender Roles: Women’s Rebellion & Islamic Memory
In the book Women's Rebellion & Islamic Memory, Fatima Mernissi analyzes the role of women in relation to the world of contemporary Islam. In her work, she explores the idea of sexual identity and gender roles in the Islamic world and helps to redefine the narrative surrounding it. Mernissi discusses some of the most prominent issues to do with the status of Muslim women, such as the masking of women's contribution to the economies of Arab states (Mernissi, 1996).Furthermore, Mernissi delves into different demographic, including education and literacy. She uses this to help explain the importance of these factors not only for the empowerment of women in Islam, but also for their health (Mernissi, 1996). Furthermore, Mernissi analyzes the role of the state in gender roles as well as the outcome of a state that ultimately supports inequality (Mernissi, 1996). Mernissi ultimately argues that the freedom from these controlling traditions and expectations of women is the only way for the Arab world to develop. <mask>'s work is extremely influential in Islamic feminism, intersectionality, and global feminism, by focusing on issues surrounding Muslim women in the Arab world. This book, in particular, was able to bring light to specific issues that women deal with in the Islamic world, such as issues of sexual identity and gender roles, and the effects these can have on women's empowerment and health. Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World
In her book, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World, Fatima Mernissi employs a transnational approach to analyse the socio-political context of the Arab-Islamic world shortly after the Gulf war.She debates whether the established fundamentalism dominating the Middle East could ever be compatible with the democratic processes used in Western societies. Mernissi raises questions around the uncertainty Muslims feel towards a form of government that is “unislamic” and may compromise their Islamic way of life, including morals and values, such as modesty. Moreover, she explores issues such as the fear of the Islamic religion, democracy, the United Nations Charter, freedom of thought and individualism (Mernissi, 2002). For instance, she looked at how fundamentalism controlled what a woman would be able to wear, so a democratic society that freed women to dress as they pleased could appear threatening to a hyper-masculine culture. She contests that a living democracy should allow for the legal and constitutional ability to disagree with the state. Mernissi then suggests ways in which progressive Muslims, including feminists, who choose to advocate for democracy and resist fundamentalism should draw from the same sacred texts as those who seek to oppress them, in order to prove that Islam is not fundamentally against women. Awards and legacy
Mernissi's works focus on providing a voice for oppressed and marginalized women.She brings to light the contributions of women to the economy and acknowledges the roles that affect how females are viewed within Islamic cultures. Throughout her career, Mernissi was an avid spokesperson regarding women's rights and equality, while also embracing the Islamic faith. She uses historical religious research to make claims for her modern feminist stances. In 2003, <mask> was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award, along with Susan Sontag. Mernissi's acceptance speech, The Cowboy or Sinbad?, covered the topic of globalization, and was recognized for her pensive take, considering both the issue and effects of culture. In 2004, she was awarded the Erasmus Prize, alongside Sadik Al-Asm and Abdolkarim Soroush. For this award, she was recognized for her sociocultural impact since it was dedicated to "Religion and Modernity".In 2017, The Middle East Studies Association created the Fatima Mernissi Book Award to "recognize outstanding scholarship in studies of gender, sexuality, and women’s lived experience". <mask>'s legacy can be greatly attributed to her scholarly and literary contributions to the early Islamic feminist movement. Mernissi tackled issues such as Eurocentrism, intersectionality, transnationalism and global feminism in her publications and public lectures. The New York Times quoted her in an obituary: "Not only have the sacred texts always been manipulated, but manipulation of them is a structural characteristic of the practice of power in Muslim societies,” <mask> <mask>, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam (1991)

Bibliography
 1975: Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Muslim Society. revised ed. 1985, 1987, reprinted London: Saqi Books. 1982:
 1983: Le Maroc raconté par ses femmes.1984: L’amour dans les pays musulmans
 1985: Femmes du Gharb
 1987: Le harem politique – Le Prophète et les femmes (trans. 1992: The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Islam. New York: Basic Books. ) 1988: Shahrazad n’est pas marocaine
 1990: Sultanes oubliées – Femmes chefs d’Etat en Islam (trans. 1993: Forgotten Queens of Islam)
 1992: La Peur-Modernité
 1993: Women’s Rebellion and Islamic Memory
 1994: The Harem Within (retitled. 1995: Dreams of Trespass – Tales of a Harem Girlhood New York: Perseus Books. ) 1997: Les Aït-Débrouille
 1998: Etes-vous vacciné contre le Harem?2001: Scheherazade Goes West. New York: Washington Square Press. 2002: Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World. New York: Basic Books. 2009: Les Femmes Du Maroc. Brooklyn: PowerHouse Books. Edited by Mernissi

 1989: Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women, translated by Mary Jo Lakeland.New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. See also
 Islamic feminism
 Liberal movements within Islam
 Mohamed Guessous

References

Further reading

 Francesco Alfonso and Fatima <mask> (2006). The New Arab Mass Media: Vehicles of Democracy? Interview with Fatima Mernissi. Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino. Carine Bourget, Complicity with Orientalism in Third-World Women's Writing: Fatima <mask>'s Fictive Memoirs, Research in African Literatures Vol. 44, No.3 (Fall 2013), pp. 30–49, Indiana University

External links
 <mask> <mask>'s website
 Obituary on Morocco World News
 Chronological Overview of books by <mask> Mernissi
 Announcement of the Asturias Prize, 2003
 Interview: El País (Spanish) 6-7-2008
 Interview: El Pais (Spanish) 31-10-1989
 Interview: Encuentros Digitales El Mundo.es (Spanish)
 Articles in El Pais about Fatima <mask> (Spanish)
 Rebel for the sake of women
 The Prophet and Freedom of the Individual
 Politics and the Prophet, review of <mask>'s Islam and Democracy, by Martin Kramer

1940 births
2015 deaths
Moroccan feminists
Moroccan sociologists
Moroccan women writers
Moroccan essayists
Feminist studies scholars
Proponents of Islamic feminism
Muslim reformers
Mohammed V University faculty
University of Paris alumni
Brandeis University alumni
People from Fez, Morocco
Women sociologists
Moroccan women essayists
20th-century Moroccan women writers
21st-century Moroccan women writers
20th-century Moroccan writers
21st-century Moroccan writers
Women scholars of Islam

masks:
Fatema Mernissi
Fatema Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Fatema
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Fatema
Mernissi
Mernissi
Mernissi
Fatema
Mernissi
Fatema
Mernissi
Mernissi


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<mask> (born 2 October 1990) is a British actress and singer who has performed on stage and screen as well as television. She rose to fame after coming in third in the BBC talent show-themed television series I'd Do Anything in 2008. In 2012, she starred alongside Jonathan Bailey in the Disney Channel series Groove High, and made her film debut as Éponine in the film version of the musical Les Misérables. Her performance in Les Misérables was widely acclaimed, and earned nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Acting Ensemble, won the Empire Award for Best Female Newcomer and shared the National Board of Review Award for Best Cast. Early life
<mask> was born and brought up in Laxey on the Isle of Man. She attended Laxey Primary School in Laxey and St Ninian's High School, Douglas before moving to London to study A levels at The Arts Educational Schools (ArtsEd) in Chiswick. <mask> began dancing at the age of three, training in ballet, modern and tap with Dancers Barre, then Stagecoach Isle of Man, Theatrix, Stage One Drama School and the Manx Ballet Company.Career

2007–2008: Early work
In April 2007, <mask> released her debut album, Looking in Your Eyes, which sold around 600 copies. The album featured several songs which she co-wrote and was released on the independent label Brunswick Studios. She performed at the Peel Bay Festival in June 2007 supporting Matt Willis and the Sugababes, which also saw appearances by Madness and The Who. In December 2007, <mask> represented the Isle of Man in the Maltese International Song Competition where she won the main prize of €2000 and the title of Best Foreign Singer. She sang the song "Nothing Else" from her album and "Play On", a hit song in Malta. 2008: I'd Do Anything
In 2008, <mask> competed in I'd Do Anything in which she was one of the finalists in a search for a new, unknown lead to play Nancy in a West End revival of the British musical Oliver!. She reached the final where she finished third.On 29 April 2008, at the midpoint of the competition, Tourism Minister Adrian Earnshaw renamed the Isle of Man to be the "Isle of Sam" as a sign of support. Welcoming signs at Ronaldsway Airport and Douglas Sea Terminal were changed after a renaming ceremony. In week eight of the show, <mask> performed "Defying Gravity" from the musical Wicked and in the week leading up to the show she received support from American actress Idina Menzel, who achieved fame for her performance of the song as Elphaba, the Wicked Witch of the West in Wicked. In week nine, <mask> received the lowest number of public votes and so had to participate in the sing-off with Rachel Tucker. They sang "Memory" from the musical Cats. Andrew Lloyd Webber chose to save <mask> and eliminate Tucker saying, "Last night Cameron and I were both saying that we thought both of you would be fantastic Nancys and now here am I faced with this. But I've got to make a decision and I've got to think of where the show ultimately for Cameron is going to go and I think I have to go with you, <mask>."In the week leading up to the two part final on 31 May, the Nancy finalists posed for publicity pictures recreating some of Madonna's iconic images. Each Nancy also had a "Master Class" with Liza Minnelli in London. At the end of part one of the final, <mask> was announced as finishing third with Andrew Lloyd Webber saying, "Do you know what, I did think this would happen. But you've done so well to have got this far, <mask>." <mask> said, "It's been the most amazing experience of my life. Thanks to everyone and the panel for making it so incredible." Performances on I'd Do Anything

2008–present
In June 2008, one month after I'd Do Anything ended, <mask> sang the Isle of Man National Anthem "O Land Of Our Birth" on Senior Race day of the Isle of Man TT to begin the races.<mask> was then announced to play the lead role of Sally Bowles in the UK tour of Cabaret from 29 August 2008 to 11 July 2009. <mask> performed alongside her I’d Do Anything cast-mates Sarah Lark and Jodie Prenger at the Theatregoers Choice Awards in February 2009. Toward the end of her run with Cabaret, <mask> put on her own concert, An Audience with <mask>, at the Villa Marina on the Isle of Man on 3 January 2009 to thank those that supported her during her time on I'd Do Anything and to thank those that have continued to support her. <mask> launched the new Manx Ship, the Caly Manx, in Shanghai, China on 30 September 2009. <mask>, along with Wendy Craig and Jess Conrad, switched on the Christmas Lights in Windsor's town centre on 21 November 2009. <mask> officially launched BreastHealth UK's new clinic at the Spire Thames Valley Hospital in Wexham on 27 November 2009. She played the title role in Aladdin during the Christmas Pantomime Season 2009/10 at the Theatre Royal, Windsor.<mask> starred as Éponine in the London production of Les Misérables at the Queen's Theatre from 21 June 2010 to 18 June 2011. <mask> was chosen to play Éponine in the 25th Anniversary concert of Les Misérables at the O2 Arena on 3 October 2010 by Cameron Mackintosh, after he saw her play the role in her opening night at the Queens Theatre, in London's West End. Also in 2010, <mask> resumed her music career by releasing a song called "Let Go", which she co-wrote with Garry Lake. The single debuted in 2010, but received an official release in 2011 through the independent label Flour Records. <mask> promoted the song with a live performance on SB.TV. <mask> performed the song at Stuart Matthew Price and James Yeoburn's benefit concert for Dress Circle, the Dress Circle Benefit Gala, on 7 August 2011 at Her Majesty's Theatre and the song was later included on the tribute compilation album Standing Ovation: A CD Tribute to Dress Circle which was released on 17 August 2011. <mask> began 2011 with a starring role in the concert Direct From the West End.Run by a company called "Musical Ovation Ltd" set up by Scott Garnham and Martin Neely, the concert was performed for three nights—23 January in York, 6 February in Oxford and 13 February 2011 in Windsor. The concert featured two hours of songs from popular West End musicals. On 27 February 2011, Barks performed in the concert The Songs of Bobby Cronin at the New Players Theatre. On 20 March, Barks performed in Stars of the West End Sing the Songs of Steven Luke Walker at Charing Cross Theatre. Barks performed "On My Own" at the Classical Brits 2011 at The Royal Albert Hall on 12 May 2011. Barks performed in a concert at the Battersea Barge in London on 21 August 2011, singing works by British composer/lyricists Laurence Mark Wythe, Grant Olding, Dougal Irvine and Tim Sutton. She performed with fellow West End stars Stephen Ashfield, Annalene Beechey and George Ure.<mask> performed the Grand Final anthem "Jerusalem" for the Engage Super League Grand Final at Old Trafford on 8 October 2011. <mask> starred as Zoe in the Disney Channel television series Groove High, a mixture of live-action and animation, which premiered on the Disney Channel UK 10 November 2012. The first season lasted 26 episodes and has been sold to broadcasters across the world. <mask> recorded her voice for the series in April 2010, with live-action filming completed in Ireland a year and a half later in October 2011. During an interview in January 2011 <mask> said this of Groove High: "I play Zoe, one of the leads who is really sweet, but also a little feisty, she tells it like it is and doesn't take any rubbish from anybody. It's great because I also get to do a lot of singing for the show." <mask> starred as Nancy in the UK tour of Oliver!from 10 December 2011 to 1 April 2012. <mask> had planned to perform the entire tour, but temporarily left the tour on 1 April to film Les Miserables. She was replaced on the tour by Cat Simmons. <mask> reprised her role as Éponine and made her film debut in the 2012 film adaptation of Les Misérables. She learned the news from Cameron Mackintosh during an Oliver! curtain call. During filming for Les Misérables, <mask> recorded the song "Defective" for the album Scott Alan Live which was released in December 2012.In June 2012, just days after completing Les Misérables, <mask> returned to the UK tour of Oliver! for two weeks at the Edinburgh Playhouse. On 24 June 2012, <mask> performed in a Little Women charity concert at the Playhouse Theatre in London. On 13 October 2012, <mask> performed at the Indoor Garden Party concert in New York City's Gramercy Theatre. The concert was part of a concert series created by Russell Crowe and Alan Doyle. <mask> performed at another Indoor Garden Party concert at New York City's Joe's Pub on 8 December. In early November 2012, <mask> briefly returned to the Oliver!UK tour at the Grand Theatre, Leeds. <mask> permanently returned to the Oliver! UK tour on 12 December at Bord Gáis Energy Theatre in Ireland and continued with the tour until 20 February 2013 at the Bristol Hippodrome. She left the show early in order to head to Los Angeles for rehearsals with fellow Les Mis co-stars for their cast performance at the Oscars on 24 February 2013. Her rendition of "On My Own" from Les Miserables reached number 97 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 43 in the UK, being her first entry on each chart. On 11 February 2013, <mask> won Best Breakthrough Performance at the Elle Style Awards. <mask> performed with her co-stars from the film Les Miserables at the 85th Academy Awards ceremony on 24 February 2013.Immediately after the Oscars, <mask> flew to the Isle of Man to begin work on her second film, The Christmas Candle. In March 2013, <mask> took part in the television special Andrew Lloyd Webber: 40 Musical Years for ITV, performing "Another Suitcase in Another Hall" in honor of Andrew Lloyd Webber. In June 2013, <mask> performed at The Recording Academy Honors. The same month, <mask> took part in the one-night only 24 Hour Plays at the Broad Stage Theater in Santa Monica, California. <mask> played the role of Velma Kelly in the 2013 production of Chicago at the Hollywood Bowl in July 2013. In late 2013, <mask> starred as the romantic lead in The Devil's Harvest, a film scheduled to be released in 2014, and co-starring Max Irons and Barry Pepper. In October 2013, <mask> played the part of Jules in the private workshop production of a potential musical of Bend It Like Beckham with a score by Howard Goodall, lyrics by Charles Hart, and book by Gurinder Chadha and Paul Mayeda Berges.<mask> had a role in Dracula Untold, which was released on 10 October 2014. She portrayed Baba Yaga, an angelic woman who turns into an atrocious evil witch; however, her scenes were cut from the film. In 2014, <mask> was cast in the ensemble drama A Hundred Streets and announced she would be returning to West End theatre in the revival of City of Angels directed by Josie Rourke with musical direction by Gareth Valentine and choreography by Stephen Mear. In July 2015, <mask> began rehearsing for the world premiere of Amélie, A New Musical at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in California. The show opened on 29 August and had its run extended to 18 October. In January 2016, it was announced that <mask> was cast in the movie musical Strike!. Also, in February 2016, it was announced that she would star in the drama Interlude in Prague.<mask> performed as the lead role of Cathy in the Off-West End production of The Last Five Years at the St. James Theatre from 27 October to 3 December 2016. She recently joined director Jason Robert Brown again for a one-off concert of his musical, Honeymoon in Vegas, at the London Palladium on 12 March 2017, starring alongside Arthur Darvill. <mask> has continued her music career playing at various venues around the UK since her album release. Following her self-titled album release on 10 June 2016, she launched her first solo tour around the UK to promote and perform songs from her album at 13 venues. She performed live in concert at Mayflower Theatre in Southampton alongside guest singer Kerry Ellis on 20 May 2017. <mask> made her American solo concert debut with four dates at Feinstein's/54 Below in New York City in July 2017. In September 2017, it was announced that <mask> would be playing the role of Vivian (originated by Julia Roberts) in the stage musical Pretty Woman.The musical premiered at Chicago's Oriental Theatre in March 2018, before transferring to Broadway in July 2018. Pretty Woman marked her Broadway debut. On 5 December 2019, <mask> was cast as Elsa in the West End production of Frozen, beginning in August 2021. Personal life
<mask> is a vegetarian. On February 1, 2021, she became engaged to actor Alex Michael Stoll, whom she met while they were both in the Broadway production of Pretty Woman. Filmography

Film

Television

Theatre

Discography

Awards and nominations

References

External links

 <mask>' CV at United Agents

1990 births
Living people
Manx people
Manx musicians
Manx singers
British film actresses
British stage actresses
British television actresses
21st-century Manx actresses
21st-century Manx musicians
People educated at St Ninian's High School, Douglas
People educated at the Arts Educational Schools
People from Laxey
Manx musical theatre actresses

masks:
Samantha Jane Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Samantha
Barks
Samantha
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Sam Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Samantha
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Barks
Samantha Barks


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<mask> (18 June 1852 – 19 April 1944) was an Indian politician. He rose to prominence following his appeal against the charges alleging him to have instigated a Hindu – Muslim riot in Salem (now in Tamil Nadu). The legal battle and eventual victory in proving his innocence earned him the title The Lion of South India. He entered politics as a member of the Salem Municipal Council in 1882. His prominence in the national media and friendship with Allan Octavian Hume, a civil servant and reformer, led him to be invited to the first sessions of the Indian National Congress. Once within the Congress, he rose to serve as its president in 1920. He played a key role in framing the Swaraj Constitution.He was part of the Propaganda Committee of the Congress and thus served in spreading the ideologies of the party to the masses. He also served as the president of Hindu Mahasabha, a Hindu nationalist party, in 1931. Early years
<mask> was born on 18 June 1852 into an Iyengar Brahmin family in the village of Pon Vilaindha Kalathur, in the district of Chengalpattu in the state of Madras Presidency, in what was then the British Raj. His father, Sadagoparchariar, was a priest and raised his son as an orthodox religious believer. At a very early age, Vijayaraghavachariar was sent to a school in his village where he learned Sanskrit and the Vedas, the holy language and the scriptures of Hinduism. His English education began when he was twelve. He joined the Pachaiyappa High School and passed out in 1870, ranking second in the Madras Presidency, the province that included most of South India.He joined Presidency College in Madras (now Chennai) the following year, graduated in 1875, and the same year was appointed a lecturer there. He was transferred to the Government College, Mangalore, and after three years resigned his post. Subsequently, he joined the Salem Municipal College as a lecturer in English and mathematics. Career as lawyer
During his time in Salem Municipal College Vijayaraghavachariar took law examinations privately without attending formal classes, and qualified as a pleader in 1881. Salem riot

In 1882, a short time after Vijayaraghavachariar had set up practice in Salem, a riot broke out in the city. Vijayaraghavachariar was charged for instigating the violence that led to the demolition of a mosque and was sentenced to prison for ten years. He fought the charges in court and finally proved his innocence.Subsequently, through his efficiency in advocacy he successfully pleaded to Lord Ripon for others who were sentenced for the riots to be released from Andaman Cellular Prison. He took objection to being disqualified from the membership of the Municipal Council, Salem, of which he had been a member during the period of the riot. As a result of his appeal, he was not only reinstated in the Municipal Council, but was able to obtain from the Secretary of State for India a sum of Rs 100 as a nominal damage for removing him from the council. He also proceeded against the witnesses who had falsely deposed against him, and got them convicted. The Salem riots of 1882 made Vijayaraghavachariar famous overnight. The riot case was highly publicised in the Indian national media and newspapers hailed him as a great champion of civil liberties. Thus he came to be called "The Lion of South India" and "The Hero of Salem".Entry into politics
<mask>'s entry into public life began with his membership of the Salem Municipal Council in 1882. In 1895 he was elected to the Madras Legislative Council, which he served for six years, until 1901. Indian National Congress

When the Indian National Congress was started in 1885 Vijayaraghavachari attended the first convention as one of the special invitees. He was a close associate of A. O. Hume, the founder of the Congress. Even prior to December 1885, <mask> had suggested to Hume that a national organisation like the Indian National Congress, which he was proposing to create, should be political in outlook and at the same time should look into the economic and social needs of the masses. He felt that only then could the influence of such a body spread wide all over the country. He attended the Bombay session of the Congress and in 1887 he was one of the members of the committee which drafted the constitution of the Indian National Congress.He held high influence in the Congress, and most of the early names in Congress history were his friends or co-workers. His counsel and leadership were much sought after by the Congressmen of the early days. In 1899 (fifteenth session of the Congress, Lucknow) he was made a member of the Indian Congress Propaganda Committee. Through this committee he commanded a wide national influence and played a key role in spreading the message of the Congress throughout the length and breadth of the country. It was as a result of the committee's work that multitudes were brought within the fold of the Congress. Relationship with other Congress leaders
<mask>'s close associates in the Congress included Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dr. Ansari, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Lala Lajpat Rai, C. Rajagopalachari and Motilal Nehru. With the advent of Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent ideologies in the party, there was a rift in the Congress ranks between the old moderates and the new radicals.Vijiaraghavachariar was a Nationalist and the Moderate Congress policy did not appeal to his judgement. He, therefore, stood aloof from the Congress after the organisation split following Surat session. Nevertheless, he later joined to carry the message of Gandhi. The climax of his political career came when in 1920 he was elected to preside over the Indian National Congress Session at Nagpur, where Gandhi's advocacy of Poorna Swaraj through non-violent non-co-operation was debated and accepted. He, with his powerful oratory, gave many a wordy battle to C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru on the question of the Council Entry Programme drawn up by them. He was also in the vanguard of the opposition to the Simon Commission that toured the country in 1929. He took an active part in the committee that met under Motilal Nehru to frame the Constitution for Congress.He appealed to the League of Nations to intervene and arbitrate in the Indian deadlock that proceeded after the Simon Commission. He considered the League of Nations as the hope of humanity. Constitution for Indian National Congress
Earlier in 1913 he was elected to the Imperial Legislative Council with which he was associated till 1916. At Delhi he worked in close co-operation with great leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, Surendranath Banerjea and Gopala Krishna Gokhale. In the third session of the Congress, held at Madras in December 1887 and presided over by Badruddin Tyabji, a historic decision was taken to draw up the Constitution of the Indian National Congress. Vijayaraghavachariar was the leading member of this committee. It was he who drafted the Constitution of the Congress which became the Swaraj Constitution for India.He performed this task with great care and ability and won the appreciation of all his colleagues. Achievements and social outlook
Vijayaraghavachariar advocated post-puberty marriage for women and also the right of a daughter to have a share in her father's property. He rendered great assistance to Swami Sharathananda in his work connected with the Anti-Untouchability League. His multi-sided personality also found expression in his participation in the organisation of the Hindu Mahasabha. He presided over the All India Hindu Mahasabha Sessions at Akola in 1931. He was one of the two Vice-Presidents of the Madras Branch of the Passive Resistance Movement. Mahatma Gandhi was its President; the other Vice-President was S. Kasturi Ranga Iyengar, editor of The Hindu.Vijayaraghavachariar's powerful advocacy of the cause of labour and the non-Brahmins bear ample testimony to the largeness of his heart. He was also munificent in his donations to causes dear to him. The Anti-Untouchability League and the Congress Propaganda Organization in England in its early days received liberal financial support from him. His life was filled with relentless struggle against Imperialism and economic and social distress. Though an anti-imperialist, he had lifelong friendship with some of the representatives of imperialism in India, such as governors and viceroys. Lord Ripon, Lord <mask>, Lord Pentland, Lord and Lady Hardinge, Sir <mask> Smith and Sir William Meyer were his friends from the Imperialistic Bloc. Eardley Norton, the great advocate, who argued his Salem Riots case and saved him from transportation to the Andamans, was his intimate friend.Edwin Montagu, then Secretary of State for India, commented that Vijayaraghavachariar was a vigorous thinker but with impractical ideas. Last years
Though the leadership of the Congress in South India passed on from his hands to C. Rajagopalachari, Vijayaraghavachariar contented himself with giving periodic advice on matters of public importance through his regular contributions to the Madras journals. He died on 19 April 1944. After his death, his valuable collections were treasured in the Memorial Library and lecture halls in Salem specially constructed and named after him. His portrait hangs on the walls of Parliament of India. References

Presidents of the Indian National Congress
1852 births
1944 deaths
Members of the Imperial Legislative Council of India
People from Kanchipuram district
University of Madras alumni

masks:
Chakravarti Vijayaraghavachariar
Vijayaraghavachariar
Vijayaraghavachariar
Vijayaraghavachariar
Vijayaraghavachariar
Czon
Conran


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<mask> (27 January 18328 February 1895), known as <mask>, was an English archaeologist, numismatist and Orientalist. <mask> was from a famous Orientalist family as his mother <mask>, his uncle Edward William Lane and his nephew <mask> famous for their work in this field. His other uncle was Richard James Lane, a distinguished Victorian lithographer and engraver. Life
Born in London, <mask> was the son of the Rev. <mask>, a well-known bibliophile. His parents became estranged during his early childhood, and his mother, <mask>, took her sons to Egypt to live with her brother, the Orientalist Edward William Lane. During their seven-year residence in Cairo from 1842 to 1849, <mask> wrote The Englishwoman in Egypt, while her son was imbibing an early taste for Egyptian antiquities.In 1852 he became an assistant in the British Museum and was assigned to the Department of Coins and Medals, of which in 1870 he became keeper. In that capacity he worked as a writer, teacher, and administrator. He was largely responsible for founding the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1882 and for starting the Society of English Medallists in 1884. He was Yates Professor of Archaeology at University College, London and also lecturer at the Royal Academy. In 1883 he received an honorary degree from Cambridge University. He received the Medal of the Royal Numismatic Society in 1892. On 6 August 1861, he had married Eliza Christina Forlonge, daughter of William Forlonge, with whom he had four children, including Sir <mask> <mask>.<mask> retired in 1893 and died in 1895. Works
Some of <mask>'s best work was done in his articles for the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, on Egypt, Hieroglyphics and Numismatics; he also wrote for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible and published volumes dealing with his special subjects. <mask> was one of the strong defenders in England of the work of Champollion when he was criticized harshly by Sir George Lewis even as late as 1862. In reply to Lewis critique, <mask> defended Champollion's method describing it as "the method of interpreting Hieroglyphics originated by Dr. Young and developed by Champollion". Selected publications
[NC = Numismatic Chronicle]
1860 Cairo, Sinai, Jerusalem, and The Pyramids of Egypt: A Series of Sixty Photographic Viewsby Francis Frith, Sophie Lane <mask> and <mask> <mask>. 1860 The Genesis of the Earth and of Man: a critical examination of passages in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, chiefly with a view to the solution of the question, Whether the varieties of the Human Species be of more than one origin
1861 On a coin of Mallus in Cilicia [read 26 Jan 1859], NC, New Series, vol. 1 (1861), part 2, pp.87–90, text fig. 1861 On a copper coin of the class struck after the death of Alexander the Great, by his generals, before they assumed regal titles [read 25 April 1861], NC, New Series, vol. 1 (1861), part 3, pp. ; 137–0139, text fig. 1861 On two Cretan coins in the British Museum [read 22 March 1860], NC, New Series, vol. 1 (1861), part 3, pp. 168–74, pl.1861 On a coin from the Cyrenaica, presented to the British Museum by the late F.H. Crowe, Esq., H.M. Consul at Cairo [read 24 Oct 1861], NC, New Series, vol. 1 (1861), part 4, pp. 201–3, text fig. 1862 On a new coin of ancient Italy [read 20 Nov 1862], NC, New Series, vol. 2 (1862), part 8, pp. 300–1, text fig.1863 The late Colonel Leake's Collection of Greek Coins [offered to Cambridge University for £5000], NC, New Series, Vol. 3 (1863), part 12, pp. 266–67. [accepted, see 1864, 75]
1864 The coins of the Ptolemies (to be continued), NC, New Series, vol. 4 (1864), part 13, pp. 7–16, pl., 2 tables [see 159, 231 below; 1865, 126, 321; 1866, 1; 1867, 161]
1864 Coins of the Ptolemies, continued, NC, New Series, vol. 4 (1864), part 15, pp.159–73, 2 pl. 1864 Coins of the Ptolemies, continued, NC, New Series, vol. 4 91864), part 16, pp. 231–35, 2 pl. 1864 On Greek coins as illustrating Greek art [delivered 27 May 1864], p. 236-47, pl. 1865 Coins of the Ptolemies, continued, NC, New Series, vol. 5 (1865), part 18, pp.126–60, pl, 2 charts. 1865 Coins of the Ptolemies, continued, NC, New Series, vol. 5 (1865), part 20, pp. 321–36, 2 pl, 2 charts. 1866 Coins of the Ptolemies, continued, NC, New Series, vol. 6 (1866), part 21, pp. 1–20, 3 text figs.1867 Coins of the Ptolemies, concluded, NC, New Series, vol. 7 (1867), part 27, pp. 161–202. 1875–1890 Catalogue of Oriental coins in the British Museum, by Stanley Lane-<mask> and <mask> <mask>. 1878 A descriptive catalogue of Swiss coins in the South Kensington Museum, by <mask> <mask>, Chauncy Hare Townshend, and Victoria and Albert Museum. 1885 Coins and medals : their place in history and art by <mask> <mask> and Stanley Lane-<mask>. 1892 Catalogue of the coins of Alexandria and the Nomes / by <mask> <mask> (in the series: Catalogue of the Greek coins in the British Museum, ed.by <mask> <mask>). 1854/85 On the coinage of the dynasties called the Benee-Tooloon and the Ikhsheedeeyeh, ruling in Egypt, NC 17 (1854–55), pp. 116–26, pl. 1876 Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, ed. by R.S<mask>, with B.V. Head and P. Gardner, London, 1876. (announced in NC, New Series, vol.16 (1876), part 63, p. 276. 1877 Catalogue of Oriental Coins in the British Museum: vol. II, Coins of the Mohammedan Dynasties, Classes III-X, by Stanley Lane <mask>, ed. by R.S<mask>, London, 1876 (announced in NC, New Series, vol. 17 (1877), part 65, p. 78. 1883 Athenian coin-engravers in Italy (coins of Terina) [read 21 Feb 1884], NC, Third Series, vol.3 (1883), part 12, pp. 269–77, 2 pl. 1889 Catalogue of the Greek coins in the British Museum – Pontus, Paphlagonia, Bithynia and the Kingdom of the Bosporus, by Warwick Wroth, ed. by R.S<mask>, London, 1889 (announced by B.V. Head in NC, Third Series, vol. 38 (1890), pp. 173–74.Obituaries
The Times, 9 February 1895; pg. 5; Issue 34496; col F
The Advertiser (Adelaide, Australia), 11 February 1895, p. 5. Australian Town and Country Journal (NSW, Australia), 16 February 1895, p. 12. The Mercury (Hobart, Tasmania), 13 February 1895, p. 3. References

External links
R.S<mask> on the British Museum collection database
Bronze plaque of R.S. <mask>, mader in 1897 by Sir George Frampton, R.A., P.R.B.S.(1860–1928)
R.S<mask> in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
R.S<mask> in the Dictionary of Art Historians
R.S<mask> on Worldcat

1832 births
1895 deaths
English archaeologists
Employees of the British Museum
British numismatists
Lane family

masks:
Reginald Stuart Poole
Stuart Poole
Poole
Sophia Lane Poole
Stanley Lane Poole
Poole
Edward Poole
Sophia Lane Poole
Lane Poole
Reginald Ward
Poole
Poole
Poole
Poole
Poole
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
Reginald Stuart
Poole
. Poole
Poole
. Poole
. Poole
. Poole
Poole
. Poole
. Poole
. Poole