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<mask>  (October 15, 1908 – April 29, 2006), also known as <mask>, was a Canadian-American economist, diplomat, public official, and intellectual. His books on economic topics were bestsellers from the 1950s through the 2000s. As an economist, he leaned toward post-Keynesian economics from an institutionalist perspective. <mask> was a long-time Harvard faculty member and stayed with Harvard University for half a century as a professor of economics. He was a prolific author and wrote four dozen books, including several novels, and published more than a thousand articles and essays on various subjects. Among his works was a trilogy on economics, American Capitalism (1952), The Affluent Society (1958), and The New Industrial State (1967). Some of his work has been criticized by economists Milton Friedman, Paul Krugman, Robert Solow, and Thomas Sowell.<mask> was active in Democratic Party politics, serving in the administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, <mask>. Kennedy, and Lyndon B<mask>. He served as United States Ambassador to India under the Kennedy administration. His political activism, literary output and outspokenness brought him wide fame during his lifetime. <mask> was one of the few to receive both the World War II Medal of Freedom (1946) and the Presidential Medal of Freedom (2000) for his public service and contributions to science. The government of France made him a Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur. Life

Early life
<mask> was born on October 15, 1908, to Canadians of Scottish descent, Sarah Catherine (Kendall) and Archibald "Archie<mask>, in Iona Station, Ontario, Canada, and was raised in Dunwich Township, Ontario. He had three siblings: Alice, Catherine, and Archibald William (Bill).By the time he was a teenager, he had adopted the name Ken, and later disliked being called <mask>. Galbraith grew to be a very tall man, attaining a height of . His father was a farmer and school teacher. His mother, a homemaker and a community activist, died when he was fourteen years old. The family farm was located on Thomson Line. Both of his parents were supporters of the United Farmers of Ontario in the 1920s. His early years were spent at a one-room school which is still standing, on 9468 Willey Road, in Iona Station.Later, he went to Dutton High School and St. Thomas High School. In 1931, Galbraith graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture from the Ontario Agricultural College, which was then an associate agricultural college of the University of Toronto. He majored in animal husbandry. He was awarded a Giannini Scholarship in Agricultural Economics (receiving $60 per month) that allowed him to travel to Berkeley, California, where he received masters and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in agricultural economics from the University of California, Berkeley. Galbraith was taught economics by Professor George Martin Peterson, and together they wrote an economics paper titled "The Concept of Marginal Land" in 1932 that was published in the American Journal of Agricultural Economics. After graduation in 1934, he started to work as an instructor at Harvard University. Galbraith taught intermittently at Harvard in the period 1934 to 1939.From 1939 to 1940, he taught at Princeton University. In 1937, he became a citizen of the United States and was no longer a British subject. In the same year, he took a year-long fellowship at the University of Cambridge, England, where he was influenced by <mask> Keynes. He then traveled in Europe for several months in 1938, attending an international economic conference and developing his ideas. He served for a few months in summer 1934 in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. As a Harvard teacher in 1938 he was given charge of a research project for the National Resources Planning Board. From 1943 until 1948, he served as an editor of Fortune magazine.In 1949, he was appointed professor of economics at Harvard. He also taught at the Harvard Extension School. World War II
The United States went into WWII with an economy still not fully recovered from the Great Depression. Because wartime production needs mandated large budget deficits and an accommodating monetary policy, inflation and a runaway wage-price spiral were seen as likely. As a part of a team charged with keeping inflation from crippling the war effort, Galbraith served as a deputy head of the Office of Price Administration (OPA) during World War II in 1941–1943. The OPA directed the process of stabilization of prices and rents. On May 11, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply (OPACS).On August 28, 1941, it became the Office of Price Administration (OPA). After the US entered the war in December 1941, OPA was tasked with rationing and price controls. The Emergency Price Control Act passed on January 30, 1942, legitimized the OPA as a separate federal agency. It merged OPA with two other agencies: Consumer Protection Division and Price Stabilization Division of the Advisory Commission to the Council of National Defense. The council was referred to as the National Defense Advisory Commission (NDAC), and was created on May 29, 1940. NDAC emphasized voluntary and advisory methods in keeping prices low. Leon Henderson, the NDAC commissioner for price stabilization, became the head of OPACS and of OPA in 1941–1942.He oversaw a mandatory and vigorous price regulation that started in May 1942 after OPA introduced the General Maximum Price Regulation (GMPR). It was heavily criticized by the business community. In response, OPA mobilized the public on behalf of the new guidelines and said that it reduced the options for those who were seeking higher rents or prices. OPA had its own Enforcement Division, which documented the rising tide of violations: quarter million in 1943 and more than 300,000 during the next year. Historians and economists differ over the assessment of the OPA activities, which started with six people, but then grew to 15,000 staffers. Some of them point to the fact that price increases were relatively lower than during the First World War, and that the overall economy grew faster. Steven Pressman, for example, wrote that "when the controls were removed there was only a small increase in prices, thereby demonstrating that inflationary pressures were actively managed and not just kept temporarily under control."<mask> said in an interview that he considered his work at the OPA as his major life achievement, since prices were relatively stable during WWII. The role of the OPA, however, as well as the whole legacy of the US government wartime economic stabilization measures from a long-term perspective, remains debated. Richard Parker, who earlier had written a well regarded biography of <mask> had this to say about <mask>'s efforts during the war:

[H]e had first gone to work in the nation's capital in 1934 as a 25-year-old, fresh out of graduate school and just about to join the Harvard faculty as a young instructor. He had returned to Washington in mid-1940, after Paris fell to the Germans, initially to help ready the nation for war. Eighteen months later, after Pearl Harbor, he was then appointed to oversee the wartime economy as "price czar," charged with preventing inflation and corrupt price-gouging from devastating the economy as it swelled to produce the weapons and materiel needed to guarantee victory against fascism. In this, he and his colleagues at the Office of Price Administration had been stunningly successful, guiding an economy that quadrupled in size in less than five years without fanning the inflation that had haunted World War I, or leaving behind an unbalanced post-war collapse of the kind that had done such grievous damage to Europe in the 1920s. Opposition to the OPA came from conservatives in Congress and the business community.It undercut <mask> and he was forced out in May 1943, accused of "communistic tendencies". He was promptly hired by Henry Luce, a conservative Republican and a dominant figure in American media as publisher of Time and Fortune magazines. <mask> worked for Luce for five years and expounded Keynesianism to the American business leadership. Luce allegedly said to President Kennedy, "I taught Galbraith how to write—and have regretted it ever since." <mask> saw his role as educating the entire nation on how the economy worked, including the role of big corporations. He was combining his writing with numerous speeches to business groups and local Democratic party meetings, as well as frequently testifying before Congress. During the late stages of WWII in 1945, <mask> was invited by Paul Nitze to serve as one of the directors of the Strategic Bombing Survey, initiated by the Office of Strategic Services.It was designed to assess the results of the aerial bombardments of Nazi Germany. Galbraith contributed to the survey's unconventional conclusion about general ineffectiveness of strategic bombing in stopping the war production in Germany, which went up instead. The conclusion created a controversy, with Nitze siding with the Pentagon officials, who declared the opposite. Reluctant to modify the survey's results, Galbraith described the willingness of public servants and institutions to bend the truth to please the Pentagon as the "Pentagonania syndrome". Postwar
In February 1946, <mask> took a leave of absence from his magazine work for a senior position in the State Department as director of the Office of Economic Security Policy where he was nominally in charge of economic affairs regarding Germany, Japan, Austria, and South Korea. Distrusted by senior diplomats, he was relegated to routine work, with few opportunities to make policy. Galbraith favored détente with the Soviet Union, along with Secretary of State James F. Byrnes and General Lucius D. Clay, a military governor of the US Zone in Germany from 1947 to 1949, but they were out of step with the containment policy then being developed by George Kennan and favored by the majority of the US major policymakers.After a disconcerting half-year, Galbraith resigned in September 1946 and went back to his magazine writing on economics issues. Later, he immortalized his frustration with "the ways of Foggy Bottom" in a satirical novel, The Triumph (1968). The postwar period also was memorable for Galbraith because of his work, along with Eleanor Roosevelt and Hubert Humphrey, to establish a progressive policy organization Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) in support of the cause of economic and social justice in 1947. In 1952, <mask>'s friends Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. and George Ball recruited him to work as a speechwriter for the Democratic candidate, Adlai Stevenson. The involvement of several intellectuals from the ADA in the Stevenson campaign attracted controversy as the Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy accused the ADA intellectuals as being "tainted" by "well documented Red associations"; Galbraith later said one of his regrets was that McCarthy failed to condemn him as one of Stevenson's "red" advisers. During his time as an adviser to President <mask>. Kennedy, Galbraith was appointed United States Ambassador to India from 1961 to 1963. His rapport with President Kennedy was such that he regularly bypassed the State Department and sent his diplomatic cables directly to the president.<mask> disliked his superior, the Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, writing to Kennedy that trying to communicate via Rusk was "like trying to fornicate through a mattress". In India, he became a confidant of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and extensively advised the Indian government on economic matters. India was considered by Kennedy to be important not just in its own right, but also because an Indian diplomat always served as the chief commissioner of the International Control Commission (ICC), and thus in this way, <mask> came to be involved in American policy towards Southeast Asia from his perch as an ambassador in New Delhi. In 1961, when Kennedy considered intervening in the civil war in Laos, <mask> strongly advised him not to, warning him that the disaster of the Bay of Pigs invasion had been caused by Kennedy taking the advice offered by the hawkish Joint Chiefs of Staff who had assured him that the invasion could not fail and were now saying the same about the proposed intervention in Laos. <mask> also noted that the ICC was also responsible for Laos as well as the two Vietnams, and he had Nehru's word that the Indian diplomats on the ICC were willing to serve as honest brokers for a peace deal to make Laos neutral in the Cold War. In May 1961, the Indian ICC members had been able to broker a ceasefire in Laos and Kennedy decided to go for the neutralization option instead of war. During the talks in Geneva to discuss a solution to the Lao crisis, the chief American delegate, W. Averell Harriman, discovered the Chinese foreign minister, Chen Yi, was willing to meet him in private.However, Rusk forbade Harriman to talk to Chen under any conditions, fearful of Republican attacks against the Democrat Kennedy if the meetings should come out to the media, causing Harriman to explode in rage that in World War Two, Roosevelt had allowed him to meet whoever was necessary. Unable to change Rusk's mind, Harriman appealed to <mask> who in his turn appealed to Kennedy. Kennedy granted permission for Harriman to meet Chen, provided that it was done under the strictest secrecy, but by that time, Chen had returned to Beijing. In May 1961, when Vice President <mask> visited India, Galbraith had the duty of escorting him around various sites in India and attempting to explain some of his Texas mannerisms such as his shouts of "yee-hah!" that he made when he saw the Taj Mahal, which confused the Indians. From the embassy in New Delhi, <mask> emerged as a critic about the increasing American involvement in Vietnam. In November 1961, Galbraith visited South Vietnam, where he presented an unflattering picture of the regime of President Ngo Dinh Diem saying "we are now married to failure" and advised finding a new South Vietnamese leader, saying "nothing succeeds like successors".In May 1962, <mask> cabled Kennedy, stating that according to the most recent statements made by the Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, President Diem of South Vietnam had about 170,000 men under arms at present, while claiming that his country was in major danger from 20,000 lightly armed Viet Cong guerrillas. Galbraith proceeded to do a statistical comparison, under he which calculated that in proportional terms, Diem had an army that was approximately the ratio to the population that was equivalent to that of the U.S Army to the American people after the Civil War, while the Viet Cong had a ratio equivalent to that of the Sioux vs the American people, leading <mask> to sarcastically ask why Diem needed more American support. He concluded his cable to Kennedy: "Incidentally, who is the man in your administration who decides what countries are strategic? I would like to have his name and address and ask him what is so important about this real estate in the Space Age". In January 1963, when the Polish Foreign Minister Adam Rapacki visited New Delhi, <mask> met with him to declare to him his "despair" about Kennedy's Vietnam policies and to ask that Poland as one of the three members of the ICC try help find a diplomatic solution to the Vietnam war. <mask> told Rapacki that he favored an agreement to neutralize the two Vietnams similar to the neutralization agreement signed for Laos in 1962. On 5 February 1963 Przemysław Ogrodziński, the Polish ambassador in New Delhi, was ordered by his superiors in Warsaw: "As far as the Vietnam matter, we are discussing it.It was received with interest. Deliberations will continue. As for now, we suggest inviting Galbraith to lunch and sounding [him] out, without committing ourselves, in order for him to see that we are looking into this matter". Although Galbraith had acted on his own in approaching Rapacki, he had some support from Kennedy, who told him "to pursue the subject immediately." This was the origin of the "Maneli affair", named after Mieczysław Maneli, the Polish Commissioner to the ICC who, together with Ramchundur Goburdhun, the Indian Commissioner on the ICC, approached leaders in both North and South Vietnam with a proposal to make both Vietnams neutral in the Cold War. On 1 April 1963, Galbraith flew to Washington to discuss the peace proposal with Kennedy, where he was told by the president "to be prepared to seize upon any favorable moment to reduce our

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 commitment [in Vietnam]", though it "might yet be some time away." In September 1963, Maneli met with Ngô Đình Nhu, the younger brother and right-hand man of President Diem, to discuss neutralization, a meeting that was leaked to the right-wing American columnist Joseph Alsop.At that point Kennedy lost interest in the "Maneli affair", instead deciding to back an alternative option he had been considering since August:  a coup against the Ngo brothers. While in India, he helped establish one of the first computer science departments, at the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. (Even after leaving office, <mask> remained a friend and supporter of India.) Because of his recommendation, First Lady of the United States Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy undertook her 1962 diplomatic missions in India and Pakistan. After leaving the American embassy in India, <mask> continued to advise <mask>, now president, against escalating American involvement in Vietnam. In 1965, he advised <mask> that he should "instruct officials and spokesmen to stop saying the future of mankind, the United States, and human liberty is being decided in Vietnam. It isn't; this merely builds up a difficult problem out of all proportion.It is also terrible politics". During the 1966 Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam, <mask> wrote <mask> a letter on 3 April saying he now had "an opportunity only the God-fearing deserve and only the extremely lucky get", saying that if the government of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ should fall, <mask> should use the occasion to pull all Americans out of Vietnam. On 16 June 1966, <mask> offered to write <mask> a speech that would set out an orderly withdrawal of American forces over the next year. Galbraith advised <mask> the beginning of the "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution" in China represented an opportunity for a diplomatic settlement of the Vietnam war, predicting that Mao Zedong would lose interest in Vietnam now that he had launched his Cultural Revolution. The National Security Adviser, W.W. Rostow, wrote the reply to <mask> that was signed by <mask>, curtly declaring: "I have never doubted your talent for political craftsmanship, and I am sure you could devise a script that would appear to justify our taking an unjustifiable course in South Vietnam". On 28 June 1966, Galbraith made his final attempt to change <mask>'s mind, warning that the Vietnam War would ruin his presidency and that he should stop taking the advice of Rostow. <mask> stated that <mask> had the potential to be one of the greatest presidents if only he find a way out of Vietnam, and concluded: "The people who want to invest more and more in this war have nothing to lose.They will end up working for a foundation". In 1966, when he was no longer ambassador, he told the United States Senate that one of the main causes of the 1965 Kashmir war was American military aid to Pakistan. In early 1968, Galbraith endorsed Senator Eugene McCarthy, who ran against <mask> on an anti-war platform. During the New Hampshire Democratic primary, Galbraith toured the Granite State, giving pro-McCarthy speeches in churches, union halls, campuses and house parties. As McCarthy had the reputation of being strange and frivolous, Galbraith's support and campaigning for him was important, as McCarthy needed the endorsement of mainstream figures to give him credibility. When the New Hampshire Democratic primary was held on 12 March 1968, <mask> defeated McCarthy by only about 300 votes, a humiliation for an incumbent president with a well funded campaign running against a senator widely considered to be too eccentric to be president, and who had only a fraction of the campaign money that <mask> had. Through <mask> won the primary, the very narrow margin of his victory was widely considered to be a defeat.On the night of the primary, <mask> celebrated the result at McCarthy campaign headquarters as if it were an outright victory. The day after the New Hampshire primary, <mask> was widely cheered by his students when he entered his lecture hall at Harvard. The results of the New Hampshire primary showed that <mask> was vulnerable. On 16 March 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy announced he was entering the presidential race. Kennedy asked <mask> to withdraw his endorsement of McCarthy and to endorse him instead, a request that <mask> refused. The historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., who campaigned with <mask> in New Hampshire for McCarthy, switched his support to Kennedy, on the grounds that Kennedy was a far more electable candidate than the eccentric McCarthy, a man most people found to be too silly to be president. Schlesinger strongly urged <mask> to support Kennedy, but Galbraith chose to continue to campaign for McCarthy, partly because McCarthy's liberalism was closer to his own politics, and partly out of a personal revulsion for Kennedy, who had only opportunistically entered the presidential race when it became clear that <mask> was not  invincible.Galbraith had been friends with <mask>, but his relations with Robert were more difficult, as Galbraith found Robert too rigid, utterly convinced that he was always right. Galbraith later said that with Robert Kennedy "You were either for the cause or against it, with the Kennedys or a leper". After Kennedy was assassinated, McCarthy became so depressed that he almost dropped out of the election, and Galbraith visited several times to urge him to continue, through Galbraith later admitted "...I don't believe Eugene McCarthy's heart was ever wholly in the battle". At the chaotic and violent Democratic National Convention in August 1968 in Chicago, Galbraith attended as the floor manager for the McCarthy campaign. Amid what was later called a "police riot", as the Chicago police fought in the streets with anti-Vietnam war protesters, Galbraith held an impromptu speech outside the Hilton Hotel before a group of demonstrators, urging them to reject violence and to have patience, while assuring them that the American system was capable of reform and change. Galbraith pointed to the armed Illinois National Guardsmen standing in the background and said that they, unlike the Chicago police, were not the enemy, as he maintained that most of the young men who joined the Illinois National Guard had only done so to avoid being drafted to fight in Vietnam. After finishing his speech, a National Guard sergeant approached Galbraith, who froze up in fear as he believed he was about to be arrested.Instead the sergeant wanted to shake hands, saying: "Thank you, sir. That was the first nice thing anyone has said about us all week". At the convention, supporters of <mask> challenged <mask>'s right to serve as a delegate, and sought to expel him from the building. <mask> quarreled with <mask> supporters on the convention floor as he sought to add a peace plank to the Democratic platform, which <mask> saw as an insult to himself, and ordered the delegates to reject. The Mayor of Chicago, Richard Daley, a <mask> supporter, had imposed such stringent security conditions that it was impossible to walk across the convention hall without jostling somebody else, which added to the tension of the convention as pro-war and anti-war Democrats fiercely argued about the platform, all of which was captured live on national television. Adding to the tension were televisions on the convention floor that showed what was happening outside, as the Chicago police attacked and beat anti-war demonstrators. On Daley's orders, the Chicago police searched <mask>'s room at the Hilton hotel, alleging that he was hiding anti-war protesters.None were found. After Vice President Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic nomination, Galbraith reluctantly endorsed Humphrey as preferable to the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon. In autumn 1972, <mask> was an adviser and assistant to Nixon's rival candidate, Senator George McGovern, in the election campaign for the American presidency. During this time (September 1972) he travelled to China in his role as president of the American Economic Association (AEA) at the invitation of Mao Zedong's communist government, together with fellow economists Wassily Leontief and James Tobin. In 1973 Galraith published an account of his experiences in A China Passage. <mask> wrote that there was "no serious doubt that China is devising a highly effective economic system," "[d]issidents are brought firmly into line in China, but, one suspects, with great politeness," and "Greater Shanghai ... has a better medical service than New York,". He considered it not implausible that Chinese industrial and agricultural output was expanding annually at a rate of 10 to 11%.Later life and recognition
In 1972 he served as president of the American Economic Association. The Journal of Post Keynesian Economics benefited from <mask>'s support and he served as the chairman of its board from its beginning. During the shooting of The World at War, a British television documentary series (1973–74), <mask> described his experiences in the Roosevelt war administration. Among other things, he spoke about the initial confusion during the first meeting of the major departmental leaders about kapok and its use. Galbraith also talked about rationing and especially about trickery during fuel allocation. In December 1977, he met the Palauan senator Roman Tmetuchl and eventually became an unpaid adviser to the Palau Political Status Commission. He advocated for minimal financial requirement and infrastructure projects.In 1979 he addressed Palau's legislature and participated in a seminar for the delegates to the Palau Constitutional Convention. He became the first person to earn honorary citizenship of Palau. In 1984, he visited the USSR, writing that the Soviet economy had made "great material progress" as, "in contrast to Western industrial economy," the USSR "makes full use of its manpower." In 1985, the American Humanist Association named him the Humanist of the Year. The Association for Asian Studies (AAS) conferred its 1987 Award for Distinguished Contributions to Asian Studies. In 1997 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 2000 he was awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom.He also was awarded an honorary doctorate from Memorial University of Newfoundland at the fall convocation of 1999, another contribution to the impressive collection of approximately fifty academic honorary degrees bestowed upon Galbraith. In 2000, he was awarded the Leontief Prize for his outstanding contribution to economic theory by the Global Development and Environment Institute. The library in his hometown of Dutton, Ontario was renamed the John <mask>ith Reference Library in honor of his attachment to the library and his contributions to the new building. On April 29, 2006, <mask> died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, of natural causes at the age of 97, after a two-week stay in a hospital. He is interred at Indian Hill Cemetery in Middletown, Connecticut. Family
On September 17, 1937, Galbraith married Catherine Merriam Atwater, whom he met while she was a Radcliffe graduate student. Their marriage lasted for 68 years.The <mask>s resided in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and had a summer home in Townshend, VT. They had four sons: J. Alan <mask> is a partner in the Washington, DC, law firm Williams & Connolly; <mask> died in childhood of leukemia; Peter W<mask> has been an American diplomat who served as Ambassador to Croatia and is a commentator on American foreign policy, particularly in the Balkans and the Middle East; James K<mask> is a progressive economist at the University of Texas at Austin Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs. The Galbraiths also had ten grandchildren. A memorial plaque stands adjoining a stone inukshuk overlooking the Galbraith family farm on the Thompson (Hogg) Line just east of Willey Road, just north of the one room school he attended. The family home—a large white farm house—still stands, as do many of the original farm buildings. Writings
Even before becoming a president of the American Economic Association, Galbraith was considered as an iconoclast by many economists. This is partly because he rejected the technical analysis and mathematical modelling of neoclassical economics as being divorced from reality.Following Thorstein Veblen, he believed that economic activity could not be distilled into inviolable laws, but rather was a complex product of the cultural and political milieu in which it occurs. In particular, he posited that important factors, such as the separation between corporate ownership and management, oligopoly, and the influence of government and military spending had been largely neglected by most economists because they are not amenable to axiomatic descriptions. In this sense, he worked as much in political economy as in classical economics. His work included several best selling books throughout the fifties and sixties. His major contribution to the field of economics is the so-called American capitalism trilogy: The Affluent Society (1958), The New Industrial State (1967), and Economics and the Public Purpose (1973). Written in a clear and concise style, they were comprehensible to lay readers, not just economists. After his retirement from Harvard as the Paul M. Warburg Professor of Economics, Emeritus, he remained in the public spotlight by continuing to write 21 new books, as well as completing a script in 1977 for a major series on economics for PBS and BBC television—The Age of Uncertainty, broadcast in 38 countries.In addition to his books, he wrote hundreds of essays and a number of novels. Among his novels, A Tenured Professor achieved particular critical acclaim. Galbraith wrote book reviews, e.g., of The Report from Iron Mountain on the Possibility and Desirability of Peace, a 1967 political satire, under the pen name of Herschel McLandress, a name of a fictional Scottish mentor featured in the Tenured Professor. He also used the pseudonym, Mark Épernay, when he published The McLandress Dimension in 1963. Economics books
Galbraith was an important figure in 20th-century institutional economics, and provided an exemplary institutionalist perspective on economic power. Among his numerous writings, Galbraith cherished The New Industrial State and The Affluent Society as his two best. As for the later works, economist and Galbraith friend Mike Sharpe visited him in 2004, on which occasion Galbraith gave Sharpe a copy of what would be <mask>'s last book, The Economics of Innocent Fraud.<mask> confided in Sharpe that "this is my best book", an assertion Galbraith delivered "a little mischievously." After the beginning of the Great Recession of 2008, <mask>'s The Great Crash, 1929 (1955) and other books containing warnings about the dangers of an unrestrained speculative mood without proper government oversight found an attentive readership again. In 2010, the Library of America published a new edition of <mask>'s major works, edited by his son, James K<mask>: The Affluent Society & Other Writings, 1952–1967: American Capitalism, The Great Crash, 1929, The Affluent Society, and The New Industrial State. On this occasion, Bill Moyers interviewed James K<mask> about his father, his works, and his legacy. American economy
In American Capitalism: The Concept of Countervailing Power, published in 1952, Galbraith concluded that the American economy was managed by a triumvirate of big business, big labor, and an activist government. Galbraith defined the actions of the industry lobby groups and unions as countervailing power. He contrasted this arrangement with the period prior to the previous Depression, when big business had relatively free rein over the economy.His 1955 bestseller The Great Crash, 1929 describes the Wall Street meltdown of stock prices and how markets progressively become decoupled from reality in a speculative boom. The book is also a platform for <mask>'s humor and keen insights into human behavior when wealth is threatened. It has never been out of print. In The Affluent Society (1958), which became a bestseller, <mask> outlined his view that to become successful, post–World War II America should make large investments in items such as highways and education, using funds from general taxation. Galbraith also critiqued the assumption that continually increasing material production is a sign of economic and societal health. Because of this <mask> is sometimes considered one of the first post-materialists. In this book, he popularized the old phrase "conventional wisdom".<mask> worked on the book while in

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 Switzerland and had originally titled it Why The Poor Are Poor, but changed it to The Affluent Society at his wife's suggestion. The Affluent Society contributed (likely to a significant degree, given that <mask> had the ear of President Kennedy) to the "war on poverty", the government spending policy introduced by the administrations of Kennedy and <mask>. New industrial state
In 1966, <mask> was invited by the BBC to present the Reith Lectures, a series of radio broadcasts, which he titled The New Industrial State. Across six broadcasts, he explored the economics of production and the effect large corporations could have over the state. In the print edition of The New Industrial State (1967), Galbraith expanded his analysis of the role of power in economic life, arguing that very few industries in the United States fit the model of perfect competition. A central concept of the book is the revised sequence. The 'conventional wisdom' in economic thought portrays economic life as a set of competitive markets governed, ultimately, by the decisions of sovereign consumers.In this original sequence, the control of the production process flows from consumers of commodities to the organizations that produce those commodities. In the revised sequence, this flow is reversed and businesses exercise control over consumers by advertising and related salesmanship activities. The revised sequence concept applies only to the industrial system—that is, the manufacturing core of the economy in which each industry contains only a handful of very powerful corporations. It does not apply to the market system in the Galbraithian dual economy. In the market system, composed of the vast majority of business organizations, price competition remains the dominant form of social control. In the industrial system, however, composed of the 1,000 or so large corporations, competitive price theory obscures the relation to the price system of these large and powerful corporations. In <mask>'s view, the principal function of market relations in this industrial system is, not to constrain the power of the corporate behemoths, but to serve as an instrument for the implementation of their power.Moreover, the power of these corporations extends into commercial culture and politics, allowing them to exercise considerable influence upon popular social attitudes and value judgments. That this power is exercised in the shortsighted interest of expanding commodity production and the status of the few is both inconsistent with democracy and a barrier to achieving the quality of life that the new industrial state with its affluence could provide. The New Industrial State not only provided Galbraith with another best-selling book, it also extended once again, the currency of institutionalist economic thought. The book also filled a very pressing need in the late 1960s. The conventional theory of monopoly power in economic life maintains that the monopolist will attempt to restrict supply in order to maintain price above its competitive level. The social cost of this monopoly power is a decrease in both allocative efficiency and the equity of income distribution. This conventional economic analysis of the role of monopoly power did not adequately address popular concern about the large corporation in the late 1960s.The growing concern focused on the role of the corporation in politics, the damage done to the natural environment by an unmitigated commitment to economic growth, and the perversion of advertising and other pecuniary aspects of culture. The New Industrial State gave a plausible explanation of the power structure involved in generating these problems and found a very receptive audience among the rising American counterculture and political activists. A third related work was Economics and the Public Purpose (1973), in which he expanded on these themes by discussing, among other issues, the subservient role of women in the unrewarded management of ever-greater consumption, and the role of the technostructure in the large firm in influencing perceptions of sound economic policy aims. Financial bubbles
In A Short History of Financial Euphoria (1990), he traces speculative bubbles through several centuries, and argues that they are inherent in the free market system because of "mass psychology" and the "vested interest in error that accompanies speculative euphoria." Also, financial memory is "notoriously short": what currently seems to be a "new financial instrument" is inevitably nothing of the sort. Galbraith cautions: "The world of finance hails the invention of the wheel over and over again, often in a slightly more unstable version." Crucial to his analysis is the assertion that the common factor in boom-and-bust is the creation of debt to finance speculation, which "becomes dangerously out of scale in relation to the underlying means of payment."Legacy
Galbraith's main ideas focused around the influence of the market power of large corporations. He believed that this market power weakened the widely accepted principle of consumer sovereignty, allowing corporations to be price makers, rather than price takers, allowing corporations with the strongest market power to increase the production of their goods beyond an efficient amount. He further believed that market power played a major role in inflation. He argued that corporations and trade unions could only increase prices to the extent that their market power allowed. He argued that in situations of excessive market power, price controls effectively controlled inflation, but cautioned against using them in markets that were basically efficient such as agricultural goods and housing. He noted that price controls were much easier to enforce in industries with relatively few buyers and sellers. <mask>'s view of market power was not entirely negative; he also noted that the power of US firms played a part in the success of the US economy.In The Affluent Society <mask> asserts that classical economic theory was true for the eras before the present, which were times of "poverty"; now, however, we have moved from an age of poverty to an age of "affluence", and for such an age, a completely new economic theory is needed. <mask>'s main argument is that as society becomes relatively more affluent, private business must create consumer demand through advertising, and while this generates artificial affluence through the production of commercial goods and services, the public sector becomes neglected. He points out that while many Americans were able to purchase luxury items, their parks were polluted and their children attended poorly maintained schools. He argues that markets alone will under-provide (or fail to provide at all) for many public goods, whereas private goods are typically "over-provided" due to the process of advertising creating an artificial demand above the individual's basic needs. This emphasis on the power of advertising and consequent over-consumption may have anticipated the drop in savings rates in the US and elsewhere in the developing world. <mask> proposed curbing the consumption of certain products through greater use of pigovian taxes and land value taxes,  arguing that this could be more efficient than other forms of taxation, such as labor taxes. <mask>'s major proposal was a program he called "investment in men"—a large-scale, publicly funded education program aimed at empowering ordinary citizens.An International Symposium to honor <mask> <mask>, sponsored by the l'Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, Dunkerque and the Institut de Gestion Sociale, Paris, France, was held in September 2004 in Paris. A special issue Commemorating <mask> <mask>'s Centenary of the Review of Political Economy was dedicated in 2008 to <mask>'s contribution to economics. Three days before his death, <mask> urged his son, economist James K<mask>, to "write a short book on corporate predation"; the younger <mask> completed The Predator State in 2008. Criticism of <mask>'s work
<mask>'s work in general, and The Affluent Society in particular, have drawn sharp criticism from laissez-faire supporters since the time of their publications. Neoliberal and Nobel Prize-winning economist Milton Friedman in "Friedman on Galbraith, and on curing the British disease" views Galbraith as a 20th-century version of the early-19th-century Tory radical of Great Britain. He asserts that Galbraith believes in the superiority of aristocracy and in its paternalistic authority, that consumers should not be allowed choice, and that all should be determined by those with "higher minds", commenting: "Many reformers—Galbraith is not alone in this—have as their basic objection to a free market that it frustrates them in achieving their reforms, because it enables people to have what they want, not what the reformers want. Hence every reformer has a strong tendency to be averse to a free market."Nobel Prize-winning economist Robert Solow, in a review of The New Industrial State, points at <mask>'s lack of empiricism and selectiveness in his use of evidence. He points out that "It may be unjust and pointless to consider the degree of literal truth of each of the assertions that make up this argument. One would hardly discuss Gulliver's Travels by debating whether there really are any little people, or criticize the Grande Jatte because objects aren't made up of tiny dots. Nevertheless, it may help to judge the truth of Galbraith's." Richard Parker, in his biography, <mask> <mask>: His Life, His Economics, His Politics, characterizes <mask> as a more complex thinker. Galbraith's primary purpose in Capitalism: The Concept of Countervailing Power (1952) was, ironically, to show that big business was now necessary to the American economy to maintain the technological progress that drives economic growth. Galbraith knew that the "countervailing power", which included government regulation and collective bargaining, was necessary to balanced and efficient markets.In The New Industrial State (1967), <mask> argued that the dominant American corporations had created a technostructure that closely controlled both consumer demand and market growth through advertising and marketing. While Galbraith defended government intervention, Parker notes that he also believed that government and big business worked together to maintain stability. Paul Krugman downplayed <mask>'s stature as an academic economist in 1994. In Peddling Prosperity, he places Galbraith as one among many "policy entrepreneurs"—either economists, or think tank writers, left and right—who write solely for the public, as opposed to those who write for other academics, and who are, therefore, liable to make unwarranted diagnoses and offer over-simplistic answers to complex economic problems. Krugman asserts that Galbraith was never taken seriously by fellow academics, who instead viewed him as more of a "media personality". For example, Krugman believes that <mask>'s work, The New Industrial State, is not considered to be "real economic theory", and that Economics in Perspective is "remarkably ill-informed". Thomas Sowell wrote in his 1995 book The Vision of the Anointed that <mask> was a notable "teflon prophet" alongside American biologist Paul R. Ehrlich, and institutes like the Club of Rome and Worldwatch Institute; they were utterly certain in their predictions, yet completely disproven empirically, though their reputations remained perfectly undamaged.Sowell first noted that in The Affluent Society, <mask> argued that discussions of income inequality in the United States appeared to be declining in urgency. However, Sowell contended that since 1958, the year <mask>'s book was written, preoccupation with income distribution had been at an all-time high. Next, Sowell criticized <mask>'s claims in The Affluent Society and The New Industrial State that large corporations are invincible to competition. Sowell refuted this claim by citing Toyota and Honda's takeover of the United States' automobile market at the expense of General Motors, the previously dominant and allegedly infallible car company. Sowell also pointed out the decline of Life magazine, the disappearances of W.T. Grant and Graflex, the folding of Pan American, the collapse of newspaper companies in cities all across the country, the near extinction of Chrysler, and overall, the displacement of almost half of the firms in 1980's Fortune 500 in the 1990 edition. Sowell's third point of refutation was against Galbraith's assertion in The New Industrial State that successful corporate management was immune to corporate shake-ups, Sowell penned that, in reality, heads were "rolling in corporate suites across the land".The fourth of <mask>'s claims that Sowell believed to not have stood up to the test of time is <mask>'s contemptuousness towards the idea of a lone entrepreneur starting up a new, powerful company; Sowell used multibillionaires Steve Jobs and Bill Gates as counterexamples. Memoirs

The first edition of The Scotch was published in the UK under two alternative titles: as Made to Last and The Non-potable Scotch: A Memoir of the Clansmen in Canada. It was illustrated by Samuel H. Bryant. <mask>'s account of his boyhood environment in Elgin County in southern Ontario was added in 1963. He considered it his finest piece of writing. Galbraith memoir, A Life in Our Times was published in 1981. It contains discussion of his thoughts, his life, and his times.In 2004, the publication of an authorized biography, <mask> Galbraith: His Life, His Politics, His Economics by a friend and fellow progressive economist Richard Parker renewed interest in <mask>'s life journey and legacy. Honors
<mask> <mask> was one of the few people to receive both the World War II Medal of Freedom and the Presidential Medal of Freedom; respectively in 1946 from President Truman and in 2000 from President Bill Clinton. He was a recipient of Lomonosov Gold Medal in 1993 for his contributions to science. He also was appointed to the Order of Canada in 1997 and, in 2001, awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award, for his contributions to strengthening ties between India and the United States. Lomonosov Gold Medal in 1993
 Order of Canada (Officer) in 1997
 Padma Vibhushan (India) in 2001

In 2010, he became the first economist to have his works included in the Library of America series. On, 1999
 The Essential Galbraith, 2001
 The Economics of Innocent Fraud, 2004

See also

 List of liberal theorists
 Modern liberalism in the United States
 The Best and the Brightest

Notes

References

Works cited

Obituaries

Further reading

  (Papers from the International Symposium Honoring <mask> <mask> Held in Paris in September 2004)

 Thacker, Innes (1980), Ideological Control and the Depoliticisation of Language, in Bold, Christine (ed. ), Cencrastus No.2, Spring 1980, pp. 30 – 33,

Primary sources

External links

 In May 2011, the VOA Special English service of the Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute program on <mask> <mask>. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at <mask> <mask>, 1908–2006: He Influenced Economic Thought for Many Years
 Speech by <mask> <mask> on March 22, 1968, discussing the impact of Vietnam on American life. Audio recording from The University of Alabama's Emphasis Symposium on Contemporary Issues

1908 births
2006 deaths
Agricultural economists
Burials at Indian Hill Cemetery
Canadian economists
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Harvard University faculty
Institutional economists
Keynesians
Anti-consumerists
Massachusetts Democrats
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Officers of the Order of Canada
Writers from Boston
People from Elgin County
Princeton University faculty
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Recipients of the Medal of Freedom
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in literature & education
Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal
Ambassadors of the United States to India
Ontario Agricultural College alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of Toronto alumni
20th-century American economists
Presidents of the American Economic Association
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Social Science Research Council
The Century Foundation
Economists from Massachusetts
Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award
Harvard Extension School faculty
People with acquired American citizenship
Presidents of the American Academy of

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<mask> (5 August 1928 – 25 October 2010) was an Australian photographer, filmmaker and author. His work was widely published and contributed iconic representation of the working population of the Australian bush as self-sufficient rugged and laconic. Early life
<mask> was born to Percy and <mask> in August 1928 in Melbourne. <mask>'s parents were successful merchants and <mask> attended Melbourne Boys High School. By the time he matriculated in 1946, his three major passions were clear – photography, writing and travel. He began taking photographs while still at high school. His first photos were taken with a Kodak Box Brownie, given to him as a 13th birthday present.Career
In 1946, <mask> set off to travel around Australia with his camera and typewriter and made a living selling his stories and photographs to a wide range of Australian and international newspapers and magazines including Paris Match, People, Pix, Walkabout and The Australian Women's Weekly. He was later also commissioned by National Geographic. The curator of the 2011 retrospective of <mask>'s work, Sandra Byron, said his photographs were "deceptively simple because they were extremely well crafted, wonderful images", and that he was an important figure in Australian documentary photography. From 1949–54, <mask> was editor of Outdoors and Fishing magazine; he then resigned to travel in rural and outback Australia as a freelance photo-journalist. He wrote and illustrated 17 books based on his experiences. His most widely held book outside Australia is People of the Inland. [Adelaide]: Rigby, 1966.OCLC 901968. <mask>'s other books include: The Life and Land of Central Australia (1967); Outback in Focus (1968); Stout Hearts and Leathery Hands (1968); Surf Beaches of Australia's East Coast (1968); Four-Wheel Drive Swagman (1969); Wild Country (1974); <mask>'s Great Book Of The Australian Outdoors (1976); All Things Wild (1977); and <mask>'s Guided Tours Of The Outback (1979). At the time of his death in 2010 he was in the final stages of compiling a book of photographic works produced in collaboration with his granddaughter. <mask> also produced a three-volume series of semi-autobiographical novels, Snowmaidens, which remained unpublished at the time of his death. <mask> is quoted as saying that he was influenced by writers such as Upton Sinclair, John Steinbeck and Edgar Snow. Television
From 1972–74, <mask> directed and filmed the television series Wild Country for the Seven Network. The series was edited by Roger Whittaker and <mask>'s daughter Karen, and was screened internationally, including at the annual television festival MIP in Cannes, France.An episode won awards for Best Documentary, Best Director and Best Editing at the 1974 Australian Film Institute Awards, and another episode won several awards at the annual television festival MIP in Cannes, France. From 1981–85, he was head teacher of photography at the Wollongong campus of the National Art School. Collections and exhibitions
His photographs are in the collections of the Art Gallery of NSW, the National Gallery of Victoria, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Library of Australia (over 450 photographs), the Art Gallery of South Australia, the National Museum of Australia, and the Powerhouse Museum. They have been exhibited at the National Library of Australia, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Museum of Australia, the Art Gallery of NSW, the Art Gallery of South Australia and overseas galleries in Osaka, Japan, Lisbon, Portugal, New York and Paris. The Monash Gallery of Art in Melbourne, held a major retrospective exhibition of his images in May–June 2003, which was seen by a record number of over 9,000 visitors. Part of this exhibition was then shown at the Christine Abrahams Gallery, and the National Trust Gallery in Melbourne. <mask> received the Australia Council's Visual Arts/Craft Board 2004 Emeritus award.Senator Rod Kemp, then Minister for the Arts and Sport, commented:
The annual Visual Arts/Craft Emeritus Award and Medal honour the achievements of artists and advocates who have made outstanding and lifelong contributions to the arts in Australia. The career of itinerant, self-taught photographer <mask> spans half a century. It has been estimated that he has produced some 55,000 negatives since he took to the road in 1946 as a young man inspired by his heroes Steinbeck and Hemingway. Armed with a typewriter and a 1A folding Kodak camera, he set about on a journey across the country that would see him document the people, places and life of a changing Australia. In doing so, he has produced one of this country's most remarkable and historically significant photographic archives. As his self-titled calling as photographer to the 'poor and unknown' suggests, <mask> is a humanist whose early articles and iconic black and white images, like Tobacco Road and The Drover's Wife, exposed an appreciation of the difficulties Australians outside major cities faced everyday. The National Library compendium of its image collection [Helen Ennis (2004),Intersections: Photography, History and the National Library of Australia, National Library of Australia, Canberra] uses <mask>'s iconic 1955 image Tobacco Road for its cover illustration.A collection of his black and white studies was published as <mask>: Retrospective Sydney: New Holland, 2005,

Filmmaker Catherine Hunter joined <mask> on a road trip in June 2010 to western New South Wales, revisiting bush characters he had first photographed back in the 1950s. The result was a half-hour documentary, Inland Heart: The Photography of <mask>. Themes
As a photographer, <mask> concentrated on the unglamorous and unprivileged aspects of Australia, with a focus on the working lives and conditions of ordinary Australians. During his early travels, his experiences as an itinerant bush worker, fruit picker, side show "urger" for a travelling boxing troupe, drover, road worker, and mill hand, brought him in contact with the people who would be the subjects of his photographs. These early years of his career filled him with admiration for those making their livings in some of the toughest environments in Australia. Throughout his career, <mask> has produced series that show the progression of events over time. Concentrating on rituals and process, they comprise evocative images.Personal life

In 1947 at the age of 19, <mask> married Frances Oscar, a motorcycle rider in a circus sideshow and had two children, daughter, Karen Siobhan <mask>, and son Thor. In 1952 he began a de facto relationship with Mary Thompson-Read-Young (known as 'Mare'). They settled in 1962 on a 45-hectare farm at Foxground near the south coast town of Berry, NSW and turned it into a wildlife sanctuary. They had two boys, Goth and Vandal. Obituary
<mask>'s obituary, written by Robert McFarlane, appeared in The Sydney Morning Herald on 6 November 2010. Books by <mask>
 <mask>, Jeff & Mossgreen Gallery (2010). Final works from the darkroom.Mossgreen Gallery, South Yarra
 Carter, <mask> & Davies, Alan, 1946– & Byron, Sandra & Willsteed, Theresa & State Library of New South Wales (2010). Beach, bush + battlers : photographs by <mask>. State Library of New South Wales, [Sydney, N.S.W.] <mask>, <mask> & Gollings, John, 1944– & Parke, Trent, 1971– & Gold Coast City Art Gallery (2008). Streets of gold : photographs from Gold Coast Streets 1957–2008. Gold Coast City Art Gallery, Surfers Paradise [Qld.] <mask>, Mare & Carter, <mask>, 1928–2010 (2007).Landmarks : in a travelling life. Glenrock Books, Foxground, N.S.W
 <mask>, <mask> (2005). <mask> : retrospective. New Holland, Frenchs Forest, N.S.W
 <mask>, <mask> (1995). <mask>'s Bush Battlers. People of the inland. Seal Books, Sydney
 <mask>, Jeff & Primavera Press (1994).<mask>, 1995 : Primavera black & white datebook. Leichhardt [N.S.W.] Primavera Press
 <mask>, <mask> & <mask>, Mare, 1930– & <mask>, <mask>, 1928–2010. (1993). Carters' Central Australia (Rev. ed). Hodder and Stoughton, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> (1989).From the Alice to the Arctic : 40 years of motoring with <mask>. Hodder & Stoughton, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> & <mask>, Mare, 1930– (1989). The complete guide to central Australia. Hodder & Stoughton, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> (1987). The Australian explorer's handbook : travel, survival and bush cookery. Hodder and Stoughton, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> (1981). <mask>'s Guide to the outdoors.Rigby, Adelaide
 <mask>, <mask> (1979). <mask>'s guided tours of the outback. Rigby, Adelaide
 <mask>, <mask>hold, 1892–1971 & Van Dusen, Henry P. (Henry Pitney), 1897–1975 (1977). All things wild : more yarns about wild people, places and animals. Rigby, [Adelaide, Sydney, etc.] <mask>, <mask> (1977). <mask>'s bush battlers.Rigby, Adelaide
 <mask>, <mask> (1977). <mask>'s new guide to Central Australia. Rigby, Adelaide
 <mask>, <mask> (1976). <mask>'s great book of the Australian outdoors. Rigby, Adelaide
 <mask>, <mask> & <mask>, <mask> (1973). Wild animal farm. Hale, London
 <mask>, <mask> (1972).A guide to Central Australia. Sun Books, Melbourne
 <mask>, <mask> (1972). Wild country. Hale, London
 <mask>, <mask> (1971). Ungezähmtes land ('Unfinished Land'). Engelbert, Sauerland, Germany
 <mask>, <mask> (1971). The new frontier : Australia's rising northwest.Angus and Robertson, [Sydney]
 <mask>, <mask> (1970). Four-wheel drive swagman. Hale, London
 <mask>, <mask> (1969). In the steps of the explorers. Angus and Robertson, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> (1968). Surf beaches of Australia's east coast. Angus and Robertson, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask> (1968).In the tracks of the cattle : story of the great migration from 11 head at Farm Cove in 1788 to 19 million throughout the cattle lands today. Angus and Robertson, [Sydney]
 <mask>, <mask> (1968). Outback in focus. Angus & Robertson, London
 <mask>, <mask> (1968). Stout hearts and leathery hands. Angus & Robertson, London
 <mask>, <mask> (1967). The life and land of Central Australia.Angus and Robertson, Sydney
 <mask>, <mask>by, [Adelaide]
 Brodsky, Isadore & Carter, <mask>, 1928–2010 & Hunter's Hill (N.S.W. : Municipality). Council (1961). Hunters Hill, New South Wales, 1861–1961. Jukes, Sydney

Exhibitions of work by <mask>
Focus Oz, 1991-2 – Berry NSW
Untitled, 1992 – Christine Abrahams Gallery, Melbourne
Saturday Arvo, 1993 – Stills Gallery, Sydney
Untitled, 1994 – Christine Abrahams Gallery
Concerned Viewer, 1995 – Photographers Gallery, Sydney
Beach, Bush & Battlers, 1995 – Byron-Mapp Gallery, Sydney
Battlers,1996 – Christine Abrahams Gallery, 1998 – Byron-Mapp Gallery, 1999 Penrith Regional Gallery, 1999 Brisbane City Art Gallery, 2000 Gippsland Regional Art Gallery, 2002 – Myrtleford, Victoria
Sydney Images, 1996 – Byron-Mapp Gallery
A Hungry Eye, 1999 – Dick Bett Gallery, Hobart
8 Seconds High!, 1999 – Christine Abrahams Gallery, 2003 – Museum of the Riverina, Wagga, 2003 – Shear Outback, Hay, NSW,
Selected Images, 1999 – Paris Photo Show
The Way We Were, 2000 – Byron-Mapp Gallery
Combined Artists, 2000 – Byron-Mapp Gallery
Selected Images, 2000 – Paris Photo Show
Charles Kerry/<mask> Carter, 2001 – Mosman Art Gallery
Images 1950–2000, 2001 – Christine Abrahams Gallery
Federation (Contrib.Artist), 2001 – National Gallery of Australia
Images 1950–2000, 2001 – Byron-Mapp Gallery
Big River Show (Contrib. Artist), 2002 – Wagga Regional Art Gallery
Retrospective, 2003 – Monash Gallery of Art, Victoria
Images 1950–2001 – National Trust Parliament Place Gallery, Melbourne
Icon Images, 2003 – Christine Abrahams Gallery
Vintage Images, 2006 – Sandra Byron Gallery, Sydney
Retrospective Images, 2006 – Christine Abrahams Gallery, Melbourne
'La Nieta', 2006 – The Australian Photographers Gallery, Sydney
Queen Victoria Market Series: 1956, 2008 Queen Victoria Market
Beach, Bush + Battlers: Photographs by <mask>  2011 – State Library of NSW from 4 January – 20 February

See also
 Photography in Australia
 Cinema of Australia
 John Watt Beattie
 William Bland
 Maggie Diaz
 Ken G. Hall
 Frank Hurley
 Charles Kerry
 Henry King (photographer)
 David Perry (Australian filmmaker)
 Ruby Spowart
 Mark Strizic

References

External links
Pictures Collection, National Library of Australia, Canberra

Australian photographers
1928 births
2010 deaths
Australian photojournalists
Australian journalists
Working-class culture
20th-century Australian photographers

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<mask> (October 20, 1908 – June 11, 1970) was a Japanese serial killer who, together with accomplice Mitsuyoshi Onuki, was responsible for murders of hotel owners Kamasuke and Ume Ikukata, called the Hotel Nihonkaku Incident. After her arrest, she confessed to fatally poisoning her husband in 1952, and was later sentenced to death and executed for her crimes. Early life
<mask> was born on October 20, 1908 in Tamagoi, Saitama Prefecture (present-day Kumagaya), the second daughter of seven children born into an impoverished farmer couple's home. After finishing elementary school, she helped with housework until the age of 16, when she went to work as a housekeeper in Hongō, Tokyo. When she returned in 1930, she married 27-year-old Hidenosuke Hayashi, a sickly man suffering from gastroenteritis and gonorrhea who ran a store in Kumagaya. The couple would eventually have two children: a baby boy who died in infancy, and later a girl. When the Second World War broke out, Hidenosuke was called to serve, but was wounded in combat and returned to Japan.After his return, the couple built themselves a house, from where they would sell bicycle tries and contraband items such as rubber, rice and sugar. On the side, <mask> herself sold gokabou, which provided additional income for the family. At one point, a 25-year-old police officer, Mataichiro Nakamura, was sent in to investigate the alleged contraband of illegal goods in the Hayashi household, but he was moved by their hospitality, and started occasionally visiting the family. Over time, <mask>, who was left sexually unsatisfied by her husband, began an affair with Nakamura. Despite being receptive of her advances, Nakamura told her that wanted to spend more time with her, and if that were to happen, she'd have to leave her husband. Murders
On October 2, 1952, Hayashi died from a sudden and mysterious illness, which the coroner labeled as the result of a cerebral hemorrhage. While there were suspicions that his wife was responsible for his death, the police ceased the investigation.Shortly thereafter, Nakamura moved in to live with <mask>, but was then fired from his job due to his behavior. Wanting to keep her new lover, <mask> began working even harder to run her business, eventually moving into Nakamura's house. However, this proved to be short-lived, as he eventually kicked her out and married a younger woman. A distressed <mask> was later observed banging at his front door and screaming for him to take her back, and even allegedly tried to poison his new wife, but still continued to provide him with money. Despite her troubled personal life, <mask>'s business began to flourish when she began a joint venture with her sister's family, where she was hired as a saleswoman. She would travel around the various prefectures, looking for onsen-centered businesses to promote the company's services. As a result, in 1954, she found herself in Shiobara, where her most infamous crime would take place.The Hotel Nihonkaku Incident

Soon after her arrival in Shiobara, <mask> began familiarizing herself with the locals, and in the spring of 1956, she bought a small store in front of the Hotel Myogaya. Soon after, she began buying other stores and land in the area, eventually planning to build an onsen and work as a hostess. However, a majority of the townsfolk were unwilling to sell their properties, especially to a newcomer. In the fall of 1958, <mask> learned about the Hotel Nihonkaku, a small inn which was about to be closed due to poor management. The proprietor, 53-year-old Kamasuke Ikukata, desperately in need of funds to keep the inn open, he offered <mask> to pay a 500,000 yen loan to his wife, Ume (49). However, when the two women met, Kau attempted to heckle the price down to 300,000 yen, which was rejected by Mrs. Ikukata. Angered by her refusal, in mid-January 1960, <mask> enlisted the help of 36-year-old Mitsuyoshi Onuki, offering him 20,000 yen and sexual services if she killed Ume Ikukata.Reluctantly agreeing, on the night of February 8, 1960, Onuki strangled Mrs. Ikukata with a linen string while she was sleeping. He later moved the body to the boiler room, where he dug up the floor and hid the body there, pouring concrete over it so it couldn't be located. After her disappearance, rumors starting floating around the area that she had been killed. Later in November, <mask> approached Onuki again, asking him to kill Kamasuke as well, but with poison this time. In mid-December, Onuki poured hydrochloric acid into Ikukata's meal and sake, but the strong taste put him off from finishing his meal. After their initial failure, on New Year's Even, while the trio were watching TV, <mask> went to prepare dinner. When she was done, she snuck up behind Ikukata and started strangling him, after which Onuki joined in to help her by fatally stabbing him in the neck.The pair hid the body, and when customers came around to ask what had happened to Mr. Ikukata, they replied by saying that "he had gone to Tokyo for some money." Arrest, confession and trial
The disappearance of the inn owners fueled the rumors of their untimely deaths even further, eventually resulting in newspapers covering the case. As a result, both <mask> and Onuki were arrested on February 20, 1961 on suspicion of murder. Shortly after her arrest, <mask> admitted her guilt in the case, additionally confessing to poisoning her husband with potassium cyanide in 1952, claiming that she had been aided by her lover Nakamura. Following these confessions, the three were put on trial, and on July 14, 1966, <mask> and Onuki were sentenced to death by the Supreme Court after being found guilty of the murders. Nakamura, who asserted his innocence from the beginning of the case, was acquitted due to lack of evidence. Execution
On June 11, 1970, the 61-year-old <mask> <mask> and her accomplice were hanged at the Tokyo Detention House.She was the first woman to be executed in the country after the Second World War. See also
 List of serial killers by country
 List of executions in Japan

References

In films and culture
 The Japanese film Deviations and Passions, released in 1969, covered the Hotel Nihonkaku case, among other prominent cases in the country
 The 1984 film Station to Heaven, directed by Masanobu Deme, is heavily inspired by the case

Bibliography

External links
 Yabusaka article with additional information

1908 births
1970 deaths
20th-century criminals
Female criminals
Japanese female serial killers
Japanese serial killers
Poisoners
Japanese people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by Japan
Executed Japanese serial killers
Executed Japanese women
Prisoners sentenced to death by Japan
People executed by Japan by hanging
People executed for murder
Mariticides
People from Saitama Prefecture

masks:
Kau Kobayashi
Kau Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kobayashi
Kau
Kobayashi


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<mask> (born Shreveport, Louisiana) is an American musician, composer and producer. His performing career spanned the mid 1970s through the early 1980s. Since then he has written and produced a variety of artists from glam metal to cajun. He is the brother of fellow musician/composer <mask>. Music career
<mask> has written the songs "Fool for Your Love" and "So Close" for Diana Ross. <mask> and his brother Jim wrote most of the hits ("One in a Million", "Surrender") on Trixter's debut album. <mask> was the producer of EFX at MGM Grand Casino, at the time the most expensive and largest-scaled theater installation in the world.Stars rotated through every two years were Michael Crawford, David Cassidy, Tommy Tune and Rick Springfield. The last three were during <mask>'s tenure. <mask> used to play at the old Dynasty Club and Common Ground in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. There was also the <mask> Band which included Greg Worley. As an artist, <mask> opened for such artists as Foreigner, Toto, Rick Springfield, The Kinks, BTO, Peter Frampton and Joe Cocker. <mask> produced Driven2Rock at the MGM Grand which gave custom inlaid Melancon Guitars to stars such as Dale Earnhardt Jr., Britney Spears and Michael Waltrip on March 5 and 6th 2004. Credits

Composed songs for
 Lisa Hartman
 Little Feat
 God Street Wine
 EFX (show)
 Flame
 Diana Ross
 Loverboy
 Zachary Richard
 Trixter
 Emerson, Lake & Palmer
 Ace Frehley - Courtesy AMG

Songs composed by (officially credited)
 Song - Artist
 'Till My Heart Stops Beating - Lisa Hartman
 Angeline - God Street Wine
 Apotheosis (Final Dance) - 1999 Las Vegas Cast EFX
 Back to the Future - Diana Ross
 Better Day - Eric Martin
 Big Bang Theory - Little Feat
 Borderline Blues - Little Feat
 Bullet in the Chamber - Loverboy
 Burning - Zachary Richard
 Cadillac Hotel - Little Feat
 Cajun Rage - Little Feat
 Change - Emerson, Lake & Palmer
 Dancing at Double d's - Zachary Richard
 Destination Heartbreak - Loverboy
 Down in Congo Square - Zachary Richard
 Drivin' Blind - Little Feat
 Eclipse - 1999 Las Vegas Cast EFX
 EFX (Bring On The Dream) - 1999 Las Vegas Cast EFX
 Friday Night - Loverboy
 Gone Too Soon - Emerson, Lake & Palmer
 Heart of Steel - Trixter
 How Many Rivers?Made Billboard top 100 (hit 96 for two weeks starting 5/19/1979 ABC 12449) Other songs for film: My Music, Where Were You, Don't Stop the Music, Rock and Roll Rodeo, Melody Man, Friends, Mercedes Morning, Koala Shuffle. Unknown Album 1979 - Don't Stop the Music, Friends, Long Road to Texas, Melody Man, My Music, Pinball That's All, Rock N Roll Rodeo, Where Were You
 Goin' Down/(You're A) Heartbreaker (1983 Liberty 1491 or SP225) - single
 River City (1976 7" single MCA 40576
 Takin' My Time/Same (1976 single MCA 40611)
 Louisiana Rain (????

masks:
Bill Wray
Jim Wray
Bill Wray
Wray
Wray
Wray
Bill Wray
Bill Wray
Wray
Wray


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<mask>  (18 April 1909 – 11 November 1991) was a New Zealand politician and Trades Union leader. Sir <mask> served as President of the Auckland Trades Council from 1954 to 1976, and President of the New Zealand Federation of Labour from 1959 until 1979. <mask> was known as a conciliatory and accommodating political leader, and in the 1970s he was seen as the voice of unionism in New Zealand. He served on several international union forums, including a spell as a member of the body controlling the International Labour Organization. He was instrumental in founding the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, and was knighted in 1976. Early life
<mask> was born in Mangaweka in 1909, the third child and eldest son in a family of five. His father was a South African-born plumber (also <mask>); his mother was Australian-born Alice (née Chalk).The family moved to Auckland when <mask> was five, and he attended Bayfield school in Herne Bay. After leaving school he became an apprentice plumber, and established a plumbing business after finishing his apprenticeship. An accident on a motor-cycle left him unable to continue this work, and he had several other jobs until his health enabled him to return to plumbing. It was during the course of one of these jobs, as a milkman, that <mask> was first exposed to industrial action and union politics. <mask> married Martha May Wangford in December 1931. In December 1937, the <mask> family became the first tenants of a state house in Coates Avenue, Orakei. Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage helped carry furniture in through the front door (as he had with the first state house in Miramar, Wellington in September).This marriage was to produce one son but end in divorce. His second marriage to Mary Ethel "Molly" Yardley on 17 October 1942 resulted in a daughter and another son. Union involvement

<mask> became secretary of the Auckland branch of the New Zealand Plumbers Union in 1940, and soon became involved in other smaller unions such as the Auckland Musicians Union, and also with  the New Zealand Labour Party. In 1944 he stood unsuccessfully for the Auckland City Council on a Labour Party ticket. In 1946 he was Labour candidate for the Tamaki electorate, winning the marginal seat by a slender margin. Labour was defeated in the following election in 1949, and his seat was lost to Eric Halstead. He stood for the seat again at the next election but was again unsuccessful.<mask> had initially hoped to win nomination for the safe seat of  but was instead allocated the more marginal seat of Tamaki and was resentful towards Ritchie Macdonald who won the nomination for the Ponsonby seat. <mask> returned to his union career, becoming one of the new leaders of the movement after the disastrous 1951 Waterfront dispute. In 1952 he was elected vice president of the Auckland Trades Council and became president two years later, a position he retained for over 20 years. In 1959 <mask> was elected vice president of the New Zealand Federation of Labour and became president on the death of Fintan Patrick Walsh in 1963. As a leader, he was more conciliatory than his firebrand predecessor and encouraged several disaffected unions to rejoin the national body. <mask>'s conciliatory style served him well during the following years, as the late 1960s saw a rise in union restlessness with a government-controlled wage-fixing system. While he lost the vote on some key union policies, his strategy of directly approaching employers and individual unions to get them to work towards compromise solutions was frequently far more effective than his opponents' calls for the widespread use of direct action.By the late 1960s, collective bargaining was a well-established part of industrial relations. <mask>'s 16-year leadership of the FoL was marked by his attempts to find consensus and avoid division wherever possible — traits possibly born out of the aftermath of the 1951 dispute. By the 1970s, <mask> was seen as the voice of unionism in New Zealand, and served on several international union forums, including a spell as a member of the body controlling the International Labour Organization. With the election of Norman Kirk's Labour government in 1972, <mask> was able to have more say, indirectly, on policy. He was instrumental in founding the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, and was its deputy chairman. A new Industrial Relations Act passed by the government was negotiated with the FOL and the Employers' Federation. The 1975 general election saw a return to power of Robert Muldoon and the National Party, which was elected on a strong anti-union platform.The introduction of a wage freeze in 1976 and amendments to the Industrial Relations Act which changed the definition of strikes and lockouts and increased penalties against striking workers led to demands for union action. Although many unions went on strike, a serious crisis was averted. <mask> was criticised by several unions for his moderate stance, but a vote on his leadership at the FoL's 1976 conference showed he still had overwhelming support. <mask>'s more moderate stance had the additional benefit that – while publicly opposed, <mask> and Muldoon (coincidentally the Member of Parliament for <mask>'s old Tamaki seat) established a working relationship that allowed progress to be made on government industrial policy to both sides' benefit. Like Muldoon he had made his way by "hard work and brains. Now they lived round the street from each other in plush Tamaki. Both liked whisky and would happily conspire and connive over a weekend evening, amidst the fumes of Scotch."<mask> retired in 1979 and was replaced by the more militant Jim Knox. Knox's style led to a sidelining of <mask>, though he retained an involvement with the NZ Shipping Corporation until the 1980s. After his wife died in 1985, he spent his time largely out of the public spotlight. Sir <mask> died on 11 November 1991 in Auckland. Activities outside the union movement
<mask> was heavily involved in many community organisations, most notably the St John Ambulance Association, but also among them the Royal New Zealand Coastguard and the New Zealand Institute for the Blind. He was also a director of private radio station Radio Pacific. <mask> was deputy chairman of the St John Ambulance Association's Auckland branch from 1958 to 1973 and chairman from 1973 to 1989.His sporting interests included yachting, cricket, and considerable involvement as a rugby league referee and administrator, and he managed the Kiwis' tour to Britain in 1960. A member of the Priory of St John in New Zealand, <mask> was made a Knight of the Order of St John in 1970 for his contribution to the St John's Ambulance Association. In the 1976 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, for services to the trade union movement and the community. <mask>'s autobiography, Man to Man (co-written by John Berry), was published by Whitcoulls in 1980. Notes

References

1909 births
1991 deaths
People from Mangaweka
New Zealand trade unionists
New Zealand Labour Party MPs
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for Auckland electorates
People from Auckland
New Zealand rugby league administrators
New Zealand rugby league referees
Knights of Grace of the Order of St John
New Zealand Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1951 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1949 New Zealand general election

masks:
Sir Thomas Edward Skinner
Tom
Skinner
Skinner
Thomas Edward Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Tom
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner
Skinner