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<mask> (born Ferrara, 30 January 1946) is an Italian painter, stylist and publicist. Biography

<mask> was born in 1946 in Ferrara: her father, Onofrio,  was a Sicilian doctor from Alcamo, while her mother, Afra Mariani, was originary from Ferrara; she has been living at Bogliasco (Genova) since 1948; she attended the Liceo Artistico Nicolò Barabino in Genoa and had the painters Bassano and Alberto Nobile, and the sculptor Valdieri Pestelli as teachers. She started painting in 1965, taking part in extemporaneous and collective exhibitions in Italy, France, Venezuela and USA;  since 1968 she has almost exclusively set personal exhibitions in Genoa, Milan, Bergamo, Agrigento, Tokio, Osaka, Hiroshima, Hakata. In 1979 she is quoted in the  "Bolaffi" Catalogue, and in 1980 met Tito Fontana, a composer who wanted to put some painted landscapes to music; so in 1981 they realized the art show  "Sounds and colours"  at the Galleria Cortina in Milan, where Tito Fontana composed a piece for each painting: all of them with a soundtrack, music, and light synchronized on the work inside the gallery in the dark: painting and music together, telling the same emotions. <mask> realizes different covers of jazz Lps for  "Studio 7" and  DIRE and collaborates in the realization of the pieces that Fontana composes to set Pope John Paul II’s poems to music which, after Sarah Vaughan’s concert held in Düsseldorf, becomes an LP. In the 1990s, she was a victim of chronic fatigue syndrome, after getting through the first stage of this disease but not in a perfect form yet, she can devote herself to painting, but as she keeps a dog and a cat at home and the oil canvases, leaning everywhere, are drying very slowly, in order to avoid any imaginable inconveniences, she invents a new personal technique by using the silk cuttings  of the remainings from the creation of some of her fashion collections. So, what  Vittorio Sgarbi will define cloth intarsias in his presentation of the volume "Omaggio alla Cristianita’ ", were born: a very detailed work looking for, among thousands of remnants, the desired shape and the right hue: the distinctive characteristics of silk give the possibility of getting some shades, variegations and chromatic reflections really original and unique in their kind.At Portofino she successfully tries out the first paintings with her technique, and in 2000 exhibits some 30 of them at Spazio San Carpoforo in Milan. The subjects represented by Gisella <mask>, the churches’ façades, are as original as their realization: a mosaic placed on a background painted in a uniform way, enriched by shiny silk pieces which highlight the preciousness of capitals and decorations, and produce an exceptional chromatic effect, very realistic but also different from photography. As her source of inspiration, <mask> selects the subjects and images coming from the Holy Tradition and Christianity, that she considers authentic masterpieces and inestimable values of the Italian cultural patrimony, with the aim of enhancing them, making them as the absolute protagonists of her creations. According to the artist, only if you are aware of the importance of your own culture, you can respect and understand the others. In 2005,  in the parish Church of Bogliasco, with the collaboration of the Confraternity of Santa Chiara and the patronage of the municipality of Bogliasco, the artist exhibited some 40 of her paintings (both oil and intarsias), giving the proceeds of them to a cultural iniziative which was a matter of concern for many fellow citizens: the restoration of the façade of the ancient Oratory of Santa Chiara; the title given to this  exhibition was 40 chiese per Santa Chiara (that is:forty churches for Santa Chiara). In 2009 she collected  part of the 150 façades of the churches she had already ‘’painted’’ in a book, entitled Omaggio alla Cristianità: the presentation was written by Vittorio Sgarbi and the preface by cardinal Angelo Bagnasco. In 2011, with the technique of Trompe-l'œil, she painted three walls of the hall of the parish Church of Bogliasco and, with the same technique, the four sails of the ceiling of the veranda in Villa Crovetto (a senior home) in the district of San Bernardo in 2012.Finally, in December 2017, <mask> <mask> decided to donate seven of her works to Alcamo, the hometown of his father, doctor Onofrio <mask>, a pediatrician who practised his profession in Liguria, achieving notoriety for his scientific discoveries that were also published on international reviews, and for his long fight in favour of the reintegration of the yacht Elettra which belonged to Guglielmo Marconi. Stylist
In 1983 she creates some collections of men’s leatherware and designs women’s handbags; between 1991 and 1992 she produces some collections of women’s fashion. Then <mask> works together with Sergio Soldano’s atelier for the brand management, approaching the world of perfumes: three years later the result is a patent for the realization of perfumes personalized inside the shops at the time of sale, which was to be followed by a line of cosmetology personalized too; unfortunately the commercialization was suddenly stopped owing to her disease: chronic fatigue syndrome. Activity as a publicist
In 1979 she met Renzo Cortina, the famous gallerist and bookseller from Milan who entrusted her with the live conduction  of  L’angolo del libro at Antennatre. Among some 30 of her guests she reminds Gina Lagorio, Nantas Salvalaggio, Giulio Bedeschi, Carlo Castellaneta, Alberto Lattuada, Romano Battaglia, Alberto Bertuzzi, Alberto Bevilacqua, Renato Pozzetto, Luciano Sechi and Paolo Mosca. In the ‘80s she starts working for Il Giornale Nuovo in the fashion advertorials. Besides Indro Montanelli she meets Gianni Granzotto, Cesare Biazzi Vergani, Marcello Staglieno who let her feel at home.She also collaborates with the editorial board in Genoa. In 1987 Giovenco writes a series of interviews to famous personalities which is entitled  Com’erano da piccoli -Infanzia e adolescenza di persone conosciute -. (How they were when children- infancy and adolescence of people known) Paolo Villaggio, Ornella Vanoni, Giorgio Soavi, Arnaldo Pomodoro, Gino Paoli, Ottavio Missoni, Bruno Lauzi, Ugo Gregoretti, Mino Damato, Walter Chiari, Carlo Castellaneta, Gianni Baget Bozzo, Enzo Biagi Alberto Bertuzzi, Pippo Baudo, Enrico Baj. It will become a book published by Rebellato in 1993. [1]  In April 1994 she took part in the television programme  Maurizio Costanzo Show, where she presented her book . Exhibitions
 1967: Collective at the galleria "Chiesa di S. Romano" in Ferrara. 1969: Galleria "Il Cigno" at via Manzoni in Milan (presented by Mario Lepore).1972: "Galleria Guidi" in Genoa. 1973: invited to take part, with 10 works,  in the exhibition of Istituto Italiano di Cultura of Tokyo, held in Tokyo, Osaka, Hiroshima, Hakata. 1976: Palazzo Comunale of Sperlonga;
 1976: 1° Premio "Foemina",  Genova;
 1976: invited by Circolo Sannitico, at Palazzo della Prefettura in Campobasso;
 1976: "Galleria Tasso" in Bergamo (personal). 1977: collective at Palazzo Comunale in Sperlonga;
 1979: con "Les artists d’Italie"  in Parigi;
 1979: personal at Galleria "La Polena" at Forte dei Marmi;
 1979: 10 works at Galleria "Eastern Star" di Agrigento;
 1979: 10 works at Palazzo Bonaiuto in Caltagirone. 1979: Galleria "La Polena" at Forte dei Marmi. 1980: Rossana Bewik prepares an exhibition for her in Canada, in Montreal. 1981: Galleria Cortina di Milano, Suoni e colori in collaboration with Tito Fontana
At Portofino she successfully tries out the first paintings with her technique.2000: Spazio San Carpoforo in Milano, she exhibits some 30 works created with silk intarsias
 2012: Biennale Torinese, extension of the 54th Venice Biennale curated by Professor Vittorio Sgarbi, at Sala Nervi in Turin. She exhibited a work dedicated to Pope John Paul II. 2012: Intarsi d’arte, at Milano Art Gallery Spazio Culturale in Milan

Publications
 Com'erano da piccoli - infanzia e adolescenza di persone conosciute; San Donà di Piave: Rebellato Ed., 1993
 Suoni e Colori, ed.Direarte, Milano, 1981. A particular edition where music and painting are linked; an Italian jazz trio with Sante Palumbo and Tito Fontana at the piano and Luigi Tognoli at the sax tenor. The cover design is realized by <mask> <mask>; the cover can be opened and contains 16 drawings made by <mask> and photographated by Franco Bottino, the list of the pieces, each one corresponding to one of the artist's paintings.

masks:
Gisella Giovenco
Gisella Giovenco
Gisella Giovenco
Giovenco
Giovenco
Gisella
Giovenco
Giovenco
Giovenco
Gisella
Giovenco
Giovenco


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<mask> (4 August 1932 – 29 June 2019), known simply as <mask>, was an Argentine creator of cartoons and animations and was one of the most widely published cartoonists of the 1970s. He is most famous for his humorous, colorful, surreal and wordless depictions of love, sports (in particular soccer and golf), and long-necked animals. From 1976 to 1981, <mask>'s cartoons were used by Slovenian artist Miki Muster to create Mordillo, a series of 400 short animations (300 min) that were later presented at Cannes and bought by television studios from 30 countries. Biography
The son of Spanish parents, <mask> spent his childhood in Villa Pueyrredón in Buenos Aires, where he had an early interest in drawing. In 1948 he obtained the certificate of Illustrator from the School of Journalism. Two years later, while continuing to study, as part of the animation team Burone Bruch he illustrated children's stories (Tales of Perrault Tales of Schmid, The Musicians of Bremen and The Three Little Pigs) edited by Codex. In 1952 he co-founded Galas Studios, dedicated to the production of animations.Meanwhile, he continued to develop his career as an illustrator and published some strips in local magazines. On 7 November 1955, he moved to Lima, Peru, where he worked as a freelance designer for the advertising company McCann Erickson. In 1958 Aesop's Fables illustrated and Samaniego for Editorial Iberia Lima. After having done greeting-card illustrations for the Kansas City-based Hallmark Cards, he left for the United States in 1960. When there he was employed by Paramount Pictures Studios in New York. Part of the performance of the film in two globally significant characters: Popeye and Little Lulu and creates two characters for the short film Trick for tree. Three years later, on 20 August his life changed direction again.This time he travelled to Europe, arriving in Paris on 19 September. There, he worked at first humorous letters to Mic-Max Edition. In July 1966 he began to collaborate with the magazine Le Pelerin and shortly after doing the same in Paris Match. Two years later, his work started being printed in publications from other parts of the world, most notably Germany's Stern. In Paris he met his wife Amparo Camarasa, marrying in 1969. They have two children: Sebastian Jerome (1970) and Cecile Isabelle (1972). In 1980 he moved to Mallorca, Spain, and was named President of the International Association of Authors of Comics and Cartoons (CFIA) based in Geneva, Switzerland.After 18 years in Spain, he returned to France in 1998. The following year he participated in the Creative Workshop Zermatt, Switzerland. In 2007 he experimented with new materials: acrylics, pastels and crayons. The following year he performed with Art Petrus a series of reproductions of pictures in high definition. Also that year he sold a numbered and autographed internet publication, Mordillo Collection. He resided in Monaco. Bibliography
The Damp and Daffy Doings of a Daring Pirate Ship, 1971, Harlin Quist Inc., New York, USA.Also published as Le Galion, 1970, Harlin Quist, Paris, France; All' Arrembaggio!, 1971, Emme Edizione, Milano, Italy;
Das Piratenschiff, 1971, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany; Soroverskibet, Host et Son, Copenhagen, Denmark; O Barco Dos Piratas, Publicacoes Dom Quixote, Lisboa. The Collected Cartoons of <mask>, (with foreword by John Bailey), 1971, Crown Publishers, New York, USA. Also published as Der Grosse Mordillo, 1974, foreword by Manfred Schmidt, Verlag Gerhard Stalling AG, Oldenburg and Hamburg, Germany, . Crazy Cowboy, 1972, Harlin Quist Inc., New York, USA. Also published under the same title by Harlin Quist, Paris; Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany,  and Emme Edizioni, Milano. Das Giraffenbuch, 1973, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany, . Also published as: Toutes Les Giraffes, 1983, all-color hardcover, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France.Das Giraffenbuch II, 1974, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany, . Crazy Crazy Das Dschungelbuch, 1974, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany. Grosse Pläne kleine Steine, 1975, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag, München, Germany. <mask>'s Träumereien - und andere wunderliche Geschichten, 1975, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt, Germany, . Der kleine Mordillo, 1976, Verlag Gerhard Stalling AG, Oldenburg and Hamburg, Germany, . Opus I, 1976, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, München, Germany, 88-page softcover, Weltbild Verlag, printed in Italy, . Opus I, 1976, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, München, Germany, 88-page hardcover, Oli Verlag N.V. Verlag, printed in Germany, .carton No 5 (Mordillo) - Les Cahiers du Dessin D'Humour, 1976, Edition Glenat, France. Mordillo: Cartoons zum Verlieben, 1977, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, München, Germany, unter Lizenz von Verlag Gerhard Stalling AG, Oldenburg and Hamburg, Germany . Opus II, 1978, (with foreword by Marcel Marceau). Friedrich W.Heye Verlag, München, Germany, 88-page softcover, Weltbild Verlag, printed in Italy, . Opus II, 1978, (with foreword by Marcel Marceau). Friedrich W.Heye Verlag, München, Germany, 88-page hardcover, Weltbild Verlag, printed in Italy. Opus III, 1978, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag, München, Germany (44-page hardcover French edition 1980, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France; 88-page softcover Italian edition 1983, Weltbild Verlag, printed in Italy), .Opus III, 1983, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag, München/Hamburg, Germany 88-page hardcover, . Opus IV, 1978, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, Hamburg - München, Germany (44-page hardcover French edition 1982, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France ). Wie eine Jungfrau entsteht, 1978, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, München and Hamburg, Germany, . La Coppia, 1979, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Mordillo Giraffenparade, 1980, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, München and Hamburg, Germany, . Variationen über das menschliche Wesen Cartoons, 1980, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, Hamburg, Germany, . Mordillo Football, 1981, (with foreword by Pelé).Century Hutchinson, London, Great Britain. French edition 1981, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France. Also published as: Mordillo Football, 1981, (with foreword by Pelé). Wilhelm Heye Verlag, München and Hamburg, Germany, . Neue Variationen über das menschliche Wesen Cartoons, 1981, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, Hamburg, Germany, . Mordillo: Giraffenparade Cartoons, 1982, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, München, Germany, . Opus V, 1983, Friedrich W.Heye Verlag GmbH, Hamburg - München, Germany (88-page hardcover French edition 1984, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France).Mordillo Football Cartoons, 1984, (with foreword by Pelé). Wilhelm Heye Verlag, München and Hamburg, Germany, . Eckbälle und Zwischenfälle, 1985, Eulenspiegel Verlag, Berlin. Mordillo Lovestory, 1985, (with foreword by Jane Birkin). Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France. Also published as: Mordillo Lovestory,1987, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, Germany, . Mordillo Blick zurück nach vorn, 1985, Wilhelm Heye Verlag, München and Hamburg, Germany, .Mordillo Golf, 1987, (with foreword by Roberto De Vicenzo). Century Hutchinson, London, Great Britain, printed in Italy by Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as: Mordillo Golf,1987, (with foreword by Roberto De Vicenzo). Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, Germany, . Mordillo Golf,1987, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, Germany, . Mordillo Safari, 1990, Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, Germany, . Also published as: Mordillo Safari, French edition 1990, Editions Glénat, Grenoble, France.Mordillo Deine Sterne Das grosse Geburtstagsbuch, 1992, Wilhelm Heye Verlag, München and Hamburg Germany,
Mordillo Cartoons, 1992, (with foreword by Gerhard Kaufmann). Wilhelm Heye Verlag, München and Hamburg, Germany, . Mordillo Amore Amore, 1994, (with foreword by Giovanni Mariotti). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Amore Amore, 1994, (with foreword by Giovanni Mariotti). Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Deportistas (For Sportsmen), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy.Also published as Mordillo für Sportler, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Enamorados (For Lovers), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo für Verliebte, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Matrimonios (For Marriages), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo zur Hochzeit, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Superhombres (For Supermen), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo für den tollen Mann, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, .Mordillo Para Supermujeres (For Superwomen), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo für die tolle Frau, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Las Vacaciones (For The Holidays), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo für Urlauber, 1995, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Hinchas (For Sports Fans), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo Für Fussballfans!, 1997, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Para Parejas (For Couples), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy.Also published as Mordillo Für Das Leben Zu Zweit! (Für Paare), 1997, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany. .
Mordillo Para Triunfadores (For Winners), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo Für Erfolgreiche! (Für Sieger), 1997, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany . Mordillo Para Gente con Perro (For Dog People), 1997, Editions Glénat, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Milano, Italy. Also published as Mordillo für Hundefreunde, 1997, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Zusammen!(Together! ), 2003, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Munchen, Germany, . Mordillo Eine Liebesgeschichte, 2005, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Starke Frauen, 2006, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Tolle Männer, 2006, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Alles Gute!, 2007, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo für Golfer, 2007, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, .Mordillo zur Hochzeit, 2008, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo für Fussballer, 2010, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Auf die Liebe!, 2012, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Mordillo Inselcartoons, 2012, Lappan Verlag GmbH, Oldenburg, Germany, . Awards
1969 Silver Medal at the V International Biennale of humorous designs at Tolentino
1971 Loisirs Jeunes Award, Paris
1971 Critici En Herba Award, Bologna, for the children's book Pirate ship
1972 Silver Medal of the first International Festival of Humorous Designs in Sarajevo
1973 Phénix de l'Humour, Paris
1974 Association of Argentine Designers Award
1976 El Gaucho Award, Köln
1976 Nakamori Award, Tokyo, for the children's book Crazy Cowboy
1977 Best Cartoonist of the year at the Salon International de l'Humour in Montreal
1977 Palme d'Or at the 31st International Festival of the Humor of Bordighera
1983 Palme d'Or at the 36th International Festival of the Humor of Bordighera
1985 Andersen Award at Sestri Levante
1995 Gold Medal at the 18th International Tolentino Fair of Humour

References

 Mordillo on Bedetheque

Footnotes

External links
Mordillo official site
Mordillo official webstore
Mordillo Puzzle List
Lambiek Comiclopedia biographical article. 1932 births
Argentine cartoonists
Argentine comics artists
Argentine animators
Argentine animated film directors
Argentine animated film producers
Argentine surrealist artists
2019 deaths
People from Buenos Aires
Argentine people of Spanish descent

masks:
Guillermo Mordillo
Mordillo
Mordillo
Mordillo
Mordillo
Mordillo


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<mask> (7 August 1916 – 5 July 2007) was an Iranian general. He served in the Iranian army from 1938 to 1972, reaching the rank of four-star general as Commander of the Imperial Iranian Ground Forces (1969-1972), during the reign of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. Family
<mask> came from a family of military musicians, who contributed to the emergence of classical music in Iran. His grandfather <mask> (Salar Mo'azez) was a pioneer in the history of classical Western music in Iran. He is recognised as the first Iranian to have received an education in classical music, and to have studied music abroad, and whose work was published in Europe. He was also the first Iranian to have taught classical music in Iran, and he created Iran's first string orchestra. Among other compositions, <mask> wrote the music of the national anthem of Iran’s Constitutionalist Revolution, entitled “Sublime State of Iran” (Dowlat-e Elliye-ye Irān -   دولت علیّه ایران).<mask> <mask>'s father, Nasrollah <mask>, entered the Saint Petersburg Conservatory at 13, for a period of seven years. On returning to Iran, he joined the Persian Cossack Brigade, in which he served throughout is career, finally reaching the rank of Brigadier General. Nasrollah succeeded his father (Gholam Reza) at the head of the army’s musical orchestra, while also directing its music school. Nasrollah <mask> held these posts until 1935, while teaching several instruments which he had mastered: the piano, the violin, the cello. <mask> <mask>'s uncle Gholam-Hossein <mask> (1907-1980) studied at the Stern Conservatory in Berlin and Geneva. He was a pupil of Robert Mendelsohn. On returning to Iran in 1932, he joined the Military Academy, and took on the directorship of the music conservatory music in 1934.He founded and directed Iran’s first symphony orchestra, the “Baladieh” orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra. Early life and education
<mask> <mask> attended a Zoroastrian school until the age of 14. In Part 1 of his military memoires, he describes his patriotic fervour, which in 1930 led him to volunteer to go to the military high school (Madrasseh Nezam), against his father's wishes. He remained there until 1936. From high school onwards and throughout this period he played football, becoming the first goalkeeper of Iran’s national team “Tadj”, for ten years and so acquired great popularity. Advanced studies in the United States and Iran
<mask> <mask> was 20 years old when he entered the Military Academy (Daneshgadeh Afsari) in the same class as Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Iran’s Crown Prince. He left it as an officer in 1938, coincidentally the day of his father’s death.Between 1938 and 1940, he was an officer cadet and then second-lieutenant, commanding the NCOs’ training school. In 1944 he became a lieutenant, and he then passed the exam for the US Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, and having been promoted captain, he went to the United States with his wife. At the end of his studies, <mask> <mask> returned to Iran, entering War School. He graduated top of his class, and became a major. He returned to the United States in 1951, as the Americans had qualified him to go to their war school, the Command and General Staff College of the US Army at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Again, he was top of his class, and he was offered to join the US army, but refused and returned to Iran. In 1970, while on an official visit to the United States as Commander of the Imperial Iranian Ground Forces, General <mask> received the US Legion of Merit.Military career and military operations
Once in Iran again, he devoted his career to building up a modern army. According to several officers' testimonies reported in the Nima monthly journal in August 2007 (including the Shah's former Chief of Staff General Fereydoun Djam), two objectives guided his military thinking throughout his life: the defence of the Persian Gulf because he rightly feared invasion of Iran by Iraq, and the provision of a decent life for the army’s soldiers and NCOs, usually from very modest backgrounds. He has also been acknowledged for having contributed to the modernisation of Iran's ground forces. In 1954, he was promoted to colonel at the head of Iran’s Military Academy where he developed new methods of instruction, based especially on “management by motivation”. He reorganised the Academy and student discipline, and having become a brigadier general in 1958, he was appointed to the command of the First Brigade of Tehran. In 1961, he was appointed commander of the Mashad Army with the rank of major general. He was therefore stationed in the holy town of Mashad during the 1963 demonstrations.According to French Wikipedia, these protests were critical of the Shah’s reformist White Revolution which in particular ended feudal landownership in Iran as part of a land reform programme, and gave women the right to vote. In Part 2 of his military memoirs (Section 35), <mask> recounts the arrest of  Ayathollah Qomi who was responsible for disorders in Mashad. According to <mask>’s account, he received the order to arrest Qomi and send him to Tehran, and he described how he organised this arrest “without any bloodshed, and without the least deployment force or military action". In 1965, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and Commander of the Third Army in Fars. Summoned by the Shah, he was ordered to provide the army’s logistical support to the regional Gendarmerie in the arrest of Bahman Gashgai. The latter had become the leader of a rebellion of the tribes in Fars, against the Shah’s land reforms. Gashgai was accused of having killed eight gendarmes.According to his own account, <mask> advocated using anti-guerrilla tactics based on “military civic action”. In Section 38 of his military memoires, he recounts the context of this arrest and the strategy put in place so that the rebels laid down their arms and surrendered of their own will. This strategy consisted, first, of cutting the rebels off from their sources of supply, and secondly, from carrying out civic actions among tribal peoples to improve their living conditions and to get them to dissociate themselves from rebels. Being isolated, and following negotiations with the Minister of the Court of the Shah, Assadollah Alam, Bahman Gashgai surrendered himself to Alam, on the condition his life would be spared. Alam then accompanied Gashgai to Tehran, yet later handed him over to the Gendarmerie. They in turn put Gashgai on trial and executed him for the murders of eight gendarmes. A cousin of Bahman Gashgai and a comrade in arms, Iraj Kashkouli, gave an account of their saga in his own memoirs.Here he said that he “suspected” <mask> of having had a role in this execution. <mask> always denied this, stating that the army under his command played no role in the execution. His task had only been to provide logistical assistance to the Gendarmerie, the only actors in the field. <mask> specified that during his entire military career none of his missions “led to the slightest bloodshed”. Joint Operation Arvand Rud

In April 1969, while he was Commander of the Imperial Ground Forces, <mask> was assigned to deal with border tensions with Iraq, which, had they degenerated could have set the entire region ablaze, as history subsequently showed. Joint Operation Arvand Rud was conducted by Iran’s three armed services: the navy, the air force and the army, under the command General <mask>, who recounts the details of this operation in his military memoirs. The conflict arose out of a decision by Mohammad Reza Shah to stop paying tolls to Iraq for the use of Arvand Rud river to the Persian Gulf, and so access the sea for Iranian ships, under a treaty signed in 1937, drafted in the light of British influence, and which favoured Iraq.This river traces a border of 200 km between the two countries, and its width varies between 200 and 800 meters. The Iranian cities of Abadan and Khorramshahr (with their oil installations) and the Iraqi city of Basra are located along the river. Iraq claimed sovereignty over the river (called Shatt al-Arab in Arabic) and threatened to block the passage of ships not flying the Iraqi flag. <mask> organised a show of military force to intimidate the Iraqis. He personally overflew the river in a helicopter, entering Iraqi airspace, at risk to his life, to show that he would not retreat under any circumstances, threatening the Iraqi forces amassed along the river with retaliation if they opened fire. Thus, on 22 April 1969, the Iranian merchant ship Ebn-e-Sina bearing the Iranian flag and escorted by two warships of the Imperial Navy under the command of Captain Ataï, and a squadron F4 Phantom jets of Imperial Airforce under the command of General Nader Jahanbani (a highly distinguished Iranian fighter pilot) passed down the river for six hours, to the Persian Gulf, without any resistance by Iraqi forces. The 1937 treaty was thus abrogated and Iran took control of its side of the Arvand Rud.Relieved from command
In 1971, <mask> <mask> learned of his forced retirement as Commander of the Imperial Ground Forces through the press. This decision of the Shah of Iran to dismiss him was variously commented, and can be explained by a combination of three factors. The first was based on an analysis given by Alidad Mafinezam and Aria Mehrabi in Iran and Its Place Among Nations, in which the authors explain that one of the weaknesses of the Shah was his personal insecurity and inability to delegate responsibilities, especially military, to the high dignitaries of his army. The fact of having removed the three pillars that formed the military backbone of his regime (General <mask>, Commander of the Ground Forces; General Jam, Chief-of-Staff; and the accidental death of General Khatami, the Air Force Commander) during the decade preceding the Revolution in 1979, was (according to these authors), a decisive factor in the downfall of the regime. These three generals were military professionals, highly educated and experienced, as well as being genuine patriots who had a high opinion of their roles and refused to be puppets or valets. The Shah envied their popularity and their competence: “one of the Shah's key weaknesses was his abiding envy toward eminence in others, even among his military's top brass, who constituted the backbone of his regime". The second factor leading to <mask> <mask>’s dismissal was his constant concern and insistence with the Shah about creating a decent life for the soldiers and the non-commissioned officers of the army, from poor backgrounds.Various commentators including the Minister of the Court of Shah Mr. Asadollah Alam,  reported a dispute between Minbashian and Finance Minister Jamshid Amouzegar during winter of 1970 about increases in military spending, including the possibility of sending officers and NCOs to Western hospitals when care was not available in Iran. Minbashian allegedly stated that what he was asking for was a mere drop in the ocean of the luxurious spending by Princess Ashraf (the Shah’s influential twin sister). The third, most important factor was <mask>’s opposition to the fatalism concerning “tie-in contracts” imposed by Western arms’ sellers. On this subject, Minbashian related in much detail his row with the British Chief-of-Staff, three days before his dismissal. This dispute concerned the purchase and maintenance of British Chieftain tanks by the Iranian army, and the loss of £60 million Minbashian caused to the British, because Minbashian claimed that the British were in breach of contract by not maintaining the tanks which had become inoperable..

Later, Minbashian stated on numerous occasions that he had been sacked by the Shah for his professionalism, his straight talking, and because of British pressure as he threatened their arms transactions and economic interests in Iran. Sports and cultural activities

He had practiced soccer in his youth quasi-professionally as he was the first and very popular goalkeeper of the national football team of Iran. In 1942, he was in the Iran national football team which defeated the British Army XI Football team in a friendly game by 1-0.<mask> <mask> practiced many other sports including swimming, the horseback riding, tennis and skiing. In the 1960s, he even published a self-teaching ski guide (Khod amouz eeski) comprising many diagrams. Like his two brothers Nemat and Ezatollah (who changed his name to Mehrdad Pahlbod when he married one of the Shah's sisters) <mask> <mask> was fond of music. An amateur violinist and poet, he was also a cinephile. He had a great passion for films by Norman Wisdom and Fernandel, which he dubbed in Persian. Together with his brother Nemat, he wrote the first Iranian tangos and had them recorded on vinyl records. These were released by the private Persian record label "Delbar", and were recorded and manufactured in Mumbai (formerly Bombay).Some of his poems have been adapted to music by his nephew Sepehr and sung by his sister Anvar; . His love for the Persian civilisation was expressed spectacularly during the festive military parade that were part of international celebrations of the 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire, a parade he organised with his brother Mehrdad, who was Minister of Culture. This parade used the costumes and musical instruments of Cyrus the Great’s Achaemenid. Years in exile
General <mask> left Iran in 1972 after his dismissal at the age of 55, and moved to France. He turned down the Shah’s subsequent offer to appoint him as an Ambassador, as well as some private business proposals. In 1981, following the start of the Iran-Iraq War launched by Saddam Hussein, a strong sense of patriotism prompted him to send a long telegram to the head of the Iranian armed forces to offer his services, as he knew by heart every inch of the border between the two countries, and as he had much planned an Iranian repost against a possible invasion by Iraq. The Islamic Republic of Iran replied to his offer by publishing in the Journal Mizan date 13 November 1980 a “summons by the Revolutionary Court to report to Evin Prison to answer the charge of having worked for the loss of the country’s wealth in favour of foreign powers”.Ironically, the Islamic Tribunal thus invoked exactly the opposite reason for which he was fired by the Shah, namely that he had resisted foreign interests operating in Iran. This made him a political refugee in France, where he suffered a pulmonary embolism, followed a number of years later by a stroke, which left him condemned to his room for the last 15 years of his life. He died on 5 July 2007, and is buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris. References

Bibliography
Jasim M. Abdulghani, Iraq and Iran (RLE Iran A). Taylor & Francis. (2012). p. 121.ISBN 9781136834264. The Advocate-Messenger,"Iranian Ship Challenges Iraq Estuary", p. 16, 27 April 1969, consulted 26 October 2017. Gholam Reza Afkhami, The life and times of the Shah, University of California Press, 2009. Asadollah Alam, Diaries, Vol VI (1355-1356/1976/1977) [Persian language] (English and Arabic Edition). BBC Persian, Press release by BBC, biography of General <mask> <mask>. James Buchan, Days of God, The Revolution in Ian and Its Consequences, London, John Murray (Publishers), 2012. Alidad Mafinezam and Aria Mehrabi: Iran and its place among nations-pillars of nation building and regional stability.Westport Conn, London, Praeger, 2008. <mask> <mask>, Military memoirs, Interview recorded by Dr Habib Ladjevardi, 1st December 1981, Cagnes-Sur-Mer, France. Iranian Oral History Collection, Harvard University. Habibollah Nassirifar, The Men of Traditional Music and Modern Iran, 1993, Sanani, حبیباللهٔ نصیری فرـ  مردان موسیقی سنتی و نوین ایران چاپ اول سال ۱۳۷۲. Nima, “Biography and hommage to General <mask> <mask>”, No 158, 15 August 2007, - نیما شمار۱۵۸ه مرداد ماه  ۱۳۸۶
Sadjad Pourghanad, Gholam Reza <mask>, a pioneer in Iranian music, transalated by Mahboube Khalvati, 01/10/2019. Rahavard Persian Journal Jahangir Shamsavari, 7 July 2007, consulted 15 March 2021. Ali Taghipour, History of the Music Conservatory in Iran 1918-2018, limited edition published for the centenary of the Music Conservatory, Tehran, 2018,اریخ موسیقی هنرستان ۱۲۹۷ـ ۱۳۹۷ علی تقی پور چاپ  سال۱۳۹۷
"Dialogue With General Hassani Sadi", in Negin-e-Iran (in Persian), 3 (9): 8–40, Summer 2004, archived.Nikolas Stürchler, The Threat of Force in International Law, Cambridge University Press. (2007). p. 202. ISBN 9781139464918. Charles P. Wallace: "Iran, Iraq Still Fail to Bridge Waterway Dispute", in The Los Angeles Times, 19 August 1988, consulted 15 March 2021. Steven R. Ward, Immortal,: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, Updated Edition Georgetown University Press. (2014).p. 202. ISBN 9781626160651. 1916 births
2007 deaths
People from Tehran
Imperial Iranian Armed Forces four-star generals

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<mask> (September 22, 1866 – May 24, 1939) was an American ornithologist, botanist, and mammalogist, and was considered one of the last of the “great naturalists.<mask> is remembered principally as an ornithologist. He was president of the American Ornithologists’ Union (AOU) 1920–23, and was editor of the AOU's periodical The Auk 1912–1936. He spearheaded the production of the 4th edition of the AOU checklist, published in 1931. He worked for over 50 years in the Ornithology Department at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, eventually serving as Director of the institution. <mask> was one of the founding members of the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club (DVOC) in 1890 and was actively involved in the organization for the remainder of his life. <mask> was one of only two scientists (Joseph Grinnell was the other) to serve as president of both the AOU and the American Society of Mammalogists, and he co-authored two popular books about mammals. His outstanding botanical contribution was The Plants of Southern New Jersey, published in 1911.<mask> spent many summers at Cape May, New Jersey, summering there annually starting in 1916. He is best remembered for his two-volume classic Bird Studies at Old Cape May, which was published by the DVOC in 1937, two years before his death. Early life
<mask> <mask> was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on September 22, 1866, to Anne Eveline (née <mask>) and Frederick Dawson <mask>. According to longtime friend, Cornelius Weygandt, <mask> <mask> was “of the Chester County Quaker-Pennsylvania Dutch cross that has given us so many of our botanists and ornithologists, paleontologists and chemists.<mask> showed an early interest in all things natural, and was an inveterate collector. <mask> was a boyhood friend and schoolmate of two of the Brown brothers: Amos Brown later became a geology professor at University of Pennsylvania, and Stewardson Brown became the Curator of the Department of Botany at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. <mask> and his brother, Frederick, and three of the Brown brothers formed the “Wilson Natural Science Association”, named in honor of the pioneering American ornithologist Alexander Wilson. <mask> also spent time exploring the woods and fields around his grandmother's Chester County, Pennsylvania home.<mask> married Lillie May Lafferty on August 1, 1904; they had no children. <mask> graduated from Germantown Academy in 1883. He obtained an A.B. degree from the University of Pennsylvania (UP), then in March 1888 was appointed a Jessup Fund Student at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, when Dr. Joseph Leidy was the academy's president. The academy established an ornithology department in 1891, the same year that <mask> completed an A.M. degree at UP. (UP later conferred an honorary ScD. on <mask> in 1913, and presented him with the Alumni Award of Merit in 1937.)<mask> participated in Academy-sponsored collecting expeditions to Bermuda in 1888 and to Mexico in 1890. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
<mask> visited the Academy of Natural Sciences many times while growing up, and later worked there for 51 years. <mask> inherited an ornithological specimens collection that had not been cared for properly, and spearheaded heroic efforts to salvage this and collections from other fields. Some specimens were historically valuable, including types described by pioneering ornithologists and mammalogists. The size of the academy's bird collection increased fivefold during <mask>'s tenure, from 26,000 specimens to 143,000. From 1893 to 1908 <mask> was Assistant Curator at the academy; Curator 1908–1918 and Executive Curator 1918–1925; Director 1925–1928; Curator of Vertebrates, 1918–1936; and lastly, three titles (with year of appointment) that <mask> held at the time of his death: Vice President (1927), Emeritus Director (1928), and Honorary Curator of Birds (1938). As a botanist

<mask> was an original member of the Philadelphia Botanical Club.He had a knowledge of systematics of the local flora “surpassed only by that of Simon-pure botanists,” and, according to a later eminent botanist, Frans Stafleu, <mask>'s concentration on ornithology was a “definite loss” for botany. <mask> produced 20 botanical writings during his lifetime. After a joint meeting of the Philadelphia and Torrey Botanical Clubs to Toms River, New Jersey, in early July 1900, <mask> resolved to write a flora of the New Jersey Pine Barrens. Over the next decade <mask> made hundreds of collecting trips to southern New Jersey. His research culminated in his botanical pièce-de-résistance, The Plants of Southern New Jersey, published in 1911, which “is the only comprehensive floristic treatment for southern New Jersey and it continues to be used today [2002].”

The Academy of Natural Sciences preserves many botanical specimens that <mask> <mask> collected circa 1910, including many from New Jersey. The Mid-Atlantic Herbarium Consortium was leading a project to digitize records through volunteer crowd-sourcing as of 2020. As an ornithologist

<mask>'s first manuscript to appear in a “serious” publication was “The Turkey Buzzard Breeding in Pennsylvania” in American Naturalist in 1885.His first note in The Auk was “A migration of hawks at Germantown, Pennsylvania” in 1887. <mask> was a founding member of the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club (DVOC) in 1890, and  authored the DVOC's The Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey, which was published in 1894 and put both him and the club on the ornithological map. He wrote The Birds of New Jersey, Their Nests and Eggs, published in 1909. His ornithological publications run into the hundreds; a search on the Searchable Ornithological Research Archive website turns up approximately 125 articles and notes in The Auk alone. <mask> <mask> had a long association with the American Ornithologists’ Union (AOU). He was elected an Associate in 1885; a Fellow in 1892; and a member of the council in 1898. He served as chairman of the AOU Committee on Bird Protection 1896–1901; as a member (from 1901) and later as Chairman (1915–1931) of the AOU Committee on Classification and Nomenclature of North American Birds; and as editor of The Auk 1912–1936 (after editing the DVOC's Cassinia for ten years).<mask> was vice-president of the AOU 1914–1920, and President 1920–1923. He chaired the committee which produced the 4th edition of the AOU checklist, published in 1931. <mask> was an honorary member of many foreign ornithological societies, the Nuttall Ornithological Club, the Cooper Ornithological Club, and the Zoological Society of Philadelphia (<mask> was also Director of the latter). He was awarded the Otto Hermann Medal of the Hungarian Ornithological Society in 1931 and was a member of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, the Advisory Committee of the National Audubon Society, and the American Philosophical Society. He was also President of the Pennsylvania Audubon Society. Bird Studies at Old Cape May
For all of his work as one of the preeminent ornithologists of his day, <mask>'s most enduring popular legacy is undoubtedly his charming Bird Studies at Old Cape May (BSOCM), originally published by the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club (DVOC) in 1937. This was an ornithological history of the New Jersey coast, with an emphasis on Cape May County, particularly the coastal areas.The bulk of the work consists of species accounts of all the birds that had been found in Cape May County at the time of the writing, with their historical occurrence in the state and notes on seasonality, habits, behavior, etc. gleaned from <mask>'s own notes and the records of fellow DVOC members. <mask> dedicated Bird Studies at Old Cape May to his wife. <mask> first visited Cape May in August 1890, and spent most of July–August 1891 there. He made frequent trips there over the years, and became an annual summer resident starting in 1916 and continuing until at least 1937. The largest photograph of <mask> hangs in the Cape May Bird Observatory’s Center for Research and Education in Goshen, NJ. <mask> was posthumously awarded the Brewster Medal by the American Ornithologists’ Union in 1939 for BSOCM.The DVOC published 1,400 two-volume sets of BSOCM (see the DVOC website for information about the original DVOC editions). Dover Publications (1965) and Stackpole Books (2000) have both published editions of BSOCM; however, both editions are now out of print. References

Further reading

History of the DVOC. McConnell, Scott. <mask> <mask>: The Fascination of Nature. Self-published, 2014. <mask>, Witmer.Bird Studies at Old Cape May. Stackpole Books. 2000. Sutton, Clay and Pat. Birds and Birding at Cape May. Stackpole Books. 2006.American ornithologists
1866 births
1939 deaths
People from Cape May, New Jersey
Scientists from Philadelphia
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Germantown Academy alumni
Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)
Members of the American Philosophical Society

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<mask>,  (26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745; known between 1725 and 1742 as Sir <mask>) was a British statesman and Whig politician who is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the exact dates of Walpole's dominance, dubbed the "Robinocracy", are a matter of scholarly debate, the period 1721–1742 is often used. He dominated the <mask> ministry, as well as the subsequent <mask> ministry, and holds the record as the longest-serving British prime minister. W. A. Speck wrote that <mask>'s uninterrupted run of 20 years as prime minister "is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history. Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system after 1720, [and] his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with the increasing influence of the Commons". <mask> was a Whig from the gentry class who was first elected to Parliament in 1701 and held many senior positions. He was a country squire and looked to country gentlemen for his political base.Historian Frank O'Gorman says his leadership in Parliament reflected his "reasonable and persuasive oratory, his ability to move both the emotions as well as the minds of men, and, above all, his extraordinary self-confidence". Hoppit says <mask>'s policies sought moderation, he worked for peace, lower taxes and growing exports and allowed a little more tolerance for Protestant Dissenters. He mostly avoided controversy and high-intensity disputes as his middle way attracted moderates from both the Whig and Tory camps but his appointment to Chancellor of the Exchequer after the South Sea Bubble stock-market crisis drew attention to a perceived protection of political allies by Walpole. H. T. Dickinson sums up his historical role by saying that "<mask> was one of the greatest politicians in British history. He played a significant role in sustaining the Whig party, safeguarding the Hanoverian succession, and defending the principles of the Glorious Revolution (1688). He established a stable political supremacy for the Whig party and taught succeeding ministers how best to establish an effective working relationship between Crown and Parliament". Scholars rank him highly among all British prime ministers.Early life
<mask> was born in Houghton, Norfolk, in 1676. One of 19 children, he was the third son and fifth child of <mask>, a member of the local gentry and a Whig politician who represented the borough of Castle Rising in the House of Commons, and his wife <mask>, the daughter and heiress of Sir Geoffrey Burwell of Rougham, Suffolk. Horatio <mask>, 1st Baron Walpole was his younger brother. As a child, <mask> attended a private school at Massingham, Norfolk. <mask> entered Eton College in 1690 where he was a King's Scholar. He left Eton on 2 April 1696 and matriculated at King's College, Cambridge on the same day. On 25 May 1698, he left Cambridge after the death of his only remaining elder brother, Edward, so that he could help his father administer the family estate to which he had become the heir.<mask> had planned to become a clergyman but as he was now the eldest surviving son in the family, he abandoned the idea. In November 1700 his father died, and <mask> succeeded to inherit the <mask> estate. A paper in his father's handwriting, dated 9 June 1700, shows the family estate in Norfolk and Suffolk to have been nine manors in Norfolk and one in Suffolk. Early career

Business success
As a young man, <mask> had bought shares in the South Sea Company, which monopolised trade with Spain, the Caribbean and South America. The speculative market for slaves, rum and mahogany spawned a frenzy that had ramifications throughout Europe when it collapsed. However, <mask> had bought at the bottom and sold at the top, adding greatly to his inherited wealth and allowing him to create Houghton Hall as seen today. Political career
<mask>'s political career began in January 1701 when he won a seat in the English general election at Castle Rising in Norfolk.He left Castle Rising in 1702 so that he could represent the neighbouring borough of King's Lynn, a pocket borough that would re-elect him for the remainder of his political career. Voters and politicians nicknamed him "Robin". Like his father, <mask> was a member of the Whig Party. In 1705, <mask> was appointed by Queen Anne to be a member of the council for her husband, Prince George of Denmark, Lord High Admiral. After having been singled out in a struggle between the Whigs and the government, <mask> became the intermediary for reconciling the government to the Whig leaders. His abilities were recognised by Lord Godolphin (the Lord High Treasurer and leader of the Cabinet) and he was subsequently appointed to the position of Secretary at War in 1708; for a short period of time in 1710 he also simultaneously held the post of Treasurer of the Navy. Despite his personal clout, however, <mask> could not stop Lord Godolphin and the Whigs from pressing for the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell, a minister who preached anti-Whig sermons.The trial was extremely unpopular with much of the country, causing the Sacheverell riots, and was followed by the downfall of the Duke of Marlborough and the Whig Party in the general election of 1710. The new ministry, under the leadership of the Tory <mask>, removed <mask> from his office of Secretary at War but he remained Treasurer of the Navy until 2 January 1711. Harley had first attempted to entice him and then threatened him to join the Tories, but <mask> rejected the offers, instead becoming one of the most outspoken members of the Whig Opposition. He effectively defended Lord Godolphin against Tory attacks in parliamentary debate, as well as in the press. In 1712, <mask> was accused of venality and corruption in the matter of two forage contracts for Scotland. Although it was proven that he had retained none of the money, <mask> was pronounced "guilty of a high breach of trust and notorious corruption". He was impeached by the House of Commons and found guilty by the House of Lords; he was then imprisoned in the Tower of London for six months and expelled from Parliament.While in the Tower he was regarded as a political martyr, and visited by all the Whig leaders. After he was released, <mask> wrote and published anonymous pamphlets attacking the Harley ministry and assisted Sir Richard Steele in crafting political pamphlets. <mask> was re-elected for King's Lynn in 1713. Stanhope–Sunderland ministry

Queen Anne died in 1714. Under the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded Roman Catholics from the line of succession, Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, the Elector of Hanover, George I. George I distrusted the Tories, who he believed opposed his right to succeed to the Throne. The year of George's accession, 1714, marked the ascendancy of the Whigs who would remain in power for the next fifty years. <mask> became a Privy Councillor and rose to the position of Paymaster of the Forces in a Cabinet nominally led by Lord Halifax, but actually dominated by Lord Townshend (<mask>'s brother-in-law) and James Stanhope.<mask> was also appointed chairman of a secret committee formed to investigate the actions of the previous Tory ministry in 1715. Lord Oxford was impeached, and Lord Bolingbroke suffered from an act of attainder. Lord Halifax, the titular head of the administration, died in 1715 and by 1716 <mask> was appointed to the posts of First Commissioner (Lord) of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. He was a member of the Board of General Officers established in 1717 to investigate the abuse of pay. <mask>'s fellow members, appointed by the Prince of Wales, included William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath – Secretary at War, General Lumley, General Erle and Sir Philip Meadowes – Controller of the Army and Knight Marshal of the King's Palace, whose daughter, Mary Meadows, was maid-of-honour to <mask>'s friend, Queen Caroline. A keen huntsman, <mask> built for himself Great Lodge (Old Lodge) in Richmond Park. Philip Medows, the deputy ranger of the park and son of <mask>'s political ally, Sir Philip Meadowes, lived at Great Lodge after <mask> had vacated it.In his new political positions, and encouraged by his advisers, <mask> introduced the sinking fund, a device to reduce the national debt. The Cabinet of which he was a member was often divided over most important issues. Normally, <mask> and Lord Townshend were on one side, with Stanhope and Lord Sunderland on the other. Foreign policy was the primary issue of contention; George I was thought to be conducting foreign affairs with the interests of his German territories, rather than those of Great Britain, at heart. The Stanhope–Sunderland faction, however, had the King's support. In 1716 Townshend had been removed from the important post of Northern Secretary and put in the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Even this change did not appease Stanhope and Sunderland, who secured the dismissal of Townshend from the Lord-Lieutenancy in April 1717.On the next day, <mask> resigned from the Cabinet to join the Opposition "because I could not connive at some things that were carrying on", and by joining the opposition he did not intend "to make the king uneasy or to embarrass his affairs." This began the Whig Split, dividing the dominant party for three years. In the new Cabinet, Sunderland and Stanhope (who was created an Earl) were the effective heads. <mask> reversed his earlier support for the Impeachment of <mask>, the former first minister, and joined with the Tory opposition in securing an acquittal in July 1717. Soon after <mask>'s resignation, a bitter family quarrel between the King and the Prince of Wales split the Royal Family. <mask> and others who opposed the Government often congregated at Leicester House, the home of the Prince of Wales, to form political plans. <mask> also became an adviser and close friend of the Prince of Wales's wife, Caroline.In 1720 he improved his position by bringing about a reconciliation between the Prince of Wales and the King. <mask> continued to be an influential figure in the House of Commons. He was especially active in opposing one of the Government's more significant proposals, the Peerage Bill, which would have limited the power of the monarch to create new peerages. <mask> brought about a temporary abandonment of the bill in 1719 and the outright rejection of the bill by the House of Commons. This defeat led Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland to reconcile with their opponents; <mask> returned as Paymaster of the Forces and Townshend was appointed Lord President of the Council. By accepting the position of Paymaster, however, <mask> lost the favour of the Prince of Wales (the future King George II), who still harboured disdain for his father's Government. Rise to power
Soon after <mask> returned to the Cabinet, Britain was swept by a wave of over-enthusiastic speculation which led to the South Sea Bubble.The Government had established a plan whereby the South Sea Company would assume the national debt of Great Britain in exchange for lucrative bonds. It was widely believed that the company would eventually reap an enormous profit through international trade in cloth, agricultural goods, and slaves. Many in the country, including <mask> himself (who sold at the top of the market and made 1,000 per cent profit), frenziedly invested in the company. By the latter part of 1720, however, the company had begun to collapse as the price of its shares plunged. In 1721 a committee investigated the scandal, finding that there was corruption on the part of many in the Cabinet. Among those implicated were John Aislabie (the Chancellor of the Exchequer), James Craggs the Elder (the Postmaster General), James Craggs the Younger (the Southern Secretary), and even Lords Stanhope and Sunderland (the heads of the Ministry). Both Craggs the Elder and Craggs the Younger died in disgrace; the remainder were impeached for their corruption.Aislabie was found guilty and imprisoned, but the personal influence of <mask> saved both Stanhope and Sunderland. For his role in preventing these individuals and others from being punished, <mask> gained the nickname of "The Screen", or "Screenmaster-General". The resignation of Sunderland and the death of Stanhope in 1721 left <mask> as the most important figure in the administration. In April 1721 he was appointed First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons. <mask>'s de facto tenure as "prime minister" is often dated to his appointment as First Lord of the Treasury in 1721, though he himself rejected that title (it was originally a term of abuse), stating in 1741: "I unequivocally deny that I am sole and prime minister." His brother-in-law Lord Townshend served as Secretary of State for the Northern Department and controlled the nation's foreign affairs. The two also had to contend with the Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Lord Carteret.Townshend and <mask> were thus restored to power and "annihilated the opposing faction". Premiership under George I

Under the guidance of <mask>, Parliament attempted to deal with the financial crisis brought on by the South Sea Bubble. The estates of the directors of the South Sea Company were used to relieve the suffering of the victims, and the stock of the company was divided between the Bank of England and East India Company. The crisis had gravely damaged the credibility of the King and of the Whig Party, but <mask> defended both with skilful oratory in the House of Commons. <mask>'s first year as prime minister was also marked by the discovery of a plot formed by Francis Atterbury, the bishop of Rochester. The exposure of the scheme crushed the hopes of the Jacobites whose previous attempts at rebellion (most notably the risings of 1715 and 1719) had also failed. The Tory Party was equally unfortunate even though Lord Bolingbroke, a Tory leader who fled to France to avoid punishment for his Jacobite sympathies, was permitted to return to Britain in 1723.During the remainder of George I's reign, <mask>'s ascendancy continued; the political power of the monarch was gradually diminishing and that of his ministers gradually increasing. In 1724 the primary political rival of <mask> and Townshend in the Cabinet, Lord Carteret, was dismissed from the post of Southern Secretary and once again appointed to the lesser office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. In Ireland, Lord Carteret used his power to secretly aid in the controversy over Wood's Halfpence and support Drapier's Letters behind the scenes and cause harm to <mask>'s power. <mask> was able to recover from these events by removing the patent. However, Irish sentiment was situated against the English control. Townshend, working with the king, helped keep Great Britain at peace, especially by negotiating a treaty with France and Prussia in 1725. <mask> was not consulted and stated that Townshend was "too precipitate" in his actions.Great Britain, free from Jacobite threats, from war, and from financial crises, grew prosperous, and <mask> acquired the favour of George I. In 1725 he persuaded the king to revive the Knighthood of the Bath and was himself invested with the order, and in 1726 was made a Knight of the Garter, earning him the nickname "Sir Bluestring". His eldest son was granted a barony. Premiership under George II

<mask>'s position was threatened in 1727 when George I died and was succeeded by George II. For a few days it seemed that <mask> would be dismissed but, on the advice of Queen Caroline, the King agreed to keep him in office. Although the King disliked Townshend, he retained him as well. Over the next years <mask> continued to share power with Townshend but the two clashed over British foreign affairs, especially over policy regarding Austria.Gradually <mask> became the clearly dominant partner in government. His colleague retired on 15 May 1730 and this date is sometimes given as the beginning of <mask>'s unofficial tenure as prime minister. Townshend's departure enabled <mask> to conclude the Treaty of Vienna, creating the Anglo-Austrian alliance. Opposition
<mask>, a polarising figure, had many opponents, the most important of whom were in the Country Party, such as Lord Bolingbroke (who had been his political enemy since the days of Queen Anne) and William Pulteney (a capable Whig statesman who felt snubbed when <mask> failed to include him in the Cabinet). Bolingbroke and Pulteney ran a periodical called The Craftsman in which they incessantly denounced the Prime Minister's policies. <mask> was also satirised and parodied extensively; he was often compared to the criminal Jonathan Wild as, for example, John Gay did in his farcical Beggar's Opera. <mask>'s other enemies included Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Henry Fielding, and Samuel Johnson.Support

<mask> secured the support of the people and of the House of Commons with a policy of avoiding war. He used his influence to prevent George II from entering the War of the Polish Succession in 1733, because it was a dispute between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs. He boasted, "There are 50,000 men slain in Europe this year, and not one Englishman." By avoiding wars, <mask> could lower taxes. He reduced the national debt with a sinking fund, and by negotiating lower interest rates. He reduced the land tax from four shillings in 1721, to 3s in 1728, 2s in 1731 and finally to only 1s in 1732. His long-term goal was to replace the land tax, which was paid by the local gentry, with excise and customs taxes, which were paid

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Mary Walpole
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Robert Harley
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Robert Walpole
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 by merchants and ultimately by consumers.<mask> joked that the landed gentry resembled hogs, which squealed loudly whenever anyone laid hands on him. By contrast, he said, merchants were like sheep, and yielded their wool without complaint. The joke backfired in 1733 when he was defeated in a major battle to impose excise taxes on wine and tobacco. To reduce the threat of smuggling, the tax was to be collected not at ports but at warehouses. This new proposal, however, was extremely unpopular and aroused the opposition of the nation's merchants. <mask> agreed to withdraw the bill before Parliament voted on it, but he dismissed the politicians who had dared to oppose it in the first place. Thus, <mask> lost a considerable element of his Whig Party to the Opposition.After the general elections of 1734, <mask>'s supporters still formed a majority in the House of Commons although they were less numerous than before. He maintained both his parliamentary supremacy and his popularity in Norfolk, his home county. In May 1734, he presented a new silver mace "weighing 168 ounces, gilt and finely exchased, to the city of Norwich – on the cup part of it are Sir <mask>'s arms, and the arms of the city; it was first carried before Mayor Philip Meadows Esq. on the 29th of May". However, despite these great occasions, <mask>'s broader popularity had begun to wane. In 1736 an increase in the tax on gin inspired riots in London. The even more serious Porteous riots broke out in Edinburgh after the King pardoned a captain of the guard (John Porteous) who had commanded his troops to shoot a group of protesters.Though these events diminished <mask>'s popularity, they failed to shake his majority in Parliament. <mask>'s domination over the House of Commons was highlighted by the ease with which he secured the rejection of Sir John Barnard's plan to reduce the interest on the national debt. <mask> was also able to persuade Parliament to pass the Licensing Act of 1737 under which London theatres were regulated. The Act revealed a disdain for Swift, Pope, Fielding, and other literary figures who had attacked his government in their works. While the "country party" attacked <mask> relentlessly, he subsidised writers and lesser-known journalists such as William Arnall and Bishop Benjamin Hoadly as well as two men he named to the role of poet laureate, Laurence Eusden and Colley Cibber. They defended <mask> from the charge of evil political corruption by arguing that corruption is the universal human condition. Furthermore, they argued, political divisiveness was also universal and inevitable because of selfish passions that were integral to human nature.Arnall argued that government must be strong enough to control conflict, and in that regard <mask> was quite successful. This style of "court" political rhetoric continued through the 18th century. Decline

The year 1737 saw the death of <mask>'s close friend Queen Caroline. Though her death did not end his personal influence with George II, who had grown loyal to the Prime Minister during the preceding years, <mask>'s domination of government continued to decline. His opponents acquired a vocal leader in the Prince of Wales who was estranged from his father, the King. Several young politicians including William Pitt the Elder and George Grenville formed a faction known as the "Patriot Boys" and joined the Prince of Wales in opposition. <mask>'s failure to maintain a policy of avoiding military conflict eventually led to his fall from power.Under the Treaty of Seville (1729), Great Britain agreed not to trade with the Spanish colonies in North America. Spain claimed the right to board and search British vessels to ensure compliance with this provision. Disputes, however, broke out over trade with the West Indies. <mask> attempted to prevent war but was opposed by the King, the House of Commons, and by a faction in his own Cabinet. In 1739 <mask> abandoned all efforts to stop the conflict and commenced the War of Jenkins' Ear (so called because <mask>, a Welsh mariner, claimed that a Spaniard inspecting his vessel had severed his ear). <mask>'s influence continued to dramatically decline even after the war began. In the 1741 general election his supporters secured an increase in votes in constituencies that were decided by mass electorates but failed to win in many pocket boroughs (constituencies subject to the informal but strong influence of patrons).In general the government made gains in England and Wales but this was not enough to overturn the reverses of the 1734 election and further losses in Cornwall where many constituencies were obedient to the will of the Prince of Wales (who was also Duke of Cornwall). These constituencies returned members of parliament hostile to the Prime Minister. Similarly, the influence of the Duke of Argyll secured the election of members opposed to <mask> in some parts of Scotland. <mask>'s new majority was difficult to determine because of the uncertain loyalties of many new members, but contemporaries and historians estimated it as low as fourteen to eighteen. In the new Parliament, many Whigs thought the aging Prime Minister incapable of leading the military campaign. Moreover, his majority was not as strong as it had formerly been, his detractors—such as William Pulteney, earl of Bath, and Lord Perceval—being approximately as numerous as his supporters. Behind these political enemies were opposition Whigs, Tories and Jacobites.<mask> was alleged to have presided over an immense increase in corruption and to have enriched himself enormously whilst in office. Parliamentary committees were formed to investigate these charges. In 1742 when the House of Commons was prepared to determine the validity of a by-election in Chippenham, <mask> and others agreed to treat the issue as a motion of no confidence. As <mask> was defeated on the vote, he agreed to resign from the Government. The news of the naval disaster against Spain in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias also prompted the end of his political career. King George II wept on his resignation and begged to see him frequently. As part of his resignation the King agreed to elevate him to the House of Lords as the Earl of Orford, Viscount Walpole and Baron Walpole of Houghton in the County of Norfolk, this occurred on 6 February 1742.Five days later he formally relinquished the seals of office. Although no longer First Lord of the Treasury, <mask> remained politically involved as an advisor. His former colleagues were still pleased to see him, perhaps in part because he retained the king's favour. After his resignation, his main political roles were to support the government by means of advice, to dole out some patronage and to speak on the ministry's behalf in the Lords. Later life
Lord Orford was succeeded as prime minister by Lord Wilmington in an administration whose true head was Lord Carteret. A committee was created to inquire into <mask>'s ministry but no substantial evidence of wrongdoing or corruption was discovered. Though no longer a member of the Cabinet, Orford continued to maintain personal influence with George II and was often dubbed the "Minister behind the Curtain" for this advice and influence.In 1744 he managed to secure the dismissal of Carteret and the appointment of Henry Pelham whom he regarded as a political protégé. He advised Pelham to make use of his seat in the Commons to serve as a bridge between the King and Parliament, just as <mask> had done. During this time, <mask> also made two interventions in the Lords. The first was in January 1744 in the debate on Hanoverian troops being kept in British pay. <mask> prevented them from losing the troops. In his second intervention, <mask>, with fear of a Jacobite-inspired invasion in February 1744, made a speech on the situation. Frederick, Prince of Wales, usually hostile to <mask>, warmly received him at his court the next day, most likely because his father's throne, and the future of the whole Hanoverian dynasty, was at risk from the Stuart Pretender.Along with his political interests in his last years, <mask> enjoyed the pleasures of the hunt. Back at his recently rebuilt country seat in Houghton, Norfolk, such pastimes were denied him due to "dismal weather". He also enjoyed the beauties of the countryside. His art collection gave him particular pleasure. He had spent much money in the 1720s and 1730s in building up a collection of Old Masters from all over Europe. <mask> also concerned himself with estate matters. His health, never good, deteriorated rapidly toward the end of 1744; Orford died in London in 1745, aged 68 years; he was buried in the parish church of St Martin in Houghton, Norfolk.His earldom passed to his eldest son <mask> who was in turn succeeded by his only son George. Upon the death of the third Earl, the earldom was inherited by the first Earl's younger son <mask>, who is now remembered for his many thousands of insightful letters, published in 48 volumes by Yale University Press. Legacy

<mask> exercised a tremendous influence on the politics of his day. The Tories became a minor, insignificant faction, and the Whigs became a dominant and largely unopposed party. His influence on the development of the uncodified constitution of Great Britain was less momentous even though he is regarded as Great Britain's first prime minister. He relied primarily on the favour of the King rather than on the support of the House of Commons. His power stemmed from his personal influence instead of the influence of his office.Most of his immediate successors were, comparatively speaking, extremely weak; it would take several decades more for the premiership to develop into the most powerful and most important office in the country. <mask>'s strategy of keeping Great Britain at peace contributed greatly to the country's prosperity. <mask> also managed to secure the position of the Hanoverian Dynasty, and effectively countervailed Jacobitism. The Jacobite threat ended, soon after <mask>'s term ended, with the defeat of the rebellion of 1745. Later in the century, the Whig MP Edmund Burke "admitted him into the whig pantheon". Burke wrote:

Lord Chesterfield expressed scepticism as to whether "an impartial Character of Sr <mask>, will or can be transmitted to Posterity, for he governed this Kingdom so long that the various passions of Mankind mingled, and in a manner incorporated themselves, with every thing that was said or writt concerning him. Never was Man more flattered nor more abused, and his long power, was probably the chief cause of both".Chesterfield claimed he was "much acquainted with him both in his publick and his private life":

10 Downing Street represents another part of <mask>'s legacy. George II offered this home to <mask> as a personal gift in 1732, but <mask> accepted it only as the official residence of the First Lord of the Treasury, taking up his residence there on 22 September 1735. His immediate successors did not always reside in Number 10 (preferring their larger private residences) but the home has nevertheless become established as the official residence of the prime minister (in his or her capacity as First Lord of the Treasury). <mask> has attracted attention from heterodox economists as a pioneer of protectionist policies, in the form of tariffs and subsidies to woollen manufacturers. As a result, the industry became Britain's primary export, enabling the country to import the raw materials and food that fueled the industrial revolution. <mask> is immortalised in St Stephen's Hall, where he and other notable Parliamentarians look on at visitors to Parliament. <mask> built Houghton Hall in Norfolk as his country seat.He also left behind a collection of art which he had assembled during his career. His grandson, the 3rd Earl of Orford, sold many of the works in this collection to the Russian Empress Catherine II in 1779. This collection—then regarded as one of the finest in Europe—now lies in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. In 2013 the Hermitage loaned the collection to Houghton for display following the original William Kent hanging plan, recently discovered at Houghton. The nursery rhyme "Who Killed Cock Robin?" may allude to the fall of <mask>, who carried the popular nickname "Cock Robin". (Contemporaries satirised the <mask> regime as the "Robinocracy" or as the "Robinarchy").In the United States, the towns of Walpole, Massachusetts (founded in 1724), and Orford, New Hampshire (incorporated in 1761), take their respective names from Sir <mask>, Earl of Orford. Walpole Street in Wolverhampton is named after Sir <mask>. Walpole Island, named for Sir <mask>, comprises an island and an Indian reserve in southwestern Ontario, Canada, on the border between Ontario and Michigan. It lies at the mouth of the St. Clair River on Lake St. Clair, approximately thirty miles (50 km) northeast of Detroit, Michigan, and of Windsor, Ontario. Family

Catherine Shorter
On 30 July 1700, <mask> married Catherine, daughter of John Shorter of Bybrook in Ashford, Kent. She was described as "a woman of exquisite beauty and accomplished manners". Her £20,000 dowry was, according to her brother-in-law Horatio <mask>, spent on the wedding, christenings and jewels.Together they had two daughters and three sons:

 <mask>, who married Margaret Rolle (17 January 1709 – 13 January 1781), later the 15th Baroness Clinton, in 1724. They had one son, George, who died unmarried. Katherine, who died unmarried and without issue
 Mary, who married George Cholmondeley, 3rd Earl of Cholmondeley, on 14 September 1723. They had sons and daughters. She died at Aix-en-Provence in 1731, and was buried at Malpas, Cheshire. Edward, who died unmarried but had four illegitimate children with Dorothy Clement, three of whom were daughters. Laura, the eldest, married Bishop Frederick Keppel.The second daughter, <mask> (d. 1807), married, firstly, James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave and, secondly, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, King George III's brother. His son, Edward, born in 1737, died in 1771 without issue. The youngest daughter, Charlotte, was wife of Lionel Tollemache, 5th Earl of Dysart. Horace, who died unmarried and without issue

<mask>'s first wife Catherine died on 20 August 1737 and was buried in Henry VII Chapel, Westminster Abbey. Maria Skerritt
Prior to the death of his first wife, <mask> took on a mistress, Maria, daughter of Thomas Skerrett (died 1734; an Irish merchant living in Dover Street, London). She was a fashionable socialite of wit and beauty, with an independent fortune of £30,000. <mask> had married her by March 1738.They had been living openly together in Richmond Park and Houghton Hall before 1728. Maria had borne him a daughter, also called Maria, who was no longer illegitimate after her parents' marriage and, as the daughter of an Earl, became Lady <mask>. In 1746, this daughter married Colonel Charles Churchill of Chalfont (1720–1812), illegitimate son of General Charles Churchill, and became the housekeeper of Windsor Castle. Their daughter Mary became the second wife of Charles Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan, and had issue. His second wife died following a miscarriage on 4 June 1739. <mask> considered her "indispensable to his happiness", and her loss plunged him into a "deplorable and comfortless condition", which ended in a severe illness. See also
Baron Delamere
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Marquess of Cholmondeley

Notes

References

Sources

.Hoppit, Julian. A Land of Liberty? England 1689–1727 (2000)
  cover "Robin's Reign". Leadam, Isaac Saunders. Sir <mask> – A Short Biography (1899) 60pp  online

  O'Gorman, Frank. The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (1997)
 Speck, W.A. Stability and Strife: England 1714–1760 (1977)

Further reading

 Blick, Andrew, and George Jones.At Power's Elbow: Aides to the Prime Minister from <mask> to David Cameron (Biteback Publishing, 2013)
 Dickinson, Harry T. (1972) "<mask> and his critics," History Today (3 June 1972), Vol. 22 Issue 6, pp 410–419 online. Hartop, Christopher (2014), Sir <mask>'s Silver, London: Silver Society,

 Holmes, Geoffrey, and Daniel Szechi. The age of oligarchy: pre-industrial Britain 1722-1783 (1993) excerpt; "The Age of Walpole" pp 3–88
 Marshall, Dorothy. Eighteenth Century England, 1714–1784 (2nd ed. 1974), pp 101–191, political narrative

 Plumb, J. H. "Sir <mask>" History Today (Oct 1951) 1#10  pp 9–16
; the standard scholarly biography; vol. 1:  Sir <mask>: The Making of a Statesman (1956) to 1722; vol 2: Sir <mask>, The King's Minister (1960) ends in 1734; vol 3 was never finished;  1972 reprint combined vol 1 and vol 2 as Sir <mask>

 Williams, Basil.The Whig Supremacy 1714–1760 (1939; 2nd ed. 1962) online edition; pp 180–212; covers his ministry 1721–42
 Williams, Basil. "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask>" English Historical Review 15#58 (Apr. 1900), pp. 251–276 in JSTOR
"The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 15#59 (July 1900), pp. 479–494 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 59#60 (Oct. 1900), pp. 665–698 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask>" English Historical Review 16#61 (Jan. 1901), pp.67–83 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 16#62 (Apr. 1901), pp. 308–327 in JSTOR
 "The Foreign Policy of England under <mask> (Continued)" English Historical Review 16#53 (July 1901), pp. 439–451 in JSTOR

Primary sources
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Maria Walpole
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<mask>Fred<mask> is an American chemist and attorney who served as a Supervisory Special Agent in the Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory from 1986 to 1998. Concerned about problems he saw among agents, he went public as a whistleblower to bring attention to procedural errors and misconduct by agents. The FBI agreed to 40 reforms to improve the forensic reliability of its testing. Biography

<mask> served as an intelligence specialist at the Americal base in Đức Phổ, Vietnam during the early 1970s. He was tasked with reviewing seized documents and destroying any that had no military value. Working with translator Sergeant Nguyen Trung Hieu and following his advice, he saved two diaries written by Dr. Đặng Thùy Trâm, a civilian woman doctor working for North Vietnam. He kept them for 35 years, with the intention of eventually returning them to Trâm's family, if possible.FBI career
Dr<mask> received a Ph.D. in chemistry from Duke University, and a J.D. from Georgetown University. He joined the FBI in 1982 and served as a Supervisory Special Agent in the FBI crime lab from 1986-1998. While he was employed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, the FBI officially rated Dr. <mask> as the leading national and international expert in the science of explosives and explosives residue. Concerned about a number of issues that he observed and by the behavior of agents in the laboratory, he began to investigate their procedures. He eventually uncovered and reported what he thought were cases of scientific misconduct, alleging that the agents were biased toward the prosecution. In the OIG's report of <mask>'s allegations, it was concluded that,"most of <mask> allegations were not substantiated," and that Dr. <mask> had, "common sense and judgement to serve as forensics examiner.The FBI crime lab finally agreed to forty major reforms, including undergoing an accreditation process. During this period, to protect himself in administrative proceedings, <mask> hired Kohn, Kohn & Colapinto, a Washington, D.C. law firm specializing in defending whistleblowers. Post-FBI years
Dr. <mask> currently serves as the Executive Director of the Forensic Justice Project (FJP). The FJP was formed in 1998 as a project of the National Whistleblower Center, a non-profit 501(c)3 organization. The goal of the FJP is to lead a national effort to accomplish the following:
 Review cases to make sure that innocent people have not been wrongfully convicted through the misuse of forensic science;
 Provide expert testimony in cases in order to assure that forensic science is not misused in civil and criminal prosecutions impacting on the public interest or the rights of individuals;
 Offer objective scientific evaluations of forensic evidence;
 Publish and distribute information necessary for an objective analysis of the quality and objectivity of forensic science and crime laboratories nationwide. Dr. <mask> practices criminal law in Bethel, North Carolina. He was elected to the commission of the town of Bethel.The Diaries
In March 2005, he and his brother Robert (also a Vietnam War veteran) brought the Đặng Thùy Trâm diaries to a conference on the Vietnam War at Texas Tech University. There, they met photographer Ted Engelmann (also a Vietnam veteran), who offered to look for the family during his trip to Vietnam the next month. With the assistance of Đỗ Xuân Anh, a staff member in the Hanoi Quaker office, Engelmann was able to locate Trâm’s mother, Doãn Ngọc Trâm. He obtained connections to the rest of her family. In July 2005, Trâm’s diaries were published in Vietnamese under the title Nhật ký Đặng Thùy Trâm (Đặng Thùy Trâm’s Diary), which quickly became a bestseller. In less than a year, the volume sold more than 300,000 copies, and comparisons were drawn between Trâm’s writings and that of Anne Frank. In August 2005, Fred and <mask> traveled to Hanoi, Vietnam, to meet Trâm’s family.In October of the same year, the Vietnamese family came to Lubbock, Texas, to view the diaries, which are archived at Texas Tech University's Vietnam Archive. They visited <mask> and his family in his home state of North Carolina. The diaries have been translated into English and published in September 2007. The book includes photographs of Đặng during high school and with her family. Additional translations have been made and the book has been published in at least sixteen different languages. In 2009 a film about Đặng Thùy Trâm by Vietnamese director Đặng Nhật Minh, entitled Đừng Đốt (Do Not Burn It), was released. Legacy
During his military service in Vietnam, <mask> saved Dr. Đặng Thùy Trâm's diaries, which were first published in 2005 and are the basis for the 2009 film Đừng Đốt (Do Not Burn It).In addition, as noted above, he investigated, uncovered and reported scientific misconduct which forced the FBI crime lab to agree to forty major reforms, including undergoing an accreditation process. References

Further reading
Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab, by John F. Kelly and Phillip K. Wearne
Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab  Prologue, New York Times Web

External links
 National Whistleblower Center
 Forensic Justice Project
<mask>' testimony at the World Trade Center Bombing Trial
"Dismal Science: When the F.B.I. 's crime lab makes a mistake, two journalists contend, it's a beaut", by David Johnston, New York Times review of Tainting  Evidence (September 27, 1998)
"Tainting Evidence: Inside the Scandals at the FBI Crime Lab, by John F. Kelly and Phillip K. Wearne", Crime Magazine review
  Introduction about Whitehurst by National Whistleblower Center Chairman Stephen M. Kohn, Esq. before the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, May 13, 2007

Living people
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Duke University alumni
North Carolina lawyers
American whistleblowers
Year of birth missing (living people)

masks:
Frederic "
" Whitehurst
Vietnam Whitehurst
. Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Robert Whitehurst
Fred Whitehurst
Whitehurst
Whitehurst