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<mask> (born July 21, 1947 in Düsseldorf) is a German political scientist. Biography
<mask> attended the Humboldt-Gymnasium Düsseldorf until his Abitur in 1967. He studied political science, history, philosophy, sociology and German studies in Düsseldorf, Cologne and Frankfurt am Main from 1969 to 1974. In 1978 he received his doctorate in Frankfurt with a dissertation on The Chinese Development Model in Theory and Practice under Dieter Senghaas. In 1982 he habilitated in political science, also in Frankfurt, with a thesis on Autocentric Development despite World Market Integration. After completing his doctorate, he taught and researched in the  University of Bremen, University of Tokyo, Frankfurt, University of Duisburg and Braunschweig before being appointed to the Chair of International Relations and Comparative Government at the Institute of Social Sciences at the Technical University of Braunschweig in 1993. He served as Dean (1995-1997) and Vice President (2001-2003).From 2004 until his retirement in 2015, he was managing director of the Institute of Social Sciences. In 2009, a festschrift was published in his honor, and his overall work has been discussed by several authors:

<mask>'s teaching and research fields are the theory and history of the international system, hegemony in world history, development theory, development politics and North-South relations, international political economy and peace and conflict studies. His regional interests lie mainly in East and Southeast Asia (especially China and Japan) and Europe. His major work, Die Ordnung der Welt. Imperium oder Hegemonie in der Hierarchie der Staatenwelt. (The Order of the World) was published in 2015. In the course of his research on globalisation, he provided a definition: globalisation is the intensification and acceleration of cross-border transactions with their simultaneous spatial expansion, or shorter is the compression of space and time.On the occasion of the COVID-19 pandemic, he predicted the possible end of globalisation because the discourse of globalisation has become defensive. Publications
 with Dieter Senghaas (ed. ): Multinationale Konzerne und Dritte Welt. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1976, . Theorie und Praxis des chinesischen Entwicklungsmodells. Ein Beitrag zum Konzept autozentrierter Entwicklung. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1978, .Wirtschaft und Politik im modernen China. Eine Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte von 1842 bis nach Maos Tod. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1978, .
 with Gerd Wontroba: Stagnation und Unterentwicklung in Korea. Von der Yi-Dynastie zur Peripherisierung unter japanischer Kolonialherrschaft. Anton Hain, Meisenheim am Glan 1978, . In der Nachfolge Europas. Autozentrierte Entwicklung in den ostasiatischen Schwellenländern Südkorea und Taiwan.Simon & Magiera, München 1985, .
 with Dieter Senghaas: Europas Entwicklung und die Dritte Welt. Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1986, . Auswege aus der Abhängigkeit. Die entwicklungspolitische Aktualität Europas. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1988, . (ed.): Im Schatten des Siegers: Japan. 4 volumes, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp 1989, , ,  and . (ed. ): Nachdenken über China. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1990, . Das Ende der Dritten Welt und das Scheitern der großen Theorie. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1992, .Geschichte der Entwicklungstheorie. Einführung und systematische Bibliographie. (3rd, revised edition) Deutsches Übersee-Institut, Hamburg 1995, . Shanghai. Systematische Bibliographie. Mit einer Einführung und einem Anhang zu Yokohama. Deutsches Übersee-Institut, Hamburg 1995, .Globalisierung versus Fragmentierung. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1998, .
 with Katharina Varga: Theorie und Geschichte der Lehre von den Internationalen Beziehungen. Deutsches Übersee-Institut, Hamburg 1999,  (online, pdf). with Mathias Albert u. a.: Die Neue Weltwirtschaft. Entstofflichung und Entgrenzung der Ökonomie. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1999, . (ed.): Vom ewigen Frieden und vom Wohlstand der Nationen. Dieter Senghaas zum 60. Geburtstag. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2000, . Zwischen Idealismus und Realismus. Die Lehre von den internationalen Beziehungen. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2001, .
 mit Hartwig Hummel (ed.): Die Ethnisierung internationaler Wirtschaftsbeziehungen und daraus resultierende Konflikte. Lit, Münster 2001, . Paradoxien der neuen Weltordnung. Politische Essays. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2004, .
 with Reinhard Stockmann and Franz Nuscheler: Entwicklungspolitik. Theorien-Probleme-Strategien. Oldenbourg, München 2010.(2nd,revised edition) 2016, )
 Die Ordnung der Welt. Imperium oder Hegemonie in der Hierarchie der Staatenwelt. Suhrkamp Verlag, Berlin 2015, . Die Steigbügelhalter und ihr Lohn. Hitlers Einbürgerung in Braunschweig als Weichenstellung auf dem Weg zur Macht und die Modernisierung des Braunschweiger Landes. Appelhans Verlag, Braunschweig 2020; . Essays
 Der Differenzierungsprozeß in der Dritten Welt und seine Konsequenzen für den Nord-Süd-Konflikt.In: Politische Vierteljahresschrift 24. 1983, 1. S. 31–59. Das Ende der "Dritten Welt" und das Scheitern der großen Theorie. Zur Soziologie in auch selbstkritischer Absicht. In: Politische Vierteljahresschrift 32.1991, 1. S. 4–33.New Images of the Enemy: The Renaissance of Geopolitics and Geoculture in International Relations. In: International Journal of Political Economy 26. 1996, 3. S. 69-80
 Wohin treibt die Welt? In: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte. Supplement to the weekly newspaper Das Parlament 66.2016, 43–45. S. 4–8.Der Niedergang der Volksparteien und der Umbruch des Parteiensystems. In: Braunschweigische Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Jahrbuch 2018, Braunschweig 2019. S. 281–320
 Der Niedergang der Volksparteien und der Strukturwandel des Parteiensystems, Teil II. In: Braunschweigische Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Jahrbuch 2019, Braunschweig 2020. S. 80–98
 Globalization demystified? Neoliberalism´s corona shock In: Eurozine 4 May 2020

References

External links

 Personal website <mask> (German)
 Author profile <mask>zel Eurozine
 Author profile <mask> at Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik (German)
 Author profile <mask> Suhrkamp Verlag (German)

German political scientists
University of Bremen faculty
1947 births
Living people
Technical University of Braunschweig faculty
University of Tokyo faculty
University of Duisburg-Essen faculty

masks:
Ulrich Menzel
Menzel
Menzel
Ulrich Menzel
Ulrich Men
Ulrich Menzel
Ulrich Menzel


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<mask> (née Sapsworth) was a writer and artist on the esoteric and occult. Throughout her childhood, she was reared to be an artist. Her parents were progressive, and they pushed each of their children equally to achieve their potential. In her formative years of art education, her artistic inclinations drew her into the fashionable Arts and Crafts Movement. <mask> matriculated at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College, London (1896–97). Here, she studied sculpture. She was fascinated by Buddhism, theosophy, Masonic rituals, Goddess Spirituality, and Egyptian culture.These topics of study were widely popular amongst the middle- and upper-class society in England during her lifetime. In addition, her extensive travel ventures made the objects of her spiritual curiosity accessible for her to learn and grasp auxiliary meanings, all of which inspired her sculpture. Her work was part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. In 1925, <mask> was commissioned to draw a map outlining the adventures of the Knights of King Arthur and the Holy Grail, a subject made popular in the Victorian era by the Pre-Raphaelites and Alfred, Lord Tennyson. While researching, she claimed that the effigies of the zodiac were designed in a circle on the fields of Somerset—the very fields that the tales of King Arthur had transpired upon (Maltwood; 1944, p. 3). She devoted the rest of her life to researching, writing, and publicizing what she termed “Temple of the Stars.” Her theory regarding the zodiac was a combination of Sumerian, theosophy, Masonry, Egyptosophy, Early Christianity, and Rosicrucianism. She moved to Victoria, Canada, in 1938 with her husband because of her disillusionment with the state of Europe.She was encouraged to join the local art community by her friend Ina Uhthoff, an established figure as an artist, an art teacher, and an administrator. Maltwood contributed two pieces to the 1941 annual exhibition of the Island Arts and Crafts Society. She entered two sculptures in the exhibition: The Fire God of Mount Rainier, an Indian profile; and Aspiration, a bronze figure. She encouraged her cousin Elizabeth Duer to exhibit. <mask> also enjoyed sketching. Her depictions of nature were influenced by Emily Carr, from whom she purchased paintings. Maltwood continued to sketch and sculpt until she died in 1961.Thanks to <mask> and her husband <mask>’s generous bequest of their estate to the University of Victoria, the Maltwood Gallery and Special Collections own a large assortment of valuable objects and information about their lives. The Maltwood Gallery and Special Collections serve different functions: the gallery conserves the art objects the Maltwoods acquired while travelling the globe, furnishing their home, pursuing their interests, and supporting fellow artists and the artistic endeavours of Mrs. <mask> herself. Special Collections preserve the Maltwoods’ personal letters, journals, and books, including Mrs. <mask>’s own writing. Major works

Maltwood’s first publicly recognized work was Magna Mater in 1911. It was designed as a triptych. The central individual is crouched with his arms bound together. His position resonates with despair and struggle.The man’s strong legs and arms connote that he is a labourer. On either side of the labourer, mounds of people are bound together along a rope. The quote is taken from Sirach 40 or the Ecclesiasticus, which states, “Great travail is created for every man, and an heavy yoke is upon the sons of Adam, from the day that they go out of their mother's womb, till the day that they return to the mother of all things.”

Primeval Canada Awakening to Her Destiny was originally shown by the Arts and Crafts Society in the Grosvenor Gallery in 1912 and again at the London Salon in 1913. According to the Lady’s Pictorial of July 11, 1914, the monument was intended for erection in Canada, although we have no other source to prove this statement. The title of the work confirms that Maltwood had connections within Canada early on in her career. The Maltwoods had many friends who had moved from England to Canada, and they chose to visit Victoria in particular on several occasions. In fact, they even asked Samuel McLure to design a home for them on one visit.The dynamic head is the only remaining portion of this sculpture. A photo is the only proof we have that this sculpture was once attached to a body. The grand woman in this photo has her head upturned to the sky, possibly delivering a message to God. She is clothed in forest leaves, and at her sides are figures of moose and buffalo. Between the feet of the woman stands a bearded figure, a pioneer with an axe. His arms are outstretched as if in worship of Canada rising before and above him. Maltwood saw Canada as unspoiled and bountiful, in contrast to the materially driven and spiritually decayed Britain.Maltwood felt a deep connection to the nature of British Columbia; it evoked truth, power, and mysterious strength, all of which were virtues that she aspired to represent in her art. Font for the New Church of the Good Sheperd was made in Tadsworth, Surrey, in 1923. Circling the bowl is an inscription from Keble’s Lyra Innocentium. The three reliefs at the top surrounding the basin are the “open hand,” the “Agnus Dei,” and the holy dove descending; they symbolize the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost (Brown, p. 23). Mills of God (1919) is a sculpture of a giant wheel with multiple bodies helping one another to reach the peak of the wheel. The sculpture concerns the subject of reincarnation: each time an individual reincarnates, they are closer to reaching enlightenment. The wheel is a known symbol of reincarnation.In Buddhism, it is believed that when a person reaches the state of Buddha, they no longer reincarnate unless they desire to. The Priest of Buddha (1920) is a bust of Buddha with his hands in prayer position. The Buddha’s appearance is influenced by Art Deco, and he wears a headdress with a rather Masonic symbol on the front. Although <mask> was not a mason at this point in her life, there is clear Masonic reference in the design. Aspiration (1924) is a sculpture of a man reaching outward to receive enlightenment. The style of the work is art nouveau. Mirage (1927) is of a man sitting on a camel, his image duplicated on the sand.Cardonald in the novel House of Fulfillment explains that it “reminds and reveals all the experiences of illusion,” referring to the Buddhist concept of the illusion of self, separateness, and the earthly idea of time as opposed to a true awareness of harmonious unity ” (Brown, p. 36). Buddha's Path of Enlightenment (1929) is of a Buddha atop a high mountain. It is about the struggles of attaining enlightenment and about the ultimate bliss that comes with having achieved this state. The sculpture The Holy Grail (1922) was given two names by Maltwood: The Holy Grail, which it is most commonly known as, and Samadhi. The former title refers to her interest in Arthurian legends and foreshadows her discovery of the Glastonbury Zodiac. The latter title, Samadhi, is a Sanskrit word that can be defined as a state of consciousness induced by complete meditation. The idol holds a cup in his hands.The hand posture is inspired by tai chi. Tai chi movements are meant to build and release energy flow in the body and mind. The cup rests in a spiritually sensitive space, which signifies the importance of the cup. <mask> believed that the cup “embodied the lost knowledge that man must rediscover to achieve spiritual salvation” (Brown, p. 34). The sketch Trees over Water was created in 1939, a year after <mask> arrived in Victoria. The branches twist and curl in the wind, reminiscent of Art Nouveau designs. Colour is used sparingly in order to highlight the rich greens of the foliage in the foreground and the sun shining on the tips of the jagged rocks, all with the intent of heightening the drama of the scene.Her views on nature were inspired by her interest in theosophy, much like members of the Group of Seven, and Eastern religions such as Buddhism. <mask> was influenced in her work by the modern art movement termed symbolism but never ventured into abstraction. Authored
<mask>, K. E. The Enchantments of Britain or King Arthur's Round Table of the Stars. Victoria, Victoria Printing and Publishing Co., 1944. <mask>, K. E. King Arthur’s Round Table of the Zodiac. Victoria, Victoria Printing and Publishing Co., 1946. <mask>, K. E. A Guide to Glastonbury’s Temple of the Stars: their giant effigies described from air views, maps, and from “The High History of the Holy Grail.” London, The Women’s Printing Society, Ltd., 1934.Maltwood, K. E.Air View Supplement to A Guide to Glastonbury's Temple of the Stars. London, John M. Watkins, 1937. <mask>, K. E. Itinerary of "The Somerset giants" abridged from King Arthur's Round Table of the Zodiac. Victoria, Victoria Printing and Publishing Co., undated. See also
 Landscape Zodiac

References

External links
 <mask> Maltwood fonds at University of Victoria, Special Collections
 Maltwood Gallery Collection at University of Victoria, Maltwood Gallery Collection of Maltwood's Art
 Maltwood Biography Extensive Biography on Maltwood Gallery Website

1878 births
1961 deaths
British women painters
19th-century British painters
20th-century British painters
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
19th-century British women artists
20th-century British women artists
Olympic competitors in art competitions

masks:
Katharine Emma Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Katharine
John Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Maltwood
Katharine


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<mask> (1376 or 1377 in Pfalzen – August 2, 1445, in Meran) was a poet, composer and diplomat. In his diplomatic capacity, he traveled through much of Europe to as far as Georgia (as recounted in "Durch Barbarei, Arabia"). He was dubbed a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre and was also inducted into the Order of the Jar and the Order of the Dragon. He lived for a time in Seis am Schlern. Life
<mask>'s father was <mask>stein and his mother was Katharina <mask>nders. When he was ten years old, <mask> left his family and became a squire of a knight errant. <mask> described the journeys undertaken by him in the following 14 years in his autobiographical song "Es fügt sich...".He mentioned his travels to Crete, Prussia, Lithuania, Crimea, Turkey, the Holy Land, France, Lombardy (i.e. what is known today as Northern Italy) and Spain, as well as being shipwrecked in the Black Sea. After the death of his father in 1399, <mask> returned to the County of Tyrol and began a quarrel with his older brother Michael about their inheritance. From 1401 to 1402, <mask> participated in the failed Italian expedition of King Rupert of Germany. In 1407 he and his brother agreed on how to split the inheritance: <mask> received a third of Castle Hauenstein and the accompanying estates in Seis am Schlern. The other two-thirds of the castle belonged to a knight named Martin Jäger, but <mask> did not respect the property situation, occupying the entire castle and appropriating Jäger's share of the tithe. In 1408, in preparation for a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, <mask> paid for a memorial stone to be installed on the wall of the cathedral in Brixen.The stone has survived and shows him in the garb of a Crusader, with the long beard associated with pilgrims. Before he left, he wrote several songs for his beloved, Anna Hausmann, the wife of the Brixner burgher Hans Hausmann. After his return in 1410, he acquired the right to take up residence in Neustift Monastery, an Augustiner-Chorherren cloister near Brixen. In 1414 <mask> became a member of the entourage of Friedrich IV, Duke of Austria and Count of Tyrol, at the Council of Constance (1414–18); a portrait of <mask> can be found in the council's chronicle (by <mask> Richental). <mask> entered as a diplomat in the service of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary. His first diplomatic voyage brought him to England, Scotland and Portugal, where he participated in the conquest of the Moorish city of Ceuta. In 1416 he joined King Sigismund in France and they traveled together back to Constance.In 1417 <mask> married Margarete <mask>u, with whom he would have seven children. Later that year he returned to Tyrol, where he joined the Elefantenbund, an alliance of noblemen against Friedrich IV, who had been banned by King Sigismund for aiding the flight of Antipope John XXIII from the Council of Constance. With the help of the local population, especially the peasants, Friedrich was able to resist the King and the nobles and from 1418 onwards Friedrich pursued his enemies within Tyrol vigorously. In September 1421 <mask> was lured by his lover Anna Hausmann into a trap and apprehended by Martin Jäger, who brought <mask> to Innsbruck and handed him over to Count Friedrich. In March 1422 Friedrich, in exchange for a surety of 6,000 ducats and an oath to abjure all vengeance, released <mask> for five months so that <mask> could settle his debts with Martin Jäger and other nobles. <mask> could not reach an agreement with his enemies and did not show up in Tirol Castle on August 24, 1422, opting rather to ride to Hungary, where he met King Sigismund. Together they plotted a war against Friedrich.The war was started by <mask>'s brother Michael who wrote to Friedrich on September 5, 1422: "Therefore I want to be your enemy and be in an alliance with your enemies." In 1423 open hostilities culminated in the siege of Castle Greifenstein, during which <mask> with both his brothers was part of the castle's garrison. The siege was lifted in November 1423 through a successful sally. However, because the burghers and peasants of Tyrol and the bishop of Brixen supported Count Friedrich, most of the nobles, including both brothers of <mask>, surrendered on December 17, 1423. Few nobles chose to continue to fight. The most prominent were <mask> Villanders, the brothers Ulrich and <mask> Starkenberg, who successfully defended Castle Greifenstein for years to come, and <mask>, who was the last to surrender. In 1424 things calmed down and <mask> commissioned the Neustift Monastery to create a manuscript of his songs.The calmness of the year was due to the new Binger Kurverein (Alliance of Bingen) by the Empire's Kurfürsten against Sigmund, who could not afford to fight three wars at once: the planned one against Friedrich, the brewing one against the Kurverein and the ongoing one against the Hussites. On February 17, 1425, King and Count made peace at Castle Hornstein; <mask> was present. <mask> returned to Tyrol to find himself completely penniless. Count Friedrich insisted on the payment of the 6,000 ducat surety. <mask> tried in vain to get hold of the money and fled Tyrol. In 1425 he resided in Castle Neuhaus near Gais, which at this point was not yet part of the County of Tyrol, but part of the County of Görz. Friedrich immediately used the peace with King Sigismund to renew the siege of Castle Greifenstein.After <mask> Starkenberg's capitulation on November 26, 1426, <mask> was the last nobleman feuding with Count Friedrich, and was summoned to the Landtag in Bolzano. <mask> again fled Tyrol, but his flight was discovered. He was apprehended near Wasserburg on Lake Constance, brought back to Tyrol, and imprisoned in Castle Vellenberg (later Castle Sonnenburg) in Innsbruck. <mask> now had no choice but to make peace with Count Friedrich, who forced him to pay Martin Jäger a compensation in exchange for the stolen tithes, and in the process allowed <mask> to acquire full ownership of Castle Hauenstein and its estates. Furthermore, <mask> had to swear to refrain from any contact with nobles from outside Tyrol unless sanctioned by Count Friedrich. In 1428, <mask> broke his oath and traveled to Heidelberg to meet Kurfürst <mask> der Pfalz, Archbishop of Cologne, Count Dietrich II <mask> and Duke Adolf VII <mask>, with the aim to garner the help of the League of the Holy Court in a dispute with his cousin <mask> Villanders, who owed <mask> 2,200 ducats. While there, <mask> entered into a fray between the Domkapitel of Brixen and the new Prince-Bishop of Brixen, Ulrich Putsch (died 1437), who was a friend of Martin Jäger, a confidante of Count Friedrich, and soon-to-be bishop chancellor of the County of Tyrol.The clash culminated in a coup on October 30, 1429, supported by Friedrich and led by <mask> against the bishop, who while being a prisoner of <mask> was beaten publicly by him. Initially, King Sigismund backed <mask>, but when informed by the other side in the dispute, both Sigismund and Friedrich switched sides and reinstated bishop Ulrich. In 1430 King Sigismund summoned the nobles of the Holy Roman Empire to a Reichstag in the city of Nuremberg and <mask> with his brother Michael immediately left Tyrol to meet the King, who instead of going directly to Nuremberg undertook a two-month detour to the South German cities of Überlingen and Constance to celebrate Christmas. During this period, <mask> wrote many songs of an erotic nature, the most famous being "Ain Graserin" (KL 76) about a bathing maid, whose "frizzy hair" between her legs leads a man to have sex with her on the spot. In Nuremberg, <mask> became a member of the first rank of the Order of the Dragon, a rank King Sigismund awarded only to two dozen nobles. Along with the honor came the obligation to participate in Sigismund's disastrous expedition against the Hussites in Bohemia in 1431. <mask> experienced firsthand the mass flight of the 130,000-strong Imperial army on August 14, 1431, when the entire army panicked after sighting the 50,000-strong Hussite army approaching and singing.Sigismund sent <mask> back to Tyrol to prepare the county for an expected Hussite invasion of the Empire and invited the Hussites to the Council of Basel to negotiate. Sigismund himself fled to Milan and later to Piacenza under the pretext that he had to go to Rome to be crowned emperor. During this time <mask> commissioned the Neustift Monastery to create a second manuscript collection of his songs. Sigismund called him to join him in Piacenza and <mask> obliged. The unpleasantness of his visit inspired him to write the complaint-song "Wer die ougen vil verschüren", which he set to a French melody. In May of the same year, <mask> was sent by Sigismund to Basel. After over a year of negotiations, Sigismund was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on May 31, 1433, by Pope Eugenius IV, with <mask> probably in attendance.During the next years, <mask>'s life settled down, and almost no reports of fights, brawls or trials are preserved. This changed with the death of Count Friedrich on June 24, 1439. As the heir Sigismund was only twelve years old at the time, a guardian had to be found until Sigismund came of age. The Landstände of Tyrol choose Sigismund's uncle Friedrich V, Duke of Austria. The contracts of the guardianship were put in <mask>'s care. <mask> used the opportunity to seek the assistance of Friedrich V in his eighteen-year-long legal wrangling with <mask> Villanders over bonds <mask> had given his cousin to hold. When the guardianship of Sigismund ended on July 25, 1443, and Friedrich, now King Friedrich III of the Holy Roman Empire, decided to prolong it for another six years, the Landstände of Tyrol organized an open revolt.<mask> became one of five military commanders and was tasked with the defense of the most important of all positions, the Mühlbacher Klause (Mühlbach fortress), which blocked the most likely invasion route from Styria, where King Friedrich had taken up residence. The cities of Merano and Bolzano provided funds and troops to reinforce the fortress, and all other passes and entrances into Tyrol were blocked by troops. As the city of Trento backed the King, an army of 3,000 men was sent south to besiege the city. On December 10, a Tyrolean delegation arrived in Graz to demand the release of Sigismund and the return of the county's treasures, taken by Friedrich in 1440. Friedrich refused and threatened war. The Tyroleans responded by sacking Trento and electing Johann Röttel as the new bishop on January 4, 1440. Röttel's first declaration was to fully support the Landstände against the King.<mask> was one of the electors and the main instigator of this election. The next session by the Landstände began in Merano on May 16, 1445, and as it was now clear that King Friedrich was not planning an attack, options were discussed on how to bring Sigismund to Tyrol. <mask> died on August 2, 1445, in Merano, succumbing to an intense heatwave. His offices were taken over by <mask> Matsch. His body was brought to Neustift Monastery  in Vahrn and buried near the font in the monastery's church, where his grave was rediscovered in 1973. <mask>'s right eye

All extant portraits of <mask> depict him with a closed right eye. An examination of his skull from a 1973 exhumation revealed that this was due to a congenital defect: his right eye socket was smaller than the left, which meant that his right eyeball was under constant pressure, resulting in ptosis, or a withering of the right eyelid muscles.However, Franz Daxecker concludes that the ptosis was probably caused by an injury sustained in childhood. Dieter Kühn's biography of <mask>, which attributes the "loss" of the right eye to an archery mishap when the boy was eight years old, is now generally discredited. A popular theory that the eye was lost during the siege of Greifenstein Castle in 1423 is also implausible, as portraits of <mask> from 1408 already depict him with a drooping eyelid. Distinctions
 Knight of the Holy Sepulchre
 Order of the Jar
 Order of the Dragon

Compositions

He is one of the most important German composers of the Middle Ages. There are three main topics of his work: travel, God and sex. <mask>'s poems are preserved in three manuscripts:
 MS A (Vienna), 42 songs completed in 1425, with an addition of another 66 poems from 1427 to 1436. MS B (Innsbruck): 1432
 MS C (Innsbruck-Trostburg): 1450, a copy of B.

MSs A and B were completed under the supervision of <mask> himself, and both contain a depiction of the author, qualifying as one of the earliest authentic depictions of a German author.Editions
 [MS A] <mask> <mask>. Die Gedichte, ed. J. Schatz. 2nd ed. Göttingen 1904. [MS B] Die Lieder Oswalds von Wolkenstein, ed. K. K. Klein.3rd ed. H. Moser, N. R. Wolf, N. Wolf, Tübingen 1987. [MS C] Die Gedichte Oswalds von Wolkenstein. Mit Einleitung, Wortbuch und Varianten, ed. B. Weber, Innsbruck 1847. Classen, Albrecht: The Poems of <mask> Wolkenstein: An English Translation of the Complete Works. (1376/77-1445) The New Middle Ages.Palgrave 2008,

Sources
This article is based on the 600-page biography Ich Wolkenstein by Dieter Kühn; Insel Taschenbuch 497; Erweiterte Ausgabe 1980; Insel Verlag Frankfurt am Main 1977; . References

 Meinolf Schumacher: "Ein Kranz für den Tanz und ein Strich durch die Rechnung. Zu <mask> Wolkenstein Ich spür ain tier (Kl 6)." Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 123 (2001): 253-273 PDF. External links

 <mask> Wolkenstein-Gesellschaft
 Lyrics

1370s births
1445 deaths
People from Pfalzen
Renaissance composers
Minnesingers
Middle High German literature
German diplomats
14th-century German poets
15th-century German poets
Order of the Dragon
German male poets
Medieval Knights of the Holy Sepulchre

masks:
Oswald von Wolkenstein
Oswald
Friedrich von Wken
von Villa
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Ulrich von
Oswald
Oswald
von Schwanga
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Hans von
Wilhelm von
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Wilhelm von
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Ludwig von
von Moers
von Jülich
Hans von
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Hans von
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Ulrich von
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald
Oswald von
Wolkenstein
Oswald Von
Oswald von
Oswald von


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<mask><mask> (April 24, 1934) is a journalist, author, and historian of the automotive industry and motor sports. Personal life
<mask>. Ludvigsen was born on April 24, 1934 in Kalamazoo, Michigan. He was the son of Elliot "Lud" Ludvigsen, an engineer and executive of Eaton Corporation. <mask> has been resident in England since 1980 and lives in Suffolk with his wife Annette. Education
He graduated Cum Laude from Phillips Exeter Academy, and attended both the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, studying engineering, and Pratt Institute where he matriculated in industrial design. Career

Military service
In 1958–59, he served in the US Army Signal Corps in West Germany. Automotive industry
Ludvigsen worked as a designer at General Motors in 1956, Ludvigsen planned experimental front-drive prototypes.He also worked on the design and development of heavy-duty truck transmissions in the engineering and experimental departments of the Fuller Manufacturing, a subsidiary of the Eaton Corporation. As a public-affairs official with General Motors Overseas Operations in the 1960s, Ludvigsen was responsible for all the company's product information outside the USA. He also supervised its financial advertising abroad. Prior to that, he assisted the General Motors technical staffs in press relations, with special emphasis on the Styling Staff. When <mask> was president of Formula 1 Enterprises, an importer and distributor of motor vehicle equipment, several of his friends were injured in motor racing accidents. This led him and his company to become active in racing safety at the end of the 1960s. Ludvigsen helped invent the practical modern Halon-gas fire extinguishing system for racing vehicles and founded the Motor Racing Safety Society to bring together professionals working in this field.At the end of the 1970s, Ludvigsen joined Fiat Motors of North America as vice president of corporate affairs, with responsibilities including legal affairs and relations with customers, dealers, governments and the press. He took part in the product development of Fiat and Lancia cars both in the US and Turin. His team obtained unprecedented public awareness for Fiat, Lancia, and Ferrari products in the United States and successfully launched the Fiat Strada range. In 1980, Ludvigsen joined Ford of Europe as a vice president. One of his briefs for Ford included government affairs. This included European governmental assessments and lobbying activities, as well as the preparation and presentation of Ford's External Factors Study, a ten-year rolling forecast of the external environment within which Ford would operate in Europe. Another Ford of Europe responsibility for Ludvigsen was Ford's European motor sports activity.This encompassed the design, engineering, tooling, production, marketing, distribution and sale throughout Europe of special automobiles, light trucks and parts. He was in charge of the design and launching of the RS1600i Escort, which was named Motor Sports Car of the Year in France and which led Ford's RS Products operation to record profitability. In addition, Ludvigsen played a key role in the creation of the AC-Ghia and Barchetta prototype sports cars. Writing career

Ludvigsen began his automotive writing and editing for MIT's Tech Engineering News in 1953. He has served as technical editor of both Auto Age and Sports Cars Illustrated, east coast editor of Motor Trend and editor of Car and Driver. As an author, co-author or editor Ludvigsen has some four dozen books to his credit. Four Ludvigsen books concern the Chevrolet Corvette, one of them that was credited with sparking the Corvette hobby.He has written three times about Mercedes-Benz, twice about its racing cars. His books on the latter subject have won the Montagu Trophy (once) and the Nicholas-Joseph Cugnot Award (twice), both recognizing outstanding automotive historical writing. In 2001 he again received the Cugnot award from the Society of Automotive Historians (SAH) for his book about the early years of the Volkswagen, Battle for the Beetle. In 2002, he was named a Friend of Automotive History by the SAH, the Society's highest award. Since 1997, Ludvigsen has been drawing on the photographic resources of the Ludvigsen Library to write and illustrate books on the great racing drivers. His first title in this series was Stirling Moss: Racing with the Maestro. He followed this with Jackie Stewart: Triple-Crowned King of Speed and Juan Manuel Fangio: Motor Racing's Grand Master.Fourth in this series for Haynes Publishing was Dan Gurney: The Ultimate Racer and fifth was Alberto Ascari: Ferrari's First Double Champion. Sixth and seventh in the series are Bruce McLaren—Life and Legacy of Excellence and Emerson Fittipaldi—Heart of a Racer. Also in the field of motor sports, <mask> has written about the cars of the Can-Am series, the AAR Eagle racing cars, the Ford GT40s and Prime Movers, the story of Britain's Ilmor Engineering. His introduction to At Speed, a book of Jesse Alexander's racing photography, won the Ken W. Purdy Award for Excellence in Automotive Journalism. Other motor-sports titles include Classic Grand Prix Cars, a history of the front-engined G.P. car, and Classic Racing Engines, Ludvigsen's personal selection of 50 notable power units. <mask> is the author of definitive histories of Porsche and Opel.His Porsche history, Excellence was Expected, is considered to be a model of the researching and writing of the history of an auto company. The updated edition was published in three volumes by Bentley Publishers in 2003. In 1997, Ludvigsen researched and wrote the catalogue for a special exhibition of Ferrari technological innovations on the occasion of the company's 50th anniversary and contributed a major section to the company's official 50-year history. He updated and expanded this work for Ferrari's 60th anniversary in 2007. He is the author of a series of monographs on great Maserati cars. In co-operation with publisher Iconografix, Ludvigsen has established a series of photographic books now numbering some nineteen titles, including books on Indy racing cars from the Speedway's first contest in 1911 through the 1970s, the Indy Novis, Chevrolet's Corvair and Corvette, the Mercedes-Benz 300SLs of 1952 and 1954–64, the Porsche Spyders and Porsche 917, the Ferrari Factory, Can-Am racing cars, the sports-racers of Briggs Cunningham and Jim Hall's Chaparral cars. More titles are in preparation.On motor-industry topics <mask> has written books about high-performance engines, the Wankel rotary engine and the histories of American auto makers. He was editor of The Future of the Automobile, the report of the 1981–84 study of the world auto industry by MIT. This was named one of the best business books of the year by Business Week. In the 1980s, he established Euromotor Reports Limited, for which he wrote and edited numerous research studies. Collections

<mask> has collected his library of the same name throughout his career and it now holds extensive original negatives and transparencies from the 1950s forward with special strengths in motor sports, American cars and sports cars. As well it holds original photos and glass negatives from the dawn of the automotive era. Consulting and later career

In 1996, publishers in Britain and the United States launched <mask>'s book on motor-industry management, Creating the Customer-Driven Car Company.It advises industry personnel on customer-pleasing best practice researched during 15 years of in charge of a London-based motor-industry management consultancy, which he founded in 1983. <mask> and his team worked for most of the world's leading motor manufacturers in strategic planning, brand reinforcement, distribution, company structure and organization, mergers and acquisitions, and on design and engineering issues. From 1980 through 1984, Ludvigsen was a member of the Policy Forum of the MIT Future of the Automobile Programme, the most comprehensive trilateral study of the motor industry ever undertaken. He also chaired the Auto & Transport Design Forum, an international conference on design and transport infrastructures held in Lugano, Switzerland and Stuttgart, Germany. His tutorial responsibilities have included the Syracuse University, The Royal College of Art and the Bavarian Academy of Advertising. Ludvigsen has been a Member of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) since 1960 and has been active on both Standards and Activities Committees of the SAE. He is currently a member of the Historical Committee.He is a founder member of the International Motor Press Association and a member of the Society of Automotive Historians, the Society of Authors, the Society for the History of Technology and the Guild of Motoring Writers. <mask> is an honorary member of the Vintage Sports Car Club of America and the Corvair Society of America. He is also a member of the council of Historic Automobile Group. Currently, he writes for Road & Track, Automobile Quarterly, The Automobile and Hemmings Sports & Exotic Cars, among others, plus various one-make periodicals and website publications Winding Road and Just-Auto.com. Books
 Creating the Customer-Driven Car Company. International Thomas Business Press, 1996. .
 Stirling Moss: Racing with the Maestro. Patrick Stephens Limited, 1997. .
 Jackie Stewart: Triple-Crowned King of Speed.Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 1998. .
 Juan Manuel Fangio: Motor Racing's Grand Master. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 1999. .
 Dan Gurney: The Ultimate Racer. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2000. .
 Alberto Ascari: Ferrari's First Double Champion. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2000. .
Battle for the Beetle. Cambridge, MA: Bentley Publishers, 2000. .
 Classic Racing Engines. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2001. .
 Bruce McLaren: Life and Legacy of Excellence. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2002. .
 Emerson Fittipaldi: Heart of a Racer.Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2002. . The V12 Engine. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2005. .
 Classic Grand Prix Cars: The Front-Engined Era, 1906-1960. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2006. (2nd Ed.) . BRM V16. Veloce Publishing, 2006. .
 Porsche: Excellence Was Expected.Cambridge, MA: Bentley Publishers, 2008. .
 Ferdinand Porsche, Genesis of Genius: Road, Racing and Aviation Innovation, 1900 to 1933. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Bentley Publishers, 2009. .
 Colin Chapman: Inside the Innovator. Sparkford, UK: Haynes Publishing, 2010. . Professor Porsche's Wars. Pen & Sword Military, 2014. .
 Reid Railton: Man of Speed. Evro Publishing, 2018. .

Notes

References

American male journalists
Motoring journalists
Motoring writers
Historians of motorsport
Writers from Kalamazoo, Michigan
1934 births
Living people
Automotive historians

masks:
Karl E
. Ludvigsen
Karl E
Karl Ludvigsen
Ludvigsen
Karl Ludvigsen
Karl Ludgsen
Karl Ludvigsen
Ludvigsen
Karl Lugsen
Ludvigsen
Ludvigsen


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<mask> (born February 26, 1968) is an American musician, best known as the bassist and backing vocalist for rock band Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000; 2007–2011; 2019–present) and supergroups Audioslave (2001–2007; 2017) and Prophets of Rage (2016–2019). Since 2013 and 2015, he has also been the lead singer and bassist of the bands Future User and Wakrat. He was ranked eighth on Paste magazine's list of "20 Underrated Bass Guitarists" in 2014. Early life
<mask> was born on February 26, 1968, in Irvine, California, the youngest of six children. His father, an aerospace engineer, worked on the Space Shuttle, and his mother was a teacher/mathematician. He is of French and Irish descent. His idols in rock included Gene Simmons, bassist of Kiss; Sid Vicious, bassist of the Sex Pistols; Steve Harris, bassist of Iron Maiden; and Geddy Lee, bassist of Rush.In the fifth grade, he met future bandmate Zack de la Rocha. Around this time, his mother was diagnosed with cancer. Shortly thereafter, his father divorced and remarried. <mask> stayed with his father, while his mother moved to Sacramento, to live with her sister while seeking treatment. <mask>'s father abused him during the period when they both lived in Irvine together. During this time, de la Rocha introduced him to bass, and <mask> soon found an outlet in music and poetry, playing bass in the band Juvenile Expression. <mask>'s mother died of brain cancer in 1988.Career

Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000)

In 1991, following the break-up of the band Lock Up featuring guitarist Tom Morello, the band's drummer, Jon Knox, encouraged <mask> and Zack de la Rocha to jam with Tom Morello. Tom soon called Brad Wilk, who had unsuccessfully auditioned for Lock Up. This line-up went on to form Rage Against the Machine. After frequenting the L.A. club circuit, Rage Against the Machine signed a record deal with Epic Records in 1992. That same year, the band released their self-titled debut. They achieved a phenomenal amount of mainstream success and released three more studio albums. In late 2000, after <mask>'s stunt at the VMA's, a disgruntled de la Rocha quit the band.On September 13, 2000, Rage Against the Machine performed their last concert at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. Audioslave (2001–2007)

After Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine, music producer Rick Rubin suggested the three remaining members of Rage get together with then-former Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell, and "see what happens". By May 2001, they had begun to work in the studio, writing their first song "Light My Way". By April 2002, the newly formed band had split due to "outside" pressures, mainly from management companies. They soon got back together though, and on November 19, 2002 they released their eponymous debut, which would attain triple platinum status. Audioslave attained a large amount of success, and released another two studio albums. On May 5, 2005, Audioslave played a free concert in front of 65,000 Cuban fans, becoming the first American rock band to play a concert within Cuba.On February 15, 2007, Chris Cornell officially announced his departure from Audioslave, thus disbanding the group. Rage Against the Machine reunion (2007–2011)

On April 29, 2007, Rage Against the Machine reunited at the Coachella Music Festival. The band played in front of an EZLN backdrop to the largest crowd of the festival. The performance was first thought to be a one-off, this turned out not to be the case. The band played seven more shows in the United States in 2007 (including their first non-festival concert in seven years at the Alpine Valley Music Theater in East Troy, Wisconsin), and in January 2008, they played their first shows outside the US as part of the Big Day Out Festival in Australia and New Zealand, and then at the Reading and Leeds festival in the summer of 2008, in England. The band continued to tour around the world, headlining many large festivals in Europe and the United States, including Lollapalooza in Chicago. In 2008 the band also played shows in Denver, Colorado and St. Paul, Minnesota, the locations of the Democratic National Convention and Republican National Convention, respectively.Their most recent performance was in 2011, at The Coliseum at Los Angeles. Future User and Wakrat (2014–present)
<mask> co-founded provocative band Future User, together with Jordan Tarlow (keys), Jon Knox (drums) and super producer Brendan O'Brien (guitars). He plays bass and is the vocalist of the band. <mask> hid several months under the S.W.I.M persona on the first music videos, before unmasking himself in the "Mountain Lion" video. In the band's first video, tennis player John McEnroe subjected himself to waterboarding. The "Mountain Lion" video featured road racing cyclist Lance Armstrong, a close friend of Commerford, while a skateboarding Commerford appears to inject himself with a steroid. In 2015, he formed "punk and hardcore-influenced band", named Wakrat.The band also features drummer Mathias Wakrat and guitarist Laurent Grangeon. The band debuted their first single, "Knucklehead", in September 2015. Prophets of Rage (2016–2019)
In 2016, <mask> reunited with Tom Morello and Brad Wilk, and was joined by Chuck D and B-Real to form supergroup Prophets of Rage. They play covers from their Rage Against the Machine, Public Enemy and Cypress Hill material, and new material as well. Other contributions
<mask> and drummer Brad Wilk contributed to Maynard James Keenan's side project Puscifer and his album "V" Is for Vagina on the track "Momma Sed". Both have taken part in the production of Dave Grohl's 2013 'Sound City Movie' Soundtrack, with the track "Time Slowing Down". Personal life
In 1993, <mask> was introduced to mountain biking by his future father-in-law, Jimbo Insko.<mask> is known as a biking enthusiast, having featured in Mountain Biking UK magazine issue 242. In 1995, Rage Against the Machine was forced to cancel a concert after <mask> broke his wrist in a biking accident. In 2006, he rode a bike from Los Angeles to Santa Barbara with a group of people (including John McEnroe) to see Pearl Jam and Sonic Youth play at the Santa Barbara Bowl. In 2001, <mask> married his longtime girlfriend, Aleece Dimas, who is a medical professional and AIDS activist. They have two sons together, Xavier and Quentin, and the family lives in Malibu. The older son, Xavier was featured on Audioslave's music video "Like a Stone". In November 2018, the couple announced they were divorcing.In 2010, <mask> was interviewed and appeared in the documentary Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage. In 2015, <mask> appeared on The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz radio show for a then record of five consecutive days. Among many topics, he discussed his protest of Limp Bizkit winning Best Rock Video at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards and waterboarding John McEnroe. Political views
<mask> is a self-described "conspiracy theorist". In a Rolling Stone interview in 2015, he claimed that the Moon landing was faked and he confronted Buzz Aldrin about it at a John Cusack movie premiere. In the same interview, <mask> also stated that he doesn't believe ISIS is real and cast doubt upon the ISIS beheading videos:

Equipment

Basses
<mask> had been a major endorser of Fender basses since the mid-1990s, and is best known for playing personally-modified Fender Jazz Basses with Precision Bass necks, hand-wired pickups and Badass II bridges. <mask>'s main bass from the early days was an Ernie Ball Music Man StingRay, used almost exclusively until about 1995 when he switched to the Fender Jazz Bass.From the peak of his career in the mid-1990s, <mask> played Fender basses for 12 years, until he made his switch to Lakland for the Rage Against the Machine reunion in 2008. After 21 years, he switched back to Ernie Ball Music Man StingRay basses when he began playing with Prophets of Rage and Wakrat. Pre-Rage Against the Machine

 Rickenbacker 4001. Rage Against the Machine (1991–1995)

 Music Man StingRay – natural finish with pickguard removed. Rage Against the Machine (1995–2000)

 Fender Jazz Bass - natural finish without pickguard, smashed at the MTV Video Music Awards 2000
 Fender Jazz Bass - cream coloured finish with black pickguard
 Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with white pickguard

Audioslave (2001–2007)

 Fender Jazz Bass - Sunburst finish with black pickguard. Used in 2005–2006 with Audioslave, then during the Rage Against the Machine reunion tour in 2007. Fender Jazz Bass - white finish with brown pickguard.Used in 2005–2006 with Audioslave, then during the Rage Against the Machine reunion tour in 2007. Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with brown pickguard and left-handed Precision Bass neck
 Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with silver pickguard
 Fender Jazz Bass - Natural finish with black broken pickguard. Used with Audioslave mainly for Rage and Soundgarden covers. Twin-Necked Fender Jazz Bass - Cherry finish with black pickguard. Seen on the booklet of Revelations. Never used live. Rage Against the Machine, Future User, Wakrat (2008–2016)

 Lakland Black Joe Osborn Signature – <mask>'s main tour bass during this time was a Black Joe Osborn with a Dual Access Bridge (as do all of his other basses).It was used on the majority of songs. Lakland 3-Tone Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Tortoise Shell Pickguard and Rosewood fretboard. Lakland 3-Tone Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Pearloid Pickguard and Maple fretboard. Lakland Blonde Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Had a Rosewood fretboard with Birdseye Maple blocks and a Black pickguard. Used between 2008 and 2015 with Rage, Wakrat and the Sound City Studios record. Lakland Candy Apple Red 44-60/55-60 (Vintage J) (former Joe Osborn Signature) - Main bass during the 2010 tours. Lakland Inca Silver 44-60/55-60 (Vintage J) (former Joe Osborn Signature) - Drop D bass during the 2010 tours.Lakland Sunburst Joe Osborn Signature. Used with Wakrat in 2015. Prophets of Rage, Wakrat (2016–present)

 Music Man StingRay – red finish with white pickguard and black applications. Music Man StingRay – red finish with black Pickguard. Music Man StingRay – natural finish with white Pickguard. Music Man StingRay – natural finish with black Pickguard. Music Man StingRay – black finish (with standard fretboard and details) with black Pickguard.Music Man StingRay – complete black finish (including fretboard and applications) with black Pickguard. Music Man StingRay – grey finish with white pickguard. Music Man StingRay HH – natural finish with black Pickguard. Music Man StingRay HH – dark red finish with black Pickguard. Effects
<mask> is very secretive of his tone, even going so far as to put effects on his pedalboard that he doesn't even use, making his own gear, and even removing the labels off some of his effects. Here are some effects which he has used during his career. Aphex Punch Factory (Audioslave)
 Boss DD-3 Digital Delay
 Boss OC-2 Octave
 MXR Phase 90 (RATM)

 Dunlop 105Q Bass Wah
 Marshall Guv'nor Distortion Pedal (RATM, 1991–1998)
 Custom ABY Amp Selector
 Homemade Overdrive Pedals
 Electro-Harmonix Big Muff Pi Bass Distortion

Amplifiers and cabinets
Throughout his career, <mask> has used Ampeg amplifiers and cabinets live, and presumably in the studio.For his years in Rage Against the Machine, he used two Ampeg SVT-2PRO heads and two Ampeg 8x10 Cabinets. Both the cabinets and heads were mounted in road cases that have graffiti art work presumably done by <mask> himself. One was usually draped with an upside-down American flag which was occasionally burned during concerts, most notably at the band's Woodstock '99 performance during "Killing in the Name". For the recording of Audioslave and Out of Exile, <mask> continued to use Ampeg but switched to a 3 amp and cab system: Each amp an SVT2Pro with a clean signal into an 8x10 cab and increasing levels of gain each into the additional 4x10 cabs. For the Out of Exile tour and recording of Revelations, <mask> also used other equipment from Ashdown and Mesa/Boogie. The Mesa replacing his clean channel and the Ashdown ABM Evo replacing his most overdriven channel with an SVT2 taking care of the medium gain. Currently, he uses two Ampeg SVT-VR heads (as of May 2008) and his original two Ampeg Cabinets with graffiti from the 2000-era setup.In 2016, he added various other amp heads including a silverface Ampeg SVT classic and Barefaced bass speaker cabinets. DiscographyRage Against the Machine Rage Against the Machine (1992)
 Evil Empire (1996)
 Live & Rare (1998)
 The Battle of Los Angeles, (1999)
 Renegades (2000)
 Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium (2003)Audioslave Audioslave (2002)
 Out of Exile (2005)
 Revelations (2006)Future User SteroidsOrHeroin (2015)Wakrat Wakrat (2016)Prophets of Rage' Prophets of Rage'' (2017)

References

External links

 Official Facebook Page

1968 births
American people of French descent
American people of Irish descent
Guitarists from Los Angeles
California socialists
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Rage Against the Machine members
Audioslave members
People from Irvine, California
Alternative metal bass guitarists
Living people
American anti-fascists
Moon landing conspiracy theorists
American conspiracy theorists
Grammy Award winners
Prophets of Rage members
20th-century American bass guitarists
21st-century American bass guitarists

masks:
Timothy Robert Commerford
Timothy Robert Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Tim Commerford
Tim Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Tim
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Commerford
Tim


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<mask> (25 November 1880 – 4 September 1941) was the Episcopal Bishop of Utah (1916–1918), a socialist, and a prominent pacifist. He is included in the book of Lesser Feasts and Fasts of the Episcopal Church. His feast day is September 4. Early life and education

<mask> was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to <mask> and <mask>, rector of St. Stephen's parish. <mask> attended the local grammar school, then Yale University. During summers he worked near home, once as a strikebreaker, and once learning accounting in a mine company's front office. After graduating in 1902, <mask> traveled to Cambridge, Massachusetts and attended the Episcopal Divinity School.He learned about social action theology, including works of Frederick D. Maurice. Before <mask> graduated in 1906, Utah's rugged Missionary Bishop Franklin Spencer Spalding (like himself a clergyman's son) addressed the students. This prompted <mask> to volunteer to serve in that diocese. After receiving a pay raise, <mask> married Mary Balch in Coronado, California in June 1913. They had a daughter and son, Barbara Spalding <mask> (b.1915) and David Balch <mask> (b. 1923), both of whom survived him. He would later receive honorary degrees from Wilberforce University (L.L.D in 1934), and Meadville Theological School (D.D.in 1937). Ministry
<mask> accepted a position at the mission church of St. John in Logan, Utah and also ministered to students at the nearby Utah Agricultural College. He also cleared a farm in the mountains (that was later donated to St. John's Church), as well as traveled to remote parishes in the large missionary district. Bishop Ethelbert Talbot of the Episcopal Diocese of Central Pennsylvania had ordained him a deacon after his graduation, and by year's end, Bishop Spalding had ordained him a priest. His rank increased from associate of the St. John's mission to priest-in-charge in 1911. <mask> also served as secretary of the diocesan convocations from 1907 until 1914. Like Bishop Spalding, <mask> was a social activist and pacifist, especially after witnessing ill-treatment of miners and railroad workers, as well as discrimination against German immigrants in Salt Lake City.When Bishop Spalding died unexpectedly after being hit by a car, the diocese chose <mask> (whom Bishop Spalding had ordained as archdeacon in 1913) as his successor. On December 16, 1914, Presiding Bishop Daniel S. Tuttle (himself a former Missionary Bishop of Utah who had become bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Missouri) led the consecration service, joined by California bishops William Ford Nichols, William Hall Moreland and Joseph Horsfall Johnson as well as mostly current or former western missionary bishops Talbot, James Bowen Funsten, Robert L. Paddock, Nathaniel S. Thomas, Benjamin Brewster and Louis Childs Sanford. Bishop <mask>' ministry continued to take him to many reservations of Native Americans, as well as among miner and railroad workers. He traveled many miles around the diocese visiting parishes by railroad, stagecoach, motorcar, horse and foot. In the years preceding World War I, Fort Douglas near Salt Lake City became a detention center for pacifists, a German naval crew, and later German-Americans. The lawyer son of the camp's commander was an active layman in the joint vestry of the two Salt Lake parishes, and also lost a son during military training in 1916. Because of <mask>' outspoken opposition to World War I, particularly his declaration that "war is unchristian" in August 1917 which received wide press coverage after police raided pacifists meeting in Los Angeles, California (and a complaint filed from the Salt Lake City parishes), <mask> was hauled before a special committee of the House of Bishops in St. Louis, Missouri by year's end.Although the committee initially recommended he remain in his post, Presiding Bishop Tuttle appointed a second committee that never received certain defense documents (including a survey demonstrating overwhelming support for him outside the two Salt Lake City parishes) and recommended <mask> take a leave of absence based on his opposition to government policy. By year's end, <mask> resigned his see effective April 11, 1918 (Easter Sunday that year being March 31). The United States formally joined World War I in February 1918. The resigned bishop became a missionary in tiny Brownville Junction, Maine, on a railroad line to New Brunswick, Canada and near the end of what became the Appalachian Trail. His Utah missionary see lay vacant until the war's end, when Rev. Arthur Moulton, who had served as a combat chaplain and who also espoused socialist ideals and would work for peace following World War II, was chosen <mask>' successor. In 1921, Philadelphia's Quakers invited <mask> to address them.<mask> helped the Fellowship of Reconciliation become international in 1919, and moved to New York and became its secretary for a decade. Although in 1929 <mask> was chosen as temporary bishop of Southern Ohio while the next incumbent was being selected, he never again held a permanent diocese. In 1933, presiding bishop James DeWolf Perry restored <mask>'s seat, but not his vote, in the House of Bishops. In 1929, <mask> accepted a position as chaplain and assistant professor of religion at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio and while there sometimes referred to himself as "Bishop to the Universe." He also became a director of the National Consumers League and the League for Industrial Democracy. Rt. Rev.<mask> continued to advocate for black civil rights, social reform and economic justice. On November 11, 1939 (Armistice Day), he joined bishop William Appleton Lawrence (of the Episcopal Diocese of Western Massachusetts), and New Yorkers Mrs. Henry Hill Pierce and John Nevin Sayre to found the Episcopal Pacifist Fellowship (that in 1966 became the Episcopal Peace Fellowship). Just before his death, <mask> helped resettle Jews displaced by the Nazis and advocated a more understanding U.S. relationship with Japan. In 1940, <mask> was the socialist candidate for governor of Ohio (and lost by a significant margin to incumbent Republican John W. Bricker as well as Democrat Martin L. Davey). Death and legacy
<mask> died of multiple myeloma in Yellow Springs, Ohio on September 4, 1941, survived by his wife, daughter and 18-year-old son. A scrapbook of his missionary journeys. as well as issues of his Logan parish newsletter and about his trial is now made available online by Utah State University.In 1957 the Lambeth Conference adopted a statement condemning war as a method of settling international disputes, finding it incompatible with Jesus' teaching and urging extension of the right of conscientious objection. In 1962, the Episcopal Church's House of Bishops passed a resolution recognizing "the validity of  the calling of the conscientious objector and the pacifist and the duty of the Church fully to minister to him, and its obligation to see that we live in a society in which the dictates of his conscience are respected.” Since 1994, the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) has remembered Bishop <mask> on the anniversary of his death, September 4. References

External links

American Christian pacifists
Anglican pacifists
American Episcopal priests
American anti-war activists
People from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
People from Yellow Springs, Ohio
People from Logan, Utah
1880 births
1941 deaths
Deaths from multiple myeloma
Anglican saints
American Christian socialists
Anglican socialists
20th-century American Episcopalians
Episcopal bishops of Southern Ohio
Episcopal bishops of Utah

masks:
Paul Jones
Jones
Sarah Eastman Coffin Jones
Henry Lawrence Jones
Paul Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
Jones
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<mask> (September 6, 1819March 11, 1898) was an American inventor, coal-oil company executive, diplomat, politician, and U.S. Army officer. He gained fame for his role as a Union general during the American Civil War. He was the victor at prominent Western Theater battles, but his military career was effectively ended following his disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863. <mask> graduated in 1842 from the United States Military Academy where he served in engineering assignments as well as a professor before leaving the Army to pursue a career in civil engineering. At the start of the Civil War, leading troops from Ohio, he achieved early combat success in western Virginia. In 1862 in the Western Theater, he won the battles of Iuka and Corinth while under the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. His brusque, outspoken manner and willingness to quarrel openly with superiors caused a professional rivalry with Grant (as well as with Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton) that would adversely affect Rosecrans' career.Given command of the Army of the Cumberland, he fought against Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg at Stones River, and later outmaneuvered him in the brilliant Tullahoma Campaign, driving the Confederates from Middle Tennessee. His strategic movements then caused Bragg to abandon the critical city of Chattanooga, but Rosecrans' pursuit of Bragg ended during the bloody Battle of Chickamauga, where his unfortunately worded order mistakenly opened a gap in the Union line and Rosecrans and a third of his army were swept from the field. Besieged in Chattanooga, Rosecrans was relieved of command by Grant. Following his humiliating defeat, Rosecrans was reassigned to command the Department of Missouri, where he opposed Price's Raid. After the war, he served in diplomatic and appointed political positions and in 1880 was elected to Congress, representing California. Early life and education
<mask> Rosecrans was born on a farm near Little Taylor Run in Kingston Township, Delaware County, Ohio, the second of five sons of Crandall Rosecrans and Jemima Hopkins. (The first child, Chauncey, died in infancy.)Crandall was a veteran of the War of 1812, in which he served as adjutant to General <mask> Harrison, and then subsequently ran a tavern and store as well as a family farm. One of Crandall's heroes, General John Stark, was the inspiration for <mask>'s middle name. Rosecrans was descended from the Dutch-Scandinavian nobleman Harmon Henrik Rosenkrantz (1614–1674), who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1651, but the family name changed spelling during the American Revolutionary War. His mother was the widow of Timothy Hopkins, a relative of Stephen Hopkins, the Colonial Governor of Rhode Island and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. <mask> had little formal education in his early years, relying heavily on reading books. At the age of 13, he left home to work as a store clerk in Utica, and later Mansfield, Ohio. Unable to afford college, Rosecrans decided to try for an appointment to the United States Military Academy.He interviewed with Congressman Alexander Harper, who had been reserving his appointment for his own son, but Harper was so impressed by Rosecrans that he nominated him instead. Despite his lack of formal education, Rosecrans excelled academically at West Point, particularly in mathematics, but also in French, drawing, and English grammar. It was at the academy that he received his nickname, "Rosy," or more often "Old Rosy." He graduated from West Point in 1842, fifth in his class of 56 cadets, which included notable future generals such as James Longstreet, Abner Doubleday, D.H. Hill, and Earl Van Dorn. He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the prestigious Corps of Engineers, reflecting his high academic achievement. At his graduation, he met Anna Elizabeth (or Eliza) Hegeman (1823–1883) of New York City and immediately fell in love. They were married on August 24, 1843.Their marriage lasted until her death on December 25, 1883. They had eight children. Career
After graduating from West Point, Rosecrans was assigned to duty at Fort Monroe, Virginia, engineering sea walls. After a year, he requested assignment as a professor at West Point, where he taught engineering and served as post commissary and quartermaster. Although West Point was a strong bastion of Episcopal Protestantism, during this assignment, he converted to Catholicism in 1845. He wrote about this decision to his family, who had raised him in the Methodist faith, which inspired the youngest of his brothers, Sylvester Horton Rosecrans, to convert as well. Sylvester would become the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus.Although most of the officers in his graduating class fought in the Mexican–American War, the War Department retained Rosecrans at West Point. From 1847 through 1853, he served on engineering assignments in Newport, Rhode Island, New Bedford, Massachusetts and (on temporary assignment to the United States Navy) at the Washington Navy Yard. During this period, Rosecrans sought several civilian jobs as an alternative way to support his growing family, now with four children. He applied for a professorship at the Virginia Military Institute in 1851, losing the position to fellow West Pointer Thomas J. Jackson. While serving in Newport, Rhode Island, he volunteered his services as the engineer for the construction of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church. The church is best known as the site of the wedding of John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier in 1953 and was one of the largest churches constructed in the United States at that time. There is a memorial window in Rosecrans' honor in the church.Rosecrans suffered a period of failing health and resigned from the Army in 1854, moving into civilian fields. He took over a mining business in Western Virginia (today West Virginia) and ran it extremely successfully. He designed and installed one of the first complete lock and dam systems in Western Virginia on the Coal River; today recognized as the Coal River Locks, Dams, and Log Booms Archeological District. In Cincinnati, he and two partners built one of the first oil refineries west of the Allegheny Mountains. He obtained patents for many inventions, including the first kerosene lamp to successfully burn a round wick and a more effective method of manufacturing soap. While Rosecrans was president of the Preston Coal Oil Company, in 1859, he was burned severely when an experimental "safety" oil lamp exploded, setting the refinery on fire. It took him 18 months to recover, and the resulting facial scars gave him the appearance of having a perpetual smirk.As he concluded recovering from those injuries, the Civil War began. American Civil War
Just days after Fort Sumter surrendered, Rosecrans offered his services to Ohio Governor <mask>, who assigned him as a volunteer aide-de-camp to Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who commanded all Ohio volunteer forces at the beginning of the war. Promoted to the rank of colonel, Rosecrans briefly commanded the 23rd Ohio Infantry regiment, whose members included Rutherford B. Hayes and <mask>, both future presidents. He was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army, ranking from May 16, 1861. His plans and decisions proved extremely effective in the Western Virginia Campaign. His victories at Rich Mountain and Corrick's Ford in July 1861 were among the first Union victories of the war, but his superior, Maj. Gen. McClellan, received the credit. Rosecrans then prevented, by "much maneuvering but little fighting," Confederate Brig.Gen. John B. Floyd and his superior, Gen. Robert E. Lee, from recapturing the area that became the state of West Virginia. When McClellan was summoned to Washington after the defeat suffered by Federal forces at the First Battle of Bull Run, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott suggested that McClellan turn over the West Virginia command to Rosecrans. McClellan agreed, and Rosecrans assumed command of what was to become the Department of Western Virginia. In late 1861, Rosecrans planned for a winter campaign to capture the strategic town of Winchester, Virginia, turning the Confederate flank at Manassas. He traveled to Washington to obtain McClellan's approval. McClellan disapproved, however, telling Rosecrans that putting 20,000 Union men into Winchester would be countered by Confederates moving an equal number into the vicinity. He also transferred 20,000 of Rosecrans's 22,000 men to serve under Brig.Gen. Frederick W. Lander, leaving Rosecrans with insufficient resources to do any campaigning. In March 1862, Rosecrans's department was converted to the Mountain Department, which was given to political general John C. Frémont, leaving Rosecrans without a command. He served briefly in Washington, where his opinions clashed with those of newly appointed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton on tactics and Union command organization for the Shenandoah Valley campaign against Stonewall Jackson. Stanton became one of Rosecrans's most vocal critics. One of Stanton's assignments for Rosecrans was to act as a guide for Brig. Gen. Louis Blenker's division (Frémont's department) in the valley, and Rosecrans became intimately involved in the political and command confusion in the campaign against Jackson in the Valley. Western Theater
Rosecrans was transferred in May 1862 to the Western Theater and received the command of two divisions (the Right Wing) of Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of the Mississippi.He took an active part in the siege of Corinth under Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck. He received command of the entire army on June 26, and in July, added the responsibility of commanding the District of Corinth. In these roles, he was the subordinate of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who commanded the District of Western Tennessee and the Army of the Tennessee, from whom he received direction in the Iuka-Corinth campaign in September and October 1862. Iuka

Confederate Maj. Gen. Sterling Price had been ordered by Gen. Braxton Bragg to move his army from Tupelo toward Nashville, Tennessee, in conjunction with Bragg's Kentucky offensive. Price's army settled in Iuka and awaited the arrival of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn's Army of West Tennessee. The two generals intended to unite and attack Grant's lines of communication in western Tennessee, which would prevent Buell's reinforcement if Grant reacted the way they expected, or might allow them to follow Bragg and support his Northern invasion if Grant acted more passively. Grant did not wait to be attacked, approving a plan proposed by Rosecrans to converge on Price with two columns before Van Dorn could reinforce him.Grant sent Brig. Gen. Edward Ord with three Army of the Tennessee divisions (about 8,000 men) along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad to move upon Iuka from the northwest. Rosecrans's army would march in concert along the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, swinging into Iuka from the southwest, closing the escape route for Price's army. Grant moved with Ord's headquarters and had little tactical control over Rosecrans during the battle. While Ord advanced toward Iuka on the night of September 18, Rosecrans was late, having farther to march over roads mired in mud; furthermore, one of his divisions took a wrong turn and had to countermarch to the correct road. That night, he notified Grant that he was  away, but planned to start marching again at 4:30 a.m. and should reach Iuka by midafternoon on September 19. Considering this delay, Grant ordered Ord to move within  of the town, but to await the sound of fighting between Rosecrans and Price before engaging the Confederates.Rosecrans' army marched early on September 19, but instead of using two roads as originally planned, it took only one of them. Rosecrans was concerned that if he used both roads, the two halves of his divided force could not support each other if the Confederates attacked. Rosecrans was within  of the town on September 19, pushing back Confederate pickets, when his lead element was struck suddenly by a Confederate division. Fighting, which Price later stated he had "never seen surpassed," continued from 4:30 p.m. until after dark. A fresh north wind, blowing from Ord's position in the direction of Iuka, caused an acoustic shadow that prevented the sound of the guns from reaching him, and he and Grant knew nothing of the engagement until after it was over. Ord's troops stood idly while the fighting raged only a few miles away. During the night, both Rosecrans and Ord deployed their forces in the expectation of a renewal of the engagement at daylight, but the Confederate forces had withdrawn.Price had been planning this move since September 18, and Rosecrans's attack merely delayed his departure. The Confederates used the road that the Union army had not blocked, meeting up with Van Dorn's army five days later. Rosecrans's cavalry and some infantry pursued Price for , but owing to the exhausted condition of his troops, his column was outrun and he gave up the pursuit. Grant had partially accomplished his objective—Price was not able to link up with Bragg in Kentucky, but Rosecrans had not been able to destroy the Confederate army or prevent it from linking up with Van Dorn and threatening the critical railroad junction at Corinth. The Battle of Iuka marked the beginning of a long professional enmity between Rosecrans and Grant. The Northern press gave accounts very favorable to Rosecrans at Grant's expense. Some rumors circulated that the reason Ord's column had not attacked in conjunction with Rosecrans was not that the battle had been inaudible, but that Grant had been drunk and incompetent.Grant's first report of the battle was highly complimentary to Rosecrans, but his second, written after Rosecrans had published his own report, took a markedly negative turn. His third statement was in his Personal Memoirs, where he wrote "I was disappointed at the result of the battle of Iuka—but I had so high an opinion of General Rosecrans that I found no fault at the time." Corinth

Price's army joined Van Dorn's on September 28. Van Dorn, as the senior officer, took command of the combined force. Grant became certain that Corinth was their next target. The Confederates hoped to seize Corinth from an unexpected direction, isolating Rosecrans from reinforcements, and then sweep into Middle Tennessee. Grant sent word to Rosecrans to be prepared for an attack, but despite the warning, Rosecrans was not convinced that Corinth was necessarily the target of Van Dorn's advance.He believed that the Confederate commander would not be foolhardy enough to attack the fortified town and might well instead choose to strike the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and maneuver the

masks:
William Starke Rosecrans
Rosecrans
William Starke
William Henry
William
William
William Dennison
William McKinley


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 Federals out of their position. On the morning of October 3, three of Rosecrans's divisions advanced into old Confederate rifle pits north and northwest of town. Van Dorn began his assault at 10 a.m. as a planned double envelopment, in which he would open the fight on Rosecrans's left, in the hope that Rosecrans would weaken his right to reinforce his left, at which time Price would make the main assault against the Federal right and enter the works. The Confederates forced their way through a temporary gap in the line about 1:30 p.m., and the whole Union line fell back to within half a mile of the redoubts. So far the advantage had been with the Confederates. Rosecrans had been driven back at all points, and night found his entire army, except pickets, inside the redoubts. Both sides had been exhausted by the fighting.The weather had been hot, with a high of , and water was scarce, causing many men to nearly faint from their exertions. Rosecrans's biographer, <mask>. Lamers, reported that Rosecrans was confident at the end of the first day of battle, saying, "We've got them where we want them", and that some of the general's associates claimed that he was in "magnificent humor." Peter Cozzens, however, suggested that Rosecrans was "tired and bewildered, certain only he was badly outnumbered—at least three to one by his reckoning." Civil War historian Steven E. Woodworth portrayed Rosecrans's conduct in a negative light:

On the second day of battle, the Confederates moved forward at 9 a.m. to meet heavy Union artillery fire, storming Battery Powell and Battery Robinett, where desperate hand-to-hand fighting occurred. A brief incursion into the town of Corinth was repulsed. After a Federal counterattack recaptured Battery Powell, Van Dorn ordered a general retreat. At 4 p.m., reinforcements from Grant under the command of Brig.Gen. James B. McPherson arrived from Jackson. But the Battle of Corinth had effectively been over since 1 p.m. and the Confederates were in full retreat. Once again, Rosecrans's performance during the second day of the battle has been the subject of dispute among historians. His biographer, Lamers, paints a romantic picture:

Peter Cozzens, author of a recent book-length study of Iuka and Corinth, came to the opposite conclusion:

Rosecrans's performance immediately after the battle was lackluster. Grant had given him specific orders to pursue Van Dorn without delay, but he did not begin his march until the morning of October 5, explaining that his troops needed rest and the thicketed country made progress difficult by day and impossible by night. At 1 p.m. on October 4, when pursuit would have been most effective, Rosecrans rode along his line to deny in person a rumor that he had been slain. At Battery Robinett, he dismounted, bared his head, and told his soldiers, "I stand in the presence of brave men, and I take my hat off to you."Army of the Cumberland

Rosecrans once again found that he was a hero in the Northern press. On October 24, he was given command of XIV Corps (which, because he was also given command of the Department of the Cumberland, would soon be renamed the Army of the Cumberland), replacing the ineffectual Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, who had just fought the inconclusive Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, against Gen. Braxton Bragg, but was accused of moving too cautiously. Rosecrans was promoted to the rank of major general (of volunteers, as opposed to his brigadier rank in the regular army). The promotion was applied retroactive to March 21, 1862, so that he would outrank fellow Maj. Gen. Thomas; Thomas had earlier been offered Buell's command, but turned down the opportunity out of a sense of personal loyalty. Grant was not unhappy that Rosecrans was leaving his command. In his role as an army commander, Rosecrans became one of the most popular generals in the Union Army. He was known to his men as "Old Rosy", not only because of his last name (the source for that nickname at West Point), but because of his large red nose, which was described as "intensified Roman".As a devout Catholic, he carried a crucifix on his watch chain and a rosary in his pocket, and he delighted in keeping his staff up half the night debating religious doctrine. He could swing swiftly from bristling anger to good-natured amusement, which endeared him to his men. Stones River

Rosecrans's predecessor, Buell, had been relieved because of his desultory pursuit of Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg following the Battle of Perryville. And yet, Rosecrans displayed similar caution, remaining in Nashville while he reprovisioned his army and improved the training of his cavalry forces. By early December 1862, General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck had lost his patience. He wrote to Rosecrans, "If you remain one more week in Nashville, I cannot prevent your removal." Rosecrans replied, "I need no other stimulus to make me do my duty than the knowledge of what it is.To threats of removal or the like I must be permitted to say that I am insensible." In late December, Rosecrans began his march against Bragg's Army of Tennessee, encamped outside Murfreesboro, Tennessee. The Battle of Stones River was the bloodiest battle of the war in terms of percentages of casualties. Both Rosecrans and Bragg planned to attack the other's right flank, but Bragg moved first, early in the morning of December 31, driving the Union army back into a small defensive perimeter. As he realized the severity of the surprise attack, Rosecrans demonstrated the nervous hyperactivity for which he was known in battle. He personally rallied his men along the line, and gave direct orders to any brigades, regiments or companies he encountered. Disregarding his own safety, he rode back and forth at the very front of his line and sometimes between his men and the enemy.As Rosecrans raced across the battlefield directing units, seeming ubiquitous to his men, his uniform was covered with blood from his friend and chief of staff, Col. Julius Garesché, beheaded by a cannonball while riding alongside. The armies paused on January 1, but the following day, Bragg attacked again, this time against a strong position on Rosecrans's left flank. The Union defense was formidable, and the attack was repulsed with heavy losses. Bragg withdrew his army to Tullahoma, effectively ceding control of Middle Tennessee to the Union. The battle was important to Union morale following its defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg a few weeks earlier, and President Abraham Lincoln wrote to Rosecrans. "You gave us a hard-earned victory, which had there been a defeat instead, the nation could scarcely have lived over." Tullahoma

Rosecrans's XIV Corps was soon redesignated the Army of the Cumberland, which he kept in place occupying Murfreesboro for almost six months, spending the time resupplying and training, for he was reluctant to advance on the muddy winter roads.He received numerous entreaties from President Lincoln, Secretary of War Stanton, and General-in-Chief Halleck to resume campaigning against Bragg, but rebuffed them through the winter and spring. A primary concern of the government was that if Rosecrans continued to sit idly, the Confederates might move units from Bragg's army in an attempt to relieve the pressure that Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was applying to Vicksburg, Mississippi. Lincoln wrote to Rosecrans, "I would not push you to any rashness, but I am very anxious that you do your utmost, short of rashness, to keep Bragg from getting lost to help Johnston against Grant." Rosecrans offered an excuse that if he started to move against Bragg, Bragg would likely relocate his entire army to Mississippi and threaten Grant's Vicksburg Campaign even more; thus, by not attacking Bragg, he was helping Grant. Frustration with Rosecrans's excuses led Halleck to threaten to relieve him if he did not move, but in the end he merely protested "against the expense to which [Rosecrans] put the government for telegrams." On June 2, Halleck telegraphed that if Rosecrans was unwilling to move, some of his troops would be sent to Mississippi to reinforce Grant. Rosecrans sent a questionnaire to his corps and division commanders in the hopes of documenting support for his position—that Bragg had so far detached no significant forces to Mississippi, that advancing the Army of the Cumberland would do nothing to prevent any such transfer, and that any immediate advance was not a good idea.Fifteen of the seventeen senior generals supported most of Rosecrans's positions and the counsel against advancing was unanimous. The only dissenter was the newly assigned chief of staff, Brig. Gen. James A. Garfield, who recommended an immediate advance, but historian Steven E. Woodworth opines that he may have been "most concerned with the [political] impression his statement would make in Washington." On June 16, Halleck wired a blunt message: "Is it your intention to make an immediate movement forward? A definite answer, yes or no, is required." Rosecrans responded to this ultimatum: "If immediate means tonight or tomorrow, no. If it means as soon as all things are ready, say five days, yes."Seven days later, early in the morning of June 24, Rosecrans reported that the Army of the Cumberland had begun to move against Bragg. The Tullahoma Campaign (June 24 – July 3, 1863) was characterized by flawless maneuvers and very low casualties, as Rosecrans forced Bragg to retreat back to Chattanooga. Tullahoma is considered a "brilliant" campaign by many historians. Abraham Lincoln wrote, "The flanking of Bragg at Shelbyville, Tullahoma and Chattanooga is the most splendid piece of strategy I know of." Union Cavalry Corps commander David S. Stanley wrote, "If any student of the military art desires to make a study of a model campaign, let him take his maps and General Rosecrans's orders for the daily movements of his campaign. No better example of successful strategy was carried out during the war than in the Tullahoma campaign." When Rosecrans' troops entered Shelbyville, they were able to rescue captured Union spy Pauline Cushman.Cushman had been scouting the movements of Gen. Bragg when she was captured (Gen. John Hunt Morgan was one of her escorts to Gen. Bragg for questioning). A military trial found her guilty; she was to be hanged as a spy. Her rescue came just three days prior to her scheduled execution. Rosecrans and Cushman went on to raise over one million dollars for soldiers aid at the 1863 Cincinnati, Ohio Sanitary Fair. In contrast, Rosecrans had approved the courtmartial and hanging of two Confederate Officers, Lawrence Orton <mask> and Walter Peters, on June 9, 1863 at Franklin Tenn after these two officers had disguised themselves as Union Officers for the purposes of spying. Rosecrans did not receive all of the public acclaim his campaign might have under different circumstances. The day it ended was the day Gen. Robert E. Lee launched the ill-fated Pickett's Charge and lost the Battle of Gettysburg.The following day, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. Secretary Stanton telegraphed Rosecrans, "Lee's Army overthrown; Grant victorious. You and your noble army now have a chance to give the finishing blow to the rebellion. Will you neglect the chance?" Rosecrans was infuriated by this attitude and responded, "Just received your cheering telegram announcing the fall of Vicksburg and confirming the defeat of Lee. You do not appear to observe the fact that this noble army has driven the rebels from middle Tennessee. ...I beg in behalf of this army that the War Department may not overlook so great an event because it is not written in letters of blood." Chickamauga

Rosecrans did not immediately pursue Bragg and "give the finishing blow to the rebellion" as Stanton had urged. He paused to regroup and study the logistically difficult choices of pursuit into the mountainous regions to the west and south of Chattanooga. When he was ready to move, he once again maneuvered in a way to disadvantage Bragg. The Confederates abandoned Chattanooga and withdrew into the mountains of northwestern Georgia. Rosecrans threw aside his previous caution under the assumption that Bragg would continue to retreat and began to pursue with his army over three routes that left his corps commanders dangerously far apart. At the Battle of Davis's Cross Roads on September 11, Bragg came close to ambushing and destroying one of Rosecrans's isolated corps.Realizing the threat at last, Rosecrans issued urgent orders to concentrate his army, and the two opponents faced each other across West Chickamauga Creek. The Battle of Chickamauga began on September 19 with Bragg attacking the not fully concentrated Union army, but he was unable to break through Rosecrans's defensive positions. On the second day of battle, however, disaster befell Rosecrans in the form of his poorly worded order in response to a poorly understood situation. The order was directed to Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, "to close up and support [General Joseph J.] Reynolds's [division]," planning to fill an assumed gap in the line.However, Wood's subsequent movement actually opened up a new, division-sized gap in the line. By coincidence, Lt. Gen. James Longstreet had planned to lead a massive assault in that very area and the Confederates exploited the gap to full effect, shattering Rosecrans's right flank. The majority of units on the Union right fell back in disorder toward Chattanooga. Rosecrans, Garfield, and two of the corps commanders, although attempting to rally retreating units, soon joined them in the rush to safety. Rosecrans decided to proceed in haste to Chattanooga in order to organize his returning men and the city defenses. He sent Garfield to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas with orders to take command of the forces remaining at Chickamauga and withdraw. The Union army managed to escape complete disaster because of the stout defense organized by Thomas on Horseshoe Ridge, heroism that earned him the nickname "Rock of Chickamauga."The army withdrew that night to fortified positions in Chattanooga. Bragg had not succeeded in his objective to destroy the Army of the Cumberland, but the Battle of Chickamauga was nonetheless the worst Union defeat in the Western Theater. Thomas urged Rosecrans to rejoin the army and lead it, but Rosecrans, physically exhausted and psychologically a beaten man, remained in Chattanooga. President Lincoln attempted to prop up the morale of his general, telegraphing "Be of good cheer. ... We have unabated confidence in you and your soldiers and officers. In the main, you must be the judge as to what is to be done. If I was to suggest, I would say save your army by taking strong positions until Burnside joins you."Privately,

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William M
Williams