text_chunks:
<mask>-<mask>'  (Persian: ) (1930 – April 2, 1993), known as <mask>, was an Afghan singer who was born in Kabul. He is known as the Frank Sinatra of Afghanistan and was the first Afghan artist to break away from the prevalent musical forms in Afghanistan at the time, the Indian inspired pure classical tradition (epitomized by Ustad Sarahang, <mask>), and the 'Mohali' (regional & folk) musical traditions exemplified by the Dari music, logari, qataghani, qarsak. <mask>'s music fused elements, rhythms and orchestration of the western musical traditions of Jazz and "Belle Chanson" with the prevalent Afghan musical tradition to create a unique style which became an inspiration for ensuing artists. Career
<mask> gained popularity due to his music style, which was highly unconventional for its time, but it went on to become the gold standard of Afghan musical style. <mask>'s popularity is mainly with the elite and educated classes in Afghanistan where appreciation of his music is considered the height of sophistication, learning, and elegance. <mask>'s path to art and his immortality was purely accidental. Being born in a highly educated and accomplished family, <mask> was the only male family members who had not gone to university.<mask>'s career in art began when the director and "father" of the Afghan National Theatre, Ustad <mask> Latifi overheard him hum a song in a hamaam (communal baths customary in Kabul at the time). Ustad Latifi, however, did not conceive of <mask> as a singer since singing, at that time in Afghanistan, was a profession chosen very early in life and required years of work and training. Instead, Latifi asked <mask> to join his theatre as an actor, mainly due to his elegant & erudite elucidation and accent in Dari. <mask> accepted the offer to work as an actor because, according to him, he had no prospects of employment and of feeding his young family. While acting in the theatre, <mask> was rediscovered by the composers Nainawaz and Taranasaz for his extraordinary and evocative baritone voice. Without any training in voice or singing, <mask> was offered the opportunity to become a singer. His first recorded song was "Man Akher Az Ghamat Ay Mahro," and "Tu Aftabi Wo Man."The songs, played in Kabul Radio, generated a great degree of interest and enthusiasm among the public in <mask>'s voice. He had an acute ear for musical sound and a broad and profound understanding of Persian poetry. Because of his lack of training and background in the predominant musical traditions in Afghanistan, <mask> became the artist who has freed Afghan music from subservience to the Indian, Iranian, and folkloric musical traditions. In cooperation with composers <mask> managed to create a musical language that was unique to Afghanistan. Although his first few songs "Tu Aftabi wo man," and "Man akher az ghamat," were made strictly in the Indian classical model, his ensuing songs "Rahm kon ram kon," "Saqi dile ma," "ya maula dilam tang amada," "shod abro para para," and the hit songs, "Az bas ke nazanini," "Asare shikanje maujam," "Man nainawaz am," and "Harja ke safer karma," became models of a new sound that broke away from the traditional musical vocabulary in Afghanistan at the time. This new sound was made immortal by the creation of a slew of songs in later years (such as Ahesta Bero, Ay <mask>, Dar Damane Sahra, Khorsheede Man, Ay Shakhe Gul, Moshke Taza Mebarad, Dosh Az Masjid, Deshab ba khoda, Nameporsi Naame man, Sobhe Keshaare Maiwar, Take nabashad ham dame jani, Ta ba kai ay mah liqa, Een ghame be haya mara, haal ke deewana shodam merawi, Aye shake gul) which defined Afghan music (especially the Persian musical genre) for decades to come. Sarban sang in Dari as well as Pashto, possessing a comprehensive understanding of the Persian poetic tradition.Apart from his first few songs, <mask> chose the poems to his songs, based on his own personal knowledge of the Persian literary canon. During the early stages of his career, <mask> worked with many musicians and composers such as Nainawaz and Taranasaz. During the late stages of his career, he worked almost exclusively with the composer Salim Sarmast. <mask>'s songs are ranked among the highest in the Afghan musical repertoire. <mask>'s legacy permanently altered the Persian (Dari) musical tradition in Afghanistan. Almost every artist that came after him considered him their primary source of inspiration, and they ranked his musical repertoire as their main model of emulation. A national icon and celebrity in Afghanistan, <mask> is also widely admired in other Persian-speaking countries like Iran and Tajikistan, where he gave live performances at the height of his career.<mask>'s artistic greatness due to his eccentric and mysticist temperament, did not translate into financial prosperity. He was famed for refusing to do home (majlisi) shows for pay, and for giving the proceeds from his highly successful concerts to the beggars, without regard for his own or his family's financial well-being. <mask> stopped producing songs in the 1960s. During the 1970s, he was mainly involved in concerts & in re-recording his earlier music for audio cassettes (his original recordings at Radio Kabul at the time could not be converted to audio cassette form due to lack of high quality sound equipment in Afghanistan. Contributions

<mask>'s greatest contribution to Afghan music was the creation of a unique Afghan sound—distinct from the Indian, Iranian, regional (folkloric), western traditions. His songs set an example for all pursuing Afghan artists to compose & perform in a style that was distinctly identifiable as Afghan, as opposed to mere imitation of other musical traditions. His work with the legendary composer Salim Sarmast led to the creation of a rhythm, melody line, harmony, and texture which became the essence of the Dari (Persian) sound.This sound was a major influence on many later musicians including Nainawaz, Ahmad Zahir, Ustad Zaland, Ahmad Wali, & later Farhad Darya. Besides a unique and new musical sound, <mask> was the first artist to choose poems & lyrics for his songs which were not primarily about romantic love. The majority of songs in Afghanistan up to that point chose poems/lyrics about romance, love, longing, and the trials and tribulations related to love. <mask> considered this trend to be frivolous and glib. He made a sharp departure from this tradition, and chose social, political, economic, spiritual, and even religious matters as subject for his songs. An astute student of Dari/Persian literature, he personally picked poems which were considered to be not only unconventional but unsuitable for being turned into songs. For instance, Een Ghame Be Haya, Ay <mask>, and Dar Damane Sahra, Ay Shakhe Gul, Harja Ke Safar Kardam, Beya Ta Gal Beyafshanem, were considered too erudite, abstract, and gloomy to be composed into songs.Almost all composers declined to consider them for composition. If he did not get his way and was pressured by his employer (Kabul Radio) to sing more conventional love songs, he picked a completely unrelated verse or two from another poem & inserted it in the romantic song composed for him. For example, in his song "Soraya chara Am kon," which contains a traditional romantic subject, he violently inserted a completely unrelated verse. <mask> was the first person to put lyrics to the iconic "Ahesta Boro" (Step slowly) anthem played for all brides on their wedding day. These lyrics, along with the composition, have become an expected and celebrated feature of Afghan weddings, with the composition also having been sung by many popular Afghan artists. Muslim singer Sami Yusuf used the tune of a Sarban composition, "Beyake Berem Ba Mazaar" (Come, Lets Go to Mazaar), in his song "Hasbi Rasbi". Many others have covered the song and composition within Afghanistan and in other Persian cultures.<mask>'s "Moshke Taza Mebarad" became one of the models for patriotic and national songs, and is still one of the most evocative and emotionally stirring Patriotic songs of Afghanistan due to its original and moving composition and evocative singing. It is said that many composers laughed at <mask> when he suggested the poem for composition into a national song due to the poem's complex vocabulary and imagery, but his collaborator Salim Sarmast set the lyrics to a sublime composition which moves Afghans until now. In addition to the compositions and lyrics he contributed, <mask> was also arguably symbolic and typical of Afghanistan's culture in his day, reflected in his singing of the beautiful poetry of many famous poets from ages past, such as Hafiz Shirazi, to whom he paid tribute with the song "Dozh as Masjid (Soye Maykhanaa Aamad Peer e Ma)" (Last night, upon departing the Mosque, our Master headed towards the Tavern). <mask>'s cover is a cut down version of the original poem, retaining 3 of the 10 verses composed by Shirazi. <mask>'s compositions, like "Dozh as Masjid", feature various styles of Sufi or mystical poetry, which use the metaphorical language of romantic love, to describe the author's relationship with God. Often such poems use words such as "beloved" figuratively regarding God, and it could be argued that <mask> was part of a musical movement in Afghanistan which sought to enlighten the audience as much as it entertained them. In his own personal life, <mask> was highly influenced by the Sufi tradition of mysticism.This is evident not only in his choice of poetry, but also in his mannerisms, such as his constant raising of his forefinger when speaking or singing. <mask>'s songs "Ay Sarban" (based on a poem by Saadi), Dar Damane Sahra are considered among the most accomplished examples of the Afghan musical repertoire. Almost all of <mask>'s songs were recorded in the first decade of his career—1960s. The vast majority of his original repertoire, which was recorded with a full orchestra, is not available. Except for a few songs from the original recordings (Khorsheede Man, Asare Shikanje Maujam, Az Bas Ke Nazanini), the majority of <mask>'s songs are re-recordings which were done in the late 1970s and released in audio cassettes. These later versions lack the full orchestra and chorus and rely on only a few instruments. <mask>'s vocal gifts were past their prime at that point.Most originals recordings which were held at Kabul Radio, were destroyed by the Taliban in the late 1990s. Recently a few vintage and rare recordings of <mask>'s records (for instance the original of his song Khorsheede Man, and Asare Shikanje Moujam) were uploaded on YouTube. <mask>'s songs have been covered both live and in recording by a vast number of Persian singers. In Afghanistan, his song "Ahesta Bero" is played in every Persian wedding as the bride walks to the aisle, in the same manner as Wagner's Bridal Chorus is played each time a bride in the west walks the aisle. His song such as Ay <mask> is covered by hugely popular singers such as Googoosh (from Iran) and Ahmad Zahir from Afghanistan. Every successful musician cite him as one of their main influences. Personal life
<mask> was born in Saragy, an old area of Kabul to the prominent and highly respected Mahmoody family.His father was a well-educated, highly respected, and prosperous rice merchant. The Mahmoody's were a family of illustrious doctors and surgeons highly respected among the educated elite of Kabul. However, The Mahmoody family had been leading social agitation and political activism for decades. As a result, his family was continuously persecuted by the monarchy at first, and then by successive governments which came after the monarchy. This persecution resulted in a huge diminishment of the family's wealth to the point that by the time <mask> was in his teens, they were virtually penniless. The majority of the most prominent and successful family members (including <mask>'s only two brothers, and almost all of his first cousins) had been either executed or exiled by the time <mask> had begun his musical career. These conditions profoundly influenced his choice of poetry and his music.For example, he chose the poem "Een Ghame Be Haya," for composition when his first cousin Latif Mahmoody had been arrested and executed. <mask> was shy and reclusive throughout his life. He seemed indifferent to fame, celebrity, and wealth for his entire life, even when through the prime of his career, which began peaking in the 1960s. At the peak of his celebrity, he polarized the Afghan intellectual class between those who loved and referred him for his art and those who criticized him for his personal life. Speculations said he had a constant problem with alcohol with claims he couldn't sing live on Kabul Radio without having a drink first. <mask> did fight with severe bouts of depression throughout his life. Many of his close relatives (including his younger brother) were arrested for their political activities and executed by the regime at the time, and many others were imprisoned or forced to flee in exile.This and the difficulties of raising a family without any reliable source of income were the main reasons for his depressive bouts. His close friends and family all dismiss this as urban legend. <mask> was indeed married to one of his cousins, and he has four children (three daughters and a son). His son <mask> <mask> recorded an album covering some of <mask>'s famous songs. In 1984, <mask> suffered a stroke which left him paralysed and unable to speak. This ended his musical career. During political turmoil in Afghanistan in the 1990s, he and his family emigrated to Pakistan and became impoverished.He died in Pakistan and twelve years after his death, the Afghan Government made arrangements with his family to relocate his remains to Kabul. References

20th-century Afghan male singers
1930 births
1993 deaths
Afghan expatriate musicians in Pakistan

masks:
Abdul
Rahim Sārbān
Sarban
Rahim Bakhsh
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Abdul Rashid
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban
Abdulrab
Sarban
Sarban
Sarban


text_chunks:
<mask> (November 1, 1874 – October 22, 1956) was an American historian at the University of Texas, the managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, and the editor of the Southwestern Historical Quarterly. He chaired the history department while soliciting gifts to the university, which he used to build a collection of archives and artifacts. In 1950, the university dedicated the Eugene C. Barker History Center as a repository for his collections. These collections are an important part of the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at the University of Texas. Early life
<mask> was born to Joseph and Fannie (Holland<mask> on November 1, 1874, in Walker County, Texas. Joseph operated a general store in Riverside, Texas, at the Houston and Great Northern Railroad station on the Trinity River. <mask>'s early education took place in a one-room school.<mask> was about 14 years old when his father died, and he started working at the Missouri Pacific shops after he moved with the family to Palestine, Texas. He attended a local night school while holding down a job as a blacksmith. He started matriculating at the University of Texas in 1895, though he continued his employment with the Missouri Pacific in Austin as a mail clerk. He earned his baccalaureate in 1899 and his master’s degree the following year. His thesis was The Unification of Public Sentiment for the Texas Revolution. Career

Academics
In 1899, <mask> began his career at the University of Texas as a history tutor before ascending the professional ladder as an instructor and then as an adjunct professor. He started a sabbatical in 1901 in order to continue graduate work, at the University of Chicago, the University of Pennsylvania (where he received his doctoral degree in 1908), and Harvard University.He taught at Radcliffe College concurrently with his post-doctoral studies at Harvard. He returned to the University of Texas as an associate professor and was promoted to full professor in 1913, a title he retained through 1951. <mask>’s early influences as a young scholar were Lester Gladstone Bugbee and George P. Garrison, both University of Texas professors and early organizers of the Texas State Historical Association. In 1901, he published his first article, "The Difficulties of a Mexican Revenue Officer in Texas", which appeared in the January issue of the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society. That same year he successfully submitted multiple articles on the Texas Revolution to publications of the Southern Historical Association. He published two more articles in history journals in 1903. <mask> assumed the chair of the history department at the University of Texas in 1910.At that time, only two other history professors worked for the department. During the first few years of his chairmanship, he recruited six professors to the department, including Walter Prescott Webb. He took on other responsibilities in 1910. That year he was appointed as managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, while also assuming the role as editor of the organization's journal, the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association. <mask> also asserted himself as a fundraiser for building a historical archive for the university. He courted a wealthy Confederate Civil War veteran, Major George W. Littlefield, who joined the Board of Regents in 1911. Littlefield remained sympathetic to the southern cause and <mask> convinced him that funding for the acquisition of old documents would assist in balancing the narrative.Littlefield's contributions started with an initial $25,000 grant to establish the Littlefield Fund for Southern History, which was followed after his death by a $100,000 bequest. <mask> also assisted professors Bugbee and Garrison in the acquisition of important Texas history documents for the university's archival collection. These included the Bexar Archives, which document the Spanish and Mexican periods of Texas history; the papers of Stephen F. Austin; and the Texas Declaration of Independence. Another find for the archives came from J. Evetts Haley, who received a commission from <mask> to travel throughout Texas in search of old documents and other artifacts. Haley's most important discovery was later known as the James Harper Starr Collection, which included the only known extant part from the diary of William B. Travis. <mask>'s historical interests extended beyond Texas. He was president of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association in 1923.His editorship of the Southwestern Historical Quarterly lasted for 27 years, until 1937, the same year the University of Texas recognized him as a Distinguished Professor. In addition to scholarly works, such as his biography of Stephen F. Austin in 1926 and his co-editorship of Sam Houston's papers with Amelia W. Williams between 1837 and 1843, <mask> also collaborated on several history textbooks. Politics
Governor James "Pa" Ferguson attempted to pressure acting University of Texas president William J. Battle into firing six faculty members in 1915. Battle resisted this demand. Ferguson, however, continued to push for these dismissals the next year after Robert A. Vinson received his appointment as president. Frustrated a second time, Ferguson foreshadowed "the biggest bear fight that has ever taken place in the history of Texas".Ferguson cut off all state appropriation to the university by a veto during the 1917 legislative session. <mask> inserted himself in the feud by protesting Ferguson's nomination to replace the state librarian. <mask> stood in resolute defense of the incumbent state librarian, Ernest W. Winkler. As the chair of the university's history department, he was an ex-officio member of the State Library and Historical Commission, a body responsible for vetting and appointing the state librarian. He reviewed Ferguson's nominee, A. F<mask>, but concluded in a letter that his lack of experience disqualified him from the position. <mask> remitted a copy of the letter to Ferguson. The governor responded directly, making it known that he was insulted and that <mask> had created an enemy.<mask> became more involved in the broader politics of the university, meeting with alumni and administrators and taking the side of the university in its defense against Ferguson's attacks. <mask> survived this dispute; Ferguson did not, as he was impeached and removed from office for reasons unrelated to his feud with the university. Personal life
<mask> married Matilda LeGrand Weeden on August 6, 1903. Death and legacy

<mask> died on October 22, 1956. He was interred at Oakwood Cemetery in Austin. Early during his tenure as managing director of the Texas State Historical Association, <mask> changed the name of its academic journal to Southwestern Historical Quarterly, and as of 2020, the journal is still published under the same name. Several notable historians studied under <mask>, including Nettie Lee Benson, <mask>, Harry Ransom, and Walter Prescott Webb.In 1946, the university’s Board of Regents resolved to house the Eugene C. Barker Texas History Center in the building known as "<mask> Gilbert's Old Library". The building was so named because it had been designed by <mask>, who had been contracted as the university’s architect in 1910. On April 27, 1950, about six years before <mask>’s death, the university celebrated the new location of the center with a dedication ceremony. However, the building has since been renamed Battle Hall and reallocated to the School of Architecture, a name and purpose it retained as of 2020. Among the documents in the <mask> collection representing early Texas history are the Bexar Archives, the Stephen F. Austin Papers, and the Texas Declaration of Independence. <mask> was successful in soliciting $125,000 from George W. Littlefield to establish an archive of southern Civil War history, a collection which remains an important resource for modern historians. Ironically, these papers and letters from plantations, which were collected ostensibly to present the southern narrative in a better light, have revealed evidence to support critics of the southern plantation practices instead.The Eugene C. Barker Texas History Center is an important part of the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, a repository at the University of Texas. <mask> published his biography of Stephen F. Austin in 1925. Despite the importance of Austin to Texas history, no other scholarly biographer completed a full-length biography of Austin until 1999. In Stephen F. Austin, Empresario of Texas, <mask> claims that <mask> presents an image of Austin too much as the empresario wanted to present himself, though <mask> admits that <mask>'s biography "was a model of scholarly research in its presentation of the facts of Austin's public career". Selected works

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

1874 births
1956 deaths
People from Walker County, Texas
Historians from Texas
University of Texas alumni
University of Texas faculty
Historians of Texas

masks:
Eugene Campbell Barker
Eugene Campbell Barker
) Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
. Cunningham
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Carlos Castañeda
Cass
Cass Gilbert
Barker
Barker
Barker
Barker
Greg Cantrell
Barker
Cantrell
Barker


text_chunks:
<mask> (born 2 November 1973) is a former Australian soccer player and the most recent head coach of Philippines women's national football team. While as a footballer he was a NSW Premier League player and Australian Youth Representative. Since turning his hand to coaching he had become the head coach of NSWIS for Women's Soccer, Head Coach of The Hills Sports High School Football Program, Head Coach of the Australian Under 20 Women's National Team. He was appointed coach for Sydney FC in the first season of the Australian W-League. From 2014 to 2019, he was the head coach of the Matildas. He helped the Philippines qualify for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, their first ever, when he stirred the team to the semifinals of the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup. Club career
A former NSW Premier League player and Captain with Bonnyrigg, Bankstown and Sutherland, <mask> represented NSW at the youth level and played for several clubs within the National Youth League and Winter Super League.Managerial career
<mask> <mask> had been the head coach of the NSWIS Women's Football Program from 2002–2013. Widely considered as the one of the best football nurseries in Australia, the program produced over 30 senior Internationals in that 10-year period. He was also the head coach of the Women's National Soccer League side, the NSW Sapphires, which he guided to a premiership in the 2003/04 season. He started as head coach of HSHS in the foundation year (2003) and has gone on to win many titles and good performances. In 2006, he was the assistant coach for the Young Matilda's while they were competing at the FIFA U/20's Women's Championships in Russia. Unfortunately they bowed out in the group stage, missing the next round by 1 point to Brazil and Russia. As of 05/03/07 Stajcic became the Young Matildas Coach.In 2008, Stajcic became the inaugural Sydney FC Women's head coach, until 2014. They qualified for the semi finals in all 6 seasons, winning 2 grand finals and 2 premierships along the way. In 2013, Sydney FC beat Japanese powerhouse NTV Beleza and Sth American Champions Colo Colo to claim 3rd place the IWCC in Japan. Australia women
As of September 2014, Stajcic was appointed full-time head coach of the Australian Women's National Football team, the Matildas. In the 2015 Women's World Cup in Canada, they became the 1st Senior Australian Football Team to win a knockout match in a World Cup when they defeated Brazil 1–0 in the Round of 16 before losing 1–0 to Japan in the quarter finals. Earlier in 2014, Stajcic had led the Matildas in an Interim capacity, to a Silver Medal at the Asian Championships. Currently, Stajcic stands as the only Australian-born head coach to win a match at a FIFA World Cup.In March 2016, the Matildas qualified for the Olympic Games for the first time in 12 years. Along the way eliminating World Cup finalists Japan. The Matildas topped the Asian Qualifying group and were undefeated in the tournament. The Matildas subsequently attained their highest-ever FIFA Ranking of 5. At the 2016 Rio Olympics Australia were grouped with Canada, Germany and Zimbabwe. Australia progressed through to the Quarter Finals, where they were beaten 7–6 on penalties by Hosts Brazil after a 0–0 draw. Despite qualifying for the 2019 Women's World Cup, <mask> was sacked from his position by Football Federation Australia for reasons that were not made clear by the FFA at the time of the sacking, with FFA board member Heather Reid making cryptic remarks about how people "would be shocked" if they knew the reasons, with leaks to the media resulting in Lucy Zelic claiming the facts were legally confidential.Australian player Sam Kerr posted on twitter saying "My trust was in Staj to lead us to the World Cup final & I believe he was the best coach for that". Stajcic took legal action against the FFA for the sacking and the veil of secrecy behind it, and in May 2019 this legal action lead to a settlement with a 'six figure' settlement accounting for the loss of potential World Cup bonuses and reputation damage. Heather Reid said in a statement following the settlement, "I apologise unreservedly for the damage, distress and hurt that I have caused to <mask> Stajcic as a professional football coach". Central Coast Mariners
Following the sacking of Mike Mulvey from Central Coast Mariners, on 12 March 2019 Stajcic was appointed as the caretaker head coach for the club. On 2 May 2019, Stajcic was appointed head coach on a 3-year contract until the end of the 2021–22 A-League season. In the final 6 games of season he was in charge for 2 wins and 4 losses. The 2019/20 season was his first as the full time head coach, and the Mariners finished in last place with 5 wins, 3 draws and 18 losses from 26 games.The early stages of the 2020/21 season went very well for the Mariners, and they won 5 of the first 7 matches, putting them in outright first place with 15 points. Philippines women
In late October 2021, Stajcic was appointed as head coach of the Malditas, the Philippines women's national football team, ahead of the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup. By reaching the semifinals, following a penalty shootout win over Chinese Taipei, the Philippines qualified for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, the first time the side had ever qualified. Stajcic  became the only Australian-born coach to qualify for 3 FIFA World Cups.

masks:
Alen Stajcic
Alen
Alen
Stajcic
Stajcic
Alen


text_chunks:
<mask> ( ,  , ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher and mathematician who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond. Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. He taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive.In 1933, under racial laws, having been born to a Jewish family, he was expelled from the library of the University of Freiburg, and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938. Life and career

Youth and education
<mask> was born in 1859 in Proßnitz, a town in the Margraviate of Moravia, which was then in the Austrian Empire, and which today is Prostějov in the Czech Republic. He was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His father was a milliner. His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular elementary school. Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olomouc (Ger.: Olmütz). At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. At Leipzig he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin) in 1878 where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and the renowned Karl Weierstrass. In Berlin he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia. There Husserl also attended Friedrich Paulsen's philosophy lectures. In 1881 he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass).At Vienna in 1883 he obtained his PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of Variations). Evidently as a result of his becoming familiar with the New Testament during his twenties, Husserl asked to be baptized into the Lutheran Church in 1886. Husserl's father Adolf had died in 1884. Herbert Spiegelberg writes, "While outward religious practice never entered his life any more than it did that of most academic scholars of the time, his mind remained open for the religious phenomenon as for any other genuine experience." At times Husserl saw his goal as one of moral "renewal". Although a steadfast proponent of a radical and rational autonomy in all things, Husserl could also speak "about his vocation and even about his mission under God's will to find new ways for philosophy and science," observes Spiegelberg. Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass.Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then professor Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884 at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology. Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality. Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle, seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level. There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl (On the Concept of Number) in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891).In 1887 Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892 their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, and in 1894 their son Wolfgang. Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War. Gerhart would become a philosopher of law, contributing to the subject of comparative law, teaching in the United States and after the war in Austria. Professor of philosophy

Following his marriage Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy. He started in 1887 as a Privatdozent at the University of Halle. In 1891 he published his Philosophie der Arithmetik.Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed a psychological context as the basis of mathematics. It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege, who criticized its psychologism. In 1901 Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen, where he taught as extraordinarius professor. Just prior to this a major work of his, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle, 1900–1901), was published. Volume One contains seasoned reflections on "pure logic" in which he carefully refutes "psychologism". This work was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey. Two years later in Italy he paid a visit to Franz Brentano his inspiring old teacher and to Constantin Carathéodory the mathematician.Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought. In 1910 he became joint editor of the journal Logos. During this period Husserl had delivered lectures on internal time consciousness, which several decades later his former student Heidegger edited for publication. In 1912 at Freiburg the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung ("Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research") was founded by Husserl and his school, and which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930. His important work Ideen was published in its first issue (Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1913). Before beginning Ideen Husserl's thought had reached the stage where "each subject is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' (Vergegenwärtigung), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness."Ideen advanced his transition to a "transcendental interpretation" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre. In Ideen Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading "from the psychological cogito to the transcendental cogito." As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to "transcendental subjectivity". Also in Ideen Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions. In 1913 Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen. In October 1914 both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I and the following year one of them, <mask>, was badly injured. On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun, Wolfgang was killed in action.The next year his other son Gerhart <mask> was wounded in the war but survived. His own mother Julia died. In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach, was killed in the war while serving in Flanders. Husserl had transferred in 1916 to the University of Freiburg (in Freiburg im Breisgau) where he continued bringing his work in philosophy to fruition, now as a full professor. Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923. The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918. Husserl gave four lectures on Phenomenological method at University College, London in 1922.The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined the offer. In 1926 Heidegger dedicated his book Sein und Zeit (Being and Time) to him "in grateful respect and friendship." Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928. A Festschrift to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929. Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures. The first, at Paris in 1929, led to Méditations cartésiennes (Paris 1931). Husserl here reviews the phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal Ideen (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.'From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts in order to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad. This 'a priori' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity, which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings. There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example, was subject. One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the Cartesian Meditations itself becomes transcendent. It remains, however, alone (unconnected). Only the ego's grasp "by analogy" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community. In 1933, the racial laws of the new Nazi regime were enacted.On 6 April <mask> was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated. Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party. By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Later Husserl lectured at Prague in 1935 and Vienna in 1936, which resulted in a very differently styled work that, while innovative, is no less problematic: Die Krisis (Belgrade 1936). Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo, Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant. The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism, while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend the limits of history.On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other. A longer section follows on the "lifeworld" [Lebenswelt], one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen in our subjective experience. Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above, a chicken-and-egg problem. Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent? These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life. Since his university retirement Husserl had "worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works." After suffering a fall the autumn of 1937, the philosopher became ill with pleurisy.<mask> died at Freiburg on 27 April 1938, having just turned 79. His wife Malvine survived him. Eugen Fink, his research assistant, delivered his eulogy. Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest. Heidegger and the Nazi era
<mask> was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933. However, among other disabilities Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany [see above footnote to Die Krisis (1936)]. It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged, but it was actually the previous rector.Apparently <mask> and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when <mask> retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair. In the summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed:  e.g., Heidegger substituted Dasein ["Being-there"] for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl. Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler, were put into a lecture Husserl gave to various Kant Societies in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled Phänomenologie und Anthropologie. In the war-time 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, Being and Time (Sein und Zeit, first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed. This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. Husserl, of course, had died three years earlier.In post-war editions of Sein und Zeit the dedication to Husserl is restored. The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed. On 4 May 1933, Professor <mask>l addressed the recent regime change in Germany and its consequences:The future alone will judge which was the true Germany in 1933, and who were the true Germans—those who subscribe to the more or less materialistic-mythical racial prejudices of the day, or those Germans pure in heart and mind, heirs to the great Germans of the past whose tradition they revere and perpetuate.After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "Gabelsberger" stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda. There they were deposited at Leuven to form the

masks:
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl
Husserl
Wolfgang Husserl
Husserl
Husserl
Edmund Husserl
Husserl
Husserl
Husserl
Edmund Husser


text_chunks:
 Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series. Development of his thought

Several early themes
In his first works, Husserl tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with the main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzes the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis.To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as he also calls it) one if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. <mask>'s Logical Investigations (1900–1901) is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology.Another important element that <mask> took over from Brentano is intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.The elaboration of phenomenology
Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called "epoché". These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen (Ideas) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen. From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what we perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural attitude", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism).Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objectsinstead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects). The major dividing line in Husserl's thought is the turn to transcendental idealism. In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (Cartesian Meditations, Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is <mask>'s unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues.In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a science of the mind ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge." <mask>'s thought

Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in the distinction between "natural" and "phenomenological" modes of understanding. In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the "real world". Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously "presuppositionless" by means of what Husserl calls "phenomenological reduction". This reduction is not conditioned but rather transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being. In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an "intentional object".Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of percipere, the root of "perceive". Meaning and object
From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on.Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way we know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition". Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories.Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way we know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition". Through sensible intuition our consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" (Sachlage). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented to us. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, we are able to constitute a "state of affairs" (Sachverhalt). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs.For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. We can use it as basis to say, "a<b" and "b>a", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base. Formal and regional ontology
Husserl sees ontology as a science of essences. Sciences of essences are contrasted with factual sciences: the former are knowable a priori and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable a posteriori. Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in actual facts, but in the essences themselves, whether they have instances or not. Husserl distinguishes between formal ontology, which investigates the essence of objectivity in general, and regional ontologies, which study regional essences that are shared by all entities belonging to the region.Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities: material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation. It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is inessential to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the kind's essence. For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera. Philosophy of logic and mathematics
Husserl believed that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself, just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates.Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why we do not deal with sensible objects in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through this faculty we are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves. Thanks to "eidetic reduction" (or "essential intuition"), we are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts and among formal categories.Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge. Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that give us objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness). Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it. The first stratum is what Husserl called a "morphology of meanings" concerning a priori ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful. In this stratum we elaborate a "pure grammar" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules "laws to prevent non-sense", which would be similar to what logic calls today "formation rules". Mathematics, as logic's ontological correlate, also has a similar stratum, a "morphology of formal-ontological categories".The second stratum would be called by Husserl "logic of consequence" or the "logic of non-contradiction" which explores all possible forms of true judgments. He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic and that of predicates. This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the "laws to avoid counter-sense" or "laws to prevent contradiction". They are very similar to today's logic "transformation rules". Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based among others on pure theory of pluralities, and a pure theory of numbers. They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever. Husserl also talked about what he called "logic of truth" which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical third stratum.The third stratum is metalogical, what he called a "theory of all possible forms of theories." It explores all possible theories in an a priori fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general. We could establish theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories, investigate these logical relations and the deductions from such general connection. The logician is free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic. The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the "theory of manifolds". In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all.Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between

masks: Husserl Husserl Husserl Husserl


text_chunks:
 them, as long as consistency is preserved. According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as n-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory. Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to "desedimentize" mathematics and the mathematical sciences. Husserl and psychologism

Philosophy of arithmetic and Frege
After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view. In his habilitation thesis, On the Concept of Number (1886) and in his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Gottlob Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, the Prolegomena of Pure Logic, Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic. Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of the Philosophy of Arithmetic helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism, but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91.In his Logical Investigations, Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position. Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference; thus Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose independently. Likewise, in his criticism of Frege in the Philosophy of Arithmetic, Husserl remarks on the distinction between the content and the extension of a concept. Moreover, the distinction between the subjective mental act, namely the content of a concept, and the (external) object, was developed independently by Brentano and his school, and may have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870s lectures on logic. Scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill, and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have argued that Husserl's so-called change from psychologism to Platonism came about independently of Frege's review. For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until we are left with numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in <mask>'s Philosophy of Arithmetic we already find two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective.Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives. Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the Philosophy of Arithmetic. Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic, and again to question Frege's use of the word Bedeutung to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense).In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the Philosophy of Arithmetic and <mask>'s review of Ernst Schröder's Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik. In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891. Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because noemata are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noemata have three different levels:
 The substratum, which is never presented to the consciousness, and is the support of all the properties of the object;
 The noematic senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us;
 The modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on). Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema.Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege. In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl this is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other. Husserl's criticism of psychologism
Reacting against authors such as J. S. Mill, Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e.their conception of these abstract and a priori sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature. According to psychologism, logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical "art" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought. Husserl pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side. Pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" or "judgings" as mental episodes but about a priori laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves. "Here 'Judgement' has the same meaning as 'proposition', understood, not as a grammatical, but as an ideal unity of meaning. This is the case with all the distinctions of acts or forms of judgement, which provide the foundations for the laws of pure logic. Categorial, hypothetical, disjunctive, existential judgements, and however else we may call them, in pure logic are not names for classes of judgements, but for ideal forms of propositions."Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Psychologists have also not been successful in showing how from induction or psychological processes we can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind. This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:

1. The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes a priori laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: If we have a formula like "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²" it does not tell us how to think mathematically.It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b should give us the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement is based on the theoretical statement "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²". 2. For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists is a "metábasis eis állo génos" (Gr. μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος, "a transgression to another field").It is a metábasis because psychology cannot provide any foundations for a priori laws which themselves are the basis for all the ways we should think correctly. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not. 3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us.This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the a priori objectivity of these logical truths. From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts and their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic and the theoretical side, derives from a Platonist conception of logic. This means that we should regard logical and mathematical laws as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general. Influence

David Carr commented on Husserl's following in his 1970 dissertation at Yale: "It is well known that Husserl was always disappointed at the tendency of his students to go their own way, to embark upon fundamental revisions of phenomenology rather than engage in the communal task" as originally intended by the radical new science.Notwithstanding, he did attract philosophers to phenomenology. Martin Heidegger is the best known of Husserl's students, the one whom Husserl chose as his successor at Freiburg. Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time was dedicated to Husserl. They shared their thoughts and worked alongside each other for over a decade at the University of Freiburg, Heidegger being Husserl's assistant during 1920–1923. Heidegger's early work followed his teacher, but with time he began to develop new insights distinctively variant. Husserl became increasingly critical of Heidegger's work, especially in 1929, and included pointed criticism of Heidegger in lectures he gave during 1931. Heidegger, while acknowledging his debt to Husserl, followed a political position offensive and harmful to Husserl after the Nazis came to power in 1933, Husserl being of Jewish origin and Heidegger infamously being then a Nazi proponent.Academic discussion of <mask> and Heidegger is extensive. At Göttingen in 1913 Adolf Reinach (1884–1917) "was now Husserl's right hand. He was above all the mediator between Husserl and the students, for he understood extremely well how to deal with other persons, whereas Husserl was pretty much helpless in this respect." He was an original editor of Husserl's new journal, Jahrbuch; one of his works (giving a phenomenological analysis of the law of obligations) appeared in its first issue. Reinach was widely admired and a remarkable teacher. <mask>, in his 1917 obituary, wrote, "He wanted to draw only from the deepest sources, he wanted to produce only work of enduring value. And through his wise restraint he succeeded in this."Edith Stein was Husserl's student at Göttingen and Freiburg while she wrote her doctoral thesis The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically (1916). She then became his assistant at Freiburg in 1916–18. She later adapted her phenomenology to the modern school of modern Thomism. Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven. In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics.Eugen Fink was a close associate of <mask> during the 1920s and 1930s. He wrote the Sixth Cartesian Meditation which Husserl said was the truest expression and continuation of his own work. Fink delivered the eulogy for Husserl in 1938. Roman Ingarden, an early student of Husserl at Freiburg, corresponded with Husserl into the mid-1930s. Ingarden did not accept, however, the later transcendental idealism of Husserl which he thought would lead to relativism. Ingarden has written his work in German and Polish. In his Spór o istnienie świata (Ger.: "Der Streit um die Existenz der Welt", Eng. : "Dispute about existence of the world") he created his own realistic position, which also helped to spread phenomenology in Poland. Max Scheler met <mask> in Halle in 1901 and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophy. Scheler, who was at Göttingen when Husserl taught there, was one of the original few editors of the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung (1913). Scheler's work Formalism in Ethics and Nonformal Ethics of Value appeared in the new journal (1913 and 1916) and drew acclaim. The personal relationship between the two men, however, became strained, due to Scheler's legal troubles, and Scheler returned to Munich. Although Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to Husserl throughout his work.Nicolai Hartmann was once thought to be at the center of phenomenology, but perhaps no longer. In 1921 the prestige of Hartmann the Neo-Kantian, who was Professor of Philosophy at Marburg, was added to the Movement; he "publicly declared his solidarity

masks: Husserl Husserl Husserl Husserl Husserl Husserl


text_chunks:
 with the actual work of die Phänomenologie." Yet Hartmann's connections were with Max Scheler and the Munich circle; <mask> himself evidently did not consider him as a phenomenologist. His philosophy, however, is said to include an innovative use of the method. Emmanuel Levinas in 1929 gave a presentation at one of Husserl's last seminars in Freiburg. Also that year he wrote on Husserl's Ideen (1913) a long review published by a French journal. With Gabrielle Peiffer, Levinas translated into French Husserl's Méditations cartésiennes (1931).He was at first impressed with Heidegger and began a book on him, but broke off the project when Heidegger became involved with the Nazis. After the war he wrote on Jewish spirituality; most of his family had been murdered by the Nazis in Lithuania. Levinas then began to write works that would become widely known and admired. Alfred Schutz's Phenomenology of the Social World seeks to rigorously ground Max Weber's interpretive sociology in Husserl's phenomenology. Husserl was impressed by this work and asked Schutz to be his assistant. Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he later came to disagree with key points in his analyses. Sartre rejected Husserl's transcendental interpretations begun in his Ideen (1913) and instead followed Heidegger's ontology.Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception is influenced by <mask>'s work on perception, intersubjectivity, intentionality, space, and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Merleau-Ponty's description of 'motor intentionality' and sexuality, for example, retain the important structure of the noetic/noematic correlation of Ideen I, yet further concretize what it means for Husserl when consciousness particularizes itself into modes of intuition. Merleau-Ponty's most clearly Husserlian work is, perhaps, "the Philosopher and His Shadow." Depending on the interpretation of Husserl's accounts of eidetic intuition, given in Husserl's Phenomenological Psychology and Experience and Judgment, it may be that Merleau-Ponty did not accept the "eidetic reduction" nor the "pure essence" said to result. Merleau-Ponty was the first student to study at the Husserl-archives in Leuven. Gabriel Marcel explicitly rejected existentialism, due to Sartre, but not phenomenology, which has enjoyed a wide following among French Catholics. He appreciated Husserl, Scheler, and (but with apprehension) Heidegger.His expressions like "ontology of sensability" when referring to the body, indicate influence by phenomenological thought. Kurt Gödel is known to have read Cartesian Meditations. He expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or "epoché". Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from his reading of Husserl. He was introduced to Husserl's work through his wife, Helene Joseph, herself a student of Husserl at Göttingen. Colin Wilson has used Husserl's ideas extensively in developing his "New Existentialism," particularly in regards to his "intentionality of consciousness," which he mentions in a number of his books. Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his Der Raum, but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic.Karol Wojtyla, who would later become Pope John Paul II, was influenced by Husserl. Phenomenology appears in his major work, The Acting Person (1969). Originally published in Polish, it was translated by Andrzej Potocki and edited by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the Analecta Husserliana. The Acting Person combines phenomenological work with Thomistic ethics. Paul Ricœur has translated many works of Husserl into French and has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher. Among other works, Ricœur employed phenomenology in his Freud and Philosophy (1965). Jacques Derrida wrote several critical studies of Husserl early in his academic career.These included his dissertation, The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy, and also his introduction to The Origin of Geometry. Derrida continued to make reference to Husserl in works such as Of Grammatology. Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz were inspired by Husserl's formal analysis of language. Accordingly, they employed phenomenology in the development of categorial grammar. José Ortega y Gasset visited Husserl at Freiburg in 1934. He credited phenomenology for having 'liberated him' from a narrow neo-Kantian thought. While perhaps not a phenomenologist himself, he introduced the philosophy to Iberia and Latin America.Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh School" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him:

Hans Blumenberg received his habilitation in 1950, with a dissertation on ontological distance, an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology. Roger Scruton, despite some disagreements with Husserl, drew upon his work in Sexual Desire (1986). The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century extends beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies. It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam. Bibliography

In German
 1887. Über den Begriff der Zahl. Psychologische Analysen (On the Concept of Number; habilitation thesis)
 1891.Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen (Philosophy of Arithmetic)
 1900. Logische Untersuchungen. Erster Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik (Logical Investigations, Vol. 1)
 1901. Logische Untersuchungen. Zweiter Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis (Logical Investigations, Vol.2)
 1911. Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft (included in Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy: Philosophy as Rigorous Science and Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man)
 1913. Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie (Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology)
 1923–24. Erste Philosophie. Zweiter Teil: Theorie der phänomenologischen Reduktion (First Philosophy, Vol. 2: Phenomenological Reductions)
 1925.Erste Philosophie. Erster Teil: Kritische Ideengeschichte (First Philosophy, Vol. 1: Critical History of Ideas)
 1928. Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins (Lectures on the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time)
 1929. Formale und transzendentale Logik. Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft (Formal and Transcendental Logic)
 1930. Nachwort zu meinen "Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie" (Postscript to my "Ideas")
 1936.Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie (The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy)
 1939. Erfahrung und Urteil. Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der Logik. (Experience and Judgment)
 1950. Cartesianische Meditationen (translation of Méditations cartésiennes (Cartesian Meditations, 1931))
 1952. Ideen II: Phänomenologische Untersuchungen zur Konstitution (Ideas II: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution)
 1952. Ideen III: Die Phänomenologie und die Fundamente der Wissenschaften (Ideas III: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences)

In English
 Philosophy of Arithmetic, Willard, Dallas, trans., 2003 [1891].Dordrecht: Kluwer. Logical Investigations, 1973 [1900, 2nd revised edition 1913], Findlay, J. N., trans. London: Routledge. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science", translated in Quentin Lauer, S.J., editor, 1965 [1910] Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. New York: Harper & Row. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology, 1982 [1913]. Kersten, F., trans.The Hague: Nijhoff. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – Second Book: Studies in the Phenomenology of Constitution, 1989. R. Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer, translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy – Third Book: Phenomenology and the Foundations of the Sciences, 1980, Klein, T. E., and Pohl, W. E., translators. Dordrecht: Kluwer. On the Phenomenology of the Consciousness of Internal Time (1893–1917), 1990 [1928].Brough, J.B., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Cartesian Meditations, 1960 [1931]. Cairns, D., trans. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Formal and Transcendental Logic, 1969 [1929], Cairns, D., trans. The Hague: Nijhoff.Experience and Judgement, 1973 [1939], Churchill, J. S., and Ameriks, K., translators. London: Routledge. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Philosophy, 1970 [1936/54], Carr, D., trans. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. "Universal Teleology". Telos 4 (Fall 1969). New York: Telos Press.Anthologies
 Willard, Dallas, trans., 1994. Early Writings in the Philosophy of Logic and Mathematics. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Welton, D., ed., 1999. The Essential Husserl. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. See also
 Early phenomenology
 List of phenomenologists

Notes

Citations

Further reading
 Adorno, Theodor W., 2013.Against Epistemology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bernet, Rudolf, et al., 1993. Introduction to Husserlian Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Derrida, Jacques, 1954 (French), 2003 (English). The Problem of Genesis in <mask>'s Philosophy.Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press. --------, 1962 (French), 1976 (English). Introduction to <mask>'s The Origin of Geometry. Includes Derrida's translation of Appendix III of Husserl's 1936 The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. --------, 1967 (French), 1973 (English). Speech and Phenomena (La Voix et le Phénomène), and other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs. Fine, Kit, 1995, "Part-Whole" in Smith, B., and Smith, D. W., eds., The Cambridge Companion to Husserl.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fink, Eugen 1995, Sixth Cartesian meditation. The Idea of a Transcendental Theory of Method with textual notations by <mask>l. Translated with an introduction by Ronald Bruzina, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Føllesdal, Dagfinn, 1972, "An Introduction to Phenomenology for Analytic Philosophers" in Olson, R. E., and Paul, A. M., eds., Contemporary Philosophy in Scandinavia. Johns Hopkins University Press: 417–30. Hill, C. O., 1991.Word and Object in Husserl, Frege, and Russell: The Roots of Twentieth-Century Philosophy. Ohio Univ. Press. -------- and Rosado Haddock, G. E., 2000. <mask> or Frege? Meaning, Objectivity, and Mathematics. Open Court.Hopkins, Burt C., (2011). The Philosophy of Husserl. Durham: Acumen. Levinas, Emmanuel, 1963 (French), 1973 (English). The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Köchler, Hans, 1983, "The Relativity of the Soul and the Absolute State of the Pure Ego", Analecta Husserliana 16: 95–107.--------, 1986. Phenomenological Realism. Selected Essays. Frankfurt a. M./Bern: Peter Lang. Mohanty, J. N., 1974, "Husserl and Frege: A New Look at Their Relationship", Research in Phenomenology 4: 51–62. --------, 1982. <mask>'s Theory of Meaning.The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. --------, 1982. Husserl and Frege. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Moran, D. and Cohen, J., 2012, The Husserl Dictionary. London, Continuum Press. Natanson, Maurice, 1973.<mask>: Philosopher of Infinite Tasks. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Ricœur, Paul, 1967. <mask>: An Analysis of His Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. Rollinger, R. D., 1999, Husserl's Position in the School of Brentano in Phaenomenologica 150. Kluwer.--------, 2008. Austrian Phenomenology: Brentano, Husserl, Meinong, and Others on Mind and Language. Frankfurt am Main: Ontos-Verlag. Schuhmann, K., 1977. Husserl – Chronik (Denk- und Lebensweg Edmund <mask>). Number I in Husserliana Dokumente. Martinus Nijhoff.Simons, Peter, 1987. Parts: A Study in Ontology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sokolowski, Robert. Introduction to Phenomenology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Smith, David Woodruff, 2007.Husserl London: Routledge. Stiegler, Bernard, 2009. Technics and Time, 2: Disorientation. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Zahavi, Dan, 2003. Husserl's Phenomenology. Stanford: Stanford University Press.External links

Husserl archives
 Husserl-Archives Leuven, the main Husserl-Archive in Leuven, International Centre for Phenomenological Research. Husserliana: <mask>l Gesammelte Werke, the ongoing critical edition of Husserl's works. Husserliana: Materialien, edition for lectures and shorter works. <mask> Collected Works, English translation of Husserl's works. Husserl-Archives at the University of Cologne. Husserl-Archives Freiburg. Archives Husserl de Paris, at the École normale supérieure, Paris.Other links

 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "<mask> (1859–1938). – Marianne Sawicki. Accessed 2011-04-28. Papers on <mask>l by Barry Smith
 English translation of "Vienna Lecture" (1935): "Philosophy and the Crisis of European Humanity"
 The Husserl Page by Bob Sandmeyer. Includes a number of online texts in German and English. Husserl.net, open content project. "<mask>l: Formal Ontology and Transcendental Logic."Resource guide on Husserl's logic and formal ontology, with annotated bibliography. The Husserl Circle. Cartesian Meditations in Internet Archive
 Ideas, Part I in Internet Archive
 <mask> on the Open Commons of Phenomenology. Complete bibliography and links to all German texts, including Husserliana vols. I–XXVIII

1859 births
1938 deaths
19th-century Austrian male writers
19th-century Austrian writers
19th-century German philosophers
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
20th-century Austrian male writers
20th-century Austrian writers
20th-century German philosophers
20th-century German writers
19th-century Austrian Jews
Austrian logicians
Austrian Lutherans
Austrian male writers
Austrian philosophers
Continental philosophers
Converts to Lutheranism from Judaism
Descartes scholars
Epistemologists
Founders of philosophical traditions
German logicians
German Lutherans
German male non-fiction writers
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Lutheran philosophers
Jewish philosophers
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Metaphysicians
Ontologists
Writers from Prostějov
People from the Margraviate of Moravia
Phenomenologists
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of language
Philosophers of logic
Philosophers of mathematics
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of psychology
Platonists
Trope theorists
University of Freiburg faculty
University of Göttingen faculty
University of Vienna alumni
Corresponding Fellows of

masks:
Husserl
Edmund Husserl
Husserl
Husserl
Edmund Husser
Husserl
Edmund Husserl
Edmund Husserl
Husserl
Husserls
Edmund Husser
Edmund Husserl
Edmund Husserl
Edmund Husser
Edmund Husser
Edmund Husserl


text_chunks:
<mask> (born 1939, Brisbane, Queensland) is an Australian actor and playwright. Creyton began his professional career in radio and revue in Melbourne, Australia and became well known in Sydney starring in and writing popular comedy-melodramas at the Music Hall theatre-restaurant in Neutral Bay. He gained national prominence in 1964–66, as one of the original stars and writers of the topical comedy revue TV series The Mavis Bramston Show. Creyton also spent time in the United Kingdom, where he appeared in British comedy television series including Doctor in the House. Following his return to Australia, he appeared in television series such as The Sullivans and Carson's Law. Creyton has been a theatre performer since 1957 and stage work has included theatrical versions of Don's Party and The Naked Vicar Show. Creyton now works in the United States.Family history
<mask> is the great grandson of Shakespearean actor William Hoskins. Hoskins was a leading member of the Samuel Phelps company at Sadler's Wells and tutor to a young Sir Henry Irving, securing Irving's first acting job for him. Hoskins emigrated to Australia in 1856 to take up management of a theatre. The teenage Irving intended to accompany him, but family duties detained him in England where he went on to become the greatest exponent of Shakespeare of 19th Century British theatre. Irving never forgot Hoskins and paid warm tribute in his autobiography. As actor-manager, Hoskins played in Sydney, Melbourne, New Zealand and America and his performances became legend in their time. He died in New Zealand in 1886 and his obituary stated "as a student and critical reader of Shakespeare, he had certainly no superiors in any part of the world".Of Welsh descent, Creyton's grandfather was born Thomas George Parry in New Zealand and was adopted at birth by Hoskins who later trained him as an actor. Wanting to succeed on his own merits, he changed his name for the stage to <mask>. Creyton left New Zealand for Australia in 1897 and performed in Sydney and Melbourne before establishing his own repertory company in Queensland. TV career
In 1964 Creyton was recruited by Carol Raye to co-star in the topical satire TV series The Mavis Bramston Show; he appeared weekly between 1964 and 1966, and also wrote sketch material and composed music, including the show's theme Togetherness. He also authored two successful plays for Sydney's Music Hall theatre-restaurant—Lady Audley's Secret, in which he also starred, played for a year in Sydney and was produced on two subsequent occasions in Melbourne;  How The West Was Lost, a satire on the TV western genre, also ran for a year in Sydney. During this period, he wrote a weekly newspaper column, composed music for the popular Phillip Street Revue and The Downstairs Revue, and recorded two best-selling comedy LPs with Noeline Brown, which are among the first comedy albums ever produced in Australia. He went on to star in his own TV series The <mask>ton Show, and several dramatic plays for ABC Television.United Kingdom
Creyton moved to England for nine years, playing in comedy, dramatic roles and revue in the West End. He appeared in Don's Party directed by Michael Blakemore at the Royal Court, Roger's Lost Stand at the Duke of York's, Ten Years Hard at the Mayfair, the musical Liz, several revues and a national tour of Abelard and Eloise. He also appeared in episodes of TV series, including Take Three Girls, Doctor in Charge, The Expert and Kindly Leave The Curb. He played a leading role in the BBC's radio soap opera Waggoner's Walk, and was a frequent broadcaster for the BBC World Service. He also wrote a farce for the stage, Follow That Husband, which was produced by Ray Cooney. Return to Australia
In 1977, Creyton returned to Australia, where he starred in the stage production of the revue The Naked Vicar Show. During the next ten years he worked in TV, the movies and the theatre.He starred in Alan Ayckbourn's Bedroom Farce, Season's Greetings and Absurd Person Singular, Michael Frayn's Noises Off (directed by Michael Blakemore) and in Hugh Whitemore's Pack of Lies, Side By Side By Sondheim, The Owl and the Pussycat, Suddenly at Home, and in 1986 played twins in the comedy-thriller Corpse. He was a lead writer on the award-winning Australian TV series Carson's Law and contributed regular episodes to its long run, at the same time writing comedy material for the daytime variety showThe Mike Walsh Show as well as appearing in some ninety guest spots on this popular TV show. In 1987, he directed the musical Nunsense which broke box office records all over Australia, and employed two companies playing simultaneously. With the author's permission he revised the dialogue for Australian audiences, an exercise he repeated for Irish audiences in the Dublin production which he directed in June 1988. During the Perth run of Corpse, a motor-cycle accident resulted in a badly broken leg. The ensuing period of hospitalisation allowed him to write a comedy for the stage, Double Act. He and Noeline Brown starred in the original production which opened in September 1987 to universal critical acclaim and broke all box office records for the Ensemble Theatre.Since then, Double Act has been produced in more than twenty languages. The Paris production starred popular Spanish movie star Carmen Maura and celebrated French star Jean-Pierre Cassel. In Madrid, with Lola Herrera, it ran for over a year. In Canada, starring George Segal, it broke two box office records. The Berlin production, originating at the famous Komodie Theater has been playing somewhere in Germany with major stars for the last sixteen years. A highly successful national tour of England followed London's West End production. In 1996, Garry McDonald and his wife Diane Craig starred in the Perth Theatre Company production which toured regional Australia.The 1998 U.S production featured movie star Keir Dullea and Tony Award winner Bonnie Franklin. Most recently, Double Act was a success in the 2001 season in Rome and toured Italy in 2002. In 2002, a prestigious production won acclaim in Vienna. In 1988, <mask> was honoured with the Norman Kessel Memorial Award for his contributions to Australian theatre as actor, playwright and director. America
Since 1989, he has worked almost exclusively in the United States where he has written movies-of-the-week for TV. He wrote all the sketch material for the off Broadway revue Secrets Every Smart Traveler Should Know which ran for two and a half years in New York. In January 1996, after a seven-year absence, Creyton returned to Australia to star in the Queensland Theatre Company's production of Noël Coward's Blithe Spirit.Its success encouraged him to return to Sydney to direct and star in his own play Valentine's Day at Marian Street Theatre where it played to capacity. Valentine’s Day is currently playing in Germany (Valentinstag) and in the Netherlands (Valentijnsdag). Australian revivals were produced in 2005 and 2007 and a revival of Double Act (the fifth in Australia) began a national tour in 2006. Two years later, he wrote, directed and starred in the bitter-sweet comedy Later Than Spring, also for Marian Street and to critical acclaim. In 2007 he again co-starred with Noeline Brown in the British play Glorious at the Ensemble, Sydney. His novels, The Dogs of Pompeii and Nero Goes to Rome, co-authored with American writer Vaughan Edwards, are published by Random House. Discography

Albums

References

Further reading

 "The Dictionary of Performing Arts in Australia — Theatre .Film . Radio . Television — Volume 1" — Ann Atkinson, Linsay Knight, Margaret McPhee — Allen & Unwin Pty. Ltd., 1996
 "The Australian Film and Television Companion" — compiled by Tony Harrison — Simon & Schuster Australia, 1994

External links

<mask> — Playwrights
<mask> — Theatre

1939 births
Australian dramatists and playwrights
Australian male television actors
Australian male stage actors
Male actors from Brisbane
Living people
People educated at Brisbane State High School

masks:
Barry Creyton
Creyton
Paul Creyton
Barryrey
Creyton
Barry Creyton
Barry Creyton