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Primary maths consultant... - Education Professionals The pupils and staff of Grange Middle School in Harrow use transactional analysis to help to develop emotional literacy and improve behaviour. Transactional Analysis is used by psychologists in counselling and has recently gained popularity in schools. It is based on Freudian theory and works by developing recognition of three ego states: parent, adult and child. Children can identify which ego state they are using at any one time and whether it is the most appropriate state for the given circumstance. Transactional Analysis relies on regular assemblies and the use of "circle time", in which children are encouraged to develop interpersonal skills through class discussion. Key points covered on transactional analysis: Part of the series: Primary Management Login to post comments

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http://www.schoolsworld.tv/node/306?terms=65,86

2013-05-24T09:17:23Z

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Jackie, a tenth grade student and avid Girl Scout, is on a dual-headed quest to spark excitement about science in middle school students—and to earn the Girl Scouts' highest award. Jackie Rapport (pictured above) presented her plan for a county-wide science fair to her school's advisory board and to the Girl Scout Council. To read about other inspiring student and teacher science project successes, visit the Science Buddies in Action page! When you think of Girl Scouts , you may immediately think of favorite cookies from yearly cookie sales, or maybe the familiar green uniform and patch-emblazoned sashes come to mind, a visual mark both of membership and of commitment. While cookie sales and badges are hallmarks of the organization, for many young women, being a Girl Scout is an important and formative activity, one that often begins in elementary school and continues for many years. Part social and part social responsibility, Girl Scouts enjoy the camaraderie of being part of a group and, at the same time, they engage in a variety of activities and challenges that help build confidence, self-esteem, leadership skills, and social awareness. With "Be prepared" as their motto and "Do a good turn daily" as their slogan, the Girl Scout organization and experience encourages young women to make positive contributions to society. It's been their mission since the founding in 1912, and with a membership of more than 3.2 million, the Girl Scouts are making a difference in communities around the world. For Girl Scouts who continue throughout their high school years, the quest to earn a Gold Award, the Girl Scouts' highest honor, presents a wonderful opportunity for senior scouts to channel leadership, personal passion, and social commitment into a community issue. Meeting a Community Need The journey to a Gold Award begins with a scout identifying a community issue that she cares about and then finding a way to approach that issue to make a positive contribution and a difference. Previous scouts have received the Gold Award for projects ranging from a public service announcement campaign designed to increase awareness of teen suicide to a local environmental restoration and conservation project that aimed to protect a rare species of salamander. For Jackie Rapport, a tenth grade student in New Jersey, the path to a possible Gold Award took root in her love of science. Joining what has become a national campaign to increase science literacy among U.S. students, Jackie set out to create a science fair for 6th-8th graders in her area. Why Start Another Science Fair? "I'm very interested in science, and I wanted to do a Gold Project for Girl Scouts," explains Jackie. "I became aware that U.S. students are not being prepared for careers in science, engineering, and math, and that the President has challenged us to increase interest in science in young people." A student at the Health Science Academy (HSA), Jackie wanted to find a way to share her enthusiasm for science and science careers. In the idea of a local science fair, she saw a perfect opportunity to meet the requirements for a Gold Project, a project for which a minimum of 80 hours of work is required, and to invest in a project she would enjoy and find personally rewarding. "Creating a county-wide science fair was a perfect opportunity to combine all of my goals," says Jackie. Jackie participated in a science fair as a sixth grade student. While the fair was not judged, the experience—and the concept of a science fair—left an impression on her. She believes science fairs are important for students on many levels. "A science fair gives students the opportunity to become more immersed in science and [to] realize the different aspects that it takes to create a project," says Jackie. But participating in a science fair may offer other benefits as well. A science fair "helps students learn the scientific method, but also helps students develop communication skills, math skills, reading comprehension, time management, and ethics," Jackie adds. Jackie's school, the Health Science Academy, is a new, public, college-preparatory high school, similar to other high schools in the area, but with one marked difference. Jackie's school specializes in health science.The school, run by Mercer County Technical Schools, is in its second formative year and currently consists of grades nine and ten. Grades eleven and twelve will be added over the next two years, with Jackie's class being the first graduating senior class. "It is a small school of students interested in pursuing careers in medicine or health fields," explains Jackie, "so most students here know the importance of science." But Jackie realizes that not all students are as tuned in to science as her classmates at HSA. She hopes her science fair will spark interest in science among younger local students, a passion for science that may put them on a path to a science career. Organizing a New Fair is Big Project As Jackie has discovered, planning a science fair from the ground up is no small undertaking. From getting support and buy-in from her own school and approval from the Girl Scout Council to generating interest among students at local schools, setting up and running an information website, handling the planning logistics for the actual event, and procuring judges, organizing a science fair requires excellent time management skills, meticulous attention to detail, and unwavering commitment to the project. The process can be daunting, but Science Buddies has a wealth of planning resources for fair coordinators, materials designed to help with every step of the planning process, from the initial overview to judging rubrics for use at the fair. According to Jackie, Science Buddies resources, including A Guide to Planning a Science Fair, were a "great first step" and gave her a concrete place from which to begin. The guide's comprehensive look at what is involved in creating and running a fair helped Jackie visualize her science fair in terms of the "big picture" and enabled her to create a step-by-step plan of action. For Jackie, Science Buddies materials served as both a guide and a catalyst. Seeing the process broken down into concrete and actionable steps gave her confidence and encouraged her about the feasibility of starting a science fair as a Gold Project. "Science Buddies resources helped me make the decision to have a science fair," says Jackie. "The [Science Buddies website] stresses the value of science fairs and helped me realize that it would be possible for me to create one." With the idea of creating a local fair in place, and with Science Buddies resources on hand to aid in planning, Jackie moved on to the next phase: getting approval and local support. "My next step was to develop a proposal for Girl Scouts and to get approval from my mentor, advisor, council, and school. The Girl Scout Gold process was extensive," explains Jackie. "I had to outline my project, plans, budget, and more. Then, I had to present and defend the project before getting approved." For a tenth grader, the planning stages required an immense amount of work, outside of regular coursework and activities. Deciding to have a science fair was only the beginning of Jackie's Gold Award journey. With a blueprint for the fair in place—and approval for the project from the Girl Scout Council—the rest of the work involved began in earnest. The Value of Community Involvement While Jackie is spearheading the science fair, organizing a fair requires the support and involvement of a number of people in the community. According to Jackie, the teachers and administration at her school have been supportive of her Gold Award project. "My principal, Lucille Jones, [has been] instrumental," says Jackie, noting that the principal helped arrange for a local community college to host the awards ceremony this spring. "My school advisor for the project, Ron Tarchichi, is my microbiology teacher and the school's Vice Principal," continues Jackie. "He gave me insights in developing my proposal." She goes on to list the contributions of other individual teachers, some of whom have agreed to help as judges, others to whom she has turned for advice and support. Jackie has also received help from other students, parents, and even Boy Scouts in the area. In addition to support from her school and community, Jackie acknowledges the support of her Girl Scout troop, 71452, and, in particular, Cathi Macheda, the leader of Jackie's troop and project mentor for her Gold Award initiative. Jackie views the fair as one "for students by students" and has spent time getting her classmates excited about the fair and recruiting them into volunteer roles. For example, while she has secured a line-up of judges comprised of professionals and experts in health, science, and education, each group of judges will also include a tenth grade student from her school. She hopes that being a part of the fair in this way will serve as a learning opportunity for her classmates as well as encourage social responsibility among her peers. Supporting Science at the Middle School Level For Jackie, holding a fair targeted for middle school students is especially important because she believes students in grades six, seven, and eight are just beginning to consider their careers. As they also evaluate their options for high school, Jackie hopes to inspire interest for her school and for the sciences through the fair. There are other science fairs in the area, including the Mercer Science and Engineering Fair, an ISEF-affiliated fair. Jackie's county-wide science fair will give students another opportunity to exhibit their science projects. Because her fair will take place after many of the local fairs, Jackie hopes students will take advantage of the timing to revise or correct problems that surfaced in a project exhibited at a local fair. Entering her fair offers students a second chance and another chance to win. Jackie believes the idea of entering multiple fairs is advantageous for students. "Students will get more mileage from their projects," she says, "have more chances to win prizes and be acknowledged, and also have a chance to revise and improve their projects that may not have won in other fairs." Many first-time science fair coordinators have found support at Science Buddies, but Jackie may be the first student that has used these materials to establish a fledgling science fair. When she emailed Science Buddies in August, she told us: "I am Jackie Rapport, a 10th grader, who is NOT doing a science fair project. Instead, I am creating a county-wide science fair for 6th through 8th graders, involving hundreds of students from dozens of public and private schools in Mercer County." Jackie's initiative, determination, and self-motivation immediately caught our attention, and we have checked in with over the course of the year as she moved closer and closer to the fair's date. Her enthusiasm for her project has not wavered. We hope Jackie's fair draws submissions from a number of local students and that the time and effort she's invested in helping support local science education results in a wonderful first showing for this new science fair. Jackie's fair is scheduled for April 28, 2012. To learn more about the fair, visit Jackie's fair website: www.sciencefair4all.webs.com Science Buddies encourages students to look for additional fairs, competitions, contests, they can enter—or special awards for which their projects may be eligible. Students in grades 6-12 who completed a food sciences, biotechnology, or chemistry project this year are invited to submit their projects for the Rosalind Franklin Chemistry Contest, sponsored by Science Buddies and the Astellas USA Foundation.

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2013-05-24T09:38:55Z

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Ask questions about projects relating to: computer science or pure mathematics (such as probability, statistics, geometry, etc...). Moderators: MelissaB, kgudger, Ray Trent My daughter is trying to create a Video Game for the Blind as her science project but is having difficulty creating the sounds and players. Please advise - Posts: 1 - Joined: Sun Mar 25, 2012 7:38 pm - Occupation: Parent - Project Question: How to Make a Video Game for the Blind or Visually Impared - Project Due Date: May 14, 2012 - Project Status: I am conducting my experiment Hi Rosie9591 - What problem, specifically, is she having with each of those elements? What kind of game has she decided to create for the project? Has she read through the GameMaker Guide on our site? http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Games_GameMaker_Guide.shtml?from=AAE The links to additional sources and references may be helpful. Sounds can be created using an external application (or finding free or royalty-free sources for sound effects or using the sounds that come with GameMaker) and then adding them into the game. Here is some additional information on sounds from the GameMaker site: http://wiki.yoyogames.com/index.php/Sound As for the players... can you offer additional information regarding what she is trying to do? - Site Admin - Posts: 738 - Joined: Mon Dec 15, 2008 3:38 pm - Occupation: Science Buddies - Project Question: N/A - Project Due Date: N/A - Project Status: Not applicable Return to Grades K-5: Math and Computer Science Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest

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May 7, 2007 When a cell divides, normally the result is two identical daughter cells. In some cases however, cell division leads to two cells with different properties. This is called asymmetric cell division and plays an important role in embryonic development and the self-renewal of stem cells. Researchers from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory [EMBL] have now worked out the mechanism underlying asymmetric cell division in nematode worms. The study, which is published in the current issue of Cell, reveals that interactions between the mitotic spindle and the cell cortex are crucial for asymmetric division. Soon after the egg cell has been fertilized, the developing embryo of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans undergoes its first cell division. The division gives rise to a bigger cell at the anterior end of the embryo, where the head will develop, and a smaller cell at the posterior end. For this asymmetric division to take place, the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that separates a cell's chromosomes, needs to be located not centrally but towards the posterior of the egg. The cellular structures that make sure the spindle gets to the right place are protein filaments called microtubules. They are dynamic structures that constantly grow and shrink by adding on or taking off individual building blocks. "Just before cell division the mitotic spindle moves towards the posterior of the cell while oscillating up and down," says François Nédélec, group leader at EMBL. "We wanted to find out the mechanisms of this motion and explore its properties." Nédélec and his group combined computer simulations with microscopy studies to test the predictions made about microtubule behaviour experimentally. This approach revealed that the interaction of the microtubules forming the mitotic spindle and the cell cortex, a structure lining the cell just beneath the plasma membrane, most likely brings about the correct positioning of the spindle towards the posterior of the cell. The microtubules grow until they reach the borders of the cell and touch the cortex. Upon contact with the cortex, the filaments immediately start to shrink. "This shrinkage is then translated into a pulling force at the cortex," says Cleopatra Kozlowski from Nédélec's group, who carried out the research together with Martin Srayko from the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics. "How exactly this works we don't know yet. One possibility could be that part of the cortex holds on to the microtubule while it shortens, and so pulls on the whole spindle." The nature of so-called force generators on the cortex is yet unclear, as is the question if more of them are active at the posterior to give more net force in that direction. But computer simulations show that the concept of force generators that translate the dynamic behaviour of microtubules into a pulling force can explain the specific movements of the mitotic spindle. The same principle might apply also to asymmetric cell division in other organisms and contexts, such as stem cell renewal. The cellular components involved in such divisions have been conserved throughout evolution making it likely that different species might also share the mechanism of the process. Source Article: C. Kozlowski, M. Srayko and F. Nédélec. Cortical microtubule contacts position the spindle in C. elegans embryos. Cell, 4 May 2007 Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070503125732.htm

2013-05-24T09:39:57Z

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Nov. 19, 2008 NASA has successfully tested the first deep space communications network modeled on the Internet. Working as part of a NASA-wide team, engineers from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., used software called Disruption-Tolerant Networking, or DTN, to transmit dozens of space images to and from a NASA science spacecraft located about more than 32 million kilometers (20 million miles) from Earth. "This is the first step in creating a totally new space communications capability, an interplanetary Internet," said Adrian Hooke, team lead and manager of space-networking architecture, technology and standards at NASA Headquarters in Washington. NASA and Vint Cerf, a vice president at Google, Inc., in Mountain View, Calif., partnered 10 years ago to develop this software protocol. The DTN sends information using a method that differs from the normal Internet's Transmission-Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP communication suite, which Cerf co-designed. The Interplanetary Internet must be robust enough to withstand delays, disruptions and disconnections in space. Glitches can happen when a spacecraft moves behind a planet, or when solar storms and long communication delays occur. The delay in sending or receiving data from Mars takes between three-and-a-half to 20 minutes at the speed of light. Unlike TCP/IP on Earth, the DTN does not assume a continuous end-to-end connection. In its design, if a destination path can't be found, the data packets are not discarded. Instead, each network node keeps custody of the information as long as necessary until it can safely communicate with another node. This store-and-forward method, similar to basketball players safely passing the ball to the player nearest the basket, means that information does not get lost when no immediate path to the destination exists. Eventually, the information is delivered to the end user. "In space today, an operations team has to manually schedule each link and generate all the commands to specify which data to send, when to send it, and where to send it," said Leigh Torgerson, manager of the DTN Experiment Operations Center at JPL. "With standardized DTN, this can all be done automatically." Engineers began a month-long series of DTN demonstrations in October. Data were transmitted using NASA's Deep Space Network in demonstrations occurring twice a week. Engineers use NASA's Epoxi spacecraft as a Mars data-relay orbiter. Epoxi is on a mission to encounter Comet Hartley 2 in two years. "There are 10 nodes on this early interplanetary network," said Scott Burleigh of JPL, lead software-engineer for the demonstrations. "One is the Epoxi spacecraft itself and the other nine, which are on the ground at JPL, simulate Mars landers, orbiters and ground mission-operations centers." This month-long experiment is the first in a series of planned demonstrations to qualify the technology for use on a variety of upcoming space missions, said Jay Wyatt, manager of the Space Networking and Mission Automation Program Office at JPL. In the next round of testing, a NASA-wide demonstration using new DTN software loaded on board the International Space Station is scheduled to begin next summer. In the next few years, the Interplanetary Internet could enable many new types of space missions. Complex missions involving multiple landed, mobile and orbiting spacecraft will be far easier to support through the use of the Interplanetary Internet. It could also ensure reliable communications for astronauts on the surface of the moon. The Deep Impact Networking Experiment is sponsored by the Space Communications and Navigation Office in NASA's Space Operations Mission Directorate in Washington. NASA's Science Mission Directorate and Discovery Program in Washington provided experimental access to the Epoxi spacecraft. The Epoxi mission team provided critical support throughout development and operations. JPL is managed for NASA by the California Institution of Technology in Pasadena. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081118160432.htm

2013-05-24T09:32:41Z

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July 1, 2011 In type 2 diabetes, a protein called amylin forms dense clumps that shut down insulin-producing cells, wreaking havoc on the control of blood sugar. But zinc has a knack for preventing amylin from misbehaving. Recent research at the University of Michigan offers new details about how zinc performs this "security guard" function. The findings appear in the July 8 issue of the Journal of Molecular Biology. Amylin is something of a two-faced character. In healthy people who have normal levels of zinc in the insulin-producing islet cells of the pancreas, amylin actually pitches in to help with blood sugar regulation, says Ayyalusamy Ramamoorthy, a U-M professor of chemistry and of biophysics in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts. In fact, an analog of amylin called Symlin is used in conjunction with insulin to manage blood sugar levels in diabetics. This good behavior on amylin's part comes about because zinc acts like a security guard at a rock concert, whose job is keeping fans from turning troublesome and destructive. In molecular terms, zinc prevents amylin -- also known as Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) -- from forming harmful clumps similar to those found in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's and various other degenerative diseases. But in a zinc-starved cellular environment of someone with type 2 diabetes, amylin has no watchful guard to rein it in. It's free to clump together with other amylin molecules in the molecular equivalent of a gang. The clumping ultimately leads to the formation of ribbon-like structures called fibrils, and because fibril formation has been linked to a number of human diseases, it was long assumed that fibrils themselves were toxic. But accumulating evidence now suggests that the actual culprits may be shorter snippets that assemble in the process of forming full-length fibrils. For this reason, it's important to understand the whole aggregation process, not just the structure of the final fibril. Ramamoorthy and colleagues are trying to better understand exactly how zinc interacts with amylin, in hopes of finding ways of treating or preventing type 2 diabetes and other diseases associated with aging. In earlier work, they showed that when zinc binds to amylin, at a point near the middle of the amylin molecule, the amylin molecule kinks, which interferes with the formation of toxic clumps. In the current work, they show that the binding of zinc in the middle makes one end of the amylin molecule, called the N-terminus, become more orderly. "This is significant, because the N-terminus is very important in clump formation and amylin toxicity," Ramamoorthy said. In addition, the researchers found that before amylin can begin forming fibrils, zinc must be rousted from its nesting place. This eviction is costly in energetic terms, and the sheer expense of it discourages fibril formation. And because a single zinc molecule can bind to several amylin molecules, it ties up the amylin in assemblages that, unlike certain other aggregations, are not intermediates in the pathway that leads to fibril formation. However zinc, like amylin, has a dual nature. At conditions similar to those outside islet cells, where even a tiny amount of amylin aggregates in the blink of an eye, zinc inhibits fibril formation. But in conditions resembling the inside of the cell, the inhibitory effect begins to wane and other factors, like insulin, take on zinc's security guard duties. Ramamoorthy's group found that this happens because amylin has not one, but two binding sites for zinc. Zinc prefers to bind at the first site -- the one in the middle of the amylin molecule, where its binding discourages fibril formation. But when there's too much zinc around, all the binding sites in the middle positions are occupied and zinc must attach to amylin at the second site, which counteracts the effect of the first site. This may explain why decreased levels of insulin -- the backup security guard -- inside islet cells of diabetics result in islet cell death. The experiments described in the Journal of Molecular Biology paper were all done in an artificial environment, not a living organism where zinc levels constantly fluctuate. In future experiments, Ramamoorthy hopes to more closely approximate natural conditions in order to better understand how amylin interacts with islet cells and what triggers its toxicity toward the cells. The results of these studies will facilitate the development of metal-based therapies for type 2 diabetes, similar to the promising metal-based drugs developed for Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases, Ramamoorthy said. Ramamoorthy's coauthors in the paper are undergraduate student Samer Salamekh, postdoctoral fellows Jeffrey Brender and Suk-Joon Hyung, former graduate student Ravi Prakash Reddy Nanga, NMR specialist Subramanian Vivekanandan and assistant professor of chemistry Brandon Ruotolo The National Institutes of Health provided funding for the research. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Samer Salamekh, Jeffrey R. Brender, Suk-Joon Hyung, Ravi Prakash Reddy Nanga, Subramanian Vivekanandan, Brandon T. Ruotolo, Ayyalusamy Ramamoorthy. A Two-Site Mechanism for the Inhibition of IAPP Amyloidogenesis by Zinc. Journal of Molecular Biology, 2011; 410 (2): 294 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2011.05.015 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110630171742.htm

2013-05-24T09:12:11Z

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July 26, 2012 A research team at the National Institutes of Health has found that bacteria that normally live in the skin may help protect the body from infection. As the largest organ of the body, the skin represents a major site of interaction with microbes in the environment. Although immune cells in the skin protect against harmful organisms, until now, it has not been known if the millions of naturally occurring commensal bacteria in the skin -- collectively known as the skin microbiota -- also have a beneficial role. Using mouse models, the NIH team observed that commensals contribute to protective immunity by interacting with the immune cells in the skin. Their findings appear online on July 26 in Science. The investigators colonized germ-free mice (mice bred with no naturally occurring microbes in the gut or skin) with the human skin commensal Staphylococcus epidermidis. The team observed that colonizing the mice with this one species of good bacteria enabled an immune cell in the mouse skin to produce a cell-signaling molecule needed to protect against harmful microbes. The researchers subsequently infected both colonized and non-colonized germ-free mice with a parasite. Mice that were not colonized with the bacteria did not mount an effective immune response to the parasite; mice that were colonized did. In separate experiments, the team sought to determine if the presence or absence of commensals in the gut played a role in skin immunity. They observed that adding or eliminating beneficial bacteria in the gut did not affect the immune response at the skin. These findings indicate that microbiota found in different tissues -- skin, gut, lung -- have unique roles at each site and that maintaining good health requires the presence of several different sets of commensal communities. This study provides new insights into the protective role of skin commensals and demonstrates that skin health relies on the interaction of commensals and immune cells. Further research is needed, say the authors, to determine whether skin disorders such as eczema and psoriasis may be caused or exacerbated by an imbalance of skin commensals and potentially harmful microbes that influence the skin and its immune cells. The study was led by investigators in the laboratories of Yasmine Belkaid, Ph.D., at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, in collaboration with Julie Segre, Ph.D., at the National Human Genome Research Institute, and Giorgio Trinchieri, M.D., and Heidi Kong, M.D., at the National Cancer Institute. All three Institutes are NIH components. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: The above story is reprinted from materials provided by NIH/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. - S Naik et al. Compartmentalized control of skin immunity by resident commensals. Science, 2012 DOI: 10.1126/science.1225152 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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2013-05-24T09:46:51Z

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How are you different?Our history is written in our genes. Your genes tell your body how to make all the different proteins it needs to survive, develop and grow. A change (DNA mutation) in a gene can alter what it does, so the body makes a slightly different protein. Different versions of genes are called alleles. The types and numbers of alleles in a population can provide clues about the lives of our ancestors: their diet and the diseases they encountered. Can we evolve disease resistance? Can you drink milk? In some parts of the world, certain adults cannot drink large amounts of milk because they are unable to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk. Drinking fresh milk causes discomfort and diarrhoea, but they can eat dairy products treated to break down lactose – like yoghurt. In other parts of the world most people have a version of a gene (allele) that allows them to digest lactose in adulthood. This characteristic probably spread through some populations thousands of years ago, as their ancestors began farming cattle.

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2013-05-24T09:32:17Z

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Caption: Breast cancer cell. Coloured scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a single breast cancer cell. The cell has an uneven surface with blebs (blue) and cytoplasmic projections (red, at left). Clumps of cancerous (malignant) cells form tumours, which possess the ability to invade and destroy surrounding tissues and travel to distant parts of the body to seed secondary tumours. Malignant cells proliferate and grow in a chaotic manner, with defective cell division retained within each new generation of cells. Variations also occur in size and structure of the cancer cell from its original type. Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer in women. Magnification: unknown. Model release not required. Property release not required.

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2013-05-24T09:38:53Z

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Did you know that you can succeed at anything in a short amount of time if you can copy the strategies of any person who is successful at what you want to achieve. What do we mean by strategies? Basically, a strategy is any internal and external set of experiences which consistently produces a specific outcome. For example, when I go somewhere, I need to make a picture of where I'm going and how to get there in my mind. And I gather information verbally until I have a clear picture of the entire route that I'm going to travel. When I have enough information, I then forget it and trust my unconscious mind. It has been found that successful spellers use visualization strategies to spell any word, long or short, correctly. In other words they make pictures of the words in their minds. Generally the expert speller uses the following strayegies: 1. looks at a word, then 2. looks up and to his or her left to 'see' the word in their mind's eye. 3. he then looks back at the word to check if it matches the image in his mind. 4. If it is correct, he can go to learn another word. 5. If the there is no match, he goes back to step 1. Try this with your child and your family members. You will be surprised how dramatically your kid's spelling and your own will improve. I have used these spelling with my elementary and secondary school students who I teach, and they can now spell up to 11 letter word forwards, and wait for it, backwards as well. It's truly amazing to witness! Using these simple spelling strategies your child will become an expert speller overnight. Imagine what that would do to boost your child's self-belief and confidence. My students have told me that they feel like spelling champions, and that was after only one session of practice. Khaled Mansoor is an Education Success Consultant and owner at Khaled Mansoor & Associates. He has worked with schools to assist children to reach their true potential in a range of literacy and numeracy skills. He has been an elementary and secondary teacher for 15 and a half years. If you wish to find out more about the spelling or other learning strategies to enable to assist your child excel at school, then contact him on [email protected]

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http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/the-secret-to-your-kid-becoming-an-expert-speller

2013-05-24T09:39:06Z

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en

What do all five of the above sicknesses have in common? "Immune support and bacteria imbalance, which means the bad guys have won," Koff said. In order to combat those two dilemmas, Koff recommends boosting your child's immune system with the help of organic foods. "Aim for daily intake of fruits and vegetables," she said. "Try to include mushrooms if your kids like them -- they're great for the immune system." Check out this article for more tips on boosting your child's immune system. Another key ingredient to building a healthy immune system is healthy bacteria. "Probiotics can come from food sources like kefir, cultured veggies, cultured dairy and supplements," Koff said. Be cautious of food products with large amounts of sugar, as they'll outweigh the benefits of the good bacteria. Spices can also join your fight against bacteria. "Simply add oregano and thyme to your pizza," Koff suggested. In addition to foods and spices, changing behaviors can also help build up your child's immune system. Check out these easy tips for living germ-free: Remind your children to wash their hands frequently, including before or after eating and after using the toilet. "Suggest that children soap their hands for as long as it takes to sing the 'Happy Birthday' song," Koff said. "Adequate sleep is an important arsenal in keeping colds at bay, as well as shortening the course of the cold," Koff said. According to health and nutrition counselor Gina van Luven, children under 1 year should receive between 14 and 16 hours of sleep. Children ages 1 to 3 need between 12 and 14 hours, children ages 3 to 6 should sleep at least 10 to 12 hours, and children age 7 to 12 require about 10 to 11 hours. Teens should sleep between 8 and 9 hours each night. Koff recommends encouraging children to cover their mouths when coughing or sneezing and, if possible, to use a tissue or the crook of their elbow instead. "Be sure your child gets regular exercise," van Luven said. "The type and duration will depend upon the child. Talk with a fitness or health professional who specializes in children's health for advice." "Kids, especially athletes, should always remember to stay well-hydrated," Koff said. "Try to keep healthy kids away from sick children and adults," Koff suggested. "While getting sick is part of a child developing a strong immune system, keeping healthy kids away from sick ones in an easy way to avoid creating a cycle where cold-sharing makes everyone sick for longer." "Be sure your child has down time every day, and has an opportunity to communicate his/her feelings and concerns," van Luven said. "Secondhand smoke can irritate the lungs and sinuses of children, like adults, and ongoing exposure may contribute to a greater frequency of respiratory issues," Koff said. "Take a quality multi-vitamin and additional Vitamin D, especially during winter, when we tend to get less sunlight," van Luven said. "Children should avoid sharing water bottles and other personal items with other kids to prevent contracting a cold," Koff said. If you didn't catch your child's sickness in time, don't fret. Check out this article for tips on soothing foods and drinks they'll love. Keep their mind off their sore throat with the help of these fun at-home activities for sick kids.

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http://www.sheknows.com/health-and-wellness/articles/821129/top-5-child-sicknesses-and-how-to-prevent-them/page:2

2013-05-24T09:31:57Z

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|Westrem, Scott D. The Hereford Map. A Transcription and Translation of the Legends with Commentary. (Terrarum Orbis. History of the Representations of Space in Text and Image. General Director of the series: Patrick Gautier Dalché.) Turnhout: Brepols, 2001. 1vii+476 pp., illus., bibl., indexes. ISBN 2503510566. The Hereford Map, probably the most famous example of medieval cartography, is the only large medieval map to survive in its entirety (it measures approximately 1.59 meters by 1.32 meters). It includes more than a thousand inscriptions and as many pictorial representations of geographical points, animals, and peoples found on the earth. It has become a subject of detailed studies, and its reproductions appeared several times. And yet, no reliable and comprehensive transcription or translation of the Map has existed until now. Scott Westrem has undertaken a truly Herculean labor of making the Map accessible to the wide audience. The beautifully produced volume that contains his transcription and translation of the Map’s legends, accompanied by a comprehensive commentary and illustrated by the detailed photographs of the Map, will now form a solid and decisive foundation for the future studies of this important source. In his introduction Westrem gives a detailed account of the cartographic context of the Hereford Map, of its production and history, and of the sources and analogues of the Map, and concludes by offering an interpretation of the Map’s picture of the world. The introduction fully demonstrates what I consider among the chief strengths of this book: it is detailed, sophisticated, and learned in its treatment, and at the same time clearly and engagingly written, which will undoubtedly attract the attention of people with various interests, not necessarily focusing on medieval cartography or Latin paleography. The introduction summarizes the current state of our knowledge about the Map, from its physical characteristics to the broader cultural context. It also introduces information not readily accessible to the reader, such as the report of the recent investigation of the Map, performed by the conservator Christopher Clarkson on 11-12 January 1999. In the extent of its information, the Map can be called a veritable encyclopedia of cosmological, geographical, ethnographical, theological, and zoological knowledge about the earth. It also contains anachronisms and lacunae, and in general is not geographically accurate. People accustomed to modern geography with its standards of exact and realistic representation find this feature puzzling, to say the least. Thus W. Bevan and H.W. Phillott, who studied the Map very seriously and published their book in 1873, claimed that the Map gives an impression “of inaccuracy, carelessness and ignorance” (quoted by Westrem, p. xli). This severe judgment, reinforced by C.R. Beazley, who in his book on the history of medieval geography called the Map “monstrous,” reflected the methodology of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, directed largely at finding the predecessors of modern geography in the past. The research that historians of cartography have done in the last several decades has considerably changed the picture. Scholars now study medieval maps in their historical context, which increases our awareness of the role the maps played in medieval society and culture. Westrem’s book contributes to this tradition of analyzing medieval cartography in its cultural context. As his introduction makes immediately clear, the Hereford Map, being a mappamundi (a world map), was not expected to be a precise representation of geographical reality (p. xvii), quite unlike medieval navigational charts or early modern maps, which aimed at an accurate representation of the earth If the Map was not meant to present a geographically accurate image, what was its purpose? This complicated question, like other questions about medieval cartography and culture in general, must be addressed by first studying the Map as a physical object. Westrem’s introduction emphasizes that, like other monuments of medieval textual and pictorial culture, the Map is its own best witness. The introduction presents technical information about the production of the Map and makes the reader appreciate the enormous labor put into its making. It was an expensive enterprise, judging from the cost of the fine parchment and labor; it was also a lengthy and careful one, judging from the number and extent of inscriptions and decorations. The Map was most likely assembled in England, because of the remarkably accurate and detailed depictions of British topography and the inclusion of towns reflecting the political ambitions of English kings during the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries (p. xxi). In presenting all these details, Westrem particularly emphasizes that all information offered by the Map as a material object, as well as that offered by its legends and pictures about its origins and purpose, needs to be very carefully evaluated (p. xxi). It is very sobering but important to see that, even though many ingenious hypotheses have been suggested, little can be safely assumed about the origins or purposes of the Map, and only continuing detailed research in the field will contribute to our understanding of the problem. Like other medieval texts and maps presenting knowledge about the world, the Hereford Map was a mosaic of information drawn from various sources. In addition to the sources previously established by the Map’s scholarship (such as the Bible, Roman geographers Pliny the Elder and Orosius, and others), Westrem introduces the text whose importance cannot be overestimated. Patrick Gautier Dalché, the leading historian of medieval geography today, has discovered a text, Expositio Mappe Mundi (“Exposition of a World Map”), which describes the content of a mappamundi and in doing this presents a close analogue for the Hereford Map (p. xxxiv). Westrem’s account of this ground-breaking discovery and his own careful and painstaking comparison of its information with the Hereford Map not only makes the research of a French scholar accessible to the English-reading audience – it may mark a turning point in our understanding of how medieval cartography developed in general. In a brief but very important section of his introduction, “Reading the Map’s Picture of the World,” Westrem once again reminds us that all maps should be understood as symbol systems, as texts whose language of communication is shaped by the norms and goals of contemporary culture. Thus the design of the Hereford Map serves to represent the earth and its regions according to the aims and the state of knowledge of the time. The Map represents the world and the earth as spherical, Jerusalem occupies the center of the inhabited landmass, and in general the representation is schematic rather than realistic. Nevertheless, the Map is generally accurate in its representation of the sequence of places (p. xxxix). Thus Westrem clearly demonstrates how the Map, far from being inaccurate or ignorant, represented the best that the knowledge of the time had to offer. This, in combination with what we know about the care taken to produce the Map, as well as about its care in trying to harmonize different sources (p. xl), inspires great respect for the medieval mapmakers. Westrem states his primary goal as making the textual and pictorial contents of the Map more generally and reliably accessible, and the book fulfils this goal admirably. A large color photographic reproduction of the Map, inserted in the book, gives a very good general impression of the Map, and the quality of the image is such that one can fairly easily read the inscriptions and see the details of the pictures. Two charts precede the color photographic plates and make the spatial organization of the Map and the order of transcriptions and translations easy to follow. The reproductions of various sections of the Map are printed twice on facing pages, one in its original form, the other with the appropriate numbers attached to the legends. The legends are presented on facing pages, with the right-facing pages occupied by the Latin text of the legends, given in two versions (an edited version and an exact transcription), and accompanied by translations, whereas commentaries occupy left-facing pages. Place names in all medieval sources present a particular problem, because their spelling varies from one manuscript copy and from one text to another, and some names are impossible to identify. This difficult problem is successfully solved in the book: wherever possible, it gives us English toponyms, as well as the classical and medieval versions of the names, with gaps in our own knowledge clearly indicated, so that the reader might see the changes in the geographical tradition as well as the state of our information about them. The uncertainties in the text are also clearly marked, which does justice to the paleographic and textual complications and enables interested persons to pursue their investigation further. The translations are both accurate and elegant, a very impressive achievement considering the rather convoluted nature of the Latin text, even if many inscriptions only consist of several words. The book contains a useful bibliography and comprehensive indices. There are an index of proper names, an index which specifically addresses the correspondences between the Hereford Map and the text discovered by Gautier Dalché, and an index of key words on the Map, which makes the task of finding the names on the Map very easy. All these things make the book an invaluable tool on many levels. For people primarily interested in maps and geography in general, it presents a clear and reliable introduction to a complicated monument of cartography. For students of medieval geography and culture, it presents a cultural artifact in all its complexity and provides an excellent guide to its understanding. For those working on paleography or textual criticism, this book presents a model edition of a complex combination of text and image. The labor and care invested in the preparation and making of this book give full justice to the labor and care the medieval mapmakers put in the production of the Hereford Map itself. The University of Colorado at Boulder

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On the Beach Nevil Shute Norway was born on January 17, 1899, in London. He first glimpsed warfare in Dublin during the Easter uprising of 1916, in which he acted as a stretcher-bearer. His older brother was killed during World War I. Nevil enlisted and spent the last three months of the war in England, and went on to study at Oxford University and become one of the most successful aeronautical engineers in Britain in the 1930s. His aviation company developed techniques that would help make air warfare extremely effective. While Shute's company grew to over 1,000 employees, he started writing novels, mostly romantic potboilers. He protected his reputation as an engineer by using the pen name "Nevil Shute" rather than his real last name, Norway. In 1939, Shute's company was bought out, so he spent World War II working on a special weapons project in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve. Ultimately, Shute worked full-time as a novelist. Between 1926 and 1960, he wrote twenty-four novels and an autobiography. He moved to Australia in 1949, where he lived until his death in 1960. It seems strange and unlikely that an aeronautical engineer who helped build and perfect military equipment would write a best-selling novel. Shute once said, "When I was a student I was taught that engineering was 'the art of directing the great sources of Power in Nature to the use and convenience of man.'" When did Shute begin to think that "the Power of Nature" could also be used to destroy the world? According to critic Julian Smith, the idea for On the Beach (1957) grew as a response to wishful thinking—then current in Australia—that radiation from a nuclear war in the Northern Hemisphere would be kept above the equator by the trade winds. Shute first intended to write a kind of modern Swiss Family Robinson about the prospect for continuation of human civilization in Australia after a nuclear war in the north. Shute, ever the scientist, researched the matter thoroughly and found out that winds would indeed carry radiation down to Australia. Although Shute left no written records documenting his internal thought process, it is clear from the tone of On the Beach that Shute wanted to alert people around the world to the danger of nuclear war, no matter where they lived. He deliberately made his characters ordinary so that people could relate to them. He wanted people to ask, "What would I do in the event of a nuclear holocaust?" and, even more important, "What can I do to keep a nuclear war from ever happening?" On the Beach was written in the midst of the Cold War, when tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union were high and the threat of a nuclear very real. The novel became a bestseller and received praise from a wide audience, including pacifists, theologians, philosophers, political scientists, and environmentalists. Two years after its publication, On the Beach was adapted into a major motion picture directed by Stanley Kramer, starring Gregory Peck as Dwight Towers and Ava Gardner as Moira Davidson. The film was well received in Moscow, where it was the first full-length American film to have a premiere in the Soviet Union. Shute used his military and engineering knowledge to make the characters and the details of On the Beach more realistic. Of all the characters, Shute himself is most akin to the scientist, John Osborne. Like Osborne, Shute also had a love for technology, though he knew technology could also be the ruin of humanity. Readers' Notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our SparkNotes—and to discuss those ideas with one another. Have a novel take or think we left something out? Add a Readers' Note!

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consumers are unfamiliar with juneberries, so sampling and point-of-purchase materials about handling and use would need to be included upon sale of juneberries or juneberry when Juneberries. 18 has large, broad-spreading, pink petals; an orchard of this Peach in bloom is well worth a long journey to see. MontGuide For More Online MontGuides, Visit www.msuextension.org MT198806AG Reviewed 1/10 This publication briefly explains the basics of growing Juneberry, also known as serviceberry and shadbush. Production in Canada •More than 400 commercial growers in Canada. • About 4000 acres planted to commercial Juneberries. •95% of Canadian production is in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. •$24 million was the estimated value of the 2004 Canadian crop. /June berries Serviceberries The Serviceberry ( Amelanchier ), also known as juneberry, saskatoon, mespilus, sarvis, shad-blossom and shadbush, is a genus of about 25 species of small deciduous trees and large shrubs in the family Rosaceae. Juneberries are native shrubs, with relatively few pest and disease concerns, and they produce a nutrient-dense fruit with high levels of iron, calcium and antioxidant compounds. Planting, Cultivating, and Marketing Juneberries in the Great Lakes Region T his new seminar is an introduction to small-scale Juneberry production. Juneberry Crisp Compliments of Good Earth Gardens Ingredients: 4 cups Juneberries 1/3 cup sugar 2 tbsp. lemon juice 1/2 cup brown sugar 4 tbsp butter 1/3 cup flour 3/4 cup oatmeal Directions: Preheat oven to 375 degrees. For more information about Juneberries and this educational project, please go to www.juneberries.org SEPTEMBER BERRY BAROMETER HELPING TO KEEP YOU UP TO THE MARK! Chokecherries Although chokecherries are not native to Alaska, they are widely used as ornamentals throughout the state. The botanical name is Prunus virgini-ana and the plant produces clusters of berries on bushy shrubs or trees.

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2013-05-24T09:19:01Z

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Of Civil War, Pioneers and Alligators- Submarine history during the American Civil War (1861- 1865) While Federal development efforts were burdened with conventional naval bureaucratic processes of contracting and evaluation, the Confederate efforts were able to benefit from a quick application of private initiative, which was in turn met with swift support from a government unburdened with the traditional bureaucracy of the type extant in the North. Confederate torpedo boats emerged as the South attempted to find ways to use torpedoes [mines] as offensive weapons. Capt. Francis D. Lee, a Confederate Army engineer, concluded that the best way to use the torpedo offensively would be to mount it on a spar forward of the bow of a boat and deliver it by ramming, a torpedo ram or torpedo boat. Initially the torpedo boat were rowboats, but these were soon followed by models powered by steam, either with an open deck (CSS Squib class) or partially covered with wood or iron (CSS Torch class). These were designed to ride low in the water, to make them hard to detect. The more sophisticated Davids were semi-submersible, with a cylindrical hull that was ballasted by iron or by water (via pumps), enabling them to ride low in the water. Most were about five feet in diameter and about 48 feet long with a 14-foot-long spar for the torpedo, but one captured at the end of the war was 160 feet long and 11.5 feet in diameter. Generally powered by steam, a few Davids were powered by oars or a screw turned by the crew. Confederate successes with torpedo boats were few. Efforts to develop fully submersible boats began on both sides as early as 1861. Whereas the US Navy`s submersible development efforts were laboriously slow and generally less successful than those of their Southern counterparts, within the Confederate States there rapidly emerged a somewhat more widespread and independent interest in submersible construction which localized in a number of coastal and riverside cities. At least four Confederate boats, American Diver, H.L. Hunley, St. Patrick, and the unnamed vessel or vessels constructed at the Tredegar Iron Works, were either built at government facilities or with the assistance of military personnel. Submersible construction efforts in the Southern Confederacy were basically centered in four areas: at the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia, at the Leeds Foundry in New Orleans, Louisiana, at the Park & Lyons Machine Shops in Mobile, Alabama, and at the Confederate naval facilities at Selma, Alabama. The most successful of these initiatives would ultimately prove to be the effort begun in New Orleans by McClintock, Watson, and their core coalition of financial backers. One of the approximately 50 Confederate privateers ultimately authorized by the government was James McClintock and Baxter Watson`s New Orleans-built Pioneer, which, while unable to fulfill its intended mission, in hindsight can be seen to have essentially comprised an experimental prototype for the H.L. Hunley. The Pioneer also owned the distinction of being the only submersible provided with a letter of marque and reprisal by the Confederate States. In 1863 McClintock built a second boat, American Diver, also of iron 1/4 inch thick, and in order to obtain more room as well as to correct the faults of the first boat, she was built with square sides. Dimensions was 36 feet long, 4 feet high, and 3 feet across top & bottom, with ends tapered like a wedge for a model, with a 30 inch propeller in the end. McClintock spent much time and money in efforts to work an Electro Magnetic Engine, but without success. McClintock afterwards fitted her up with cranks, to be turned by four men. But her speed was not sufficient to make her of service against blockaders To obtain room for the machinery and persons, she was built 36 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 4 feet high, 12 feet at each end was built tapering or modeled to make her easy to pass through the water. There was much time and money lost in efforts to build an electromagnetic engine for propelling the boat...I afterwards fitted cranks to turn the propeller by hand, working four men at a time, but the air being so closed, and the work so hard, that McClintock was unable to get a speed sufficient to make the boat of service against vessels, blockading the port. CSS H.L. Hunley During the American Civil War, Confederate inventor Horace L. Hunley converted a steam boiler into a submarine. This Confederate submarine could be propelled at four knots by a hand-driven screw. Unfortunately, the submarine sank twice during trials in Charleston, South Carolina. These accidental sinkings in Charleston harbor cost the lives of two crews. In the second accident the submarine was stranded on the bottom and Hunley himself was asphyxiated with eight other crewmembers. Subsequently, the submarine was raised and renamed Hunley. In 1864, armed with a 90-pound charge of powder on a long pole, Hunley attacked and sank a new Federal steam sloop, USS Housatonic, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor. After her successful attack on Housatonic, Hunley disappeared and her fate remained unknown for 131 years. In 1995 the wreck of the Hunley was located four miles off Sullivan’s Island, South Carolina. Plans are being made to raise Hunley for preservation and exhibition in Charleston. Even though she sank, Hunley proved that the submarine could be a valuable weapon in time of war. In 1861, French inventor Brutus De Villeroi convinced the Union Navy that he could build a submersible warship. In early 1861 Philadelphia Harbor police captured a partially-submerged, 33-foot long, cigar-shaped contraption moving slowly down the Delaware River. This “infernal machine,” as the paper described it, was the creation of French inventor, Brutus De Villeroi. With this deliberate publicity stunt, De Villeroi succeeded in convincing the Union Navy that he could produce a submersible warship from which a diver could place an explosive charge under an enemy ship. Six months later, in November 1861, he was under contract to build the Union’s first submarine. Built in Philadelphia, the 47-foot long Alligator was primarily intended to counter the threat of the Confederate ironclad, the Virginia. Although the Navy specified that the submarine’s construction take no more than 40 days at a cost of $14,000, the project suffered long delays. As project supervisor, De Villeroi delayed completion by making changes during the process of advancing the initial design to an operational naval vessel. As a result of serious liaison problems with the Navy, the contractor and himself, he effectively exited from the process and was later officially dismissed. On May 1, 1862 the 47-foot-long, oar-propelled Alligator became the first submersible warship of the US Navy. About a month after its launch the oar-propelled submarine was towed to Hampton Roads, Virginia. Her first missions: to destroy a strategically important bridge across the Appomattox River and to clear away obstructions in the James River. Unfortunately, both rivers were deep enough to allow the Alligator to submerge and she was returned to the Washington Navy Yard. In August 1862, Lt. Thomas O. Selfridge accepted command of the submarine, after being promised promotion to captain if he and the Alligator’s new crew destroyed the new Confederate ironclad, the Virginia II. During test runs in the Potomac, the Alligator proved to be underpowered and unwieldy. During one particular trial, the sub’s air quickly grew foul, the crew panicked, and all tried to get out of the same hatch at the same time, as a result Selfridge was compelled to call the whole enterprise “a failure.” He and his crew were reassigned and the vessel was sent to dry dock for extensive conversion. The dream of using this “secret weapon” against the Virginia II was scrapped. Over the next six months, the Alligator’s system of oars was replaced by a screw propeller. In early spring 1863, President Lincoln observed a demonstration of the “improved” vessel. Shortly thereafter, RADM Samuel Dupont ordered the Alligator, once again commanded by Eakins, to participate in the capture of Charleston, South Carolina. Towed by the USS Sumpter, the unmanned Alligator left Washington for Port Royal on 31 March 1863. While being towed south for the battle, the Alligator had to be cut loose during a storm off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Her current whereabouts are unknown, but an effort (launched in 2003) by the Office of Naval Research and NOAA could one day reveal the Secrets of the Aligator. Alligator was an engineering marvel that helped usher in a new era in undersea travel. Fabricated from riveted iron plates, a diver was intended to lock out of the submarine and attach explosives to enemy targets. It contained two crude air purifiers, a chemical based system for producing oxygen and a bellows to force air through lime. But until recently, little was known about the green, 47-foot-long Union vessel. The US Navy`s interest in using submarines continued during the Civil War, but it wasn`t until the war ended that the Navy purchased the Intelligent Whale from the American Submarine Company. The 22-foot-long, hand-cranked submarine was bought from its inventor Oliver Halstead. Intelligent Whale, an experimental hand-cranked submarine, was built on the design of Scovel S. Meriam in 1863 by Augustus Price and Cornelius S. Bushnell. In 1864 the American Submarine Co. was formed, taking over the interests of Bushnell and Price and there followed years of litigation over the ownership of the craft. When title was established by a court the submarine was sold October 29, 1869 to the Navy Department, with most of the price to be paid after successful trials. Intelligent Whale submerged by filling water compartments, and expelled the water by pumps and compressed air. It was estimated that it could stay submerged for about 10 hours. Thirteen crewmen could be accommodated, but only 6 were needed to make her operational. The only known trial, reported by submarine pioneer John Holland, was made by a certain General Sweeney and two others. They submerged the boat in 16 feet of water and Sweeney, clad in a diver`s suit, emerged through a hole in the bottom, placed a charge under a scow, and reentered the submarine. The charge was exploded by a lanyard and a friction primer attached to the charge sinking the scow. In September 1872 the first trial was held and was unsuccessful, whereupon the Department refused further payments and abandoned the project. Because of repeated failures, the Navy refused to commission the vessel. The Intelligent Whale is credited with inspiring John Holland to develop his more successful submarine. Intelligent Whale, an early experiment in a field now of central Importance, is on exhibit at the Navy Museum, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC. Back to History Index ||Merrimack 1862.The battle of Ironclads ||Naval history of the American Civil War (2ed series) (sheetlet of 6 stamps+ss) ||Naval history of the American Civil War (1st series) (sheetlet of 6 stamps+ss) ||Antigua & Barbuda ||1861-1865 The American Civil War

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en

Sunburn is an acute cutaneous inflammatory reaction that follows excessive exposure of the skin to ultraviolet radiation, primarily UVB. Sunburn depends on both your skin type - which determines your likelihood to burn or tan - and the amount of UVB exposure you receive. Skin types range from Type I to Type VI in a classification developed by Fitzpatrick and Pathak in 1975. You can identify your skin type according to the calssification mentioned based on whether you burn and/or tan after an hour in the midday sun at the start of summer. Once you know your skin type, the classification data then shows how many minutes before your skin will redden (without protection) when the UV Index is 6 or 8 or 10. The people most at risk of getting sunburn are children and those with fair or freckly skin and ginger hair. However anyone can get burnt. Some medicines can also make you more sensitive to the sun, such as certain antibiotics, tranquillisers, antifungal agents, the contraceptive Pill and diuretics. If you think your medicine might be making you more sensitive to the sun ask your pharmacist or doctor for advice. Getting sunburned is bad enough, but what you may not know is that a sunburn continues to develop for 12 to 24 hours after the initial burn takes place. Treat a sunburn the way you would treat any other burn. Apply a soothing compress dipped in cold water, cold skimmed milk or witch hazel. Cold plain yoghurt is also cooling and soothing. Apply to all sunburn areas then rinse off in a cool shower. A cool bath can also help ease the pain. Afterwards, pat the skin dry with a clean towel but do not rub the skin as you will make it worse. Soapy water or a bubble bath can irritate burnt skin. Moisturise your skin (for example with aqueous cream or E45) after a soak or compress as your skin will probably be quite dry after being sunburnt. Research has shown that aloe vera extract applied to a burn helps soothe the area and may help the sunburn treatment. lcepacks can also help if the burn is mild. An ideal icepack is a bag of frozen peas in a damp cloth held on the area for 15 minutes at a time while tea bags soaked in cool water and applied to eyelids will help reduce swelling and pain. Aspirin (300mg) or ibuprofen (200mg) can also help relieve the pain, itching, and swelling of sunburn. Take two tablets every four to six hours. Drink plenty of fluids - especially water - to counteract the drying effects of the sunburn. Sunless tanning products are simply the safest way to achieve a tan and are definitely the best alternative for those who burn easily. You may want to try several sunless tanning products to see which one works best with your own skin and coloring. The better quality self tanning products whether in cream, gel or spray form are made with the same active ingredient which stimulates pigment in the skin rather than dying it. These better quality products offer a natural looking tan, not orangey, that is more complimentary to your own coloring. Opt for a product that is hypoallergenic and also acts as a moisturizer. These products won't block pores or irritate sensitive skin.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.syl.com/travel/howtotreatsunburn.html

2013-05-24T09:47:15Z

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en

Source: Nature: "Unforgettable Elephants" Funding for the VITAL/Ready to Teach collection was secured through the United States Department of Education under the Ready to Teach Program. In this video segment from Nature, Martyn Colbeck, an award-winning cinematographer, describes filming the tropical rainforest elephants of the Congo. When Colbeck finds the elephants, he describes them as creating a “party atmosphere.” The elephants show that they care for and protect each other in the ways they play and share food, water and minerals. There are signs of competition among the elephants, also. Colbeck is disappointed he won’t have the opportunity to know more about this elephant family. For more about elephants see "Desert Elephants" and "Grassland Elephants," two of three video segments in the series. Animal science, elephants The following Frame, Focus and Follow-up suggestions are best suited for middle school students using this video in an English language arts or science lesson. Be sure to modify the questions to meet your students' instructional needs. What is Frame, Focus and Follow-up? Frame (ELA) What is the difference between scientific writing and narrative writing, or storytelling? Focus (ELA) How does Colbeck describe the elephants? Does he report like a scientist? Does he tell us a story? Follow Up (ELA) Discuss how the elements of the “Desert Elephants” video segment are scientifically reported. Discuss how they tell a story. What are the characteristics of each type of writing? Frame (SCI) What do you know about the transfer of energy in living organisms? Focus (SCI) How do these desert elephants transfer energy? Follow Up (SCI) Living organisms, like elephants, transfer energy through the consumption of food. Discuss how these desert elephants can transfer energy in this environment. Do you think these elephants could be moved to the jungle and still survive? Why or why not? MARTYN COLBECK: Now at last I had a chance to film the almost mythical desert elephants. The landscape in which they eke out a living is one of the most austere on Earth. I fell in love with it immediately. The desert is a photographer’s dream. Colours shimmer: everything is transformed by the heat haze. Everywhere I looked, exciting images stared back at me. I wondered how any animals could live here, let alone elephants; and why would they risk setting out across the desert? I had to find out. Just locating these elephants in these conditions was the first hurdle. Weeks went by as my guide, Paul Brehem and I searched. Finally, I got my first unbelievable glimpse. What I saw was a complete contrast to the way I’d previously seen elephants, against the lush green of the savannah. Food and water are scarce and far apart. The secret of the elephants’ survival is the hidden presence of dry riverbeds. These rivers only flood briefly, but they bring just enough water to allow some vegetation to grow. I really wanted to film the elephants crossing the vast sand dunes. Just occasionally they go between the river systems…so the river system we are on now is 70 kilometers north of the next one down and incredibly, these elephants cross these dunes behind me …just unbelievable… I faced many more weeks waiting for them to attempt their journey. For me, the image I remember out of that whole period …and I was here 10 months…was when the elephants crossed in front of these dunes… they were yellow dunes and they were crested by this incredible sort of red crumbled garnet. I could scarcely believe it. This was the image I had dreamed about. The scene got even better. The last female elephant suddenly notices the oryx walking the other way. She looks a little outraged to me. And this is what they were heading for…an isolated waterhole. Elephants need 70 to 90 liters of water a day. They hadn’t drunk for 5 days. They must have an amazing mental map of this area…it is so vast, and in order to eke out a living they must know where the food is, they must know where the water is, so that requires quite a lot of brainpower. Academic standards correlations on Teachers' Domain use the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) database of state and national standards, provided to NSDL projects courtesy of JES & Co. We assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. If a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by ASN or by Teachers' Domain. We will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/vtl07.la.rv.text.desert/

2013-05-24T09:45:10Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704433753/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114033-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Page 1 of 2 - To score by kicking the soccer ball past the goalie and into the goal. - Two soccer balls at each goal - Two teams are placed at each goal area. - One team stands behind the goal with one member becoming the goalie. - The other team stands about 20 yards in front of the goal and has one member attempting to score on the goalie from designated locations on the field. - Team members rotate until every person has a turn and then the teams switch positions. - Successful goals determine the team scores. - Have two players on defense (goalie and fullback) and two on offense. - Change the distance and angle of the shots. - To kick or throw the ball into the opponent's goal. - Soccer ball - Material to tie legs together - Each player ties one leg to the leg of a teammate. - The game begins with the ball on the ground. - The ball can be caught only after it is kicked in the air. - Only one hand can be used to catch and throw the ball. - No goalie is permitted and goals must be scored from a distance of at least ten yards from the goal. - Use two goals at each end of the field. This will increase the action. - Play the game without using hands. - Use two or more balls. - To keep the ball away from the opposing team using soccer skills. - Soccer ball for each group of five players - Three players attempt to keep the ball away from two players by dribbling and passing in a defined area. - Players change positions when a ball is intercepted or stolen on a dribble. - Vary the number of players on offense and defense. - To have every player kick the ball before the team can score a goal. - Soccer ball for each team - Have players assume positions in their playing zones. - There are no defensive players. - The goalie throws or kicks the ball to a teammate. - Every player must kick the ball before a goal can be scored. - Make the game competitive by timing how long it takes to score a goal. Rotate a new team on the field as soon as one team scores. - Require a certain type of kick or position on the field in order for a goal to count. - Decrease the size of the field. - To practice soccer skills using balloons. - Heavy duty round balloons - Balloons can be effective teaching aids when teaching lead-up skills. - They add sparkle to classes practicing ball-skill fundamentals. - Soccer kicks such as the instep, side of the foot, and volley can all be practiced with a balloon. - The thigh, instep, and chest traps also lend themselves to balloon usage. - Throw-ins can also be practiced by painting lines on the balloons to check for spin. - Practice ball skills for other sports also; volleyball, basketball, football, etc. Asian-Pacific-American Heritage Month May is Asian-Pacific-American Heritage Month! Don't overlook this opportunity to study and enjoy activities about the history and culture of Asian-Pacific American communities. The recent rash of tornadoes in Oklahoma, which killed at least two dozen people, may have your students wondering why such natural disasters occur, how they may be affected by them, and what they can do to help. Use these resources to teach the geography of Oklahoma and the Southwestern United States, to explain tornadoes, and to discuss the resulting crises with your class. Top 10 Galleries Explore our most popular Top 10 galleries, from Top 10 Behavior Management Tips for the Classroom and Top 10 Classroom Organization Tips from Veteran Teachers to Top 10 Free (& Cheap) Rewards for Students and Top 10 Things Every Teacher Needs in the Classroom. We'll help you get organized and prepared for every classroom situation, holiday, and more! Check out all of our galleries today. May Calendar of Events May is full of holidays and events that you can incorporate into your standard curriculum. Our Educators' Calendar outlines activities for each event, including: Backyard Games Week (5/23-29) and Memorial Day (5/27). Plus, celebrate Asian-Pacific-American Heritage Month, Clean Air Month, and Physical Fitness & Sports Month all May long! Common Core Lessons & Resources Is your school district adopting the Common Core? Work these new standards into your curriculum with our reading, writing, speaking, social studies, and math lessons and activities. Each piece of content incorporates the Common Core State Standards into the activity or lesson.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.teachervision.fen.com/sports/activity/5889.html

2013-05-24T09:11:16Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704433753/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114033-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Einstein's theory of general relativity is a theory of gravity and, as in the earlier Newtonian theory, much can be learned about the character of gravitation and its effects by investigating particular idealized examples. This book describes the basic solutions of Einstein's equations with a particular emphasis on what they mean, both geometrically and physically. New concepts, such as big bang and big crunch-types of singularities, different kinds of horizons and gravitational waves, are described in the context of the particular space-times in which they naturally arise. These notions are initially introduced using the most simple and symmetric cases. Various important coordinate forms of each solution are presented, thus enabling the global structure of the corresponding space-time and its other properties to be analyzed. The book is an invaluable resource both for graduate students and academic researchers working in gravitational physics. show more show less

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.textbooksrus.com/search/bookdetail/default.aspx?isbn=9781107406186

2013-05-24T09:39:31Z

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en

Two sacred cows of nutrition for the people of the United States have been bread and milk. The low carb craze has heightened the public’s awareness about the dangers associated with refined starches, such as most cereals, breads, and pasta. Many people steer clear of these more refined starches and many even avoid the whole grains. Whole grains do contain fiber that assists in intestinal peristalsis, and also tends to assist in blood sugar regulation.1 Despite these benefits, whole grains are rich in pro-inflammatory substances, suggesting that we should eat only condiment-sized portions of whole grains. Whole grains contain only the pro-inflammatory omega-6 fatty acids, gliadin, lectins, and they promote tissue acidity.2 The pro-inflammatory nature of all grains is a severe blow to many who crave this starchy food. Nonetheless, in 2004, when we in Florida were hit with four hurricanes, the grocery stores were quickly emptied of their bread supplies. I don’t know what storms do to the minds of people; however, they seem to powerfully influence their food choices. When storms move into town, bread and milk quickly leave the supermarkets. My perception is that most people continue to view bread and milk as two important staples…and nothing is further from the truth. Humans are designed to eat vegetation (vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, and tubers) and animals that ate vegetation. From a historical and evolutionary perspective, grains and dairy are new foods. Refined grains are known to be unhealthy, while whole grains receive positive reviews—even though they offer many pro-inflammatory possibilities. Unlike whole grains, dairy has received some bad press over the years, as lactose intolerance is not uncommon. Many have also heard arguments about the likely unhealthy nature of processed milk, or that casein, the milk protein, is not an ideal protein source. And there is evidence suggesting that early introduction of milk to children can promote allergies.3 While the jury is still out, recent evidence suggests that milk consumption may be risky, particularly for those over the age of 30 who are moving toward developing syndrome X—a prediabetic state that is thought to promote diabetes and its many related diseases, such as cancer and heart disease. In part, syndrome X is characterized by hyperinsulinemia, which can be greatly influenced by diet. Most readers are familiar with the glycemic index (GI), which basically refers to the blood sugar response after a food is ingested. The higher the index, the greater the blood sugar response. A low GI would be 55 or less, a medium GI is considered to be 56-69, and high GI is 70 or more. Typically, the insulin response is commensurate to the GI, which means our goal should be to eat foods with a low glycemic index. Visit www.glycemicindex.com for a listing of GI’s for most foods. Foods such as fruits, vegetables, animal products, and dairy have a low glycemic index, compared with refined foods and certain whole grain products. Skim and whole milk have a GI of about 30, which is low and desirable. However, it seems that the milk’s low GI is betrayed by a high insulin response. Researchers found that the insulinemic response to milk is similar to that of white bread, which has a high glycemic index. In short, milk promotes an insulin response that is three to six times greater than would be expected based on the GI of milk.4 Of dairy products, only cheese has a low insulinemic response: 45 for cheese, compared to 145 for whole and skim milk.5 It seems possible that our reliance on milk as a staple food may play a role in the development of syndrome X and diabetes. Caution should be exercised when consuming milk and milk products until more is known. Dr. Seaman is the Clinical Chiropractic Consultant for Anabolic Laboratories, one of the first supplement manufacturers to service the chiropractic profession. He is on the postgraduate faculties of several chiropractic colleges, providing nutrition seminars that focus on the needs of the chiropractic patient. Dr. Seaman can be reached by e-mail at 1. Pereira MA et al. Effect of whole grains on insulin sensitivity in overweight hyperinsulinemic adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:848–855 2. Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity’s double-edged sword. World Rev Nutr Diet 1999; 84:19-73 3. Iacono G, Cavataio F, Montalto G, Soresi M, Notarbartolo A, Carroccio A. Persistent cow’s milk protein intolerance in infants: the changing faces of the same disease. Clin Exp Allergy. 199; 28:817-23 4. Ostman EM, Elmstahl H, Bjorck I. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermeted milk products. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74:96-100 5. Hoyt G, Hickey Ms, Cordain L. Dissociation of the glycemic and insulinemic responses to whole and skimmed milk. Brit J Nutr 2005; 93:175-77

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.theamericanchiropractor.com/articles-nutrition/5645-milk-may-be-a-driver-of-diabetes.html

2013-05-24T09:18:36Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704433753/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114033-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Federalism is distinguished from unitary government, in which subnational institutions derive their authority from the central government and are therefore subordinate to it; it is also different from various forms of association, such as economic communities or military alliances, whose members retain sovereign powers and can withdraw from the arrangement at will. A true federation, in the modern sense, means a STATE in which the component units are not sovereign and cannot legally secede (see CONSTITUTIONAL LAW). Establishing a Federal Union Although imaginative efforts have been made to trace the history of federalism back into antiquity, the US Constitution (1787) is the earliest example of a modern federal constitution. The possibility of establishing a federal union among the remaining British colonies of North America was considered sporadically early in the 19th century, and more seriously from 1857 onwards. Negotiations among political leaders from the PROVINCE OF CANADA, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia resulted later in the Imperial Parliament's adoption of the BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT, which united those 3 colonies into a federal state in 1867. CONFEDERATION marks the beginning of Canadian federalism. Unification was desired, particularly by commercial interests, as a means of facilitating economic growth, territorial expansion and military defence. Retention of existing governments and boundaries, however, was desired by many influential people for a variety of reasons. French Canadians, a majority only in Québec, were unwilling to place all powers in the hands of a central government where they would be a minority. There was also a strong sense of provincial identity in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Federalism was therefore a necessary compromise. Prime Minister John A. MACDONALD was not enthusiastic about federalism and would have preferred a unitary state. Moreover, the American Civil War had contributed to a belief that powerful provincial governments would be a source of instability. For these reasons the Canadian Constitution includes features incompatible with a strict theory of federalism. The lieutenant-governor of each province, who is appointed by the central government, can prevent provincial legislation from taking effect until the central government has approved it. The central government can also disallow any provincial statute within a year of its adoption (see DISALLOWANCE). Parliament can adopt legislation concerning education within a province to protect the rights of certain religious minorities and can also declare that "works and undertakings" within a province fall under its jurisdiction, regardless of the normal DISTRIBUTION OF POWERS. The British North America Act, because of these unitary features, has been described as quasi-federal rather than strictly federal, but the quasi-federal powers have fallen into disuse. Although Canadian politicians have a reputation for being uninterested in political theory, they have actually articulated a variety of different concepts of Canadian federalism. Differences of opinion over federalism have been sharper in Canada over a longer period than in most federations, and no consensus has ever been achieved regarding the appropriate relationship between the 2 levels of government, either in theory or in practice. National and provincial politicians tend to espouse different views, and these have become associated with partisan conflict when one party has held office at the national level for a long period while enjoying less success at the provincial level. Macdonald's quasi-federal concept was associated with the CONSERVATIVE PARTY until about 1900, when the generation of politicians that had been involved in drafting the BNA Act ceased to be influential in that party. It has had little support during this century, although a centralist view of federalism, emphasizing the importance of a strong and active central government, continues to enjoy considerable support. Modern centralists do not normally emphasize using the quasi-federal powers of disallowance and reservation. Instead, they argue for a broad interpretation of Parliament's legislative powers and believe that the central government should be permitted to make policy in its areas of jurisdiction without consulting the provincial governments. They also believe that the central government should have access to a predominant share of revenue from taxation and that it should be entitled to make conditional grants to provincial governments even in relation to matters not strictly within its jurisdiction. A centralist view of federalism, with certain qualifications, was expressed in the 1940 report of the Royal Commission on DOMINION-PROVINCIAL RELATIONS (the Rowell-Sirois Commission). Since then, centralist ideas about federalism have been influential in the LIBERAL PARTY. The NEW DEMOCRATIC PARTY also tends towards a centralist position. Politicians and political thinkers who have articulated a centralist concept of federalism include Louis ST-LAURENT, F.R. SCOTT, Eugene FORSEY, David LEWIS, Bora LASKIN, and, in his last years as prime minister, Pierre Elliott TRUDEAU. MACDONALD's view that the provincial governments should be subordinated to the central government was controversial from the outset, and in the early 1880s a Québec judge, T.J.J. LORANGER, wrote that the central government had been created by the provincial governments and that no increase in the central government's powers, and indeed no substantial change in the Constitution, was permissible without the unanimous consent of the provincial governments. This view became known as the Compact Theory of Confederation and was expressed at the interprovincial conference of 1887, organized by Québec Prime Minister Honoré MERCIER. A similar view was expressed by certain premiers during the constitutional discussions of 1980-81. The emphasis on the importance of provincial autonomy has been influential since 1939 in the Progressive Conservative Party and in all parties at the provincial level in Québec. The REFORM PARTY also tends to support this position. Supporters of the anticentralist view believe that the functions of the central government should be limited to those that the provincial governments cannot perform for themselves, and that its control over revenue should be restricted accordingly. They have also argued, particularly in recent years, that the central government should consult the provincial governments before initiating major policies. An eloquent statement of the anticentralist view was the 1956 report of the Québec Royal Commission on CONSTITUTIONAL PROBLEMS and a more recent expression of the concept may be found in the 1979 report of the task force on CANADIAN UNITY. Canadian federalism, in practice, has fluctuated between the extremes of centralization and DECENTRALIZATION in response to a variety of political, economic and social circumstances. Macdonald's preference for a highly centralized regime seems to have triumphed for a few years after Confederation, but by the 1880s the provincial governments were becoming as powerful as their US counterparts, if not more so. Provincial control over natural resources, especially after 1930, facilitated the development of largely self-contained provincial economies, and the concentration of secondary manufacturing in Ontario made its government particularly important and influential. Deteriorating relations between francophone and anglophone Canadians undermined Macdonald's Conservative Party and increased anticentralist sentiment in Québec. Centralization revived temporarily during WWI and immediately after, when the central government levied an income tax for the first time in 1917, imposed military conscription and exercised an unprecedented control over the economy. These tendencies were largely reversed after 1921, and the Great Depression demonstrated that the central government lacked the power to deal effectively with a severe economic crisis. Efforts were made to ensure that centralization during WWII would have more lasting effects than it had had during WWI. The central government monopolized personal income tax from 1941 until 1954, and constitutional amendments gave Parliament the power to establish EMPLOYMENT INSURANCE and universal PENSIONS paid from a special fund in 1940 and 1951 respectively. Interpretation of the BNA Act by the JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL, which was considered to be favourable to provincial autonomy, was terminated in 1949. During the postwar period, extensive conditional grants were introduced to encourage provincial spending on health and welfare, and federal grants were given directly to universities. A Shift of Power A shift of power towards the provincial governments, however, became evident after 1960, when a dynamic and interventionist Québec government, headed by Jean LESAGE, emerged as an effective opponent of centralization. Other contributing factors included the growing importance of provincial natural resources, the decline of the old commercial and financial elite based in Montréal, economic integration between Canada and the US, and the development of a more competitive party system at the national level after the defeat of St-Laurent 's Liberal government in 1957. Between 1960 and 1980 these circumstances led to a substantial increase in the provincial share of TAXATION and PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. Grants to universities were replaced by subsidies to the provinces. By OPTING OUT of certain conditional grant programs, Québec received unconditional grants in return and established its own contributory pension plan, although the central government established one for residents of other provinces. Conferences between the Prime Minister and provincial premiers became more frequent, a phenomenon described as "executive federalism." Provincial governments began to intervene more aggressively in provincial economies and also challenged the right of the central government to make economic policy without their collaboration or consent. Provincial relations with foreign governments also became significant, particularly in the case of Québec, whose nationalist movement was encouraged by President Charles de Gaulle of France. The dramatic increase in Alberta's petroleum revenues after 1972 imposed further strains on the federal system and made that province's government increasingly contemptuous of the federal authorities. In Québec the emergence of a major political party dedicated to seeking independence for that province, the PARTI QUÉBÉCOIS, suggested that the survival of Canadian federalism could not be taken for granted. A separatist movement in western Canada also attracted considerable attention 1980-82. Departure from Centralism Formal changes in a country's constitution usually follow, rather than precede, informal shifts in economic and political power. The trend away from centralization in Canadian federalism was under way by 1960, and demands for a formal transfer of constitutional authority towards the provincial level of government became widespread in Québec shortly afterwards. Other provinces, with the partial exception of Ontario, had little interest in constitutional change at that time; this encouraged the idea of "special status," whereby only Québec would receive additional powers. After 1972, increasing natural-resource revenues caused a number of other provincial governments to demand additional powers in a revised constitution, Alberta being the most militant. In response to these pressures, the central government convened a number of intergovernmental conferences on constitutional change between 1968 and 1981, although it insisted that a charter of individual rights and the restructuring of national institutions be discussed in addition to the distribution of legislative powers. A related problem was the absence of an amending formula in the BNA Act. The constitutional negotiations included efforts to devise such a formula as a necessary prelude to "patriating" the Constitution, a matter that had been sporadically and inconclusively discussed as far back as 1927. In 1980 the Trudeau government attempted to patriate the Constitution with an amending formula that would require the support of Ontario, Québec, 2 western provinces and 2 Atlantic provinces for any subsequent change, and simultaneously to entrench a CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS in the Constitution. This initiative, which followed the breakdown of negotiations over the distribution of powers, was opposed by 8 provincial governments, and was ruled unconstitutional in the conventional sense, although not illegal, by the Supreme Court of Canada. Further negotiations led to qualifications in the charter of rights and replacement of the original amending formula by one that required the approval of 7 provinces comprising at least half of Canada's population, but permitted dissenting provinces to exempt themselves from the application of amendments that would reduce their powers. All provincial governments except Québec accepted this compromise, which took effect when the constitution was formally "patriated" on 17 April 1982. Québec regarded the federal concessions as inadequate, and particularly objected to the entrenchment of language rights for its anglophone minority. Although the Supreme Court subsequently ruled that Québec's consent had not been required to amend and patriate the constitution, efforts to secure a constitutional settlement acceptable to Québec resumed in 1986. These efforts culminated in an agreement among the 11 first ministers in the MEECH LAKE ACCORD of April 1987, which would have recognized Québec as a distinct society; provided for provincial participation in the selection of senators and justices of the Supreme Court; restricted the federal power to spend in areas of provincial jurisdiction; recognized provincial powers over immigration; and made slight changes on the amending formula (see MEECH LAKE ACCORD: DOCUMENT). Opposition to the Meech Lake Accord from a growing number of interest groups, the native people and Newfoundland premier Clyde WELLS scuttled the Accord in June 1990. A second round of constitutional negotiations resulted in a new agreement (the CHARLOTTETOWN ACCORD) among the premiers and federal government, which was resoundingly defeated in a national referendum in 1992 (see CHARLOTTETOWN ACCORD: DOCUMENT). Although intended to bring a greater consensus among Canadians, the numerous public forums and government commissions exposed even greater divisions. The independence movement in Québec, which had appeared to lose momentum after the PQ referendum, re-emerged after the failure of the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords, this time on the federal level with the BLOC QUÉBÉCOIS. Western protest which had subsided as the Mulroney government erased memories of the National Energy Policy, resurfaced over opposition to the GST, and was embodied in the Reform Party. Although the federalist Liberal Party won a large majority in 1993, it faced 2 powerful parties in the Commons, both committed to radically different views of Canadian federalism. The Liberal government after 1993 did not return to the centralist policies of the Trudeau era, some of which would no longer be permitted under NAFTA. Instead it concentrated on reducing the federal deficit by measures that included reduced spending on social programs and transferring federal functions to the provinces or to the private sector. Whatever the future may hold in store, patriation of the Constitution and 2 extended rounds of constitutional negotiations have brought Canada no closer to achieving consensus on the direction in which federalism should evolve. A second QUÉBEC REFERENDUM on sovereignty in October 1995 revealed widespread dissatisfaction with federalism. Supporters of greater provincial autonomy emphasize the diversity of provincial interests and argue that a more stable and legitimate political order would result if the distribution of power between the 2 levels of government was adjusted to accord with what they view as the socioeconomic realities. On the other hand, those who support the retention or enlargement of the central government's powers argue that decentralization is more the cause than the consequence of interprovincial diversities and that it ignores the significant common interests of Canadians, which can only be expressed through a strong central government. They also argue that excessive decentralization weakens Canada's economy and Canada's influence in the world. It is unlikely that these differences of opinion will be resolved soon, whether or not Québec chooses to secede from the Canadian federation. Author GARTH STEVENSON Garth Stevenson, Unfulfilled Union: Canadian Federalism and National Unity (3rd ed, 1989), and Ex Uno Plures: Federal-Provincial Relations in Canada 1867-1896 (1993); Francois Rocher and Miriam Smith, New Trends in Canadian Federalism (1995). Links to Other Sites Informative website devoted to the history and evolution of federalism in Canada. From the Centre for Research and Information on Canada. How Canadians Govern Themselves See an online version of Eugene Forsey's very readable book about Canada's parliamentary system of government. Also compares Canadian and American forms of government. Includes biographical notes on the author. From the Parliament of Canada. Forum of Federations The website for the "Forum of Federations," a non-profit, international organization based in Ottawa. The Forum has created an international network on federalism that brings together practitioners, scholars, and youth to learn and share ideas and experiences.

<urn:uuid:96920e43-c257-4b12-a348-9f45eb63c709>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/federalism

2013-05-24T09:32:33Z

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en

The water over the banks is mainly supplied by the southward-flowing cold LABRADOR CURRENT. This current splits as it approaches the Grand Banks, with one branch moving south along the coast of Newfoundland through Avalon Channel to St Pierre Bank. The major branch circulates clockwise around the Grand Bank, concentrated at its outer edge. Warm Gulf Stream waters are generally located south of the Grand Banks, but do on occasion move north onto the southern edge of the banks. Warm air masses moving from the Gulf Stream over the colder Labrador current water produce heavy FOG, especially in spring, when the air-sea temperature differences are greatest. ICEBERGS, carried along the edge of the banks by the Labrador current, are also most numerous in spring. The banks are an internationally known fishing ground most noted for cod, but haddock, redfish, flatfish (including halibut), mackerel and herring are also caught. European explorers first noted the abundant fish resource in the late 15th century, and shortly thereafter the Grand Banks began to attract numerous European fishermen. The first settlements on Newfoundland were established as bases for drying and salting fish for transport back to Europe. In the 20th century, European, American and Canadian boats continued to fish on the banks, being joined in the mid-1950s by large Soviet and Japanese vessels. In 1977 Canada extended its offshore jurisdiction to include most of the Grand Banks, and foreign fishing was reduced. In 1992 the collapse of COD stocks led to the imposition of a moratorium on fishing cod over most of the Newfoundland and Labrador banks, including the Grand Banks. Some limited fishing was resumed in 1998 but the cod stocks are still at very low levels and have not yet recovered. Oil drilling, which began on the banks in the late 1970s, gained public attention with the disastrous loss of the OCEAN RANGER rig and its crew of 84 persons on 15 February 1982. Oil production from the Hibernia oil field began in November 1997, followed by the Terra Nova field in January 2002. Author KEN DRINKWATER and ALLYN CLARKE Links to Other Sites The Grand Banks This fact-filled website about the Grand Banks of Newfoundland explains why it is one of the richest fishing grounds in the world. From Parks Canada. Census of Marine Life The website for the Census of Marine Life, an international network of researchers engaged in a 10-year scientific assessment of the diversity, distribution, and abundance of life in the oceans. Features an image gallery and video clips of previous expeditions and interviews with Census scientists. Dory Shop Museum The website for Shelburne's Dory Shop Museum, where visitors can learn about the development of the dory, a small craft that became a vital part of the Grand Banks fishery. The North Atlantic Oscillation An academic paper about the North Atlantic Oscillation, described as the "large-scale seesaw behaviour in sea-level atmospheric pressure fields," and its influence on ocean climate and marine biodiversity. From the website for Integrated Science Data Management, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. The official website for the Hibernia oil drilling platform offers information about the drilling process, management of ice hazards, and much more.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&TCE_Version=A&ArticleId=A0003368&mState=1

2013-05-24T09:39:28Z

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The Cretan Alphabets. Mr. Louis Dyor, M. A., gave the second of his three lectures on "Recent Discoveries in Crete" in the Fogg Lecture Room last night, taking as his special subject "The Cretan Alphabets." He said in part: Until recently the only account of the original Phoenician alphabet -- from which it is agreed the Western alphabets descend through their undoubted ancestor, the Greek,--said that it was derived from an Egyptian Hieratic system of writing. In this theory there is a break of more than a thousand years which separate the Moabite stone from the Prisse Papyrus, "the oldest book in the world." It is possible that the Semites contributed to our alphabet the names of the letters. With these names came, probably through the same people, its specifically alphabetic character. But it is evident that, previous to the name-giving and selecting intervention of the East, the long history of our alphabet was a Western one and its home was the Mediterranean It was the Eastern and Aegaean shores of the Mediterranean, including Asia Minor, that witnessed the earliest development of what may be called a Western civilization. In the Western part of this East-Mediterranean area, Mr. Arthur Evans in 1894 found some records of an ancient Western system of writing, an outgrowth of the early savage pictograph made in all parts of the Mediterranean district by primitive mankind. He found on Cretan engraved stones a system of Cretan pictographs corresponding to the Hittite pictograph. He also found a system of Cretan linear signs analogous to the Capriote characters. We can approximately make out that these Western systems of writing, centered in Crete, go back to the date of the early Egyptian Hieratic script selected as the model of the Phoenician alphabet by Count Emmanuel de Rouge's theory and thus, if theory is abandoned, and a derivation from Cretan pictographs is substituted, we have a more or less ascertained history to substitute for de-Rouge's backward leap of one thousand years. The resemblances between Cretan pictographs actually discovered at Knossos by Mr. Evans, and the "Phoenician" alphabet of the Moabite stone are very numerous and striking. On the other hand, those pointed out by de Rouge with Egyptian Hieratic of the XII Dynasty are almost purely fanciful. The hypothesis may be made that the Eteocretans migrated to southern Syria and there became Semitized as the Philistines of Holy Writ. They carried with them from Crete a system of pictographs which was renamed and perfected in Syria, and from which was derived the "Phoenician" alphabet which in later days was restored to its originators by Cadmus.

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http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1900/12/19/the-cretan-alphabets-pmr-louis-dyor/

2013-05-24T09:26:02Z

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In modern terminology this is called Close Support Bridging, designed to operate in the direct and indirect fire zone i.e. under fire. It is important to note that in many conflicts conventional equipment bridging equipment has and is used under fire but dedicated assault bridging equipment really came into being in response to the needs of the tank. However, before the tank there were some equipment designs that supported rapid bridging under fire, or at least in the thick of it. The Congreve Trough was a simple assault bridge or trestle invented by Sir William Congreve, best known for his rockets. World War I and the Emergence of the Tank It was the emergence of the tank in WWI that saw the birth of modern assault bridging. Major General Sir Ernest Dunlop Swinton RE, author of Duffers Drift and war correspondent was credited with proposing the first practical armed and armoured vehicle, mounted on tracks. These were first called land ships but were renamed tanks by Swinton in order to provide a measure of deception. Another Sapper officer, Brigadier H J Elles, went on to lead, in person, the Tank Corps on their first major success at Cambrai in November 1917. Many of the stock spans of the time were simply unable to carry the weight of the new vehicles and were extensively redesigned. Tanks would thus have a major impact on bridge design but assault bridging was a completely new area of development. The seeds of the bridgelaying tank were sown by a former Royal Navy officer, Admiral Bacon, who was then a manager at the Coventry Ordnance Works. The early tracked vehicles were unarmoured artillery tractors and the suggestion was that these could carry a small bridge section to enable them to traverse obstacles. Although the idea was not developed it was a concept that would come to fruition later as it was realised that the tank alone could not manage the extensive trench works in the area. Early experiments involved bridges on sleds but the then Charles Inglis redesigned the Inglis Mk I bridge with the resultant Inglis Mk II bridge, the inspiration for the Bailey Bridge, able to carry the heavier loads. After a visit to France, Charles Inglis also designed a tank carried 21 foot bridge called the Lock Bridge, the first tank carried assault bridge, although it was too late to see service. Another image here Despite the early promising designs it was the simple fascine that was to see most service in WWI. A fascine is simply a bundle of brushwood lashed together to form a lightweight gap crossing. It can also be used to secure the banks of rivers or other construction uses but for the purposes of this post it is the former. They have been used since the early days of warfare, in the published work, a Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons by Francis Grose, published in 1786, he mentions their use a number of times. Derived from the Roman word Fasci, its greatest advantage is that it can be constructed more or less on the spot, it is a simple device. In 1917 the newly formed Tank Corps was started to look for the most effective terrain to test the new vehicles with as little shell holes and mud as possible. Cambrai was selected because of the terrain and after looking at the comparative cost of using artillery fire to destroy the barbed wire along the proposed attack route it was clear that the tank at least presented an economical alternative. GHQ, however, remained sceptical, pointing out that in some places the trenches were up to 18 feet wide, too wide for the tank to cross. The answer was the ancient technology of the fascine. Despite the Royal Tank Corp’s enthusiasm GHQ remained sceptical and concentrated on planning the Third Battle of Ypres, a battle where tanks were continually squandered in unsuitable ground. By mid-September it was clear that the Third Battle of Ypres had been a failure and so reluctantly the Tank Corps Cambrai plan was approved. The attack started on the 20th November using a carefully planned combined arms approach and initial advances were rapid. After the inconclusive results of using tanks at Ypres and by the French at a number of locations it was thought to be make or break for the new machines. Despite being ultimately inconclusive, the Battle of Cambrai showed that the humble fascine could be used to support tanks and tanks were here to stay. Prior to the battle 400 fascines were constructed, 11 feet in diameter and 10 foot long. Whilst the construction work was the responsibility of the Tank Corps Central Workshop the majority were made by the 51st Chinese Labour Company who were attached to the Workshop. The timber for the fascines came from the Forest of Crecy and special techniques were used to compress them, two tanks driving in opposite directions! 18 tanks were specifically modified to carry the fascine bundles. Reinforcing the old adage of train hard fight easy, fascine launch drills were relentlessly practiced, using a technique devised by none other than Colonel Fuller himself. The tanks worked in sections of three with the lead tank responsible for barbed wire clearance, stopping just short of the obstacle it would veer away to the side and provide covering fire for the two follow on vehicles that would be carrying the fascines. These would be dropped into the gap with the first tank following through. It was an effective drill and its elegant simplicity did much to restore the morale of the tank crews who had suffered in the mud of Ypres. In a precursor to the great deceptions prior to D Day a wide variety of counter intelligence and deception activities were used to mask intentions and keep the massive build of forces secret. A little known aspect of the battle was the logistic preparations beforehand. Using a combination of light railways, trucks and of course horses, an enormous amount of material was moved forward with little knowledge of the German forces. The tanks themselves were moved from the Plateau rail head, located close to Central Workshops. Operation Hush was the planned amphibious landing on the Belgian coast by the British 1st Division. Although the operation was cancelled it is an interesting case study in armoured amphibious landings and the need for specialist combat engineering, a lesson that was to be learned again at great cost at Dieppe many years later. The sea wall would need to be breached and testing on replicas confirmed that a suitable tank carried ramp as shown below would allow the tanks to traverse them. The Inter War Years Development of tank launched bridges continued after the Great War and saw the establishment of a permanent home for combat engineering and bridging established at The Barracks Christchurch in Dorset. The tanks influence on other forms of bridging and military activity in general was firmly recognised. Shortly before the armistice three Royal Engineers Tank Bridging Battalions were formed but with the end of the war these were disbanded, the last of the three forming the Experimental Bridging Company, Royal Engineers in 1919. The EBC was eventually transformed into the predominantly civilian Experimental Bridging Establishment although command of the establishment was not to be civilian until Sir Donald Bailey became its first Director in 1957. There were a number of committees formed that oversaw overall direction, A Committee, field engineer equipment, B Committee, air defence, C Committee Signals, D Committee, Radar and E Committee, camouflage. Trials with modified the Heavy Tank Mark V** continued, especially with the 21 feet canal lock bridge that could carry a load of 35 tonnes. The tank launched Inglis Mark II Assault Bridge was refined but as tanks, embodied by designs such as the Vickers Medium Mark I, became much lighter it became apparent that carrying tank launched bridges on the front of the tank would no longer be possible as the weight of the bridge would tip the tank forward. Bridges would have to be carried on the top of tanks and launched from a static position, thus the Bateman Assault Bridge designed and trialled, the first tank launched bridge to carry its bridge on the roof, although the vehicle was a Dragon artillery tractor. The bridge was launched horizontally, it being winched forward. Although proven, the concept was not developed further due to cost constraint. The Stepping Stone bridge was not actually a bridge but a series of reinforced timber trestles floated into position and secured using rope and pickets. Again, it was proven to be effective but unfortunately not developed further, at about 2 minutes in, this video clip shows it in action. Although not initially used as a tank launched assault bridge the Small Box Girder bridge was a significant milestone in military engineering and widely copied by allies and enemies alike. More assault bridge concepts were developed including the Batemans Assault Bridge, the Scissor Assault Bridge and the Wild Assault Bridge. This rare video clip shows the Batemans Assault Bridge in action. Significant in this trio were the Scissor Bridge and Wild Assault Bridge. The Wild Assault Bridge was developed by Messrs M B Wild and Co Limited of Birmingham and was years ahead of its time, using a two piece bridge design that was launched horizontally and fixed in place using an elaborate system of steel wires and winches. Although not adopted the system was subsequently developed by the Germans in their Leopard Biber tank in the seventies. The Scissor Bridge was the first of the now familiar design, suggested by Captain S Galpin in 1935 but not realised until 1938 by Captain S Stewart and Mr D Delaney at the Experimental Bridging Establishment. The first prototype used a Mark V Light Tank with its turret removed. The bridge itself was hinged in the middle and instead of being a single flat deck, was a pair of trackways spaced and dimensioned for the tanks and wheeled vehicles of the time. Having a clear span or fresh air between the trackways allowed the weight of the bridge to be minimised. 30 feet in length it could clear spans of up to 26 feet and carry loads of up to 7 tonnes. Carried folded on the roof of the tank it was unfolded and launched using a supporting frame that was lowered to the ground, this stopped any further rotation and at this point the folded bridge was vertical, in front of the tank. Cables were then winched in that acted upon a cam and the bridge was both extended and lowered, finally, the mechanism was disengaged and the tank driven away. The system was later used on Covenanter and Valentine tanks but the single piece tank bridge was to see more use until the Number 4 and Number 8 tank bridges of the later forties and early seventies, described later. Dieppe, D-Day and Armoured Engineering The abortive raid by the brave Canadian forces on Dieppe in 1942 confirmed that the usual combat engineering capabilities of demolitions and obstacle crossing were going to be needed for any large scale invasion of mainland Europe but they would need to be carried out under armour. Although this is not a post about the history of the 79th Armoured Division, Sir Percy Hobart or the non-bridging vehicles that were collectively known as Hobart’s Funnies it is almost impossible to do one without the other, however, I am going to concentrate mainly on the bridging vehicles. Before the D Day landings there were 3 main assault bridges available and a vehicle called the ARK. Scissors Bridge 30ft, Number 1 A direct descendant of the earlier Scissor Assault Bridge, the Number 1 was designed to carry heavier loads, Class 24 over a 30 foot gap. Early prototypes used the Cruiser Tank Mark II (A10) but this was soon replaced with new Cruiser Tank Mark V or Covenanter. Subsequent testing showed the bridge was capable of carrying Class 30 loads but the Covenanter was not a good design and was replaced with the successful Infantry Tank Mark III or Valentine. The Number 1 equipped Valentine was used in Italy, North West Europe and Burma. This amusing video clip from 1941 shows the No 1 tank Bridge on exercise. Tank Bridge 30ft, Number 2 The Infantry Tank Mark IV, or more commonly known as the Churchill Tank, posed a problem for the Scissor Bridge Number 1, it was too heavy at 40 tonnes so in 1942 a new bridge was designed. The Number 2 was still to span a gap of 30 feet but instead of Class 30 it was capable of carrying a Class 60 tracked vehicle load and a Class 40 wheeled vehicle load. The Number 1’s carrying capacity could not be improved so a completely new approach was needed. Two arched steel trackways were connected by a number of cross braces and launched using a hydraulic mechanism that kept the bridge horizontal throughout the launch and recovery process. The bridge was carried on a modified Churchill tank and operated by the driver, the only other crew member was the commander, the whole launch process taking less than 2 minutes. The Number 2 and Churchill saw extensive service in Italy and North West Europe. Tank Bridge, Small Box Girder The final of the trio of tank launched bridges was called the Tank Bridge Small Box Girder or SBG Assault Bridge. Introduced specifically for D Day and the 79th Armoured Division it was designed to support a Class 40 load over a 30 foot span, or more specifically a 12 foot high sea wall. The bridge itself consisted of 4 Small Box Girder hornbeam sections connected together to form a twin trackway bridge, connected with crossbeams. Unlike the Number 1 and Number 2, it was carried by a standard Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE), not a specialised bridgelayer and thus the carrying vehicle was able to be used in other engineering roles once the bridge had been detached. The sequence of operation on a sea wall is shown below, including using a fascine to cushion the fall! A Mark II variant introduced a more sophisticated launching mechanism that provided for a more controlled release. The bridges were carried on a small bogey trailer towed behind the tank and attached to the front prior to use. Armoured Ramp Carrier (ARK) The Armoured Ramp Carrier or ARK was used for crossing small gaps and used in a number of variants. At its simplest, an ARK was a tank with its turret removed and ramps fitted to the top of the superstructure and at either end of the hull. The vehicle would be driven into the gap, deploy its ramps and other vehicles simply driven over the top of it. The original ARK’s were designed to enable other tanks to climb sea walls on the beach defences on D Day although it is not certain if any were actually used. ARK Mark I, used in the D Day landings primarily for traversing the sea walls and defences it had a 2 foot wide wooden trackway with short ramps and about 50 were manufactured. ARK Mark II, after the initial D Day landings had taken place the surviving Mk I’s were remanufactured with longer ramps and a shorter distance between the ramps to enable smaller vehicles to use it. Italian ARK, these were designed and manufactured in Italy, did not use separate trackway on the superstructure but used longer front and rear ramps made from 15 foot long US M2 Treadway Pontoon Bridge components. The Italian ARK’s saw extensive service. BURMARK, instead of using the Churchill the lighter Valentine tank was used for the Burma theatre. Great Eastern Tank Ramp, although designed in 1944 the Great Eastern ARC was not available before 1945 and not in time for the D Day landings, still based on the Churchill it was fitted with two ramps, one 27ft long and the other 25ft long. This was to enable higher obstacles to be traversed than the normal ARK’s. Sherman Twaby ARK, the basic ARK design was also deployed on the Sherman chassis. Widely used in WWI the bundle of sticks called the fascine was also see extensive service in WWII, this time on the Churchill AVRE. This video clip shows one in action, including a very good clip of a Churchill AVRE firing its 165mm spigot charge, the flying dustbin. Later in the war, fascines were used extensively in the campaign in Italy, notably in the crossing of the River Senio by New Zealand forces. In this instance modified Sherman’s joined the Churchill’s and a new type of fascine called a bolster was used, combining the traditional bundle with a steel lattice crib. Post War Assault Bridging The immediate post war effort was concentrated in improving the load carrying capacity of existing bridges so the Number 3 Tank Bridge was essentially an evolution of the Number 2 and the Churchill ARK Mark III a similar improvement designed to accommodate the heavier tanks coming into service. The Number 4 was a scissor bridge tested on the Valentine tank, a successor to the Number 1. With the development of the Centurion tank came the next evolution is assault bridging, the Number 6 Tank Bridge, Centurion ARK and Centurion ARK Mobile Pier (CAMP) The Number 6 was single piece bridge mounted on the Centurion that departed from the launch method employed by the Churchill Bridgelayer and used an up and over deployment. The bridge itself was 52 feet long, significantly longer than its predecessors and 4 feet 8 inches wide, able to accommodate a load class of 80. The bridge was dimensioned from extensive trials and was the largest single piece that offered a reasonable compromise on mobility. Although the folded or scissor bridge offered a lower visible footprint when deploying and recovering it is slower. Thus, the single piece Number 6 whilst presenting a conspicuous target when being deployed it was not for very long, less than 2 minutes. The Centurion ARK (FV 4016) was introduced in 1965 and withdrawn in 1977. It was similar in design to the previous Churchill ARK’s but the ramps were articulated and launched in a scissor like manner. A screw mechanism allowed the track width to be varied to accommodate different vehicles and reduced in width for easier road and rail transport. British Pathe, as dependable as ever, has a good video of the Centurion ARK in action here, at about a minute in, check out the hover stretcher as well! Another interesting Centurion ARK derivative was the CAMP. This was designed to provide a rapidly deployed pier for the Number 6 bridge when used in multiples or combination bridging to use the correct term. The Centurion was in time replaced with the Chieftain tank and to coincide a new bridge and tank carrying engineer vehicle introduced. The Number 8 Armoured Vehicle Launched Bridge was 100 feet long and therefore had to be of the Class 60 scissor variety. The FV4205 Chieftan AVLB was also able to carry a single piece tank bridge, called rather unsurprisingly, the Number 9. Both were launched by a combination of hydraulic and winch mechanisms, the hydraulic system supplied by AP Precision Hydraulics. Deployed to BAOR in 1979 it was to see action in the 1991 Gulf War and the Balkans. It is at this point that things become both simple and complex. Simple from an equipment perspective but more complex for anyone writing about the subject! I will cover the general support bridging systems in a later post but the programme that delivered them also delivered a new set of bridge components that could be tank launched so there is inevitably some crossover. Towards the end of the sixties British military bridging was in pretty good shape, the MGB, second to none and widely adopted, the M2 rigs for the wide wet gaps of Northwest Europe and the Chieftain AVLB with its No 8 and No 9 bridges were equally world leading. But the world does not stand still and a multi-national project was initiated called Bridging for the Eighties or BR80, this programme ultimately failed but the considerable design work carried out at Christchurch was not wasted and the resultant national programme was called BR90 with the Close Support Bridging requirement defined under General Staff Requirement 3983. The resultant seven modular panels are used to construct both close and general support bridges. The close support bridges consist of three types No 10 Tank Bridge 26m scissor bridge comprising two 8m ramp panels, two 4m standard panels and a 2m hinged panel. The 4m panel can be removed to create a smaller bridge if needed. No 11 Tank Bridge 16m up and over bridge comprising two 8m ramp panels No 12 Tank bridge 13.5m up and over bridge comprising a single specially designed ramp panel which is not interchangeable with other panels All the bridges can be combined to form longer bridges using trestles, river beds or even floating pontoons. The Pipe Fascine As above, fascines were widely used in WWI and WWII but in the seventies an alternative to the Chespale bundle was sought. One of the problems was weight, the traditional fascine bundle could be between 6 and 10 tonnes and would of course create a significant visibility hazard. Inflatable fascines had been trialled in the sixties as shown towards the end of this video from Pathe but they were not adopted. The Pipe Fascine was developed from an idea in the mid seventies by Major J M Allen Royal Engineers using modern polythene pipes. The area of operations of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) had numerous small gaps (streams, ditches etc) that would hamper the free movement of military vehicles and to counter weight limitations of brushwood and reduce the carried weight the new system was proven to be a great success. In addition, wooden fascines have a tendency to float which makes them difficult to use in water filled obstacles, the pipe system allowed water to flow normally. Plastic water pipes had seen rapid introduction in civil works and they were seen as a promising alternative. After much testing and refinement by the Experimental Bridging Establishment and 32 Armoured Engineer Regiment Royal Engineers a version of the Centurion AVRE was introduced in conjunction with modified bundles of plastic pipe. The launch technique was to approach the target gap at speed, brake sharply at a marked point and fire the explosive bolts holding the travel hawsers so that the fascine, through inertia, rolled off the AVRE directly into the middle of the gap. When in position the AVRE would then travel over it to level the road surface for other vehicles to cross. The image below shows a triple bundle being used by a Centurion AVRE The Maxi Fascine consists of 30 pipes connected in a continuous length that are wrapped around an inner core of 45 loose pipes, the whole thing is secured by a net, supplied by Tulmar. The fascine systems themselves are supplied by Pearson Engineering. As might be imagined, the Mini Pipe Fascine is a smaller version designed for smaller vehicles than main battle tanks. The fascine continues to be used on the Trojan armoured vehicle Royal Engineers. Pipe fascines are still very much in use today and in Afghanistan they are used to provide quick crossings for many of the small irrigation ditches with sheets of AM2 runway matting acting as a footway. Modern Assault Bridging The latest assault bridging equipment to enter service with the Royal Engineers is the BAE Systems Titan, a total of 33 were ordered in 2001, together with another 33 Trojan armoured engineering vehicles under a £250 million contract . The Titan is based on the Challenger 2 and can launch and recover the Number 10 and Number 12 bridges, already in service. The Tank Bridge Transporter was part of the BR90 project and forms an integral part of the Close Support Bridging capability. At the time of contract award Baroness Symons, the Defence Procurement Minister, said; Under MOD’s Smart Acquisition programme this contract is being awarded early. The vehicles will enter service one year earlier than if traditional procurement methods had been used and they will be equipped for immediate deployment worldwide The prototype was unveiled on February the 20th 2003. First deliveries commenced in 2006, five years after the order was placed and a year late, demonstrating the development difficulties that had plagued the £4 million vehicle with initial operating capability in 2011. The final outturn for the project was £336 million, for 66 vehicles plus associated support, just over £5m per vehicle on a programme basis, final vehicles at Batch 5 design. From the BAE Systems Titan product page; TITAN can launch the 26 metres No 10 bridge – also made by Land Systems – in two minutes and using integral trestles and wedges can lay multiple combination bridges in depths of 5 metres, and overbridge oil pipelines and bridges. TITAN can carry two 13.5 metres No 12 bridges, which are laid in only 90 seconds. 23 Titan systems will be in service with the Royal Engineers and the remaining 10 assigned to training units although what impact the recent SDSR has on these plans is not certain. The USMC also uses the Titan launch and recovery mechanism on their M1A1 bridging vehicles. The Army has long had a vision for a Medium Weight Capability as defined by the Future Rapid Effects System or FRES but with the various problems with that programme and demands of ongoing operations this has yet to come to fruition. The latest SDSR and Planning Round 11 deleted the Manoeuvre Capability (thought to be about 30 vehicles) from the FRES Specialist Vehicles programme and although details are a little vague it seems that a Warrior conversion may be used instead. BAE Systems demonstrated a Warrior REME variant at the 2011 DSEi trade show fitted with a Pearson Engineering Bridge Launch Mechanism (BLM) and carrying a single BAE Systems Number 12 bridge. The BLM is an interesting piece of equipment because it is designed to be fitted to a wide variety of wheeled and tracked vehicles and is available in a number of weight categories in addition to a variant that can be used with demountable load carrying equipment such as the Foden DROPS vehicle or MAN SV EPLS. Using the Pearson Engineering Common Interface System (CIS) it can be rapidly re-rolled, to a bulldozer blade for example. Although unable to deploy the large Number 10 bridge the Warrior bridgelayer might be able to carry two No 12’s. The description from Pearson is; The Bridge Launch Mechanism is a lightweight system which allows Medium Gap Width bridges to be launched from a range of vehicles. Typically fitted to medium or heavy class tracked or wheeled platforms; the Bridge Launch Mechanism is installed onto the host vehicle using a Pearson Engineering Fitting Kit, a system which facilitates the attachment/detachment of the front end equipment and allows different equipment to be used on the same vehicle. Whilst retrieving and launching a bridge the foot of the Bridge Launch Mechanism maintains contact with the ground, thus reducing load transfer onto the host vehicle and ensuring a stable launch platform. In the transport configuration the bridge is stowed longitudinally above the vehicle. When not in use, the launch mechanism is raised and stowed close to the host vehicle hull, thus minimising its effect on vehicle manoeuvrability and mobility. With the Terrier vehicle coming in to service in support of the Medium Weight Capability it may be possible to fit the same role kit, thus allowing the Terrier to provide the same bridging support. There are 60 Terriers planned to enter service soon but are not as well protected as Warrior and therefore less able to operate in the direct fire zone. The choice of Warrior would be interesting because as we have seen above, front engine vehicles have sometimes been problematical when laying bridges but if the demonstrator has shown that a Number 12 bridge can be successfully launched and recovered then that would not seem to be an insurmountable problem. It might also be a recognition of the need for a manoeuvre support element for FRES SV Scout given its threefold increase in weight over CVR(T) The recent introduction of a small number of General Dynamics Rapidly Emplaced Bridge System (REBS) on the Man Support Vehicle truck may also provide a long term solution to the medium weight bridging requirement given that it was developed for the US Stryker Brigade Combat Team although being truck based it is not comparable to either Warrior or Terrier in protection or mobility terms. At MLC50 REBS will support the proposed FRES vehicle family but only at 13.8m or 45 feet, MLC50 being the same requirement as for the cancelled FRES Manoeuvre Support variant. So, beyond Titan, there is obviously a great deal of uncertainty regarding the future medium weight bridging requirement but whichever vehicle is chosen it will provide a valuable addition to the Corps bridging capability. OTHER POSTS IN THIS SERIES

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2013-05-24T09:16:45Z

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Moon Light World Map The map below shows where the Moon is visible from the Earth, depending on weather conditions and moon phases. The white dot symbolizes the position of the Moon, and the yellow sun symbolizes the position of the sun. View Day and Night Map - The bright part of the map shows where the moon is over the horizon on Tuesday, April 10, 2012 at 07:40:00 UTC. - The Sun's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Sun will be at its zenith (directly overhead) in relation to an observer. - The Moon's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Moon will be at its zenith in relation to an observer. Note that the symbol is not showing the current phase of the Moon. Fraction of moon illuminated: 83% Position of the Moon On Tuesday, April 10, 2012 at 07:40:00 UTC the Moon is at its zenith at these coordinates: |Latitude: ||21° 35' ||South| |Longitude: ||65° 43' ||West| The ground speed of the movement is currently 413.83 meters/second, 1489.8 km/hour, 925.7 miles/hour or 804.4 knots.The table below shows the Moon position compared to the time and date above: |Time||Longitude difference||Latitude difference||Total| |1 minute||0° 14' 23.2"||15.43 mi||west||0° 00' 02.1"||0.04 mi||south||15.43 mi| |1 hour||14° 23' 09.9"||925.46 mi||west||0° 01' 58.9"||2.27 mi||south||925.36 mi| |24 hours||14° 34' 17.9"||937.39 mi||east||0° 05' 12.8"||5.98 mi||south||937.13 mi| Locations with the moon near zenith The following table shows 10 locations with moon near zenith position in the sky. |Potosi||Tue 3:40 AM||222 km||138 miles||120 nm|| N| |Sucre||Tue 3:40 AM||286 km||178 miles||155 nm|| N| |Salta||Tue 4:40 AM||356 km||221 miles||192 nm|| S| |Santa Cruz||Tue 3:40 AM||497 km||309 miles||269 nm|| NNE| |Tucumán||Tue 4:40 AM||582 km||362 miles||314 nm|| S| |La Paz||Tue 3:40 AM||618 km||384 miles||333 nm|| NNW| |Asuncion||Tue 3:40 AM||921 km||572 miles||497 nm|| ESE| |Córdoba||Tue 4:40 AM||1100 km||684 miles||594 nm|| S| |Mendoza||Tue 4:40 AM||1291 km||802 miles||697 nm|| SSW| |Rosario||Tue 4:40 AM||1354 km||841 miles||731 nm|| SSE| Related time zone tools

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/moon/light.html?iso=20120410T0740

2013-05-24T09:39:39Z

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en

Moon Light World Map The map below shows where the Moon is visible from the Earth, depending on weather conditions and moon phases. The white dot symbolizes the position of the Moon, and the yellow sun symbolizes the position of the sun. View Day and Night Map - The bright part of the map shows where the moon is over the horizon on Tuesday, October 9, 2012 at 02:20:00 UTC. - The Sun's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Sun will be at its zenith (directly overhead) in relation to an observer. - The Moon's position is marked with this symbol: . At this location, the Moon will be at its zenith in relation to an observer. Note that the symbol is not showing the current phase of the Moon. Fraction of moon illuminated: 42% Position of the Moon On Tuesday, October 9, 2012 at 02:20:00 UTC the Moon is at its zenith at these coordinates: |Latitude: ||16° 47' ||North| |Longitude: ||62° 45' ||East| The ground speed of the movement is currently 429.90 meters/second, 1547.6 km/hour, 961.7 miles/hour or 835.7 knots.The table below shows the Moon position compared to the time and date above: |Time||Longitude difference||Latitude difference||Total| |1 minute||0° 14' 30.9"||16.03 mi||west||0° 00' 06.8"||0.13 mi||south||16.03 mi| |1 hour||14° 30' 59.3"||961.48 mi||west||0° 06' 55.2"||7.93 mi||south||961.81 mi| |24 hours||11° 34' 58.8"||767.25 mi||east||3° 09' 07.4"||216.74 mi||south||802.99 mi| Locations with the moon near zenith The following table shows 10 locations with moon near zenith position in the sky. |Nizwa||Tue 6:20 AM||873 km||543 miles||472 nm|| NW| |Muscat||Tue 6:20 AM||874 km||543 miles||472 nm|| NNW| |Seeb||Tue 6:20 AM||901 km||560 miles||486 nm|| NNW| |Salalah||Tue 6:20 AM||923 km||573 miles||498 nm|| W| |Karachi||Tue 7:20 AM||998 km||620 miles||539 nm|| NNE| |Mumbai||Tue 7:50 AM||1095 km||680 miles||591 nm|| ENE| |Surat||Tue 7:50 AM||1174 km||729 miles||634 nm|| ENE| |Pune||Tue 7:50 AM||1194 km||742 miles||645 nm|| E| |Abu Dhabi||Tue 6:20 AM||1217 km||756 miles||657 nm|| NW| |Dubai||Tue 6:20 AM||1217 km||756 miles||657 nm|| NW| Related time zone tools

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/moon/light.html?iso=20121009T0220

2013-05-24T09:25:55Z

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en

‘The Framework for the National Curriculum’ in England – ‘Report on a page’ Download 'Report on a page' as PDF Among mince pies and wrapping paper, discussion on the aims, structure and form of the National Curriculum is invited by the Secretary of State, building on the 2011 Expert Panel report at: www.education.gov.uk. EP proposals could, if implemented, transform English school education. Public, professional and cross-party support is a condition of long-term continuity in education and we hope for constructive debate. The major ideas and proposals of the 2011 EP report are: - ‘Education’ is concerned with the interaction of subject knowledge and personal development. Children develop through personal experience and by learning the knowledge, skills and attitudes which are deemed important within their society. Good to remember this! - Clarity of purpose is an important precondition if a system is to achieve coherence and effectiveness. It is possible to identify five main educational aims (economic, cultural, social, personal and environmental). There should be public debate on the substantive detail, and application at system, school and subject levels. Could the outcome gain cross-party support? - The National Curriculum is a part of the school curriculum as a whole, and should specify only essential and powerful forms of knowledge – thus leaving schools more scope for the exercise of professional and local judgement. There are complications in terms of core and foundation subjects and the basic curriculum, but these provide significant architectural elements for the statutory curriculum. - International and UK evidence on the importance of breadth in the primary curriculum is strong, and it should be retained. Evidence also suggests that there should be more breadth at Key Stage 4. To maintain breadth whilst also reducing prescription, the EP recommends reclassifying D&T, Citizenship and ICT to the basic curriculum - thus lightening requirements on schools whilst preserving statutory status. Issues are also raised concerning how to provide for Music, Art and MFL. A distinction is recommended between subjects requiring detailed Programmes of study with attainment targets for core subjects and much more concise PoS without attainment targets for foundation subjects. - It is proposed that KS2 should be split into Upper and Lower parts. This change could help maintain challenge throughout primary education and enable new forms of school organisation in Upper KS2, including use of more subject-based teaching if deemed appropriate. KS3 could be reduced to just two years with KS4 changing to three years. This would mean that the lead up to GCSE would be a more substantial and meaningful three year programme of work. - In setting out subject knowledge within Programmes of Study, there is merit doing so by key stage – thus describing two year blocks of work. This is would provide a balance between giving clear guidance to schools and leaving scope to exercise judgement. However, schools could be required to publish for parents their specific curriculum on a year by year basis. - The form in which Programmes of Study and Attainment Targets are expressed is important. Programmes of Study should describe the purposes, progression and inter-connections of the knowledge that pupils are to be taught. Attainment Targets should specify specific learning outcomes. Links between the two should be transparent. Presenting the PoS alongside content-specific ATs would do this. - In relation to assessment, there is a strong case for abandoning the system in which children’s attainment is judged by ‘levels’. This has all sorts of perverse effects, the most important of which is to divert attention from that which is to be learned and to focus attention on the level itself. On the basis of study of some high performing national systems elsewhere and drawing on a significant amount of other research evidence from around the world, a different approach is proposed. Maintenance of high expectations for all is key. This directs attention towards maximising the numbers of pupils who are ‘ready to progress’. Without ignoring other needs, the focus should be on the progress of those at risk of falling behind. Appropriate school performance data must be developed for accountability purposes. - The development of oral language is known to be strongly associated with learning and attainment. It should be promoted across subjects and through all key stages. - Risks associated with the National Curriculum Review include the challenge of achieving coherence in various elements of the system and the need to support teachers in delivery. - School provision must be viewed holistically. PSHE and subject requirements must be complementary (see 1. above). Parents understand this. A pity that PSHE was outside the terms of reference of the EP! Notes compiled by Andrew Pollard and Mary James in personal capacities. Andrew tweeting at @andrewpollard7 #natcur The DfE NCR team is responsible for draft Programmes of Study and any comments on these should be directed to them. December 19th 2011 Department for Education (2011) The Framework for the National Curriculum. A report by the Expert Panel for National Curriculum review. (London: Department for Education).

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en

Following is a "glossary" of frequently used terms which you will find throughout the site, we hope they will be of some help. If you come across some words not mentioned here, please feel free to write us and ask for the meaning. We will try to add the word to the glossary for everyone's benefit. - Halachic authorities of the period since the publication of the Shulchan Aruch in the sixteenth century. - ACHARON SHEL PESSACH: - The Last Day of Pesach. - A woman whose husband has not given her the divorce (GET) papers because he was unwilling for his own reasons, or unable to because he disappeared through war or other action. She cannot remarry until she is legally divorced according to Jewish law. - AHAVAT HASHEM: - Loving God. - AHAVAT HATORAH: - Loving the Torah. - AHAVAT YISROEL: - Loving a fellow Jew. - The 18 prayers (Shmona Esrei) that are part of every service. Also called silent devotion or Tefilah. - ARON KODESH: - The enclosure where the Torahs are kept, usually tastefully decorated with sacred symbols. - 'Going up' to the Bimah to read from the Torah. Since the Torah is read at services on Monday, Thursday and Shabbat as well as all Yom Tovim the honor of reading is given to various members of the congregation. - Post-Mishnaic authorities cited in the Gemara. - The language in which the talmud is written, also used in many other Jewish texts. - A Jew who originated from Europe (Ashkenaz=Germany). By and large they spoke Yiddish and had similar customs and practises. - A Yiddish word meaning 'calling up', referring to being called up to read from the Torah on the Shabbat before his wedding. - BAR/BAT MITZVAH: - Coming of age (13/12) for boys and girls, and are considered as adults in their obligation in Torah and the commandments. - BEIT DIN: - Rabbinical court. - BEIT HAMIKDASH: - The (first, second or third) Temple in Jerusalem. - BEIT MIDRASH: - Communal House of Study. - The raised dais at the front of the synagogue (in the center in Sephardic synogogues) usually facing the east to Jerusalem, where the officiants stand and lead the service. - BIRKAT HAMAZON: - Grace after meals. - A blessing that is said before eating various foods (wine, bread, fruits, vegetables), on experiencing some natural or human wonder or significant event and before many religious rituals. All blessings begin with Blessed art thou O Lord our God, King of the universe who etc. - BRIT MILAH/BRIS: - Ritual circumcision on the 8th day of life. It signifies the covenant between God and Israel. - A braided loaf baked in honor of Shabbos and other festive meals. - It is a holiday that commemorates the event that took place during the Greek control over the Jewish homeland and were forcing their religious beliefs on the Jews. Judah Maccabee led the fight against Hellenization and liberated the country and the Temple. After it was cleansed, only enough oil was found to last one day but miraculously it burned for eight days. Hence we light candles for eight days of Chanukah in a special candle holder called a Chanukyah in memory of the heroic deeds of the Maccabees. - Life. Le'Chayim: To life. A toast to one another. - The cantor, that leads the congregation in prayer and who is recognized as having good musical knowledge and abilities. - The marriage canopy under which all Jewish weddings take place. It symbolizes the bridal chamber and the Jewish home. - Halacha tells us that only a person born of a Jewish mother is Jewish. Those who choose to take on the Jewish religion must undertake study to be sure that this is what they really want and also to become knowledgeable Jews able to practice the rituals and observe Mitzvot (commandments). The ceremony of conversion requires evidence of knowledge, circumcision (for men), and mikveh (ritual immersion in running water). - Davenen; (Yiddish):Pray, praying. - Refers to the Jews who live outside of Israel all over the world, since the dispersion from the homeland after the destruction of the second Temple. - ERETZ YISROEL: - The Land of Israel. - A citron (a citrus fruit) used on Sukkot along with the Lulav. - Exile; Diaspora. - The system of numerology where each letter represents a number. The total value of the letters of a word if equal to the total of another word then the two are related in some way. Certain numbers are good like 18 (chai which means life) or multiples of it. - A Jewish divorce document. - The passage from the Prophets read in the synagogue after the reading from the Five Books of Moses. - The sevenfold procession made with the Torah scrolls in the synagogue on Simchat Torah, accompanied by singing & dancing. - This is the term for the Jewish way of life as taught by the Torah and the Talmud and interpreted by the Rabbis through the centuries. - Ritual ceremony marking the end of the Sabbath and the separation between the sacred and the profane. All the senses are used in blessing the wine, the light of a special candle and smelling spices. - IKVETAH DIMESHICHA (Aramaic): - the [generation that can hear the approaching] 'footsteps' of Mashiach. - Traditional prayer said in every service in memory of the dead and at funerals by close relatives. - a:The dietary laws as prescribed by the Torah and amplified by Halacha. Only certain animals may be used for food. Milk and meat cannot be mixed requiring separate sets of dishes and utensils, one for dairy (milchig) and one set for meat (fleishig). It is a powerful reinforcement of Jewish identity. b:Ritually fit for use or valid. e.g. This Mezuzah is Kosher. - The marriage contract written in a prescribed form with decorative borders outlining the obligations mainly of the husband to the wife. It is signed by two witnesses. It is the main way of three ways that a man takes a wife -- by contract, by giving a gift (a ring) or by consummation of the marriage the latter witnessed only by inference. - Sanctification of a Shabbat or Yom Tov by blessing over the wine and recalling history. - Any man who can trace his family roots to the Temple priesthood - Descendants of Aharon, most people called Cohen or any variant of that name but can have other names. - KOHEN GADOL: - High priest. - A palm branch intertwined with myrtle and willow that along with the Etrog make up the four species required for ritual on Sukkot. - Unleavened bread eaten on Pesach. - here are five Megillot each coming in its own scroll. These are Megillas Esther, Megilla Ruth, Lamentations (Echah), Ecclesiastes (Kohellet) and Song of Songs (Shir Hashirim). They are each studied in conjunction with a holiday - Esther on Purim, Ruth on Shavuot, Echah on Tisha b' Av, Kohellet on Sukkot but only by Ashkenazim, and Song of Songs on Pesach. - MELAVEH MALKAH: - Festive meal held after the close of Shabbos to escort the departing Shabbat - A parchment scroll written by a Sofer (scribe) and affixed to the doorpost, containing the first two paragraphs of Shema (Deuteronomy 6:-9 & 11:13-21). It is affixed to the right door post as you enter the house and is usually kissed on entering. It signifies that the home is Jewish and is a reminder of the holiness of the home. - A deeper more fanciful interpretation of passages from the Torah like reading between the lines. A Midrash does not have quite the force of Torah or Talmud but are frequently considered in explaining or interpreting Torah. LIDRASH means to seek or interpret. A DROSH is a commentary on some part of the Torah. - A quorum. The minimal number is ten Jews over Bar Mitzvah required for any communal religious service. - The Tabernacle, the temporary Sanctuary in the wilderness; see Exodus chapter 25. - Commandment from the Torah and also any good deed. There are 613 mitzvot in the Torah and we are commanded to fulfill as many as possible to lead an observant life. - A trained observant Jew who is authorized to perform Brit Milah (ritual circumcision). - Literally Anointed One. A descendant of King David who will become king and will bring universal justice, peace and brotherhood. - The additional prayer of Shabbat and other festive days. a.In Biblical times, the head of any one of the Twelve Tribes; b.In later generations, the civil and/or spiritual head of the Jewish community at large. - One who sets himself apart for divine service by undertaking certain ascetic restrictions; Numbers 6:1-21. - NER TAMID: - The eternal light that is kept in the synagogue above the Holy Ark (Aron Kodesh). - ONEG SHABBAT: - Welcoming the Sabbath joyfully and lovingly. - Portion of the Torah read publicly each week. - An eight day observance according to Biblical command, commemorating the Exodus from Egypt. It is observed in the synagogue with special readings, and at home by the SEDER on the first and second nights. Food is to exclude all leavened bread and is focused on the use of MATZAH which is unleavened bread. It occurs in the springtime between Purim and Shavuot. - PIDYON HABEN: - Redemption of the first born son from the Temple priests, the Kohanim to whom all first fruits are dedicated. He is redeemed for five shekels on the 30th day of his life at a home ceremony. - PIRKEY AVOT: - (chapters of the fathers) Tractate in the Mishnah reprinted in most Siddurim, commonly known as `Ethics of the Fathers'. - Rabbis whose legal decisions are authoritative. - A merry holiday in late winter, based on the MEGILLAH of Esther which tells of the rescue of the Jews of Persia from the wicked Haman by Queen Esther and her uncle Mordecai. The megillah is read in the synagogue. Whenever the name of Haman comes up it is drowned out by noisemakers called GROGGERS. There is general merrymaking with costumes and plays called Purimshpiels. Charity, here called Mishloach Manot, is in order. - ROSH HASHANA: - The beginning of the High Holidays, a time of solemn self examination and judgment. It comes in the fall and lasts two days. It is the beginning of the religious year so everyone wishes a Happy New Year (Leshana Tova). - A ritual family feast prescribed by custom and the Haggadah the story of Passover. Its focus is on freedom through open discussion. The legendary four questions are asked by the youngest and the answer is the explanation of the Exodus , its history and significance. The Afikomen is the last matzoh to be eaten after being hidden and then found by the children who thereby earn a prize. The prophet Elijah, the forerunner of the Messiah the ultimate redeemer, is an honored guest at every seder. - Midnight prayers said on the Saturday before Rosh Hashana to get into the mood of the High Holy Days. - Jews who came from Spain (Sepharad), North Africa and the Mediterranean. They spoke Ladino and had local customs and practices. Religiously there are only minor differences from the western Ashkenazic practice. - Sanctified day of rest in which no work is to be done. A whole day of spiritual reflection. - The Festival of Weeks comes seven weeks after Passover. It commemorates the giving of the Torah and is also the festival of the First Fruits - an agricultural holiday - therefore the synagogue is decorated with flowers and plants. The Book of Ruth is studied in this Pilgrimage Festival (the other two being Passover and Shavuot). Ruth was the first recorded convert to Judaism, a Jew by choice. It occurs at the end of spring so Confirmation usually takes place then. - The spirit of God as it dwells among the people. It is considered to be the feminine side of the Deity. - The declaration of faith in the unity of God, said at every service. It is a quote from Deuteronomy 6:4-9 and Numbers 15:40-41. - A trained observant Jew who is authorized to perform ritual slaughter of animals for kosher food. The important thing is to avoid making the animal suffer. - Yiddish word for small town where most Jews lived in eastern Europe within the Pale of Settlement where they were allowed to live. SHIVA: The seven day period of mourning after the burial of a close family member. - Ram's horn blown on Rosh Hashana and at the end of Yom Kippur. - SIMCHAT TORAH: - A Yom Tov at the end of Sukkot dedicated to the joy of having been given the Torah. There is much dancing and singing with the Torah scrolls being carried even into the streets. - An eight day festival (the festival of Booths) coming five days after Yom Kippur and culminating in Shemini Atzeret and then Simchas Torah. It is marked by the building of a temporary structure called a SUKKAH which is roofed over by branches and in which meals are to be taken and one may sleep therein. This is to recall the dwellings in the Exodus. - The prayer shawl with its prescribed fringes used in daily prayer. The fringes are a reminder of the Mitzvot. - A compilation of 63 tractates recording the intellectual, social, national and religious activities pursued by Jews during the approximately 1000 years of its formation. It covers commentary by many sages on the Torah using their God-given faculties of reasoning and judgment to interpret the meanings and implications of Scripture. It is a fine example of logic and deduction to bring the written word to the every day life of the people in a meaningful way. The Talmud is known as the Oral Law (Aggadah) because it came through oral discussion and argumentation. The Tanach is the written law (Ketuvim). Together they form the basis of the Halacha. The Talmud was written down in the 2nd C. of the Common Era (CE)by Rabbi Judah the Prince as the Mission from memories of many Rabbis. It included Rabbinical enactments which became law. Further updating and extension was added over the next few hundred years and this was called Gemara. Together they embody religious truths, moral lessons, laws, history and inspiration regarding Torah and the eternal questions. (From the 'World of Talmud' by Morris Adler, Schocken Books) - An acronym for Torah, Neviim, Ketuvim (Five Books of Moses, Prophets and The Sacred Writings) that make up the entire God-given Holy Scriptures. - Small boxes, containing the Shema, and attached to leather thongs for affixing to the forehead and the left arm as commanded in the Shema. These are worn daily except for Shabbat and Holy Days for morning prayer. - The five books of Moses. The word means teaching and so also means all learning. The Torah is central to Jewish life. It is considered to be the word of God, whether actually written by Him or inspired by Him, so it is treated with all due reverence and love. It is Holy Writ about 3000 years old. It is called the Old Testament by Christians but not by Jews who do not recognize any new testament. The Torah scrolls (Sefer Torah) used in the synagogue are written on parchment and stitched together to form one long roll containing every word as it has been written for three thousand years by faithful meticulous scribes. In book form it is still treated with reverence. Here it contains the tropes and commentaries and translations to various degrees. - The markings called cantillation above or below each word in the Torah indicating the musical chant and emphasis assigned to that word. These indicate the proper way to chant the Torah, the Haftara and the Megilla each of which have their own Trope. They do not appear in the Torah scroll. They go back to Temple times. - Literal meaning is justice but it has come to mean charity because charity is not by choice but is a mitzvah, an obligatory moral duty. - Yiddish for anniversary of the death of a family member. It calls for the recitation of the Kaddish in a minyan. - Skull cap worn by men during worship, eating or study. Many wear a head covering all the time as a sign of respect and a reminder of God above. - Hebrew for remembrance. A synagogue service for all the community to remember their dead. It is said on the pilgrimage festivals of Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot. - YOM HA'ATSMAUT: - Israel's independence day. - YOM HASHOAH: - A day set aside for community remembrance of the six million martyrs of the Holocaust. - YOM KIPPUR: - The most holy day of the year. It ends the ten days of awe begun by Rosh Hashanah. It is the day of judgment, repentance and forgiveness. Gmar Tov is used as a greeting on that day. - Another name for Israel or Eretz Yisroel.

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General Swollen Lymph Nodes Above Collar Bone Treatment Lymph nodes are small glands throughout the body, they are part of the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is an important part of the immune system (immune system defends the body against disease). If lymphatic system is not working properly, fluid builds in the tissues and causes swelling, called lymphedema. The lymph nodes filter lymph fluid as it flows through them, trapping bacteria, viruses and other foreign substances, which are then destroyed by special white blood cells. Infection would be the most common cause of an enlarged lymph node. Supraclavicular lymph nodes (glands above the collarbone) may swell from an infection or tumor in the areas of the lungs, breasts, neck, or abdomen. Any swollen lymph nodes that don't go away over a month should be checked by the doctor. Top Helpful CasesView All Helpful Cases Treatments and Results View All Cases Share your case with others who will find it useful!

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Definition: Tropisms are a growth response involving a bending or curving of a plant response toward or away from an external stimulus. Bending toward the stimulus is a positive tropism, away is negative. (diels alder) is caused by the uneven distribution of auxin in the plant stem. Auxin is produced in young expanding leaves and is then transported down the stem, cell to cell (not in the vasculature of the plant). Auxin produces elongation in young cells, causing the internodes to elongate as it passes to the roots. Light causes the transporters (Normally located on the lower side of the cell membranes) to move to the side of the cell furthest from the source of light. As auxins are transported away from the light, they cause uneven elongation in the stem. The 'dark' side of the stem ends up getting higher levels of auxin - and elongates more. is what the plant uses to sense in what direction the force of gravity is pulling. Using this, a germinating seedling knows to grow the taproot downward, and the stalk upwards to the surface of the soil. (diels alder) in the stem is also controlled by an effect similar to Geotropism. A horizontal stem (illuminated or not) accumulates auxin in the lowest portion of the stem causing it to curve upwards as those cells expand. Gravitropism in roots is controlled by special starch containing plastids (chloroplasts are a type of plastid) called statoliths in special cells in the root tip. As said above, they settle in different parts of the cell depending on the direction of gravity. How the signal is transferred and the root curves is not yet known. (diels alder) is the bending of plant parts in response to touch. This is seen in plants with leaves modified to tendrils which twine around an object when the tendril touches it (like pea plants). It is believed to be controlled by a group of stretch-activated membrane transport proteins. is what plants use to send their root growth in the direction of water. During times when the soil is drier the plants can send their roots in the direction of water to receive the maximum amount of water possible. (diels alder) Hydrotropism is now actually believed to be an artifact. Roots appear to grow into moist soil and avoid dry, but this has been shown to simply be the fact that roots need available water to grow. This does not fill the definition of tropism. The only documented cases that could be called hydrotropism, are roots on plants grown in humid air which show slight curvature in response to the source of humidity. It is now accepted that this does not occur in solid or liquid growth mediums. Contributed by: backyardchemist5 and diels alder Powered by Tutorials 1.2.0 © 2013, by Michael McCune

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DRG Category: 691 Mean LOS: 4.1 days Description MEDICAL: Urinary Stones with ESW Lithotripsy with CC or Major CC Renal calculi, or nephrolithiasis, are stones that form in the kidneys from the crystallization of minerals and other substances that normally dissolve in the urine. Renal calculi vary in size, with 90% of them smaller than 5 mm in diameter; some, however, grow large enough to prevent the natural passage of urine through the ureter. Calculi may be solitary or multiple. Approximately 80% of these stones are composed of calcium salts. Other types are the struvite stones (which contain magnesium, ammonium, and phosphate), uric acid stones, and cystine stones. If the calculi remain in the renal pelvis or enter the ureter, they can damage renal parenchyma (functional tissue). Larger calculi can cause pressure necrosis. In certain locations, calculi cause obstruction, lead to hydronephrosis, and tend to recur. Calculi, Renal has been found in Diseases and Disorders If you are a registered user, please login below. If not, learn more about gaining full access. - Try and Buy - Nursing Central puts five fully integrated references at your fingertips on mobile devices and the web. See how Nursing Central works by clicking the sample entries below or purchase a subscription for the web and your mobile device. View these free topics online now.

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See Student Life for more - Spanish - Site Map - Contact Union Student Safety HelpLine Originally posted June 25, 2012 End Of Instruction Tests-Students By The Associated Press OKLAHOMA CITY (AP) -- Oklahoma this year is requiring high school seniors to pass a series of tests before awarding a diploma. Below are sample questions from some of the tests, provided by the state Department of Education. Answers below. From ALGEBRA I Question 1. Which sentence could be written algebraically as n (equals) 6n - 4? F) A number is 4 less than the product of the number and 6. G) A number is 4 minus the product of 6 and the number. H) Six times a number is 4 less than the number. J) Six times the difference of a number and 4 is equal to the number. Question 2. A sign above a sweater says "Take an additional 50% off." The price tag shows a price that is 40% off the regular price. What percent of the regular price is the discounted price (the price after both discounts)? A) 20 percent B) 30 percent C) 60 percent D) 90 percent Question 3. Given: x + y (equals) 4 2x + 3y (equals) -2 What is the x-value of the solution to this system of equations? Question 4. What happens to the y-intercept of the equation y (equals) x when the equation is changed to y (equals) x + 4 ? F) The y-intercept does not change. G) The y-intercept changes from 0 to 4. H) The y-intercept changes from 0 to -4. J) The y-intercept becomes equal to the x-intercept. From ENGLISH II There is a common proverb that states, "The unexpected always happens." Write about a situation or an event that did not turn out the way you expected. If you could have foreseen what was going to happen, would you have changed anything about your actions? Be sure to include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion in your writing. A Birthday Challenge 1 Dangling her feet over the edge of the cave, Janelle put on her 2 backpack, equipped with water, extra batteries, an energy bar, a light 3 windbreaker--things she thought she wouldn't need. Still, her friend Ethan 4 wouldn't let her go without a safety kit. Ethan had promised her an hour to 5 herself and then he would follow. He had pledged her that much time 6 alone only because it was her birthday, not because he understood how 7 important this experience was for her. She set her watch to chime on the 8 hour. In thirty minutes, the alarm would sound, and she would know Ethan 9 would not be far behind. 10 Janelle lowered herself into the gaping limestone mouth in the hillside. 11 Cautiously, she maneuvered from foothold to foothold, stone to rock, 12 before her boot touched the yielding softness of soil. A creature skittered 13 within centimeters of her foot. Janelle stood frozen, her heart pounding, as 14 if she were face to face with a bear, instead of what she knew must be 15 some tiny creature. The splash of a frog, vanishing into the protection of 16 the water, reassured her. Question 5. The main character Janelle can be described as: A) a lost adventurer. B) a curious explorer. C) a careless planner. D) a thoughtful friend. Question 6. What is the best change, if any, to make to herself in line 5? J) no change From U.S. HISTORY: Question 7. The "separate but equal" doctrine established by the Supreme Court in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld the use of: A) Jim Crow laws. B) voting rights restrictions. C) forced busing of students. D) Affirmative Action programs. Question 8: Advocates of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 generally overlooked the contributions Chinese immigrants had made to the: F) settlement of farmlands on the Great Plains. G) defeat of the Confederacy in the Civil War. H) defeat of Native Americans in the 1870s. J) settlement of the American West. "Despite a superior geographical location, the United States is . . . unready to assert its influence . . . . Whether they will or not, Americans must now begin to look outward. The growing production of the country demands it." --Admiral Alfred T. Mahan, 1890 "The United States have always protested . . . international law which permits the (domination) of the weak by the strong. A self-governing state cannot accept sovereignty over an unwilling people." --the American Anti-Imperialist League, 1890 Question 9. The quotations are arguments for and against the: A) formation of a league of nations to prevent future wars. B) expansion of United States political and economic power abroad. C) restriction of immigrants to protect the jobs of domestic workers. D) creation of a United States agency to provide relief for natural disaster victims. Question 10. Two holiday gifts are in the shape of cubes. The ratio of the side lengths of the gifts is 3 to 1. If the side length of the larger gift is 12 inches, what is the volume of the smaller gift? V (equals) s(cubed) A) 27 cu in. B) 36 cu in. C) 64 cu in. D) 1,728 cu in. Source: Oklahoma State Department of Education: http://www.ok.gov/sde/

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Once you have logged into a windowing environment and have sourced the MATLAB setup files, you may start up MATLAB by typing matlab at the UNIX prompt. Once MATLAB has started up, you will see the MATLAB desktop. The desktop consists of 3 windows: Workspace, Command History, and Command Window. The Command Window is where you will see a prompt that looks like >>, and is where you will type in various commands. Basic MATLAB Commands At the MATLAB prompt, you can run some basic UNIX commands such as cd and ls. For more information on UNIX commands, see the UNIX Documentation Page. To get general MATLAB help, type help at the prompt to get a list of a help topics. To get help on a specific topic or function, type help To exit MATLAB, type exit or quit at the prompt. MATLAB is designed to work with matrices, where a matrix is defined to be a rectangular array of numbers. All variables used are considered to be matrices. Scalars and vectors can be used since they can be considered as matrices with dimension 1x1 (scalars) and 1xn or nx1 (vectors). Unlike programming languages such as C or Java, MATLAB does not require any type declarations or dimension statements. When MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it automatically creates the variable and allocates the appropriate amount of storage. If the variable already exists, MATLAB changes its contents and, if necessary, allocates new storage. To check to see what variables already exist and what dimensions they are, type the command whos at the prompt. To clear existing variables from memory enter the command clear at the prompt. To create a variable, simply type the variable name at the prompt, followed the the equals sign (=), and followed by the initialization, as demonstrated below: To initialize a scalar a: To initialize a row vector b: >>b=[1 2 3 4 5] Note that spaces between numbers signify a new column. To initialize a column vector c: >>c=[6; 7; 8; 9] Note that semicolons between numbers signify a new row. To initialize a 3 by 3 matrix M: >>M=[1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] Again, spaces between numbers signify a new column, whereas semicolons signify a new row. Note: Although not required by MATLAB, linear algebra conventions of naming matrices with capital letters and scalars/vectors with lower case letters is often retained for readability inside MATLAB. MATLAB provides four functions that allow you to easily generate basic matrices. - The zeros function creates a matrix with all elements equal to zero. For example, to create a 3 by 4 zero matrix Z: - >>Z= zeros(3, 4) - The ones function creates a matrix with all elements equal to one. For example, to create a 2 by 3 ones matrix O: - >>O= ones(2, 3) - The rand function creates a matrix with uniformly distributed random elements. For example, to create a 4 by 1 random matrix R: - >>R= rand(4, 1) - The randn function creates a matrix with normally distributed random elements. For example, to create a 2 by 5 random matrix R: - >>R= randn(2, 5) MATLAB provides several useful matrix operations: |'||Takes the transpose of a matrix| |inv||Takes the inverse of a matrix| |eig||Computes the eigenvalues of a square matrix| |det||Computes the determinant of a matrix| |rref||Calculates the reduced row echelon form of a matrix| MATLAB allows you to write scripts and define functions in external files called M-Files. M-Files have the file extension .m, and can be executed at the MATLAB prompt by simplying typing in the filename without the .m extension. To create a new M-File: - Go to the File menu, go to the New submenu, and select M-file. - To make comments in the M-file, type a percent sign (%) at the beginning of the line you wish to be commented. - To save the M-file, go to the File menu, and select Save As... and select the location in your home directory that you wish to save the file to. - To close the M-file, go to the File menu, and select Close. At USC, the following MATLAB toolboxes are available: - Control Systems - Fuzzy Logic - Image Processing - LMI Control - Neural Networks - Partial Differential Equation - Robust Control - Signal Processing - Symbolic Math - System Identification To access a Toolbox, go to the MATLAB Start menu, then go to the Toolboxes submenu, then select the Toolbox you wish to use. Getting Help With MATLAB To get general MATLAB help, type help at the MATLAB command prompt to get a list of a help topics. To get help on a specific topic or function, type help MathWorks provides extensive MATLAB documentation online. To access this documentation, go to MATLAB Getting Started If you have questions regarding this documentation, or are having trouble logging into your account and sourcing the MATLAB setup files, please contact the Customer Support Center at 213-740-5555 or email [email protected].

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In 1982, a neurologist named Stanley Prusiner made a highly unorthodox proposal about a group of mysterious and devastating human and animal brain diseases known as “transmissible spongiform encephalopathies” (TSEs). Prusiner claimed that the TSEs—including mad cow disease, the sheep disease known as scrapie, and kuru, a degenerative brain disorder found among the Foré people of New Guinea—moved from victim to victim in a fundamentally different way than all other known contagious diseases. Instead of being carried by bacteria or viruses, he said, they were spread by what he called “prions,” tiny malformed proteins with the ability to convert healthy brain proteins into copies of themselves. Initially quite controversial, Prusiner’s “prion hypothesis” gradually gained traction as researchers piled up evidence in its favor. It spilled into public awareness when the brain-destroying ailment known as new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (nvCJD) suddenly appeared in Britain and was blamed on the consumption of beef tainted with mad cow prions. In 1997, Prusiner received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work. But one small hitch remained: no one had been able to completely confirm the prion hypothesis by causing a TSE in normal lab animals with prions created entirely in a test tube. In April 2005, though, UTMB professor of neurology Claudio Soto announced in a paper published in the journal Cell that his team had done just that. Using a method they call “protein misfolding cyclic amplification” (PMCA), Soto’s group—including assistant professor Joaquín Castilla and research assistant Paula Saá— rapidly multiplied a small number of prions taken from infected hamsters and placed them in test tubes containing healthy brain proteins. When the healthy proteins had been largely transformed into prions, the samples were diluted over and over again and the process repeated, until the only remaining prions were those that had been generated in the test tubes. These were then injected into the brains of healthy hamsters, which began showing TSE symptoms within four months and, on average, died less than six months after inoculation. “For many years, people have tried to make these infectious prions in test tubes, to rule out the presence of a virus,” Soto says. “The evidence in favor of the prion hypothesis was strong, but the final proof was still missing. Now we have supplied this proof.” According to Soto, his group’s success in dramatically increasing the efficiency of PMCA made the breakthrough possible. That achievement enabled them to multiply prion concentrations by as much as a million times. The same enhancement, Soto says, should also soon make possible a much-needed blood test for prions, which would greatly improve surveillance techniques for mad cow disease and nvCJD.

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Help your child get to sleep Believe it or not, by the age of 12 weeks an infant should be able to sleep through the night. No matter what your child’s age, see the tips below to help you both get a good night’s sleep. How much sleep is enough for my child? - For children who startle easily, try "white noise" such as a humidifier, fan or nature sounds. It should be loud enough to mask background noises but soft enough so you can hold a conversation. - Put your baby to bed while still awake, this way if she wakes up in the night she won't be surprised to be in bed. Babies who learn to go to sleep on their own can comfort themselves when they awaken in the middle of the night. - Whenever your child wakes up crying, quietly and quickly reassure him that everything is okay and that you are close by. Too much interaction can backfire, so keep your nighttime "visits" brief and boring. - If your child is a restless sleeper and rolls all over the crib, slowly and firmly stroke down the baby's spine and limbs for a few minutes before bed to help your little one relax. - Avoid highly active play for two hours before bed. - If you haven't already, establish a regular bedtime schedule and routine that will be familiar and relaxing. Bathing, reading and singing can be soothing for both parents and child. Be consistent and your baby will soon associate these steps with sleeping. - If your child is an early riser, make sure sunlight isn't the cause. Keep curtains or blinds closed. “Remember that the quality of the sleep, not just the quantity, is very important. If you have concerns and your child does not seem rested in the morning, talk to your doctor,” advises Virtua Health occupational therapist, Julia Eggles. For age-specific sleep information click below: - Sleep and your newborn - Sleep and your 1- to 3-month-old - Sleep and your 4- to 7-month-old - Sleep and your 8- to 12-month-old - Sleep and your 1- to 2-year-old

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Track of Hurricane Charley, August 9-15, 2004 Courtesy of USGS based on data from the National Weather Service How do we know which way a hurricane will go? Forecasters track hurricane movements and predict where the storms will travel as well as when and where they will reach land. While each storm will make its own path, the movement of every hurricane is affected by a combination of the factors described below. Hurricanes are steered by global winds. These winds, called trade winds, blow from east to west in the tropics. They carry hurricanes and other tropical storms from east to west. In the Atlantic, storms are carried by the trade winds from the coast of Africa where they typically form westward to the Caribbean and North American coasts. When the trade winds are strong it is easier to predict where the storm will travel. When they are weak it's more difficult. After a hurricane crosses an ocean and reaches a continent, the trade winds weaken. This means that the Coriolis Effect has more of an impact on where the storm goes. In the Northern Hemisphere the Coriolis Effect can cause a tropical storm to curve northward. When a storm starts to move northward, it leaves the trade winds and moves into the westerlies, the west to east global wind found at mid-latitudes. Because the westerlies move in the opposite direction from trade winds, the hurricane can reverse direction and move east as it travels north. High pressure systems can also affect the path of storms. In the Atlantic Ocean, the Bermuda High affects the path of hurricanes. When the storms are carried west by the trade winds, they are pushed north around the edge of the high pressure area. Although these factors add up to a typical hurricane path that travels west and then bends poleward, there are other factors that affect a hurricane's path and complex hurricane tracks are common too. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! The Fall 2009 issue of The Earth Scientist , which includes articles on student research into building design for earthquakes and a classroom lab on the composition of the Earth’s ancient atmosphere, is available in our online store You might also be interested in: What types of instructional experiences help K-8 students learn science with understanding? What do science educators teachers, teacher leaders, science specialists, professional development staff, curriculum designers, school administrators need to know to create and support such experiences?...more Earth's ocean covers more than 70% of our planet's surface. There are five major ocean basins. The Pacific Ocean is the largest. It’s so large that it covers a third of the Earth's surface. The Atlantic...more Why do the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron and the Hurricane Research Division use different airplanes? Actually, they only use two main types. The top two airplanes in the graphic, the WC-130H Hercules...more The official "Hurricane Hunters" are the Air Force Reserve's 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron. They fly through the eyes of hurricanes and record information. The information helps the National Hurricane...more The hurricane season in the North Atlantic is particularly strong this year. And scientists predict that the storms will be getting stronger because of global warming. Follow the links below to find out...more Rain, wind, tornadoes, and storm surge related to hurricanes cause change to natural environments, damage to the human-built environment, and even loss of life. When a hurricane is over the ocean and far...more A cyclone is an area of low pressure with winds blowing counter-clockwise around it in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise around it in the Southern Hemisphere. A tropical cyclone is a cyclone which...more Different places in the world call tropical cyclones by different names. If you click on the image at left you will see which areas use "cyclone", which use "hurricane", and which use "typhoon" when refering...more

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1908: Kinemacolor, the first successful color motion-picture process is demonstrated at a scientific meeting in Paris. 1908? Really? It seems as if most of the ’30s movies were produced in black-and-white, with the occasional color blockbuster like Gone With the Wind. Even the 1940s seemed to reserve color for big-budget productions. Were color movies really around more than a century ago? Yes. But no. British inventor Edward Turner actually received a patent on a three-color motion picture process in 1899. The problem is, his system didn’t work all that well. He teamed up with Charles Urban, an American expatriate who was already a force in the fledgling British film industry, in 1901. Turner died soon thereafter, and Urban put Albert Smith on the project. Smith couldn’t make Turner’s process function and decided in 1906 to try a simpler two-color system using standard black-and-white film. But, instead of exposing the then-standard 16 frames a second, the new process exposed 32 frames. A spinning wheel of transparent filters exposed alternate frames in red and green. A similar wheel was used to project the film, and just as persistence of image makes movie frames merge into seemingly continuous motion, so the viewer’s brain merged the two partial-color images into full color. Sort of. The system was notoriously deficient in presenting blues and getting a true white. And because the red frame and the green frame were shot 1/32 of a second apart, rapid motion caused color fringing where the red and green images didn’t exactly overlap. (Not that we’ve ever seen any modern, digital entertainment technology that blurs with rapid motion. Oh, no.) Urban previewed the system for the press in London before giving it a scientific debut in Paris, where film pioneers Auguste and Louis Lumière attended. Kinemacolor got its name in 1909 and was used to film George V’s coronation as emperor of India at the Delhi Durbar in 1912. The process was more economical than the frame-by-frame hand tinting employed by some producers at the time, which sometimes used stencils to create several hundred color prints for commercial distribution. Kinemacolor also spawned some offshoots, including color-wheel systems that exposed side-by-side, rather than alternating, red and green images. Kinemacolor had plenty of drawbacks. It was one thing for a top-notch cinematographer to synchronize the spinning color wheel with the camera shutter, but quite another to expect projectionists all over the world to master the complicated system, even if their employers were willing to pay for the expensive equipment. Urban also had to fight patent battles. Then came World War I, which — besides its tremendous toll in blood — devastated European economies. Kinemacolor never caught on in the United States, some say because of opposition from the Motion Picture Patents Co., a trust of producers and film-stock suppliers (namely Eastman) that had huge power in the film industry. Starting in the late teens, it also had to face a superior technology, one that used stationary prisms instead of moving wheels to film and project color separations. Devised by MIT-trained engineers in Boston, it was called: Technicolor. Image: The Kinemacolor projector used a spinning color wheel to create color movies. (How to Make and Operate Moving Pictures, Funk & Wagnalls, 1917) This article first appeared on Wired.com July 8, 2008. - March 12, 1923: Talkies Talk … on Their Own - Impossible Launches Vivid ‘Color Shade’ Film for Polaroid - Kodak Sees a ‘Very Real Resurgence for Film’ - Death of Film: Last Roll of Kodachrome Processed - Jan. 13, 1908: Pilot Flies Whole Kilometer to Win Big Aviation Prize - Feb. 12, 1908: The Great Race - May 26, 1908: Mideast Oil Discovered — There Will Be Blood - June 18, 1908: Prescient Letter Creates Concept of TV - June 30, 1908: A Very Close Encounter of the Second Kind - Sept. 17, 1908: First Airplane Passenger Death - Oct. 1, 1908: A Basic Car for the Great Unwashed - July 8, 1947: Roswell Incident Launches UFO Controversy - July 8, 1967: Buck Rogers Stops Here

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Learn something new every day More Info... by email Concert dance, often called dance theater or performance dance, is a style performed as entertainment or ceremony for a non-participating audience. Like a theater performance, it usually makes a clear distinction between the performers and the audience. This style has been performed in some forms since ancient times, but as a whole, it has risen to considerable popularity since the 20th century. Some of the earliest concert dances were performed by Indian temple dancers. Some traditional Indian dances were performed for spiritual reasons and only done within the walls of the temple. Another form, called Carnatakam, was performed for the entertainment of the royal court, and may be the origin of the modern for. Ballet is one of the earliest forms of dance theater to spread across the world. In the late 16th century, the Italian dancer Balthasar de Beaujoyeux brought the style to the French court. By the mid-17th century, King Louis XIV founded a dance school to study the practice of the now-popular form. Over the next two centuries, ballet would spread throughout Eurasia, leading to major technique innovations in the style and popularizing performance dance across the continent. It remains one of the most popular styles of performance dance today. In the early 20th century, a quiet rebellion began against the classical strictures of ballet, and modern dance was founded. Based on principles of free and natural movement, the movement became popular in America. Incorporating elements of world dance with a style considerably less traditional than ballet, modern dance quickly attracted an audience of its own. Today, many forms of dance can be performed as concert dances. In America, high school and college dance programs often give performances of many styles, as their students come to them with a variety of training and technique backgrounds. A typical educational dance concert will likely involve ballet, contemporary, jazz, musical theater dance, and even hip-hop or break-dancing. The dances can be performed solo or in groups, as long as there is a distinction between audience and dancers. The popularity of concert dancing has lead to several films and television series dedicated to the dance world. In the feature film Center Stage the plot follows a group of young ballet dancers as they struggle through their first year at a prestigious dance school in New York. The film culminates with a large dance concert, featuring a long choreographed dance performed for both the audience onscreen and the audience watching the movie. For a number of years, the US TV program So You Think You Can Dance? has highlighted different forms of dance. This competition show puts carefully selected dancers in pairs, having them perform in a different style every week. Frequent styles include ballroom dances like samba or jive, contemporary routines, Broadway dance, hip-hop, and disco. This program is an excellent introduction to the world of concert dance and can be viewed without even having to leave the home. People can see dance performances in their area by contacting local community arts centers for information. Some people might even enjoy taking a dance class themselves, to see what the thrill of performing for an audience feels like. Concert dance can be an entertaining and moving form of theatrical performance. @Sierra02 - It really depends on what date you have planned for the performance and also how well experienced the dancers are. There are other factors to consider too like how hard is the choreography, how long each dance will last and how quickly the dancers can learn each one. Generally you should start practicing about six months in advance. Then the last month or two you’ll have time to correct any areas that may need improving. The extra time at the end also allows you room for possible mishaps and more time to perfect the dance moves. Hope this helps and good luck on your fundraiser. We’re trying to raise money for the performing arts department at our school which is fairly new for us. We would like to put on a big dance concert sometime during the next school year. Does anyone know about how long it takes to prepare for a show?

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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - Jehu Ninth century B.C. King of Israel who, according to the Bible, slew Ahab, Jezebel, and the prophets of Baal. He is proverbially known for his swift chariot driving. Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A fast driver; a person fond of driving. - n. A driver; a coachman. - n. A king of Israel in the 9th century B.C. GNU Webster's 1913 - n. colloq. A coachman; a driver; especially, one who drives furiously. “And as you read them, the name Jehu slowly forms into an image, into a personality, and from the empty word Jehu comes the great well of affection springing from a personal intimacy.” “The kind of tribute from Jehu is mentioned: gold, pearls, precious oil, &c.” “And after the house of Jehu is destroyed I will cause to cease the kingdom of the house of Israel; I will begin to bring it down, though now it flourish.” “Such was the goodness of Israel in Jehu's time, and of Judah in” “With the assurance that became a messenger from God, notwithstanding the meanness of his appearance, he called Jehu out from the rest, not waiting his leisure, or begging his pardon for disturbing him, but as one having authority: I have an errand to thee, O captain.” “But we digress far from our point, Jehu, which is a discussion concerning the implementation of our plans of action formed in preparation of our current situation.” “The Jehu is a man of great perception and information, and has a pleasant knack of being able to convey his knowledge to others.” “It was Tummus Biles, the tranter, who had driven a tall stranger from Chester to the present spot, and whose indignation at being miscalled Jehu had only been appeased by a quart of strong ale.” “And yet our Jehu was a hackney coachman, when my lord took him.” “Bible character who had interested her pupil, but the author of this book knows how to spell "Jehu" to a questioning boy, or to a "gang" of boys, or to a Sunday-school class of boys.” Looking for tweets for Jehu.

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Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A genus of myriapods, typical of the unused family Siphonophoridæ. - n. A notable genus of plantlice (Aphididæ), erected by Koch in 1855, having long nectaries, and the antennæ usnally longer than the body. It contains numerous species, many of which are common to Europe and America, as the grain plant-louse, S. avenæ, and the rose plant-louse, S. rosæ. - n. Oceanic hydrozoans, a subclass of Hydrozoa or an order of Hydromedusæ, containing free pelagic forms in which hydriform persons and sterile mednsiform persons (in one family only the former) are united in colonies or aggregates under many special modifications, but definite and constant in each instance. The medusiform or sexual persons are usually only in the form of sporosacs, hut sometimes are matured before they are set free from the colony. The structure is essentially a hollow stem or stock, badding into many different kinds of appendages, representing modified hydranths, hydriform persons, or undeveloped medusiforms. The appendages which a siphonophoran may or does have are the float, pneumatophore orpneumatocyst, which may be absent or replaced by an inflation of the whole stem, the somatocyst, as in the Portuguese man-of-war; the swimming-bell or nectocalyx; the hydrophyllium, covering some of the other parts; the dactylozoöid, or tentaculiform person; the gastrozoöid or nutritive person, which may be highly differentiated into oral, pharyngeal, gastric, and basal parts, which latter may bear long tentacles; and the sexual persons, medusiform buds proper, or gonophores. The arrangement of these elements is very diverse in the different forms of the order. The Siphonophora are sometimes divided into two orders, Calycophora and Physophora, or into four suborders. Re cognized families are Athorybiidæ, Agalmidæ, Apolemiidæ, Physophoridæ, Rhizophysidæ, Physaliidæ, Hippapodiidæ, Monophyidæ, Diphyidæ, and Velellidæ. See cuts under hydrophyllium, Physalia, hydranth, tentacular, Athorybia, gonoblastidium, gonophore, and nematocyst. GNU Webster's 1913 - n. (Zoöl.) An order of pelagic Hydrozoa including species which form complex free-swimming communities composed of numerous zooids of various kinds, some of which act as floats or as swimming organs, others as feeding or nutritive zooids, and others as reproductive zooids. See Illust.under physallia, and porpita. - n. marine colonial hydrozoans “[Illustration: BEAN APHIS = Aphis rumicis = (pupa and female)] = = The Pea Siphon-Aphis = = (= Siphonophora pisi =, Kalt).” “He has never thoroughly studied either the one-celled Protozoa, the Infusoria and Lobosa, nor the Coelenterata, the highly instructive Sponges, Hydroids, Medusæ, or Siphonophora; and thus he is wanting in those genetic principles of comparative zoology on which our theory rests.” “Beyond a doubt the whole stock or polity of Siphonophora has a very definite united will and a united sensibility, and yet each of the individual persons of which this stock (or Cormus) is composed has its own personal will and its own particular sensations.” “Siphonophora stock originated, by association and division of labour, out of these united Medusa communities.” “[Illustration: PEA SIPHON-APHIS = Siphonophora pisi =]” “Their relations are strikingly illustrated in the instructive group of Siphonophora, as I have briefly shown in my article on "The Cell-soul and Soul-cells" (Deutsche Rundschau, July” ‘Siphonophora’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for Siphonophora.

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http://www.wordnik.com/words/Siphonophora

2013-05-24T09:27:02Z

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en

Sorry, no definitions found. “A blind man is a dead man," was how they put it, and I had to make excuses to Sher Afzul and instruct Sergeant Hudson to give the trooper a punishment drill.” “He couldn't risk using his radio to call Julie now, for that would make even a blind man suspicious.” “Schopenhauer says, in one of those recently-found Annotations of his which are so characteristic and so acute, “that which is called 'mathematical certainty' is the cane of a blind man without a dog, or equilibrium in darkness.”” “This shows a mountain-top crowned with laurel where Apollo, surrounded by the Muses, his divine daughters, plays on the lyre; Homer sings, and about the inspired blind man is gathered his ideal family: Virgil leading Dante, Petrarch conversing below with Anacreon, Alcæus, and the wonderful Sappho.” “The blind man twisted a square of newsprint up into a cone and then dipped with a riddly spoon into the pot and filled the cone with wet peanuts.” “When the blind man had his fire going and his peanuts boiling, Inman put his plate on the window-sill and went outside and with the shuffling step of an old man crossed the lawn to the road.” “In ancient times the poor blind man could only grope his way to some street corner, or the steps of some temple, and beg for alms in the name of Esculapius; depending for his bread entirely upon the charities of the people, which his helpless condition seldom failed to elicit.” “The blind man was square and solid in shoulder and hip, and his britches were cinched at the waist with a great leather belt, wide as a razor strop.” “Be it remembered, as we read, that this letter was not addressed to one of the greatest names in literature, but to a petulant and often peevish scholar, living of necessity in great retirement, whose name is never once mentioned by Clarendon, and about whom the voluminous Thurloe, who must have seen him hundreds of times, has nothing to say except that he was “a blind man who wrote Latin letters.”” “The blind man stood where I had guided him, a little below me in the trough of the holy hoofprint, his face looking to the earth.” These user-created lists contain the word ‘blind man’. Biblical collocations and collocations relating to the Bible. This is just a stud. The topic is enermous. Everything that contains a man in it Looking for tweets for blind man.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wordnik.com/words/blind%20man

2013-05-24T09:19:45Z

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en

Islamic State of Afghanistan The World Convention is currently building a global reference for the nearly 180 countries and territories where we know there are Christian – Churches of Christ – Disciples of Christ congregations. Rather than wait for comprehensive, complete information we are putting up details that we readily have available. If you can correct or add to this information, please contact us with details at [email protected] Reference for further information will be in the form of web sites and mailing addresses. The mountainous country of Afghanistan is located in the central part of South Asia, sharing a western border with Iran and the southeastern border with Pakistan. Historically Afghanistan was part of the ancient Persian Empire but was conquered for the Greeks by Alexander the Great in 328 B.C. Buddhism became a strong force in the country reaching its peak in about 50 A.D. By the fifth century the Hun invasion eradicated the Buddhist culture. Christianity was once represented in Afghanistan through the Assyrian Church. By the seventh century the country had adopted Islam which remains the country’s dominant religious and cultural force. Sunni Muslims make up 84% of the population; Shiite Muslims claim 15% of the population leaving all other faiths totaling only one percent of the population. Following the Second World War Afghanistan became closely aligned with the former Soviet Union eventually leading to Soviet occupation in 1979. Following almost constant guerrilla warfare the communist government was overthrown in 1992 and the warring factions turned on one another. In 1998 the Sunni Muslim Taliban militia gained control of the country and imposed strict Islamic rule. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States the U.S. and its allies declared a “War on Terrorism” that led to an invasion of Afghanistan and the defeat of the Taliban-led forces. A transitional government has been established with the goal of rebuilding Afghanistan and returning the country to self-government. Because of more than two decades of warfare Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries on the planet and millions of people lack basic food, clothing, housing and medical care. As early as 1948 some bi-vocational Christians began to visit Afghanistan and by the 1960s the government allowed some missionaries to bring medical aid to the country. A Community Church was constructed in Kabul but with the conversion of a few Muslims the church was destroyed and expatriate Christians were expelled in 1973. With the rise of the Taliban and fundamentalist Islamic practices evangelism has not permitted in Afghanistan. Therefore any spread of the Gospel into the country must come through other forms of aid and social services. The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in the U. S. and Canada provides some limited financial support through its Global Ministries, Southern Asia office assisting with programs of health, education and community development. The Christian Churches and Churches of Christ have had some limited efforts in Afghanistan beginning in 1997. A congregation in North Carolina and a congregation in Kentucky adopted the Taimani people of Afghanistan through a PACE project of the international ministry of Team Expansion. Later a Canadian congregation joined in this effort. The plan to work with this people group has included the preparation of a church-planting team, the use of radio and beginning small businesses to employ widows. At least one successful medical mission team went in 2002 to provide care and survey the needs. Team Expansion has also worked closely with International Foundation of Hope to provide some aid to Afghanistan. Muslim Hope is another Christian Churches and Churches of Christ ministry that has worked with refugees in Afghanistan. (Because of the persecution Christians in Afghanistan must face and the potential dangers to those who work with the Afghan people individual names have been withheld). Clinton J. Holloway National Profiles Editor For further historical reference: Churches of Christ Around the World, Mac Lynn, 21st Century Christian Publications, Nashville, TN, 2003. Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Global Ministries, Southern Asia Office 130 E. Washington St., P.O. Box 1986 Indianapolis, IN 46206-1986 Telephone: (317) 635-3100 Fax: (317) 635-4323 Web site: http://www.globalministries.org 1000 Franklin Rd. Lebanon, OH 45036 Telephone: (513) 932-8121 Healing Hands International of the a cappella Churches of Christ provides international aid and are possible contacts for that fellowship: Web site: http://www.hhi-aid.org

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en

Climate change is a global challenge with serious consequences for our social and economic infrastructure as well as the natural environment. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that cause climate change are emitted mainly from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Because heavy industry is a leading source of GHG emissions, most of the business-focused programs responding to the problem emphasize participation by “emitters,” manufacturers and utilities. Action by industry alone, however, is not enough. Long-term solutions require emission reduction efforts by the entire economy, and this publication addresses service-sector companies such as banks, law firms, retailers, and real estate managers. Even though they are not considered large emitters, these companies do emit GHGs and can help mitigate climate change through changes in their energy use and the products and services they offer. The most common greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO2) and two of the largest global sources are electricity and heat (32 percent) and transportation (17 percent). (1) Service-sector companies’ activities contribute to these sources through their electricity use, heating, cooling and travel. They may also contribute to other large global CO2 emission sources such as land use change and forestry (24 percent) and manufacturing and construction (13 percent). (2) Service-sector companies have an opportunity to infl uence their operations, supply chains, customers, employees, and other stakeholders and to help change those behaviors necessary to curb the most dangerous effects of climate change. To provide the context for service-sector companies’ action, this guide begins with: - A brief overview of climate change science and expected impacts. This section describes climate change and why it is occurring, and summarizes some of the anticipated consequences, such as more intense weather events, water and food shortages, and possible changes in the geographic distribution of some infectious diseases. - An outline of the connection between climate change and the service sector and the reasons that service-sector companies should take action. This section explains how service-sector companies contribute to global GHG emissions and the economic dangers of climate change that they face. Then we discuss the “business case” for service-sector companies to take action. At the outset, the business must develop a case for taking action and determine its goals for a program responding to climate change. Why should the company undertake this activity? What are the risks of undertaking or not undertaking it? What will the return on its investment be? What are the shortand long-term benefi ts for the company? How will its stakeholders react? These sections are followed by a step-by-step manual for service-sector businesses ready to begin responding to climate change. Planning your GHG inventory In order to affect climate change, GHG emissions must be reduced, which service-sector companies can do by changing their energy use as well as the products and services they provide. In order for companies to track their performance and ensure that their actions do reduce their GHG emissions, they must measure them by developing a GHG inventory, a list of the sources of their GHG emissions and their quantities. This inventory is the foundation of an effective corporate climate change program. Measurement enables businesses to assess their risks and opportunities, follow their progress, and create a strategy to reduce emissions by measurable amounts. To start, resources must be assigned, emission sources identified, and data gathered. Those staff charged with this task must be familiar with their company’s organizational structure, for example, partnerships, joint ventures, or other organizational subunits of the parent company, so they can identify its emission-generating activities and associated sources of emissions. For example, will the company include emissions from transportation? Will this include all transportation, such as business trips to meetings and conferences, product distribution, and employees commuting to and from work, or just some of these? Will all the sources of energy that the business uses, such as electricity or other fuels for heating and cooling be included? Does the company lease assets such as buildings and vehicles that should be included in the inventory? The staff should use a framework based on the World Resources Institute/World Business Council for Sustainable Development’s GHG Protocol Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard (revised edition) (GHG Protocol) to make decisions that are comparable to those made by other businesses. Developing your GHG inventory Once your company has decided on a strategy for measuring emissions, it can begin developing its GHG inventory by collecting and managing data. First the company must decide for which year it is gathering information and then determine what information is needed for each emission source and where to find it. For example, is it best to start by gathering data for the current year, the previous year, or another year? How does the company measure electricity, and where can it find how much electricity each business unit uses? Are there circumstances under which this information may be estimated? Each emission source has a corresponding emission factor, how are these factors applied and where are they found? Companies must devise a way to collect this information efficiently, as well as a system to store and manage it. How best can a data management system ensure the quality of the data? Once information is gathered about each emission source, the company can begin calculating its emissions. Although this is relatively simple, the company must be careful not to make errors that can cause inaccuracies in the inventory, such as mistakes in data entry or basic math. How should the company make these calculations? Will it create its own tools or save time and resources by using established tools such as those provided by the GHG Protocol? Managing your GHG emissions Once your company has measured its emissions, it can start to manage them. Its GHG inventory will help determine the best emission reduction opportunities. For example, is it better to reduce its own electricity use or to infl uence supply chain emissions? What other solutions might be feasible? What about obtaining energy from renewable sources, moving to green buildings, or improving vehicles’ fuel efficiency? The company also should fix an emission reduction target to demonstrate to its stakeholders its commitment and intentions and to track its progress through public reporting. What are the reasons for establishing a target, and how does a company decide what type of target to set? What information should be included in a company’s public GHG inventory report? This guide answers all these questions according to the established framework of the GHG Protocol, to ensure that service-sector companies develop effective climate change response strategies that are compatible with both others in the business community and voluntary and mandatory climate change programs. 1. See World Resources Institute, Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT), version 3.0 (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2006). Transportation emissions include international transport emissions, referred to as “international bunkers.”

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2013-05-24T09:17:48Z

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en

For more information on WSPA's education work or to share humane education materials, please use these resources. First Concepts in Animal Welfare A full collection of humane education materials developed by a wide range of organizations and individuals (looking at animals, people and the environment) is available for educators of 5-16 year olds. The materials are all designed to link to introductory-level education programs and are available at www.animal-education.org. Four WSPA-produced materials for teachers in English can be downloaded directly from the links below; for availability in other languages, check www.animal-education.org. First Concepts in Animal Welfare teacher’s guide (PDF 3MB) An explanatory pack for educators. Bears of the World education pack: Bears of the world facts booklet (PDF 24MB) Bears of the world factsheets (PDF 11MB) Bears of the world poster (PDF 3MB) Bears lesson ideas (PDF 6MB) Caring for Cats and Dogs: An interactive decision-making classroom resource for teachers (PDF 12.2MB); also available in Portuguese, Spanish, Hindi and Thai. Please note hard copies of this resource in English are available on request from: [email protected] Doggy Speak (PDF 2.6MB) This book seeks to explain how dogs communicate and how children recognize what they are expressing. Also available in Spanish, Thai, Hindi and Papiamentu. These materials cover more complex animal welfare concepts and are designed for university veterinary faculties, and agriculture and livestock training institutes around the world. Educating the veterinary professional about animal welfare (PDF 164KB) This 2006 article about how to stimulate an interest in animal welfare in vets and other professionals working with animals is from the scientific journal ALTEX. These leaflets can be used by anyone who wants to understand more about good pet care. Caring for your cat leaflet (English; PDF 308 KB); also available in other languages at www.animal-education.org High resolution version available on request from [email protected]

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Slavery in Present West Virginia in 1860 By Barbara Louise Emmerth One hundred years ago slavery was not an uncommon thing in what is now the state of West Virginia. Let yourself drift back through time, past the turn of the century and on back to the year 1863 when West Virginia became a state. Now go back just a little further. The year is 1860! We are in Jefferson County. It is mid- October and the apple crop is ready for picking. The owners of the large orchards are the masters of the slaves who are used throughout the area to pick the apples. Jefferson County is the site of John Brown's famous raid. Just one year ago he attacked the United States arsenal in an attempt to free the slaves. His band was composed of Aboli- tionists and slaves. Although their motive was admirable, their procedure was not right. They wanted to free the slaves, but as we view the area on the first anniversary of the raid, we see that nothing has changed. Slavery still reigns. Now let us take a quick look around the western past of Virginia. We find slaves in most of the counties, although only a few have large numbers. If we actually take stock of the number of slaves in western Virginia we will find that there are fewer here than in the other slave areas. Jefferson County has the greatest number. The slaves account for twenty per- cent of its population.1 In Kanawha County we find a great number of slaves. There are over two thousand and they are used in many jobs.1 Their chief duties consist of working on the farms. They help clear land and cultivate the crops. In one-third of the counties the slaves account for only one per- cent of the population. The counties of Berkeley, Greenbrier, Hampshire, Hardy, and Monroe have over one thousand slaves each. Nevertheless, the number of slaves has actually decreas- ed in the last decade. There are twelve thousand seven hundred seventy-one slaves and three hundred thirty-four thousand nine hundred twenty-one whites.2 As we travel around the state we hear much talk about the abolition of slavery. The western members of the General As- sembly have been trying since 1832 to have slavery abolished in the entire state. The Assembly strongly considered this, but it has still not become a fact. The Abolitionists are printing and circulating forceful literature. William E. Stevenson of Wood County was recently in- dicted for circulating a book he had written. This book de- clared "that the South must soon adopt a free labor economy."3 The famous Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, is indicted in Harrison County because of certain statements appearing in his newspaper. The Wheeling Intelligencer is printing propaganda material for the Abolitionists. An article by John Marshall recently ap- peared in that newspaper. He said: "It (slavery) is ruinous to the whites; it retards improvements, roots out our industrious population, banishes the yeomanry from the country, and de- prives the spinner, the weaver, the smith, the shoemaker, and the carpenter of employment and support."4 Many of the people of western Virginia are basing their op- position to Negro slavery on the principles of the Declaration of Independence. James McDowell is one of these, he says: "You may place the slave where you please, you may dry up to the utmost the foundations of his feelings, the spring of his thought-you may close upon his mind the avenue of know- ledge and cloud it over with artificial might-you may yoke him to your labor as an ox which liveth only to work and worketh only to live-you may put him under any process, which, without destroying his value as a slave, will debase and crush him as a rational being-you may do this and the idea that he was born to be free will survive all. It is allied to his hope of immortality-it is the ethical part of his nature which oppression cannot reach-it is the torch lit up in his soul by the hand of Deity and never meant to be extinguished by the hand of man."5 There are many differences between the eastern and western parts of Virginia. Thomas Ritchie, editor of the Richnaond Enquirer, has brought to light some of these. He said: "It is possible from what we learn that the committee on the colored population will report on some plan for getting rid of color. But is this all that can be done? Are we forever to suffer the greatest evil which can scourge our land, not only to remain but to increase within its domains? `We may shut our eyes and avert our faces, if you please,' writes an eloquent South Carolinian; `but there it is, the black and gnawing evil at our doors-and meet the question we must at no distant day.' God only knows what it is the part of wise men to do on that momentous and appalling subject. Of this I am sure, that the difference, nothing short of frightful, between all exists on one side of the Potomac and all on the other side, is owing to that cause alone. The disease is deep rooted-it is at the heart's core-it is con- suming and has all along been consuming our vitals... some- thing must be done."6 Even now many of the western Virginians are planning to withdraw from the state. They are holding secret meetings in Wellsburg and Wheeling. This is their cry: "Make western Virginia free, and she will invite immigrants. Her coal and her iron can be mined only by free labor. Negro slavery is wasteful everywhere, but less profitable in western Virginia than in any other part of the southern states."7 Slavery is wrong. These men are sure of this and intend to take some final move to abolish it. They will abolish it!! Now let us come back to the present and view these events as @ the past. We now feel that John Brown was a hero. He made his raid one hundred years ago, yet every person in West Vir- ginia is still familiar with his name. There is a monument at Harpers Ferry dedicated to his memory. All this just because there was slavery in western Virginia in 1860. Today we praise the spirit of the men who were brave enough to speak against slavery. Their words are recorded in the vol- umes of history. Yes, the counties that now compose West Virginia were slave-holding areas in 1860. But its citizens knew that slavery was wrong. One hundred years after all this history was made, we the present generation, can look back on our forefathers with pride. 1 Phil M. Conley, editor-in-chief, The West Virginia Encyclopedia, pp. 372-373. 2 James Morton Callahan. The Semi-Centennial History of West Virginia. 3 Conley, The West Virginia Encyclopedia, pp. 372-373. 4 The Wheeling Intelligencer, Nov. 28, 1859. 5 Charles H. Ambler, A History of West Virginia, pp. 230-231. 6 Ambler, A History of West Virginia, pp. 232-233. 7 Callahan, Semi-Centennial History of West Virginia. West Virginia History Journal West Virginia History Center

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Ground Waves are radio waves that follow the curvature of the earth. Ground waves are always vertically polarized, because a horizontally polarized ground wave would be shorted out by the conductivity of the ground. Because ground waves are actually in contact with the ground, they are greatly affected by the groundís properties. Because ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earthís surface. This effect is more pronounced at higher frequencies, limiting the usefulness of ground wave propagation to frequencies below 2 MHz. Ground waves will propagate long distances over sea water, due to its high conductivity. Ground waves are used primarily for local AM broadcasting and communications with submarines. Submarine communications takes place at frequencies well below 10 KHz, which can penetrate sea water (remember the skin effect?) and which are propagated globally by ground waves.

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Carbohydrates are what fuel our bodies with energy, but do you know the difference between good carbs and bad carbs? Here’s a simple way of remembering: complex = good, and simple = bad. Complex carbohydrates (pasta, potatoes, beans and corn) are absorbed by your body at a slower rate, and don’t result in raised blood sugar levels the way simple carbs do. Simple carbohydrates are found in sweets and soft drinks and can cause the sort of spikes in your blood sugar that are most prominently felt after they're broken down, when your body has a "sugar crash". Want to learn more? Find a health food store near you. The Yellowbook Answers are provided as a service to users of yellowbook.com and are not intended to replace advice from qualified professionals. Yellowbook makes no promise, guarantee or warranty regarding the comprehensiveness, accuracy or reliability of the information provided.

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2013-05-24T09:46:12Z

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en

Siblings, Schooling, Work and Drought - Date: 10 Dec 2011 - Series: Working Paper 73 - Author: S. Galab and Ingo Outes-Leon - Download the full text ( English, 459 KB, PDF document ) Summary: This paper provides an analysis of the school and work patterns of 11- and 12-year-old children who live in areas affected by severe drought in Andhra Pradesh, India. The drought analysed in this study occurred during the 2002-03 agricultural year. It has affected 90 per cent of mandals in the region, lowering crop yields and employment. On the outset, it might appear that such a large economic shock would affect children’s work and schooling patterns in much the same way. However, this paper presents several influences that a severe drought might have on the school and work patterns of children in rural, agricultural households. Drought reduces productivity and therefore, the amount of household profit and disposable income available for children’s education. Thus, school participation might seem likely to decrease. On the other hand, because drought reduces the need for children’s labour, times of drought may enable children to spend more time at school because there is less work to do. This paper takes these divergent possibilities into account and models children’s work and school participation accordingly for four demographic groups within families: the eldest girl, the eldest boy, younger girls and younger boys. In general, the results show that the drought affected school participation hours for an average child by a reduction of about 30 minutes. However, when we take the different demographic groups into account we find that work and school participation patterns shift disproportionately. In particular, rural households affected by drought reallocate the time that children spend at work and school. While eldest sons in irrigation-farming households reduce the number of hours they work and increase the time they spend in school, the work of girls (both eldest and younger daughters) increases, presumably in work activities unaffected by the drought.

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2013-05-24T09:31:06Z

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en

On Jul 15, 1995 the Zetas stated that after the Pole Shift, the oceans would be lush, light green in color, on the rebound from all the CO2 in the atmosphere from volcanoes. They likewise predicted on Jul 15, 1995 that the tail of Planet X would lay down iron oxide red dust, heavy enough to turn rivers and ponds blood red, per legend. - Life in the oceans will not die out. The water will have a green tinge. Little known among the populace, but well known among scientists, is that the ocean is one of the largest producers of the atmospheric oxygen. After the cataclysms, the atmosphere oxygen will be rebuilt from the oceans. The oceans will appear greenish to many, and for good reason. All the fires will have placed a tremendous amount of carbon dioxide into the air, the stuff of which vegetative grown is made of. With little vegetation on land, the ocean kelp will absorb and utilize this. The oceans will be lush. - ZetaTalk: Ocean Life, written prior to July 15, 1995 - The gases and dust curl toward the Earth, and are first noticeable as a fine red iron dust, turning the water a bitter blood red. Does this dust not burn in the available oxygen, and end as so many tiny flying star specs? This dust, already oxygenated, does not burn. - ZetaTalk: Comet's Tail, written prior to July 15, 1995 On Aug 10, 2006 the Green Geek website reported the results of an experiment, whereby seeding the ocean surface with iron cause the phytoplankton to flourish and not only turn the surface green, it consumed the CO2 in the air above! It was not just the CO2, it was the addition of iron, that allowed this to happen. The iron oxide from the tail, combined with excessive CO2, would indeed turn the oceans lush, as the Zetas had predicted! - Seeding the Ocean to Promote Climate Change August 10th, 2006 - Experiments in the early 1990s that seeded a region of the Pacific Ocean with iron dust saw a phenomenal 20 fold increase in the local phytoplankton population, with a corresponding decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide by roughly 2,500 tons within a period of 2 weeks. California-based Planktos Inc. believes this process can be repeated on a large scale to put a serious dent in our excess carbon dioxide problem. Since 1980, global levels of phytoplankton have dropped 25%. This is significant because phytoplankton, tiny floating surface algae, perform 50 percent of Earth's photosynthesis. The result of this is the production of 50 percent of our oxygen, and removed half of our carbon dioxide. At 1980 levels, this meant the metabolism of 50 gigatons of carbon dioxide each year. Since 1980, the loss in phytoplankton has resulted in a reduction of carbon dioxide metabolism of nearly 3 gigatons; equivilant to approximately half of all industrial and automotive emissions each year. 80 percent of the world's ocean water includes phytoplankton, the other 20 percent is said to be high nutrient/low chlorophyll (HNLC) because is it virtually devoid of phytoplankton. Although these areas are rich in most of the nutrients required by plant life, they are missing one crucial ingredient: iron. Because the other nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, silicon) required for growth are already present, the addition of iron causes a very rapid algae bloom.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.zetatalk.com/theword/tworx560.htm

2013-05-24T09:17:23Z

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en

J Agromed 2005 Jan; 10(4):65-70 Safety for Agricultural Educators (SAGE) is a two-sided fact sheet on agricultural hazards that has been distributed by the New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health (NYCAMH) to Northeastern high school agriculture educators over the past six years. It was intended to supplement and stimulate the teaching of safety principles in agricultural education classes and thus enhance the awareness and knowledge of young people working on farms. This paper describes an evaluation of SAGE's success at achieving these goals. Postal surveys from 29 teachers who had not previously received SAGE gathered data on class demographics and the amount of class time devoted to a variety of agricultural topics including tractor operation and agricultural health and safety. Teachers were asked to assess their students' awareness of safety and health issues and also to estimate the number of students working in the farm environment. Following a year of SAGE mailings, the same information was gathered from the 24/29 post-SAGE responders. Comparison of pre-post responses from the 24 matched responding educators showed: limited increase in the teachers' knowledge of basic agricultural safety information; a decline in the amount of class time devoted to health and safety; a marginal increase in estimated student awareness of health and safety and very little evidence of teacher awareness of SAGE as a safety resource. Most notable was the fact that only 8% of all students were currently working on a farm and teachers estimated that only 6% would be working on farms in five years. Agriculture; Agricultural-industry; Occupational-hazards; Agricultural-workers; Safety-education; Safety-measures; Farmers; Agricultural-machinery; Tractors; Occupational-health; Accident-prevention; Injuries; Injury-prevention New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health, One Atwell Road, Cooperstown, NY 13326, USA Journal of Agromedicine Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital - Cooperstown, New York

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http://www2a.cdc.gov/nioshtic-2/BuildQyr.asp?s1=20030797&PageNo=1&RecNo=1&View=f

2013-05-24T09:24:54Z

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en

Purpose: Strengthen and refine fine motor and coordination skills Materials:felt, beads, string, cardboard (needle and thread or sewing machine) How To Make the Bead Maze: Step 1: Fold a standard piece of felt in half. Draw an 'S' shape lightly on the felt. Step 2: Place one edge of string at the start of the 'S'. Cover it with a small square of felt. Sew in place. Step 3: Lace beads onto string. Place the end of the string at the end of the 'S' shape, cover with small piece of felt and sew in place. Step 4: Cut small squares of felt to make the tunnels. Sew the tunnels in place over the string. Just move the beads out of the way when you sew each tunnel. Make sure though that the tunnel is high enough to allow the beads to pass through. Also, make sure you make a several tunnels to guide the beads through or the string will be too slack. Step 4: Fold the felt in half and sew closed except the bottom. Step 5: To provide some stiffness to the maze, slip a piece of cardboard inside the felt pocket. Step 6: Play with the maze by trying to push the beads through all the tunnels.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://yourtherapysource.com/freebeadmaze.html

2013-05-24T09:30:35Z

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en

Anxiety is the fearful anticipation of further danger or problems accompanied by an intense unpleasant feeling (dysphoria) or physical symptoms. Anxiety is not uncommon in children and adolescents. Anxiety in children may present as: - Separation Anxiety Disorder: Excessive anxiety concerning separation from home or from those to whom the child is attached. The youngster may develop excessive worrying to the point of being reluctant or refusing to go to school, being alone, or sleeping alone. Repeated nightmares and complaints of physical symptoms (such as headaches, stomach aches, nausea, or vomiting) may occur. - Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Excessive anxiety and worry about events or activities such as school. The child or adolescent has difficulty controlling worries. There may also be restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep difficulties. - Panic Disorder: The presence of recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and persistent worries about having attacks. Panic Attack refers to the sudden onset of intense apprehension, fearfulness, or terror, often associated with feelings of impending doom. There may also be shortness of breath, palpitations, chest pain or discomfort, choking or smothering sensations, and fear of "going crazy" or losing control. - Phobias: Persistent, irrational fears of a specific object, activity, or situation (such as flying, heights, animals, receiving an injection, seeing blood). These intense fears cause the child or adolescent to avoid the object, activity, or situation.

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http://aacap.org/cs/root/resources_for_families/glossary_of_symptoms_and_illnesses/anxiety

2013-06-18T23:30:46Z

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en

Civil War Union Naval Ship Darlington (C.S. Steamship, 1861-1862). Also USS Darlington (1862), U.S. Army Transport Darlington (1862 - circa 1866) and civilian steamer Darlington (1849-1861, 1866-1874) Darlington , a 298-ton side-wheel steamship, was built at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1849 for civilian employment. In 1861-62 she was apparently used by the Confederate Army to carry equipment and supplies in the Florida coastal region. She was captured on 3 March 1862 near Fernandina, Florida, by a boat expedition from USS Pawnee . Darlington was subsequently employed by the U.S. Navy in the waters between northern Florida and southern South Carolina. In September 1862 she was transferred to the Army for use as a transport. Sold in 1866, Darlington again saw civilian service until 1874. Watercolor by Erik Heyl, 1963, prepared for use in his book "Early American Steamers", Volume III. Originally built in 1849 as a civilian steamer and operated by the Confederates in 1861-62, Darlington was captured by USS Pawnee on 3 March 1862. After some months' service with the U.S. Navy, she became the U.S. Army Transport Darlington in September 1862. She reentered commericial employment as SS Darlington in 1866 and survived until 1874. Confederate Blockade Runner 1861-65 Every aspect of Confederate ironclads is covered: design, construction, armor, armament, life on board, strategy, tactics, and actual combat actions. Civil War Musket Wood & Steel Frontier Rifle Designed After The 72 Piece Civil War Army Men Play Set 52mm Union and Confederate Figures, Bridge, Horses, Canon - 48 Union and Confederate Soldiers up to 2-1/8 inches tall - 4 Horses, 4 Sandbag Bunkers, 6 Fence Sections, 3 Cannon, 3 Limber Wagons (Ammo Carts) - Bridge, Small Barracks, 2 Cardboard buildings - Scale: About 1/35th American Civil War Marines 1861-65 Marines wearing blue and grey fought in many dramatic actions afloat and ashore – ship-to-ship engagements, cutting-out expeditions, and coastal landings. This book offers a comprehensive summary of all such battles, illustrated with rare early photographs Union River Ironclad 1861-65 At the start of the American Civil War, neither side had warships on the Mississippi River. In what would prove the vital naval campaign of the war, both sides fought for control of the river. While the Confederates relied on field fortifications and small gunboats, the Union built a series of revolutionary river ironclads The Story of the H.L. Hunley During the Civil War, Union forces blockade the port of Charleston so the Confederate army seeks a way to attrack the Yankee Ships. George Dixon is part of the group of men given the task of creating and building the "fish boat," a submarine. The H.L. Hunley ultimately sets out on its mission to sink Yankee ships, but fails to return, its whereabouts unknown. Halls of Honor The U.S. Navy Museum takes you on an informed and entertaining romp through one of North America s oldest and finest military museums. The museum has been in continuous operation at the Washington Navy Yard since the American Civil War Raise The Alabama She was known as "the ghost ship." During the Civil War, the CSS Alabama sailed over 75,000 miles and captured more than 60 Union vessels. But her career came to an end in June of 1864 when she was sunk by the USS Kearsarge off the coast of Northern France The Civil War - A Film by Ken Burns Here is the saga of celebrated generals and ordinary soldiers, a heroic and transcendent president and a country that had to divide itself in two in order to become one U.S. National Park Service U.S. Library of Congress US Naval Archives Enter the keywords you are looking for and the site will be searched and all occurrences of your request will be displayed. You can also enter a date format, April 19,1862 or September 1864. More To Explore

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://americancivilwar.com/tcwn/civil_war/Navy_Ships/USS_Darlington.html

2013-06-18T23:11:35Z

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en

Just Ask Antoine! Atoms & ions Energy & change The quantum theory Electrons in atoms The periodic table History of chemistry How do I calculate the pH for a strong acid solution after dilution? - How does the pH of a typical 3 ounces of gastric hydrochloric acid (HCl) with a pH of 1.0 change when 16 ounces of distilled water is added? - Estimate the initial hydrogen ion concentration. A simple, working definition of pH is pH = - log[H+], where [H+] is the hydrogen ion molarity. To obtain the hydrogen ion molarity from the pH, remember that a logarithm of a number is really just the exponent when that number is written as a power of ten. The definition of pH solved for hydrogen ion molarity is then [H+] = 10-pH. For example, the molarity of hydrogen ions in a pH 5 solution is 10-5 M. - Compute the hydrogen ion concentration after dilution. If the solution is diluted to twice its original volume, the concentration will be cut in half. If the solution is diluted to three times its original volume, the concentration will be cut to one third; and so on. If the original volume is V1 and the total volume after dilution is V2, the final concentration will be V1/V2 times the original concentration. - Convert hydrogen ion concentration back to pH, using the definition for pH. Author: Fred Senese [email protected]

<urn:uuid:05fc3e50-9b17-4ecf-9b76-23bf19537e66>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/acidbase/faq/pH-strong-acid-dilution.shtml

2013-06-18T23:06:11Z

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en

Copper Rockfish have a deep, stout body. They vary in color from dark brown or olive to pink or orange-red above with patches of copper-pink and sometimes yellow. Their bellies are whitish. Two copper-orange bars radiate backward from their eyes, and their cheeks are sometimes yellowish. Copper Rockfish often have a wide, pale stripe running along the rear two-thirds of their lateral line. (Compare to Canary Rockfish, which can be similarly colored but have a white band running the entire length of the lateral line.) There is also a prominent dark band going from the eye to the pectoral fin, and a second band below it. Their fins are mostly copper in color and often dark. Copper Rockfish are typically solitary bottom dwellers. They will sometimes gather into small groups hovering in kelp beds or above rocky ocean bottoms. These fish are not territorial, but tend to remain in one area. They are wary and will move away when approached by divers. Coppers will often share caves with Giant Pacific Octopuses. They also lurk around pilings, jetties and under floats. Juveniles will loosely aggregate in shallow, weedy bays, and can become temporarily trapped in tide pools. Range & Habitat Copper Rockfish are common from southeast Alaska to Baja California; but are most abundant from British Columbia to southern California. Coppers prefer rocky areas, from offshore reefs to shallow, protected bays, inlets and kelp forests. Occasionally they can be found around docks and jetties. These fish swim from near the surface down to 600 feet (183 m), but are most common in waters less than 400 feet (122 m) deep. Juveniles tend to live in shallow waters of less than 20 feet (6 m).

<urn:uuid:ffc5b986-407f-44f8-8705-09df38671124>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://aquarium.org/exhibits/passages-of-the-deep/animals/copper-rockfish

2013-06-18T23:37:30Z

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en

SARS Model Shows Virus Has Potential To Spread Widely in the Absence of Effective Public Health Interventions For immediate release: May 23, 2003 Boston, MA—Using a computer model to quantify and predict the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), researchers at Harvard School of Public Health have determined that the virus has a real potential to spread widely but can be effectively controlled-- even without a vaccine or drug treatment-- through public health measures including quarantine, isolation of sick patients and stringent protection of hospital personnel. The results appear in an expedited release by Science magazine at www.sciencemag.org or http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1086616v1.pdf that is free to the public. The paper is entitled “Transmission Dynamics and Control of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome.” Using detailed epidemiologic data from Singapore and the epidemic curves from other settings, the researchers, led by Marc Lipsitch and Megan Murray, both assistant professors of epidemiology at HSPH, estimated that a single infectious case of SARS will infect about three secondary cases in a population that has not yet instituted control measures. SARS has spread widely since November, 2002 and probable cases have been reported in 31 countries, with extensive ongoing transmission in Taiwan and China and major outbreaks that are now under control in Singapore, Vietnam and Canada. The World Health Organization today also lifted its travel advisory to Hong Kong and Guangdong Province in China, where local transmission has been controlled, leaving transmission only in hospital settings. The cause of SARS appears to be a new kind of coronavirus. “Our study shows in a quantitative way that SARS could have spread very widely and still could,” said Murray. “It has the potential to do so, and we need to take stringent control measures, quickly and effectively.” “It’s very close to unprecedented to have stopped an outbreak of a respiratory disease without any biological interventions such as a vaccine or drugs,” said Lipsitch. “While we have a lot of uncertainty that SARS can be completely controlled, this model gives us reasonable hope.” While highly infectious, SARS is less infectious than other, common respiratory diseases such as measles where a single case might generate 15 to 17 other cases; a case of chicken pox would result in 6 to 8 secondary cases. Smallpox, which was eradicated in 1977, was just slightly less infectious than chicken pox. A disease would have to be kept to an infection rate of less than 1 to be eventually eliminated. Still, said Lipsitch, SARS, with a rate of 3 infections, would be expected to create a very large number of cases in the absence of any control methods. “We still need to know in the big outbreaks in China and Taiwan a person-by-person accounting of the transmission circumstances,” he said. “And in order to make control more effective, we need to find out more precisely when people become infectious, how that infectiousness changes over time and when they stop being infectious.” Other uncertain aspects of SARS crucial to knowing if the virus might return include whether the virus proves to be seasonal; whether it exists in an animal reservoir from which it could be reintroduced; and whether people who recover from SARS retain any immunity. With other coronaviruses, including some kinds of the common cold, people acquire short term, temporary immunity. The researchers analyzed the first 205 probable cases of SARS reported in Singapore to obtain relevant epidemiologic parameters. They saw a rapid decline in secondary cases in the second week of the outbreak there, coinciding with the application of control measures, including isolation of SARS cases and quarantine of their asymptomatic contacts. Ironically, because control measures were rapidly applied in Singapore, the researchers found too few data there to provide a reliable estimate of the infectiousness of SARS prior to the institution of control measures. They therefore estimated the rate of secondary infections from the rate of exponential growth in the number of cases in several other settings. The researchers conclude that an achievable combination of control measures can contain SARS as demonstrated in Canada, Singapore, Vietnam and, most recently, Hong Kong and Guangdong. But, they warn that “On the other hand, in the absence of such effective measures, SARS has the potential to spread very widely.” Other contributors to the article included James Robins, Professor of Epidemiology at HSPH, and researchers from the Ministry of Health, Singapore, McMaster Hospital in Hamilton, Ont., the City of Hamilton Public Health and Community Service Department, the University of Utah and Massachusetts General Hospital. For further information, please contact: Director of Communications 677 Huntington Avenue Boston, Massachusetts 02115

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://archive.sph.harvard.edu/press-releases/archives/2003-releases/press05232003.html

2013-06-18T23:05:49Z

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en

This NASA image gives a closer view of the landing site of JPL's Curiosity… (EPA/NASA / JPL-Caltech…) NASA’s Mars Curiosity rover is on the move toward a key point of interest -- a spot about a quarter-mile southeast of its landing site that may become the rover’s first drill target. That spot, called Glenelg Intrigue, lies at the confluence of three different types of terrain -- and scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission plan to use Curiosity to investigate what sort of geological history brings such different types of rocky material together. One of the three types, which looks to be layered bedrock, is likely to be a potential target for the rover's drill, a tool that can bore into rock in order to take samples and analyze them in the robot's chemical belly. The rover set out Tuesday, covering 52 feet eastward. The trip to Glenelg would be the rover’s first extended driving journey: previous rover drives lasted a matter of several feet. Curiosity has snapped photos of the surrounding terrain in Gale Crater, where it touched down Aug. 5. In the middle of the crater lies Mt. Sharp, a 3-mile-high mound whose layers contain a record of the Red Planet’s early history and may even host some of the ingredients for life. Glenelg is a slight detour from that ultimate plan, but it’s probably not the only pit stop. That's why, even though the journey to Mt. Sharp would theoretically only take about 100 days if the rover was driving flat out at top speed, the trip is expected to take the better part of a year. The drive to Glenelg is expected to take weeks, according to project scientist and Caltech geologist John Grotzinger. Follow me on Twitter: @aminawrite

<urn:uuid:c3ffd447-9b85-47a1-a6c4-56c5760cd5f8>

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http://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/29/science/la-sci-sn-curiosity-rover-glenelg-intrigue-nasa-20120829

2013-06-18T23:40:29Z

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en

Diabetes has become a full-blown epidemic in this country - and it's getting worse. Every day in the United States, 4,100 new cases of diabetes are diagnosed. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicts that one in three Americans born in 2000 will develop diabetes. These alarming rates have sparked new educational campaigns to help prevent type 2 diabetes, the most common form of the disease, which is closely tied to being overweight. The growing problem also seems to be shaping the food aisles. In the past four years, nearly 6,000 sugar-free products hit store shelves, according to Lynn Dornblaser, a new-product analyst with Mintel, a market research company in Chicago. Beyond sugar-free, new diabetes-friendly foods are showing up in supermarkets, including snack bars, shakes and cereals that are promoted to people with diabetes. Despite the growing popularity of "diabetic foods," however, some experts believe the marketing simply perpetuates a myth. "What is a diabetic food?" asks dietitian Hope Warshaw, a certified diabetes educator and author of Diabetes Meal Planning Made Easy (American Diabetes Association, 2006). "There are no special foods that people with diabetes need to eat. We do a disservice to people by having them think they need to run out and buy special foods." Warshaw says the nutrition recommendations for people with diabetes are the same as the general public - no rigid diet and no need to limit your selections to sugar-free foods. Sugar? Yes, people with diabetes can still have sugar. The no-sugar myth is one of the biggest misconceptions about diabetes, according to the book 16 Myths of a Diabetic Diet (American Diabetes Association, 1999) by registered dietitians Karen Chalmers and Amy Campbell. This informative and easy-to read book busts the most common myths about diabetes and cleverly compares the old and new methods for managing diabetes. "Gone are the days when sugar is strictly off limits," says co-author Campbell in a phone interview. "All carbohydrates break down into glucose in the same way. Your body doesn't recognize whether the carbohydrate is a cookie, slice of bread or a potato." Sugar has always been intrinsically linked to diabetes. In fact, the disorder was once called "sugar diabetes" and people mistakenly believed that eating too much sugar was the cause. For years, people with diabetes were advised to avoid sweets because they were thought to overload the blood with glucose much faster than starches. Now researchers recognize that sugar has an impact on blood glucose that is similar to other carbohydrates. It's much more important to keep track of total carbohydrates than to focus on avoiding sugar, Campbell says. "Totally eliminating sugar is unnecessary and impossible." Even if all carbohydrates affect blood glucose levels in similar ways, they do differ nutritionally. Experts still advise choosing more starches or "complex" carbs - whole grains, fruits, vegetables and legumes - in place of concentrated sweets or "simple" carbs. Sugary foods and beverages can add a lot of empty calories. Sweets also are typically high in fat, which can aggravate heart disease risk. However, instead of feeling guilty about eating sugar and trying to avoid it at all costs, Campbell encourages people with diabetes to find ways to fit reasonable portions into their eating plan - and enjoy them. Sugar-free options (particularly beverages) may help with calorie control, but they're no longer a mandate for diabetes. Some may not even provide a significant advantage, Chalmers says. It's the carbs Many sugar-free candies, cookies, cakes and ice creams contain nearly the same amount of calories and carbohydrates as their real sugar counterparts. That's particularly true for sugar-free foods made with polyols or sugar alcohols (such as sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol). Although it has been many years since the nutrition guidelines for diabetes have changed, people still hold on to the belief that sugar is forbidden. Even some physicians still tell newly diagnosed patients to "stay away from sugar," says Chalmers. Unfortunately, that's often the only message they're left with. Instead, Chalmers encourages people to sit down with a certified diabetes educator and get the updated facts. She says the goal is to "fit diabetes into your lifestyle rather than fitting your lifestyle into your diabetes." Finding ways to fit in favorite foods is the new mantra. Even the concept of a "diabetic diet" is a thing of the past. Now experts say people with diabetes should follow the same healthful eating plan as the rest of us - with an emphasis on whole grains, fruits and vegetables, lean protein and "good" fats. Moving beyond the myths, according to Campbell and Chalmers in their book, is the best way to manage diabetes and ensure you continue to enjoy the pleasures of the table. The Chicago Tribune is a Tribune Co. newspaper. New-Fashioned Oatmeal Cookies * 1 cup old-fashioned oats

<urn:uuid:e83773a3-3042-4a67-9022-d74a0fe47f04>

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http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2008-09-04/features/0809020185_1_blood-glucose-diabetic-diet-sugar

2013-06-18T23:33:34Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707436332/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123036-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

The initial excavations at Santa Elena involved sampling to locate the town and to determine the distribution of structural remains within it. This sampling resulted in identification of the town and a number of buildings, as well as the unanticipated discovery of a portion of a fort identified as Fort Fort San Felipe (II). Subsequent field seasons have been directed toward excavation of most of this fort and its blockhouse, and five houses in the town. Test excavations have also been conducted in the site's other known fort, Fort San Marcos (II). Wells, daub processing pits, and dozens of other features associated with the Spanish occupation have also been excavated. Beginning in 1991, the Columbian Quincentennial Commission of South Carolina and its Chairman, Dr. Chester B. DePratter, assumed an active role in the Santa Elena Project. The Commission chose Santa Elena to be its major educational and research effort in conjunction with the 500th anniversary of Columbus' arrival in the New World. During the three years of commission sponsorship, large block areas were excavated in the town of Santa Elena. These excavations were opened to the public and guides were employed to lead visitors on site tours. A total of more than 5,000 visitors toured the site from 1991 to 1993. In 1993, during a search for a Spanish fort, a Spanish colonial pottery kiln was revealed on the edge of Santa Elena. This is the oldest European type pottery kiln yet discovered in North America north of Mexico. Over four dozen micaceous redware vessels were found inside the kiln, which had collapsed during firing. This kiln, thought to date from 1577 to 1587, offers a valuable opportunity to study the type of vessels in use at Santa Elena at that time. A number of the vessels are unlike any known from the Spanish colonial literature, some being in the Moorish Islamic tradition. Among the interesting forms were fragments of an alembic, revealing that Spaniards at Santa Elena were distilling spirits. This is the oldest evidence of a scientific instrument yet known in North America. Through a grant from the Department of Defense Legacy Fund, DePratter and South conducted two field seasons at Santa Elena in 1994. In each of these two seasons, large block excavations in the area of the kiln were opened, producing wasters (ceramics broken during the firing process), evidence of a potter's shed, and features relating to kiln activities. During the spring of 1994, a large-scale shovel testing project was implemented in the areas covered by the 7th, 8th, and 9th holes of the Marine Corps Golf Course which overlays the remains of Santa Elena. A total of 1383 shovel tests were excavated on a 30-foot interval grid covering approximately 35 acres. Materials recovered from these tests allowed identification of the town limits for Santa Elena (covering about 18 to 20 acres), the distribution of pre-sixteenth century Native American occupations, the location of plantation period structures including a probable slave row, and the scatter of Marine Corps materials from a first World War training camp. Fall of 1996 excavations consisted of a large block unit on the back half of the high status lot excavated in 1991 to 1993. The 1996 block was excavated with the expectation that a kitchen structure would be found, but despite the presence of abundant post holes and food remains, no kitchen could be delineated. Excavations in Spring 1997 focused on French Charlesfort and the remains of Spanish Fort San Felipe (I) which rest on top of it. Excavations were conducted in the moat of Fort San Felipe and in the area of its southwest bastion. Portions of the Charlesfort moat and storehouse were also exposed, and French ceramics of the period were found during the excavations. In Fall, 1997, excavations were conducted adjacent to the pottery kiln in a further effort to find the waster pile and evidence for additional structures relating to the operation of the kiln. Neither the waster pile nor relevant structural evidence was recovered, however. The last two Santa Elena forts were the subject of excavations in Spring, 1998. The first Fort San Marcos (occupied 1577 to c. 1583) is believed to have been located beneath the present 7th fairway on the golf course. While play was temporarily diverted to a nearby practice green, we were able to excavate two large block units in the fairway. Neither of these large blocks revealed clear remains of the fort, but analysis of the artifacts and features exposed is continuing. Excavations were also conducted in Fort San Marcos (I) which was tested by South in 1979 but which had not been the scene of subsequent excavations. The major goal of the 1998 excavations was to determine the extent of damage resulting from Marine Corps excavations in the 1920s and the erection of a large, granite Charlesfort monument in 1925. We also wanted to determine whether there were remains of earlier Spanish forts [specifically San Salvador and San Felipe (II)] beneath the remains of Fort San Marcos (II). Excavations revealed extensive trenching and earth-moving by the Marines, but significant portions of the fort interior remain intact. Charred timbers and artifacts are evidence that the fort burned at least once, but at present we cannot say whether this relates to San Felipe (I), burned by Native Americans in 1576, or San Marcos (II) which was burned intentionally by the Spaniards when they abandoned the settlement in 1587. Analysis of collections recovered in the past three field seasons is on-going at our laboratory facilities in Columbia. For further information on recent research projects see Pastwatch and Legacy articles.

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Historians and economists generally give two different accounts of the decade preceding World War II. Diplomatic and military historians see the weak and indecisive responses of democratic powers giving free rein to the imperial designs of ambitious, undemocratic leaders; they see a failure to prevent the aggression that would become worldwide war. Economists see a world financial crisis in the late 1920s and early 1930s leading to restrictions on international trade, and they argue that the protectionist stances of the industrialized powers during the early thirties prolonged the economic depression that persisted until the war began. This economic misery aggravated the sense of grievance that ambitious politicians used to justify their war policy. Both accounts tell part of the story, but “nowhere in the literature is there a broad, synthetic work that ties everything together,” Moser says. Bad economic policy conspired with bad diplomatic and military policy to produce an environment ripe for war. It is not a new idea, Moser says, that instead of doing what would lead to long-term economic recovery, the leadership of the industrialized countries acted first to satisfy their domestic constituencies. They “protected” domestic industries by keeping out foreign imports; even FDR, who had campaigned against the Smoot-Harley tariff in the election of 1932, made little effort to change it during his first term. But it is not generally noticed that he did this against the advice of not his economic advisors but against that of his Secretary of State, Cornell Hull, “who firmly believed that free trade was the key to maintaining peace,” Moser noted. Military historians do not generally note that France’s lopsided defensive posture prior to World War II was informed by economic considerations. “The depression hit France a little later than it hit other countries, in 1931, and at that point the French government began cutting military programs. But the one military project that continued to be fully funded was the Maginot line, because it provided employment for so many people.” Even “Japanese imperialism was tied to concerns that Japan was losing out in the global economic competition,” Moser argues. The fear that Chinese nationalism would deny Tokyo access to valuable raw materials and markets on the Asian continent led to both the occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and to the outbreak of full-scale war between Japan and China in 1937. Moser began work on this project after writing a chapter for the collection, A Companion to World War II, edited by Thomas Zeiler and Daniel DuBois (Blackwell Publishing Company, 2012.) Here he outlined his argument about the economic causes of the war. The book-length study he now is writing will be published by Paradigm Press as part of a series that will ultimately be released in paperback. “I like that,” Moser said. “It’s nice to see that the book will be affordable to readers.”

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Go to Article List for Southern Changes. Volume 5, Number 6, 1983 Reaping What We SowBy Cary Fowler Vol. 5, No. 6, 1983, pp. 14-18 American agriculture is imported. All the major food crops grown in North America originated elsewhere. It is believed that agriculture began independently in Southwest and East Asia, Mesoamerica, and probably South America and Africa in prehistoric times and gradually spread to other lands (see Chart A). The different grains and vegetables as we know them did not exist, for their present form is the result of thousands of years of evolution and domestication. The conscious planting and harvesting of plants for food over wide geographic areas helped create enormous natural, genetic diversity in crops. Some of the seeds of plants that had successfully survived the growing season were not eaten, but saved to be replanted the following year, thereby perpetuating their own characteristics. Thus, countless genetically distinct varieties of each crop developed in response to different ecological conditions and human needs. Natural defenses evolved to the different pests and diseases encountered in each locality. Modern agriculture changed all that. By the early 1950s, major efforts were underway at research centers supported by private and government sources to breed grains which would produce high yields when pumped full of fertilizers and water. Food crops, especially vegetables, were also bred to fit the demands of brutal harvesting machinery and the rigors of long-distance transportation. Taste and nutrition were forgotten, even scorned. Modern agriculture needs predictability; therefore, plant breeders strive for uniformity. Plants are bred and inbred to develop the desired characteristics. The result has been the creation of new varieties that are extremely genetically limited. These new varieties have quickly spread around the globe, replacing old, traditional varieties. "Suddenly in the 1970s," writes Garrison Wilkes of the University of Massachusetts, "we are discovering Mexican farmers planting hybrid corn seed from a midwestern seed firm, Tibetan farmers planting barley from a Scandinavian plant breeding station, and Turkish farmers planting wheat from the Mexican wheat program." Seed companies, governments, and international aid agencies have gone into areas where traditional varieties predominate and promoted the new plants, often calling them "miracle varieties." Convinced of the "superior" qualities of the new variety, the Third World farmer or peasant ceases to grow the traditional crop. Instead, leftover seeds of the traditional variety may be used as food for the family or their animals. In a moment's time, thousands of years of crop development and seed selection become meaningless, as another variety becomes extinct. As food crops become more uniform, so do cultures. Foods and crops are an important part of a people's heritage; they perpetuate and enrich its customs. As food crops become more uniform, so do people. As traditional varieties become extinct, human cultures lose something very special and irreplaceable. The Ultimate Gamble Where thousands of varieties of wheat once grew, only a few can now be seen. When these traditional plant varieties are lost, their genetic material is lost forever. Herein lies the danger. Each variety of wheat, for example, is genetically unique. It contains genetic "material" not found in other varieties. If, because of genetic limitations which result from inbreeding, new varieties are no longer resistant to certain insects or diseases (conceivably even insects or diseases never before known to attack wheat), then real catastrophe could strike. Without existing seeds which carry specific genes conferring resistance, it may not be possible to breed resistance back into wheat, corn, or any other crop. Serious problems result from lack of genetic diversity. We now know that the Irish potato famine of the 1840s was caused by such lack of diversity. The two or three varieties of potatoes introduced to Ireland had come from the five thousand plus varieties growing in the Peruvian Andes, original home of the potato. It took many years for the spores of the potato fungus--the black rot--to reach Ireland from South America. When it did, the results were catastrophic. The genetically vulnerable potatoes were wiped out. Although wealthy landlords still had traditional crops to export out of the country, the potato-dependent poor had nothing. By the mid 1840s, two million Irish had died, two million more had emigrated and the remaining four million faced a bleak future. In 1970, a corn blight struck in the U.S. Old, open" pollinated varieties were not affected, but most farmers were growing the new hybrid models--all of which were susceptible to the blight. Nearly fifteen percent of the nation's crops was destroyed. In some Southern states where the corn smut found weather conditions favorable, the losses topped fifty percent. A study the next year by the National Academy of Sciences showed that just six varieties of corn accounted for seventy one percent of the acreage planted. This same lack of diversity is seen in all the major crops in American agriculture. Could it happen again? Listen to what is being said: The key lesson of 1970 (year of the corn blight) is that genetic uniformity is the basis of vulnerability to epidemics. The major question the Committee on Genetic Vulnerability of Major Crops asked was, "How uniform genetically are other crops upon which the nation depends, and how vulnerable, therefore, are they to epidemics?" The answer is that most crops are impressively uniform genetically and impressively vulnerable. -National Academy of Sciences The array of diseases that pose threats to wheat, rice, maize, and sorghum is formidable. Except for the case of the Irish potato when neither plant pathology nor genetics had been born, research teams have been able to move fast enough to salvage our crops from complete devastation. But, we are becoming more and more vulnerable and there is no assurance that we can always react in time. -Dr. Jack Harlan Professor of Plant Genetics Department of Agronomy University of Illinois Thus far, as Dr. Harlan notes, scientists have been able to work fast enough to avoid major catastrophes. When new varieties have been discovered to be genetically vulnerable to pests or diseases, scientists have scurried to collect old varieties or even "wild relatives" in a search for genetic material that could be bred back in to confer resistance. In recent years, wild potatoes have been used to breed in protection against eight major pests. Wild tomatoes have similarly provided resistance to a few pests. But all over the world, the new varieties are rapidly replacing old varieties. The National Academy of Sciences states that centers of wheat diversity are being destroyed "at an alarming rate." New wheats and rices have washed over Asia and the Near East with remarkable speed. New rice varieties came to occupy over seventy million acres in Asia in less than a decade. In Turkey, many priceless relatives of cereal grains are now found only in graveyards and castle ruins. U.N. scientists now estimate that the, Near East, center of genetic diversity for many of our grains, will simply disappear before the turn of the century. Much, if not most, of this genetic wipe out is occurring due to the replacement of old varieties with new ones. International trade in seeds--the sale of seeds developed in North America and Europe to peasant farmers using old varieties--is the biggest factor behind the problem. Other factors are also involved. Tropical forests, which contain the majority of the world's higher plant species (including valuable food crops and plants used for making modern drugs), are being decimated by agricultural expansion and reckless timbering. These forests are now disappearing at a rate of up to twenty-seven million acres a year. Recently, a rush of mergers and corporate takeovers has hit the seed industry. Many old family-owned seed companies have been bought out by large multinational corporations. The petrochemical and drug industries--major producers of pesticides and fertilizers--have been especially active Page 16(see Chart B). Their interest in the seed business raises three provocative questions. First, will corporations who are big producers of pesticides and fertilizers encourage their new seed company subsidiaries to breed plant varieties that require more or fewer pesticides and fertilizers? Second, will the acquisition of small seed companies by corporations who are active around the world tend to create international seed companies that will be better able to spread their new varieties to regions where old varieties still predominate? Will they therefore speed up the process of driving these old varieties out of existence? Finally, will the takeover of seed companies like Burpee by ITT bring slick, uninformative advertising to the seed business? Patent That Plant! As seeds have become big business, pressure has been put on governments around the world to insure high profits for the seed industry. Until recently plants were considered "public property." One could own a "Big X" tomato, but one certainly could not prevent someone else from raising that variety of tomato and selling it or its seeds. The seed industry has been successfully challenging that custom and at their request many nations have established a system of patents for new plant varieties. Now companies are able to patent a form of life. In the U.S., plant patenting laws were first passed in 1970. Controversial amendments expanding the scope of U.S. laws were passed by Congress and signed into law by President Carter in December, 1980, despite strong opposition. The Rural Advancement Fund/National Sharecroppers Fund spearheaded a nationwide campaign to oppose the amendments, arguing that they would encourage seed company takeovers, lead to higher seed prices and contribute to the replacement and ultimate extinction of many traditional vegetable varieties. But the seed industry, a powerful appendage of multinational petrochemical and drug corporations, was not to be denied a victory for its special interest legislation. In Europe, where patenting laws were first passed, thousands of traditional varieties (including the Big Boy tomato) are being literally outlawed. Common Market countries are phasing in a system which makes it illegal for seed companies to sell the seeds of the old varieties. The crime committed by the traditional varieties is that they compete with the new, patented varieties being offered by the big companies who are entering the seed business. Dr. Erna Bennett, formerly of the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization, predicts that by the end of this decade, fully three-quarters of all the vegetable varieties now grown in Europe will be extinct! One thing is certain. Patent laws make seed companies attractive investments for larger corporations. Shell Oil of Great Britain has bought fifty-six seed companies since passage of a patent law there would encourage takeovers in the seed industry. They need only look at what has happened in the U.S. for a preview. Although big-time seed industry officials argue that patent laws will encourage research and development of new varieties and thus aid the public, it seems that precisely the opposite might happen. Scientists at some research centers have already noted the increasing reluctance of seed companies and other researchers to exchange information and resources. Under existing plant patenting legislation, corporations get protective patents, royalties and vastly reduced competition. Farmers and gardeners are faced with illegal varieties, hybrids whose seeds cannot be saved and royalty fees they never had to pay for non-patented seeds. Plant patenting laws offer protection for corporate profits while further narrowing the genetic basis on which agriculture itself depends. Declaring certain varieties illegal and patenting others is a bizarre luxury we cannot afford. The Seed Bank All major crops without exception originated in that part of our globe we call the Third World. And it is in these areas where genetic diversity is greatest that conservation efforts are most important. For some years now primitive crop varieties and wild relatives of modern crops have been collected and brought back to industrialized countries for storage in refrigerated seed banks. But these efforts are perennially crippled by anemic budgets. Expeditions to collect endangered wheat varieties in the Mideast are no one's priority. Seed banks to store them in are poor competition for jet fighters in budget debates. The U.N.-supported International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, the agency charged with coordinating the collection of crop genetic material and its storage in a system of some sixty seed banks, has an annual budget of only three million dollars. Collection of some crops like rubber and cocoa will be left to industry by necessity despite the fact that no international codes exist to guarantee access to such genetic material. |Parent Company||Seed Company| |Abbott-Cobb (USA)||Twilley Otis| |Agrigenetics (USA)||Arkansas Valley| |Amfac (USA)||American Garden| |Atlantic Richfield (USA)||Dessert Seed| |Ciba-Geigy (Switz.)||Funk's Seed| |Clays-Luck/ Participex (France)||Neumann| |Dalgety (Gr. Bri.)||Driscoll Strawberry| |DeKalb Pfizer Genetics (USA)||Clemens Farm| |Diamond Shamrock (USA)||Golden Acres Hybrid| |Grain Processors Corp.(USA)||L. Teweles| |O. M. Scott| |Int'l Multifoods (USA)||Baird| |Kleinwanzlebener SAAT (W. Ger.)||Cokers Pedigreed| |Limagrain (France)||Ferry Morse| |Monsanto (USA)||DeKalb Hybrid Wheat| |Occidental Petroleum (USA)||Excel Hybrid| |Pioneer Hi-bred (USA)||Green Meadows| |Reichold Chemicals (USA)||Florida Feed &Seed| |Sandoz (Switz.)||Northrup King| |Southwide Inc. (USA)||Cotton Seed Distributors| |Stauffer Chemicals (USA)||Blarney Farms| |Tate &Lyle (Gr. Bri.)||Seed &Farm Supply| |Tejon/Times-Mirror (USA)||W-L Resources| |United Hagie Hybrid| |Yates (Aus.)||Yates Arthur| The flagship of the U.S. seed bank fleet is the National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL) located on the campus of Colorado State University in Ft. Collins. Unfortunately, the NSSL does not meet the IBPGR's standards for classification as a preferred "long-term" storage facility. For fifteen years its dedicated staff and once modern facilities languished without any budget increase. Budget considerations hold its total staff below twenty-five. An unbelievable forty thousand dollars a year is all the U.S. government devotes to collecting vanishing resources on which the future of agriculture rests. Dr. Jack Harlan of the University of Illinois claims that no seed collection in the world is adequate--"all are incomplete and shockingly deficient." According to Dr. Harlan, "These resources stand between us and catastrophic starvation on a scale we cannot imagine. In a very real sense, the future of the human race rides on these materials. " Can we entrust the responsibility for creating an international seed protection system to an under-funded staff of four? Can we rely on the Fort Collins collection? Dr. Harlan gives us a blunt answer. "If you are willing to entrust the fate of mankind to these collections, you are living in a fool's paradise." Sowing Seeds of Action Bringing diversity back to our food crops, stabilizing world food supplies, and insuring the future of agriculture are goals we should all work towards. There is not an individual in the world who cannot do something. Everyone's contribution is important. The debate over seed patenting proposals alerted many Page 18to this crisis. Through the efforts of farm, garden, environmental, and church groups, and many concerned individuals, thousands of American learned of the genetic vulnerability of our major crops, the silent crisis that stalks world agriculture. Out of this increased awareness can come solutions. What can we do individually and collectively? (1) Support increased funding for collection and storage of our plant genetic resources, before those resources disappear forever. Storing seeds is only a partial solution, however. We need as many varieties as possible out in the real world, growing in their own diverse environments so they can continue to change and adapt. In addition, all seeds eventually lose the life they hold within themselves. Periodic" ally, all stored seeds must be taken out of storage and grown into plants who seeds must be collected and stored afresh. This would be a monumental task; even the inadequate Fort Collins collection contains over thirteen hundred species. (2) Help promote "plant preserves." Here, wild ancestors of our major food crops could be allowed to live in safety much the same way that lions and elephants are protected in African game preserves. If traditional varieties are to be preserved, their environment must likewise be preserved. At present, "plant preserves" are more concept than reality. Public awareness of the need for plant preserves could help make them a reality. (3) Multinational corporate involvement in the seed industry should be closely monitored. Manufacturers of pesticides and fertilizers should not be allowed to own seed companies. Companies that export seeds to Third World areas should be required to file statements documenting the environmental impact of those seed exports. If old varieties will be replaced, the company should be responsible for seeing that they do not become extinct. If a company will not make this guarantee, it should be prohibited from marketing m a given area. (4) Oppose plant patenting legislation. Most governments do not expect much public awareness over this issue; therefore, a few letters expressing concern would have a big impact. (5) Governments at all levels should be encouraged to offer marketing incentives to small farmers who grow the older varieties, for example, price supports for traditional varieties. Other government farm benefits could be offered to farmers willing to devote a small amount of acreage to endangered varieties. (6) Farmers should consider banding together to buy bulk quantities of traditional seeds and to market the produce in bulk or through farmers' markets. When selling the old varieties, farmers should help educate the public by labeling their produce with the name of the variety. Consumers can then learn to tell the difference and begin to put pressure on supermarkets to carry good produce. (7) Individuals, churches, community groups, colleges, and town governments can begin to plant and safeguard the old varieties. In some areas, groups have established small "preservation" orchards devoted to traditional varieties of fruit trees. These efforts bring people together to promote awareness of the problem, while contributing to its solutions. Planting a Future In the end, the future of agriculture can be insured only by healthy, vibrant small farms. The old varieties are threatened today, not because they taste bad or are nutritionally deficient, but because they do not suit the requirements of the factory farmers and the food processing industry. The California farmer who grows tomatoes to be shipped all over the country cannot grow the old, tasty varieties. Their skins are not tough enough. Their insides are not hard. If the old varieties are to flourish, they must be, as they have always been, grown by small farmers and sold to a local market. This system of agriculture has provided sustenance to people for well over ten thousand years. It is an enduring agriculture that we tamper with only at great risk. Seeds are a unique product of the efforts of people and nature. In seeds, culture and agriculture are linked. This bond dissolved, both are threatened. Our ancestors knew this and lived accordingly. Thomas Jefferson once professed his belief that "the greatest service which can be rendered to any country is to add a useful plant to its culture." For our generation, the challenge will be to preserve the useful plants we already have. Go to Article List for Southern Changes. Volume 5, Number 6, 1983 |Previous:||The North Georgia Forty||Article| Vol. 5, No. 6, 1983, p. 13 |Next:||Fred Hobson. Tell About the South: The Southern Rage to Explain, Louisiana State University Press, 1983.||Review| Vol. 5, No. 6, 1983, 20-21

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We love using Google Apps for Education. Google Docs is an incredible tool for the classroom. Here are some things we love: - Set up Google Apps for Education for your school and it’s easy to create and manage student accounts. - The coolest part about Google Docs is how well it handles student collaboration. Students can share a document with other people in their group… and everyone can edit the same document at the same time. - Improve parent communication. Parents want to see what their child is doing? Just share the document with them. - Track down cyber-vandalism or see who is doing all of the work. You can see the revision history to find out who typed what. Inappropriate comment? You can track that down. Did the partners divide the work evenly? Find out. - Stop lugging home piles of paperwork – Go digital. When students are done their work, they can share the document with you, the teacher. Now you don’t have to bring home stacks of assignments because it’s all digital… in the cloud. - Give immediate feedback to your students. Marking in Google Docs allows you to give immediate feedback. Ever mark an assignment and have it sit in a pile on your desk waiting. The moment you mark an assignment, students can see your comments right away. - It’s simple to use. ‘Nuff said. - Suspend student accounts. Have students misused their time in the lab? Need to remove computer privileges? Click of a button.

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Orchids Are More Common than You Think! In America, people tend to think of orchids as rare and fragile; but they are actually among the most numerous species on Earth. With approximately 25,000 known species and more than 100,000 hybrids and cultivars, botanists believe that orchids may be the largest family of flowering plants on the planet. Comprising an estimated 10% of all seed plants, orchid species outnumber bird species by 2 to 1 and mammals by 4 to 1. Orchids are found on nearly every continent and in a surprising range of environments from the hot, fetid swamps of Florida to the cold, windy slopes of the Andes Mountains. The only place that orchids cannot grow is on glaciers, and the only places where these unique flowers have not been found are the frozen ice fields of Antarctica and the icy northern regions of Greenland, Canada and Siberia that skirt the Arctic Circle. Everywhere else in the world, no matter how unlikely it may seem, orchids can be counted among the native flora. Orchids have been found growing in the Alaskan tundra, above the Arctic Circle in Greenland, in the mountains of Patagonia on the southern tip of South America, and on Macquarie Island half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica. While orchid species have adapted to survive to some remarkably harsh environments, the majority of orchid species are native to tropical areas of Asia, Central and South America and Africa. In each of these areas dwell an average 230 to 300 different orchid species. Despite the plant’s proliferation in tropical climates, the remote Himalayan region of Nepal claims the greatest concentration of orchid species in the world. Fortunately, you don’t have to travel far to enjoy orchids’ exotic beauty. Just Add Ice Orchids are available at local groceries, home and garden centers and discount stores. Find a store near you! Photo by: alantankenghoe

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No one said quitting would be easy, but it may be more difficult for African Americans than for Caucasians, according to research at the University of Minnesota. In a study led by Kolawole Okuyemi, M.D., M.P.H., African American smokers showed greater brain responses to smoking cues, such as images of individuals smoking, than did Caucasian smokers. Researchers measured increased activity in the areas of the brain associated with emotion and reward, which may explain why African American smokers are less successful than Caucasians at quitting. “Cigarette craving is an important challenge that smokers face when trying to quit smoking, and those with more intense cravings are more likely to relapse back to smoking,” says Okuyemi, director of the Medical School’s Program on Health Disparities Research. The study was published in the June issue of the journal Addiction Biology. In a separate study of African American light smokers (those smoking 10 or fewer cigarettes a day), researchers found that health education was more effective than nicotine gum in helping subjects quit. Jasjit Ahluwalia, M.D., M.P.H., executive director of the University’s Office of Clinical Research, led the study, which was published in the June issue of the journal Addiction. “Our results highlight the positive impact that directed health education and advice-oriented counseling has on helping African American light smokers quit,” Ahluwalia says. “We hope our study provides impetus for more studies that assess other intervention methods that may be successfully used to improve quit rates among African American smokers.”

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4 October 2011 Summary: This post provides a brief review of a new paper that describes a newly discovered catastrophic landslide deposit in Tenerife. One of the most intriguing but poorly understood landslide types is that of the volcanic flank collapse. This is one of those rare occasions in which the geological term actually does a pretty good job of describing the phenomenon. In a volcanic flank collapse, the side of a volcano fails, usually catastrophically, generating a landslide (look at the comparatively small landslide at Casita to see just how damaging these landslides can be). These slides can be really big – tens or even hundreds of cubic kilometres – and they can travel huge distances along the sea floor. Such failures grabbed attention a few years ago due to the potential (overstated, in my opinion) for generating a catastrophic tsunami. However, we understand such phenomena really poorly. There are a number of reasons for this, principally that: a. They occur rarely (globally about one in every 25 years on average), so actually recording one is a challenge; and b. the remains tend to lie in a very dispersed state on the floor of the deep ocean. Fieldwork at 4 km water depth remains difficult, even if you are really good at holding your breath. However, it is one particular aspect of these landslides that remains elusive, but is crucially important. This is the trigger of the collapse event (i.e. of the landslide itself). Numerous mechanisms have been proposed, including sea level change, climate change, hydrothermal pressure, intrusion of volcanic material, and various others. It has proven very difficult to ascertain the importance of each of these. This is an important question if we are to reliably estimate the hazard associated with future potential collapses. In a paper published in Geology this month, Harris et al. 2011 report a very interesting find on the island of Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands. This is the remains of an ancient collapse event on the south-eastern part of Cañadas volcano. The landslide deposit, which is up to 50 metres thick, has been mapped across a large area – 90 square kilometres – and this is just the onshore component of the mass, which may extend another 50 km offshore. The deposit consists of a classic debris avalanche material, with large (typically up to 12 m long axis), shattered blocks in a highly disrupted, unsorted matrix. This is typical of a highly energetic, very large collapse event. Intriguingly, in the upper part of the deposit some fluviolacustrine (water/lake) sediments are found in the remains of hollows, indicating that in the aftermath of the landslide shallow lakes formed on the surface, presumably as a result of blockages created by the landslide. Associated with the landslide deposit are the remains of pyroclastic flows. This is really interesting in itself, but the very well-preserved deposit allows both highly precise dating and a reconstruction of the events that occurred. The dating yields a date of about 733,000 years ago, with an error of just 3,000 years. So, the sequence of events is interpreted as being: - An eruption event, termed the Helecho eruption started in the form of an explosive event that showered ash and then pyroclastic material across the local area; - A dome grew on the volcano; - This dome collapsed catastrophically, generating a landslide that travelled 17 km to the shoreline, and then probably much further in the ocean; - Subsequent eruptions draped further pyroclastic, and then pumice, deposits on the surface of the landslide, and rainwater collected in hummocks to form small lakes; So, in this case the volcanic flank collapse was triggered by a large, explosive volcanic eruption. Interestingly, the authors note that the landslide collapse left a gap in the rim of the caldera which subsequently channeled pyroclastic deposits to the south-east. Of course this paper does not solve the question of what triggers volcanic flank collapses, but it is an important data point that validates one of the most likely mechanisms. It also provides a great opportunity to study these landslides in detail, which should give us a much greater insight into the dynamics of these immense mass movements. Harris, P.D, Branney, M.J., & Storey, M. (2011). Large eruption-triggered ocean-island landslide at Tenerife: Onshore record and long-term effects on hazardous pyroclastic dispersal Geology, 39 (10), 951-954 : 10.1130/G31994.1

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2013-06-18T23:39:00Z

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Last week, a US geneticist announced a breakthrough of profound implications. The maverick J Craig Venter and his team said they had succeeded in 'creating' life through a bacterial genome built entirely in the lab. Pause for a moment to consider the feat. A set of synthetic genes, made bit by bit from laboratory chemicals, was inserted into a bacterial cell – and voila, the cell not only lived but also replicated! The implications of the work are fascinating: Apart from the gains in biotechnology, about which scientific opinion is split, the achievement shows it's possible to 'duplicate' life synthetically. Of course, the 'life' that Venter created was the simplest of bacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides. This one-celled organism has just around 500 genes (compare that with 25,000 genes in the human genome). And Venter only created the bacterium's genome – the cell's control station. Building an entire cell from scratch is a different proposition, far more complicated and requiring tools we simply don't have at the moment. But Venter's work reinforces the possibility of putting together 'life' in the lab – at least in theory – and it again shows that fundamentally life is an aggregation of complex chemicals, arranged in particularly complicated ways that allow for replication. Now, where does that leave the role of God? Over the past few centuries, the space for a Creator of life and the Universe has been steadily shrinking. First, the invention of the telescope and the work of pioneers like Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler opened up the skies to critical inquiry, eventually leaving no physical space for heaven and hell (Remember Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev's famous quote, “Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any God there”?). Later developments have joined many other dots, showing that the Universe follows laws of physics and is made of elements we can identify. There are now seriously consistent theories that seek to explain the Universe's beginnings and possible end. The next incursion into God's domain was made in the 19th century, when Darwin propounded the theory of evolution and Mendel opened up the field of genetics. The modern versions of these theories explain how life began and evolved on Earth – again leaving little room for 'Special Creation'. Now with the possibility, albeit in the distant future, of artificially creating the basic unit of life – the cell – bottom-up in the lab, humans stand on the edge of another paradigm. It's a great irony of our times, therefore, that even as the physical space for God has shrunk remarkably, spiritually, He has more than held his turf. Today, the need for God in people's lives remains as great as ever. If anything, religiosity seems to be on the upsurge in most parts of the world. This blog doesn't aim to prove or disprove God's existence (the two sides will probably continue to talk past each for as long as one can imagine). It only seeks to point out that the intellectual disconnect between science and spirituality is perhaps greater today than ever before. Networkingitimes | Dating & Chat | Email

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2013-06-18T23:05:27Z

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The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of 972 texts discovered between 1947 and 1956 at Khirbet Qumran in the West Bank. The texts are of great historical, religious and linguistic significance because they include the earliest known surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible canon, along with extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. The texts are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean, mostly on parchment but with some written on papyrus and bronze. The manuscripts have been dated to various ranges between 408 BCE and 318 CE. The scrolls have traditionally been identified with the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this association and argue that the scrolls were penned by priests in Jerusalem The scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum, papyrus, and sheets of bronze. For those scrolls written on animal hides, scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature. Bedouin shepherds Muhammed Edh-Dhib, Jum’a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa discovered the caves containing the scrolls between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered 7 scrolls housed in jars in a cave at what is now known as the Qumran site. The scrolls caught the attention of Dr. John C. Trever, of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of The Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscript then known, and found similarities between them. In March the 1948 Arab-Israeli War prompted the move of some of scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Miller Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release. The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea. In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation. Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. Handling and Deterioration The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of rapid deterioration than what they had experienced at Qumran. The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls. However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be “adequately studied”. In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem and consequently suffered more deterioration and damage. The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During the 1956 Arab-Israeli War, the scrolls collection of the Palestinian Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some of the fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault. Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments. In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, darkening some of them significantly. In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time. In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants. The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area. If you’d like to look at the scriolls yourself, you can view them online courtesy of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem: http://dss.collections.imj.org.il Another website: The Shrine of the Book – http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_899?c0=14389&bsp=14162

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2013-06-18T23:04:55Z

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A study authored by the U.S. Forest Service and other organizations including Trout Unlimited finds that global warming is expected to reduce the distribution of trout in the western U.S. because warmer streams will be less suitable for their growth and survival. Native trout will decline primarily in response to water temperature but also to interactions with nonnative species. Additionally, some nonnative species will also decline as winter flooding become more frequent. The study Flow Regime, Temperature, and Biotic Interactions Drive Differential Declines of Trout Species under Climate Change includes forecasts of native and non-native trout distribution and survival over 70 years. Along with rising water temperatures, the authors looked at the vulnerability of eggs and young trout to predicted increases in seasonal flooding. Some of the study’s findings include: - Cutthroat trout and brook trout are most affected by warmer water - Brown trout exhibit a greater thermal tolerance - High winter flows will threaten fall-spawning brown trout and brook trout but are likely to benefit rainbow trout, which have a genetic history of surviving under similar conditions in their native range The study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, suggests that land management agencies take into consideration the complex interaction of climatic change to develop targeted actions supporting different species in different locations. Strategic actions, the study emphasizes, can enhance the sustainability of trout populations despite the uncertainty in climate change predictions. Under any scenario, protecting and restoring high-quality trout habitat is fundamental to ensuring a vibrant trout presence in the American West.

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http://blogs.usda.gov/2011/09/28/u-s-forest-service-study-finds-climate-change-to-affect-future-western-trout/

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Editor: Jane Villa-Lobos NATIONAL ZOO'S NEW GENETICS LABORATORY On November 14, 1991 the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoo opened its new molecular genetics laboratory which will aid the Zoo's efforts to save endangered animals and to help scientists understand complex aspects of evolutionary biology. The molecular genetics laboratory will be used to help resolve problems like selecting the best individuals for mating from severely depleted animal populations. Increasingly, populations of endangered species are reduced to a few individuals before zoos and other conservation organizations can initiate carefully managed breeding programs to save them from extinction. With so few potential mates available for breeding, it is vital for zoologists to understand a species' genetics and, especially how closely individuals are related so that pairs can be established based on their potential for producing healthy, non-inbred offspring. The same careful evaluations must be made when selecting zoo-born animals of an endangered species for reintroduction into nature. With the molecular genetics lab, such analyses will be possible, even if an animal's pedigree is unknown. At the lab scientists can also look at the genetics of individual endangered animals that died hundreds of years ago, by taking DNA-bearing tissue from preserved museum specimens and studying it in the lab. By employing newly developed techniques of DNA amplification, genes of animals that lived in the distant past can be compared to those of animals living today. These studies will provide useful information to conservation biologists on the amount of genetic diversity that has been lost by an endangered species population. Also, studies of the tissues of extinct animals preserved at museums and comparisons with living, related species may shed light on the process and rate at which new species develop. Another function of the molecular genetics laboratory will be to train graduate students and post-doctoral level biologists in the techniques of molecular biology research. A SUMMIT-MEETING FOR CITES AND PLANTS By Bruce MacBryde The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) will have its 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (now 112 member nations) on 2-13 March 1992 in Kyoto, Japan. For plants, several comprehensive or profound topics and potential listings are on the agenda. Among the draft resolutions for decision in Kyoto are: 1) revising the criteria for inclusion of species (fauna and flora) in CITES Appendices I and II; 2) detailing the administrative responsibilities of CITES Scientific Authorities; 3) a less strict definition of artificial propagation; 4) adopting rigorous criteria to begin registration of those nurseries that qualify in the artificial propagation of particular Appendix I taxa; 5) a possible means to exclude regulation of artificially propagated, flasked seedlings of Appendix I orchid species; and 6) initiating preparation of a complete checklist of Orchidaceae with the genera (approx. 4,000 species) most in trade. Also the Parties will select the six members for the CITES Plants Committee, which will elect a chairman and vice-chairman. Eleven countries have proposed amendments to CITES appendices for plants. Most pivotal are several proposals to include well-known tropical timber species: Dalbergia nigra (Brazil), Gonystylus bancanus (Indomalesia), Guaiacum officinale (N. South America & Caribbean), Intsia (tropic Asia), Pericopsis elata (tropic W. Africa), Schinopsis (S. South America), and Swietenia (2 ssp.) (Caribbean, tropic America). Other notable proposals would add the first bromeliads (Tillandsia) to CITES and the Venus flytrap (Dionaea). Twelve plants are proposed for delisting. Eight are neotropical trees: Batocarpus costaricensis, Caryocar costaricense, Cynometra hemitomophylla, Oreomunnea pterocarpa, Platymiscium pleiostachyum, Quercus copeyensis, Tachigali versicolor, and Vantanea barbourii. Three occur in the Philippines: Alocasia sanderiana, Areca ipot, and Hedychium philippinense; and Didiciea cunninghamii is from the Himalayas. Another concern is the need for stronger export-import controls, shown in several proposals to uplist some genera or species of cacti: Ariocarpus (3 species, Mexico-US), Discocactus (Brazil-Bolivia), Melocactus (Brazil), Turbinicarpus (14 taxa in Mexico), and Uebelmannia (Brazil). To provide or obtain information, contact: Bruce MacBryde, Office of Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 725 Arlington Square Bldg., Washington, DC 20240. Tel: (703) 358- 1708; Fax: (703) 358-2276. January 24-25, 1992. "Tropical Forest Medical Resources and the Conservation of Biodiversity", a symposium organized by the Rainforest Alliance in collaboration with the New York Botanical Garden's Institute of Economic Botany, will be held at Rockefeller University. Representatives from the pharmaceutical industry, conservation groups and the medical community will be participating. For fee and registration information, contact: Sarah Laird, Rainforest Alliance, 270 Lafayette Street, Suite 512, New York, New York 10012; Tel: (212) 941-1900; Fax: (212) 941-4986. Anon. 1991. Conservation International launches program in the Maya heartland. Tropicus 5(3): 3. (Peten, Guatemala) Anon. 1991. Last wilderness in the Philippines under threat. Tropicus 5(3): 1, 6. (Palanan wilderness of northern Luzon) Abensperg-Traun, M. 1991. Survival strategies of the Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Shaw 1792 (Monotremata: Tachyglossidae). Biol. Conservation 58(3): 317-328. Anderson, B. 1991. The swamp bear's last stand. Nature Conservancy 41(5): 16-21. (Louisiana's rare black bear) Baskin, J. and Baskin, C. 1991. An eight-year greenhouse germination study of the Cedar Glade endemic Onosmodium molle subsp. molle. Nat. Areas J. 11(4): 190-192. (Seed-banking rare plants) Beissinger, S. and Snyder, N. (eds.) 1991. New World Parrots in Crisis. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 256 pp. Booth, W. 1991. Vast change predicted for America's forests. Washington Post November 1: A4. (Effects of global warming) Borota, J. 1991. Tropical Forests. Some African and Asian Case Studies of Composition and Structure. Developments in Agricultural and Managed-Forest Ecology 22. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., New York, New York. 274 pp. Buchele, D. et al. 1991. Ecology of the endangered species Solidago shortii. III. Seed germination ecology. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 118(3): 288-291. Buchele, D. et al. 1991. Ecology of the endangered species Solidago shortii II. Ecological life cycle. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 118(3): 281-287. Buck, S. 1991. Understanding Environmental Administration and Law. Island Press, Covelo, California. 225 pp. Campbell, W. 1991. Mbaracayu rescue. Nature Conservancy 41(5): 6. (Purchase of 143,000 acres in eastern Paraguay saves forest) Casado, S. and Montes, C. 1991. Estado de conservacion de los humedales peninsulares espanoles. Quercus 66: 18-26. (Spain) Cash, C. 1991. The Slipper Orchids. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 228 pp. (Conservation status listed) Cereza, J. 1991. El reino de las canones. El nuevo Parque Nacional de la Sierra y Canones de Guara. Quercus 66: 27- 33. (Spain) Ciesla, W. 1991. Cypress aphid: a new threat to Africa's forests. Unasylva 42(167): 51-55. Conner, R. and Rudolph, D. 1991. Forest habitat loss, fragmentation, and red-cockaded woodpecker populations. Wilson Bull. 103(3): 446-457. (Texas) Cowling, R. and Bond, W. 1991. How small can reserves be? An empirical approach in Cape Fynbos, South Africa. Biol. Conservation 58(3): 243-256. Dean, W., Milton, S., Watkeys, M. and Hockey, P. 1991. Distribution, habitat preference and conservation status of the red lark Certhilauda burra in Cape Province, South Africa. Biol. Conservation 58(3): 257-274. Dickinson, R. 1991. A commentary on: probable impact of deforestation on hydrological processes. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 175-176. Dobson, A. and Absher, R. 1991. How to pay for tropical rain forests. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6(11): 348-351. (Economic plants, ecotourism) Donnelly, M. 1991. Cuba opens doors to sea turtle biologists. Marine Conservation News 3(4): 7. Eldredge, M. 1991. Sanctuary status may not be enough to protect Flower Garden Banks. Marine Conservation News 3(4): 13. (Coral reefs off coast of Texas) Fabregat, C. and Mateo, G. 1991. Valores botanicos de la Sierra de Javalambre. Quercus 67: 30-35. (Endemism, Spain) Facklam, H. and Flacklam, M. 1991. Plants, Extinction or Survival? Enslow Publishers, Inc., Hillside, New Jersey. 96 pp. Gash, J. and Shuttleworth, W. 1991. Tropical deforestation: albedo and the surface-energy balance. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 123-134. George, S. and Wayne, R. 1991. Island foxes: a model for conservation genetics. Terra 30(1): 18-27. (Santa Cruz Island, California) Greller, A. et al. 1991. A vascular flora of the forested portion of Cunningham Park, Queens County, New York: Corrections and additions - III. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 118(3): 330-332. (List of plants under New York State Conservation Law) Harvey, L. 1991. A commentary on: tropical deforestation and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 119- 122. Henderson, A. and Balick, M. 1991. Attalea crassispatha, a rare and endemic Haitian palm. Brittonia 43(3): 189-194. Henderson-Sellers, A. 1991. A commentary on: tropical deforestation: albedo and the surface-energy balance. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 135-138. Hooper, R., Krusac, D. and Carlson, D. 1991. An increase in a population of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 19(3): 277-286. (South Carolina) Houghton, R. 1991. Tropical deforestation and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 99-118. Hubbuch, C. 1991. Lightning strikes rare cycads. Fairchild Trop. Gard. Bull. 46(4): 35. (Microcycas calocoma, growing at Fairchild Tropical Garden) Hubbuch, C. 1991. Palm diversity in cultivation: a question of conservation. Fairchild Tropical Garden Bull. 46(2): 22-28. Hudson, W. (ed.) 1991. Landscape Linkages and Biodiversity. Island Press, Covelo, California. 224 pp. Johnson, S. 1991. The occurrence of state rare species on Hog Island in the Virginia Coast Reserve. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 118(3): 326-328. (Plants) Keller, M., Jacob, D., Wofsy, S. and Harriss, R. 1991. Effects of tropical deforestation on global and regional atmospheric chemistry. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 139-158. Klein, W., Jr. 1991. Rare and endangered botanists. Fairchild Trop. Gard. Bull. 46(4): 4-5. (Puerto Rico/Virgin Islands Endangered Plant Task Force meeting, Center for Plant Conservation) Lanier-Graham, S. 1991. The Nature Directory: A Guide to Environmental Organizations. Walker and Co., New York, New York. 304 pp. Mackie, C. 1991. Forest-gatherers of the Kenyah Dayak. Tropicus 5(3): 5. (Indonesia) Marland, G. 1991. A commentary on: tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response. Climatic Change 19 (1-2): 227-232. Marquez, C., Morillo, G. and Cayot, L. 1991. A 25-year management program pays off: repatriated tortoises on Espanola reproduce. Noticias de Galapagos 50: 17-18. (Ecuador) Martin, C. 1991. The Rainforests of West Africa: Ecology- Threats-Conservation. Birkhauser, New York, New York. McFall, D. (ed.) 1991. A Directory of Illinois Nature Preserves. Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield, Illinois. 382 pp. Medellin, R. 1991. The Selva Lacandona: an overview. Tropical Conservation & Development Program Newsletter 24: 1-5. (Mexico) Meher-Homji, V. 1991. Probable impact of deforestation on hydrological processes. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 163-174. Milan, V. 1991. Species in peril: the Philippine tamaraw. Tropicus 5(3): 12. (Water buffalo) Musokotwane, I. 1991. Is there a future for the teak forests of Zambia? IUCN Forest Conservation Programme Newsletter 11: 3. (Project of IUCN's Regional Office in South Africa) Myers, N. 1991. Tropical forests: present status and future outlook. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 3-32. Myers, N. and Goreau, T. 1991. Tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 215-226. Narland, G. 1991. A commentary on: tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 227-232. Organization of American States. 1990. Economic Biology of Underutilized Tropical Plants. Regional Scientific & Technological Development Program, Washington, D.C. 39 pp. Palmer, T. 1991. The final act? Buzzworm 3(6): 31-36. (Future of the Endangered Species Act) Patterson, K. 1991. NOAA considers marine sanctuary in Hawaii. Marine Conservation News 3(4): 15. (Kahoolawe Island) Patterson, K. 1991. Washington sanctuary plan fails to protect key areas. Marine Conservation News 3(4): 10-11. (Washington Outer Coast National Marine Sanctuary) Pearce, F. 1991. Indonesia prepares to pulp itself. BBC Wildlife 9(10): 666-667. (World's largest exporter of paper & wood pulp) Peters, R. and Lovejoy, T. (eds.) 1991. Global Warming and Biological Diversity. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. 552 pp. Pickart, A. 1991. The evolution of a rare plant monitoring program: a case study at the Lanphere-Christensen Dunes preserve. Nat. Areas J. 11(4): 187-189. (Menzies' wallflower, California) Poole, C. 1991. The gift of a no-man's-land. BBC Wildlife 9(9): 636-643. (Demilitarized Zone, South Korea) Prance, G. 1991. A commentary on: tropical forests: present status and future outlook. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 33-36. Quinn, N. 1991. This creature of habit is running out of habitat. Nature Canada 20(4): 21-25. (Wood turtle, threatened) Reading, R., Clark, T. and Kellert, S. 1991. Towards an endangered species reintroduction program. Endangered Species Update 8(11): 1-4. Rome, A. 1991. Protecting natural areas through the planning process: the Chesapeake Bay example. Nat. Areas J. 11(4): 199-202. (Maryland) Rosenberg, N. 1991. A commentary on: deforestation, climate change and sustainable nutrition security: a case study of India. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 211-214. Rowley, G. 1991. Saphesia flaccida: here today, gone tomorrow? British Cactus & Succ. J. 9: 69-71. (Capetown, South Africa) Rowntree, P. and Lean, J. 1991. A commentary on: possible climatic impacts of tropical deforestation. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 197-200. Rudolph, C. and Conner, R. 1991. Cavity tree selection by red-cockaded woodpeckers in relation to tree age. Wilson Bull. 103(3): 458-467. (Texas) Salati, E. and Nobre, C. 1991. Possible climatic impacts of tropical deforestation. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 177-196. Shaw, T. 1991. Rain forest reprieve. Washington Post Home Section(November 14): 16-17, 24-26. (Designers are switching to ecologically correct woods) Shevock, J. and Allen, G. 1991. A new variety of Erythronium citrinum (Liliaceae) from the Scott Mountains of northwest California. Phytologia 71(2): 101-103. (Rare, localized endemic) Simberloff, D. and Boecklen, W. 1991. Patterns of extinction in the introduced Hawaiian avifauna: a reexamination of the role of competition. Am. Naturalist 138(2): 300-327. Sinha, S. and Swaminathan, M. 1991. Deforestation, climate change and sustainable nutrition security: a case study of India. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 201-210. Skow, J. 1991. Everything looks different when you are up in the air. Smithsonian 22(8): 86-106. (Lighthawk, environmental air force) Spence, J. 1991. Notes on cryptogamic plants of Utah: range extensions and species new to the state from Capitol Reef National Park. Great Basin Naturalist 51(3): 279-281. (Rare and endangered plants) Stolzenburg, W. 1991. Treasures of the Sierra Nevada. Nature Conservancy 41(5): 8-15. (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia) Vetter, D. 1991. Teeming oasis or desert mirage? Nature Conservancy 41(5): 22-27. (Stillwater Wildlife Management Area, Nevada) Viejo, J. and Lopez Munguira, M. 1991. Conservacion de las mariposas espanolas. Quercus 67: 16-29. (Spain) Vincent, M. 1991. Trifolium reflexum L. (buffalo clover: Leguminosae) in Ohio, its history and present status. Michigan Botanist 30(2): 65-68. Vitousek, P. and Matson, P. 1991. A commentary on: effects of tropical deforestation on global and regional atmospheric chemistry. Climatic Change 19(1-2): 159-162. Wake, W. 1991. Species in danger. Nature Canada 20(4): 51. (Loggerhead shrike, threatened in Canada) Warwick, C. 1991. Tender-age moribund endangered terrapins. BBC Wildlife 9(9): 630-632. (Red-eared terrapin) Wiser, S. 1991. Two North Carolina locations for Calamagrostis cainii Hitch., previously considered endemic to Mt. LeConte, Tennessee. Castanea 56(2): 147-149. (Very rare) Wolbarst, A. (ed.) 1991. Environment In Peril. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 272 pp. Young, N. 1991. Species in peril: Chinese river dolphin. Marine Conservation News 3(4): 3. [ TOP ]

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- Florida Department of Health urges Floridians to take simple summertime precautions against mosquitoes - TALLAHASSEE –The Florida Department of Health (DOH) reminds Floridians and visitors to take simple preventive measures to protect against contracting mosquito-borne illnesses. The mosquito population grows in the summer which coincides with the time of year many residents and visitors are outdoors enjoying Florida’s natural landscape. Floridians can take simple steps to combat mosquitoes and prevent mosquito-borne illness. “Mosquito populations are likely to increase after recent rains,” said State Public Health Veterinarian Dr. Carina Blackmore. “It’s important that Floridians and visitors are informed that the risk of mosquito-borne disease is minimized by implementing precautions.” DOH encourages three basic precautions to help limit mosquito bites and exposure to mosquito-borne illness: DRAIN any standing water to stop mosquitoes from multiplying. COVER skin with clothing or repellent. COVER doors and windows with screens to keep mosquitoes out of your residence. If outdoors at dusk or dawn, be cautious as mosquitoes are most active during these times. Floridians who are traveling internationally need to remember to use mosquito repellant to avoid mosquito bites, as communicable diseases often return to the United States after traveling abroad. DOH continues to conduct statewide surveillance for mosquito-borne illnesses, including West Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, malaria and dengue. Symptoms of mosquito-borne illnesses may include headache, fever, fatigue, dizziness, weakness and confusion. It can take two to 14 days to become sick after being bitten by an infected mosquito. Anyone suspecting they are sick should contact their physician immediately. For more information on mosquito-borne illnesses, visit DOH’s Environmental Health Website. For news story ideas, interviews, videos and more from DOH Communications visit the DOH Online Newsroom. CONTACT: DOH Communications Jessica Hammonds, (850) 245-4111

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Humans have a right and a left kidney, which are oval organs about the size of a fist that lie to either side of the spine. The primary function of the kidneys is to filter waste products, excess sodium, and water from the blood, and help eliminate them from the body. Each kidney is supplied with blood by a large artery. In healthy adults, the two kidneys together receive approximately 20% of the blood pumped by the heart, which translates into one litre of blood per minute to the kidneys. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, which have a tubule (small tube) and a filtering unit called a glomerulus. In the glomerulus, blood passes through very specialized tiny blood vessels, called capillaries. The blood pressure within the capillaries forces much of the watery component of the blood to exit into the space surrounding these capillaries and into the kidney tubules. The cells and protein of the blood are unable to cross into the tubules. Water and salt are reabsorbed by the tubules and the waste that remains forms urine. The urine drains in the middle of the kidney, then into the bladder via the ureter and out of the body through the urethra. During the course of this filtration process other substances, such as medications, are also passed into the urine. Your kidneys provide more filter power than your body needs. This means that even one kidney or parts of two kidneys are enough to filter waste products from your blood. Your kidneys play a critical role to keep your body healthy. Your kidneys: Did you find what you were looking for on our website? Please let us know.

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Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) Contributing Editor: Keith D. Miller Major Themes, Historical Perspectives, and Personal Issues Context for "I Have a Dream" Unfortunately, many students remain blissfully unaware of the horrific racial inequities that King decried in "I Have a Dream." In 1963, southern states featured not only separate black and white schools, churches, and neighborhoods, but also separate black and white restrooms, drinking fountains, hotels, motels, restaurants, cafes, golf courses, libraries, elevators, and cemeteries. African-Americans were also systematically denied the right to vote. In addition, southern whites could commit crimes against blacks-- including murder--with little or no fear of punishment. The system of racial division was enshrined in southern custom and law. Racism also conditioned life in the North. Although segregationist practices directly violated the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of the Constitution, the federal government exerted little or no effort to enforce these amendments. Leading politicians--including John Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson--advocated racial equality only when pressured by King, James Farmer, John Lewis, Ella Baker, Fannie Lou Hamer, and other activists who fostered nonviolent social disruption in the pursuit of equal rights. Fortunately black students are often knowledgeable about the civil rights era and can help enlighten the rest of the class. Content for "I Have a Dream" "I Have a Dream" has been misconstrued and sentimentalized by some who focus only on the dream. The first half of the speech does not portray an American dream but rather catalogues an American nightmare. In the manner of Old Testament prophets, Frederick Douglass's "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?" oration and Vernon Johns, King excoriated a nation that espoused equality while forcing blacks onto "a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity." Context for "I've Been to the Mountaintop" By the time of King's final speech, the heyday of the civil rights movement was over. Large riots in major cities and the divisive issue of the Vietnam War had shattered the liberal consensus for civil rights and created an atmosphere of crisis. Content for "I've Been to the Mountaintop" King clearly wanted to energize his listeners on behalf of the strike. He analyzed the Parable of the Good Samaritan, identifying the Memphis strikers with the roadside victim and urging his listeners to act the part of the Good Samaritan. He also arranged the strike in a historical sequence that featured the Exodus, the cultural glory of Greece and Rome, the Reformation, the Emancipation Proclamation, the Great Depression, and--late in his address--the lunch counter sit-ins for civil rights and his major crusades in Albany, Birmingham, and Selma. By placing the struggle in Memphis in the company of epochal events and his own greatest achievements (neglecting to mention his more recent, unsuccessful campaign in Chicago), King elevated the strike from a minor, local event to a significant act in the entire Western drama. Significant Form, Style, or Artistic Conventions African-American Folk Pulpit: "I Have a Dream" Important in reaching King's enormous and diverse audience were the resources of black folk preaching. These resources included call-and-response interaction with listeners; a calm-to-storm delivery that begins in a slow, professorial manner before swinging gradually and rhythmically to a dramatic climax; schemes of parallelism, especially anaphora (e.g., "I have a dream that . . ."); and clusters of light and dark metaphors. Black students can frequently inform their classmates about these time-honored characteristics of the African-American folk pulpit that give life to King's address. African-American Folk Pulpit: "I've Been to the Mountaintop" Elements of the folk pulpit that animate "Mountaintop" include call-and-response interaction; calm-to-storm delivery; the apocalyptic tone of much evangelistic, revivalist preaching ("The nation is sick. Trouble is in the land"); and the updating of a prominent analogy (or typology) of black Christians equating blacks with Old Testament Hebrews and slave-owners with the Egyptian Pharaoh. King resuscitated the analogy by labeling his opposition as Pharaoh and by urging solidarity among Pharaoh's oppressed and segregated slaves. Concluding "Mountaintop," King boldly likened himself to Moses and foretold his own death prior to blacks'/Hebrews' entry into the Promised Land. Familiar Symbolism: "I've Been to the Mountaintop" As with "I Have a Dream," King defined his appeal by explaining nonviolence and by applying standard patriotic and religious symbols to his effort. His protest became an exercise of the First Amendment; an attempt to rebuild a New Memphis akin to a New Jerusalem; a later chapter in the book of Exodus; and in his last sentence, a merging of his vision with that of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." King spoke "I Have a Dream" to an immediate crowd of 250,000 followers who had rallied from around the nation in a March on Washington held in front of the Lincoln Memorial. His audience also consisted of millions across the nation and the world via radio and television. Important in reaching King's enormous and diverse audience were the resources of black folk preaching, including call-and-response interaction with listeners. King's audience in "Mountaintop" consisted of 2,000 or so ardent and predominantly black followers gathered to support the cause of striking garbage workers in Memphis, Tennessee. Comparisons, Contrasts, Connections For a valuable analysis of King's 1963 address, see Alexandra Alvarez, "Martin Luther King's 'I Have a Dream': The Speech Event as Metaphor," Journal of Black Studies 18 (1988): 337-57. I also encourage teachers to compare and contrast "I Have a Dream" with Frederick Douglass's "The Fourth of July" ( Rhetoric of Black Revolution. Ed. Arthur Smith, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970. 125-53). Useful for such a discussion is Robert Heath, "Black Rhetoric: An Example of the Poverty of Values," Southern Speech Communication Journal 39 (1973): 145-60. For background on King, see James Cone, "Martin Luther King, Jr.: Black Theology--Black Church," Theology Today 40 (1984): 409-20; James Cone, Martin and Malcolm and America, Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991; Keith D. Miller, Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources, New York: Free Press, 1992. Playing records or audio-video tapes of King's speeches substantially facilitates discussion of the oral dynamics of the black pulpit that nurtured King and shaped his discourse. The PBS series "Eyes on the Prize" is especially useful. "I Have a Dream" is available from Nashboro Records and, under the title Great March on Washington, from Motown Records. Tapes of these and many other addresses by King are available from the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in Atlanta.

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How air pollution threatens our health In the United States, more than 40 percent of people live in areas with unhealthy levels of air pollution. Pollution from coal-fired power plants leads to smog (or ozone), a toxic compound and a dangerous irritant. Doctors liken inhaling smog to getting a sunburn on your lungs. It can cause chest pain, coughing, and breathing difficulties. It triggers asthma attacks, and it can lead to irreversible lung damage or even death. Smog exacerbates conditions like bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma—sometimes fatally. Children are at the greatest health risk from air pollution because they are more likely to be active outdoors and their lungs are still developing. Asthma strikes nearly 1 out of every 10 school children in the United States and is the number-one health issue that causes kids to miss school. On “bad-air days” or “air alert days,” particularly during the warmer summer months, kids with asthma are forced to stay indoors to avoid aggravating their condition. Meanwhile, soot pollution—a by-product from burning fossil fuels that results in small particles in the air composed of a mixture of metals, chemicals, and acid droplets—is one of the deadliest and most dangerous air pollutants. The smallest soot particles are less than one-thirtieth the width of a human hair. Because of their minuscule size, this fine particulate matter can travel deep into our lungs and even enter the bloodstream. Exposure to soot pollution is extremely dangerous and is linked to premature death, heart attacks, lung damage, and a variety of other significant health problems. Stronger soot standards could avoid up to 35,700 premature deaths, 23,290 visits to the emergency room, and 2.7 million days of missed work or school due to air pollution-caused ailments every year. Continuing to allow high levels of coal pollution in our air could result in more than $100 billion in annual health costs. But we don’t have to continue down this path—there is a better way. Clean energy sources like wind and solar can protect our health and boost our economy. No one has ever had an asthma attack triggered by a solar panel. For more information on air pollution in your community, visit our Air Quality Map.

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libmemcachedwith C and C++ A number of language interfaces let applications store and retrieve information with memcached servers. You can write memcached applications in popular languages such as Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, C, and Java. Data stored into a memcached server is referred to by a single string (the key), with storage into the cache and retrieval from the cache using the key as the reference. The cache therefore operates like a large associative array or hash table. It is not possible to structure or otherwise organize the information stored in the cache. To emulate database notions such as multiple tables or composite key values, you must use encode the extra information into the strings used as keys. For example, to store or look up the address corresponding to a specific latitude and longitude, you might turn those two numeric values into a single comma-separated string to use as a key.

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Joseph Lister decided that he wanted to be a surgeon at the young age of 16. He was a brilliant medical student. He joined as assistant to the greatest surgery teacher of that time, James Syme. Subsequently, he joined as surgeon at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. The conditions in the hospitals in early nineteenth century were poor. Because of the terrible pain during surgery, the surgeon had to operate as quickly as possible. The instruments were often not even washed. Nor did the surgeon take care to wash his hands. It was not known that tiny microorganisms present in these instruments, or even from the hands of the surgeon, could cause disease, especially if there was an open wound. It was no surprise, therefore that the patients going through surgery, would often suffer infections , sometimes severe enough to cause death. It was during this time that Louis Pasteur proposed his theory that microorganisms cause disease. It came as a shock to Lister that a surgeon himself was responsible for the infections in his patients, brought on as a result of poor hygiene. At that time, carbolic acid was being used to clean foul smelling sewage. Lister ordered for a bottle of carbolic acid. And the next time he performed a surgery on a small boy, he washed his hands, instruments and all that came in contact with the patient with this acid. The boy survived without any sign of infection. His technique soon revolutionized surgery as more and more patients’ lives were saved. Today the surgeon, his assistant, and the nurses all wear gowns, caps, masks and rubber gloves that have been treated with steam to kill any germs on them (This process of killing germs by some method is known as sterilization) . Even the patient is treated with antiseptic agents, so those germs from his own body do not cause infection.

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Demand for phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizer is rising steadily as the world grows more crowded. "Over the next 50 years, the human population is predicted to grow from nearly 7 billion to 9 billion," says Abdullah Jaradat, research leader at the soil lab run by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Morris, Minnesota. "To feed those people, we must double our agricultural output, and that means more nitrogen and phosphorus." This photograph shows an outlet pipe from a phosphate waste impoundment in Lakeland, Florida; the waste forms a stream that joins the water table. The phosphate mines in central Florida pose an environmental threat to the region.

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In the 17th and 18th centuries the order of the Jesuits began a system of missionary work called “Reductions” in order to catholicize native peoples in Spain, Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia and America. These were the beginning of communist and socialist ideas of human society that dominated the 20th century and now have our country by the throat. The following is taken from the book The Footprints of the Jesuits, by R.W. Thompson (New York: Hunt & Eaton, 1894) pg. 173-177 “The Government established by them in Paraguay was essentially monarchical. It could not have been otherwise* under the principles of their constitution. Under the false name of a Christian republic, it was, to all intents and purposes, a theocratic State, so constructed as to free it from all European influences except such as emanated from their superior at Rome. All the intercourse they had with the Church and the pope was through him, and whatsoever commands he gave were uninquiringly obeyed by them, without stopping to investigate or concerning themselves in the least to know whether the Church and the pope approved or disapproved them. In order to impress the natives with the idea of their independence and of their superiority over the monastic orders and the Church ecclesiastics, they practiced the most artful means to persuade them to hold no intercourse with either Spaniards or Portuguese, upon the ground that they could not do so without encountering the example of their vices and immoralities. The unsuspecting Indians were easily seduced by acts of kindness, and the result was that, in the course of a brief period, they succeeded in establishing a number of what were called Reductions — or, more properly speaking, villages with multitudes of Indians assembled about them; [The modern day commune-DS] the whole aggregating, in the end, several hundred thousand. These constituted the Jesuit State, and were all, by the mere ceremony of baptism, brought under Jesuit dominion. At each Reduction the natives were allowed to select a secular magistracy, with limited and unimportant powers over such temporal affairs as could be intrusted to them without impairing the theocratic feature of the Government. But in order to provide against the possibility of permitting even these few temporal affairs from being conducted independently of them, they adopted the precaution of providing that, before any important decisions were carried into effect, they should obtain their sanction as ”spiritual shepherds.” There never was anywhere a more thorough and complete blending of Church and State together. Although this new State was established under the pretense that it was necessary to protect the natives against the bad influences of the Spaniards and the Portuguese, the approval of it by the King of Spain, Philip III, was obtained by the promise that every adult must pay him the tribute of one dollar” a consideration of chief importance with him. Philip IV was equally disposed to favor the Jesuits, presumably for the want of proper information; for it would have required but little investigation at that time to have discovered that the only motive of the Jesuits for securing royal approbation in Europe was that they might ultimately acquire power to plot against European royalty itself when it should stand in the way of their ambition. To show how little obedience was paid to the public authorities of either Spain or Portugal, it is only necessary to observe that each Reduction was governed by a Jesuit father, supported by a yicar and a curate as assistants but whose chief duty was espionage. This governing father was under the orders of a superior, who presided over a diocese of five or six parishes, the supervision and management of the whole being lodged in the hands of a provincial, who ”received his orders direct from the general in Rome.” If, therefore, the kings of Spain and Portugal supposed that the Jesuits in Portugal intended to pay fidelity to them, or to either of them, they were deceived as, in the course of events, they discovered. They obeyed their general in Rome, and him alone. The praise ought not to be withheld from the Jesuits, that the natives who were thus brought under their influences were better and more kindly treated than those who were compelled to submit to the dominion of Spaniards and Portuguese beyond the limits of Paraguay. They ”par- took of their labors, of their amusements, of their joys, of their sorrows. They visited daily every house in which lay a sick person, whom they served as the kindest nurse, and to whom they seemed to be ministering genii.” By these and other kindnesses they brought the Indians to look upon them with a feeling bordering upon idolatry. But whilst they were friends, they were also sovereigns, and “governed with absolute and unquestioned authority.” This was a necessary and indispensable part of their system of government, which embodied the Jesuit idea of a Christian republic. [The same fascistic type of Republic that flies for Christianity today. Romanism and more specifically Jesuitism is Militant Christianity come into it own-DS] It was in everything pertaining to the management of public affairs an absolute monarchy, with all its powers centered in the general at Rome, whose authority was accepted as equal to that of God, and to whose command obedience was exacted from all. Apart from this governing authority, universal equality prevailed. The principles of socialism or communism very much as now understood governed all the Reductions. Everything necessary to the material comfort and prosperity of the Indians was in common. Each family had a portion of land set apart for cultivation. They also learned trades, and many of them, both men and women, became experts. But the earnings of the whole were deposited in common storehouses at each Reduction, and distributed by the Jesuits in such portions to each individual as necessity required. [Exactly like our Federal Reserve bank through the income tax-DS] ‘Even meat was portioned from the public slaughter-houses in the same way.’ The surplus produce remaining after these distributions was sent to Europe, and sold or exchanged for wares and merchandise, solely at the discretion of the ‘Jesuits. Everything was conducted in obedience to them, and nothing contrary to their orders was tolerated. Rigid rules of conduct and hours of labor were prescribed, and the violators of them were subject to corporal punishment. Houses of worship, colleges, and palatial residences for the Jesuit fathers, were built by the common labor and at the expense of the common treasury. Suffrage was universal; but the sanction of the Jesuits was necessary to the validity of the election. In fact, says Nicolini, “the Jesuits substituted themselves for the State or community”‘ — a fact which fully establishes the monarchical and theocratic character of the Government. In order to teach the confiding Indians that obedience to authority was their chiefest duty, they were subjected to rules of conduct and intercourse which were enforced with the strictest severity. They were watched in everything, the searching eyes of the Jesuits being continually upon them. They constituted, in fact, a state of society reaching the Jesuit ideal completely; [Just like our contemporary Police State and the Patriot Act-DS] that is, docile, tractable, submissive, obedient, without the least real semblance of manhood. Having thus completed their subjugation, energetic measures were adopted to render any change in their condition impossible. For this purpose care was taken to exclude all other than Jesuit influences, and to sow the seeds of disaffection towards everything European, the object being to surround them with a high wall of ignorance and superstition, which no European influences could overleap, and within which their authority would be unbounded. They were instructed that the Spaniards and the Portuguese were their enemies, that the ecclesiastics and monkish missionaries sent over by the Church were unworthy of obedience or imitation, and that the only true religion was that which emanated from their society and had their approval. If these simple-minded people were taught anything about the Church, it was with the view of convincing them that the Jesuits represented all its power, authority, and virtue, and that whatsoever did not conform to their teachings was sinful and heretical. If they were told anything about the pope, it was to represent him as inferior to their general, who was to be regarded by them as the only infallible representative of God upon earth. That all other ideas should be excluded from their minds, they were not permitted to hold any intercourse Whatsoever with Europeans; for fear, undoubtedly, they might hear that there was a Church at Rome, and a pope higher than their general. They were not allowed to speak any language but their own, so as to render it impossible to acquire any ideas or opinions except such as could be expressed by means of its limited number of inexpressive words; that is, to keep them entirely and exclusively under Jesuit influences. To sum up the whole, without further detail, the Indians were regarded as minors under guardianship, and in this condition they remained for one hundred and fifty years, without the possibility of social and national development.” I suggest to the reader to also study Roman Catholic Sir Thomas More’s Utopia and its influence on Marxist philosophy. Marxist Karl Kautsky argued in his book Thomas More and his Utopia that More’s work was an early development of socialist ideas. Even the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia admits in its article “Reductions of Paraguay”, “(1) Conditions of Property who allotted it to the families under them. Agricultural instruments and draught-cattle were loaned from the common supply. No one was permitted to sell his plot of land or his house, called abamba, i.e. “own possession.” The individualefforts of the Indians, owing to their indolence, soon proved to be inadequate, whereupon se parate plots were set aside as common fields, called Tupamba, i.e. “God’s property” which were cultivated by common labour under the guidance of the Padres. The products of these fields were placed in the common storehouse, and were used partly for the support of the poor, the sick, widows, orphans,Church Indians, etc., partly as seed for the next year, partly as reserve supply for unforeseen contingencies, and also as a medium of exchange for European goods and for taxes (see below). The yield of the private fields and of private effort became the absolute property of the Indians, and was credited to them individually in the common barter transactions, so that each received in exchange the goods he desired. Those abamba plots which gave a smaller yield because of faulty individual management were exchanged from time to time. The herds of livestock were also common property. The caballos del Santo, which were used in processions on festal occasions, were especially reserved. Thus the Reduction Los Santos Apostoles at one time owned 599 of these.” Reader do you not see the clear foundation of the Jesuit Communism being the inspiration of Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto? I also suggest to the reader, to watch the movie The Mission. It is an account of the South American Jesuit Reductions.

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A new online technology from Google called Google Earth Engine allows scientists and researchers to track environmental changes by analyzing 25 years worth of images from the LANDSAT satellite, the longest continually orbiting satellite on earth. The new project, which will be posted online for free, was introduced at the COP16 talks in Cancun last week and will include applications that monitor and measure deforestation, land use trends, water resources and more. In honor of the conference's location, the first major creation of Google Earth Engine is the most comprehensive scale map of Mexico's forest and water resources to date. Google officials touted the power of Google Earth Engine by saying that the amount of data processed in the Mexico map would have taken three years using a single computer, but only took one day with this new platform (1,000 computers in parallel processed more than 53,000 LANDSAT scenes from 1984 - 2010). To kick-off the project's launch, the company is offering 20 million CPU hours free to developing nations and scientific organizations to utilize this new tool. The technology was developed by Google.org, the company's philanthropic arm, and according to Google officials, will show the public how the earth is changing under a changing climate and hopefully drive public policy. via Washington Post written by Asaf Shalgi, December 11, 2010 written by Jessica Janes, May 31, 2011 written by Robert Oates, October 27, 2011 |< Prev||Next >|

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Filed under: Boomer's Health Nonallergic rhinitis involves chronic sneezing or having a congested, drippy nose with no apparent cause. The symptoms of nonallergic rhinitis are similar to those of hay fever (allergic rhinitis), but there's no allergic reaction involved. Nonallergic rhinitis can affect children and adults, but is more common after age 20. Although nonallergic rhinitis is more annoying than harmful, it can make you miserable. Triggers of nonallergic rhinitis symptoms vary from person to person and can include certain odors or irritants in the air, changes in the weather, some medications, certain foods, and chronic health conditions. A diagnosis of nonallergic rhinitis is made after an allergy is ruled out. This may require allergy skin or blood tests. Want to know more about this article or other health related issues? Ask your question and we'll post some each week for CNN.com reader to discuss or for our experts to weight in. |Most Viewed||Most Emailed|

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"Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources." (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008, p. 1) In addition, every term in this definition can be analyzed as a separate concept of its own. These terms are: Study, Ethical Practice, Facilitating, Learning, Improving, Performance, Creating, Using, Managing, Appropriate, Technological, Processes, and Resources. While each of the terms adds to the complexity of the definition and has its own significance, I will specifically reflect on and explore the term "Facilitating." As the definition has been evolving "as long as the field has" (AECT,p.1), reflecting the practices of the time, the term "facilitation" has been included into some while excluded from other versions through time. 1972 "Educational technology is a field involved in the facilitation of human learning through the systematic identification, development, organization and utilization of a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes" (AECT, 1972, p. 36). According to AECT, the changes in views on learning and instruction reflected in"cognitive and constructivist learning theories has engendered a rethinking of assumptions about the connection between instruction and learning." In contrast, the previous definitions in the field of educational technology "implied a more direct cause and effect relationship between instructional interventions and learning." Thus, according to AECT (p.4) one of the first definitions "referred to the design and use of messages which control the learning process" (p.4.) This shift demonstrates a new approach to the process of learning; while the earlier approach recognised learners as passive "recipients of knowledge", the new approach viewed learners as "constructors" of their own knowledge. With learners' "ownership and responsibility" came the role of technology as "facilitating" learning, rather than "controlling." (p.4) As "controlling learning" can be associated with a "teacher-centered" learning environment, where teachers present and explain information, "facilitating" learning, rather, supports those learning processes which allow learners take responsibility for their own construction of knowledge (p.4). The role of the educational technology in the process of facilitating learning is not to replace the teacher while offering the same information; rather, its role is to create an "authentic environment" where learners can explore, search, locate, test, and apply information, become involved in the process, and, by doing so, receive answers for their questions. (p.4) Thus, the key point in explaining the term "facilitating" within the broader concept of Educational Technology is that it "...can help create environment in which learning more easily can occur..." (p.4) Practically, "facilitating" in Educational Technology does not imply "uploading the existing textbooks" online while using same approaches to and methods of learning and instruction. Facilitating refers to creating an environment, by using existing resources and technologies (for example, communication tools, software, websites, podcasts, educational programs, among others) in order to help learners maintain their motivation and interest, feel involved in their own learning, take on responsibility, develop a sense of power, while locating and synthesizing meaningful information, necessary for the learners' personal and professional growth. My personal experience in higher education (back in Russia) had nothing to do with either facilitating nor educational technology. Most of my classroom experience in college can be described as "teacher-centered", with a professor "on stage" reciting books by heart for 2 hours non-stop and the students writing it all down, every single word of the lecture. As we know, who does most of the talking in class (on the subject) learns the most. Therefore, the professor would know the lecture even better by the end of the class, while the students would learn how to write faster. Applying this concept to my own classroom of ESL learners, one of the examples of “facilitating” learning with Educational Technology I see in using blogging in advanced Reading and Writing classes. Being given an opportunity to publish their own work, students may feel more motivated to become involved as they are in charge of the content and its validity. Similar to the idea of this very learning log, my students could be reflecting on their experience in the US for a specific audience (e.g., family and friends at home.) In addition, technologies allow to make it interactive – by reading and responding to comments, for instance, learners will practice their reading and writing skills, yet, again, in a meaningful way, communicating with the real audience, answering questions, providing clarifications, etc. Another example of educational technology facilitating learning is creating personal digital stories. Having taught a few courses where students created their digital stories as final projects in “Cross-Cultural Communication” course for ESL learners, I can now say that I witnessed: 1) students working in a “real world” environment managing their own projects; 2) students improved their writing skills in a second language as they worked with the text of their stories – brainstorming ideas and writing and re-writing drafts; 3) students developed certain level of competence working with new technology (we used professional editing software “Final Cut Express”), and, most of all, 4) students being proud of their final project as they shared it with the world by uploading on YouTube. Finally, I appreciated receiving feedback from students saying that they were going to create more stories even after the course was over. Obviously, students felt empowered being able to create his/her own “story” and share it with the world, while learning the skills stated in course objectives. In my experience, not many students say at the end of the semester that they enjoyed writing the final “paragraph, essay, or paper” and would do it again after the course is over. While these skills are equally important, the feedback from the learners demonstrated their enjoyment on a technology facilitated course vs. “traditional” approach. In conclusion, I have explored and reflected on the term “facilitating” learning from the broader definition of Educational Technology, as I view this component as a vital part of learning process; i.e., using technologies to create an authentic environment for learners to explore, analyze, and share meaningful content. The digital stories created by my former students were demonstrated as an example. I also found this assignment useful as I continue developing my teaching philosophy which, along with reflections to other elements will be published here. Feedback and comments will be appreciated! References: Januszewski, A., & Molenda, M. (2008). Chapter 1: Definition. In Educational technology: A definition with commentary (pp. 1 - 14). NY: Lawrence Erlbaum, Inc. Images: Google Images

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Who is likely to develop a food allergy?Infants and toddlers are most likely to develop a food allergy because food allergies occur early in life when the immune and digestive systems are not fully matured. Is it true that "once allergic, always allergic" when it comes to food allergies?Not at all. Health Canada reports that about 8% of children under one year of age have one or more food allergies. Food allergies tend to disappear with age, i.e. children often outgrow them by five years of age. This is reflected in the Health Canada statistic which states that only 1-2% of Canadians have food allergies. Allergies to certain foods (e.g. eggs, milk and soy) are more likely to be outgrown than allergies to other foods (e.g. peanuts, tree nuts, wheat, fish and seafood). For this reason, in conjunction with your doctor, periodic rechallenging with an "offending food" is often done, except in cases where a very serious reaction has occurred. If I have a food allergy, will my baby?This is a common question of pregnant women and new parents. Before one can answer the question, it needs to be known if it is a true food allergy or merely a food intolerance. A true food allergy affects the immure system and is rare; a food intolerance does not affect the immune system and is more common. A proper diagnosis can only be made after appropriate testing by a qualified allergist. Although anyone can develop a food allergy, food allergies are mostly inherited. A child with one allergic parent is twice as likely to develop a food allergy, while a child with two allergic parents is four times as likely to develop a food allergy, compared to a child with no allergic parents. If there is a family risk of developing food allergies, what can I do to help prevent my baby from having food allergies?New parents should follow a feeding approach which is "gradual" and "conservative" when introducing foods. More specifically, this means delaying the introduction of major food allergens. This approach may prevent, decrease the severity of, or delay the onset of food allergies by allowing the infant's immune system to fully develop before it is exposed to potentially allergic foods. Major food allergens for infants are: milk, egg, peanuts, soy, tree nuts (e.g. almonds, pecans, walnuts) and wheat. Together, these foods cause about 95% of all food allergy reactions. For example, when it comes to eggs... current guidelines for the feeding of healthy infants i.e. where there is no family history of food allergies, recommend introducing cooked egg yolk at nine months and cooked egg white at about 12 months. However, in the case where there is a family history of food allergies, it is advised that eggs not be introduced until after one year of age, usually between one and two years of age. It is strongly advised to consult with your doctor or allergist to determine what time is best. When introducing egg yolk, it is often easiest to hard cook the egg and then "peel off"' the white. What are the symptoms of food allergy?Symptoms for food allergies are many, varied and very individualistic. Often they can be vague enough so that it is unclear whether it is a true food allergy or some other illness or problem. A few examples of common symptoms include: hives, itching, swelling of any body part, red and watery eyes, runny nose, vomiting, diarrhea, coughing and wheezing. In a small number of cases, anaphylaxis can result. When do symptoms occur?To determine if a child has a food allergy rather than another ailment, it is important to know that symptoms of a food allergy happen suddenly (within minutes to hours after a child has eaten) and go away within 24 hours. Always let a doctor know if any symptoms occur with the introduction of a new food. Can a person allergic to eggs eat chicken?In most cases, the answer is yes. Most often the antibodies against eggs identify chicken as non-egg and chicken can be eaten safely. In rare cases, the antibodies find a similarity between the protein structure of chicken and eggs and the child can react to both. Can a person allergic only to egg white still eat the yolk?Eggs have two allergenic components with different properties - the yolk and the white. The egg white is the component which causes the most severe reactions. However, it makes little difference which part of the egg a child is allergic to. It is very difficult to separate the white from the yolk without having some parts of each combine. Extremely small amounts can sometimes trigger severe reactions. Can a person who is allergic to raw eggs eat cooked eggs?Usually not. Egg white is only slightly modified by heat, making it allergenic either raw or cooked. Egg yolk is substantially altered by heat and it can be tolerated by some if it is well cooked. But remember, it is very difficult to separate the white from the yolk without having some parts of each combine. However, sometimes when the allergy is disappearing, a person can eat cooked eggs but still react to raw eggs. Is baking possible if a person is allergic to eggs?Though eggs are an important ingredient in baking, there are substitutions which can be used. For best results though, use recipes with only 1 or 2 eggs. Egg-free baking gets easier with practice. For each egg called for in a recipe, substitute ONE of the following: - 5 mL (1 tsp) baking powder, 25 mL (1½ tbsp) water and 25 mL (1½ tbsp) oil - 5 mL (1 tsp) baking powder, 15 mL (1 tbsp) water and 15 mL (1 tbsp) vinegar - 5 mL (1 tsp) yeast dissolved in 50 mL (¼ cup) warm water - 1 packet of unflavoured gelatin, 30 mL (2 tbsp) of warm water. Do not combine until ready to use. - ½ large mashed banana Where can I get more information on allergies?Talk to your family doctor, allergist or a nutritionist or nurse at your public health unit. References:1. Nutrition for Healthy Term Infants: Statement of the Joint Working Group - Canadian Paediatric Society, Dietitians of Canada and Health Canada, 1998. 2. Managing Food Allergy and Intolerance - A Practical Guide, J. Vickerstaff Joneja, 1995. 3. Understanding Food Allergies: A Guide to Food and Egg Allergies, Egg Nutrition Centre.

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These simple models are small signal approximations to how a fairly generic diode works. Zener and tunnel diodes are ignored. At a first approximation, a diode is a device that will let current flow in one direction with zero resistance and will block current in the other direction with infinite resistance. Basically, it operates like a check valve for current. A second approximation includes a constant voltage drop for current flow in the forward direction. The voltage drop varies with the type of diode, but is typically around 0.7 volts for fairly generic diodes and well over 1 volt for LEDs. To get a third approximation, add a little resistance to the diode. Now things get a little more complicated. Since the v-i curve is non-linear, the resistance is not constant. However, if your signal is small and carried on a large offset, you can do a fairly accurate analysis by properly selecting the voltage drop and resistance. Finally the fourth approximation accounts for the small leakage current that exists when the diode is reverse biased. This is typically in the range of nano-amps to a few micro-amps for most generic diodes. If you need more accuracy than this, you will need to look at the physics that happens inside a diode. Analysis of Diode Physics Diodes junctions may be formed with N type and P type semi-conductor or semi-conductor and Metal junction. When the Metal and Semi-conductor come together, excess electrons diffuse from the semi-conductor to the metal until the Fermi levels are equal. As electrons diffuse from the semi-conductor to the metal, they leave behind their donor atom. This depletes the region near the interface of charge carriers and hence this region does not conduct well. Thus for charges to diffuse across this region, they require additional energy. Since the extent of the depletion of charges is some function of distance, the conduction band is bent to represent the energy required for diffusion in that region. There will now exist 2 currents. Electrons diffuse from metal to semi-conductor over the barrier induced by the depletion region . Electrons diffuse from the semi-conductor over this barrier in the opposite direction . When there is no external applied voltage, there current will be equal and opposite. Electrons will diffuse from semi-conductor to metal if they have enough energy to overcome the barrier. The energy of an electron is statistical, and is given by the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution . Thus as the temperature increases, the probability of the number of electrons occupying higher energy states increases. For low doping densities, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution may also be applied. However for non-zero temperature most excess electrons from the dopant will exist in the conduction band. Maxwell-Boltzman distribution says: given an energy W, the number of electrons with energy greater than W is given by: where n is the number density of electrons, k Boltzmann's constant and T the temperature. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution does not apply to metals. The reason may be found in the referenced . For small voltages one may assume to be constant. for no external potential. This equilibrium exists for a diffusion potential we will call , where . Thus the energy of an electron to cross this barrier is given by . The fermi level of the n-type semi-conductor may be increased by an external potential. This will increase the number of electrons with energy to diffuse across the barrier. Thus the energy for electron to cross the barrier will become . The depletion width is given by the required amount of charge to be displaced to realize the diffusion potential. Thus if one knows the doping density and relative permittivity of the material, then one may calculate the depletion width. The depletion width is easiest realized by Poisson's Equation . Assume constant doping density. By Poisson's equation: where the charge density, the permittivity and x the distance from the junction. The depletion width is some function of barrier height, . Therefore solve for Capacitance is the change in charge for change in voltage over the depletion width. John Allison. Electronic Engineering Semiconductors and devices. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Shoppenhangers Rd Maidenhead Berkshire England,1971.

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Wikijunior:Summer Flowers of Northern New England/Trifolium arvense |Rabbit's Foot Clover Rabbit's foot clover is another type of clover with a pinkish flower. The flower also looks a little bit grey. It does not grow as tall as most clovers, and the flowers are not very bright. Because of this, it is often not even noticed. The pinkish flowers are very hairy looking, and somewhat longer than they are wide. Like all clovers, the leafs are divided into three leaflets. This is another clover that was brought to the America's as a pasture crop. It did not grow here before it was imported by the Europeans.

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France in the Seven Years' War France was one of the leading participants in the Seven Years' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. France entered the war with hopes of achieving a lasting victory both in Europe against Prussia, Britain and their German Allies and across the globe against their major colonial rival Britain. While the first few years of war proved successful for the French, in 1759 the situation dramatically reversed and they suffered defeats on several continents. In an effort to reverse their losses, France concluded an alliance with their neighbor, Spain, in 1761. In spite of this the French continued to suffer defeats throughout 1762 eventually forcing them to sue for peace. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the loss of French possessions in North America and Asia to the British. France also finished the war with very heavy debts, which they struggled to repay for the remainder of the 18th century. The previous major conflict in Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession, ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. This peace agreement was very unpopular with the French populace who saw the terms as excessively lenient to France's enemies, specifically Britain and the Dutch Republic, and many regarded it as a breathing space before war resumed. France and Britain were engaged in an intensifying global rivalry after they superseded Spain as the leading colonial power. Hoping to establish supremacy, both countries engaged in several minor wars in North America. French colonies in Louisiana, Illinois, and Canada had largely surrounded British colonies strung out in a narrow strip along the coast. All the French needed to totally envelop the British was control of the Ohio Country. Attempting to gain control of this territory, France built a complex system of alliances with the area's Native American tribes and brought them into conflict with Britain. In the mid-18th century, France was an absolute monarchy: all power resided with the King. Louis XV was a weak personality easily manipulated by his advisors and confidants. Chief amongst them was Madame Pompadour, his mistress who exercised enormous influence over appointments and matters of grand strategy. Other advisors rose and fell with rapid succession, continuing the lack of the stability which had plagued the monarchy in the early 18th century. War in the Americas France began asserting control over the Ohio Country as early as 1749, issuing warnings and threats to British colonial traders active in the region. When the French began constructing a series of forts in the Ohio River watershed in 1753, the British responded with claims and demands of their own. In 1754, George Washington sparked the beginning of the war with an attack on a French scouting party near present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When they learned that the British were planning to send regular army troops to the area for the 1755 campaign, the French sent a large body troops to New France before the British could blockade their ports. These troops, combined with a strong alliances with native tribes and poor British military administration, gave France a string of victories from 1755 to 1757; its only significant loss was Acadia, whose remaining territories fell into British hands after the 1755 Battle of Fort Beauséjour, inaugurating the expulsion of the Acadians. France was able to maintain control of the Ohio Country as well as the strategically important Great Lakes. After their initial successes in North America, however, France began to starve the theatre of forces and supplies, preferring to concentrate on the war in Europe rather than risk large numbers of troops on expeditions across the British-dominated Atlantic Ocean. This contrasted sharply with the British, who put great emphasis on the war for control of North America. In 1758 the British launched several major offensives, capturing Louisbourg, Fort Duquesne, and Fort Frontenac, although they were stopped at Fort Carillon. The following year a large force under General Jeffery Amherst took Carillon and Fort Niagara, while a second large force under General Wolfe sailed up the St Lawrence River to besiege Quebec City. The French commander in Quebec, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, had orders to try to hold out until the winter spell, with the promise that major reinforcements would arrive from Europe the following year. Montcalm almost achieved this, delaying British attempts to capture Quebec until the autumn, when the British finally won the Battle of Quebec and captured the city. In spite of this, a large force of French escaped westwards, intent on resuming the campaign the following year. In 1760 the French launched a surprise effort to re-capture Quebec, which succeeded in blunting one British advance on Montreal. Other British armies advanced on Montreal from the south and west, completing the Conquest of Canada. In the West Indies the French saw the valuable sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique captured by British forces. A final attempt to capture Newfoundland from the British failed in late 1762. War in Europe While the war began in North America, in 1756 France became drawn into a major war in Europe. Allied to Austria, Sweden and Russia the French tried to defeat the Prussians who had only the British as major allies. Despite repeated attempts between 1757 and 1762, the French and their allies failed to win the conclusive victory against Prussia despite a constant war of attrition. They were partly frustrated by an army led by the Duke of Brunswick made up of British forces and troops from the smaller German states which operated in West Germany. France had opened the war against Britain in Europe by capturing Minorca and until 1759 they believed they held the upper hand. The British navy, however, had initiated a tight blockade of the French coast which prevented supplies and troops moving freely and sapped morale. Realising that Prussia was unlikely to be defeated until its ally Britain was, the French foreign minister, Choiseul developed a plan to invade Britain in three separate places at Portsmouth, Essex and Scotland. He oversaw the construction of a massive fleet of transports to convey the troops during 1759. Defeats of the French navy at Lagos and Quiberon Bay put paid to this and he was forced to call off the invasion in the late autumn. A diversionary force under François Thurot had managed to land in Northern Ireland before he was hunted down and killed by the British navy. In the wake of the disaster at Quiberon, Thurot was lionised as a hero in France. By this stage France's finances were in a poor state, despite the efforts of Silhouette to keep down expenditure, and France was only kept afloat by a major loan from neutral Spain. Despite the Spanish government's official policy of neutrality, they were slowly shifting towards supporting an outright pro-French position, encouraged by Choiseul. In December 1761, war finally broke out between Britain and Spain - but the Spanish involvement did not provide the relief to the French that had been hoped. Instead French troops were needed to bolster Spanish efforts to invade Portugal, and became bogged down there. Spain also suffered defeats in Cuba and the Philippines in 1762, and by the end of the year both Spain and France were urgently seeking peace. War in Asia The French position in India had been severely weakened following the Second Carnatic War, which had ended in 1754 with the Treaty of Pondicherry. In spite of this they held several strong trading posts, particularly that at Pondicherry and they maintained relations with several major Indian Princes who were also enemies of the British. The French war in India started badly, with the loss of the Chandalore which saw the last French trading post in Bengal destroyed. A major French force under the Comte De Lally was despatched from Europe, and it threatened to turn the balance in India. However, an attempt to seize Madras failed, while Lally's force was unable to prevent the eventual British capture of Pondicherry and a comprehensive British victory in India. In the wake of Britain's domination of India, they were able to launch an expedition from Madras to the Philippines which captured Manila from France's ally Spain - further weakening the Bourbon position in Asia. War in Africa In April 1758 a British expedition conceived by the merchant Thomas Cumming and authorised by Pitt captured the French settlement of Saint-Louis in Senegal. The scheme had been so successful and profitable that two further expeditions were despatched the same year which captured the island of Gorée and the French trading station on the Gambia. The loss of these valuable colonies further weakened France's finances. In 1762 a force was prepared to retake the Senegal territories, but had to be abandoned. Peace treaty and aftermath The French began negotiations in Paris in late 1763. Because of a change in the British government, they were offered more lenient terms than might otherwise have been expected. While they lost Canada to the British, Martinique and Guadeloupe were returned to them in exchange for Minorca. The French defeat had a devastating impact on French political life, and a number of senior figures were forced out of public office. Realizing the deficiency in the French navy, Louis XV began a massive rebuilding programme to match British naval strength. Choiseul drew up a long-term plan to gain victory over the British which was partially put into action during the American War of Independence after France joined the conflict in 1778. See also - McLynn 2005, pp. 6–7 - Anderson, pp. 12–32 - McLynn 2005, p. 387 - Anderson, pp. 497–98 - Anderson, pp. 498–502 - Harvey 1998, pp. 104–05 - Harvey 1998, pp. 185–91 - Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. Faber and Faber, 2001. - Anderson, Fred and Cayton, Andrew. The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America 1500-2000. Penguin Books, 2005. - Black, Jeremy. Pitt the Elder. Cambridge University Press, 1992. - Browning, Reed. The Duke of Newcastle. Yale University Press, 1975. - Harvey, Robert. Clive: The Life and Death of a British Emperor. Sceptre, 1998. - Horne, Alastair. Friend or Foe: An Anglo-Saxon History of France. Phoenix, 2005. - Longmate, Norman. Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain, 1603-1945. Harper Collins, 1993. - McLynn, Frank. 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World. Pimlico, 2005. - Palmer, Alan. Northern Shores: A History of the Baltic Sea and its peoples. John Murrtay, 2006. - Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin Books, 2008.

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Holy Spirit (Judaism) The Hebrew language phrase ruach ha-kodesh (Hebrew: רוח הקודש, "holy spirit" also transliterated ruah ha-qodesh) is a term used in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and Jewish writings to refer to the Spirit of YHWH. (The expression in Hebrew is: רוח יהוה) The Hebrew term ruakh kodeshka (רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ, "thy holy spirit"), without the definite article, also occurs. The "Holy Spirit" in Judaism generally refers to the divine aspect of prophecy and wisdom. It also refers to the divine force, quality, and influence of the Most High God, over the universe or over his creatures, in given contexts. Hebrew Bible The term ruach hakodesh occurs once in Psalm 51:11 and also twice in the Book of Isaiah. (Isaiah 63:10,11) Those are the only three times that the precise phrase "ruach hakodesh" is used in the Hebrew Scriptures, although the noun ruach (רוח, literally "breath" or "wind") in various combinations is used often, and the adjective kodesh ("holy") is also used often. The noun ruach, much like the English word breath, can mean either wind or some invisible moving force ("spirit"). The following are some examples of the word ruach (in reference to God's "spirit") in the Hebrew Scriptures: Genesis 1:2 (Schocken Bible - The Five Books of Moses) "Rushing-spirit of God hovering over the face of the waters." 1 Samuel 16:13 (DRA) "And the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward." Psalm 143:10 (KJV) "Thy spirit is good; lead me into the land of uprightness." Isaiah 44:3 (KJV) "I will pour my spirit upon thy seed, and my blessing upon thine offspring." Joel 2:28 (RV) "I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy." The first Hebrew Scripture use for the phrase ruach hakodesh (or "holy spirit") in Psalm 51 contains a triple parallelism: - 10 "Create in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a right spirit (רוּחַ נָכֹון) within me." - 11 "Cast me not away from thy presence; and take not thy holy spirit (רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ) from me." - 12 "Restore unto me the joy of thy salvation; and uphold me with a (רוּחַ נְדִיבָה) free spirit." The other two times that ruach hakodesh occurs, in Isaiah 63 (R.V.), read: - 10 "But they rebelled, and grieved his holy spirit (רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ); therefore he turned to be their enemy, and himself fought against them." - 11 "Then he remembered the days of old, of Moses and his people, saying, Where is he that brought them up out of the sea with the shepherds of his flock? where is he who put his holy spirit (רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ) in the midst of them?" The term is discussed in the Babylonian Talmud, Makkot 23b and elsewhere. Rabbinical use is discussed by Joseph Jacobs and Ludwig Blau in the article "Holy Spirit" in the Jewish Encyclopedia of 1911. In Judaism, God is One, the idea of God as a duality or trinity among may be considered shituf (or "not purely monotheistic"). The term Ruach HaKodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God. The rabbinical understanding of the "Holy Spirit" has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, "a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes". In Rabbinic Judaism, the references to The Spirit of God, the Holy Spirit of YHVH, abound, however apart from Kabbalistic mysticism it has rejected any idea of The Eternal God as being either dualistic, tri-personal, or ontologically complex. See also - Biblical inspiration - Holy Spirit, general article - Ruah, Hebrew word for "breath," "wind" - Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997). - John R. Levison The Spirit in First-Century Judaism 2002 p65 "Only Psalm 51, which contains no less than four occurrences of the word, im, permits the identification of the holy spirit with the human spirit.13 Three references occur in close succession in this psalm (51:10-12; MT 51:12-14):" - Article Jacobs J. Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit 1911 - Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912). - Ruth Rubin Voices of a people: the story of Yiddish folksong p234

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Siege of Port Hudson ||This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2012)| The Siege of Port Hudson occurred from May 22 to July 9, 1863, when Union Army troops assaulted and then surrounded the Mississippi River town of Port Hudson, Louisiana, during the American Civil War. In cooperation with Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's offensive against Vicksburg, Mississippi, Union Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks's army moved against the Confederate stronghold at Port Hudson. On May 27, 1863, after their frontal assaults were repulsed, the Federals settled into a siege that lasted for 48 days. Banks renewed his assaults on June 14 but the defenders successfully repelled them. On July 9, 1863, after hearing of the fall of Vicksburg, the Confederate garrison of Port Hudson surrendered, opening the Mississippi River to Union navigation from its source to the Gulf of Mexico. Strategy and politics on the Mississippi From the time the American Civil War started in April 1861, both the North and South made controlling the Mississippi River a major part of their strategy. The Confederacy wanted to keep using the river to transport needed supplies; the Union wanted to stop this supply route and drive a wedge that would divide Confederate states and territories. Particularly important to the South was the stretch of the Mississippi that included the mouth of the Red River. The Red was the Confederacy's primary route for moving vital supplies between east and west: salt, cattle, and horses traveled downstream from the Trans-Mississippi West; in the opposite direction flowed men and munitions from the east.:2–6:4 In the spring and early summer of 1862, the Union advanced their control of the Mississippi from both the north and the south. From the mouth of the river, a fleet commanded by Flag Officer David G. Farragut fought its way through Confederate fortifications in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, resulting in the Capture of New Orleans. A second Union fleet commanded by Charles H. Davis occupied Memphis, Tennessee, after defeating Confederate riverine forces in Battle of Memphis. To make sure it could continue to use the middle section of the river, the South fortified positions at both Vicksburg, and Port Hudson. The initial idea of fortifying the heights of Port Hudson came from the south's master of fixed defenses, General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, Commander, Army of the Mississippi. Writing to Major General Mansfield Lovell, Commander of the lower Mississippi in March 1862, Beauregard recommended, “…the fortification of Port Hudson as a measure of precaution against the fall of our defenses north of Memphis.” In June 1862, Major General Earl Van Dorn wrote Jefferson Davis: “I want Baton Rouge and Port Hudson” A few days after the fall of Baton Rouge to the Union, Confederate General John C. Breckinridge with 4,000 men, carried out the wishes of General Van Dorn by occupying Port Hudson, situated between Baton Rouge and Bayou Sara, with troops under the command of General Daniel Ruggles. Soldiers of the 4th Louisiana Infantry arrived at the site on August 15, 1862. According to historian John D. Winters, "Port Hudson, unlike Baton Rouge, was one of the strongest points on the river, and batteries placed upon the bluffs could command the entire river front." It was a position similar to that of Quebec City in the French and Indian War. The political momentum behind the Union actions against Port Hudson came from the elections of November, 1862. The Republican base, centered in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, had been shaken by embarrassing Democratic victories. A dramatic letter from Indiana Governor Oliver P. Morton to Lincoln claimed “The fate of the North-West is trembling in the balance.” His implication was that unless the independent trade of Union states along the Ohio River was restored by Union control of the entire Mississippi, further breakup of the Union was possible. Morton believed the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were in danger of breaking away from the Northeast to join the Confederacy, which was increasingly becoming the more lucrative opportunity. The threatening political fractures galvanized the Lincoln administration into action. Major General Nathanial Banks was diverted from a possible expedition to Texas and given Benjamin Butler’s command of the Department of the Gulf. The Union commander of all armies, Henry Wager Halleck stated to Banks that President Lincoln “regards the opening of the Mississippi River as the first and most important of all our military and naval operations, and it is hoped that you will not lose a moment in accomplishing it.” On December 4, 1862, Banks and his expedition put to sea for New Orleans.:21–3 In May 1863, Union land and naval forces began a campaign they hoped would give them control of the full length of the Mississippi River. One army under Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant commenced operations against the Confederacy's fortified position at Vicksburg at the northern end of the stretch of the river still in Southern hands while another army under Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks simultaneously attacked Port Hudson, which stood at the southern end. Foundation of a fortress Port Hudson began as a village sited on an 80 foot (24.4 m.) bluff on the east bank above a hairpin turn in the Mississippi river 25 Miles (40 km.) upriver from Baton Rouge. The hills and ridges in the area of the town represented extremely rough terrain, a maze of deep, thickly forested ravines, swamps, and cane brakes giving the effect of a natural fortress. The town had appeared and grown as a point for shipping cotton and sugar downriver from the surrounding area. Despite the growing shipping business the town itself remained small, consisting of a few buildings and 200 people by the start of the war. The river had shifted south and the docks had been moved a half a mile south. The state legislature incorporated the town in 1832. The next year a railroad was constructed to the town of Clinton, 19 miles (34 km.) to the northeast. The entire length of the Port Hudson and Clinton railroad was 21 miles, but it did not connect with the New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern railroad that connected Louisiana with other states and with Camp Moore, the main mustering point for Confederate forces in the department. Also by 1862 the railroad was run down, the track consisting of strips of iron nailed flat to rotten ties. The entire rolling stock consisted of one locomotive, one passenger car, and six box and flat cars. This train could only accommodate a few hundred troops at the most and was inadequate for hauling heavy guns and their ammunition. This lack of transport independent of the river itself would limit the defensibility of Port Hudson. Initial plans for fortifications were drawn up with the assistance of Captain James Nocquet, chief engineer for General Breckinridge. Along with loaning his engineering staff, Breckinridge also authorized Ruggles to gather needed supplies and tools using the Clinton and Port Hudson railroad, and whatever labor the area could provide for construction. Three different layouts for earthworks were considered, a central fort mounting cannon supported by angled outworks, a line of lunettes arranged along a four hundred yard line, and a continuous ring of redoubts, trenches, and parapets surrounding the entire position. The first option was rejected because it was thought it would concentrate the positions armament into too small a target, and thus be too vulnerable to bombardment. The third option was rejected because a siege was considered unlikely, and the task of building such extensive works too ambitious since the circumference of the ring would have been eight miles (13 km.) and required 35,000 men and 70 pieces of artillery to defend it. This left the line of lunettes as the best plan for the defense of the Port Hudson heights, and construction started on a line of seven of them fronting the river. General Breckinridge was soon ordered to take most of his troops to Kentucky however, and on the 18th of August he left, leaving only 1,500 men to work on the fortifications under Ruggles' command. Ruggles did have a forty-two-pounder smoothbore cannon, which he mounted immediately, manned by the sailors of the CSS Arkansas which had been destroyed in the Battle of Baton Rouge. Two thirty-two-pounders were shortly added from the abandoned wreck of the USS Sumter. General Ruggles was ordered to turn over command of Port Hudson to Brigadier General William Nelson Rector Beall on the 29th of August, 1862, and take some of his troops to Mississippi. This was also the day the Union Navy began to contest the guns of Port Hudson for control of the Mississippi. The improvised Union gunboat USS Anglo-American, a wooden side-wheel steamboat, passed Port Hudson moving upriver to join with Commander David Dixon Porter’s fleet at Vicksburg. It was struck many times by shot from Port Hudson but was unable to return fire due to wet cartridges and an ammunition shortage. The Anglo-American joined Porter’s fleet and reported the fortifications at Port Hudson. Porter responded to the new threat by bombarding the Rebel position with the USS Essex and the Anglo-American on September 7. The Union fleet did little damage to Port Hudson, but the Essex received significant damage and Porter reported 35–40 heavy guns at Port Hudson, a considerable exaggeration. During the lull in action resulting from the formidable reputation of the Port Hudson batteries, Beall slowly expanded the fortifications, delayed by Union possession of the river, and the inadequate rail and road system supporting his position. Jefferson Davis had by this time realized that linking the Port Hudson and Clinton railway to Jackson Mississippi would be invaluable in allowing reserves to be switched between Vicksburg and Port Hudson, depending upon which was most threatened. A desperate shortage of iron and transport within the Confederacy made this move impossible. Beall had also sent a request to Davis to impose martial law in the region of Port Hudson for the purpose of commandeering more resources for construction, but Davis denied this also. Beall was able to set up a hospital at Centenary College at Jackson Louisiana for invalided troops from Port Hudson and Clinton, but the space proved inadequate. Confederate bureaucracy had made it difficult for Garrison Provost Marshal John C. Miller to construct a logistical system of warehouses and transports to supply the garrison with food, medical supplies, barracks, bedding and other material necessary for their health. The use of earthworks for fortification, which required unending labor to maintain and were unhealthful to live in, also contributed to the poor health of the garrison. Poor supply lines, starvation, and disease were to remain the constant problems of the Port Hudson position, and overwhelm efforts to improve conditions for the soldiers of the garrison. Louisiana Private Robert D. Patrick wrote: “…never since I have been in the army have I fared so badly and in truth I have been almost starved.” At the same time commercial activity between Port Hudson and areas west of the Mississippi increased, because Port Hudson became the sole remaining link with the Trans-Mississippi. This tended to tie up even more of Port Hudson’s limited transport facilities. A change of commands |The New Commanders| Lincoln's new commander of the Gulf, Nathaniel P. Banks arrived in New Orleans on the 14th of December, 1862, with the 31,000 men of his expedition. The former commander, Benjamin Butler left for Lowell, Massachusetts on the 24th of December, but his troops remained behind. This effectively more than doubled Union troop strength in the gulf, and Banks put them to immediate use to re-occupy Baton Rouge on the 17th of December. The Confederate command reacted to this increased Union commitment by sending a newly minted major general to take command of Port Hudson. Major General Franklin Gardner arrived at his post on the 27th of December, 1862. Gardner was a career army officer who graduated from West Point 17th in his class in 1843. The native New Yorker commanded a cavalry brigade at Shiloh and was 39 years old at the time of his arrival. Upon taking command he reorganized the defenses at Port Hudson, concentrating the fields of fire of the heavy guns and setting up more earthworks using packed earth and sod rather than the traditional gabions or sandbags. Lacking an adequate engineering staff, he expanded his planners by promoting Private Henry Glinder, who had formerly been a member of the Coast Survey, to first lieutenant of engineers. He also increased the efficiency of the supply and storage operations, along with building protected roads within the defense system to speed the movement of troops to threatened positions. His energy in making improvements and promoting those worthy of leadership made him popular with his troops, and improved garrison morale. Despite the changes, Colonel Charles M. Fauntleroy, inspector-general for the department, criticized the fortifications for containing excessive numbers of civilians, badly placed magazines, poor transport and storage of grain, and no system for paying the troops on time. As Gardner strengthened his command, and gathered reinforcements from Pemberton sent by steamboat from Vicksburg, Banks dithered in New Orleans. He had little faith in the system of organization and military government left by Butler’s command and spent much time re-organizing the Union administration and establishing a more relaxed civil government to placate former Confederate backers in the city. Banks was a "Political General" and felt more comfortable with political organizing and social affairs than leading armies into the field against reputedly formidable fortifications. This lack of military zeal was noted by his officers. Colonel Sidney A. Bean recorded in his diary that under Butler, “much was accomplished with small means. Now nothing is accomplished with great means.” The Union leader most offended by this apparent inertia was Fleet Admiral Farragut of the Union Navy. Although Banks reluctantly agreed to move against Port Hudson, his slow progress and increased Rebel activity on the Mississippi in the area of Port Hudson caused Farragut’s patience to run out. In March 1863 Farragut prepared to confront Port Hudson without Union Army support. Farragut’s fleet defies Port Hudson Farragut had gathered his attack force by the 13 March 1863. This fleet consisted of four principal warships and three gunboats. The principal warships were the sloops-of-war USS Hartford, USS Richmond, and USS Monongahela and the steam paddle frigate USS Mississippi. The gunboats were USS Albatross, USS Genesee, and USS Kineo. Farragut commanded this fleet from his flagship, Hartford. The first six vessels were lashed together in an attack column of pairs, with Mississippi bringing up the rear by herself. Farragut had made fairly elaborate preparations of the vessels themselves for a night attack resembling the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Phillip, clearing the ships for action, whitewashing the gun decks to improve visibility for night action, and bringing up mortar boats for support. He also had the anchor chains of the attacking ships lashed to the sides of the attack ships as improvised armor. He did not however, make the systematic survey of defenses and sustained bombardment that supported the battle for the passage of the forts guarding New Orleans. The Confederate fortress was ready for the attack, having noticed increased naval activity downriver, and the ranging shots of the six mortar schooners which covered the advance of the Union fleet near Prophet's Island, three miles (4.3 km) downriver from Port Hudson. At this time the Confederates had over 20 cannon covering the river arranged in eleven batteries of artillery, including nine batteries of heavy coastal artillery. Lieutenant Colonel Marshall J. Smith commanded these heavy guns, and had instructed the gun crews of his plans before the battle. Battery number seven was a heated shot position, using ammunition particularly effective against wooden warships. Other preparations included preparing piles of pine wood to be ignited to illuminate the river for night action, and observation posts near the river to fire rockets to warn of the approach of enemy vessels. The first of these rockets was fired at 11:20 pm on 14 March 1863 at the approach of Farragut’s fleet. Instantly an eight-inch (200 mm.) smoothbore shell from battery 9 was fired at Albatross, beginning the battle. The Union fleet advanced steadily upriver, beginning a general fire of broadsides as soon as their guns bore on the lower Confederate batteries on the Port Hudson slopes. The heavier Confederate guns, mounted over the walls of the seven lunettes on the crest of the bluffs, had difficulty aiming at the ships, which were hugging the shorelines of the bluffs in order to avoid shoals on the western shore near the curve of the river north of Port Hudson. Coarse black powder was the artillery propellant of the period, and produced dense clouds of white smoke when fired from cannon. Combined with the smoke of the pine wood illumination fires, and the darkness of the night attack, the river valley was rapidly obscured. Blinded by the dense smoke, Hartford and Albatross ran aground on the eastern shore beneath the Rebel batteries. Despite remaining aground for ten minutes, the two lashed-together lead ships had passed the last Confederate gun position by 12:15 am and were out of range of Port Hudson by 12:45 am. The rest of the fleet was not so lucky. Genesee and Richmond were next in the column. A trick of the wind cleared the smoke momentarily between the batteries and the ships, and Richmond was hammered by Rebel shot and shell. Just as Richmond made the turn in the river north of Port Hudson, a 6.4-inch (163 mm.) solid conical shot tore through the starboard side, smashing both port and starboard boiler safety valves. This cut power to the engines and filled the ship with clouds of escaping steam. Genesee alone did not have enough power to stem the current, and both ships drifted back downriver. Monongahela and Kineo were next in the column, and, also blinded by smoke, ran aground on the western shore. The impact separated the two ships. The stress of backing off the shore disabled Monongahela's engine, and a thirty-two-pounder (14.5 kg) round shot split Kineo's rudder post, disabling her steering. Both ships drifted downriver. Mississippi was last in line and also ran aground on the western shore. The large steam paddle frigate was an irresistible target, and was riddled with shot, shell, and hot shot. The vessel being afire in many places, with flames endangering the magazine, Captain Smith ordered her abandoned. The garrison of Port Hudson cheered loudly as the ship went up in flames and drifted loose from the shore and back downriver at about 3 am, panicking the remainder of the Union fleet downriver at the threat of her magazine exploding. At 5:05 am Mississippi disappeared in a terrific explosion, seen in New Orleans nearly 80 miles (129 km.) downriver. Though Hartford and Albatross passed upriver to blockade the Red River, General Gardner and the Port Hudson garrison regarded the battle as a victory. They had sustained only three enlisted men killed and three officers and nineteen men wounded, compared to the 78 killed or missing and 35 wounded on the Union fleet. The blockade of the Red River also had little effect on the strength of the Port Hudson position. Banks’s army moves against the fortress After the naval attack, Banks retreated the 17,000 troops he had intended as a diversion to support Farragut back to Baton Rouge. The lack of an attack against Port Hudson, and a powerful rainstorm endured on the retreat lowered morale in the Union force. Other than sporadic naval bombardments against Port Hudson, Banks busied himself with minor expeditions against Major General Taylor’s Confederate forces in western Louisiana. What finally brought him to leading an attack against Port Hudson was the prospect of reinforcements from Grant’s army arrayed against Vicksburg, and word that a significant part of the Port Hudson garrison had been sent to Pemberton in Vicksburg. On May 11, 1863 the 3rd Louisiana Native Guards, one of Butler’s black regiments, began building bridges to support the movement of Bank’s forces against Port Hudson. Leading the advance was the cavalry brigade of Colonel Benjamin Henry Grierson, which had joined Bank’s forces on May second after their famous raid through the Rebel lines. The entire advance involved a pincer movement with three army divisions advancing from the northwest from Bayou Sara meeting two divisions advancing from the south from Baton Rouge. The meeting of the two groups would surround Port Hudson. One of Banks's lead divisions from Baton Rouge encountered Confederates on May 21 at the Battle of Plains Store. The Confederates were driven back, and by May 22, Banks's forces, which increased in strength from 30,000 to 40,000 men as the operation progressed, had completed an investment of the Port Hudson defenses. Banks hoped to overrun the entrenchments quickly, then take his army northward to assist Grant at Vicksburg. The fighting and siege The first infantry assault Sieges and the assault of fortified positions are probably the most complex and demanding of military operations. The foremost authority on these matters in the civil war was considered to be the French engineer, the Marquis de Vauban, who designed many European fortification systems, and organized many successful sieges of the seventeenth century. The Confederate earthworks of Port Hudson, and their use of artillery lunettes show his influence, and corresponding attacks on such systems would have benefited from his theories. Rather than considering this store of information, Major General Banks chose to simply rush the fortifications with his infantry. He did not do so immediately however. General Gardner chose to reinforce the picket lines shielding the Confederate grain mill and support shops of the areas near Little Sandy Creek because he did not consider a siege probable, and had not fortified that perimeter. Other Confederate troops remained outside the fortifications, consisting of 1200 troops under the command of Colonel John L. Logan. These represented all of Gardner’s cavalry, the 9th Louisiana Battalion, Partisan Rangers, and two artillery pieces of Robert’s battery. These troops slowed the encirclement of Banks troops, and prevented them from discovering the weaknesses in the defenses. Due to these delays, the infantry assault was scheduled for the 27th of May, 1863, five days after the encirclement and time enough for Gardner to complete the ring of defenses around Port Hudson. He also had sufficient time to move artillery from the river side of the fort to the east side fronting the Federal forces. Weitzel’s morning attacks Banks had set up his headquarters at Riley’s plantation and planned the attacks with his staff and division commanders. Many were opposed to the idea of trying to overwhelm the fort with a simple assault, but Banks wanted to end the siege as quickly as possible in order to support Grant, and felt that the 30,000 troops available to him would easily force the surrender of the 7,500 troops under Gardner, a four to one advantage. Four different assault groups were organized, under the commands of generals Godfrey Weitzel, Cuvier Grover, Christopher C. Augur, and Thomas W. Sherman. Banks did not choose a specific time for his intended simultaneous assault however, ordering his commanders to “…commence at the earliest hour practicable.” The effect of this was to break up the attack, with generals Weitzel and Grover attacking on the north and northeast sides of the fort at dawn, and generals Augur and Sherman attacking on the east and southeast sides at noon. The naval bombardment began the night before the attack, the 13” (330 mm.) mortars firing most of the evening, and the upper and lower fleets beginning firing for an hour after 7 am. The army land batteries also fired an hour bombardment after 5:30 am. Weitzel’s two divisions began the attack at 6 am on the north, advancing through the densely forested ravines bordering the valley of Little Sandy Creek. This valley led the assault into a salient formed by a fortified ridge known as the “bull pen” where the defenders slaughtered cattle, and a lunette on a ridge nicknamed “Fort Desperate” which had been hastily improvised to protect the fort's grain mill. At the end of this ravine between the two was a hill described as “commissary hill” with an artillery battery mounted on it. The union troops were caught in a crossfire from these three positions, and held in place by dense vegetation and obstacles placed by rebel troops that halted their advance. The combination of rugged terrain, a crossfire from three sides, and rebel sharpshooters inflicted many casualties. The Union troops advancing west of the bull pen were made up of Fearing’s brigade. These soldiers were caught between the bull pen, which had been reinforced with the 14th, 18th, and 23rd Arkansas regiments from the east side of Port Hudson, and a more western fortified ridge manned by Lieutenant Colonel M. B. Locke’s Alabama troops. Once again the combination of steep sided ravines, dense vegetation, and a rebel crossfire from ridge top trenches halted the Union advance. Premature shell bursts from the supporting artillery of the 1st Maine Battery also caused Union casualties. Seeing that his advance had been stopped, Brigadier General William Dwight ordered the 1st and 3rd Louisiana Native Guard forward into the attack. These troops were not intended to take part in the attack due to the general prejudice against negro troops on the part of the Union high command. Dwight was determined to break though the Confederate fortifications however, and committed them to the attack at 10 am. Since they had been deployed as pioneers, working on the pontoon bridge over Big Sandy Creek near its junction with the Mississippi, these troops were in the worst possible position for an attack than all the units in Weitzel’s northern assault group. The Guard first had to advance over the pontoon bridge, along Telegraph Road with a fortified ridge to their left manned by William B. Shelby’s 39th Mississippi troops supported by a light artillery battery, the Confederate heavy artillery batteries to their front, and the Mississippi river to their immediate left. Despite the heavy crossfire from rifles, field artillery, and heavy coast guns, the Louisiana Native Guards advanced with determination and courage, led by Captain Andre Cailloux, a free black citizen of New Orleans. Giving orders in English and French, Cailloux led the Guard regiments forward until killed by artillery fire. Taking heavy losses, the attackers were forced to retreat to avoid annihilation. This fearless advance did much to dissipate the belief that black troops were unreliable under fire. In an attempt to support Weitzel’s unsuccessful assault, Brigadier Grover, commanding the northeast attack on the fortress, sent two of his regiments along the road leading northeast from Commissary Hill to assault Fort Desperate. This group had no more success than Weitzel’s troops, so Grover sent three more regiments to attack the stubborn 15th Arkansas troops defending the fort. These piecemeal and sporadic efforts were also futile, and the fighting ended on the northern edge of the fortress by noon. Sherman’s afternoon attacks While the infantry attacks raged against the northern section of the fortress, Brigadier General Sherman lined up 30 cannon opposite the eastern side of the fortress and conducted a steady bombardment of the rebel works and battery positions, supported by sharpshooters aiming for Confederate artillery crews. This effort had some success, but General Banks, upon hearing no rifle fire from the Union center, visited Sherman’s headquarters and threatened to relieve him of command unless he advanced his troops. Sherman then began the attack on the eastern edge of the Port Hudson works at about 2 pm. These attacks included the troops of Augur as well as his own, and had less in the way of natural terrain obstacles to contend with, but in this area the Confederates had more time to construct fortifications, and had put more effort and firepower into them. One feature of the earthworks in this region was a dry moat and more abatis or cut down trees in front of the parapet. The Union attackers therefore carried axes, poles, planks, cotton bags and fascines to fill in the ditch. Another feature of the rebel defense was a battery containing two 24-pounder smoothbore (5.82-inch, 148 mm. bore) as canister throwers. In this case the canister was composed of broken chains, segments of railroad rails, and other scrap iron. Confederate Colonel William R. Miles, commanding the infantry in the sector, had also removed all the rifles from the hospital that had been left by the sick and wounded. He was thus able to equip each of his soldiers with three weapons, greatly increasing their firepower. When the Union infantry closed within 200 yards they were met by a hail of rifle and canister fire, and few made it within 70 yards of the Confederate lines. Union commanders Sherman and Dow were wounded in these attacks, and Lieutenant Colonel James O'Brien, commanding the pioneer group, was killed. At 5 pm the commander of the 159th New York raised a white flag to signal a truce to remove the wounded and dead from the field. This ended the fighting for the day. None of the Union attacks had even made it to the Confederate parapets. The last infantry attack on the Port Hudson fortifications The successful defense of their lines brought a renewed confidence to Gardner and his garrison. They felt though a combination of well planned defensive earthworks and the skillful and deliberate reinforcement of threatened areas, the superior numbers of attackers had been repulsed. Learning from his experience, Gardner organized a more methodical system of defense. This involved dividing the fortifications into a network of defense zones, with an engineering officer in charge of strengthening the defense in each area. For the most part this involved once again charting the best cross fire for artillery positions, improving firepower concentrations, and digging protective pits to house artillery when not in use, to protect them from enemy bombardment. Spent bullets and scrap metal were sewed into shirtsleeves to make up canister casings for the artillery, and the heavy coast guns facing the river that had center pivot mounts were cleared for firing on Union positions on the eastern side of the fortress. Three of these guns were equipped for this, and one 10-inch (250 mm) Columbiad in Battery Four was so effective in this that Union troops referred to it as the “Demoralizer." Its fearful reputation spawned the myth that it was mounted on a railroad car, and could fire from any position in the fortifications. Captain L.J. Girard was placed in charge of the function of the artillery, and despite material shortages, achieved miracles in keeping the artillery functional. Rifles captured from the enemy or taken from hospitalized soldiers were stacked for use by troops in the trench lines. Positions in front of the lines were land mined with unexploded 13-inch (330 mm)mortar shells, known as “torpedoes” at the time. Sniper positions were also prepared at high points in the trench works for sharpshooters. These methods improved the defense, but could not make up for the fact that the garrison was short of everything except gunpowder. The food shortage was a drag on morale, and resulted in a significant level of desertion to the enemy. This drain on manpower was recorded by Colonel Steedman who wrote, “Our most serious and annoying difficulty is the unreliable character of a portion of our Louisiana troops. Many have deserted to the enemy, giving him information of our real condition; yet in the same regiments we have some of our ablest officers and men.” Miles Louisiana Legion was considered the greatest offender. On the Union side, astonishment and chagrin were near universal in reaction to the decisive defeat of the infantry assaults. Banks was determined to continue the siege in view of the fact that his political as well as military career would be destroyed by a withdrawal to Baton Rouge. The resources of his entire command were called into play, and men and material poured into the Union encirclement. Nine additional regiments appeared in the lines by June 1. 89 field guns were brought into action, and naval guns from the USS Richmond were added to the siege guns bearing on the fortress. These six naval guns were 9-inch (229 mm) Dahlgren smoothbores. The guns were originally intended for a battery at the Head of Passes in the Mississippi Delta. The fact that four were finally emplaced in Battery Number 10, just east of “Fort Desperate” and two in Number 24, gives some idea of the reach and progress of the Union Navy. Each of the Dahlgren guns weighed 9020 pounds and was 9 feet long, capable of firing a 73.5 pound (33.3 kg.) exploding shell.:204 The second assault began with a sustained shelling of the Confederate works beginning at 11:15 am on June 13, 1863, and lasting an hour. Banks then sent a message to Gardner demanding the surrender of his position. Gardner’s reply was, “My duty requires me to defend this position, and therefore I decline to surrender”. Banks continued the bombardment for the night, but only gave the order for what was to be a simultaneous three prong infantry attack on 1 am of June 14. The attack finally began at 3:30 am, but the lack of any agreed upon plan, and a heavy fog disordered the attack as it began. The Grover's column struck the Confederate line at “Fort Desperate” before the others, and the same formidable terrain combined with the enhanced Confederate defense stopped the attacks outside the rebel works. Auger's demonstration at the center arrived after the main attack had failed, and the attack on the southern end of the line was made after daylight, and stood little chance as a result. The infantry attack had only resulted in even more dead and wounded soldiers, 1,792 casualties against 47 rebel, including division commander Brig. Gen. Halbert E. Paine. He led the main attack and fell wounded, losing a leg. After this, the actions against Port Hudson were reduced to bombardment and siege. Last stages of the siege, June 15 to July 9, 1863 The day after the last infantry assault, General Banks assembled some of his troops at the corps headquarters and thanked them for their previous efforts and sacrifices. He also asked for volunteers for a special attack group to be trained intensively to breach the Confederate trench line. His speech generated little enthusiasm, but a unit of 1036 men was formed and removed to a training camp in the rear to prepare for the attack. There they assembled siege ladders and organized into two battalions, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John B. Van Petten and Lieutenant Colonel A. S. Bickmore. Colonel Henry W. Birge of the 13th Connecticut volunteered to lead the special assault regiment.:94–5 Regular siege operations were also reorganized under the command of a new chief engineer, Captain John C. Palfrey. He concentrated the efforts of the siege on three areas of the fortifications, Fort Desperate, the Priest Cap (Confederate batteries 14 & 15), and the Citadel, the southernmost bastion of the fortifications, nicknamed by Union forces as “the Devil’s Elbow”. These efforts did not involve infantry rushing the trenches, but a siege technique called sapping, or constructing a series of zigzag trenches, fortified batteries, and sharpshooter positions intended to isolate and suppress individual defensive bastions. The sharpshooter or sniper positions were described at the time as ‘’trench cavaliers’’ and were raised mounds of earth, reinforced with timbers or other materials to allow riflemen to overlook the enemy trenches and fire down into them. The Citadel was to be reduced by a powerful siege battery constructed on a hill just to the south, Union battery number 24, intended to suppress the Confederate position by superior firepower. Union batteries were also constructed on the west bank of the Mississippi opposite Port Hudson, completely surrounding it with Union artillery batteries. Union forces also made raids on opposing trenches and batteries, to enhance their own trench lines or disable enemy batteries. Some of the 6th Michigan troops opposite the Citadel were armed with the .54 caliber (14 mm) breach loading Merrill carbine, which gave them a rapid fire edge in trench raids. On the 26th of June, a general bombardment from Union batteries and guns of the Union fleet began, disabling or suppressing what remained of the Confederate artillery. Along with the trenching operations, the Federals also constructed three mines underneath the opposing works, two of them directed against the Priest Cap, and one under the Citadel. After the mines were finished, chambers at the end of the mines would be loaded with powder, and exploded under the Confederate works, destroying them, and blowing gaps in the trench lines. At this point an infantry assault would be launched, hopefully overrunning the entire fortification. The Confederates responded to the siege techniques with increased efforts of their own. The grist mill at Fort Desperate had been destroyed by shelling. It was replaced by using the locomotive from the defunct railroad to power millstones, providing a steady supply of cornmeal for the garrison. Expended rifle and artillery shells were salvaged for reuse by the defense, small arms shot being recast for making new cartridges, artillery rounds refused and distributed to confederate artillery of the same caliber, or reused as mines and grenades. Additional trench lines, obstacles, mines, and bunkers were added to the threatened bastions, making them more difficult to bombard, infiltrate, or overrun. The Priest Cap bastion had a particularly elaborate defense system, including the use of telegraph wire staked up to a height of 18 inches (460 mm), in order to trip attacking infantry. Additional field artillery and infantry were added to the defense of Fort Desperate, making sapping in that area more costly. Various raids against Union saps were also conducted. On June 26, the Confederates launched a trench raid by the 16th Arkansas Infantry against the Priest Cap sap, taking seven prisoners, and capturing weapons and supplies. Rebel trench raiders and defenders were adept at constructing and using improvised hand grenades. Raids by Logan’s cavalry were also made against Union positions outside the siege lines. On June 3 an advance by Grierson’s Union cavalry against Logan’s position at Clinton was repulsed. The 14th New York Cavalry was hit on the 15th of June near Newport, two miles from Port Hudson. Other raids struck Union foraging parties returning from Jackson, Louisiana, and captured the Union General Neal Dow, who was convalescing at Heath plantation. The biggest raid set fire to the Union supply center at Springfield Landing on July 2. These raids were annoying to Banks, but could not break the siege. On July 3, a countermine was exploded near one of the Federal mines under the Priests Cap. This collapsed the mine, but surprisingly did not cause any Union casualties. The defenders could not compensate for the constant losses of personnel resulting from starvation, disease, particularly scurvy, dysentery, and malaria, sniping, shell fragments, sunstroke and desertion. The use of mule meat and rats as rations could not maintain the health of the soldiers left standing, and was a further drain on morale. The siege created hardships and deprivations for both the North and South, but by early July the Confederates were in much worse shape. They had exhausted practically all of their food supplies and ammunition, and fighting and disease had greatly reduced the number of men able to defend the trenches. When Maj. Gen. Gardner learned that Vicksburg had surrendered on July 4, 1863, he realized that his situation was hopeless and that nothing could be gained by continuing. The terms of surrender were negotiated, and on July 9, 1863, the Confederates laid down their weapons, ending 48 days of continuous fighting. Captain Thornton A. Jenkins accepted the Confederate surrender, as Admiral David Farragut was in New Orleans. The surrender gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River and its major tributaries, severing communications and trade between the eastern and western states of the Confederacy. Both sides suffered heavy casualties: between 4,700 to 5,200 Union men were casualties, and an additional 4,000 fell prey to disease or sunstroke; Gardner's forces suffered around 900 casualties, from battle losses and disease. Banks granted lenient terms to the Port Hudson garrison. The enlisted men were paroled to their homes, with transport for the sick and lightly wounded. Seriously sick or wounded were placed under Union medical care. 5,935 men and civilian employees of the Confederate Army were officially paroled. 405 officers were not paroled and as prisoners to Memphis and New Orleans, half eventually winding up in Johnson's Island prison camp in Ohio. Since the terms of the parole were not in agreement with parole conditions acceptable to the Union and Confederate armies then current, the Confederate Army furloughed the returned troops until September 15, 1863, then returned them to duty. This outraged some leaders of the Union army, but General Halleck, in charge of US armies, admitted the paroles were in error. The reputation of black soldiers in Union service was enhanced by the siege. The advance of the Louisiana Guard on May 27 had gained much coverage in northern newspapers. The attack was repulsed, due to its hasty implementation, but was bravely carried out in spite of the hopeless magnitude of opposing conditions. This performance was noted by the army leadership. In a letter home, Captain Robert F. Wilkinson wrote, “One thing I am glad to say, that is that the black troops at P. Hudson fought & acted superbly. The theory of negro inefficiency is, I am very thankful at last thoroughly Exploded by facts. We shall shortly have a splendid army of thousands of them.” General Banks also noted their performance in his official report, stating, “The severe test to which they were subjected, and the determined manner in which they encountered the enemy, leaves upon my mind no doubt of their ultimate success.” These reports had an impact far from Louisiana, or the Union army. On June 11, 1863, an editorial from the influential and widely read New York Times stated, “They were comparatively raw troops, and were yet subjected to the most awful ordeal… The men, white or black, who will not flinch from that, will flinch from nothing. It is no longer possible to doubt the bravery and steadiness of the colored race, when rightly led.” These observations did much to support abolitionist efforts in the northeast to recruit free blacks for the Union armed services. By the end of the war nearly 200,000 blacks had served in the Union forces. A significant result of the siege was the blow it gave Banks’s political ambitions. If Banks had overrun the position in May, he could then have taken command of Grant’s siege of Vicksburg as the ranking officer and appeared a hero. This would have redeemed his military reputation, and bolstered his political hopes for a presidential candidacy. Since Vicksburg fell before Port Hudson, Grant reaped the promotions and reputation for victory in the west, and eventually attained the White House, Banks’s cherished ambition. As it was, Banks had to settle for setting up cotton deals for his northeast constituency, and arrange political alliances for a new state government aligned with Union and Republican interests in mind. He was quite experienced in this kind of scheming, and in the absence of military opportunities, economic advantages beckoned. Banks’s armies had gathered three million dollars worth of livestock and supplies while engaged in operations in western Louisiana in the spring of 1863. This bounty impressed Banks, and it was also estimated that vast stores of cotton and many Union sympathizers were waiting on the Red River in eastern Texas. In response to these observations, Banks produced his one third holding plan, the idea of re-opening trade with Europe, and diverting one third of the proceeds for the Federal Treasury. This economic bonanza would once again revive his political prospects, and justify the beginning of the Red River Campaign, a military expedition into eastern Texas, the next step in military operations in Louisiana. - Kennedy, pp. 183–84. - ORN I, v. 18, p. 131. - Official Atlas, Plate XXXVIII - Hearn, Chester G. (1995). The Capture of New Orleans 1862. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-1945-8. - Hewitt, Lawrence Lee (1987). Port Hudson, Confederate Bastion on the Mississippi. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-1961-X. - Elson, Henry (1920). History of the United States of America. Macmillan. ISBN 1177838958. Unknown parameter - Hewitt, pp. 2–3. - John D. Winters, The Civil War in Louisiana, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963, ISBN 0-8071-0834-0, pp. 123–124 - Burlingame, Michael (2009). Abraham Lincoln: A Life, Volume 1. JHU Press. p. 435. ISBN 0801894670. - Johnson, Ludwell H. (1993). Red River Campaign, Politics & Cotton in the Civil War. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-486-5. - "The Siege of Fort Hudson". The National Park Service. Retrieved 2013-05-23. - Hewitt, pp. 4–5, 22–3. - Hewitt, pp. 9–11. - Hewitt, pp. 14–25, 48. - ORN I, v. 19, p. 182-3. - Hewitt, pp. 36–9. - Hewitt, pp. 41–7. - Hewitt, pp. 38, 59–72. - ORN I, v. 19, p. 669. - Hewitt, pp. 72–5. - ORN I, v. 19, p. 665-71. - Hewitt, pp. 72–5. - ORN I, v. 19, p. 665-71. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Hewitt, pp. 72–95. - Official atlas, Plate CLVI. - Hewitt, pp. 96–126. - Hewitt, pp. 126–134. - Hewitt, pp. 140–9. - Hewitt, pp. 150–1. - Hewitt, pp. 157–165. - Hewitt, pp. 167–170. - Hewitt, pp. 170–1. - Tucker, Spencer (1989). Arming the Fleet, U.S. Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-loading Era. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland. ISBN 0-87021-007-6. - Hewitt, p. 171. - ORA, Vol. XXVI, Part 1, pp. 141, 553. - Cunningham, Edward (1963). The Port Hudson Campaign 1862–1863. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1925-9. - Cunningham, p. 101-7. - Cunningham, pp. 76–7, 103–10. - Cunningham, pp. 120–1. - Hewitt, pp. 177–8. - Hewitt, p. 174. - Johnson, pp. 33–58, 70–81. - Abbreviations used in these notes - Official atlas: Atlas to accompany the official records of the Union and Confederate armies. - ORA (Official records, armies): War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate Armies. - ORN (Official records, navies): Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. - This text is partially based upon The Siege of Port Hudson: "Forty Days and Nights in the Wilderness of Death", a lesson plan written by Gregg Potts and Arthur W. Bergeron, Jr., for the National Parks Service. This is a work of the U.S. Government and is in the public domain. - Banks, Raymond H. The King of Louisiana, 1862–1865, and Other Government Work: A Biography of Major General Nathaniel Prentice Banks. Las Vegas, NV: R. H. Banks, 2005. Chapters 27–35 OCLC 63270945. - Kennedy, Frances H., ed., The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998, ISBN 0-395-74012-6. - Faller, Phillip E. (November 2002). "Siege of Port Hudson". America's Civil War. Retrieved April 1, 2008. - CWSAC Report Update |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Siege of Port Hudson| - National Park Service battle description - Louisiana State Historic Site - This site includes John D. Deforests first-hand account of a Union regiment at Port Hudson - The Siege of Port Hudson: "Forty Days and Nights in the Wilderness of Death", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan - Photographs of Louisiana during the Civil War. Compiled by Sgt. Marshall Dunham of the 159th New York Regiment. Select Search items in this Collection and enter Port Hudson in the exact phrase option: photograph collection - Certificate with illustration of the Charge on Port Hudson and roster of Company I of the 156th Regiment, New York Volunteer Infantry (Civil War item in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database)

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The Timurid Empire in 1405. |-||1506–1507||Badi' al-Zaman (last)| |-||Founded by Timur Beg||1370| |-||Battle of Ankara||1402| |-||Fall of Herat||1507| |-||1405 est.||4,400,000 km² (1,698,849 sq mi)| |a: Flag according to the Catalan Atlas c. 1375.| The Timurid dynasty (Persian: تیموریان), self-designated Gurkānī (Persian: گوركانى), was a Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turco-Mongol lineage which ruled over modern-day Iran, Afghanistan, much of Central Asia, as well as parts of contemporary Pakistan, India, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the Caucasus. The dynasty was founded by Timur (Tamerlane) in the 14th century. The Timurids lost control of most of Persia to the Safavid dynasty in 1501, but members of the dynasty continued to rule parts of Central Asia and parts of India, sometimes known as the Timurid Emirates. In the 16th century, Babur, a Timurid prince from Ferghana, established a small kingdom in Kabulistan (modern Afghanistan), and from there 20 years later he invaded Hindustan to establish the Mughal Empire. The origin of the Timurid dynasty goes back to the Mongol tribe known as Barlas, who were remnants of the original Mongol army of Genghis Khan. After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, the Barlas settled in what is today southern Kazakhstan, from Shymkent to Taraz and Almaty, which then came to be known for a time as Moghulistan – "Land of Mongols" in Persian – and intermingled to a considerable degree with the local Turkic and Turkic-speaking population, so that at the time of Timur's reign the Barlas had become thoroughly Turkicized in terms of language and habits. Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols adopted the Persian literary and high culture which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture. Timur conquered large parts of Central Asia, primarily Transoxiana and Khorasan, from 1363 onwards with various alliances (Samarkand in 1366, and Balkh in 1369), and was recognized as ruler over them in 1370. Acting officially in the name of Suurgatmish, the Chagatai khan, he subjugated Transoxania and Khwarazm in the years that followed. Already in the 1360s had he gained control of the western Chagatai Khanate and while as emir he was nominally subordinate to the khan, in reality it was now Timur that picked the khans who became mere puppet rulers. The western Chagatai khans were continually dominated by Timurid princes in the 15th and 16th centuries and their figurehead importance was eventually reduced into total insignificance. Timur began a campaign westwards in 1380, invading the various successor states of the Ilkhanate. By 1389, he had removed the Kartids from Herat and advanced into mainland Persia where he enjoyed many successes. This included the capture of Isfahan in 1387, the removal of the Muzaffarids from Shiraz in 1393, and the expulsion of the Jalayirids from Baghdad. In 1394–95, he triumphed over the Golden Horde, following his successful campaign in Georgia, after which he enforced his sovereignty in the Caucasus. Tokhtamysh, the khan of the Golden Horde, was a major rival to Timur in the region. He also subjugated Multan and Dipalpur in modern day Pakistan in 1398, and in modern day India left Delhi in such ruin that it is said for two months "not a bird moved wing in the city". Timur gave the north Indian territories to a non-family member, Khizr Khan, whose Sayyid dynasty replaced the defeated Tughlaq dynasty of the Sultanate of Dehli. Delhi became a vassal of the Timurids but obtained independence in the years following the death of Timur. In 1400–1401 he conquered Aleppo, Damascus and eastern Anatolia, in 1401 he destroyed Baghdad and in 1402 defeated the Turks in the Battle of Ankara. This made Timur the most preeminent Muslim ruler of the time, as the Ottoman Empire plunged into civil war. Meanwhile he transformed Samarkand into a major capital and seat of his realm. Timur appointed his sons and grandsons to the main governorships of the different parts of his empire, and outsiders to some others. After his death in 1405, the family quickly fell into disputes and civil wars, and many of the governorships became effectively independent. However, Timurid rulers continued to dominate Persia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and much of Central Asia, though the Anatolian and Caucasian territories were lost by the 1430s. Due to the fact that the Persian cities were desolated by wars, the seat of Persian culture was now in Samarkand and Herat, cities that became the center of the Timurid renaissance. The cost of Timur's conquests amount to the deaths of possibly 17 million people, and the loss to culture from the destruction of libraries and historic sites is incalculable. By 1500, the divided and wartorn Timurid Empire had lost control of most of its territory and within the following years were effectively pushed back on all fronts. Persia fell quickly to the Shiite Safavid dynasty, secured by Shah Ismail I in the following decade. Much of the Central Asian lands was overrun by the Uzbeks of Muhammad Shaybani who conquered the key cities of Samarkand and Herat in 1505 and 1507, and founded the Khanate of Bukhara. From Kabul, the Mughal Empire was established by Babur, a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother, in 1526. The dynasty he established is commonly known as the Mughal dynasty though it was directly inherited from the Timurids. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India, but eventually declined during the following century. The Timurid dynasty finally came to an end as the remaining nominal rule of the Mughals was abolished by the British Empire following the 1857 rebellion. Although the Timurids hailed from the Barlas tribe which was of Turkicized Mongol origin, they had embraced Persian culture, converted to Islam and resided in Turkestan and Khorasan. Thus, the Timurid era had a dual character, which reflected both the Turco-Mongol origins and the Persian literary, artistic, and courtly high culture of the dynasty. During the Timurid era, Central Asian society was bifurcated and had divided the responsibilities of government and rule into military and civilian along ethnic lines. At least in the early stages, the military was almost exclusively Turko-Mongolian, and the civilian and administrative element was almost exclusively Persian. The spoken language shared by all the Turko-Mongolians throughout the area was Chaghatay. The political organization hearkened back to the steppe-nomadic system of patronage introduced by Genghis Khan. The major language of the period, however, was Persian, the native language of the Tājīk (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban people. Already Timur was steeped in Persian culture and in most of the territories which he incorporated, Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled "diwan" was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin. Persian became the official state language of the Timurid Empire and served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry. The Chaghatay language was the native and "home language" of the Timurid family while Arabic served as the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Persian literature, especially Persian poetry occupied a central place in the process of assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture. The Timurid sultans, especially Šāhrukh Mīrzā and his son Mohammad Taragai Oloğ Beg, patronized Persian culture. Among the most important literary works of the Timurid era is the Persian biography of Timur, known as "Zafarnāmeh" (Persian: ظفرنامه), written by Sharaf ud-Dīn Alī Yazdī, which itself is based on an older "Zafarnāmeh" by Nizām al-Dīn Shāmī, the official biographer of Timur during his lifetime. The most famous poet of the Timurid era was Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī, the last great medieval Sufi mystic of Persia and one of the greatest in Persian poetry. In addition, some of the astronomical works of the Timurid sultan Ulugh Beg were written in Persian, although the bulk of it was published in Arabic. The Timurid ruler Baysunğur also commissioned a new edition of the Persian national epic Shāhnāmeh, known as Shāhnāmeh of Baysunğur, and wrote an introduction to it. According to T. Lenz: |“||It can be viewed as a specific reaction in the wake of Timur's death in 807/1405 to the new cultural demands facing Shahhrokh and his sons, a Turkic military elite no longer deriving their power and influence solely from a charismatic steppe leader with a carefully cultivated linkage to Mongol aristocracy. Now centered in Khorasan, the ruling house regarded the increased assimilation and patronage of Persian culture as an integral component of efforts to secure the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty within the context of the Islamic Iranian monarchical tradition, and the Baysanghur Shahnameh, as much a precious object as it is a manuscript to be read, powerfully symbolizes the Timurid conception of their own place in that tradition. A valuable documentary source for Timurid decorative arts that have all but disappeared for the period, the manuscript still awaits a comprehensive monographic study.||”| The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of Turkic literature. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed in the Chagatay language. Chagatay poets such as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī, Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā, and Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian. The Bāburnāma, the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary), as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatay poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. During the reign of the Timurids, the golden age of Persian painting was ushered. During this period — and analogous to the developments in Safavid Persia — Chinese art and artists had a significant influence on Persian art. Timurid artists refined the Persian art of the book, which combines paper, calligraphy, illumination, illustration and binding in a brilliant and colourful whole. It was the Mongol ethnicity of the Chaghatayid and Timurid Khans that is the source of the stylistic depiction Persian art during the Middle Ages. These same Mongols intermarried with the Persians and Turks of Central Asia, even adopting their religion and languages. Yet their simple control of the world at that time, particularly in the 13–15th centuries, reflected itself in the idealised appearance of Persians as Mongols. Though the ethnic make-up gradually blended into the Iranian and Mesopotamian local populations, the Mongol stylism continued well after, and crossed into Asia Minor and even North Africa. In the realm of architecture, the Timurids drew on and developed many Seljuq traditions. Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated the facades of buildings. Sometimes the interior was decorated similarly, with painting and stucco relief further enriching the effect. Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by Timur and his successors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminate the influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated Mughal (or Mongol) school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi in present-day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand. Timur's Gur-I Mir, the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with ‘’turquoise Persian tiles’’ Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a Persian style Madrassa (religious school) and a Persian style Mosque by Ulugh Beg is observed. The mausoleum of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes remain among the most refined and exquisite Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the Shāh-e Zenda in Samarkand, the Musallah complex in Herat, and the mosque of Gowhar Shād in Mashhad. Double domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon India. Rulers and heads of the dynasty |Titular Name||Personal Name||Reign| |Timur ruled over Chagatai Khanate with Soyurghatmïsh Khan as nominal Khan followed by Sultan Mahmud Khan. He himself adopted the Muslim Arabic title of Amir. In essence the Khanate was finished and Timurid Empire was firmly established.| |Timur Beg Gurkani تیمور بیگ گورکانی |1370 – 1405 C.E.| |Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza پیر محمد بن جہانگیر میرزا |Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah خلیل سلطان بن میران شاہ |Mirza Muhammad Tāraghay میرزا محمد طارق |Division of Timurid Empire| - Green Rows Signifies rulers of the Original Timurid Empire. 1449 – 1450 میرزا عبد اللہ 1450 – 1451 |Mirza Abul-Qasim Babur bin Baysonqor میرزا ابوالقاسم بابر بن بایسنقر |Mirza Shah Mahmud میرزا شاہ محمود |Ibrahim Mirza bin Ala-ud-Daulah |Abu Sa'id Mirza ابو سعید میرزا (Although Abu Sa'id Mirza re-united most of the Timurid heartland in Central Asia with the help of Uzbek Chief, Abul-Khayr Khan (grandfather of Muhammad Shayabani Khan), he agreed to divide Iran with the Black Sheep Turkomen under Jahan Shah, but the White Sheep Turkomen under Uzun Hassan defeated and killed first Jahan Shah and then Abu Sa'id. After Abu Sa'id's death another era of fragmentation follows.) |**Transoxiana is Divided||Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqarah سلطان حسین میرزا بایقرا 1469 1st reign |Yadgar Muhammad Mirza میرزا یادگار محمد 1470 (6 weeks) |Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqarah سلطان حسین میرزا بایقرا 1470–1506 2nd reign |Uzbeks under Muhammad Shayabak Khan Uzbek Conquer Herat| |Sultan Ahmad Mirza سلطان احمد میرزا 1469 – 1494 |Umar Shaikh Mirza II عمر شیخ میرزا ثانی 1469 – 1492 |Sultan Mahmud Mirza سلطان محمود میرزا 1469 – 1495 |Ulugh Beg Mirza II میرزا الغ بیگ 1469 – 1502 |Sultan Baysonqor Mirza bin Mahmud Mirza بایسنقر میرزا بن محمود میرزا 1495 – 1497 |Sultan Ali bin Mahmud Mirza سلطان علی بن محمود میرزا 1495 – 1500 |Sultan Masud Mirza bin Mahmud Mirza سلطان مسعود بن محمود میرزا 1495 – ? |Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1492 – 1497 |Khusroe Shah خسرو شاہ ? – 1503 |Mukim Beg Arghun مقیم ارغون ? – 1504 |Uzbeks under Muhammad Shayabak Khan Uzbek محمد شایبک خان ازبک |Jahangir Mirza II (puppet of Sultan Ahmed Tambol) 1497 – ? |Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1503 – 1504 |Uzbeks under Muhammad Shayabak Khan Uzbek محمد شایبک خان ازبک |Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1504 – 1511 |Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر (Never till his conquest of India were the dominions of Babur as extensive as at this period. Like his grandfather Abu Sa'id Mirza, he managed to re-unite the Timurid heartland in Central Asia with the help of Shah of Iran, Ismail I. His dominions stretched from the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains to the farthest limits of Ghazni and comprehended Kabul and Ghazni;Kunduz and Hissar; Samarkand and Bukhara; Farghana; Tashkent and Seiram) 1511 – 1512 |Uzbeks under Ubaydullah Sultan عبید اللہ سلطان re-conquer Transoxiana and Balkh |Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1512 – 1530 |Timurid Empire in Central Asia becomes extinct under the Khanate of Bukhara of the Uzbeks. However, Timurid dynasty moves on to conquer India under the leadership of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur in 1526 C.E. and established the Timurid dynasty of India.| Governors of Iraq-e-Ajam/Iraq-e-Arab/Fars/Azerbaijan & other Persian Territories - Qaidu bin Pir Muhammad bin Jahāngīr 808–811 AH - Abu Bakr bin Mīrān Shāh 1405–07 (807–09 AH) - Pir Muhammad bin Umar Sheikh 807–12 AH - Rustam 812–17 AH - Sikandar 812–17 AH - Alaudaullah 851 AH - Abu Bakr bin Muhammad 851 AH - Sultān Muhammad 850–55 AH - Muhammad bin Hussayn 903–06 AH - Abul A'la Fereydūn Hussayn 911–12 AH - Muhammad Mohsin Khān 911–12 AH - Muhammad Zamān Khān 920–23 AH - Shāhrukh II bin Abu Sa’id 896–97 AH - Ulugh Beg Kābulī 873–907 AH - Sultān Uways 1508–22 (913–27 AH) References and notes - Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of world-systems research 12 (2): 219–229. ISSN 1076–156x. Retrieved 12 August 2010. - Zahir ud-Din Mohammad (2002-09-10). Thackston, Wheeler M., ed. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Modern Library Classics. ISBN 0-375-76137-3. "Note: Gurkānī is the Persianized form of the Mongolian word "qürügän" ("son-in-law"), the title given to the dynasty's founder after his marriage into Genghis Khan's family." - Note: Gurgān, Gurkhān, or Kurkhān; The meaning of Kurkhan is given in Clements Markham's publication of the reports of the contemporary witness Ruy González de Clavijo as "of the lineage of sovereign princes". - Edward Balfour The Encyclopaedia Asiatica, Comprising North India, Eastern and Southern Asia, Cosmo Publications 1976, S. 460, S. 488, S. 897 - Maria Subtelny, "Timurids in Transition", BRILL; illustrated edition (2007-09-30). pg 40: "Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Turko-Mongol supporters became acculturate by the surrounding Persinate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian culture, painting, architecture and music." pg 41: "The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who develoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture." - B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006 - Encyclopædia Britannica, "Timurid Dynasty", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation:...Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia....Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture...) - "Timurids". The Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth ed.). New York City: Columbia University. Retrieved 2006-11-08. - Encyclopædia Britannica article: Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids, Online Edition, 2007. - "Timur", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–05 Columbia University Press, (LINK) - "Consolidation & expansion of the Indo-Timurids", in Encyclopædia Britannica, (LINK) - B. Spuler, "Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid periods", published in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, 2006/7, (LINK): "... Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 [...] Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ..." - David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanama - Volume III: To the Year A.D. 1398, Chapter: XVIII. Malfúzát-i Tímúrí, or Túzak-i Tímúrí: The Autobiography of Tímúr. Page: 389 (please press next and read all pages in the online copy) (1. Online copy, 2. Online copy) from: Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of North India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) - "Selected Death Tolls: Timur Lenk (1369–1405)". Necrometrics.com. Retrieved 2013-02-11. - M.S. Asimov & C. E. Bosworth, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, UNESCO Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: "... One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..." - Lehmann, F. "Zaher ud-Din Babor — Founder of Mughal empire". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). New York City: Columbia University Center for Iranian (Persian) Studies. pp. 320–323. Retrieved 2012-09-17. "... His origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so Babor was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, the Mughals of India, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results ..." - Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi (1966). Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages). Robert Devereux (ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. OCLC 3615905. LCC PL55.J31 A43. "Any linguist of today who reads the essay will inevitably conclude that Nawa'i argued his case poorly, for his principal argument is that the Turkic lexicon contained many words for which the Persian had no exact equivalents and that Persian-speakers had therefore to use the Turkic words. This is a weak reed on which to lean, for it is a rare language indeed that contains no loan words. In any case, the beauty of a language and its merits as a literary medium depend less on size of vocabulary and purity of etymology that on the euphony, expressiveness and malleability of those words its lexicon does include. Moreover, even if Nawā'ī's thesis were to be accepted as valid, he destroyed his own case by the lavish use, no doubt unknowingly, of non-Turkic words even while ridiculing the Persians for their need to borrow Turkic words. The present writer has not made a word count of Nawa'i's text, but he would estimate conservatively that at least one half the words used by Nawa'i in the essay are Arabic or Persian in origin. To support his claim of the superiority of the Turkic language, Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning Turkic which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen." - Babur, Emperor of Hindustan (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. translated, edited and annotated by W.M. Thackston. Modern Library. - Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A. M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. pg 75 - Beatrice Forbes Manz. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, 1999. pg 109: "...In Temür's government, as in those of most nomad dynasties, it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs, or to identify the Persian bureaucracy solely civil, and the Turko-Mongolian solely with military government. It is in fact difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks. (In discussiong the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense. In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. The language of the settled population and the chancery ("diwan") was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.) Temür's Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs, traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy...." - B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Online Edition ed.). Brill Publishers. "During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry." - B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Online Edition ed.). Brill Publishers. "What is now called Chaghatay Turkish, which was then called simply türki, was the native and 'home' language of the Timurids..." - B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Online Edition ed.). Brill Publishers. ""As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, Arabic was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers... is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works... are generally in Arabic." - David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanameh - B.F. Manz/W.M. Thackston/D.J. Roxburgh/L. Golombek/L. Komaroff/R.E. Darley-Doran; "Timurids", in Encyclopaedia of Islam; Brill; Online Edition (2007): "... As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, Arabic was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers [...] is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works [...] are generally in Arabic. ..." - "BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA" in Encyclopædia Iranica by T. Lenz - "Persian Paintings". Persian Paintings. Retrieved 2013-02-11. - MSN Encarta. Islamic Art and Architecture. - "Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids". Art-arena.com. Retrieved 2013-02-11. - Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150 - New Orient, By Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, 1968. pg 139. - John Onians, Atlas of World Art, Laurence King Publishing, 2004. pg 132. - John Julius Norwich, Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, 2001. pg 278. - Hugh Kennedy, "The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In", Da Capo Press, 2007. pg 237 - Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshan, "Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture ",Architectural Press, 1996. pg 606 - BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA in Encyclopædia Iranica - Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 — This online copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) - Timurid Dynasty - Timurid Art - Virtual Art Exhibit - Chronology of Herat rulers - Timurid genealogy

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Information about Kentucky |Commonwealth of Kentucky| |- Total||40,444 sq mi | |- Width||140 miles (225 km)| |- Length||379 miles (610 km)| |- % water||1.7| |- Latitude||36° 30′ N to 39° 09′ N| |- Longitude||81° 58′ W to 89° 34′ W| |- Total (2000)||4,173,405| |- Density||101.7/sq mi | |- Highest point||Black Mountain| 4,145 ft (1,263 m) |- Mean||755 ft (230 m)| |- Lowest point||Mississippi River<ref name="usgs" />| 257 ft (78 m) |Admission to Union||June 1, 1792 (15th)| |Governor||Ernie Fletcher (R)| |'''U.S. Senators||Mitch McConnell (R)| Jim Bunning (R) |- eastern half||Eastern: UTC-5/DST-4| |- western half||Central: UTC-6/DST-5| The Commonwealth of Kentucky (IPA: /kənˈtʌki/) is a state located in the East Central United States of America. Kentucky is normally included in the group of Southern states (in particular the Upland South), but it is sometimes included, geographically and culturally, in the Midwest. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states to be officially known as a commonwealth. Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 it became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th largest state in terms of land area, and ranks 26th in population. Kentucky is known as the "Bluegrass State," a nickname based on the fact that bluegrass is present in many of the lawns and pastures throughout the state. It is a land with diverse environments and abundant resources, including the world's longest cave system, the most miles of navigable waterways and streams in the Lower 48 states, and the two largest man-made lakes east of the Mississippi River. It is also home to the highest per capita number of deer and turkey in the United States, and the nation's most productive coalfield. Kentucky is also known for thoroughbred horses, horse racing, bourbon distilleries, bluegrass music, automobile manufacturing (including the best selling car, truck, and SUV in the U.S. market), tobacco, and college basketball. Origin of name has never been definitively identified, though some theories have been debunked. For example, Kentucky's name does not come from the combination of "cane" and "turkey"; and though it is the most popular belief, it is unlikely to mean "dark and bloody ground" because it isn't found in any known Indian language. The most likely etymology is that it comes from an Iroquoian word for "meadow" or "prairie" (c.f. Mohawk kenhtà:ke, Seneca këhta’keh). Other possibilities also exist: the suggestion of early Kentucky pioneer George Rogers Clark that the name means "the river of blood",<ref name="enken" /> a Wyandot name meaning "land of tomorrow", a Shawnee term possibly referring to the head of a river, or an Algonquian word for a river bottom.<ref name="kenten" /> - See also: List of Kentucky counties Kentucky borders states of both the Midwest and the Southeast. West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Kentucky's northern border is formed by the Ohio River, its western border by the Mississippi River. Kentucky is the only U.S. state to have a non-contiguous part exist as an exclave surrounded by other states. Fulton County, in the far west corner of the state, includes a small part of land, Kentucky Bend, on the Mississippi River bordered by Missouri and accessible via Tennessee, created by the New Madrid Earthquake. Kentucky can be divided into five primary regions: the Cumberland Plateau in the east, the north-central Bluegrass region, the south-central and western Pennyroyal Plateau, the Western Coal Fields and the far-west Jackson Purchase. The Bluegrass region is commonly divided into two regions, the Inner Bluegrass — the encircling 90 miles (145 km) around Lexington — and the Outer Bluegrass, the region that contains most of the Northern portion of the state, above the Knobs. Much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. Kentucky has 120 counties, third in the U.S. behind Texas' 254 and Georgia's 159. The original motivation for having so many counties was to ensure that residents in the days of poor roads and horseback travel could make a round trip from their home to the county seat and back in a single day. Later, however, politics began to play a part, with citizens who disagreed with the present county government simply petitioning the state to create a new county. The 1891 Kentucky Constitution placed stricter limits on county creation, stipulating that a new county: - must have a land area of at least 400 square miles (0 km); - must have a population of at least 12,000 people; - must not by its creation reduce the land area of an existing county to less than 400 square miles (0 km); - must not by its creation reduce the population of an existing county to less than 12,000 people; - must not create a county boundary line that passes within 10 miles (0 km) of an existing county seat. ClimateLocated within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate described as humid subtropical (indicating that all monthly average temperatures are above freezing). Monthly average temperatures in Kentucky range from a high in the high 80s and low 90s (30.9 °C) to a low in the high 30s to low 40s (-4.9 °C) and averages 46 inches (116.84 cm) of precipitation a year. Kentucky experiences all four seasons, usually with striking variations in the severity of summer and winter from year to year. In fact, it is not unusual to see marked changes in temperature and weather conditions within the same day, leading many locals to observe, "If you don't like the weather, just wait a few hours and it will change." |Louisville Tornado of 1890||est. 76–120+| |April 3, 1974 Tornado Outbreak||72| |March 1, 1997 Flooding||18| Major weather events that have affected Kentucky include: - The Mid-Mississippi Valley Tornado Outbreak of March 1890 - The Ohio River flood of 1937 - The Super Outbreak of tornadoes in 1974 - Massive flooding in 1997 - The North American blizzard of 2003 (mostly ice in Kentucky) |Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Kentucky Cities| Lakes and rivers90,000 miles (0 km) of streams provides one of the most expansive and complex stream systems in the nation. Kentucky has both the largest artificial lake east of the Mississippi in water volume (Lake Cumberland) and surface area (Kentucky Lake). It is the only U.S. state to be bordered on three sides by rivers — the Mississippi River to the west, the Ohio River to the north, and the Big Sandy River and Tug Fork to the east. Its major internal rivers include the Kentucky River, Tennessee River, Cumberland River, Green River, and Licking River. Though it has only three major natural lakes, the state is home to many artificial lakes. Kentucky also has more navigable miles of water than any other state in the union, other than Alaska. Natural environment and conservationKentucky has an expansive park system which includes one national park, two National Recreation areas, two National Historic Parks, two national forests, 45 state parks, 37,696 acres (153 km) of state forest, and 82 Wildlife Management Areas. Kentucky has been part of two of the most successful wildlife reintroduction projects in United States history. In the winter of 1997, the state's eastern counties began to re-stock elk, which had been extinct from the area for over 150 years. As of 2006, the state's herd was estimated at 5,700 animals, the largest herd east of the Mississippi River. The state also stocked wild turkeys in the 1950s. Once extinct in the state, today Kentucky has more turkeys per capita than any other eastern state. Top tourist attractions in Kentucky |Place||Visitors per year| |City of Louisville||7 million| |Lake Cumberland||5 million| |Land Between the Lakes||4 million| |Mammoth Cave National Park||2 million| |Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area||2 million| |Red River Gorge / Natural Bridge||1.5 million| Significant natural attractions - Cumberland Gap, chief passageway through the Appalachian Mountains in early American history. - Cumberland Falls State Park, one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a "moon-bow" may be regularly seen. - Mammoth Cave National Park, featuring the world's longest cave system. - Red River Gorge Geological Area, part of the Daniel Boone National Forest. - Land Between the Lakes, a National Recreation Area managed by the United States Forest Service. - Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest a 14,000 acre (57 km²) arboretum, forest and nature preserve located in Clermont. - Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site in Hodgenville. - Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area near Whitley City. - Trail of Tears National Historic Trail also passes through Kentucky. - Black Mountain, state's highest point.<ref name="usgs" /> Runs along the border of Harlan and Letcher counties. - Bad Branch Falls State Nature Preserve, 2,639 acre (11 km) state nature preserve on southern slope of Pine Mountain in Letcher County. Includes one of the largest concentrations of rare and endangered species in the state, as well as a 60 foot (18 m) waterfall and a Kentucky Wild River. - Jefferson Memorial Forest, located south of Louisville in the Knobs region, the largest municipally run forest in the United States. - Green River Lake State Park, located in Taylor County. - Lake Cumberland, 1,255 miles (2020 km) of shoreline located in South Central Kentucky. - See also: Kentucky in the American Civil War Although inhabited by Native Americans in prehistoric times, when explorers and settlers began entering Kentucky in the mid-1700s, there were no major Native American settlements in the region. Instead, the country was used as hunting grounds by Shawnees from the north and Cherokees from the south. Much of what is now Kentucky was purchased from Native Americans in the treaties of Fort Stanwix (1768) and Sycamore Shoals (1775). Thereafter, Kentucky grew rapidly as the first settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains were founded, with settlers (primarily from Virginia, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania) entering the region via the Cumberland Gap and the Ohio River. The most famous of these early explorers and settlers was Daniel Boone, traditionally considered one of the founders of the state. Shawnees north of the Ohio River, however, were unhappy about the settlement of Kentucky, and allied themselves with the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Kentucky was a battleground during the war; the Battle of Blue Licks, one of the last major battles of the Revolution, was fought in Kentucky. After the American Revolution, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County. Eventually, the residents of Kentucky County petitioned for a separation from Virginia. Ten constitutional conventions were held in the Constitution Square Courthouse in Danville between 1784 and 1792. In 1790, Kentucky's delegates accepted Virginia's terms of separation, and a state constitution was drafted at the final convention in April 1792. On June 1, 1792, Kentucky became the fifteenth state to be admitted to the union and Isaac Shelby, a military veteran from Virginia, was elected the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Kentucky was a border state during the American Civil War. Although frequently described as never having seceded, a group of Kentucky soldiers stationed at Russellville did pass an Ordinance of Secession under the moniker "Convention of the People of Kentucky" on November 20, 1861, establishing a Confederate government for the state with its capital in Bowling Green. Though Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag. the legitimacy of the Russellville Convention may well be questioned. Only a year earlier, philosopher Karl Marx wrote in a letter to Friedrich Engels that the result of a vote deciding how Kentucky would be represented at a convention of the border states was "100,000 for the Union ticket, only a few thousand for secession." Kentucky officially remained "neutral" throughout the war due to Union sympathies of many of the Commonwealth's citizens. Even today, however, Confederate Memorial Day is observed by some in Kentucky on Jefferson Davis' birthday, June 3. January 30, 1900, Governor William Goebel was mortally wounded by an assailant while in the process of contesting the election of 1899, initially assumed to be won by William S. Taylor. For several months, J. C. W. Beckham, Goebel's running mate, and Taylor fought over who was the real governor until the Supreme Court of the United States decided in May that Beckham was the rightful governor. Taylor fled to Indiana and was later indicted as a co-conspirator in Goebel's assassination. Goebel remains the only governor of a U.S. state to have been assassinated while in office. Law and government GovernmentKentucky is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd numbered years (The others are Louisiana, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Virginia). Kentucky holds elections for these offices every 4 years in the years preceding Presidential election years. Thus, the last year when Kentucky elected a Governor was 2003; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2007, with future gubernatorial elections to take place in 2011, 2015, 2019, etc. State governmentbicameral body known as the Kentucky General Assembly. The Senate is considered the upper house. It has 38 members, and is led by the President of the Senate, currently Republican David L. Williams. The House of Representatives has 100 members, and is led by the Speaker of the House, currently Democrat Jody Richards. The executive branch is headed by the governor and lieutenant governor. Under the current Kentucky Constitution, the lieutenant governor assumes the duties of the governor only if the governor is incapacitated. (Prior to 1992, the lieutenant governor assumed power any time the governor was out of the state.) The governor and lieutenant governor usually run on a single ticket (also per a 1992 constitutional amendment), and are elected to four-year terms. Currently, the governor and lieutenant governor are Republicans Ernie Fletcher and Steve Pence, respectively. The judicial branch of Kentucky is made up of courts of limited jurisdiction called District Courts; courts of general jurisdiction called Circuit Courts; an intermediate appellate court, the Kentucky Court of Appeals; and a court of last resort, the Kentucky Supreme Court. Unlike federal judges, who are usually appointed, justices serving on Kentucky state courts are chosen by the state's populace in non-partisan elections. The state's chief prosecutor, law enforcement officer, and law officer is the attorney general. The attorney general is elected to a four-year term and may serve two consecutive terms under the current Kentucky Constitution. Currently, the Kentucky attorney general is Democrat Greg Stumbo. Federal representationSenators are Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and Jim Bunning, both Republicans. The state is divided into six Congressional Districts, represented by Republicans Ed Whitfield (1st), Ron Lewis (2nd), Geoff Davis (4th), and Hal Rogers (5th), and Democrats John Yarmuth (3rd) and Ben Chandler (6th). Judicially, Kentucky is split into two Federal court districts: the Kentucky Eastern District and the Kentucky Western District. Appeals are heard in the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals based in Cincinnati, Ohio. Political leaningsWhere politics are concerned, Kentucky historically has been very hard fought and leaned slightly toward the Democratic Party, although it was never included among the "Solid South." In 2006, 57.05% of the state's voters were officially registered as Democrats, 36.55% registered Republican, and 6.39% registered with some other political party. Kentucky has voted Republican in five of the last seven presidential elections but has supported the Democratic candidates of the South. The Commonwealth supported Democrats Jimmy Carter in 1976, and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996, but Republican George W. Bush in 2000 and 2004. Bush won the state's 8 electoral votes overwhelmingly in 2004 by a margin of 20 percentage points and 59.6% of the vote. LawKentucky's body of laws, known as the Kentucky Revised Statutes (KRS), were enacted in 1942 to better organize and clarify the whole of Kentucky law. The statutes are enforced by local police, sheriffs, and sheriff's deputies. Unless they have completed a police academy elsewhere, these officers are required to complete training at the Kentucky Department of Criminal Justice Training Center on the campus of Eastern Kentucky University. Additionally, in 1948, the Kentucky General Assembly established the Kentucky State Police, making it the 38th state to create a force whose jurisdiction extends throughout the given state. Kentucky is one of 38 states in the United States that sanctions the death penalty for certain crimes. Criminals convicted after March 31, 1998 are always executed by lethal injection; those convicted before this date may opt for the electric chair. Only two people have been executed in Kentucky since the U.S. Supreme Court reinstituted the practice in 1976. The most notable execution in Kentucky, however, was that of Rainey Bethea on August 14, 1936. Bethea was publicly hanged in Owensboro for the rape and murder of Lischia Edwards. Irregularities with the execution led to this becoming the last public execution in the United States. Kentucky has been on the front lines of the debate over displaying the Ten Commandments on public property. In the 2005 case of McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the decision of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals that a display of the Ten Commandments in the Whitley City courthouse of McCreary County was unconstitutional. Later that year, Judge Richard Fred Suhrheinrich, writing for the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals in the case of ACLU of Kentucky v. Mercer County, wrote that a display including the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence, the Ten Commandments, the Magna Carta, The Star-Spangled Banner, and the national motto could be erected in the Mercer County courthouse. Historical populations Census Pop. % 1790 73,677 — 1800 220,955 0% 1810 406,511 0% 1820 564,317 0% 1830 687,917 0% 1840 779,828 0% 1850 982,405 0% 1860 1,155,684 0% 1870 1,321,011 0% 1880 1,648,690 0% 1890 1,858,635 0% 1900 2,147,174 0% 1910 2,289,905 0% 1920 2,416,630 0% 1930 2,614,589 0% 1940 2,845,627 0% 1950 2,944,806 0% 1960 3,038,156 0% 1970 3,218,706 0% 1980 3,660,777 0% 1990 3,685,296 0% 2000 4,041,769 0% Est. 2006 4,206,074 0% As of July 1, 2006, Kentucky has an estimated population of 4,206,074, which is an increase of 33,466, or 0.8%, from the prior year and an increase of 164,586, or 4.1%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,156 people (that is 287,222 births minus 210,066 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 59,604 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 27,435 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 32,169 people. As of 2004, Kentucky's population included about 95,000 foreign-born (2.3%). Since 1900, rural Kentucky counties have experienced a net loss of over 1 million people, while urban areas have experienced a slight net gain in population. The center of population of Kentucky is located in Washington County, in the city of Willisburg. Race and ancestryThe five largest ancestries in the commonwealth are: American (20.9%) (Mostly of British ancestry), German (12.7%), Irish (10.5%) (Most actually of Scots-Irish descent), English (9.7%), African American (7.8%). Only eight Kentucky counties have a majority ancestry listed that is not 'American', those being Christian and Fulton, which where African American is the largest reported ancestry, and the state's most urban counties of Jefferson, Oldham, Fayette, Boone, Kenton, and Campbell, where German is the largest reported ancestry. African Americans, who made up one-fourth of Kentucky's population prior to the Civil War, declined in number as many moved to the industrial North in the Great Migration. Today 44.2% of Kentucky's African American population is in Jefferson County and 52% are in the Louisville Metro Area. Other areas with high concentrations include Christian County and the city of Paducah, the Bluegrass, and the city of Lexington. Many mining communities in far Southeastern Kentucky also have populations between five and 10 percent African American. Demographics of Kentucky (csv) By race White Black AIAN Asian NHPI AIAN is American Indian or Alaskan Native - NHPI is Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 2000 (total population) 91.53% 7.76% 0.61% 0.92% 0.08% 2000 (Hispanic only) 1.35% 0.10% 0.04% 0.02% 0.01% 2005 (total population) 91.27% 7.98% 0.58% 1.10% 0.08% 2005 (Hispanic only) 1.80% 0.12% 0.04% 0.03% 0.01% Growth 2000-2005 (total population) 2.97% 6.16% -2.21% 23.46% 9.78% Growth 2000-2005 (non-Hispanic only) 2.44% 5.94% -3.28% 23.07% 7.98% Growth 2000-2005 (Hispanic only) 37.97% 22.34% 13.51% 38.48% 19.80% Religion that of Kentucky's 4,041,769 residents: - 33.68% were members of evangelical Protestant churches - Southern Baptist Convention (979,994 members, 24.25%) - Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ (106,638 members, 2.64%) - Church of Christ (58,602 members, 1.45%) - 10.05% were Roman Catholics - 8.77% belonged to mainline Protestant churches - United Methodist Church (208,720 members, 5.16%) - Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (67,611 members, 1.67%) - 0.05% were members of orthodox churches - 0.88% were affiliated with other theologies - 46.57% were not affiliated with any church. Religious movementsReligious movements were important in the early history of Kentucky. Perhaps the most famous event was the interdenominational revival in August 1801 at the Cane Ridge Meeting house in Bourbon County. As part of what is now known as the "Western Revival", thousands began meeting around a Presbyterian communion service on August 6, 1801, and ended six days later on August 12, 1801 when both humans and horses ran out of food. Some claim that the Cane Ridge revival was propagated from an earlier camp meeting at Red River Meeting House in Logan County. Economy Kentucky's agricultural outputs are horses, cattle, tobacco, dairy products, hogs, soybeans, and corn. Its industrial outputs are transportation equipment, chemical products, electric equipment, machinery, food processing, tobacco products, coal, and tourism. The Eastern Kentucky Coal Fields are recognized as being among the most productive in the nation. Kentucky ranks 4th among U.S. states in the number of automobiles and trucks assembled. The Chevrolet Corvette, Cadillac XLR, Ford Explorer, Ford Super Duty trucks, Toyota Camry, Toyota Avalon, and Toyota Solara are assembled in Kentucky. Unlike many bordering states which developed a widespread industrial economy, much of rural Kentucky has maintained a farm based economy, with cattle, corn, and soybeans being the main crops. The area immediately outside Lexington is also the leading region for breeding Thoroughbred racing horses, due to the high calcium content in the soil. Despite being the 14th smallest state in terms of land area, Kentucky still ranks 5th in the total number of farms, with more farms per square mile than any other U.S. state. The average farm size in Kentucky is only 153 acres (0 km). Kentucky ranks 5th nationally in goat farming, 8th in beef cattle production , and 14th in corn production. State taxesThere are 5 income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6% of personal income. The sales tax rate in Kentucky is 6%. Kentucky has a broadly based classified property tax system. All classes of property, unless exempted by the Constitution, are taxed by the state, although at widely varying rates. Many of these classes are exempted from taxation by local government. Of the classes that are subject to local taxation, three have special rates set by the General Assembly, one by the Kentucky Supreme Court and the remaining classes are subject to the full local rate, which includes the tax rate set by the local taxing bodies plus all voted levies. Real property is assessed on 100% of the fair market value and property taxes are due by December 31. Once the primary source of state and local government revenue, property taxes now account for only about 6% of the Kentucky's annual General Fund revenues. Until January 1, 2006, Kentucky imposed a tax on intangible personal property held by a taxpayer on January 1 of each year. The Kentucky intangible tax was repealed under House Bill 272. Intangible property consisted of any property or investment which represents evidence of value or the right to value. Some types of intangible property included: bonds, notes, retail repurchase agreements, accounts receivable, trusts, enforceable contracts sale of real estate (land contracts), money in hand, money in safe deposit boxes, annuities, interests in estates, loans to stockholders, and commercial paper. "Unbridled Spirit"To boost Kentucky’s image, give it a consistent reach, and help Kentucky stand out from the crowd" the Fletcher administration launched a comprehensive branding campaign with the hope of making its $12 - $14 million advertising budget more effective. The "Unbridled Spirit" brand was the result of a $500,000 contract with New West, a Kentucky-based public relations, advertising and marketing firm to develop a viable brand and tag line. The administration has been aggressively marketing the brand in both the public and private sectors. The "Welcome to Kentucky" signs at border areas have Unbridled Spirit's symbol on them. The previous campaign was neither a failure nor a success. Kentucky's "It's that friendly" slogan hoped to draw more people into the state based of the idea of southern hospitality. Though most Kentuckians liked the slogan, as it embraced southern values, it was also not an image that encouraged tourism as much as initially hoped for. Therefore it was necessary to reconfigure a slogan to embrace Kentucky as a whole while also encouraging more people to visit the Bluegrass. - See also: List of Kentucky State Highways Ending the tolls some seven months ahead of schedule was generally agreed to have been a positive economic development for transportation in Kentucky. In June 2007, a law went into effect raising the speed limit on rural portions of Kentucky Interstates from 65 to 70 miles per hour, with signs expected to be changed by mid-July. - See also: List of Kentucky railroads - Ashland, Kentucky (Amtrak station) - South Portsmouth-South Shore (Amtrak station) - Fulton (Amtrak station) As of 2004, there were approximately 2,640 miles (4,250.4 km) of railways in Kentucky, with about 65% of those being operated by CSX Transportation. Coal was by far the most common cargo, accounting for 76% of cargo loaded and 61% of cargo delivered. Bardstown features a tourist attraction known as My Old Kentucky Dinner Train. Run along a 20 mile (0 km) stretch of rail purchased from CSX in 1987, guests are served a four-course meal as they make a two-and-a-half hour round-trip between Bardstown and Limestone Springs. The Kentucky Railway Museum is located in nearby New Haven. Other areas in Kentucky are reclaiming old railways in rail trail projects. One such project is Louisville's Big Four Bridge. If completed, the Big Four Bridge rail trail will contain the second longest pedestrian-only bridge in the world. The longest pedestrian-only bridge is also found in Kentucky — the Newport Southbank Bridge, popularly known as the "Purple People Bridge", connecting Newport to Cincinnati, Ohio. - See also: List of airports in Kentucky On August 27, 2006, Kentucky's Blue Grass Airport in Lexington was the site of a crash that killed 47 passengers and 2 crew members aboard a Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet designated Comair Flight 5191. The lone survivor was the flight's first officer, James Polehinke, who doctors determined to be brain damaged and unable to recall the crash at all. The NTSB's report has not yet been released, but reports state that the air traffic controller on duty at the time of the crash was working on approximately two hours of sleep with outdated charts of the airport. According to FAA rules, should have been working alongside another controller, which he was not. WaterNorth America, water transportation has historically played a major role in Kentucky's economy. Most barge traffic on Kentucky waterways consists of coal that is shipped from both the Eastern and Western Coalfields, about half of which is used locally to power many power plants located directly off the Ohio River, with the rest being exported to other countries, most notably Japan. Many of the largest ports in the United States are located in or adjacent to Kentucky, including - Huntington-Ashland, largest inland port and 7th largest overall - Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky, 5th largest inland port and 43rd overall - Louisville-Southern Indiana, 7th largest inland port and 55th overall The only natural obstacle along the entire length of the Ohio River was the Falls of the Ohio, located just west of Downtown Louisville. - See also: List of counties in Kentucky Kentucky is subdivided into 120 counties, the largest being Pike County, Kentucky at 787.6 square miles, and the most populous being Jefferson County, Kentucky (the county containing the Louisville metropolitan area) with 693,604 residents as of 2000. County government, under the Kentucky Constitution of 1891, is vested in a County Judge (later renamed County Judge/Executive), who serves as the executive head of the county, and a legislature called a Fiscal Court. Despite the unusual name, the Fiscal Court no longer has judicial functions. Cities and towns 15 Largest Cities 2006 Population Louisville 554,496 Lexington 270,789 Owensboro 55,525 Bowling Green 53,176 Covington 42,797 Richmond 31,431 Henderson 27,915 Hopkinsville 27,415 Frankfort 27,077 Florence 26,929 Jeffersontown 25,907 Paducah 25,661 Nicholasville 24,791 Elizabethtown 23,406 Ashland 21,570 - See also: List of cities in Kentucky The Greater Louisville Metro Area holds a very disproportionate share of Kentucky's population, growth and wealth, and is by definition Kentucky's primate city. The city has a 2006 estimated population of 554,496, while the Louisville Combined Statistical Area (CSA) has a population of 1,356,798; including 1,003,025 in Kentucky, which is nearly 1/4 of the state's population. Since 2000 over 1/3 of the state's population growth has occurred in the Louisville CSA. In addition, seven of the 15 wealthiest counties in the state are located in the Louisville CSA. The second largest city is Lexington with a 2006 census estimated population of 270,789 and its CSA having a population of 645,006. The Northern Kentucky area (the seven Kentucky counties in the Cincinnati CSA) had an estimated population of 408,783 in 2006. The metropolitan areas of Louisville, Lexington, and Northern Kentucky have a combined population of 2,169,394 as of 2006, which is 51.5% of the state's total population. The two other fast growing urban areas in Kentucky are the Bowling Green area and the "Tri Cities Region" of southeastern Kentucky, comprised of Somerset, London, and Corbin. Although only one town in the "Tri Cities", namely Somerset, currently has more than 10,000 people, the area has been experiencing heightened population and job growth since the 1990s. Growth has been especially rapid in Laurel County, which outgrew areas such as Scott and Jessamine counties around Lexington or Shelby and Nelson Counties around Louisville. London is currently on pace to double its population in the 2000s from 5,692 in 2000 to 10,879 in 2010. London also landed a Wal-Mart distribution center in 1997, bringing thousands of jobs to the community. In northeast Kentucky, the greater Ashland area is an important transportation and manufacturing center. Iron and petroleum production, as well as the transport of coal by rail and barge, have been historical pillars of the region's economy. Due to a decline in the area's industrial base, Ashland has seen a sizable reduction in its population since 1990. The population of the area has since stabilized, however, with the medical service industry taking a greater role in the local economy. The Ashland area, including the Kentucky counties of Boyd and Greenup, is a part of the Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH, Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). As of the 2000 census, the MSA had a population of 288,649. About 20,000 of those people reside within the city limits of Ashland. Kentucky maintains eight public four-year colleges and universities. The two major research institutions are the University of Kentucky, which is the land grant system, and the University of Louisville. Both combine for over 99% of endowment in the system and rank first or second in academic rankings and average ACT scores in the state system. The other six colleges in the state system are regional universities. The state's sixteen public two-year colleges have been governed by the Kentucky Community and Technical College System since the passage of the Postsecondary Education Improvement Act of 1997, commonly referred to as House Bill 1. Prior to the passage of House Bill 1, most of these colleges were under the control of the University of Kentucky. Berea College, located at the extreme southern edge of the Bluegrass below the Cumberland Plateau, was the first coeducational college in the South to admit both black and white students, doing so from its very establishment in 1855. This policy was successfully challenged in the United State Supreme Court in the case of Berea College v. Kentucky in 1908. This decision effectively segregated Berea until the landmark Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Kentucky has been the site of much educational reform over the past two decades. In 1989, the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled that the state's education system was unconstitutional. The response of the General Assembly was passage of the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) the following year. Years later, Kentucky has shown progress, but most agree that further reform is needed. - See also: Theater in Kentucky Although Kentucky's culture is generally considered to be Southern, it is unique and also influenced by the Midwest and Appalachia. The state is known for bourbon and whiskey distiling, horse racing, and gambling. Kentucky is more similar to the Upper South in terms of ancestry which is predominantly American. Neveretheless, during the 19th century, the state Kentucky did receive a substantial number of German and Irish immigrants, who settled primarily in the Midwest. Only Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, and Oklahoma, all also border states, have higher German ancestry percentages than Kentucky among Census-defined Southern states. Kentucky was a slave state, and blacks once comprised over one-quarter of its population. However, it lacked the cotton plantation system and never had the same high percentage of African Americans as most other slave states. With less than 8% of its current population being black, Kentucky is rarely included in modern-day definitions of the Black Belt, despite a relatively significant rural African American population in the Central and Western areas of the state. Kentucky adopted the Jim Crow system of racial segregation in most public spheres after the Civil War, but the state never disenfranchised African American citizens to the level of the Deep South states, and it peacefully integrated its schools after the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education verdict, later adopting the first state civil rights act in the South in 1966. The biggest day in horse racing, the Kentucky Derby, is preceded by the two-week Kentucky Derby Festival in Louisville. Louisville also plays host to the Kentucky State Fair, the Kentucky Shakespeare Festival, and Southern gospel's annual highlight, the National Quartet Convention. Owensboro, Kentucky's third largest city, gives credence to its nickname of "Barbecue Capital of the World" by hosting the annual International Bar-B-Q Festival. Bowling Green, Kentucky's fifth largest city and home to the only assembly plant in the world that manufactures the Chevrolet Corvette, opened the National Corvette Museum in 1994. Old Louisville, the largest historic preservation district in the United States featuring Victorian architecture and the third largest overall, hosts the St. James Court Art Show, the largest outdoor art show in the United States. The neighborhood was also home to the Southern Exposition (1883–1887), which featured the first public display of Thomas Edison's light bulb, and was the setting of Alice Hegan Rice's novel, Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch and Fontaine Fox's comic strip, the "Toonerville Trolley. The more rural communities are not without traditions of their own, however. Hodgenville, the birthplace of Abraham Lincoln, hosts the annual Lincoln Days Celebration, and will also host the kick-off for the National Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Celebration in February 2008. Bardstown celebrates its heritage as a major bourbon-producing region with the Kentucky Bourbon Festival. (Legend holds that Baptist minister Elijah Craig invented bourbon with his black slave in Georgetown, but some dispute this claim.) Glasgow mimics Glasgow, Scotland by hosting its own version of the Highland Games, and Sturgis hosts "Little Sturgis", a mini version of Sturgis, South Dakota's annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally. The residents of tiny Benton even pay tribute to their favorite tuber, the sweet potato, by hosting Tater Day. Residents of Clarkson in Grayson County celebrate their city's ties to the honey industry by celebrating the Clarkson Honeyfest. The Clarkson Honeyfest is held the last Thursday, Friday and Saturday in September, and is the "Official State Honey Festival of Kentucky." - See also: The breadth of music in Kentucky is indeed wide, stretching from the Purchase to the eastern mountains. Contemporary Christian music star Steven Curtis Chapman is a Paducah native, and Rock and Roll Hall of Famers The Everly Brothers are closely connected with Muhlenberg County, where older brother Don was born. Kentucky was also home to Mildred and Patty Hill, the Louisville sisters credited with composing the tune to the ditty Happy Birthday to You; Loretta Lynn (Johnson County), and Billy Ray Cyrus (Flatwoods). However, its depth lies in its signature sound — Bluegrass music. Bill Monroe, "The Father of Bluegrass", was born in the small Ohio County town of Rosine, while Ricky Skaggs, Keith Whitley, David "Stringbean" Akeman, Louis Marshall "Grandpa" Jones, Sonny and Bobby Osborne, and Sam Bush (who has been compared to Monroe) all hail from Kentucky. The International Bluegrass Music Museum is located in Owensboro, while the annual Festival of the Bluegrass is held in Lexington. Kentucky is also home to famed jazz musician and pioneer, Lionel Hampton (although this has been disputed in recent years). Blues legend W.C. Handy and R&B singer Wilson Pickett also spent considerable time in Kentucky. The pop bands Midnight Star and Nappy Roots were both formed in Kentucky, as were country acts The Kentucky Headhunters and Montgomery Gentry, as well as Dove Award-winning Christian groups Audio Adrenaline (rock) and Bride (metal). As in many states, especially those without major league professional sport teams, college athletics are very important. This is especially true of the state's three Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) programs, including the Kentucky Wildcats, the Western Kentucky University Hilltoppers, and the Louisville Cardinals. The Wildcats, Hilltoppers, and Cardinals are among the most tradition-rich college basketball teams in the United States, combining for nine championships and 22 NCAA Final Fours; and all three are on the lists of total all-time wins, wins per season, and average wins per season. Louisville has also stepped onto the football scene in recent years, with eight straight bowl games, including the 2007 Orange Bowl. Western Kentucky, the 2002 national champion in Division I-AA football (now Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), is currently transitioning to Division I FBS football. - See also: Flag of Kentucky Official state places and events - State arboretum: Bernheim Arboretum and Research Forest - State botanical garden: The Arboretum: State Botanical Garden of Kentucky - State Science Center: Louisville Science Center - State center for celebration of African American heritage: Kentucky Center for African American Heritage - State honey festival: Clarkson Honeyfest - State amphitheater: Iroquois Amphitheater (Louisville) - State tug-o-war championship: The Fordsville Tug-of-War Championship - Covered Bridge Capital of Kentucky: Fleming County - Official Covered Bridge of Kentucky: Switzer Covered Bridge (Franklin County) - Official steam locomotive of Kentucky: "Old 152" (located in the Kentucky Railway Museum in New Haven) - Official pipe band: Louisville Pipe Band - State bourbon festival: Kentucky Bourbon Festival, Incorporated, of Bardstown, Kentucky - BluegrassReport.org — Democratic Party-oriented political blog dedicated to Kentucky politics - Kentucky census statistical areas - List of naval ships named for Kentucky - List of people from Kentucky - Scouting in Kentucky References1. ^ Kentucky State Symbols. 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Retrieved on 2007-11-09. 43. ^ 2006 General Election Registration Figures Set. Kentucky Secretary of State (2006-10-19). Retrieved on 2006-11-30. 44. ^ Election Results for Kentucky. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-04-28. 45. ^ Reviser of Statutes Office - History and Functions. Kentucky Legislative Research Commission. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 46. ^ History of the DOCJT. Kentucky Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 47. ^ History of the Kentucky State Police. Kentucky State Police. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 48. ^ Authorized Methods of Execution by State. Death Penalty Information Center. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. 49. ^ Long, Paul A. (2001-06-11). The Last Public Execution in America. The Kentucky Post. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 50. ^ Montagne, Renee (2001-05-01). The Last Public Execution in America. NPR. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 51. ^ McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky. Cornell University Law School. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 52. ^ Text of decision in ACLU of Kentucky v. Mercer County (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 53. ^ Price, Michael. Migration in Kentucky: Will the Circle Be Unbroken?. Exploring the Frontier of the Future: How Kentucky Will Live, Learn and Work pp. 5–10. University of Louisville. Retrieved on 4-30, 2007. 54. ^ Population and Population Centers by State: 2000 (TXT). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 56. ^ State Membership Report. The Association of Religion Data Archives (2000). Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 57. ^ See E. Michael Rusten, The One Year Book of Christian History, Tyndale House, 2003, pp. 438–439. ISBN 0842355073. 58. ^ Kentucky Revival - Red River to Cane Ridge. Retrieved on 2006-12-27. 59. ^ Kentucky Cabinet for Economic Development - Kentucky Economy 60. ^ Strong, Marvin. Kentucky: In the Middle of Auto Alley. Trade and Industry Development. Retrieved on August, 2007. Retrieved on 10 2007. 61. ^ U.S. Department of Agriculture 2002 Census of Agriculture 62. ^ (March 2003) "Kentucky Farm Numbers Increase". Kentucky Agri-News 22 (5). Retrieved on 2007-05-03. 63. ^ 2007 Rankings of States and Counties. bamabeef.org. Retrieved on May, 2007. Retrieved on 1 2007. 64. ^ Corn Production Detective (PDF). National Council on Economic Education. Retrieved on 2007-05-03. 65. ^ Kentucky Income Tax Rates. salary. com. Retrieved on May 1, 2007. 66. ^ Sales & Use Tax. Kentucky Department of Revenue. Retrieved on May 1, 2007. 67. ^ Property Tax. Kentucky Department of Revenue. Retrieved on May 1, 2007. 68. ^ State Taxes - Kentucky - Overview. bankrate.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 69. ^ Text of the House Bill 272. State of Kentucky. Retrieved on August, 2007. Retrieved on 10 2007. 70. ^ Unbridled Spirit→Information. State of Kentucky. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 71. ^ Stinnett, Chuck. Fletcher:Tolls to end November 22. Henderson Gleaner. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 72. ^ Stinnett, Chuck (11-22-2006). Onlookers Cheer Booth Destruction at Ceremony. Courier Press. Retrieved on August, 2007. Retrieved on 10 2007. 73. ^ Steitzer, Stephanie (2007-06-26). Many new laws go on books today. Courier-Journal. 74. ^ Railroad Service in Kentucky. Association of American Railroads. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 75. ^ Knight, Andy. On the Right Track - Kentucky Dinner Train serves up railroad nostalgia. Cincinnati.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 76. ^ Kentucky Railway Museum. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 77. ^ Shafer, Sheldon. "Bridges money may be shifted", Courier-Journal, 2007-03-05. 78. ^ Crowley, Patrick (April 23, 2003). Meet the Purple People Bridge. Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 79. ^ Fast Facts. Louisville International Airport. Retrieved on 2007-09-11. 80. ^ Crash Kills 49 81. ^ Comair Crash Survivor Leaves Hospital. CBS. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 82. ^ NTSB: LEX Controller Had Two Hours Of Sleep Prior To Accident Shift. Aero-News.Net. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 83. ^ Pilots' charts of airport were out of date. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. Pilots' charts of airport were out of date 84. ^ Ahlers, Michael (August 30, 2006). FAA: Tower staffing during plane crash violated rules. CNN. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 85. ^ 86. ^ 87. ^ Kentucky Counties, University of Kentucky 88. ^ Census Population Estimates for 2006 - Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000. US Census. Retrieved on 2007-07-01. 89. ^ Census Population Estimates for 2006 - Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places in Kentucky. US Census. Retrieved on 2007-07-01. 90. ^ 91. ^ Postsecondary Education Improvement Act of 1997. State of Kentucky. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 92. ^ Berea College:Learning, Labor, and Service. Diversity Web. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. Berea College: Learning, Labor, and Service 93. ^ Berea College v. Kentucky 94. ^ A Guide to the Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990. Education Resources Information Center. Retrieved on 2007-05-01.[Abstract of A Guide to the Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990 - provided by Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)] 95. ^ Roeder, Phillip. Education Reform and Equitable Excellence: The Kentucky Experiment. Retrieved on 2007-05-01. 96. ^ Brittingham, Angela & de la Cruz, G. Patricia (June 2004). Ancestry 2000: Census 2000 Brief (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved on 28 June 2007. 97. ^ 2000 Census: Percent Reporting Any German Ancestry. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. 98. ^ Beale, Calvin (21 July 2004). High Poverty in the Rural U.S. and South: Progress and Persistence in the 1990s (PowerPoint). Retrieved on 28 June 2007. 99. ^ Womack, Veronica L. (23 July 2004). The American Black Belt Region: A Forgotten Place (PowerPoint). Retrieved on 28 June 2007. 100. ^ Unknown. Identifying the "Black Belt" of Cash-Crop Production (JPEG Image). Bowdoin College. Retrieved on 28 June 2007. 101. ^ Civil Rights and Women’s Rights. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. 102. ^ Kentucky Derby Festival Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 103. ^ Kentucky State Fair. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 104. ^ Kentucky Shakespeare Festival Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 105. ^ National Quartet Convention Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 106. ^ Home Page of the International Barbecue Festival. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 107. ^ National Corvette Museum press release. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 108. ^ National Corvette Museum Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 109. ^ Stately Mansions Grace Old Louisville. Atlanta Journal Constitution. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 110. ^ St. James Court Art Show Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 111. ^ The Heart Line. Kentucky Commission on Community Volunteerism and Service. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 112. ^ Old Louisville and Literature. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 113. ^ Kentucky Bourbon Festival Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 114. ^ How Bourbon Whiskey Really Got Its Famous Name. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 115. ^ Glasgow, Kentucky Highland Games Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 116. ^ Little Sturgis Rally Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 117. ^ Tater Day Festival A Local Legacy. Retrieved on 2006-12-25. 118. ^ Clarkson Honeyfest home page. Retrieved on 2007-05-12. 119. ^ International Bluegrass Music Museum. Retrieved on 2006-11-30. 120. ^ Festival of the Bluegrass Home Page. Retrieved on 2006-11-30. 121. ^ Voce, Steve (2002-09-02). Obituary: Lionel Hampton. The Independent. Retrieved on 2007-06-03. 122. ^ 123. ^ 124. ^ Hot Brown Recipe. Brown Hotel. Retrieved on 2006-12-18. 125. ^ About the camp. BengalsCamp.com. Retrieved on 2006-12-18. 126. ^ Kentucky's State Symbols. Kentucky Department of Libraries and Archives. Retrieved on 2006-12-18. 127. ^ Unbridled Spirit Information. Kentucky.gov (2006-11-20). Retrieved on 2006-12-18. 128. ^ HB71: An act designating bluegrass music as the official state music of Kentucky (DOC). Legislative Research Commission. Retrieved on 2007-06-26. 129. ^ KRS 2.099 - State Honey Festival (PDF). Kentucky General Assembly. Retrieved on 2006-12-18. - Miller, Penny M. Kentucky Politics & Government: Do We Stand United? (1994) - Jewell, Malcolm E. and Everett W. Cunningham, Kentucky Politics (1968) Surveys and reference - Bodley, Temple and Samuel M. Wilson. History of Kentucky 4 vols. (1928). - Caudill, Harry M., Night Comes to the Cumberlands (1963). ISBN 0-316-13212-8 - Channing, Steven. Kentucky: A Bicentennial History (1977). - Clark, Thomas Dionysius. A History of Kentucky (many editions, 1937–1992). - Collins, Lewis. History of Kentucky (1880). - Harrison, Lowell H. and James C. Klotter. A New History of Kentucky (1997). - Kleber, John E. et al The Kentucky Encyclopedia (1992), standard reference history. - Klotter, James C. Our Kentucky: A Study of the Bluegrass State (2000), high school text - Lucas, Marion Brunson and Wright, George C. A History of Blacks in Kentucky 2 vols. (1992). - Notable Kentucky African Americans http://www.uky.edu/Subject/aakyall.html - Share, Allen J. Cities in the Commonwealth: Two Centuries of Urban Life in Kentucky (1982). - Wallis, Frederick A. and Hambleton Tapp. A Sesqui-Centennial History of Kentucky 4 vols. (1945). - Ward, William S., A Literary History of Kentucky (1988) (ISBN 0-87049-578-X). - WPA, Kentucky: A Guide to the Bluegrass State (1939), classic guide. - Yater, George H. (1987). Two Hundred Years at the Fall of the Ohio: A History of Louisville and Jefferson County, 2nd edition, Filson Club, Incorporated. ISBN 0-9601072-3-1. Specialized scholarly studies - Bakeless, John. Daniel Boone, Master of the Wilderness (1989) - Blakey, George T. Hard Times and New Deal in Kentucky, 1929–1939 (1986) - Coulter, E. Merton. The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky (1926) - Davis, Alice. "Heroes: Kentucky's Artists from Statehood to the New Millennium" (2004) - Ellis, William E. The Kentucky River (2000). - Faragher, John Mack. Daniel Boone (1993) - Fenton, John H. Politics in the Border States: A Study of the Patterns of Political Organization, and Political Change, Common to the Border States: Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri (1957) - Ireland, Robert M. The County in Kentucky History (1976) - Klotter, James C.; Lowell Harrison, James Ramage, Charles Roland, Richard Taylor, Bryan S. Bush, Tom Fugate, Dixie Hibbs, Lisa Matthews, Robert C. Moody, Marshall Myers, Stuart Sanders and Stephen McBride (2005). in Jerlene Rose: Kentucky's Civil War 1861–1865. Back Home In Kentucky Inc. ISBN 0-9769231-1-4. - Klotter, James C. Kentucky: Portrait in Paradox, 1900–1950 (1992) - Pearce, John Ed. Divide and Dissent: Kentucky Politics, 1930–1963 (1987) - Remini, Robert V. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991). - Sonne, Niels Henry. Liberal Kentucky, 1780–1828 (1939) - Tapp, Hambleton and James C Klotter. Kentucky Decades of Discord, 1865–1900 (1977) - Townsend, William H. Lincoln and the Bluegrass: Slavery and Civil War in Kentucky (1955) - Waldrep, Christopher Night Riders: Defending Community in the Black Patch, 1890–1915 (1993) tobacco wars - Kentucky Department of Tourism - Kentucky.gov: My New Kentucky Home - The Kentucky Highlands Project - USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Kentucky - Kentucky State Facts - Kentucky: Unbridled Spirit - Kentucky Virtual Library - "Science In Your Backyard: Kentucky" U.S. Department of the Interior | U.S. Geological Survey, July 3, 2006, retrieved November 4, 2006 - U.S. Census Bureau Kentucky QuickFacts - Interactive Kentucky for Kids US South (as defined by the United States Census Bureau) List of U.S. states by date of statehood Admitted on June 1, 1792 (15th) The flag of Kentucky consists of the Commonwealth's seal on a navy blue field, surrounded by the words "Commonwealth of Kentucky" above and sprigs of goldenrod, the state flower, below. The flag was designed by Jesse Cox, an art teacher in Frankfort, Kentucky. ..... Click the link for more information.The seal of Kentucky was adopted in December of 1792. Since that time, it has undergone several revisions. The current seal depicts two men, one in buckskin, and the other in more formal dress. The men are facing each other and clasping hands. ..... Click the link for more information.This is a list of U.S. state nicknames -- both official and traditional (official state nicknames are in bold). (No official Nickname) - Cotton State - Heart of Dixie ..... Click the link for more information.Here is a list of state mottos for the states of the United States. To promote tourism, states also establish state slogans, which are unofficial and change more often than state mottos. A separate list of U.S. state slogans is also available, as well as a list of U.S. ..... Click the link for more information."United we stand, Divided we fall" is a phrase that has been used in mottos, from nations and states to songs. The basic concept is that unless the people are united and one people, it is easy to destroy them. ..... Click the link for more information.Native American languages predate European settlement of the New World. In a few parts of the U.S. (mostly on Indian reservations) they continue to be spoken fluently. Most of these languages are endangered, although there are efforts to revive them. ..... Click the link for more information.English}}} Writing system: Latin (English variant) Official language of: 53 countries Regulated by: no official regulation ISO 639-1: en ISO 639-2: eng ISO 639-3: eng ..... Click the link for more information.list of current and former national and subnational capital cities in the United States, which includes the legislature or seat of government of all states, territories, colonies, or kingdoms that are or were located in the United States, organized by current U.S. state location. ..... Click the link for more information.Frankfort, Kentucky Country United States ..... Click the link for more information.This is a list of the largest cities of U.S. states by population. Capitals are designated in italics. State Largest city 2nd Largest 3rd Largest Alabama Birmingham Montgomery Mobile Alaska Anchorage Fairbanks Juneau ..... Click the link for more information.Louisville, Kentucky Nickname: Derby City, River City, Gateway to the South, Falls City, The 'Ville Location in the Commonwealth of Kentucky ..... Click the link for more information.Area is a physical quantity expressing the size of a part of a surface. The term Surface area is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an object. UnitsUnits for measuring surface area include: - square metre = SI derived unit ..... Click the link for more information.This is a complete list of the states of the United States and its major territories ordered by total area, land area, and water area. The water area figures include inland, coastal, Great Lakes, and territorial waters. ..... Click the link for more information.square mile is an imperial and US unit of area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. It should not be confused with the archaic miles square, which refers to the number of miles on each side squared. ..... Click the link for more information.Square kilometre (U.S. spelling: square kilometer), symbol km², is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of surface area, the square metre, one of the SI derived units. 1 km² is equal to: - 1,000,000 m² - 100 ha (hectare) - 1 m² = 0. ..... Click the link for more information.1 kilometre =A kilometre (American spelling: kilometer, symbol km 0 m 0106 mm US customary / Imperial units 0 ft 0 mi ..... Click the link for more information.population is the collection of people or organisms of a particular species living in a given geographic area or mortality, and migration, though the field encompasses many dimensions of population change including the family (marriage and divorce), public health, work and the ..... Click the link for more information.list of states of the United States by population (with inhabited non-state jurisdictions included for comparison) as of July 1, 2006, according to the 2005 estimates of the United States Census Bureau. ..... Click the link for more information.The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 and conducted by the Census Bureau, determined the resident population of the United States on April 1, 2000, to be 281,421,906, an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 persons enumerated during the 1990 Census. ..... Click the link for more information.list of the 50 United States of America (U.S.) states, ordered by population density. The data are from the 2000 U.S. Census. Rank State Population density (per sq. mi) Population density 1 New Jersey 1,138.0 439. ..... Click the link for more information.<onlyinclude> This is a list of United States states by elevation. The highest point in the U.S. is Mount McKinley at 20,320 feet (6,194 m). The lowest point in the U.S. is Badwater in Death Valley at 282 feet (86 m) below sea level. ..... Click the link for more information.Black Mountain is the highest point in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, USA, with a summit elevation of 4,145 feet (1,263 meters) <ref name=USGS/ea level]] with a top to bottom height of over 2,500 feet (762 m). ..... Click the link for more information.Mississippi RiverMississippi River in New Orleans. Country | United States ..... Click the link for more information.list of U.S. states by date of statehood, that is, the date when each U.S. state joined the Union. Although the first 13 states can be considered to have been members of the United States from the date of the Declaration of Independence – Thursday, July 4 1776 – they ..... Click the link for more information.June 1 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining. - 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus assassinated. ..... Click the link for more information.17th century - 18th century - 19th century 1760s 1770s 1780s - 1790s - 1800s 1810s 1820s 1789 1790 1791 - 1792 - 1793 1794 1795 Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture - ..... Click the link for more information.Ernest Lee Fletcher (born November 12, 1952) has served as governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky since December 9, 2003. He is a member of the Republican Party. ..... Click the link for more information.United States Senate Type Upper House President of the Senate Richard B. Cheney, R since January 20, 2001 President pro tempore Robert C. Byrd, D since January 4, 2007 Political groups Democratic Party ..... Click the link for more information.Addison Mitchell "Mitch" McConnell, Jr. (born February 20, 1942), is the senior United States Senator from Kentucky. He was chosen by his Republican colleagues as the Minority Leader in November 2006, making him the top-ranking Republican in the 110th Congress, which convened in ..... Click the link for more information.James Paul David "Jim" Bunning (born October 23, 1931) is an American politician who was a Hall of Fame pitcher in Major League Baseball from 1955 to 1971. He subsequently entered electoral politics and was eventually elected to the United States Senate from Kentucky; he has served ..... Click the link for more information. This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.

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|EQI.org Home | Obedience Emotional Intelligence, Obedience and Education Take Much Emotional Intelligence to Obey" S. Hein If everything else were equal between two people, would the more emotionally intelligent person also be more obedient? This is a question I have often pondered. Today I was thinking about it again after I had a discussion with two future English teachers. We were talking about classroom management, respect, fear and obedience. For example, when the English teacher says "Open your books to page 21" what would motivate some students to obey her and others not to? A teacher has a certain kind of authority and power over the students. But what is this based on in the ideal learning environment as compared to a typical classroom in your own country? I personally would much rather have students obey me because they respect me and trust me than because they fear me. And I believe this form of authority makes for a better learning environment as well. Then I was thinking of different situations in which one person gives orders or instructions and another obeys. For example, in the surgery room when the surgeon says "Hand me the scalpel." He doesn't say "How would you feel about handing me the scalpel now?" Although I am a great believer in asking people how they feel about things, I wouldn't go so far as to say the surgeon should ask this question each time he wants something while operating. So why does an operating room assistant obey the instructions and commands of the surgeon? And why would he or she in the most ideal world? Briefly I would say we do what others tell us to do either because of either basic fear of disobeying them, or for a multitude of other reasons. I personally believe further that society works better when we do things for reasons other than the fear of being punished for not doing them. As suggested above, these reasons could include because we respect someone, because we admire them, because we trust them, because we love them, because we care about them, and because we want to help them. When they tell us to do something which they believe is in our own best interests, we mostly likely obey them because we trust them. For example, if a doctor says "Take these pills twice a day" and we do, then it is likely because we trust him to know what is best for us. This leads us back to the classroom. If a teacher says "Read this book" and we are not afraid of being punished if we don't it, then one of the reasons we might do as she says is because we trust her to tell us to read books which are truly helpful to us. We might trust her based on a kind of "blind faith" in teachers, or we might trust her for another reason, one which I would call a "better" reason. That "better" reason might be because she has earned our trust. I have often said that a teacher needs to earn the respect of the students, and that respect can not be demanded. Obedience can be demanded, but not respect. Therefore I would say that one of the first tasks of a teacher is to earn the trust of his or her students. Now let's return to the question of two people equal in all ways with the exception that one is more emotionally intelligent. Let's say they are students in a highschool class. Now let's imagine that their teacher has failed to show that she is worthy of trust and respect. Then one day our two almost equal students witness a third student putting a spider in the teacher's desk. Then later the teacher demands to know who put the spider in her desk. If everything else is equal between the two students, will the more emotionally intelligent student speak up and identify the third student? Or will the more emotionally intelligent person remain silent? Let me know what you think. Other EQI.org Topics:

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Inaugural post from ethicalDeal’s newest guest blogger, Alexandra Sehmer. There’s nothing quite like the feeling of soft, clean, fresh-smelling laundry still warm out of the dryer. But is our laundry really ‘clean’? Research shows that traditional laundry detergents are in fact extremely toxic, and that exposure over time can lead to a number of adverse health effects, ranging from minor skin and respiratory irritation to a multitude of cancers. That fresh smell? Turns out it’s derived from a petroleum-based substance that is known to harm the respiratory system and cause allergies and asthma in children. The brightness of your whites? Chemically-induced by a non-biodegradable substance that will wind up in our waterways and interfere with aquatic life. Below are some of the main culprits found in traditional laundry detergents, and the effects they have on our health and environment. Phthalates: Phthalates ave been linked to reproductive and developmental problems, adverse effects on our respiratory, immune, and endocrine systems, and the development of asthma and allergies in children. Bleach: Naturally toxic to our lungs and mucous membranes, bleach causes a whole slew of additional health concerns due to it’s natural tendency to interact with other chemicals and materials to create a number of known carcinogens. Optical Brighteners: Masters of illusion, optical brighteners are used to make stains on your clothes appear brighter and whiter (without doing any actual cleaning). When optical brighteners come into contact with our bodies, they form an irreversible bond with the skin. Petroleum-based (napthas): Most traditional laundry detergents contain many petroleum-based ingredients, which use energy-intensive processes (meaning nearly a pound of greenhouse gases are emitted for every ounce of detergent produced). Petroleum-based products are generally not biodegradable and adversely impact our health in a multitude of ways, from irritating our lungs and skin to causing cancers. Surfactants: Extremely effective at breaking down dirt and stains, petroleum-based surfactants are extremely slow to biodegrade and are known to disrupt the life-cycles of certain marine ecosystems. Vancouver’s North Shore currently produces the highest level of surfactants in the Pacific-Northwest and has recently launched a Laundry Detergent Reduction program in an effort to clean up its waterways. Read more about it here. Phosphates: Used to soften hard water and present in most laundry detergents, phosphates are petroleum-based and do not biodegrade. They’re also extremely harmful to the environment in that they freshwater algal blooms that release toxins and diminish oxygen in waterways, harming delicate aquatic ecosystems. How to Make Your Laundry Routine Greener and Safer Here are a few simple and adaptable tips to make your laundry routine less toxic and more eco-friendly: Use vegetable-based laundry detergents: These can be found in most commercial grocery stores at similar prices to traditional laundry detergents. See below for a list of locally-available, eco-friendly laundry detergents. Use less detergent: Most washing machines sold today are HE (High Efficiency), meaning they use less water and energy to wash your clothes. These machines also require significantly less detergent than regular machines. Check your washing machine’s manual, as well as the instructions on your detergent, to ensure that you’re not contributing excess chemicals to our waterways. Hang clothes to dry: Invest in a clothesline or rack to save energy (just remember not to dry darks in bright sunlight as they will fade). Avoid conventional dryer sheets: If you’re using your dryer, avoid conventional dryer sheets, which are often petroleum-based, use animal fat, and release toxic chemicals (all of which then rub off on your skin). Do full loads of laundry. Look for laundry with recyclable or biodegradable packaging. Eco-Friendly Alternatives to Conventional Laundry Detergent Vancouver Only Laundry Detergent: Phosphate and nitrate free, specifically designed for BC’s soft water, 100% biodegradable, recyclable packaging, local, and affordable. Available through www.greenearthorganics.com. Earth’s Berries Soap Nuts: Grown on soapberry trees, all-natural soap nuts contain a high concentration of the foaming agent saponin. Eco-friendly and economical. For more information, visit www.earthsberries.com. Nellie’s All-Natural Laundry Detergent: local, vegetable-based, biodegradable, non-toxic, mild, and efficient. For more information visit www.nelliesallnatural.com. Natureclean: This Canadian company’s detergents are vegetable-based, hypoallergenic, posphate-free. For more information visit www.naturecleanliving.com. About the author: Alexandra Sehmer is an insatiable foodie, fitness junkie, nature lover, and humour seeker. Drop her a line on Twitter @a_sehmer. Tags: alexandra sehmer eco friendly detergent eco friendly laundry Tips

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Gibraltar is a British overseas territory that is located to the south of Spain on the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. Gibraltar is a peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea with an area of just 2.6 square miles (6.8 sq km) and throughout its history the Strait of Gibraltar (the narrow strip of water between it and Morocco) has been an important "chokepoint." This is because the narrow channel is easy to cut off from other areas thereby having the ability to "choke" off transit in times of conflict. Because of this, there have often been disagreements about who controls Gibraltar. The United Kingdom has controlled the area since 1713 but Spain also claims sovereignty over the area. The following is a list of ten geographic facts to know about Gibraltar: 1) Archaeological evidence shows that Neanderthal humans may have inhabited Gibraltar as early as 128,000 and 24,000 B.C.E. In terms of its modern recorded history, Gibraltar was first in habited by the Phoenicians around 950 B.C.E. The Carthaginians and Romans also established settlements in the area and after the fall of the Roman Empire it was controlled by the Vandals. In 711 C.E. the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula began and Gibraltar became controlled by the Moors. 2) Gibraltar was then controlled by the Moors until 1462 when the Duke of Medina Sidonia took over the region during the Spanish "Reconquista." Shortly after this time, King Henry IV became King of Gibraltar and made it a city within the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1474 it was sold to a Jewish group that built a fort in the town and stayed until 1476. At that time they were forced out of the region during the Spanish Inquisition and in 1501 it fell under Spain's control. 3) In 1704, Gibraltar was taken over by a British-Dutch force during the War of Spanish Succession and in 1713 it was ceded to Great Britain with the Treaty of Utrecht. From 1779 to 1783 attempted to take Gibraltar back during the Great Siege of Gibraltar. It failed and Gibraltar eventually became an important base for the British Royal Navy in conflicts like the Battle of Trafalgar, the Crimean War and World War II. 4) In the 1950s Spain again began trying to claim Gibraltar and movement between that region and Spain was restricted. In 1967 the citizens of Gibraltar passed a referendum to remain a part of the United Kingdom and as a result, Spain closed off its border with the region and ended all foreign relationships with Gibraltar. In 1985 however Spain reopened its borders to Gibraltar. In 2002 a referendum was held to establish shared control of Gibraltar between Spain and the UK but Gibraltar's citizens rejected it and the area remains a British overseas territory to this day. 5) Today Gibraltar is a self-governing territory of the United Kingdom and as such its citizens are considered British citizens. Gibraltar's government however is democratic and separate from that of the UK. Queen Elizabeth II is the chief of state of Gibraltar, but it has its own chief minister as head of government, as well as its own unicameral Parliament and Supreme Court and Court of Appeal. 6) Gibraltar has a total population of 28,750 people and with an area of 2.25 square miles (5.8 sq km) it is one of the most densely populated territories in the world. The population density of Gibraltar is 12,777 people per square mile or 4,957 people per square kilometer. 7) Despite its small size, Gibraltar has a strong, independent economy that is based mainly on finance, shipping and trading, offshore banking and tourism. Ship repair and tobacco are also major industries in Gibraltar but there is no agriculture. 8) Gibraltar is located in southwestern Europe along the Strait of Gibraltar (a narrow strip of water connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea), the Bay of Gibraltar and the Alboran Sea (map). It is made up of a limestone out cropping on the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The Rock of Gibraltar takes up the majority of the area's land and Gibraltar's settlements are built along the narrow coastal lowland bordering it. 9) Gibraltar's main settlements are on either the east or west side of the Rock of Gibraltar. The East Side is home to Sandy Bay and Catalan Bay, while the western area is home to Westside, where most of the population lives. In addition, Gibraltar has many military areas and tunneled roads to make getting around the Rock of Gibraltar easier. Gibraltar has very few natural resources and little freshwater. As such, seawater desalination is one way its citizens get their water. 10) Gibraltar has a Mediterranean climate with mild winters and warm summers. The average July high temperature for the area is 81˚F (27˚C) and the average January low temperature is 50˚F (10˚C). Most of Gibraltar's precipitation falls during its winter months and the average yearly precipitation is 30.2 inches (767 mm). To learn more about Gibraltar, visit the official website of the Government of Gibraltar. British Broadcasting Company. (17 June 2011). BBC News - Gibraltar Profile. Retrieved from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3851047.stm Central Intelligence Agency. (25 May 2011). CIA - The World Factbook - Gibraltar. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gi.html Wikipedia.org. (21 June 2011). Gibraltar - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar

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You might have heard of carbon capture and storage — the idea of taking greenhouse gas emissions from coal power plants and industrial sources and then piping them underground or into contained sites for long term storage. But how about carbon capture and conversion? Envisioned as a kind of recycling at massive scale, that’s the technology that has just scored $4.4 million from the Department of Energy. If the six research projects awarded funding this week pan out, they could eventually enable tons of captured carbon to be put to use as a building block for chemicals, fuels, concrete and other products. Here’s what the DOE-backed researchers have in the works: Research Triangle Institute: Based in Durham, N.C., RTI has been awarded $800,000 (and will contribute $200,000) to assess the feasibility of using CO2 in chemical reactions (specifically, as a reductant or electron donor) to produce carbon monoxide, or CO. From there, the group plans to research whether carbon monoxide can be used to make chemicals like aldehydes, which are commonly used to make resins, dyes and perfumes, as well as ketones, carbonates and esters. CCS Materials, Inc.: This company aims to use captured emissions to create a less energy-intensive substitute for what’s called Portland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete. The DOE awarded the Piscataway, New Jersey-based company $794,000 to work on the project over three years, and CCS Materials will contribute $545,100. Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT plans to put its $1 million DOE award over the next two years toward a project researching an “integrated capture and conversion process.” The technology would take CO2 from power plants and other industrial sources, and then use it as a raw material for chemicals meant to replace products typically derived from petroleum. MIT will cover $250,067 of project costs. Brown University: With its $417,155 award, Brown is looking to demonstrate a reaction that uses CO2 and ethylene to produce acrylate compounds, which are commonly used in plastics. The university will share $107,460 of project costs. McGill University (collaborating with 3H Company): Like CCS Materials, this team plans to tackle part of the energy-intensive task of making concrete. McGill and Lexington, Kentucky-based 3H will be studying a a low-cost technology for absorbing CO2, and developing a curing process for the pre-cast concrete industry that uses carbon dioxide as a reactant. (Pre-cast concrete is moulded and cured in a controlled environment and then shipped to a construction site, rather than being poured into forms on-site.) The DOE has awarded $399,960 for the 2-year proejct, and McGill has agreed to a $100,000 cost share. PhosphorTech Corporation: This Lithia Springs, Georgia-based company has secured $998,661 in DOE funds and will share $249,847 in project costs over three years developing and demonstrating an electrochemical process that uses “the entire solar spectrum” and converts CO2 into products such as methane gas. Related content on GigaOM Pro (subscription required):

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The Maguire daisy, a dime-size wildflower found in sandstone canyons and atop mesas in Utah, was removed from the endangered species list this week after a 25-year effort to rescue it from extinction, the Interior Department said Tuesday. National Park Service When the daisy was listed as endangered in 1985, there were only seven known plants still living. Today, biologists estimate there are 163,000 plants in 10 populations in three counties in southeastern Utah. The daisy is the 21st species removed from the endangered species list, including such species as the bald eagle, the Virginia northern flying squirrel, the American peregrine falcon, the red kangaroo and the North Pacific population of the gray whale. “The delisting of the Maguire daisy shows that the Endangered Species Act is an effective tool not only to save species from the brink of extinction but also to recover them to healthy populations,” Tom Strickland, assistant Interior secretary for fish and wildlife and parks, said in a statement.

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GRHS Youth Essay Program As new generations are born and the older generations vanish, our youth become ever less aware of their cultural and ethnic origins. An important function of GRHS is to stimulate interest and awareness among young people of the dramatic history of the German Russian people. This is important for several reasons. Knowledge of our cultural origins gives us a sense of identity, of belonging and of continuity. More importantly, an understanding of the lives of our ancestors is an important aspect of decision making in our contemporary world. Although our ancestors lived in a completely different context from our own, many similar societies and cultures still exist. Although many of our ancestors were poor and clung to a much more tenuous existence than we do today, they had the same human needs, emotions and aspirations. Understanding how these were expressed and how lives were managed under extreme circum-stances gives us the strength and understanding to manage our own lives today.

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ON THIS DAY IN HISTORY HISTORY, NEWS & POLITICS HISTORY & POLITICAL HEADLINES 50th Anniversary of President John F. Kennedy’s Civil Rights Address By Bonnie K. Goodman Ms. Goodman is the Editor of the Academic Buzz Network, a series of political, academic & education blogs which includes History Musings: History, News & Politics. She has a BA in History & Art History & a Masters in Library and Information Studies, both from McGill University, and has done graduate work in Jewish history at Concordia University as part of the MA in Judaic Studies program. On This Day in History June 11, 1963…. President John F. Kennedy gave a televised speech on civil rights to the nation from the White House oval office paving the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It was a busy day for the civil rights movement; Alabama Governor and strong segregationist George Wallace in his “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door” physically prevented two African American students; Vivian Malone and James Hood, from registering at the University of Alabama despite a court order the United States District Court of the Northern District of Alabama. President Kennedy was forced to send the US National Guard to end the conflict, and ensure the students could enter the university building and register. Hours later, in the early morning of June 12th, African American civil rights activist and leader Medgar Evers was killed in Mississippi. He was shot in the back while entering into his home after returning from a meeting with NAACP lawyers. Evers was shot by Byron De La Beckwith, who belonged to the White Citizens’ Council, a segregationist group. Although first arrested on June 21, 1963 for Evers’ murder, it took until 1994 for De La Beckwith to be convicted of the crime. Also in the north, Boston city school officials began a ten year battle with the NAACP over segregation the same evening as President Kennedy’s speech. It was against this turmoil in the nation over civil rights that President Kennedy called and booked time on all three major networks for him to speak to the nation at 8 PM EDT on civil rights and the situation in Alabama. In a hastily drafted speech by Ted Sorensen and revised by Kennedy. The President told Americans that segregation is a “moral issue” that is wrong. Kennedy stated; “We are confronted primarily with a moral issue. It is as old as the scriptures and is as clear as the American Constitution. The heart of the question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities, whether we are going to treat our fellow Americans as we want to be treated.” President Kennedy accomplished two points in his speech, the introduction of civil rights legislation, and the beginning of significant comprehensive school desegregation. Kennedy pleaded to the American people that civil rights is the responsibility of all citizens; “It is not enough to pin the blame on others, to say this is a problem of one section of the country or another, or deplore the fact that we face. A great change is at hand, and our task, our obligation, is to make that revolution, that change, peaceful and constructive for all… Those who do nothing are inviting shame as well as violence. Those who act boldly are recognizing right as well as reality.” Kennedy specifically emphasized the lack of action since the Supreme Court’s decision in 1954 in the landmark Brown vs. the Board of Education which ended the legality of the separate but equal system. Kennedy lamented; “Too many Negro children entering segregated grade schools at the time of the Supreme Court’s decision 9 years ago will enter segregated high schools this fall, having suffered a loss which can never be restored. The lack of an adequate education denies the Negro a chance to get a decent job. The orderly implementation of the Supreme Court decision, therefore, cannot be left solely to those who may not have the economic resources to carry the legal action or who may be subject to harassment.” In his speech, President Kennedy began an active pursuit of Congressional legislation that would end segregation, stating; “Next week I shall ask the Congress of the United States to act, to make a commitment it has not fully made in this century to the proposition that race has no place in American life or law…. I am, therefore, asking the Congress to enact legislation giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public–hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments.” Kennedy also introduced the pursuit of the vote for all African Americans stating; “Other features will be also requested, including greater protection for the right to vote. But legislation, I repeat, cannot solve this problem alone. It must be solved in the homes of every American in every community across our country.” With his speech that night, Kennedy was pushing in motion not only the Civil Rights Act, but the subsequent Voting Rights Act passed two years later in 1965 which guaranteed the vote to all Americans. Kennedy concluded his speech with a request of support from the American public for his sweeping and necessary proposals based on Constitutional rights for all Americans; “Therefore, I am asking for your help in making it easier for us to move ahead and to provide the kind of equality of treatment which we would want ourselves; to give a chance for every child to be educated to the limit of his talents…. This is what we are talking about and this is a matter which concerns this country and what it stands for, and in meeting it I ask the support of all our citizens.” Kennedy submitted a civil rights bill to Congress the next week on June 19, which historian Robert Dallek in his biography of President Kennedy, An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963 described as “the most far-reaching civil rights bill in the country’s history.” The law would guarantee the right to vote for all with the minimum of a sixth grade education, and end discrimination in all public and commercial facilities establishments and accommodations. Kennedy also requested that the attorney general be granted expanded powers to implement school desegregation, asked to end job discrimination and create job training opportunities and a “community relations service.” Kennedy used the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments of the Constitution to justify the contents of his proposed bill. President Kennedy continued pushing Congress to pass civil rights legislation with bipartisan support until his assassination five months later in November 1963. The leader of the civil rights movement, Martin Luther King, Jr. approved of President Kennedy’s speech and described it as ‘the most sweeping and forthright ever presented by an American president’.” King’s “I Have a Dream Speech” on August 28th, over two months later during the March on Washington would eclipse Kennedy’s speech as the most relevant to advancing civil rights. However civil rights would become central to Kennedy’s legacy, and without the President taking initial action with this speech and laying out his bold vision and plan to make a civil rights a reality for all Americans, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would never would have passed and signed into law on July 2, 1964. IN THE NEWS The Day President Kennedy Embraced Civil Rights—and the Story Behind It Source: The Atlantic, 6-11-13 50 years ago today, the president gave his now-famous Civil Rights Address. But it was Martin Luther King Jr. and the Birmingham protesters who deserved the credit. “Can you believe that white man not only stepped up to the plate, he hit it over the fence!” That was Martin Luther King, Jr.’s private verdict on President John F. Kennedy’s famous Civil Rights Address, delivered fifty years ago on June 11, 1963….READ MORE Source: Huffington Post, 6-11-13 On June 11, 1963, President John F. Kennedy gave his Civil Rights Address, calling for the legislation that later became the Civil Rights Act Of 1964….READ MORE Watch: JFK’s civil rights speech, 50 years ago Source: MSNBC, 6-11-13 Fifty years ago today, President John F. Kennedy spoke to the nation after a day of racial turmoil in the state of Alabama….READ MORE Peniel E. Joseph: Kennedy’s Finest Moment Source: NYT, 6-12-13 JUNE 11, 1963, may not be a widely recognized date these days, but it might have been the single most important day in civil rights history…. But the most important event was one that almost didn’t happen: a hastily arranged speech that evening by President John F. Kennedy….READ MORE Tufts Professor Recalls Momentous, Overlooked JFK Speech From 50 Years Ago Source: NPR Boston WBUR, 6-11-13 When Americans are sent to Vietnam or West Berlin, we do not ask for whites only. It ought to be possible, therefore, for American students of any color to attend any public institution they select without having to be backed up by troops. It ought to be possible for American consumers of any color to receive equal service in places of public accommodations. Fifty years ago Tuesday, President John F. Kennedy addressed the nation in a televised speech sometimes called one of the best of his presidency. But that speech would be overshadowed by other events of June 11, 1963, and of the early hours of the next day. WBUR’s All Things Considered host Sacha Pfeiffer spoke with Peniel Joseph, a history professor and founding director of the Center for the Study of Race and Democracy at Tufts University, about this date 50 years ago, which he calls the most significant date in civil rights history….READ MORE Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights June 11, 1963 Source: Presidency, UCSB Good evening, my fellow citizens:This afternoon, following a series of threats and defiant statements, the presence of Alabama National Guardsmen was required on the University of Alabama to carry out the final and unequivocal order of the United States District Court of the Northern District of Alabama. That order called for the admission of two clearly qualified young Alabama residents who happened to have been born Negro. That they were admitted peacefully on the campus is due in good measure to the conduct of the students of the University of Alabama, who met their responsibilities in a constructive way. I hope that every American, regardless of where he lives, will stop and examine his conscience about this and other related incidents. This Nation was founded by men of many nations and backgrounds. It was rounded on the principle that all men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened. Today we are committed to a worldwide struggle to promote and protect the rights of all who wish to be free. And when Americans are sent to Viet-Nam or West Berlin, we do not ask for whites only. It ought to be possible, therefore, for American students of any color to attend any public institution they select without having to be backed up by troops. It ought to be possible for American consumers of any color to receive equal service in places of public accommodation, such as hotels and restaurants and theaters and retail stores, without being forced to resort to demonstrations in the street, and it ought to be possible for American citizens of any color to register and to vote in a free election without interference or fear of reprisal. It ought to be possible, in short, for every American to enjoy the privileges of being American without regard to his race or his color. In short, every American ought to have the right to be treated as he would wish to be treated, as one would wish his children to be treated. But this is not the case. The Negro baby born in America today, regardless of the section of the Nation in which he is born, has about one-half as much chance of completing a high school as a white baby born in the same place on the same day, one-third as much chance of completing college, one-third as much chance of becoming a professional man, twice as much chance of becoming unemployed, about one-seventh as much chance of earning $10,000 a year, a life expectancy which is 7 years shorter, and the prospects of earning only half as much. This is not a sectional issue. Difficulties over segregation and discrimination exist in every city, in every State of the Union, producing in many cities a rising tide of discontent that threatens the public safety. Nor is this a partisan issue. In a time of domestic crisis men of good will and generosity should be able to unite regardless of party or politics. This is not even a legal or legislative issue alone. It is better to settle these matters in the courts than on the streets, and new laws are needed at every level, but law alone cannot make men see right. We are confronted primarily with a moral issue. It is as old as the scriptures and is as clear as the American Constitution. The heart of the question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities, whether we are going to treat our fellow Americans as we want to be treated. If an American, because his skin is dark, cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public, if he cannot send his children to the best public school available, if he cannot vote for the public officials who represent him, if, in short, he cannot enjoy the full and free life which all of us want, then who among us would be content to have the color of his skin changed and stand in his place? Who among us would then be content with the counsels of patience and delay? One hundred years of delay have passed since President Lincoln freed the slaves, yet their heirs, their grandsons, are not fully free. They are not yet freed from the bonds of injustice. They are not yet freed from social and economic oppression. And this Nation, for all its hopes and all its boasts, will not be fully free until all its citizens are free. We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it, and we cherish our freedom here at home, but are we to say to the world, and much more importantly, to each other that this is a land of the free except for the Negroes; that we have no second-class citizens except Negroes; that we have no class or cast system, no ghettoes, no master race except with respect to Negroes? Now the time has come for this Nation to fulfill its promise. The events in Birmingham and elsewhere have so increased the cries for equality that no city or State or legislative body can prudently choose to ignore them. The fires of frustration and discord are burning in every city, North and South, where legal remedies are not at hand. Redress is sought in the streets, in demonstrations, parades, and protests which create tensions and threaten violence and threaten lives. We face, therefore, a moral crisis as a country and as a people. It cannot be met by repressive police action. It cannot be left to increased demonstrations in the streets. It cannot be quieted by token moves or talk. It is a time to act in the Congress, in your State and local legislative body and, above all, in all of our daily lives. It is not enough to pin the blame on others, to say this is a problem of one section of the country or another, or deplore the fact that we face. A great change is at hand, and our task, our obligation, is to make that revolution, that change, peaceful and constructive for all. Those who do nothing are inviting shame as well as violence. Those who act boldly are recognizing right as well as reality. Next week I shall ask the Congress of the United States to act, to make a commitment it has not fully made in this century to the proposition that race has no place in American life or law. The Federal judiciary has upheld that proposition in a series of forthright cases. The executive branch has adopted that proposition in the conduct of its affairs, including the employment of Federal personnel, the use of Federal facilities, and the sale of federally financed housing. But there are other necessary measures which only the Congress can provide, and they must be provided at this session. The old code of equity law under which we live commands for every wrong a remedy, but in too many communities, in too many parts of the country, wrongs are inflicted on Negro citizens and there are no remedies at law. Unless the Congress acts, their only remedy is in the street. I am, therefore, asking the Congress to enact legislation giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public–hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments. This seems to me to be an elementary right. Its denial is an arbitrary indignity that no American in 1963 should have to endure, but many do. I have recently met with scores of business leaders urging them to take voluntary action to end this discrimination and I have been encouraged by their response, and in the last 2 weeks over 75 cities have seen progress made in desegregating these kinds of facilities. But many are unwilling to act alone, and for this reason, nationwide legislation is needed if we are to move this problem from the streets to the courts. I am also asking Congress to authorize the Federal Government to participate more fully in lawsuits designed to end segregation in public education. We have succeeded in persuading many districts to de-segregate voluntarily. Dozens have admitted Negroes without violence. Today a Negro is attending a State-supported institution in every one of our 50 States, but the pace is very slow. Too many Negro children entering segregated grade schools at the time of the Supreme Court’s decision 9 years ago will enter segregated high schools this fall, having suffered a loss which can never be restored. The lack of an adequate education denies the Negro a chance to get a decent job. The orderly implementation of the Supreme Court decision, therefore, cannot be left solely to those who may not have the economic resources to carry the legal action or who may be subject to harassment. Other features will be also requested, including greater protection for the right to vote. But legislation, I repeat, cannot solve this problem alone. It must be solved in the homes of every American in every community across our country. In this respect, I want to pay tribute to those citizens North and South who have been working in their communities to make life better for all. They are acting not out of a sense of legal duty but out of a sense of human decency. Like our soldiers and sailors in all parts of the world they are meeting freedom’s challenge on the firing line, and I salute them for their honor and their courage. My fellow Americans, this is a problem which faces us all–in every city of the North as well as the South. Today there are Negroes unemployed, two or three times as many compared to whites, inadequate in education, moving into the large cities, unable to find work, young people particularly out of work without hope, denied equal rights, denied the opportunity to eat at a restaurant or lunch counter or go to a movie theater, denied the right to a decent education, denied almost today the right to attend a State university even though qualified. It seems to me that these are matters which concern us all, not merely Presidents or Congressmen or Governors, but every citizen of the United States. This is one country. It has become one country because all of us and all the people who came here had an equal chance to develop their talents. We cannot say to 10 percent of the population that you can’t have that right; that your children can’t have the chance to develop whatever talents they have; that the only way that they are going to get their rights is to go into the streets and demonstrate. I think we owe them and we owe ourselves a better country than that. Therefore, I am asking for your help in making it easier for us to move ahead and to provide the kind of equality of treatment which we would want ourselves; to give a chance for every child to be educated to the limit of his talents. As I have said before, not every child has an equal talent or an equal ability or an equal motivation, but they should have the equal right to develop their talent and their ability and their motivation, to make something of themselves. We have a right to expect that the Negro community will be responsible, will uphold the law, but they have a right to expect that the law will be fair, that the Constitution will be color blind, as Justice Harlan said at the turn of the century. This is what we are talking about and this is a matter which concerns this country and what it stands for, and in meeting it I ask the support of all our citizens. Thank you very much. Delivered from the President’s office at 8 p.m. Citation: John F. Kennedy: “Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” June 11, 1963. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=9271.

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In 1905, the first scientist to determine that if special factors (vitamins) were removed from food disease occurred, was Englishmen, William Fletcher. Doctor Fletcher was researching the causes of the disease Beriberi when he discovered that eating unpolished rice prevented Beriberi and eating polished rice did not. William Fletcher believed that there were special nutrients contained in the husk of In 1906, English biochemist Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins also discovered that certain food factors were important to health. In 1912, Polish scientist Cashmir Funk named the special nutritional parts of food as a "vitamine" after "vita" meaning life and "amine" from compounds found in the thiamine he isolated from rice husks. Vitamine was later shortened to vitamin. Together, Hopkins and Funk formulated the vitamin hypothesis of deficiency disease - that a lack of vitamins could make you sick. Elmer V. McCollum and M. Davis discovered vitamin A during 19121914. In 1913, Yale researchers, Thomas Osborne and Lafayette Mendel discovered that butter contained a fat-soluble nutrient soon known as vitamin A. Vitamin A was first synthesized Elmer V. McCollum discovered sometimes around 19151916. Casimir Funk discovered in 1912. D. T. Smith, E. G. Hendrick discovered B2 in 1926. Tishler and Robert Williams - Inventors of Synthetic Vitamins Max Tishler invented methods for synthesizing the essential vitamin B2. American, Conrad Elvehjem discovered in 1937. discovered in 1933. Paul Gyorgy discovered in 1934. In 1747, Scottish naval surgeon James Lind discovered that an nutrient (now known to be vitamin C) in citrus foods prevented scurvy. It was rediscovered by Norwegians, A. Hoist and T. Froelich in 1912. Vitamin C was the first vitamin to be artificially synthesized in 1935. A process invented by Dr. Tadeusz Reichstein, of the Swiss Institute of Technology in In 1922, Edward Mellanby discovered Vitamin D while researching a disease In 1922, University of California researchers, Herbert Evans and Katherine Bishop discovered vitamin E in green leafy vegetables. According to physician, Dr. Erika Schwartz MD in a report called Coenzyme Q10 - The Energizing Antioxidant issued by Kyowa Hakko USA, "Coenzyme Q10 was discovered by Dr. Frederick Crane, a plant physiologist at the University of Wisconsin Enzyme Institute, in 1957. Utilizing specialized fermentation technology developed by Japanese manufacturers, cost-effective production of CoQ10 began in the mid-1960s. To this day, fermentation remains the dominant production method around the globe." In 1958, Dr. D.E. Wolf under Dr. Karl Folkers PhD (Folkers leading a team of researchers at Merck Laboratories), first described the chemical structure of coenzyme Q10. Dr. Folkers later received, the 1986 Priestly Medal from the American Chemical Society for his research on coenzyme Q10. More Vitamins Listings to Come.. with >>> Medical

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Butterflies & Moths of Stephenstown Pond Nothing reminds us of warm sunny Summer's days as much as the sight of a graceful Butterfly. However, the loss of suitable food plants for caterpillars has had an enormous effect on the numbers of Butterflies seen throughout Ireland in recent years. The careful management of ruderal species, or weeds, atStephenstown Pond has helped to ensure that the Grassland and Woodland areas play their part in Butterfly conservation. It is hoped that visitors to the pond can enjoy the sight of numerous species of Butterflies for many years to come. Detailed below are just a few of the species that have been observed in the wooded and grassy areas, where there is suitable food and shelter. The Ringlet (Aphantopus hyperantus) is so named because of the string of false eyes on the underside of the wings. These spots confuse birds as to the position of the vulnerable body of the Ringlet. It flies in July and August and is found in wet grassy places. The butterfly stage has a life-span of two weeks, during which time it will rest in the grass or feed on the nectar of Bramble flowers. A common butterfly in the dappled light of the woodland, the Speckled Wood (Pararge aegeria) is ideally camouflaged by its speckled wings. This butterfly shows a degree of territorial behaviour, and may be seen for days in the same place in the wood. When a second butterfly enters the territory, the two will engage in a harmless aerial combat. The Small Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) is one of the most common butterflies in Ireland. It will be found around the Buddleia of the shrub beds, and the nettles and thistles of the grassland areas. This species hibernates and can often be found in garages and sheds through the Winter. From May to October a visitor to Stephenstown Pond may come across the brilliantRed Admiral (Vanessa atalanta). It's name is derived from 'Admirable', due to its bright colours. A butterfly of hedgerows and woodland clearings, it will rest and sun itself with its wings outstretched. The numbers of Red Admirals seen each year fluctuates, as this species is chiefly an immigrant from southern Europe. It has a particular liking for the juice of rotting fruit and will often be seen round windfall fruit in orchards. The Orange Tip (Anthocharis cardamines) is a butterfly of the late Spring. From early May it can be found along rough pastures where its food plants grow. A wide variety of plants of the cabbage family feed the caterpillars of this species. The male butterfly patrols territories along the edge of the water. Only the male bears the distinctive orange wingtips that give it its name. The popular 'Cabbage White' butterfly is well-known to most people. This common name covers two species of butterfly. The caterpillars of the Large White (Pieris brassicae) can be major pests destroying cabbage crops. The butterflies visit the pond area to feed on the nectar from the thistle flowers. The first butterflies emerge in April. The second 'Cabbage White' is the Small White (Artogia rapae). This is by far the more common of the two. It also is a pest of cabbage crops. Like the Large White, this species visits the pond site to feed on the nectar of many wild flowers. It can appear as early as March. A particular favourite among butterfly lovers is the large, handsomePeacock (Inachis io). This beautiful species, like the Small Tortoiseshell, hibernates and re-appears to mate in Spring. The next generation of butterflies emerges in July. The Peacock lays its eggs on stinging nettles, which are the food plants for the caterpillar stage. The butterfly will often be seen on Buddleia and Lilac. The wild flowers of a grassy meadow attract the Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus) throughout the Summer months. Only the male is blue, the female being usually brown. Favoured food plants for the caterpillars include clover and any members of the pea family. Of the many Moths which are resident at Stephenstown Pond, few are observed by the casual visitor, as these creatures fly by night. The Puss Moth (cerura vinula), Gargen Tiger (Arctia caja), and Poplar Hawk-moth (Laothoe populi) are but three of the species recorded at the site. Moths and their caterpillars feed on the many ruderal plants, trees, and flowers present at the pond. One of the few species of moth to fly during the day, is the easily recognised Six-spot Burnet (Zygaena filipendulae). It is popular during the months of July and August around meadows and woodland glades.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://ireland.iol.ie/~srameen/html/PondFly.html

2013-06-18T23:05:55Z

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You can prevent heart disease by following a heart-healthy lifestyle. Here are five strategies to help you protect your heart. disease may be the leading cause of death for both men and women, but that doesn't mean you have to accept it as your fate. Although you lack the power to change some risk factors — such as family history or age — there are some key heart disease prevention steps you can take, according to the Mercy Heart Center, Siouxland’s leading provider of cardiovascular care. steps to avoid heart disease — don't smoke, get regular exercise and eat healthy foods. Avoid heart problems in the future by adopting a healthy lifestyle today. Here are five heart disease prevention tips to get you 1. Don't smoke or use tobacco products or using other tobacco products is one of the most significant risk factors for developing heart disease.Doctors at Mercy say when it comes to heart disease prevention, no amount of smoking is safe. Smokeless tobacco and low-tar and low-nicotine cigarettes also are risky, as is exposure to secondhand smoke. smoke contains more than 4,800 chemicals. Many of these can damage your heart and blood vessels, making them more vulnerable to narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Atherosclerosis can ultimately lead to a heart attack. addition, the nicotine in cigarette smoke makes your heart work harder by narrowing your blood vessels and increasing your heart rate and blood pressure. Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke replaces some of the oxygen in your blood. This increases your blood pressure by forcing your heart to work harder to supply enough oxygen. Even so-called "social smoking" — only smoking while at a bar or restaurant with friends — is dangerous and increases the risk of heart disease. who smoke and take birth control pills are at greater risk of having a heart attack or stroke than are those who don't do either. Worse, this risk increases with age, especially over 35. good news, though, is that when you quit smoking, your risk of heart disease drops dramatically within just one year. And no matter how long or how much you smoked, you'll start reaping rewards as soon as you quit. 2. Get active participating in moderately vigorous physical activity can reduce your risk of fatal heart disease. And when you combine physical activity with other lifestyle measures, such as maintaining a healthy weight, the payoff is even Heart Center doctors say physical activity helps you control your weight and can reduce your chances of developing other conditions that may put a strain on your heart, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes. It also reduces stress, which may also be a factor in heart disease. recommend that you get at least 30 to 60 minutes of moderately intense physical activity most days of the week. However, even shorter amounts of exercise offer heart benefits, so if you can't meet those guidelines, don't give up. You can even break up your workout time into 10-minute sessions and still get the same remember that things like gardening, housekeeping, taking the stairs and walking the dog all count toward your total. You don't have to exercise strenuously to achieve benefits, but you can see bigger benefits by increasing the intensity, duration and frequency of your workouts. 3. Eat a heart-healthy diet a special diet called the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan also can help protect your heart. Following the DASH diet means eating foods that are low in fat, cholesterol and salt. The diet is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat dairy products that can help protect your heart. Legumes, low-fat sources of protein and certain types of fish also can reduce your risk of heart disease. certain fats you eat also is important. Of the types of fat — saturated, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated and trans fat — saturated fat and trans fat increase the risk of coronary artery disease by raising blood cholesterol levels. Major sources of saturated fat include beef, butter, cheese, milk, and coconut and palm oils. There's growing evidence that trans fat may be worse than saturated fat because unlike saturated fat, it both raises your low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad," cholesterol, and lowers your high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good," cholesterol. Sources of trans fat include some deep-fried fast foods, bakery products, packaged snack foods, margarines and crackers. Look at the label for the term "partially hydrogenated" to avoid trans fat. eating isn't all about cutting back, though. Most people, for instance, need to add more fruits and vegetables to their diet — with a goal of five to 10 servings a day. Eating that many fruits and vegetables can not only help prevent heart disease but also may help prevent cancer. fatty acids, a type of polyunsaturated fat, may decrease your risk of heart attack, protect against irregular heartbeats and lower blood pressure. Some fish are a good natural source of omega-3s. However, pregnant women and women of childbearing age should avoid shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish because they contain levels of mercury high enough to pose a danger to a developing fetus. But for most others, the health benefits of fish outweigh any risks associated with mercury. Omega-3s are present in smaller amounts in flaxseed oil, walnut oil, soybean oil and canola oil, and they can also be found in supplements. a heart-healthy diet also means drinking alcohol only in moderation — no more than two drinks a day for men, one a day for women. At that moderate level, alcohol can have a protective effect on your heart. Above that, it becomes a 4. Maintain a healthy weight you put on weight in adulthood, your weight gain is mostly fat rather than muscle. Mercy physicians say this excess weight can lead to conditions that increase your chances of heart disease — high blood pressure, high cholesterol way to see if your weight is healthy is to calculate your body mass index (BMI), which considers your height and weight in determining whether you have a healthy or unhealthy percentage of body fat. numbers 25 and higher are associated with higher blood fats, higher blood pressure, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke. BMI is a good but imperfect guide. Muscle weighs more than fat, for instance, and women and men who are very muscular and physically fit can have high BMIs without added health risks. Because of that, waist circumference is also a useful tool to measure how much abdominal fat you have. In general, men are considered overweight if their waist measurement is greater than 40 inches (101.6 centimeters, or cm). And women, in general, are overweight if their waist measurement is greater than 35 inches (88.9 cm). small reductions in weight can be beneficial. Reducing your weight by just 10 percent can decrease your blood pressure, lower your blood cholesterol level and reduce your risk of diabetes. 5. Get regular health screenings blood pressure and high cholesterol can damage your heart and blood vessels. But without testing for them, you probably won't know whether you have these conditions. Regular screening can tell you what your numbers are and whether you need to take action, according to physicians at the Mercy Heart Center. pressure. Regular blood pressure screenings start in childhood. Adults should have their blood pressure checked at least every two years. You may need more frequent checks if your numbers aren't optimal or if you have other risk factors for heart disease. Optimal blood pressure is less than 120/80 millimeters of mercury. levels. Adults should have their cholesterol measured at least once every five years. You may need more frequent testing if your numbers aren't optimal or if you have other risk factors for heart disease. Some children may need their blood cholesterol tested if they have a strong family history of heart disease. disease is often avoidable. Following a heart-healthy lifestyle doesn't have to be complicated. Find ways to include heart-healthy habits into your lifestyle — and you may well enjoy a healthier life for years to come.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://ksux.com/links/healthy-living/176-five-strategies-to-help-prevent-heart-disease?fontstyle=f-larger

2013-06-18T23:10:32Z

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en

Amazon Mechanical Turk HIT instructions You will be shown an image. The task is to outline an unlabeled object and to provide a text description of the object. Note that previously labeled objects may appear on the image. Please do not label previously labeled objects. The HIT is completed once you have annotated the required number of objects. The following steps describe how to label an object: 1. Start by pressing the left mouse button at some point along the boundary of the object. Good object labels: Bad object labels: The following are some recomendations for how to provide annotations that are as useful as possible. View the entire image: Make sure that your browser occupies the entire screen and that you scroll to see the entire image. If you label an object on the edge of your browser, make sure to scroll so that the entire object is visible. Follow the object outline: Click on top of the object boundary so that the polygon accurately delineates the object outline. The ideal outline should be good enough for somebody to recognize the object just by seeing the drawn polygon. Labeling occluded objects: Sometimes objects will be only partially visible. This is especially true for regions like roads, buildings, etc., which become difficult to label when there are many occlusions. We recommend in these cases to complete the boundary as if they were not occluded. Object naming: Use common English names for objects. Use a name that you think other people are likely to use to describe the same object. You can use several words to describe an object. Example object names: sky, tree, building, road, sidewalk, person, car, chair. Delete segments: If you want to delete one segment of the polygon before finishing the polygon, press the Modify control points: Once you have finished a polygon, you can modify individual control points. If you click on top of the polygon, the control points will appear. You can select one of the control points (hold the left mouse button down) and move it to a new position. Then click anywhere in the image to deselect the polygon. This will also save the modified polygon. Delete entire polygon: Select the polygon. You will have the option to delete the polygon. You can only edit polygons that you have entered before. You can not delete polygons by other users.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://labelme.csail.mit.edu/Release3.0/annotationTools/html/mt_instructions.html

2013-06-18T23:38:25Z

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en

From LabVIEW Wiki Dataflow is the fundamental concept under which the LabVIEW execution system executes code written in G (the graphical language used in LabVIEW). The basic philosophy is that the passage of data through nodes within the program determines the order of execution of the functions of the program. LabVIEW nodes (functions, structures, and subVIs) have inputs, process data and produce outputs. Whenever all of a node's inputs contain valid data, that node will be scheduled for execution by the LabVIEW execution engine. As soon as a processor becomes available (subject to available CPUs and the completion of previously scheduled nodes), the node will be executed. After a node executes, values on its output wires become valid and "flow" to the next nodes with those wires connected as inputs. By chaining together nodes that have compatible inputs and outputs, the programmer controls the order in which the nodes execute. Often a single input is used as a common "thread" running through several VI's and the program to force the order of operations, whether or not each node has any need to modify the data passing through it. Examples include the error cluster or a refnum data type. An example of how dataflow works and how LabVIEW differs from textual languages is given in this PDF titled LabVIEW and G as a Computing Language Course.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://labviewwiki.org/Dataflow

2013-06-18T23:18:49Z

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