A person undergoing a procedure where an 8 F introducer was placed in the right jugular vein using a 5F MAK access kit. A 7 F balloon tipped<unk> eter was introduced via the venous sheath, the balloon was inflated and the<unk> eter was advanced through the right heart chambers into the pulmonary capillary wedge position. Right sided pressures were obtained and cardiac output was measured using thermodilution. Coronary angiography is a diagnostic procedure that allows visualization of the coronary vessels. Fluoroscopy is used to visualize the lumens of the arteries as a 2-D projection. Should these arteries show narrowing or blockage, then techniques exist to open these arteries. Percutaneous coronary intervention is a blanket term that involves the use of mechanical stents, balloons, etc. to increase blood flow to previously blocked (or occluded) vessels. Measuring pressures in the heart is also an important aspect of<unk> eterization. The<unk> eters are fluid filled conduits that can transmit pressures to outside the body to pressure transducers. This allows measuring pressure in any part of the heart that a<unk> eter can be maneuvered into. Measuring blood flow is also possible through several methods. Most commonly, flows are estimated using the Fick principle and thermodilution. These methods have drawbacks, but give invasive estimations of the cardiac output, which can be used to make clinical decisions (e.g., cardiogenic shock, heart failure) to improve the person's condition.<unk>  can be used as part of a therapeutic regimen to improve outcomes for survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.<unk>  often requires the use of fluoroscopy to visualize the path of the<unk> eter as it enters the heart or as it enters the coronary arteries. The coronary arteries are known as "epicardial vessels" as they are located in the epicardium, the outermost layer of the heart. The use of fluoroscopy requires radiopaque contrast, which in rare cases can lead to contrast-induced kidney injury (see Contrast-induced nephropathy). People are constantly exposed to low doses of ionizing radiation during procedures. Ideal table positioning between the x-ray source and receiver, and radiation monitoring via thermoluminescent dosimetry, are two main ways of reducing a person's exposure to radiation. People with certain comorbidities (people who have more than one condition at the same time) have a higher risk of adverse events during the<unk>  procedure. These comorbidity conditions include aortic aneurysm, aortic stenosis, extensive three-vessel coronary artery disease, diabetes, uncontrolled hypertension, obesity, chronic kidney disease, and unstable angina. Left heart<unk> eterization 250px Left heart<unk> eterization (LHC) is an ambiguous term and sometime clarification is required: * LHC can mean measuring the pressures of the left side of the heart. * LHC can be synonymous with coronary angiography. technique is also used to assess the amount of occlusion (or blockage) in a coronary artery, often described as a percentage of occlusion. A thin, flexible wire is inserted into either the femoral artery or the radial artery and threaded toward the heart until it is in the ascending aorta. Radial access is not associated with an increased risk of stroke over femoral access. At this point, a<unk> eter is guided over the wire into the ascending aorta, where it can be maneuvered into the coronary arteries through the coronary ostia. In this position, the interventional cardiologist can inject contrast and visualize the flow through the vessel. If necessary, the physician can utilize percutaneous coronary intervention techniques, including the use of a stent (either bare-metal or drug-eluting) to open the blocked vessel and restore appropriate blood flow. In general, occlusions greater than 70% of the width of the vessel lumen are thought to require intervention. However, in cases where multiple vessels are blocked (so-called "three-vessel disease"), the interventional cardiologist may opt instead to refer the patient to a cardiothoracic surgeon for coronary artery bypass graft (CABG; see Coronary artery bypass surgery) surgery. Right heart<unk> eterization Right heart<unk>  using a Swan-Ganz pulmonary artery<unk> eter Right heart<unk> eterization (RHC) allows the physician to determine the pressures within the heart (intracardiac pressures). The heart is most often accessed via the internal jugular or femoral vein; arteries are not used. Values are commonly obtained for the right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, and pulmonary capillary "wedge" pressures. Right heart<unk> eterizations also allow the physician to estimate the cardiac output, the amount of blood that flows from the heart each minute, and the cardiac index, a hemodynamic parameter that relates the cardiac output to a patient's body size. Determination of cardiac output can be done by releasing a small amount of saline solution (either chilled or at room temperature) in one area of the heart and measuring the change in blood temperature over time in another area of the heart. Right heart<unk> eterization is often done for pulmonary hypertension, heart failure, and cardiogenic shock. The pulmonary artery<unk> eter can be placed, used, and removed, or it can be placed and left in place for continuous monitoring. The latter can be done an intensive care unit (ICU) to permit frequent measurement of the hemodynamic parameters in response to interventions. Parameters obtainable from a right heart<unk> eterization: * Right atrial pressure * Right ventricular pressure * Pulmonary artery pressure * Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure * Systemic vascular resistance * Pulmonary vascular resistance * Cardiac output * Blood oxygenation Implantation of a CardioMEMS is done during a right heart<unk> eterization. This device is implanted into the pulmonary artery to permit real-time measurement of the pulmonary artery pressure over time. Coronary<unk> eterization Coronary<unk> eterization is an invasive process and comes with risks that include stroke, heart attack, and death. Like any procedure, the benefits should outweigh the risks and so this procedure is reserved for those with symptoms of serious heart diseases and is never used for screening purposes. Other, non-invasive tests are better used when the diagnosis or certainty of the diagnosis is not as clear. Indications for<unk>  include the following: * Acute coronary syndromes: ST elevation MI (STEMI), non-ST Elevation MI (NSTEMI), and unstable angina * Evaluation of coronary artery disease as indicated by * Abnormal stress test * As part of the pre-op evaluation for other cardiac procedures (e.g., valve replacement) as coronary artery bypass grafting may be done at the same time * Risk stratification for high cardiac risk surgeries (e.g., endovascular aneurysm repair) * Persistent chest pain despite medical therapy thought to be cardiac in origin * New-onset unexplained heart failure * Survival of sudden cardiac death or dangerous cardiac arrhythmias * Workup of suspected Prinzmetal angina (coronary vasospasm) Right heart<unk> eterization, along with pulmonary function testing and other testing should be done to confirm pulmonary hypertension prior to having vasoactive pharmacologic treatments approved and initiated. * to measure intracardiac and intravascular blood pressures * to take tissue samples for biopsy * to inject various agents for measuring blood flow in the heart; also to detect and quantify the presence of an intracardiac shunt * to inject contrast agents in order to study the shape of the heart vessels and chambers and how they change as the heart beats Pacemakers and defibrillators Posteroanterior and lateral chest radiographs of a pacemaker with normally located leads in the right atrium (white arrow) and right ventricle (black arrowhead), respectively. Placement of internal pacemakers and defibrillators are done through<unk> eterization as well. An exception to this is placement of electrodes on the outer surface of the heart (called epicardial electrodes). Otherwise, electrodes are placed through the venous system into the heart and left there permanently. Typically, these devices are placed in the left upper chest and enter the left subclavian vein and electrodes are placed in the right atrium, right ventricle, and coronary sinus (for the left ventricle stimulation). Valve assessment Echocardiography is a non-invasive method to evaluate the heart valves. However, sometimes the valve pressure gradients need to be measured directly because echo is equivocal for the severity of valve disease. Invasive assessment of the valve can be done with<unk> eterization by placing a<unk> eter across the valve and measuring the pressures simultaneously on each side of the valve to obtain the pressure gradient. In conjunction with a right heart<unk> eterization, the valve area can be estimated. For example, in aortic valve area calculation the Gorlin equation can be used to calculate the area if the cardiac output, pressure gradient, systolic period, and heart rate are known. Pulmonary angiography Evaluation of the blood flow to the lungs can be done invasively through<unk> eterization. Contrast is injected into the pulmonary trunk, left or right pulmonary artery, or segment of the pulmonary artery. Shunt evaluation Atrial septal defect with left-to-right shunt Cardiac shunts can be evaluated through<unk> eterization. Using oxygen as a marker, the oxygen saturation of blood can be sampled at various locations in and around the heart. For example, a left-to-right atrial septal defect will show a marked increase in oxygen saturation in the right atrium, ventricle, and pulmonary artery as compared to the mixed venous oxygen saturation from the oxygenated blood from the lungs mixing into the venous
Cardiac catheterization
Coronary catheterization
Ballistocardiography
Magnetocardiography
Impedance cardiography
Cardiac ventriculography
Electrical cardiometry
Cardiac imaging