Women with deleterious<unk> s in either the<unk> 1 or<unk> 2 genes have a high risk of developing breast and/or ovarian cancer. Because different studies look at different populations, and because different types of<unk> s have somewhat different risks, the risk is best expressed as a range, rather than a single number. Approximately 50% to 65% of women born with a deleterious<unk>  in<unk> 1 will develop breast cancer by age 70, and 35% to 46% will develop ovarian cancer by age 70. Approximately 40% to 57% of women with a deleterious<unk>  in<unk> 2 will develop breast cancer by age 70, and 13% to 23% will develop ovarian cancer by age 70. Women with a breast cancer associated with a<unk>  have up to a 40% probability of developing a new primary breast cancer within 10 years following initial diagnosis if they did not receive tamoxifen treatment or have an oophorectomy. The woman's ten-year risk for ovarian cancer is also increased by 6-12% under these conditions. Statistics for<unk> -related ovarian cancer typically encompass not only cancer of the ovaries themselves, but also peritoneal cancer and the very rare, but somewhat easier to detect, cancer of the Fallopian tubes. Women with a<unk>  have more than 100 times the normal rate of Fallopian tube cancer. These three types of these cancers can be difficult to distinguish in their advanced stages. Cancer onset<unk> -related breast cancer appears at an earlier age than sporadic breast cancer. It has been asserted that<unk> -related breast cancer is more aggressive than normal breast cancer, however most studies in specific populations suggest little or no difference in survival rates despite seemingly worse prognostic factors. *<unk> 1 is associated with triple-negative breast cancer, which does not respond to hormonal treatments and cannot be usefully treated with some drugs, such as trastuzumab. Breast cancer often appears about two decades earlier than normal. *<unk> 2 is associated primarily with post-menopausal breast cancer, although the risk of pre-menopausal breast cancer is significant. It is typically highly responsive to hormonal treatments.<unk> -related ovarian and Fallopian tube cancer is more treatable than average because it is unusually susceptible to platinum-based chemotherapy like cisplatin.<unk> 1-related ovarian cancer appears at younger ages, but the risk for women with<unk> 2 climbs markedly at or shortly after menopause. Survival impact A 25-year-old woman with no<unk>  in her<unk>  genes has an 84% probability to reach at least the age of 70. Of those not surviving, 11% die from either breast or ovarian cancer, and 89% from other causes. Compared to that, a woman with a high-risk<unk> , if she had breast cancer screening but no prophylactic medical or surgical intervention, would have only 59% chance to reach age 70, twenty-five percentage points lower than normal. Of those women not surviving, 26% would die of breast cancer, 46% ovarian cancer, and 28% other causes. Women with high-risk<unk> s, with screening but with no prophylactic medical or surgical intervention, would have only 71% chance to reach age 70, thirteen percentage points lower than normal. Of those not surviving, 21% would die of breast cancer, 25% ovarian cancer and 54% other causes. The likelihood of surviving to at least age 70 can be improved by several medical interventions, notably prophylactic mastectomy and oophorectomy. Male breast cancer Men with a<unk>  have a dramatically elevated relative risk of developing breast cancer, but because the overall incidence of breast cancer in men is so low, the absolute risk is equal to or lower than the risk for women without a<unk> . Approximately 1% to 2% of men with a<unk>  will develop breast cancer by age 70. Approximately 6% of men with a<unk>  will develop breast cancer by age 70, which is approximately equal to the risk for women without a<unk> . Very few men, with or without a predisposing<unk> , develop breast cancer before age 50. Approximately half of men who develop breast cancer have a<unk>  in a<unk>  gene or in one of the other genes associated with hereditary breast–ovarian cancer syndromes. Breast cancer in men can be treated as successfully as breast cancer in women, but men often ignore the signs and symptoms of cancer, such as a painful area or an unusual swelling, which may be no bigger than a grain of rice, until it has reached a late stage. Unlike other men, men with a<unk> , especially a<unk> , may benefit from professional and self breast exams. Medical imaging is not usually recommended, but because male<unk> 2 carriers have a risk of breast cancer that is very similar to the general female population, the standard annual mammogram program can be adapted to these high-risk men. Other cancers<unk> s have been associated with increased risk of developing any kind of invasive cancer, including stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer. Carriers have the normal risks of developing cancer (and other diseases) associated with increased age, smoking, alcohol consumption, poor diet, lack of exercise, and other known risk factors, plus the additional risk from the genetic<unk> s and an increased susceptibility to damage from ionizing radiation, including natural background radiation. Men with<unk> s cannot get ovarian cancer, but they may be twice as likely as non-carriers to develop prostate cancer at a younger age. The risk is smaller and disputed for<unk> 1 carriers; up to one-third of<unk>  carriers are expected to develop prostate cancer before age 65. Prostate cancer in<unk>  carriers tends to appear a decade earlier than normal, and it tends to be more aggressive than normal. As a result, annual prostate screening, including a digital rectal examination, is appropriate at age 40 among known carriers, rather than age 50. Cancer of the pancreas tends to run in families, even among<unk>  families. A<unk>  approximately doubles or triples the lifetime risk of developing pancreatic cancer; a<unk>  triples to quintuples it. Between 4% and 7% of people with pancreatic cancer have a<unk> . However, since pancreatic cancer is relatively rare, people with a<unk>  probably face an absolute risk of about 5%. Like ovarian cancer, it tends not to produce symptoms in the early, treatable stages. Like prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer associated with a<unk>  tends to appear about a decade earlier than non-hereditary cases. Asymptomatic screening is invasive and may be recommended only to<unk> 2 carriers who also have a family history of pancreatic cancer. Melanoma is the most deadly skin cancer, although it is easily cured in the early stages. The normal likelihood of developing melanoma depends on race, the number of moles the person has, family history, age, sex, and how much the person has been exposed to UV radiation.<unk>  carriers have approximately double or triple the risk that they would normally have, including a higher than average risk of melanoma of the eye. Cancer of the colon is approximately as common in both men and women in the developed world as breast cancer is among average-risk women, with about 6% of people being diagnosed with it, usually over the age of 50. Like sporadic prostate cancer, it is a multifactorial disease, and is affected by age, diet, and similar factors.<unk>  carriers have a higher than average risk of this common cancer, but the risk is not as high as in some other hereditary cancers. The risk might be as high as four times normal in some<unk> 1 families, and double the normal risk among<unk> 2 carriers. Like pancreatic cancer, it may be that only some<unk> s or some<unk>  families have the extra risk; unlike other<unk> -caused cancers, it does not appear at an earlier age than usual. Normal colon cancer screening is usually recommended to<unk>  carriers.<unk> s in<unk> 1 and<unk> 2 are strongly implicated in some hematological malignancies.<unk> s are associated acute myelogenous leukemia and chronic myelogenous leukemia.<unk> s of<unk> 2 are also found in many T-cell lymphomas and chronic lymphocytic leukemias. Childbearing The dilemma of whether or not to have children may be a source of stress for women who learn of their<unk> s during their childbearing years. There is likely little or no effect of a<unk>  gene<unk>  on overall fertility, although women with a<unk>  may be more likely to have primary ovarian insufficiency.<unk>  carriers may be more likely to give birth to girls than boys, however this observation has been attributed to ascertainment bias. If both parents are carriers of a<unk> , then pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is sometimes used to prevent the birth of a child with<unk> s. Inheriting two<unk> s (one from each parent) has never been reported and is believed to be a lethal birth defect. Inheriting one<unk>  and one<unk>  has been reported occasionally; the child's risk for any given type of cancer is the higher risk of the two
BRCA mutation
History of radiation therapy
Chromosomal fragile site
Radiation exposure
Human papillomavirus infection
SAMPLE history
Dichromacy
ALPSA lesion