Lifestyle prevention of<unk>  is in many aspects the inverse of the potentially modifiable risk factors. As tobacco smoking and high alcohol intake have been linked with<unk> , smoking cessation and moderation of alcohol intake are commonly recommended as ways to help prevent it. In people with coeliac disease adherence to a gluten-free diet decreases the risk of developing<unk>  and increases bone density. The diet must ensure optimal calcium intake (of at least one gram daily) and measuring vitamin D levels is recommended, and to take specific supplements if necessary. Nutrition Studies of the benefits of supplementation with calcium and vitamin D are conflicting, possibly because most studies did not have people with low dietary intakes. A 2018 review by the USPSTF found low-quality evidence that the routine use of calcium and vitamin D supplements (or both supplements together) did not reduce the risk of having an osteoporotic fracture in male and female adults living in the community who had no known history of vitamin D deficiency,<unk> , or a fracture. The USPSTF does not recommend low dose supplementation (less than 1 g of calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D) in postmenopausal women as there does not appear to be a difference in fracture risk. A 2015 review found little data that supplementation of calcium decreases the risk of fractures. While some meta-analyses have found a benefit of vitamin D supplements combined with calcium for fractures, they did not find a benefit of vitamin D supplements (800 IU/day or less) alone. While supplementation does not appear to affect the risk of death, an increased risk of myocardial infarctions kidney stones, and stomach problems is associated with calcium supplementation. Vitamin K deficiency is also a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures. The gene gamma-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) is dependent on vitamin K. Functional polymorphisms in the gene could attribute to variation in bone metabolism and BMD. Vitamin K2 is also used as a means of treatment for<unk>  and the polymorphisms of GGCX could explain the individual variation in the response to treatment of vitamin K. Dietary sources of calcium include dairy products, leafy greens, legumes, and beans. There has been conflicting evidence about whether or not dairy is an adequate source of calcium to prevent fractures. The National Academy of Sciences recommends 1,000 mg of calcium for those aged 19–50, and 1,200 mg for those aged 50 and above. A review of the evidence shows no adverse effect of higher protein intake on bone health. Physical exercise There is limited evidence indicating that exercise is helpful in promoting bone health. There is some evidence that physical exercise may be beneficial for bone density in postmenopausal women and lead to a slightly reduced risk of a bone fracture (absolute difference 4%). A position statement concluded that increased bone activity and weight-bearing exercises at a young age prevent bone fragility in adults. Bicycling and swimming are not considered weight-bearing exercise. Neither contribute to slowing bone loss with age, and professional bicycle racing has a negative effect on bone density. Low-quality evidence suggests that exercise may improve pain and quality of life of people with vertebral fractures and there is moderate-quality evidence that exercise will likely improve physical performance in individuals with vertebral fractures. Physical therapy People with<unk>  are at higher risk of falls due to poor postural control, muscle weakness, and overall deconditioning. Postural control is important to maintaining functional movements such as walking and standing. Physical therapy may be an effective way to address postural weakness that may result from vertebral fractures, which are common in people with<unk> . Physical therapy treatment plans for people with vertebral fractures include balance training, postural correction, trunk and lower extremity muscle strengthening exercises, and moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity. The goal of these interventions are to regain normal spine curvatures, increase spine stability, and improve functional performance. Physical therapy interventions were also designed to slow the rate of bone loss through home exercise programs. Whole body vibration therapy has also been suggested as a physical therapy intervention. Moderate to low-quality evidence indicates that whole body vibration therapy may reduce the risk of falls. There are conflicting reviews as to whether vibration therapy improves bone mineral density. Physical therapy can aid in overall prevention in the development of<unk>  through therapeutic exercise. Prescribed amounts of mechanical loading or increased forces on the bones promote bone formation and vascularization in various ways, therefore offering a preventative measure that is not reliant on drugs. Specific exercise interacts with the body’s hormones and signaling pathways which encourages the maintenance of a healthy skeleton.
Osteoporosis
Osteosclerosis
Osteopathy
Dysosteosclerosis
Osteodystrophy
Osteopoikilosis
Osteopenia
Osteolysis