Associated neurotransmitters Dopamine The main neurotransmitter thought to be involved in<unk>  is dopamine. Essential to the basal ganglionic-thalamocortical loop, which processes motor function, dopamine depletion is common in these areas of<unk>  patients. Bradykinesia is correlated with lateralized dopaminergic depletion in the substantia nigra. The dopamine pathway in the substantia nigra is essential to motor function, and commonly a lesion in this area correlates with displayed<unk> . Tremor and rigidity, however, seem to be only partially due to dopamine deficits in the substantia nigra, suggesting other processes are involved in motor control. Treatments for<unk>  often either attempt to prevent dopamine degradation by MAO-B or increase the amount of neurotransmitter present in the system. GABA and glutamate The inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and the excitatory glutamate are found in many parts of the central nervous system, including in the motor pathways that involve<unk> . In one pathway, glutamate in the substantia nigra excites the release of GABA into the thalamus, which then inhibits the release of glutamate in the cortex and thereby reduces motor activity. If too much glutamate is initially in the substantia nigra, then through interaction with GABA in the thalamus and glutamate in the cortex, movements will be reduced or will not occur at all. Another direct pathway from the basal ganglia sends GABA inhibitory messages to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, which then send GABA to the thalamus. In the indirect pathway, the basal ganglia send GABA to the globus pallidus which then sends it to the subthalamic nucleus, which then disinhibited sends glutamate to the output structures of the basal ganglia. Inhibition of GABA release could disrupt the feedback loop to the basal ganglia and produce<unk>  movements. GABA and glutamate often interact with each other and with dopamine directly. In the basal ganglia, the nigrostriatal pathway is where GABA and dopamine are housed in the same neurons and released together. Neurobiology Hypokinetic symptoms arise from damage to the basal ganglia, which plays a role in producing force and computing the effort necessary to make a movement. Two possible neural pathways enable the basal ganglia to produce movement. When activated, the direct pathway sends sensory and motor information from the cerebral cortex to the first structure of the basal ganglia, the putamen. That information directly inhibits the globus pallidus internal and allows free movement. The indirect pathway, traveling through the putamen, globus pallidus external, and subthalamic nucleus, activates the globus pallidus internal threshold and inhibits the thalamus from communicating with the motor cortex, producing hypokinetic symptoms. Basal ganglia (red) and related structures (blue) When levels of dopamine decrease, the normal wave-firing pattern of basal ganglia neural oscillations changes and the tendency for oscillations increases, particularly in the beta wave of the basal ganglia. Recent research indicates, when oscillations fire simultaneously, processing is disrupted at the thalamus and cortex, affecting activities such as motor planning and sequence learning, as well as causing hypokinetic tremors.
Hypokinesia
Diadochokinesia
Nuclear moulding
Nuclear sclerosis
Dispokinesis
Adiadochokinesia
Dysdiadochokinesia
Dyskaryosis