The list below provides a few more commonly known applications of<unk> : * Improve drug safety, and reduce ADRs; * Tailor treatments to meet patients' unique genetic pre-disposition, identifying optimal dosing; * Improve drug discovery targeted to human disease; and * Improve proof of principle for efficacy trials.<unk>  may be applied to several areas of medicine, including pain management, cardiology, oncology, and psychiatry. A place may also exist in forensic pathology, in which<unk>  can be used to determine the cause of death in drug-related deaths where no findings emerge using autopsy. In cancer treatment,<unk>  tests are used to identify which patients are most likely to respond to certain cancer drugs. In behavioral health,<unk> tests provide tools for physicians and care givers to better manage medication selection and side effect amelioration.<unk>  is also known as companion diagnostics, meaning tests being bundled with drugs. Examples include KRAS test with cetuximab and EGFR test with gefitinib. Beside efficacy, germline pharmacogenetics can help to identify patients likely to undergo severe toxicities when given cytotoxics showing impaired detoxification in relation with genetic polymorphism, such as canonical 5-FU. In particular, genetic deregulations affecting genes coding for DPD, UGT1A1, TPMT, CDA and CYP2D6 are now considered as critical issues for patients treated with 5-FU/capecitabine, irinotecan, mercaptopurine/azathioprine, gemcitabine/capecitabine/AraC and tamoxifen, respectively. In cardiovascular disorders, the main concern is response to drugs including warfarin, clopidogrel, beta blockers, and statins. In patients with CYP2C19, who take clopidogrel, cardiovascular risk is elevated, leading to medication package insert updates by regulators. In patients with type 2 diabetes, haptoglobin (Hp) genotyping shows an effect on cardiovascular disease, with Hp2-2 at higher risk and supplemental vitamin E reducing risk by affecting HDL. In psychiatry, as of 2010, research has focused particularly on 5-HTTLPR and DRD2. Clinical implementation Initiatives to spur adoption by clinicians include the Ubiquitous<unk>  program in Europe and the Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) in the United States. In a 2017 survey of European clinicians, in the prior year two-thirds had not ordered a pharmacogenetic test. In 2010, Valderbilt University Medical Center launched<unk> Resource for Enhanced Decisions in Care and Treatment (PREDICT); in 2015 survey, two-thirds of the clinicians had ordered a pharmacogenetic test. In the United States, the FDA has updated medication package inserts based on genomic evidence. In 2019, the largest private health insurer, UnitedHealthcare, announced that it would pay for genetic testing to predict response to psychiatric drugs; as of 2019, it is the only private insurer to offer such coverage. In 2020, Canada's 4th largest health and dental insurer, Green Shield Canada, announced that it would pay for pharmacogenetic testing and its associated clinical decision support software to optimize and personalize mental health prescriptions.
Pharmacogenomics
Oncogenomics
Magnetogenetics
Molecular genetics
Toxicogenomics
Personal genomics
Molecular pathology
Lineage markers