<unk>  can be treated through a variety of methods. The most appropriate method depends upon the situation. Management of chronic<unk>  can be difficult and may require the coordinated efforts of a<unk>  management team, which typically includes medical<unk> ractitioners, clinical<unk> harmacists, clinical<unk> sychologists,<unk> hysiotherapists, occupational therapists,<unk> hysician assistants, and nurse<unk> ractitioners. Inadequate treatment of<unk>  is widespread throughout surgical wards, intensive care units, and accident and emergency departments, in general<unk> ractice, in the management of all forms of chronic<unk>  including cancer<unk> , and in end of life care. This neglect extends to all ages, from newborns to medically frail elderly. In the US, African and Hispanic Americans are more likely than others to suffer unnecessarily while in the care of a<unk> hysician; and women's<unk>  is more likely to be undertreated than men's. The International Association for the Study of<unk>  advocates that the relief of<unk>  should be recognized as a human right, that chronic<unk>  should be considered a disease in its own right, and that<unk>  medicine should have the full status of a medical specialty. It is a specialty only in China and Australia at this time. Elsewhere,<unk>  medicine is a subspecialty under disciplines such as anesthesiology,<unk> hysiatry, neurology,<unk> alliative medicine and<unk> sychiatry. In 2011, Human Rights Watch alerted that tens of millions of<unk> eople worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe<unk> . Medication Acute<unk>  is usually managed with medications such as analgesics and anesthetics. Caffeine when added to<unk>  medications such as ibuprofen, may<unk> rovide some additional benefit. Ketamine can be used instead of opioids for short-term<unk> .<unk>  medications can cause<unk> aradoxical side effects, such as opioid-induced hyperalgesia (severe<unk>  caused by long-term opioid use). Sugar (sucrose) when taken by mouth reduces<unk>  in newborn babies undergoing some medical<unk> rocedures (a lancing of the heel, venipuncture, and intramuscular injections). Sugar does not remove<unk>  from circumcision, and it is unknown if sugar reduces<unk>  for other<unk> rocedures. Sugar did not affect<unk> -related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance<unk> rocedure. Sweet liquid by mouth moderately reduces the rate and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age.<unk> sychological Individuals with more social support experience less cancer<unk> , take less<unk>  medication, report less labor<unk>  and are less likely to use epidural anesthesia during childbirth, or suffer from chest<unk>  after coronary artery bypass surgery. Suggestion can significantly affect<unk>  intensity. About 35% of<unk> eople report marked relief after receiving a saline injection they believed to be morphine. This<unk> lacebo effect is more<unk> ronounced in<unk> eople who are<unk> rone to anxiety, and so anxiety reduction may account for some of the effect, but it does not account for all of it.<unk> lacebos are more effective for intense<unk>  than mild<unk> ; and they<unk> roduce<unk> rogressively weaker effects with repeated administration. It is<unk> ossible for many with chronic<unk>  to become so absorbed in an activity or entertainment that the<unk>  is no longer felt, or is greatly diminished. Acute<unk>  is usually managed with medications such as analgesics and anesthetics. Caffeine when added to<unk>  medications such as ibuprofen, may<unk> rovide some additional benefit. Ketamine can be used instead of opioids for short-term<unk> .<unk>  medications can cause<unk> aradoxical side effects, such as opioid-induced hyperalgesia (severe<unk>  caused by long-term opioid use). A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling<unk>  associated with diagnostic and surgical<unk> rocedures in both adults and children, as well as<unk>  associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic<unk>  under some conditions, though the number of<unk> atients enrolled in the studies was low, raising issues related to the statistical<unk> ower to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for<unk> lacebo or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings<unk> rovide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic<unk> , considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions." Alternative medicine An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of<unk>  treatment with acupuncture,<unk> ublished in January 2009, concluded there was little difference in the effect of real, faked and no acupuncture. However, more recent reviews have found some benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicines. There has been some interest in the relationship between vitamin D and<unk> , but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is inconclusive. For chronic (long-term) lower back<unk> , spinal manipulation<unk> roduces tiny, clinically insignificant, short-term improvements in<unk>  and function, compared with sham therapy and other interventions. Spinal manipulation<unk> roduces the same outcome as other treatments, such as general<unk> ractitioner care,<unk> -relief drugs,<unk> hysical therapy, and exercise, for acute (short-term) lower back<unk> .
Pain
Malaise
Tenderness 
Itch
Visceral pain
Wellness 
Hyperalgesia
Nociception