Serious complications of<unk>  are uncommon. The risk of complications will vary from centre to centre based on experience and other technical factors. The most common complication of kidney<unk>  is bleeding. This reflects the density of blood vessels within the kidney and observation that individuals with kidney failure take longer to stop bleeding after trauma (uraemic coagulopathy). Bleeding complications include a collection of blood adjacent to or around the kidney (perinephric haematoma), bleeding into the urine with passage of blood stained urine (macroscopic haematuria) or bleeding from larger blood vessels that lie adjacent the kidney. If blood clots in the bladder, this can obstruct the bladder and lead to urinary retention. The majority of bleeding that occurs following<unk>  usually resolves on its own without long-term damage. Less commonly, the bleeding may be brisk (causing shock) or persistent (causing anaemia) or both. In these circumstances, treatment with blood transfusion or surgery may be required. Surgical options to control bleeding include less invasive catheter-delivered particles to block bleeding vessels (angioembolisation) or open surgery. In most cases, bleeding can be controlled and the kidneys are not lost. Rarely, a heavily damaged kidney may need to be removed. Infection is rare with modern sterile operating procedures. Damage to surrounding structures, such as bowel and bladder (more likely with transplant kidney<unk> , can occur. Occasionally, a<unk>  will have to be abandoned prematurely due to technical issues such as inaccessible or small kidneys, obscured kidneys, difficult to penetrate kidneys or observation of bleeding complication. Further, after the<unk>  has been completed, microscopic examination of the tissue may reveal heavily scarred tissue prompting recommendation for re-biopsy to avoid sampling error. As with all treatments, there is a risk of allergy to the disinfectant solution, sedation, local anaesthetic and materials (latex gloves, drapes, dressings) used for the procedure. Finally, the<unk>  needle may join an artery and vein in the kidney, resulting in the formation of an arteriovenous fistula. These usually do not cause problems and close on their own. They may be monitored over time with repeat Doppler ultrasonography. Rarely, they may result in intermittent bleeding into the urine or may grow in size and threaten to burst. In these instances, the fistula may be closed surgically or with angioembolisation.
Renal biopsy
Renal ultrasonography
Radioisotope renography
Ureteroscopy
Urine protein/creatinine ratio
Urine cytology
BUN-to-creatinine ratio
Microalbuminuria