<unk>  are the development and implementation of test methods that avoid the use of live<unk> s. There is widespread agreement that a reduction in the number of<unk> s used and the refinement of<unk>  to reduce suffering should be important goals for the industries involved. Two major<unk>  to in vivo<unk><unk>  are in vitro cell culture techniques and in silico computer simulation. However, some claim they are not true<unk>  because simulations use data from prior<unk>  experiments and cell cultures often require<unk>  derived products, such as serum or cells. Others say that they cannot replace<unk> s completely as they are unlikely to ever provide enough information about the complex interactions of living systems. Other<unk>  include the use of humans for skin irritancy tests and donated human blood for pyrogenicity studies. Another<unk> is so-called microdosing, in which the basic behaviour of drugs is assessed using human volunteers receiving doses well below those expected to produce whole-body effects. While microdosing produces important information about pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics it does not reveal information about toxicity or toxicology. Furthermore, it was noted by the Fund for the Replacement of<unk> s in Medical Experiments that despite the use of microdosing,<unk>  studies will still be required". Guiding principles for more ethical use of<unk> s in<unk>  are the Three Rs (3Rs) first described by Russell and Burch in 1959. These principles are now followed in many<unk>  establishments worldwide. #Replacement refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over<unk>  methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same scientific aim. #Reduction refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer<unk> s, or to obtain more information from the same number of<unk> s. #Refinement refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering, or distress, and enhance<unk>  welfare for the<unk> s used.
Alternatives to animal testing
Drug labelling
Safety pharmacology
Designer drug
Drug coupon
Marketing of off-label use
Fixed-dose procedure
Research into centenarians