The ' are numerous and involve a wide range of interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. A large body of research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic<unk>  (e.g., 30 minutes every day) induces persistent improvements in certain cognitive functions, healthy alterations in gene expression in the brain, and beneficial forms of neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects include: increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity (e.g., and BDNF signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior, improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory. The effects of<unk>  on cognition have important implications for improving academic performance in children and college students, improving adult productivity, preserving cognitive function in old age, preventing or treating certain neurological disorders, and improving overall quality of life. In healthy adults, aerobic<unk>  has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single<unk>  session and persistent effects on cognition following regular<unk>  over the course of several months. People who regularly perform aerobic<unk>  (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed. The transient effects of<unk>  on cognition include improvements in most executive functions (e.g., attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision making) and information processing speed for a period of up to 2 hours after<unk> ng. Aerobic<unk>  induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic<unk>  functions as both an antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent<unk>  produces general improvements in mood and self-esteem. Regular aerobic<unk>  improves symptoms associated with a variety of central nervous system disorders and may be used as adjunct therapy for these disorders. There is clear evidence of<unk>  treatment efficacy for major depressive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The American Academy of Neurology's clinical practice guideline for mild cognitive impairment indicates that clinicians should recommend regular<unk>  (two times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. Reviews of clinical evidence also support the use of<unk>  as an adjunct therapy for certain neurodegenerative disorders, particularly Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson's disease. Regular<unk>  is also associated with a lower risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders. A large body of preclinical evidence and emerging clinical evidence supports the use of<unk>  as an adjunct therapy for the treatment and prevention of drug addictions. Regular<unk>  has also been proposed as an adjunct therapy for brain cancers.
Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
Short-term effects of alcohol consumption
Relative energy deficiency in sport
Pharmacology of antidepressants
Effects of meditation
Benefits of physical activity
Psychological effects of Internet use
Effects of early-life exposures to anesthesia on the brain