The technology has applications in a number of fields, including molecular biology, pathology, immunology, virology, plant biology and marine biology. It has broad application in medicine especially in transplantation, hematology, tumor immunology and chemotherapy, prenatal diagnosis, genetics and sperm sorting for sex preselection.<unk>  is widely applied to detect sperm cells abnormality associated with DNA fragmentation in male fertility assays. Also, it is extensively used in research for the detection of DNA damage, caspase cleavage and apoptosis. Photoacoustic<unk>  is used in the study of multi-drug-resistant bacteria (most commonly MRSA) to detect, differentiate, and quantify bacteria in the blood marked with dyed bacteriophages. In neuroscience, co-expression of cell surface and intracellular antigens can also be analyzed. In microbiology, it can be used to screen and sort transposon mutant libraries constructed with a GFP-encoding transposon (TnMHA), or to assess viability. In protein engineering,<unk>  is used in conjunction with yeast display and bacterial display to identify cell surface-displayed protein variants with desired properties. The main advantages of<unk>  over histology and IHC is the possibility to precisely measure the quantities of antigens and the possibility to stain each cell with multiple antibodies-fluorophores, in current laboratories around 10 antibodies can be bound to each cell. This is much less than mass cytometer where up to 40 can be currently measured, but at a higher price and a slower pace. Aquatic research In aquatic systems,<unk>  is used for the analysis of autofluorescing cells or cells that are fluorescently-labeled with added stains. This research started in 1981 when Clarice Yentsch used<unk>  to measure the fluorescence in a red tide producing dinoflagellate. The next year researchers published<unk> c measurements of multiple algal species which could be distinguished based on their fluorescence characteristics. By 1983, marine researchers were assembling their own<unk>  cytometers or using commercially available<unk>  cytometers on seawater samples collected off Bermuda to demonstrate that phytoplankton cells could be distinguished from non-living material and that cyanobacteria could be sorted from a mixed community and subsequently cultured in the lab.<unk>  also allowed marine researchers to distinguish between dimly-fluorescing Prochlorococcus and heterotrophic microorganisms, a distinction that is difficult with microscopy-based assessments. Advances in technology now allow aquatic scientists to use<unk>  cytometers continuously during research cruises and<unk>  cytometers are used to provide images of individual phytoplankton cells. Marine scientists use the sorting ability of<unk>  cytometers to make discrete measurements of cellular activity and diversity, to conduct investigations into the mutualistic relationships between microorganisms that live in close proximity, and to measure biogeochemical rates of multiple processes in the ocean. Cell proliferation assay Cell proliferation is the major function in the immune system. Often it is required to analyse the proliferative nature of the cells in order to make some conclusions. One such assay to determine the cell proliferation is the tracking dye carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE). It helps to monitor proliferative cells. This assay gives quantitative as well as qualitative data during time-series experiments. This dye binds covalently with the long-lived molecules present inside the cell. When the cells divide, the molecules divide too and, the daughter cells possess half the dye than the parent population. This decrease in the intensity can be visualized by<unk> . In literature, this powerful technique of<unk>  and CFSE has been used to find the efficiency of T-cells in killing the target cells in cancer such as leukemia. In order to visualize the target cell death, both rapid and slow, scientists have used CFSE labelling with antibody staining of certain kinds of cells and fluorescently labelled microbeads. This also gave information regarding the proliferation of the target cells upon the treatment of certain cytokines.
Flow cytometry
Mixed lymphocyte reaction
Immunophenotyping
Immunostaining
Direct fluorescent antibody
Immunofluorescence
Reticulocyte production index
Immunohistochemistry