The procedure comes with severe repercussions such as direct or indirect perioperative complications, which include increased damage to the brain, infection, blood loss, hemorrhage, and potentially death due to the trauma as the skull's protective covering is compromised. The operation leaves very minimal space for error and a high incidence of mortality if the dura mater is penetrated. Additionally, there is a high risk of infection if the operation is conducted with contaminated tools or improper sanitary wound care. If the infection is not caught and treated immediately, it can be fatal or lead to significant and permanent brain damage. After surgery, hyperemia and osteoclastic activity are seen on the necrotic bone surrounding the trepanation site, due to loss of blood supply. The perforations were found with the growth of fine bone spurs, which indicate that trepanation had been carried out on live subjects, rather than being a ritual conducted after death. There is evidence that some individuals survived multiple skull surgeries. There is evidence of bone remodelling around the skull defects, corroborated by the smooth borders around the opening, sealed by a dense cortex of bone, denoting procedural success after trepanation. Furthermore, the survival rate of the operations was higher than expected and the infection rate relatively low. However, several skulls also show the risk of the operation, with some indicating the stopping mid-operation as the trephining is incomplete.
Trepanning
Microwave thermotherapy
Circumcision surgical procedure
Cryosurgery
Organotherapy
Cryotherapy
Brachytherapy
Pollicization