Topographic<unk>  These<unk>  may be thought of as a mapping of the surface of the body onto the brain structure. Phrased another way, topographic<unk>  are organized in the neural system in a manner that is a projection of the<unk>  surface within the brain. This means that the organization in the periphery mirrors the order of the information processing in the brain. This organization can be somatotopic, as in the tactile sense of touch, or tonotopic, as in the ear, and the retinotopic map which is laid out in the brain as the cells are arranged on the retina. Neurons on the surface of the body have importance in our day to day life. There are more neurons connected to the parts of the surface of the body when the neuron’s roles are more important than other neurons in relation to our well-being. Phantom limbs activate<unk>  according to scientists. Because there is no actual connection between the amputee limb and the rest of the body, it is assumed that when the limb was detached from the rest of the body the<unk>  which were created before the amputation, are still active and are being activated without an actual stimulus. Examples * Wilder Penfield discovered the original topographic map in the form of the internal somatosensory Homunculus. His work on human neural systems showed that the brain areas that processed tactile sensations are mapped in the same fashion that the body is laid out. This<unk> exaggerates certain regions that have many peripheral sense cells like the lips and hands while reduces the relative space for processing areas with few receptors like the back. * Hair cells in the auditory system display tonotopic organization. This tonotopic arrangement means that cells are laid out to range from low frequency to high frequency and processed in that same organization within the brain. Computational<unk>  These<unk>  are organized entirely in the neural system or organized in a manner not present in the periphery.<unk>  information for computational<unk>  comes from auditory and visual stimuli . Thus, any auditory or visual information that is constructed by neural computation, which is when the brain relates two or more bits of information in order to obtain some new information from them, can combine to change the already existing<unk> to include the new information. Often these<unk>  involve comparing, as in performing subtraction to get a time delay, two stimuli, like incoming sound information from different ears, in order to produce a valuable new bit of information about those stimuli, as in where they originated. The process just described takes place in the owl's neural system very rapidly. Examples * The Jeffres Map was a theory of how the brain might compute interaural time differences (ITD), or differences in time of stimulus arrival between the two ears. Jeffres was famous for producing a theoretical mechanism for making a place map out of timing information, this explained how some animals could appear to have a "look-up map" for where a sound came from. The neural system computes this ITD in the Owl Auditory System and the real neural system was found to almost exactly match the Jeffres Map theory. The Jeffres Map shows how ITD signals are used to determine distance and direction in the owl. * Feature Detectors in a visual system are another example of computational<unk> . No part of the physical system in the eyes actually analyzes for features like simple cells in the brain do. This system is well studied in frogs. It is known that frogs detect specific "worm-like" features in their environment and, controlled entirely by the neural system, will lunge at them even if they are a series of white squares in a line imitating a basic worm. Creating illusions within our<unk>  is a way that organisms fill in for unknown information about their surroundings. * There is also an Frequency Modulation to Frequency Modulation Comparison in the Bat Auditory System which is used in echolocation. This FM-FM comparison determines flutter of their target and was made famous in work by Suga. * When motor and<unk>  systems were studied by way of fish, scientists found that there could be computational<unk>  made between the two. Fish whose central nervous system was inactivated, for a specific appendage, adjusted their previous natural behavior. Scientists believe that<unk>  information often precedes the actions and decisions made by organisms. Thus, when there is additional information given by outside stimuli, or lack of it, their behavior changes to adapt to new surroundings.
Sensory maps
Axon reflex
Pain ladder
Pain scale
Hamilton–Norwood scale
Concussion grading systems
Hunt and Hess scale
Kastle–Meyer test