One of the most frequent and feared complications after<unk>  <unk>  is post-ERCP pancreatitis (PEP). In previous studies, the incidence of PEP has been estimated at 3.5 to 5%. According to Cotton et al., PEP is defined as a "clinical pancreatitis with amylase at least three times the upper limit of normal at more than 24 hours after the procedure requiring hospital admission or prolongation of planned admission". Grading of severity of PEP is mainly based on the length of hospital stay. Risk factors for developing PEP include technical matters related to the<unk>  procedure and patient-specific ones. The technical factors include manipulation of and injection of contrast into the pancreatic duct, cannulation attempts lasting more than five minutes, and biliary balloon sphincter dilation; among patient-related factors are female gender, younger age, and Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction. A systematic review of clinical trials concluded that a previous history of PEP or pancreatitis significantly increases the risk for PEP to 17.8% and to 5.5% respectively. Intestinal perforation is a risk of any gastroenterologic endoscopic procedure, and is an additional risk if a sphincterotomy is performed. As the second part of the duodenum is anatomically in a retroperitoneal location (that is, behind the peritoneal structures of the abdomen), perforations due to sphincterotomies are retroperitoneal. Sphincterotomy is also associated with a risk of bleeding. There is also a risk associated with the contrast dye in patients who are allergic to compounds containing iodine. Oversedation can result in dangerously low blood pressure, respiratory depression, nausea, and vomiting. Other complications (less than 1%) may include heart and lung problems, infection in the bile duct called cholangitis. Using antibiotics before the procedure shows some benefits to prevent cholangitis and septicaemia. In rare cases,<unk>  can cause fatal complications. Cases of hospital-acquired (i.e., nosocomial) infections with carbapenem resistant enterobacteriaceae linked to incompletely disinfected duodenoscopes have occurred in the U.S. since at least 2009 per the Food and Drug Administration. Outbreaks were reported from Virginia Mason Hospital in Seattle in 2013, UCLA Health System Los Angeles in 2015, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The FDA issued a safety communication "Design of<unk>  Duodenoscopes May Impede Effective Cleaning" in February 2015, which was updated in December 2015.
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography
Biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy
Cholecystectomy
Cholecystostomy
Cholecystenterostomy
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography
Splenic aspiration
Perihepatic packing