Antibiotics Treatment of<unk>  infection is urgent and delays can be fatal. The location and history related to the infection determines the treatment. The route of administration of an antibiotic varies. Antibiotics effective against<unk>  can be given by IV, oral, or a combination of both, and depend on the specific circumstances and patient characteristics. The use of concurrent treatment with vancomycin or other beta-lactam agents may have a synergistic effect. Both CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA are resistant to traditional anti-staphylococcal beta-lactam antibiotics, such as cephalexin. CA-MRSA has a greater spectrum of antimicrobial susceptibility to sulfa drugs (like co-trimoxazole (trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole), tetracyclines (like doxycycline and minocycline) and clindamycin (for osteomyelitis).<unk>  can be eradicated with a regimen of linezolid, though treatment protocols vary and serum levels of antibiotics vary widely from person to person and may affect outcomes. The effective treatment of<unk>  with linezolid has been successful in 87% of people. Linezolid is more effective in soft tissue infections than vancomycin. This is compared to eradication of infection in those with<unk>  treated with vancomycin. Treatment with vancomycin is successful in approximately 49% of people. Linezolid belongs to the newer oxazolidinone class of antibiotics which has been shown to be effective against both CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA. The Infectious Disease Society of America recommends vancomycin, linezolid, or clindamycin (if susceptible) for treating those with<unk>  pneumonia. Ceftaroline, a fifth-generation cephalosporin, is the first beta-lactam antibiotic approved in the US to treat<unk>  infections in skin and soft tissue or community-acquired pneumonia. Vancomycin and teicoplanin are glycopeptide antibiotics used to treat<unk>  infections. Teicoplanin is a structural congener of vancomycin that has a similar activity spectrum but a longer half-life. Because the oral absorption of vancomycin and teicoplanin is very low, these agents can be administered intravenously to control systemic infections. Treatment of<unk>  infection with vancomycin can be complicated, due to its inconvenient route of administration. Moreover, the efficacy of vancomycin against<unk>  is inferior to that of anti-staphylococcal beta-lactam antibiotics against<unk> -susceptible S.<unk>  (MSSA). Several newly discovered strains of<unk>  show antibiotic resistance even to vancomycin and teicoplanin. These new strains of the<unk>  bacterium have been dubbed vancomycin intermediate-resistant S.<unk>  (VISA). Linezolid, quinupristin/dalfopristin, daptomycin, ceftaroline, and tigecycline are used to treat more severe infections that do not respond to glycopeptides such as vancomycin. Current guidelines recommend daptomycin for VISA bloodstream infections and endocarditis. This left vancomycin as the only effective agent available at the time. However, strains with intermediate (4–8 μg/ml) levels of resistance, termed glycopeptide-intermediate S.<unk>  (GISA) or vancomycin-intermediate S.<unk>  (VISA), began appearing in the late 1990s. The first identified case was in Japan in 1996, and strains have since been found in hospitals in England, France, and the US. The first documented strain with complete (>16 μg/ml) resistance to vancomycin, termed vancomycin-resistant S.<unk>  (VRSA) appeared in the United States in 2002. However, in 2011, a variant of vancomycin was tested that binds to the lactate variation and also binds well to the original target, thus reinstating potent antimicrobial activity. Oxazolidinones such as linezolid became available in the 1990s and are comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against<unk> . Linezolid resistance in S.<unk>  was reported in 2001, but infection rates have been at consistently low levels. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, no resistance was found in staphylococci collected from bacteremia cases between 2001 and 2006. Skin and soft-tissue infections In skin abscesses, the primary treatment recommended is removal of dead tissue, incision, and drainage. More information is needed to determine the effectiveness of specific antibiotics therapy in surgical site infections (SSIs). Examples of soft-tissue infections from<unk>  include ulcers, impetigo, abscesses, and SSIs. In surgical wounds, evidence is weak (high risk of bias) that linezolid may be better than vancomycin to eradicate<unk>  SSIs.<unk>  colonization is also found in nonsurgical wounds such as traumatic wounds, burns, and chronic ulcers (i.e.: diabetic ulcer, pressure ulcer, arterial insufficiency ulcer, venous ulcer). No conclusive evidence has been found about the best antibiotic regimen to treat<unk>  colonization. Children In skin infections and secondary infection sites, topical mupirocin is used successfully. For bacteremia and endocarditis, vancomycin or daptomycin is considered. For children with<unk> -infected bone or joints, treatment is individualized and long-term. Neonates can develop neonatal pustulosis as a result of topical infection with<unk> . Clindamycin is not approved for the treatment of<unk>  infection, but it is still used in children for soft-tissue infections. Endocarditis and bacteremia Evaluation for the replacement of a prosthetic valve is considered. Appropriate antibiotic therapy may be administered for up to six weeks. Four to six weeks of antibiotic treatment is often recommended, and is dependent upon the extent of<unk>  infection. Respiratory infections CA-MRSA in hospitalized patients pneumonia treatment begins before culture results. After the susceptibility to antibiotics is performed, the infection may be treated with vancomycin or linezolid for up to 21 days. If the pneumonia is complicated by the accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs, drainage may be done along with antibiotic therapy. People with cystic fibrosis may develop respiratory complications related to<unk>  infection. The incidence of<unk>  in those with cystic fibrosis increased during 2000 to 2015 by five times. Most of these infections were HA-MRSA.<unk>  accounts for 26% of lung infections in those with cystic fibrosis. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of topical or systematic antibiotics for nasal or extra-nasal<unk>  infection. Bone and joint infections Cleaning the wound of dead tissue and draining abscesses is the first action to treat the<unk>  infection. Administration of antibiotics is not standardized and is adapted by a case-by-case basis. Antibiotic therapy can last up to 3 months and sometimes even longer. Infected implants<unk>  infection can occur associated with implants and joint replacements. Recommendations on treatment are based upon the length of time the implant has been in place. In cases of a recent placement of a surgical implant or artificial joint, the device may be retained while antibiotic therapy continues. If the placement of the device has occurred over 3 weeks ago, the device may be removed. Antibiotic therapy is used in each instance sometimes long-term. Central nervous system<unk>  can infect the central nervous system and form brain abscess, subdural empyema, and spinal epidural abscess. Excision and drainage can be done along with antibiotic treatment. Septic thrombosis of cavernous or dural venous sinus can sometimes be a complication. Other infections Treatment is not standardized for other instances of<unk>  infection in a wide range of tissues. Treatment varies for<unk>  infections related to: subperiosteal abscesses, necrotizing pneumonia, cellulitis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, mediastinitis, myocardial, perinephric, hepatic, and splenic abscesses, septic thrombophlebitis, and severe ocular infections, including endophthalmitis. Pets can be reservoirs and pass on<unk>  to people. In some cases, the infection can be symptomatic and the pet can suffer a<unk>  infection. Health departments recommend that the pet be taken to the veterinarian if<unk>  infections keep occurring in the people who have contact with the pet.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus
Streptococcus bovis
Carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae
Streptococcus pyogenes
Staphylococcus haemolyticus
Corynebacterium diphtheriae