Tommy Edison, a blind film critic, demonstrates for his<unk> ewers how a blind person can cook alone. Mobility Folded long cane A blind man is assisted by a guide dog in Brasília, Brazil Mana<unk> llage, Uttarakhand<unk> sually impaired girl negotiating a rock while rock climbing Many people with serious<unk> s can travel independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Orientation and mobility specialists are professionals who are specifically trained to teach people with<unk> s how to travel safely, confidently, and independently in the home and the community. These professionals can also help blind people to practice travelling on specific routes which they may use often, such as the route from one's house to a convenience store. Becoming familiar with an environment or route can make it much easier for a blind person to navigate successfully. Tools such as the white cane with a red tip – the international symbol of blindness – may also be used to improve mobility. A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation. It is usually swung in a low sweeping motion, across the intended path of travel, to detect obstacles. However, techniques for cane travel can vary depending on the user and/or the situation. Some<unk> sually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane. The choice depends on the individual's<unk> sion, motivation, and other factors. A small number of people employ guide dogs to assist in mobility. These dogs are trained to navigate around various obstacles, and to indicate when it becomes necessary to go up or down a step. However, the helpfulness of guide dogs is limited by the inability of dogs to understand complex directions. The human half of the guide dog team does the directing, based upon skills acquired through previous mobility training. In this sense, the handler might be likened to an aircraft's navigator, who must know how to get from one place to another, and the dog to the pilot, who gets them there safely. GPS devices can also be used as a mobility aid. Such software can assist blind people with orientation and navigation, but it is not a replacement for traditional mobility tools such as white canes and guide dogs. Some blind people are skilled at echolocating silent objects simply by producing mouth clicks and listening to the returning echoes. It has been shown that blind echolocation experts use what is normally the<unk> " part of their brain to process the echoes. Government actions are sometimes taken to make public places more accessible to blind people. Public transportation is freely available to the blind in many cities. Tactile paving and audible traffic signals can make it easier and safer for<unk> sually impaired pedestrians to cross streets. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the right-of-way be given to users of white canes or guide dogs. Reading and magnification Braille watch Most<unk> sually impaired people who are not totally blind read print, either of a regular size or enlarged by magnification devices. Many also read large-print, which is easier for them to read without such devices. A variety of magnifying glasses, some handheld, and some on desktops, can make reading easier for them. Others read braille (or the infrequently used Moon type), or rely on talking books and readers or reading machines, which convert printed text to speech or braille. They use computers with special hardware such as scanners and refreshable braille displays as well as software written specifically for the blind, such as optical character recognition applications and screen readers. Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in the United States, the National Library for the Blind or the RNIB in the United Kingdom. Closed-circuit televisions, equipment that enlarges and contrasts textual items, are a more high-tech alternative to traditional magnification devices. There are also over 100 radio reading services throughout the world that provide people with<unk> sion<unk> s with readings from periodicals over the radio. The International Association of Audio Information Services provides links to all of these organizations. Computers and mobile technology Access technology such as screen readers, screen magnifiers and refreshable braille displays enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications and mobile phones. The availability of assistive technology is increasing, accompanied by concerted efforts to ensure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind. Later versions of Microsoft Windows include an Accessibility Wizard & Magnifier for those with partial<unk> sion, and Microsoft Narrator, a simple screen reader. Linux distributions (as live CDs) for the blind include<unk> nux and Adriane Knoppix, the latter developed in part by Adriane Knopper who has a<unk> . macOS and iOS also come with a built-in screen reader called VoiceOver, while Google TalkBack is built in to most Android devices. The movement towards greater web accessibility is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology, making the web a more inviting place for<unk> sually impaired surfers. Experimental approaches in sensory substitution are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live<unk> ews from a camera. Modified<unk> sual output that includes large print and/or clear simple graphics can be of benefit to users with some residual<unk> sion. Other aids and techniques tactile feature on a Canadian banknote Scaled-down palpable model of mountain for blind tourists Blind people may use talking equipment such as thermometers, watches, clocks, scales, calculators, and compasses. They may also enlarge or mark dials on devices such as ovens and thermostats to make them usable. Other techniques used by blind people to assist them in daily activities include: *Adaptations of coins and banknotes so that the value can be determined by touch. For example: * In some currencies, such as the euro, the pound sterling and the Indian rupee, the size of a note increases with its value. * On US coins, pennies and dimes, and nickels and quarters are similar in size. The larger denominations (dimes and quarters) have ridges along the sides (historically used to prevent the "shaving" of precious metals from the coins), which can now be used for identification. * Some currencies' banknotes have a tactile feature to indicate denomination. For example, the Canadian currency tactile feature is a system of raised dots in one corner, based on braille cells but not standard braille. * It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition. *Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items *Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate *Marking controls of household appliances Most people, once they have been<unk> sually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management. For the blind, there are books in braille, audio-books, and text-to-speech computer programs, machines and e-book readers. Low<unk> sion people can make use of these tools as well as large-print reading materials and e-book readers that provide large font sizes. Computers are important tools of integration for the<unk> sually impaired person. They allow, using standard or specific programs, screen magnification and conversion of text into sound or touch (braille line), and are useful for all levels of<unk> sual handicap. OCR scanners can, in conjunction with text-to-speech software, read the contents of books and documents aloud<unk> a computer. Vendors also build closed-circuit televisions that electronically magnify paper, and even change its contrast and color, for<unk> sually impaired users. For more information, consult Assistive technology. In adults with low<unk> sion there is no conclusive evidence supporting one form of reading aid over another. In several studies stand-mounted devices allowed faster reading than hand-held or portable optical aids. While electronic aids may allow faster reading for individuals with low<unk> sion, portability, ease of use, and affordability must be considered for people. Children with low<unk> sion sometimes have reading delays, but do benefit from phonics-based beginning reading instruction methods. Engaging phonics instruction is multisensory, highly motivating, and hands-on. Typically students are first taught the most frequent sounds of the alphabet letters, especially the so-called short vowel sounds, then taught to blend sounds together with three-letter consonant-vowel-consonant words such as cat, red, sit, hot, sun. Hands-on (or kinesthetically appealing) VERY enlarged print materials such as those found in "The Big Collection of Phonics Flipbooks" by Lynn Gordon (Scholastic, 2010) are helpful for teaching word families and blending skills to beginning readers with low<unk> sion. Beginning reading instructional materials should focus primarily on the lower-case letters, not the capital letters (even though they are larger) because reading text requires familiarity (mostly) with lower-case letters. Phonics-based beginning reading should also be supplemented with phonemic awareness lessons, writing opportunities, and many read-alouds (literature read to children daily) to stimulate motivation, vocabulary development, concept development, and comprehension skill development. Many children with low<unk> sion can be successfully included in regular education environments.
Visual impairment
Dyslexia
Vision disorder
Sexual dysfunction
Cognitive disorder
Cognitive deficit
Cortical blindness
Color blindness