Elimination of the disease is not possible; therefore, managing the disease is essential to prevent economic and ecological losses. Management of the<unk>  disease includes forest integrated pest management; such as sanitation, chemical application, and cultural control. Ideally, several methods are used in conjunction to enhance disease control. Any chosen method relies on specific landowner objectives; such as protecting high value trees, treating individual trees, halting or slowing the spread of an infection center, and reducing the number of new infection foci. All methods depend on timely detection and accurate diagnosis of the disease to be beneficial. Aerial observation (or remote sensing) is able to identify infected forest stands by observing the dead crowns of trees in summer. The use of spectroscopy is being developed for large scale detection and monitoring of<unk> . Chemical control Chemical control can be preventative or therapeutic, depending on risk and resources available. Propiconazole is the principle fungicide for treatment against<unk> . Propiconazole is a broad-spectrum systemic fungicide that interferes with the biosynthesis of ergosterol in cell membranes by binding to 14 alpha-demethylase. Tree injection is the preferred application method to deliver targeted control. Tree injections involve intravascular injections with positive pressure to force the chemical throughout the vascular system of the tree. This method is relatively expensive and requires a trained arborist to perform . Propiconazole injection does not offer protection to neighboring trees and must be applied to all target trees. Preventative propiconazole application does not prevent infection, rather it delays symptoms and reduces mortality. All<unk>  species studied have benefited from preventative propiconazole treatment. This method is often applied to high value trees in an urban area, specifically Northern red<unk> s and live<unk> s. White<unk> s are more disease resistant, thus preventative treatment is unnecessary. Likewise, therapeutic propiconazole application does not eradicate the fungal infection, rather it delays symptoms and reduces mortality. Highly susceptible red<unk> s rarely benefit from therapeutic treatment, but symptomatic white<unk> s improve with treatment. Asymptomatic live<unk> s will respond better to propiconazole treatment than symptomatic trees. Spring application is the most effective time for chemical treatment. Multiple applications, every two years, may be necessary for long-term disease control. Cultural Control Mechanical Mechanical separation of the underground root connections will not allow the disease to transfer to adjacent trees. However, ensuring all root connections are severed is difficult and impractical to verify. Notwithstanding, digging a trench (or plowline) four feet deep around infected trees is an effective cultural control strategy. The plowline should encompass any infected tree. In practice this consists of all trees expected to be connected by a root graft with an infected tree, in addition to all symptomatic trees. In the Mid-West, a plowline 50 feet away from infected trees is recommended. In Central Texas, live<unk>  lateral roots grow at a shallow depth in rocky soil, allowing an extensive root network with neighboring trees. For this reason, a plowline 100 feet away from infected trees is recommended. A second plowline between all symptomatic trees and visibly healthy trees will reinforce this control strategy. The plowline can be created with agricultural machinery, such as an excavator, rock saw, vibratory plow, and bulldozer with ripper or subsoiler. Equipment costs and availability will vary. The placement of a root barrier can offer additional protection to trenching, but increases total costs. A geomembrane is a semipermeable textile (similar to landscape fabric) that physically blocks roots from coming into contact. It is essential that trenching and geomembrane installation occur before removing infected trees. Sanitation Cultural control (sanitation) of<unk>  infection area Sanitation entails removing infectious material to reduce inoculum before new infections a can develop. Red<unk> s are the only group capable of forming spore mats, designated as PSPTs. Therefore, removing any PSPTs that become infected is essential to minimize new infection foci. Furthermore, removing all PSPTs, regardless of symptoms, within an infected area reinforces the process. In practice this consists of removing all PSPTs within the plowline (see Mechanical). Trees will need to be removed annually to sustain control over the years. Tree removal involves felling and burying or burning the logs, ensuring all inoculum is discarded. Alternatively, logs and slash can be chipped or mulched on site. Tree stumps can also be removed to increase sanitation. Girdling infected trees is another method to reduce the spread of<unk> ; although, not as effective as whole tree removal. Girdling requires the complete detachment of the cambium from the PSPTs. Moreover, debarking the trunk of the tree (up to 4 feet) is essential.<unk>  does not produce fruiting bodies on dead or dry wood. Debarking speeds the drying process and assists Hypoxylon coccineum in colonizing the wood. Sap beetles are opportunistic insects, incapable of penetrating a tree without an open wound. Therefore, avoid pruning or felling<unk>  trees when fungal spores and beetles are active. In the Mid-West avoid injuring<unk> s from April to October and prune limbs after the first hard frost, or from November until April. In Texas avoid pruning<unk> s from February through June. Moreover, clean pruning equipment between each tree and apply tree paint to any injury or open wound. Injuries often occur during construction and severe weather. Silviculture Silviculture involves keeping a forest healthy. Typically, a healthy forest with healthy trees will be more resistant to pests and diseases. Thinning is the process of removing unwanted trees to promote the growth of the desired trees.<unk> s are shade intolerant species. Releasing (or thinning)<unk> s from competition provides more light, moisture, and nutrients to the remaining<unk> s. Overall the<unk> s become stronger, more healthy, and more capable to resist pests and disease. Increasing tree species diversity (i.e. species evenness) in a forest is another method to lessen the impact of the disease. Evidence shows increasing diversity in a landscape can increase forest resilience to pests and disease. Moreover, increasing diversity can increase soil microbial communities and ecosystem services. Education Education is the most valuable tool to combat the spread of pests and diseases. In this context, warning the public about the spread of<unk>  by humans. Specifically, people take fuelwood from one location to another location, often long distances. This action is responsible for moving pathogens in those logs to places they are not currently present. Spreading<unk>  to new locations through firewood is a major problem. Moreover, covering firewood with clear plastic can solarize the wood pile and eradicate any pathogens. See also * Japanese<unk>  – caused by Raffaelea quercivora in Japan * Sudden<unk>  death – caused by Phytophthora ramorum References External links * How to Identify, Prevent and Control<unk>  *<unk>  in Minnesota * Texas<unk>  *<unk>  - Identify Common<unk>  Symptoms * Texas A&M Forest Service FAQ * Canadian Forest Invasives –<unk>
Oak wilt
Cradle cap
Owl's eye appearance
Triangular face
Pink ribbon
Cramp-ring
Trimegestone
Digitate wart