There are limited options for treating<unk> , with most approaches focused on managing or reducing individual symptoms. There are no treatment options available to delay the onset of<unk> . Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are often used early in the disorder course; however, benefit is generally small. More than half of people with<unk>  may experience psychological or behavioural symptoms including agitation, sleep problems, aggression, and/or psychosis. Treatment for these symptoms is aimed at reducing the person's distress and keeping the person safe. Treatments other than medication appear to be better for agitation and aggression. Cognitive and behavioral interventions may be appropriate. Some evidence suggests that education and support for the person with<unk> , as well as caregivers and family members, improves outcomes. Palliative care interventions may improve lead to improvements in comfort in dying, but the evidence is low. Exercise programs are beneficial with respect to activities of daily living, and potentially improve<unk> . The effect of therapies can be evaluated for example by assessing agitation using the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI); by assessing mood and engagement with the Menorah Park Engagement Scale (MPES); and the Observed Emotion Rating Scale (OERS) or by assessing indicators for depression using the Cornell Scale for Depression in<unk>  (CSDD) or a simplified version thereof. Often overlooked in treating and managing<unk>  is the role of the caregiver and what is known about how they can support multiple interventions. Findings from a 2021 systematic review of the literature found caregivers of people with<unk>  in nursing homes do not have sufficient tools or clinical guidance for behavioral and psychological symptoms of<unk>  (BPSD) along with medication use. Simple measures like talking to people about their interest can improve the quality of life for care home residents living with<unk> . A programme showed that such simple measures reduced residents' agitation and depression. They also needed fewer GP visits and hospital admissions, which also meant that the programme was cost-saving. Psychological and psychosocial therapies Psychological therapies for<unk>  include some limited evidence for reminiscence therapy (namely, some positive effects in the areas of quality of life, cognition, communication and mood – the first three particularly in care home settings), some benefit for cognitive reframing for caretakers, unclear evidence for validation therapy and tentative evidence for mental exercises, such as cognitive stimulation programs for people with mild to moderate<unk> . Offering personally tailored activities may help reduce challenging behavior and may improve quality of life. It is not clear if personally tailored activities have an impact on affect or improve for the quality of life for the caregiver. Adult daycare centers as well as special care units in nursing homes often provide specialized care for<unk>  patients. Daycare centers offer supervision, recreation, meals, and limited health care to participants, as well as providing respite for caregivers. In addition, home care can provide one-to-one support and care in the home allowing for more individualized attention that is needed as the disorder progresses. Psychiatric nurses can make a distinctive contribution to people's mental health. Since<unk>  impairs normal communication due to changes in receptive and expressive language, as well as the ability to plan and problem solve, agitated behaviour is often a form of communication for the person with<unk> . Actively searching for a potential cause, such as pain, physical illness, or overstimulation can be helpful in reducing agitation. Additionally, using an "ABC analysis of behaviour" can be a useful tool for understanding behavior in people with<unk> . It involves looking at the antecedents (A), behavior (B), and consequences (C) associated with an event to help define the problem and prevent further incidents that may arise if the person's needs are misunderstood. The strongest evidence for non-pharmacological therapies for the management of changed behaviours in<unk>  is for using such approaches. Low quality evidence suggests that regular (at least five sessions of) music therapy may help institutionalized residents. It may reduce depressive symptoms and improve overall behaviour. It may also supply a beneficial effect on emotional well-being and quality of life, as well as reduce anxiety. In 2003, The Alzheimer's Society established 'Singing for the Brain' (SftB) a project based on pilot studies which suggested that the activity encouraged participation and facilitated the learning of new songs. The sessions combine aspects of reminiscence therapy and music. Musical and interpersonal connectedness can underscore the value of the person and improve quality of life. Some London hospitals found that using color, designs, pictures and lights helped people with<unk>  adjust to being at the hospital. These adjustments to the layout of the<unk>  wings at these hospitals helped patients by preventing confusion. Life story work as part of reminiscence therapy, and video biographies have been found to address the needs of clients and their caregivers in various ways, offering the client the opportunity to leave a legacy and enhance their personhood and also benefitting youth who participate in such work. Such interventions can be more beneficial when undertaken at a relatively early stage of<unk> . They may also be problematic in those who have difficulties in processing past experiences Animal-assisted therapy has been found to be helpful. Drawbacks may be that pets are not always welcomed in a communal space in the care setting. An animal may pose a risk to residents, or may be perceived to be dangerous. Certain animals may also be regarded as “unclean” or “dangerous” by some cultural groups. Occupational therapy also addresses psychological and psychosocial needs of patients with<unk>  through improving daily occupational performance and caregivers’ competence. When compensatory intervention strategies are added to their daily routine, the level of performance is enhanced and reduces the burden commonly placed on their caregivers. Occupational therapists can also work with other disciplines to create a client centered intervention. To manage cognitive disability, and coping with behavioral and psychological symptoms of<unk> , combined occupational and behavioral therapies can support patients with<unk>  even further. Cognitive training There is no strong evidence to suggest that cognitive training is beneficial for people with Parkinson's disease,<unk> , or mild cognitive impairment. Personally tailored activities Offering personally tailored activity sessions to people with<unk>  in long-term care homes may help manage challenging behaviour. Medications Donepezil No medications have been shown to prevent or cure<unk> . Medications may be used to treat the behavioural and cognitive symptoms, but have no effect on the underlying disease process. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil, may be useful for Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease<unk> , DLB, or vascular<unk> . The quality of the evidence is poor and the benefit is small. No difference has been shown between the agents in this family. In a minority of people side effects include a slow heart rate and fainting. Rivastigmine is recommended for treating symptoms in Parkinson's disease<unk> . Before prescribing antipsychotic medication in the elderly, an assessment for an underlying cause of the behavior is needed. Severe and life-threatening reactions occur in almost half of people with DLB, and can be fatal after a single dose. People with Lewy body<unk> s who take neuroleptics are at risk for neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a life-threatening illness. Extreme caution is required in the use of antipsychotic medication in people with DLB because of their sensitivity to these agents. Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat<unk>  only if non-drug therapies have not worked, and the person's actions threaten themselves or others. Aggressive behavior changes are sometimes the result of other solvable problems, that could make treatment with antipsychotics unnecessary. Because people with<unk>  can be aggressive, resistant to their treatment, and otherwise disruptive, sometimes antipsychotic drugs are considered as a therapy in response. These drugs have risky adverse effects, including increasing the person's chance of stroke and death. Given these adverse events and small benefit antipsychotics are avoided whenever possible. Generally, stopping antipsychotics for people with<unk>  does not cause problems, even in those who have been on them a long time. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockers such as memantine may be of benefit but the evidence is less conclusive than for AChEIs. Due to their differing mechanisms of action memantine and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors can be used in combination however the benefit is slight. An extract of Ginkgo biloba known as EGb 761 has been widely used for treating mild to moderate<unk>  and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Its use is approved throughout Europe. The World Federation of Biological Psychiatry guidelines lists EGb 761 with the same weight of evidence (level B) given to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and mementine. EGb 761 is the only one that showed improvement of symptoms in both AD and vascular<unk> . EGb 761 is seen as being able to play an important role either on its own or as an add-on particularly when other therapies prove ineffective. EGb 761 is seen to be neuroprotective; it is a free radical scavenger, improves mitochondrial function, and modulates serotonin and dopamine levels. Many studies of its use in mild to moderate<unk>  have shown it to significantly improve cognitive function, activities of daily living, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and
Dementia
Delirium
Pseudodementia
Procidentia
Hypothyroidism
Subcortical dementia
Anti-Hu associated encephalitis
Vascular dementia