Typical stages of a<unk>  procedure. Initial planning To accurately plan the<unk>  procedure, a thorough clinical examination is performed to understand the characteristics of the tumour. In addition, a range of imaging modalities can be used to visualise the shape and size of the tumour and its relation to surrounding tissues and organs. These include x-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed axial tomography (CT or CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The data from many of these sources can be used to create a 3D visualisation of the tumour and the surrounding tissues. Using this information, a plan of the optimal distribution of the radiation sources can be developed. This includes consideration of how the source carriers (applicators), which are used to deliver the radiation to the treatment site, should be placed and positioned. Applicators are non-radioactive and are typically needles or plastic catheters. The specific type of applicator used will depend on the type of cancer being treated and the characteristics of the target tumour. This initial planning helps to ensure that ‘cold spots’ (too little irradiation) and ‘hot spots’ (too much irradiation) are avoided during treatment, as these can respectively result in treatment failure and side-effects. Insertion Before radioactive sources can be delivered to the tumour site, the applicators have to be inserted and correctly positioned in line with the initial planning. Imaging techniques, such as x-ray, fluoroscopy and ultrasound are typically used to help guide the placement of the applicators to their correct positions and to further refine the treatment plan. CAT scans and MRI can also be used. Once the applicators are inserted, they are held in place against the skin using sutures or adhesive tape to prevent them from moving. Once the applicators are confirmed as being in the correct position, further imaging can be performed to guide detailed treatment planning. Creation of a virtual patient Creation of a virtual patient to plan the delivery of<unk> . The images of the patient with the applicators in situ are imported into treatment planning software and the patient is brought into a dedicated shielded room for treatment. The treatment planning software enables multiple 2D images of the treatment site to be translated into a 3D ‘virtual patient’, within which the position of the applicators can be defined. The spatial relationships between the applicators, the treatment site and the surrounding healthy tissues within this ‘virtual patient’ are a copy of the relationships in the actual patient. Optimizing the irradiation plan Refinement of the treatment plan during a<unk>  procedure. To identify the optimal spatial and temporal distribution of radiation sources within the applicators of the implanted tissue or cavity, the treatment planning software allows virtual radiation sources to be placed within the virtual patient. The software shows a graphical representation of the distribution of the irradiation. This serves as a guide for the<unk>  team to refine the distribution of the sources and provide a treatment plan that is optimally tailored to the anatomy of each patient before actual delivery of the irradiation begins. This approach is sometimes called ‘dose-painting’. Treatment delivery The radiation sources used for<unk>  are always enclosed within a non-radioactive capsule. The sources can be delivered manually, but are more commonly delivered through a technique known as ‘afterloading’. Manual delivery of<unk>  is limited to a few LDR applications, due to risk of radiation exposure to clinical staff. In contrast, afterloading involves the accurate positioning of non-radioactive applicators in the treatment site, which are subsequently loaded with the radiation sources. In manual afterloading, the source is delivered into the applicator by the operator. Remote afterloading systems provide protection from radiation exposure to healthcare professionals by securing the radiation source in a shielded safe. Once the applicators are correctly positioned in the patient, they are connected to an ‘afterloader’ machine (containing the radioactive sources) through a series of connecting guide tubes. The treatment plan is sent to the afterloader, which then controls the delivery of the sources along the guide tubes into the pre-specified positions within the applicator. This process is only engaged once staff are removed from the treatment room. The sources remain in place for a pre-specified length of time, again following the treatment plan, following which they are returned along the tubes to the afterloader. On completion of delivery of the radioactive sources, the applicators are carefully removed from the body. Patients typically recover quickly from the<unk>  procedure, enabling it to often be performed on an outpatient basis. Between 2003 and 2012 in United States community hospitals, the rate of hospital stays with<unk>  (internal radiation therapy) had a 24.4 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 45–64 years and a 27.3 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 65–84 years.<unk>  was the OR procedure with the greatest change in occurrence among hospital stays paid by Medicare and private insurance.
Brachytherapy
Carboxytherapy
Irradiation
Organotherapy
Trepanning
Microwave thermotherapy
Radiation therapy
Chemoradiotherapy