Situational<unk> <unk>  can be caused by human-made, technological and natural disasters, including war, abuse, violence, mechanized accidents (such as vehicle accidents) or medical emergencies. An individual's response to<unk>  can be varied based on the type of<unk> , as well as socio-demographic and background factors. There are several behavioral responses commonly used towards stressors including the proactive, reactive, and passive responses. Proactive responses include attempts to address and correct a stressor before it has a noticeable effect on lifestyle. Reactive responses occur after the stress and possible<unk>  has occurred and is aimed more at correcting or minimizing the damage of a stressful event. A passive response is often characterized by an emotional numbness or ignorance of a stressor. Those who are able to be proactive can often overcome stressors and are more likely to be able to cope well with unexpected situations. On the other hand, those who are more reactive will often experience more noticeable effects from an unexpected stressor. In the case of those who are passive, victims of a stressful event are more likely to suffer from long-term<unk> tic effects and often enact no intentional coping actions. These observations may suggest that the level of<unk>  associated with a victim is related to such independent coping abilities. There is also a distinction between<unk>  induced by recent situations and long-term<unk>  which may have been buried in the unconscious from past situations such as childhood abuse.<unk>  is sometimes overcome through healing; in some cases this can be achieved by recreating or revisiting the origin of the<unk>  under more<unk> ly safe circumstances, such as with a therapist. More recently, awareness of the consequences of climate change is seen as a source of<unk>  as individuals contemplate future events as well as experience climate change related disasters. Emotional experiences within these contexts are increasing, and collective processing and engagement with these emotions can lead to increased resilience and post<unk> tic growth, as well as a greater sense of belongingness. These outcomes are protective against the devastating impacts of<unk> . In psychodynamics Psychodynamic viewpoints are controversial, but have been shown to have utility therapeutically. French neurologist, Jean-Martin Charcot, argued in the 1890s that<unk>  was the origin of all instances of the mental illness known as hysteria. Charcot's<unk> tic hysteria" often manifested as paralysis that followed a physical<unk> , typically years later after what Charcot described as a period of "incubation". Sigmund Freud, Charcot's student and the father of psychoanalysis, examined the concept of<unk>  throughout his career. Jean Laplanche has given a general description of Freud's understanding of<unk> , which varied significantly over the course of Freud's career: "An event in the subject's life, defined by its intensity, by the subject's incapacity to respond adequately to it and by the upheaval and long-lasting effects that it brings about in the psychical organization". The French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan claimed that what he called "The Real" had a<unk> tic quality external to symbolization. As an object of anxiety, Lacan maintained that The Real is "the essential object which isn't an object any longer, but this something faced with which all words cease and all categories fail, the object of anxiety par excellence". Fred Alford, citing the work of object relations theorist Donald Winnicott, uses the concept of inner other, and internal representation of the social world, with which one converses internally and which is generated through interactions with others. He posits that the inner other is damaged by<unk>  but can be repaired by conversations with others such as therapists. He relates the concept of the inner other to the work of Albert Camus viewing the inner other as that which removes the absurd. Alford notes how<unk>  damages trust in social relations due to fear of exploitation and argues that culture and social relations can help people recover from<unk> . Diana Fosha, a pioneer of modern psychodynamic perspective, also argues that social relations can help people recover from<unk> , but specifically refers to attachment theory and the attachment dynamic of the therapeutic relationship. Fosha argues that the sense of emotional safety and co-regulation that occurs in a psychodynamically-oriented therapeutic relationship acts as the secure attachment that is necessary to allow a client to experience and process through their<unk>  safely and effectively. Stress disorders All<unk> s originate from stress, a physiological response to an unpleasant stimulus. Long-term stress increases the risk of poor mental health and mental disorders, which can be attributed to secretion of glucocorticoids for a long period of time. Such prolonged exposure causes many physiological dysfunctions such as the suppression of the immune system and increase in blood pressure. Not only does it affect the body physiologically, but a morphological change in the hippocampus also takes place. Studies showed that extreme stress early in life can disrupt normal development of hippocampus and impact its functions in adulthood. Studies surely show a correlation between the size of hippocampus and one's susceptibility to stress disorders. In times of war,<unk>  has been known as shell shock or combat stress reaction.<unk>  may cause an acute stress reaction which may lead to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD emerged as the label for this condition after the Vietnam War in which many veterans returned to their respective countries demoralized, and sometimes, addicted to psychoactive substances. The symptoms of PTSD must persist for at least one month for diagnosis to be made. The main symptoms of PTSD consist of four main categories:<unk>  (i.e. intense fear), reliving (i.e. flashbacks), avoidance behavior (i.e. emotional numbing), and hypervigilance (i.e. continuous scanning of the environment for danger). Research shows that about 60% of the US population reported as having experienced at least one<unk> tic symptom in their lives, but only a small proportion actually develops PTSD. There is a correlation between the risk of PTSD and whether or not the act was inflicted deliberately by the offender.<unk>  is treated with therapy and, if indicated, psychotropic medications. The term continuous posttraumatic stress disorder (CTSD) was introduced into the<unk>  literature by Gill Straker (1987). It was originally used by South African clinicians to describe the effects of exposure to frequent, high levels of violence usually associated with civil conflict and political repression. The term is also applicable to the effects of exposure to contexts in which gang violence and crime are endemic as well as to the effects of ongoing exposure to life threats in high-risk occupations such as police, fire, and emergency services. As one of the processes of treatment, confrontation with their sources of<unk>  plays a crucial role. While debriefing people immediately after a critical incident has not been shown to reduce incidence of PTSD, coming alongside people experiencing<unk>  in a supportive way has become standard practice. Moral Injury Moral injury is distress such as guilty or shame following a moral transgression. There are many other definitions some based on different models of causality. Moral injury is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder but is distinguished from it. Moral injury is associated with guilt and shame while PTSD is correlated with fear and anxiety. Vicarious<unk>  Vicarious<unk>  affects workers who witness their clients'<unk> . It is more likely to occur in situations where<unk>  related work is the norm rather than the exception. Listening with empathy to the clients generates feeling, and seeing oneself in clients'<unk>  may compound the risk for developing<unk>  symptoms.<unk>  may also result if workers witness situations that happen in the course of their work (e.g. violence in the workplace, reviewing violent video tapes.) Risk increases with exposure and with the absence of help seeking protective factors and pre-preparation of preventive strategies. Individuals who have a personal history of<unk>  are also at increased risk for developing vicarious<unk> . Vicarious<unk>  can lead workers to develop more negative views of themselves, others, and the world as a whole, which can compromise their quality of life and ability to work effectively.
Psychological trauma
Childhood trauma
Psychological abuse
Psychological stress
Social stress
Domestic violence against men
Adverse childhood experiences
Incident stress