<unk> , also commonly referred to as punitive<unk> , is the misuse of<unk> , including diagnosis, detention, and treatment, for the purposes of obstructing the human rights of individuals and/or groups in a society. In other words,<unk>  of<unk>  (including that for<unk>  purposes) is the deliberate action of having citizens<unk> cally diagnosed who need neither<unk> c restraint nor<unk> c treatment.<unk> sts have been involved in human rights<unk> s in states across the world when the definitions of mental disease were expanded to include<unk>  disobedience. As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during<unk>  disturbances. Nowadays, in many countries,<unk>  prisoners are sometimes confined and<unk> d in<unk> c hospitals.<unk>  possesses a built-in capacity for<unk>  that is greater than in other areas of medicine. The diagnosis of mental disease allows the state to hold persons against their will and insist upon therapy in their interest and in the broader interests of society.<unk>  can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow<unk>  incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such<unk>  trials. The use of hospitals instead of jails also prevents the victims from receiving legal aid before the courts in some countries, makes indefinite incarceration possible, and discredits the individuals and their ideas. In that manner, whenever open trials are undesirable, they are avoided. The<unk><unk>  of the power entrusted to physicians, and particularly<unk> sts, has a long and abundant history, for example during the Nazi era and the Soviet rule when religious and<unk>  dissenters were labeled as "mentally ill" and subjected to inhumane "treatments". In the period from the 1960s up to 1986,<unk>  of<unk>  for<unk>  and ideological purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in other Eastern European countries such as Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The practice of incarceration of religious and<unk>  dissidents in<unk> c hospitals in the Eastern Bloc and the former USSR damaged the credibility of<unk> c practice in these states and entailed strong condemnation from the international community.<unk>  also takes place in the People's Republic of China.<unk> c diagnoses such as the diagnosis of "sluggish schizophrenia" in<unk>  dissidents in the USSR were used for<unk>  purposes.
Political abuse of psychiatry
Bullying in medicine
Responsible drug use
Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS
Prescription drug addiction
Mental illness denial
Self-experimentation in medicine
Pharmacological torture