Radiography to identify possible<unk> s after a knee injury A<unk>  may be diagnosed based on the history given and the physical examination performed. Radiographic imaging often is performed to confirm the diagnosis. Under certain circumstances, radiographic examination of the nearby joints is indicated in order to exclude dislocations and<unk> -dislocations. In situations where projectional radiography alone is insufficient, Computed Tomography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) may be indicated. Classification Compare healthy<unk>  with different types of<unk> s: (a) closed<unk>  (b) open<unk>  (c) transverse<unk>  (d) spiral<unk>  (e) comminuted<unk>  (f) impacted<unk>  (g) greenstick<unk>  (h) oblique<unk>  Open ankle<unk>  with luxation Periprosthetic<unk>  of left femur In orthopedic medicine,<unk> s are classified in various ways. Historically they are named after the physician who first described the<unk>  conditions, however, there are more systematic classifications as well. They may be divided into stable versus unstable depending on the likelihood that they may shift further. Mechanism * Traumatic<unk>  – a<unk>  due to sustained trauma. e.g.,<unk> s caused by a fall, road traffic accident, fight, etc. * Pathologic<unk>  – a<unk>  through a<unk>  that has been made weak by some underlying disease is called pathological<unk> . e.g., a<unk>  through a<unk>  weakened by metastasis. Osteoporosis is the most common cause of pathological<unk> . * Periprosthetic<unk>  – a<unk>  at the point of mechanical weakness at the end of an implant Soft-tissue involvement * Closed/simple<unk> s are those in which the overlying skin is intact * Open/compound<unk> s involve wounds that communicate with the<unk> , or where<unk>  hematoma is exposed, and may thus expose<unk>  to contamination. Open injuries carry a higher risk of infection. * Clean<unk>  * Contaminated<unk>  Displacement * Non-displaced * Displaced * Translated, or ad latus, with sideways displacement. * Angulated * Rotated * Shortened, a reduction in overall<unk>  length when displaced<unk>  fragments overlap<unk>  pattern * Linear<unk>  – a<unk>  that is parallel to the<unk> 's long axis * Transverse<unk>  – a<unk>  that is at a right angle to the<unk> 's long axis * Oblique<unk>  – a<unk>  that is diagonal to a<unk> 's long axis (more than 30°) * Spiral<unk>  – a<unk>  where at least one part of the<unk>  has been twisted * Compression<unk> /wedge<unk>  – usually occurs in the vertebrae, for example when the front portion of a vertebra in the spine collapses due to osteoporosis (a medical condition which causes<unk> s to become brittle and susceptible to<unk> , with or without trauma) * Impacted<unk>  – a<unk>  caused when<unk>  fragments are driven into each other * Avulsion<unk>  – a<unk>  where a fragment of<unk>  is separated from the main mass Fragments * Incomplete<unk>  – a<unk>  in which the<unk>  fragments are still partially joined, in such cases, there is a crack in the osseous tissue that does not completely traverse the width of the<unk> . * Complete<unk>  – a<unk>  in which<unk>  fragments separate completely. * Comminuted<unk>  – a<unk>  in which the<unk>  has broken into several pieces. Anatomical location An anatomical classification may begin with specifying the involved body part, such as the head or arm, followed by more specific localization.<unk> s that have additional definition criteria than merely localization often may be classified as subtypes of<unk> s, such as a Holstein-Lewis<unk>  being a subtype of a humerus<unk> . Most typical examples in an orthopaedic classification given in the previous section cannot be classified appropriately into any specific part of an anatomical classification, however, as they may apply to multiple anatomical<unk>  sites. * Skull<unk>  * Basilar skull<unk>  * Blowout<unk>  – a<unk>  of the walls or floor of the orbit * Mandibular<unk>  * Nasal<unk>  * Le Fort<unk>  of skull – facial<unk> s involving the maxillary<unk>  and surrounding structures in a usually bilateral and either horizontal, pyramidal, or transverse way. * Spinal<unk>  * Cervical<unk>  *<unk>  of C1, including Jefferson<unk>  *<unk>  of C2, including Hangman's<unk>  * Flexion teardrop<unk>  – a<unk>  of the anteroinferior aspect of a cervical vertebral * Clay-shoveler<unk>  –<unk>  through the spinous process of a vertebra occurring at any of the lower cervical or upper thoracic vertebrae * Burst<unk>  – in which a vertebra breaks from a high-energy axial load * Compression<unk>  – a collapse of a vertebra, often in the form of wedge<unk> s due to larger compression anteriorly * Chance<unk>  – compression injury to the anterior portion of a vertebral body with concomitant distraction injury to posterior elements * Holdsworth<unk>  – an unstable<unk>  dislocation of the thoraco lumbar junction of the spine * Rib<unk>  * Sternal<unk>  * Shoulder<unk>  * Clavicle<unk>  * Scapular<unk>  * Arm<unk>  * Humerus<unk> <unk>  of upper arm) * Supracondylar<unk>  * Holstein-Lewis<unk>  – a<unk>  of the distal third of the humerus resulting in entrapment of the radial nerve * Forearm<unk>  * Ulnar<unk>  * Monteggia<unk>  – a<unk>  of the proximal third of the ulna with the dislocation of the head of the radius * Hume<unk>  – a<unk>  of the olecranon with an associated anterior dislocation of the radial head * Radius<unk>  * Essex-Lopresti<unk>  – a<unk>  of the radial head with concomitant dislocation of the distal radio-ulnar joint with disruption of the interosseous membrane * Distal radius<unk>  * Galeazzi<unk>  – a<unk>  of the radius with dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint * Colles'<unk>  – a distal<unk>  of the radius with dorsal (posterior) displacement of the wrist and hand * Smith's<unk>  – a distal<unk>  of the radius with volar (ventral) displacement of the wrist and hand * Barton's<unk>  – an intra-articular<unk>  of the distal radius with dislocation of the radiocarpal joint * Hand<unk>  * Scaphoid<unk>  * Rolando<unk>  – a comminuted intra-articular<unk>  through the base of the first metacarpal<unk>  * Bennett's<unk>  – a<unk>  of the base of the first metacarpal<unk>  which extends into the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint * Boxer's<unk>  – a<unk>  at the neck of a metacarpal * Broken finger – a<unk>  of the carpal phalanges * Pelvic<unk>  *<unk>  of the hip<unk>  * Duverney<unk>  – an isolated pelvic<unk>  involving only the iliac wing * Femoral<unk>  * Hip<unk>  (anatomically a<unk>  of the femur<unk>  and not the hip<unk>  * Patella<unk>  * Crus<unk>  * Tibia<unk>  * Pilon<unk>  * Tibial plateau<unk>  * Bumper<unk>  – a<unk>  of the lateral tibial plateau caused by a forced valgus applied to the knee * Segond<unk>  – an avulsion<unk>  of the lateral tibial condyle * Gosselin<unk>  – a<unk> s of the tibial plafond into anterior and posterior fragments * Toddler's<unk>  – an undisplaced and spiral<unk>  of the distal third to distal half of the tibia * Fibular<unk>  * Maisonneuve<unk>  – a spiral<unk>  of the proximal third of the fibula associated with a tear of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis and the interosseous membrane * Le Fort<unk>  of ankle – a vertical<unk>  of the antero-medial part of the distal fibula with avulsion of the anterior tibiofibular ligament * Bosworth<unk>  – a<unk>  with an associated fixed posterior dislocation of the distal fibular fragment that becomes trapped behind the posterior tibial tubercle; the injury is caused by severe external rotation of the ankle * Combined tibia and fibula<unk>  * Trimalleolar<unk>  – involving the lateral malleolus, medial malleolus, and the distal posterior aspect of the tibia * Bimalleolar<unk>  – involving the lateral malleolus and the medial malleolus * Pott's<unk>  * Foot<unk>  * Lisfranc<unk>  – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus * Jones<unk>  – a<unk>  of the proximal end of the fifth metatarsal * March<unk>  – a<unk>  of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress *Cuneiform<unk>  – a<unk>  of one of the three cuneiform<unk> s typically due to direct blow, axial load, or avulsion * Calcaneal<unk>  – a<unk>  of the calcaneus (heel<unk>  * Broken toe – a<unk>  of the pedal phalanges OTA/AO classification The Orthopaedic Trauma Association Committee for Coding and Classification published its classification system in 1996, adopting a similar system to the 1987 AO Foundation system. In 2007, they extended their system, unifying the two systems regarding wrist, hand, foot, and ankle<unk> s. Classifications named after people A number of classifications are named after the person (eponymous) who developed it. * "Denis classification" for spinal<unk> s * "Frykman classification" for forearm<unk> s<unk> s of radius and ulna) * "Gustilo open<unk>  classification" * "Letournel and Judet Classification" for Acetabular<unk> s *
Bone fracture
Sprain
Osteolysis
Osteomyelitis
Spinal fracture
Tooth decay
Acroosteolysis
Osteonecrosis of the jaw