Labelling transformers containing<unk> s The toxicity of<unk> s varies considerably among congeners. The coplanar<unk> s, known as nonortho<unk> s because they are not substituted at the ring positions ortho to (next to) the other ring, (such as<unk> s 77, 126 and 169), tend to have dioxin-like properties, and generally are among the most toxic congeners. Because<unk> s are almost invariably found in complex mixtures, the concept of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) has been developed to facilitate risk assessment and regulation, where more toxic<unk>  congeners are assigned higher TEF values on a scale from 0 to 1. One of the most toxic compounds known, 2,3,7,8-2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzopdioxin, a PCDD, is assigned a TEF of 1. In June 2020, State Impact of Pennsylvania stated that "In 1979, the EPA banned the use of<unk> s, but they still exist in some products produced before 1979. They persist in the environment because they bind to sediments and soils. High exposure to<unk> s can cause birth defects, developmental delays, and liver changes." Exposure and excretion In general, people are exposed to<unk> s overwhelmingly through food, much less so by breathing contaminated air, and least by skin contact. Once exposed, some<unk> s may change to other chemicals inside the body. These chemicals or unchanged<unk> s can be excreted in feces or may remain in a person's body for years, with half lives estimated at 10–15 years.<unk> s collect in body fat and milk fat.<unk> s biomagnify up the food web and are present in fish and waterfowl of contaminated aquifers. Human infants are exposed to<unk> s through breast milk or by intrauterine exposure through transplacental transfer of<unk> s and are at the top of the food chain. Workers recycling old equipment in the electronics recycling industry can also be exposed to<unk> s. Signs and symptoms Humans The most commonly observed health effects in people exposed to extremely high levels of<unk> s are skin conditions, such as chloracne and rashes, but these were known to be symptoms of acute systemic poisoning dating back to 1922. Studies in workers exposed to<unk> s have shown changes in blood and urine that may indicate liver damage. In Japan in 1968, 280 kg of<unk> -contaminated rice bran oil was used as chicken feed, resulting in a mass poisoning, known as Yushō disease, in over 1800 people. Common symptoms included dermal and ocular lesions, irregular menstrual cycles and lowered immune responses. Other symptoms included fatigue, headaches, coughs, and unusual skin sores. Additionally, in children, there were reports of poor cognitive development. Women exposed to<unk> s before or during pregnancy can give birth to children with lowered cognitive ability, immune compromise, and motor control problems. There is evidence that crash dieters that have been exposed to<unk> s have an elevated risk of health complications. Stored<unk> s in the adipose tissue become mobilized into the blood when individuals begin to crash diet.<unk> s have shown toxic and mutagenic effects by interfering with hormones in the body.<unk> s, depending on the specific congener, have been shown to both inhibit and imitate estradiol, the main sex hormone in females. Imitation of the estrogen compound can feed estrogen-dependent breast cancer cells, and possibly cause other cancers, such as uterine or cervical. Inhibition of estradiol can lead to serious developmental problems for both males and females, including sexual, skeletal, and mental development issues. In a cross-sectional study,<unk> s were found to be negatively associated with testosterone levels in adolescent boys. High<unk>  levels in adults have been shown to result in reduced levels of the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine, which affects almost every physiological process in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate. It also resulted in reduced immunity and increased thyroid disorders. Animals Animals that eat<unk> -contaminated food, even for short periods of time, suffer liver damage and may die. In 1968 in Japan, 400,000 birds died after eating poultry feed that was contaminated with<unk> s. Animals that ingest smaller amounts of<unk> s in food over several weeks or months develop various health effects, including anemia; acne-like skin conditions (chloracne); liver, stomach, and thyroid gland injuries (including hepatocarcinoma), and thymocyte apoptosis. Other effects of<unk> s in animals include changes in the immune system, behavioral alterations, and impaired reproduction.<unk> s that have dioxin-like activity are known to cause a variety of teratogenic effects in animals. Exposure to<unk> s causes hearing loss and symptoms similar to hypothyroidism in rats. Cancer In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified dioxin-like<unk> s as human carcinogens. According to the U.S. EPA,<unk> s have been shown to cause cancer in animals and evidence supports a cancer-causing effect in humans. Per the EPA, studies have found increases in malignant melanoma and rare liver cancers in<unk>  workers. In 2013, the IARC determined that the evidence for<unk> s causing non-Hodgkin lymphoma is "limited" and "not consistent". In contrast an association between elevated blood levels of<unk> s and non-Hodgkin lymphoma had been previously accepted.<unk> s may play a role in the development of cancers of the immune system because some tests of laboratory animals subjected to very high doses of<unk> s have shown effects on the animals' immune system, and some studies of human populations have reported an association between environmental levels of<unk> s and immune response. Lawsuits related to health effects In the early 1990s, Monsanto faced several lawsuits over harm caused by<unk> s from workers at companies such as Westinghouse that bought<unk> s from Monsanto and used them to build electrical equipment. Monsanto and its customers, such as Westinghouse and GE, also faced litigation from third parties, such as workers at scrap yards that bought used electrical equipment and broke them down to reclaim valuable metals. Monsanto settled some of these cases and won the others, on the grounds that it had clearly told its customers that<unk> s were dangerous chemicals and that protective procedures needed to be implemented. In 2003, Monsanto and Solutia Inc., a Monsanto corporate spin-off, reached a $700 million settlement with the residents of West Anniston, Alabama, who had been affected by the manufacturing and dumping of<unk> s. In a trial lasting six weeks, the jury found that "Monsanto had engaged in outrageous behavior, and held the corporations and its corporate successors liable on all six counts it considered – including negligence, nuisance, wantonness and suppression of the truth." In 2014, the Los Angeles Superior Court found that Monsanto was not liable for cancers claimed to be from<unk> s permeating the food supply of three plaintiffs who had developed non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. After a four-week trial, the jury found that Monsanto's production and sale of<unk> s between 1935 and 1977 were not substantial causes of the cancer. In 2015, the cities of Spokane, San Diego, and San Jose initiated lawsuits against Monsanto to recover cleanup costs for<unk>  contaminated sites, alleging that Monsanto continued to sell<unk> s without adequate warnings after they knew of their toxicity. Monsanto issued a media statement concerning the San Diego case, claiming that improper use or disposal by third-parties, of a lawfully sold product, was not the company's responsibility. In July 2015, a St Louis county court in Missouri found that Monsanto, Solutia, Pharmacia and Pfizer were not liable for a series of deaths and injuries caused by<unk> s manufactured by Monsanto Chemical Company until 1977. The trial took nearly a month and the jury took a day of deliberations to return a verdict against the plaintiffs from throughout the USA. Similar cases are ongoing. "The evidence simply doesn't support the assertion that the historic use of<unk>  products was the cause of the plaintiffs' harms. We are confident that the jury will conclude, as two other juries have found in similar cases, that the former Monsanto Company is not responsible for the alleged injuries," a Monsanto statement said. In May 2016, a Missouri state jury ordered Monsanto to pay $46.5 million to three plaintiffs whose exposure to<unk>  caused non-Hodgkin lymphoma. In December 2016, the state of Washington filed suit in King County. The state sought damages and clean up costs related to<unk> s. In March 2018 Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine also filed a lawsuit against Monsanto over health issues posed by<unk> s. On November 21, 2019, a federal judge denied a bid by Monsanto to dismiss a lawsuit filed by LA County calling the company to clean up cancer-causing<unk> s from Los Angeles County waterways and storm sewer pipelines. The lawsuit calls for Monsanto to pay for cleanup of<unk> s from dozens of waterways, including the LA River, San Gabriel River and the Dominguez Watershed. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay $650 million to settle local lawsuits related to Monsanto's pollution of public waters in various areas of the United States with<unk> s.
Polychlorinated biphenyl
Polychlorinated naphthalene
Asbestos
Naphthalene
Nitrobenzene
Vinyl chloride
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
Alkylphenol