<unk>  is the hypothetical non-therapeutic use of<unk>  therapy by athletes in order to improve their performance in those sporting events which prohibit such applications of<unk> tic modification technology, and for reasons other than the treatment of disease. , there is no evidence that<unk>  has been used for athletic performance-enhancement in any sporting events.<unk>  would involve the use of<unk>  transfer to increase or decrease<unk>  expression and protein biosynthesis of a specific human protein; this could be done by directly injecting the<unk>  carrier into the person, or by taking cells from the person, transfecting the cells, and administering the cells back to the person. The historical development of interest in<unk>  by athletes and concern about the risks of<unk>  and how to detect it moved in parallel with the development of the field of<unk>  therapy, especially with the publication in 1998 of work on a transgenic mouse overexpressing insulin-like growth factor 1 that was much stronger than normal mice, even in old age, preclinical studies published in 2002 of a way to deliver erythropoietin (EPO) via<unk>  therapy, and publication in 2004 of the creation of a "marathon mouse" with much greater endurance than normal mice, created by delivering the<unk>  expressing PPAR gamma to the mice. The scientists<unk> rating these publications were all contacted directly by athletes and coaches seeking access to the technology. The public became aware of that activity in 2006 when such efforts were part of the evidence presented in the trial of a German coach. Scientists themselves, as well as bodies including the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), the International Olympic Committee, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, started discussing the risk of<unk>  in 2001, and by 2003 WADA had added<unk>  to the list of banned<unk>  practices, and shortly thereafter began funding research on methods to detect<unk> .<unk> tic enhancement includes manipulation of<unk> s or<unk>  transfer by healthy athletes for the purpose of physically improving their performance.<unk> tic enhancement includes<unk>  and has potential for abuse among athletes, all while opening the door to political and ethical controversy.
Gene doping
Gene delivery
Germline mutation
Human cloning
Nuclear sexing
Pseudodeficiency alleles
Copy number variation
Human disease modifier gene