Transmission during pregnancy Another major way that stress can be transmitted across generations biologically is through the uterine environment. The gestational stage is a developmentally sensitive stage in an individual's lifespan. Exposure to harmful stimuli during this stage can have long-lasting, detrimental effects. The uterine environment with its unique blend of the mother's cellular secretions and proteins is a major source of stimuli. Empirical evidence has shown that trauma experienced by a mother during pregnancy can affect offspring's physiology and psychology. One possible method of transmission is through transport vesicles transferring amino acids and microRNA from the uterine fluid to the fetus. These molecules may then alter gene expression in a way that affects the developmental trajectory of the fetus. Most biological research on<unk>  has focused on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is the center of the body's stress response system. One way the HPA axis responds to stress is by triggering the production of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol. Cortisol triggers "fight-or-flight" physiological symptoms like increased blood pressure and heart rate. In animal models, maternal stress and trauma during pregnancy has been shown to reduce the expression of placental enzyme 11B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11 β-HSD2), which converts the mother's cortisol to inactive cortisone. This leads to increased fetal exposure to the mother's glucocorticoids, which affects the development of glucocorticoid-sensitive systems like the HPA axis. In some studies, abnormal cortisol levels compared to controls and alterations in DNA methylation were observed in infants of mothers who endured trauma while pregnant, particularly in the NR3C1 glucocorticoid receptor gene. Psychological and social aspects There are many current<unk>  studies that have been done on adults that have experienced natural disasters or adversities. One study found that the children of torture victims showed more symptoms of anxiety, depression, post‐traumatic stress, attention deficits and behavioral disorders compared with the comparison group of those who had not experienced the specific trauma. A qualitative study was done on the Brazilian children of Holocaust survivors. This study was able to propose not only a supported model of the<unk>  transmission of traumatic experiences, but one also of resilience patterns that can be transmitted in between generations and developed within generations. According to Froma Walsh, Resilience Theory suggests that individuals' and families' responses to traumatic experiences is an ever-changing process that involves both exposure to challenges and the development of coping mechanisms that aide in one's ability to overcome such challenges. Regardless of risk, there also exists opportunities for the development of resilience via exposure to meaningful resources that support one's ability to overcome adversity. Researchers Cowan, Callaghan, & Richardson studied the impact of early-life adversities on individuals and their descendants. Their research was also consistent with the transmission theory, in which their findings revealed that the stress phenotype that was expressed in individuals who experienced the adversity was also observed in children and even grandchildren. The famous study of Harlow's monkeys also revealed that the adversity of a maternal variable which would create stress in the individual was also witnessed in their offspring although not having experienced the adversity. One last study displayed that if children were exposed to high postnatal maternal licking/grooming and arched-back nursing then they were likely to do the same to their offspring. Vice versa, if children experienced low LG-ABN mothers, then they were likely to provide the same to their offspring. Consequently, this causes a decrease in serotonin and expression, and an increase in methylation. Ultimately, a more stressed pup is created, causing this phenotype to be passed on through experience and genes. Theses studies allude to the fact that oftentimes adversity, especially early on and for longer periods of time, can impact development in individuals and their offspring. The oppression that black people experienced through slavery and racism has a psychological impact on how they view achievement. In terms of the social aspects of this, seem to make it difficult for black people to surpass a certain SES threshold, to escape a certain neighborhood, to move beyond a certain lifestyle or status. For Native Americans, past government policy and internal displacements are theorized to have an effect generations later. The social enforcement of their ostracization causes them to be generally removed from society, to be powerless and uninvited in government, and to be left to fend for themselves. The<unk>  transmission of colonial trauma is also considered a contributing factor in the high rates of mental health difficulties Canadian Indigenous communities experience. Displacement and maltreatment during colonization had led to negative effects in the children of Indigenous peoples who survived such experiences. This is passed down generationally via ongoing social marginalization and lateral violence. The loss of Indigenous cultures and resulting lack of community cohesion poses a further challenge for Indigenous groups in resolving<unk> .
Transgenerational trauma
Childhood trauma
Adverse childhood experiences
Domestic violence
Psychological trauma
Domestic violence against men
Sexual violence
Race-based traumatic stress