Measuring the ratio of<unk>  and procainamide concentrations together helps to achieve an optimum anti-arrhythmic effect and reduce the risk of toxicity. Effects on humans<unk>  can cause cardiac toxicity that effects in torsades de pointes. Also<unk>  can decrease renal function when it is accumulated during a procainamide therapy. Furthermore,<unk>  can lead to a low blood pressure and a serious left ventricle depression when it is present in toxic concentrations. Other common side effects of NAPA are gastrointestinal disturbances, insomnia, dizziness, lightheadedness, blurred vision, numbness and tingling sensation. There has been a large resemblance reported between the concentration range associated with arrhythmic suppression of<unk>  and the range of concentrations where intolerable side effects begin to develop. No severe cardiac toxicity has been notified with oral intake despite plasma concentrations as high as 40 micrograms/ml. However, hypotension has been reported in association with a rapid injection of<unk> . Effects on animals In animals,<unk>  has positive inotropic effects, but it also causes negative chronotropic and hypotensive activity. The cardiovascular pharmacodynamics of procainamide and NAPA have not been well identified in small rodents without the presence of anesthesia or restraint. Researchers are trying to make models of the effects of procainamide and<unk>  in animals.
Acecainide
Tocainide
Flecainide
Procainamide
Verapamil
Ibutilide
Dofetilide
Amiodarone