* A stroke can cause pharyngeal dysfunction with a high occurrence of aspiration. The function of normal swallowing may or may not return completely following an acute phase lasting approximately 6 weeks. * Parkinson's disease can cause "multiple prepharyngeal, pharyngeal, and esophageal abnormalities". The severity of the disease most often correlates with the severity of the swallowing disorder. * Neurologic disorders such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Bell's palsy, or myasthenia gravis can cause weakness of facial and lip muscles that are involved in coordinated mastication as well as weakness of other important muscles of mastication and swallowing. * Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease with palpebral ptosis,<unk> , and proximal limb weakness. * Decrease in salivary flow, which can lead to dry mouth or xerostomia, can be due to Sjögren syndrome, anticholinergics, antihistamines, or certain antihypertensives and can lead to incomplete processing of food bolus. * Xerostomia can reduce the volume and increase the viscosity of oral secretions making bolus formation difficult as well as reducing the ability to initiate and swallow the bolus * Dental problems can lead to inadequate chewing. * Abnormality in oral mucosa such as from mucositis, aphthous ulcers, or herpetic lesions can interfere with bolus processing. * Mechanical obstruction in the oropharynx may be due to malignancies, cervical rings or webs, crico-phyringeus muscle dysfunction, or cervical osteophytes. * Increased upper esophageal sphincter tone can be due to Parkinson's disease which leads to incomplete opening of the UES. This may lead to formation of a Zenker's diverticulum. * Pharyngeal pouches typically cause difficulty in swallowing after the first mouthful of food, with regurgitation of the pouch contents. These pouches may be accompanied by malodorous breath due to decomposing foods residing in the pouches. (See Zenker's diverticulum) *<unk>  is often a side effect of surgical procedures like anterior cervical spine surgery, carotid endarterectomy, head and neck resection, oral surgeries like removal of the tongue, and partial laryngectomies * Radiotherapy, used to treat head and neck cancer, can cause tissue fibrosis in the irradiated areas. Fibrosis of tongue and larynx lead to reduced tongue base retraction and laryngeal elevation during swallowing * Infection may cause pharyngitis which can prevent swallowing due to pain. * Medications can cause central nervous system effects that can result in swallowing disorders and<unk> . Examples: sedatives, hypnotic agents, anticonvulsants, antihistamines, neuroleptics, barbiturates, and antiseizure medication. Medications can also cause peripheral nervous system effects resulting in an<unk> . Examples: corticosteroids, L-tryptophan, and anticholinergics
Oropharyngeal dysphagia
Cricopharyngeal spasm
Velopharyngeal insufficiency
Vocal cord paresis
Alaryngeal speech
Muscle tension dysphonia
Ankyloglossia
Crenated tongue