Bladder * Detrusor sphincter dyssynergia * Neurogenic bladder (commonly spinal cord damage, pelvic splanchic nerve damage, cauda equina syndrome, pontine micturition or storage center lesions, demyelinating diseases or Parkinson's disease) * Iatrogenic (caused by medical treatment/procedure) scarring of the bladder neck (commonly from removal of indwelling catheters or cystoscopy operations) * Damage to the bladder Prostate * Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) * Prostate cancer and other pelvic malignancies * Prostatitis Penile urethra * Congenital urethral valves * Phimosis or pinhole meatus * Circumcision * Obstruction in the urethra, for example a stricture (usually caused either by injury or STD), a metastasis or a precipitated pseudogout crystal in the urine * Pseudodyssynergia * STD lesions (gonorrhoea causes numerous strictures, leading to a "rosary bead" appearance, whereas chlamydia usually causes a single stricture) * Emasculation Postoperative Risk factors include * Age: Older people may have degeneration of neural pathways involved with bladder function and it can lead to an increased risk of postoperative<unk> . The risk of postoperative<unk>  increases up to 2.11 fold for people older than 60 years. * Medications: Anticholinergics and medications with anticholinergic properties, alpha-adrenergic agonists, opiates, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), calcium-channel blockers and beta-adrenergic agonists, may increase the risk. * Anesthesia: General anesthetics during surgery may cause bladder atony by acting as a smooth muscle relaxant. General anesthetics can directly interfere with autonomic regulation of detrusor tone and predispose people to bladder overdistention and subsequent<unk> . Spinal anesthesia results in a blockade of the micturition reflex. Spinal anesthesia shows a higher risk of postoperative<unk>  compared to general anesthesia. * Benign prostatic hyperplasia: Men with benign prostatic hyperplasia are at an increased risk of acute<unk> . * Surgery related: Operative times longer than 2 hours may lead to an increased risk of postoperative<unk>  3-fold. Chronic Chronic<unk>  that is due to bladder blockage which can either be as a result of muscle damage or neurological damage. If the<unk>  is due to neurological damage, there is a disconnect between the brain to muscle communication, which can make it impossible to completely empty the bladder. If the<unk>  is due to muscle damage, it is likely that the muscles are not able to contract enough to completely empty the bladder. The most common cause of chronic<unk>  is BPH. BPH is a result of the ongoing process of testosterone being converted to dihydrotestosterone which stimulates prostate growth. Over a person's lifetime, the prostate experiences constant growth due to the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. This can cause the prostate to push on the urethra and block it, which can lead to<unk> . Other * Tethered spinal cord syndrome * Psychogenic causes (psychosocial stresses, fear associated with urination, paruresis ("shy bladder syndrome") - in extreme cases,<unk>  can result * Consumption of some psychoactive substances, mainly stimulants, such as MDMA and amphetamine. * Use of NSAIDs or drugs with anticholinergic properties. * Stones or metastases can theoretically appear anywhere along the urinary tract, but vary in frequency depending on anatomy * Muscarinic antagonist such as atropine and scopolamine * Malfunctioning artificial urinary sphincter
Urinary retention
Oliguria
Dysuria
Anuria
Cyclospasm
Polyuria
Urinary incontinence
Perfume intolerance