<unk>  (also called translation research,<unk>  science, or, when the context is clear, simply translation) is research aimed at translating (converting) results in basic research into results that directly benefit humans. The term is used in science and technology, especially in biology and medical science. As such,<unk>  forms a subset of applied research. The term has been used most commonly in life-sciences and biotechnology but applies across the spectrum of science and humanities. In the context of biomedicine,<unk>  is also known as bench to bedside. In the field of education, it is defined as research which translates concepts to classroom practice. Critics of<unk>  medical research (to the exclusion of more basic research) point to examples of important drugs that arose from fortuitous discoveries in the course of basic research such as penicillin and benzodiazepines. Other problems have stemmed from the widespread irreproducibility thought to exist in<unk>  literature. Although<unk>  is relatively new, there are now several major research centers focused on it. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health has implemented a major national initiative to leverage existing academic health center infrastructure through the Clinical and<unk>  Science Awards. Furthermore, some universities acknowledge<unk>  as its own field to study for a PhD or graduate certificate in.
Translational research
Therapeutic discovery project
Gain-of-function research
Clinical research
Validation therapy
Biomedical model
Analysis of clinical trials
Operational Research CONsultancy