Male<unk>  has often been, and remains, the subject of controversy on a number of grounds—religious, ethical, sexual, and medical and the ethics of<unk>  of males are controversial. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the primary justification for<unk>  was to prevent masturbation and intentionally reduce male sexual pleasure, which was believed to cause a wide range of medical problems. Modern proponents say that<unk>  reduces the risks of a range of infections and diseases, and confers sexual benefits. By contrast, some opponents, particularly of routine neonatal<unk> , question its utility and effectiveness in preventing such diseases, and object to subjecting newborn males, without their consent, to a procedure they consider to have dubious and nonessential benefits, significant risks, and a potentially negative impact on general health and later sexual enjoyment, as well as violating their human rights. In Classical and Hellenistic civilization, Ancient Greeks and Romans posed great value on the beauty of nature, physical integrity, aesthetics, harmonious bodies and nudity, including the foreskin (see also Ancient Greek art), and were opposed to all forms of genital mutilation, including<unk> —an opposition inherited by the canon and secular legal systems of the Christian West and East that lasted at least through to the Middle Ages, according to Frederick Hodges. Traditional branches of Judaism, Islam, Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Church still advocate male<unk>  as a religious obligation.
Circumcision controversies
Sex differences in medicine
Surrogacy laws by country
Religious response to assisted reproductive technology
Component causes
Contraceptive security
Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
Lists of medical eponyms