Increasing fluid intake can facilitate the passage of small<unk> s. However, larger<unk> s may require other methods of treatment. Fragmentation of<unk> s can be achieved by use of a cystoscope which is inserted into the<unk> . The urologist visualizes the<unk>  and uses ultrasonic energy or laser lithotripsy to cause fragmentation of the<unk> s into small pieces, which are then flushed out of the<unk> . This procedure requires anesthesia and may require admission to a hospital. Complications of this treatment include infection and damage to the<unk> . Some<unk> s are too large even for cystoscopic treatment and may require open cystotomy, in which an incision is made in the<unk>  and the<unk> s are removed manually. For children with urinary<unk> s, the evidence supporting treatment options is very weak and high quality trials are necessary to help guide clinical management. Cystolithotomy Cystolithotomy is a surgical procedure for the removal of<unk> s in the case that one has been deemed too large to pass naturally, such as developed jackstone calculi. This may require open surgery to remove the<unk> , however robotic cystolithotomy allows for a minimally invasive approach to remove the<unk>  through much smaller incisions than the traditional approach. Most<unk> s can be dealt with by an endoscopic procedure, to avoid the need for a surgical incision. An open cystolithotomy is performed under general anesthesia as an inpatient procedure. The first step is a cystoscopy to examine the<unk> , then an incision is made in the lower abdomen. Once the<unk>  is removed, the<unk>  is repaired with an absorbable stitch, and a catheter is inserted into the<unk>  via the urethra. Occasionally it is necessary to gently drip fluid in and out of the<unk>  for a period, as there is often some bleeding following the procedure. The majority of patients do not have major side effects following cystolithotomy, but it may be followed by a minor burning sensation and light bleeding. More serious side effects include<unk>  infection, a prolonged need of catheter use, and infection in the surgical incision. Rare side effects may include delayed bleeding requiring removal of clots or further surgery, injury to the urethra causing scar formation, fever and more serious infection requiring a longer hospital stay, and delayed healing of the<unk> , which may require a further procedure.
Bladder stone
Pyonephrosis
Hydronephrosis
Pyelonephritis
Ureteric stricture
Glomerulonephrosis
Interstitial cystitis
Hemorrhagic cystitis