<unk><unk><unk>  (DRE), also known as refractory<unk>  or pharmacoresistant<unk> , is defined as failure of adequate trials of two tolerated and appropriately chosen and used antiepileptic<unk> s (AED schedules) (whether as monotherapies or in combination) to achieve sustained seizure freedom. The probability that the next medication will achieve seizure freedom drops with every failed AED. For example, after two failed AEDs, the probability that the third will achieve seizure freedom is around 4%.<unk><unk><unk>  is commonly diagnosed after several years of uncontrolled seizures, however, in most cases, it is evident much earlier. Approximately 30% of people with<unk>  have a<unk><unk>  form. When 2 AEDs regimens have failed to produce sustained seizure-freedom, it is important to initiate other treatments to control seizures. Next to indirect consequences like injuries from falls, accidents, drowning and impairment in daily life, seizure control is critical because uncontrolled seizures -specifically generalized tonic clonic seizures- can damage the brain and increase the risk for sudden unexpected death in<unk>  called SUDEP. The first step is for physicians to refer their DRE patients to an<unk>  center in which a presurgical evaluation can be carried out in order to assess whether a patient is a candidate for<unk>  surgery or not. For those patients who are not surgical candidates, those who decline brain surgery or those in which brain surgery fails to produce long term seizure freedom, vagus nerve stimulation and/or a diet can be recommended.
Management of drug-resistant epilepsy
Management of chronic headaches
Management of depression
Treatment of bipolar disorder
Management of hearing loss
Management of Parkinson's disease
Management of dyslexia
Management of atrial fibrillation