The<unk>  technique is used to record membrane activities from myelinated nerves, unmyelinated nerves, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Along with microelectrode methods and patch-clamp methods, the<unk>  is often used by experimenters to study the nervous system and can serve as an effective method to investigate the effects of drugs on membrane activities. Studies on the effects of choline, acetylcholine, and carbachol on the resting potentials of the superior cervical ganglion in rabbits were conducted using the<unk>  method. The recording of membrane potentials in the superior cervical ganglion was made simple with the<unk>  method as it allows for separated depolarizing of the ganglion and the internal carotid nerve. The<unk>  technique has been applied to determine the relation between external potassium concentration and the membrane potential of smooth muscle cells using guinea-pig ureters. It has also been used to rectify inaccurate membrane potential measurements resulting from leakage currents through the membrane and extracellular resistance. Correction of an inaccurate membrane current reading is also possible through utilization of the<unk>  method. Developments in the<unk>  method have led to double<unk>  techniques. A double<unk>  is generally advantageous when used to electrically isolate smaller segments of nerve fibers than would be possible with a single<unk> , as was done in studies on membrane potentials and currents in sheep and calf ventricular muscle fibers. The double<unk>  technique is also utilized over the single<unk>  to study cardiac muscle, where it allows for clearer resolution of early currents, those occurring within the first 10-100 milliseconds of depolarization.
Sucrose gap
Osmol gap
Lactate threshold
Urea reduction ratio
Anion gap
Lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio
Evans formula
Stool osmotic gap