The main treatment for<unk>  is to address risk factors for atherosclerosis such as smoking, hypertension and diabetes. Patients are often started on an antiplatelet (e.g. aspirin, clopidogrel) or occasionally an anticoagulant (e.g. warfarin) to reduce the risk of future strokes. Where<unk>  is causing reproducible symptoms due to stenosis, lifestyle modification to avoid provoking factors (e.g. dehydration, standing rapidly from sitting or lying) may reduce symptoms. Open surgical repair or stenting can be performed to re-open stenosed vertebral arteries, and intracranial stents have also been successfully used. Further research is required to determine which patients with<unk>  are likely to benefit.
Vertebrobasilar insufficiency
Convergence insufficiency
Velopharyngeal insufficiency
Eustachian tube dysfunction
Noise-induced hearing loss
Vibroacoustic disease
Aqueductal stenosis
Subglottic stenosis