It is difficult to assess and diagnose the rotational malalignment of a<unk>  after an operation, and many methodologies have been developed. Clinical assessment Clinical assessment and observation is one methodology, however it is unreliable, and can lead to complications. For femoral or tibial<unk> , many surgeons use the patient's ankle or patella to symmetrically align them with the injured side or to the floor but this method does not consider the position of the proximal fragment and could be moved during reduction attempts. In order to measure femoral malalignment, many doctors will compare the internal and external rotation of both hips, while the patient is supine or prone, and a change in a patient's range of movement indicates<unk> . However, while clinical assessment can indicate the direction of<unk> , it often reports inaccurate measurements of the degree of malalignment, so it is unreliable in determining the potential impacts and necessary treatment methods. Radiography Another diagnosis methodology sometimes utilised are radiographs; however, they are unreliable as they require difficult patient positioning to quantify the rotational deformity. This difficulty is due to a patient's restriction in movement, as they may exhibit post-traumatic deformities and severe pain. To determine the level of femoral<unk> , with this method, two radiographs of the pelvis and upper legs must be made. Firstly, an anteroposterior (AP) perspective which shows the degree of difference between the femoral neck and femur, and another view where the hips and knees are both flexed to a right angle, which determines antetorsion. Both of these radiographs are utilised to calculate the angle of anteversion of the femoral neck. Ultrasounds Ultrasounds can also be used to measure<unk> , and are considered highly reliable. The main issue with utilising ultrasound measurement is that it relies largely on the skills of an ultrasound technician, and consequently is not widely used. When measuring femoral<unk>  with ultrasounds, a patient's thighs are fixed symmetrically while the degree of rotation of the femoral shaft is measured. This methodology requires exact positioning of a patient to correctly measure any deformity. MRI scans MRI scans can be utilised and are proven to be reliable and effective at determining<unk>  of<unk> s. However, they are not as readily available as CT scanners, and are also time consuming and very expensive. CT scans A person getting a CT scan. The standard<unk>  detection practice utilised are computed tomography scans, which are able to exactly quantify the amount of rotational malalignment. It is also considered highly reliable and utilised because of its reproducibility. For femoral<unk> , the scan involves doctors measuring the angle between a line through the axis of the femoral neck and a line tangential to the femoral condyles. The angle difference between the uninjured and injured sides determines the degree of<unk> . An increase in the anteversion of the femoral neck of the injured side denotes internal rotation, and a decrease means external rotation has occurred. Another advantage of CT scans is that patient positioning does not impact the measurement accuracy of femoral torsion, which is unlike radiographs and ultrasounds. However, inaccurate measurements of<unk>  can still occur in CT scans, but are mostly related difficulty in drawing clear and accurate lines along the femoral neck within the image. To avoid this inaccuracy, there needs to be improved accuracy of the line drawn, and this can be fixed by the utilisation of multi-image superimposed projection of the CT images so a more accurate measurement can be drawn.
Bone malrotation
Binaural fusion
Abdominal wall defect
Intestinal atresia
Splenogonadal fusion
Vascular ring
Pancreaticobiliary maljunction
Congenital vertebral anomaly