Cystourethrograph showing bladder obstruction with dilation of urethra and bladder A paraplegic patient with<unk>  bladder on regular ultrasound follow-up showing thickened bladder wall with trabecculations and sediments within the bladder. The diagnosis of<unk>  bladder is made based on a complete history and physical examination and may require imaging and specialized studies. History should include information on the onset, duration, triggers, severity, other medical conditions and medications (including anticholinergics, calcium channel blockers, diuretics, sedatives, alpha-adrenergic agonist, alpha 1 antagonists). Urinary symptoms may include frequency, urgency, incontinence or recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). Questionnaires can be helpful in quantifying symptom burden. In children it is important to obtain a prenatal and developmental history. Ultrasound imaging can give information on the shape of the bladder, post-void residual volume, and evidence of kidney damage such as kidney size, thickness or ureteral dilation. Trabeculated bladder on ultrasound indicates high risk of developing urinary tract abnormalities such as hydronephrosis and stones. A voiding cystourethrography study uses contrast dye to obtain images of the bladder both when it is full and after urination which can show changes in bladder shape consistent with<unk>  bladder. Urodynamic studies are an important component of the evaluation for<unk>  bladder. Urodynamics refers to the measurement of the pressure-volume relationship in the bladder. The bladder usually stores urine at low pressure and urination can be completed without a dramatic pressure rise. Damage to the kidneys is probable if the pressure rises above 40 cm of water during filling. Bladder pressure can be measured by cystometry, during which the bladder is artificially filled with a catheter and bladder pressures and detrusor activity are monitored. Patterns of involuntary detrusor activity as well as bladder flexibility, or compliance, can be evaluated. The most valuable test to test for detrusor sphincter dyssynergia (DESD) is to perform cystometry simultaneously with external sphincter electromyography (EMG). Uroflowmetry is a less-invasive study that can measure urine flow rate and use it to estimate detrusor strength and sphincter resistance. Urethral pressure monitoring is another less-invasive approach to assessing detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. These studies can be repeated at regular intervals, especially if symptoms worsen or to measure response to therapies. Evaluation of kidney function through blood tests such as serum creatinine should be obtained. Imaging of the pelvis with CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging may be necessary, especially if there is concern for an obstruction such as a tumor. The inside of the bladder can be visualized by cystoscopy.
Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
Overactive bladder
Overflow incontinence
Underactive bladder
Stress incontinence
Bladder sphincter dyssynergia
Pelvic floor dysfunction
Coital incontinence