Based on the severity different treatments may be used. Mild<unk> s are treated with short acting bronchodilators (SABDs). Moderate<unk> s are treated with SABDs together with antibiotics or oral corticosteroids, or both. Severe<unk> s need hospital treatment, and the prognosis is poor. Oxygen Oxygen therapy should be initiated if there is significantly low blood oxygen. High flow oxygen may be harmful in those with an<unk><unk>  of COPD. In the prehospital environment those given high flow O2 rather than titrating their O2 saturations to 88% to 92% had worse outcomes. Antibiotics and steroids appear useful in mild to severe<unk> . Medications * Inhaled bronchodilators open up the airways in the lungs. These include salbutamol and terbutaline (both β2-adrenergic agonists), and ipratropium (an anticholinergic). Medication can be administered via inhaler or nebuliser. There is no evidence to prefer a nebuliser over an inhaler. * Antibiotics are used if a bacterial infection is the suspected cause. However, antibiotics will not treat<unk> s caused by viruses. Viral infections will usually be cured with time with the aid of proper rest and care. Still, other medications may be needed to control symptoms. Lipid-soluble antibiotics such as macrolides, tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones penetrate the lung tissue well. Macrolides are more active against Streptococcus pneumoniae than the tetracyclines and the older fluoroquinolones. Within the macrolides, newer ones are more active against Haemophilus influenzae than the older erythromycin. Regimens should generally be given for five days. Choice of antibiotics is also dependent on the severity of the symptoms: * "Simple" COPD is generally where a person 65 years or less, has fewer than four<unk> s per year, has minimal or moderate impairment in respiratory function and no comorbid<unk> . In patients with "simple" COPD, therapy should be targeted towards Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and possibly pathogens of atypical pneumonia. The first-line treatment is a beta-lactam antibiotic such as amoxicillin. The choice will depend on resistance patterns. In patients with penicillin allergy, doxycycline or trimethoprim are preferred. * More complicated bronchitis may be when the patient is more than 65 years old, has four or more<unk> s per year, has an FEV1/FVC ratio of less than 50% on spirometry, has failed to respond to previous antibiotic treatment, and/or has comorbidity. In these cases, treatment should be aimed at Gram-negative bacteria and the possibility of high antibiotic resistance should be considered. Sputum culture results are of great value in determining antibiotic resistance. First-line treatment is cefuroxime or co-amoxiclav. Third-line treatment, as well as treatment in penicillin-allergic patients, is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin. An agent active against Streptococcus pneumoniae may have to be added. * Corticosteroids such as prednisolone reduce inflammation in the airways. According to a 2018 systematic review, a shorter, five-day course of systemic corticosteroids is likely comparable to longer (10–14 day) therapy for treatment of COPD<unk>  (Odds ratio (OR) 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.36 to 1.46). * Theophylline is generally not recommended. There should also be a "care plan" in case of future<unk> s. Patients may watch for symptoms, such as shortness of breath, change in character or amount of mucus, and start self-treatment as discussed with a health care provider. This allows for treatment right away until a doctor can be seen. The symptoms of<unk><unk> s are treated using short-acting bronchodilators. A course of corticosteroids, usually in tablet or intravenous rather than inhaled form, can speed up recovery. The IV and oral forms of steroids have been found to be equivalent. Antibiotics are often used but will only help if the<unk>  is due to an infection. Antibiotics are indicated when a patient notes increased sputum production, purulent sputum, increased dyspnea, has an elevated white count, or is febrile. Examples of first-line antibiotics are amoxicillin, doxycycline, and co-trimoxazole. Mechanical ventilation Severe<unk> s can require hospital care where treatments such as oxygen and mechanical ventilation may be required. Mechanical ventilation can be invasive (endotracheal intubation) or non-invasive forms of ventilation such as continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP).
Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Acute severe asthma
Acute decompensated heart failure
Swimming-induced pulmonary edema
Occult pneumonia
Acute chest syndrome
Acute interstitial pneumonitis
Vaping-associated pulmonary injury