<unk>  <unk>  are a family of biomolecules – nearly all of which are peptides or small proteins – that support the growth, survival, and differentiation of both developing and mature neurons. Most<unk>  exert their trophic effects on neurons by signaling through tyrosine kinases, usually a receptor tyrosine kinase. In the mature nervous system, they promote neuronal survival, induce synaptic plasticity, and modulate the formation of long-term memories.<unk>  also promote the initial growth and development of neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, and they are capable of regrowing damaged neurons in test tubes and animal models. Some<unk>  are also released by the target tissue in order to guide the growth of developing axons. Most<unk>  belong to one of three families: (1)<unk> s, (2) glial cell-line derived<unk> family ligands (GFLs), and (3) neuropoietic cytokines. Each family has its own distinct cell signaling mechanisms, although the cellular responses elicited often do overlap. Currently,<unk>  are being intensely studied for use in bioartificial nerve conduits because they are necessary in vivo for directing axon growth and regeneration. In studies,<unk>  are normally used in conjunction with other techniques such as biological and physical cues created by the addition of cells and specific topographies. The<unk>  may or may not be immobilized to the scaffold structure, though immobilization is preferred because it allows for the creation of permanent, controllable gradients. In some cases, such as neural drug delivery systems, they are loosely immobilized such that they can be selectively released at specified times and in specified amounts.
Neurotrophic factors
Neurohormone
Adipose-derived hormones
Local hormone
Gastrointestinal hormone
Xenohormone
Neuropeptide
Insulin-like growth factor