Although the main sense of<unk>  is non-consensual insemination of a patient by her doctor, there are many other types of<unk> , and it can take place at various stages of fertilization: * Competing for patients via misleading information about success rates, either in advertising or during personal interviews * Performing an ART procedure not covered by insurance, and then billing for a different procedure * Performing unnecessary or futile procedures on patients who are misinformed or poorly informed * False claims of pregnancy, followed by assertions of fetal death * Misuse of sperm, eggs, and embryos, in particular, a health care person substituting their own sperm for donor sperm * Inadequate screening of donors * Embezzlement from sperm banks, or theft of human eggs ("egg-snatching") or embryos, or use of eggs without consent Egg theft One of the earliest cases involved egg theft occurred in 1987 at Garden Grove California, in a clinic run by Doctor Ricardo Asch. Asch took eggs from women undergoing diagnostic procedures and used them in<unk>  procedures in other women. An estimated 67 women were victims of egg or embryo theft. Doctor Ricardo Asch along with two partners were accused of taking eggs and embryos from patients without their consent, and using them to cause pregnancies in other women, along with defrauding insurance companies. Thirty-five patients filed legal actions against him. Insemination<unk>  There have been numerous cases of a health care provider<unk> ulently substituting their own sperm for donor sperm, resulting in pregnancy and birth. The first "test tube baby" was facilitated by Robert Edwards in 1978, and he allegedly used eggs without the consent of the women involved. Cecil Jacobson, a<unk>  doctor in the 1980s in Virginia, was originally found to be the biological father of at least seven of his patients' children, including one patient who was supposed to have been inseminated with sperm provided by her husband. DNA tests have since linked Jacobson to at least 15 such children, and it has been suspected that he fathered as many as 75 children by impregnating patients with his own sperm. He could not be prosecuted because no law existed in Virginia prohibiting it. Donald Cline used his own sperm in his<unk>  practice in Indianapolis the 1970s and 1980s to father dozens of children. This came to light in 2014, when home DNA test kits were proliferating, and led to the discovery of Cline having used his own sperm to fertilize his patients' eggs. Because there was no law concerning the practice in Indiana, he was charged with obstruction of justice, false advertising, and immoral conduct, and lost his license to practice medicine. The first law in the United States came into effect in 2019 in the State of Indiana as a result of this case. Similar cases were found in other states. John Boyd Coates III, a Vermont<unk>  doctor has had two lawsuits filed against him and has been charged with using his own sperm in cases going back 40 years. His license has since been revoked and a $5.25 million dollar judgment in damages awarded to the first plaintiff. Jos Beek a gynaecologist in the Netherlands conceived 21 children and potentially dozens more using his own sperm after prospective parents turned to him for<unk>  treatment, an investigation has discovered. He worked at Elisabeth hospital in Leiderdorp, now part of Alrijne hospital, between 1973 and 1998. He died in 2019. Jan Karbaat a<unk>  doctor in the Netherlands fathered 90 confirmed children and may have as many as 200 children. He passed away in 2017. Norman Barwin and Ottowa<unk>  Doctor paid out a settlement $13.375 million to his 17 children conceived in his clinic in Canada November 2, 2021. A total of 244 former patients and their children, including 17 children conceived using his own sperm, are among claimants.
Fertility fraud
Anti-abortion violence
Transgender pregnancy
Forced pregnancy
Female infanticide
Disorders of sex development
Undervirilization
Female genital mutilation