There are a number of risk factors for<unk> es. However, in as many as one-third to one-half no risk factors can be identified. Risk factors include: pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, use of an intrauterine device (IUD), previous exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), tubal surgery, intrauterine surgery (e.g. D&C), smoking, previous<unk> , endometriosis, and tubal ligation. A previous induced abortion does not appear to increase the risk. The IUD does not increase the risk of<unk> , but with an IUD if<unk>  occurs it is more likely to be<unk>  than intrauterine. The risk of<unk>  after chlamydia infection is low. The exact mechanism through which chlamydia increases the risk of<unk>  is uncertain, though some research suggests that the infection can affect the structure of Fallopian tubes. +Risk factors Relative risk factors High Tubal sterilization, IUD, prior<unk> , PID (pelvic inflammatory disease), SIN (salpingitis isthmica nodosa) Moderate Smoking, having more than 1 partner, infertility, chlamydia Low Douching, age greater than 35, age less than 18, GIFT (gamete intrafallopian transfer) Tube damage Left fallopian tube with an<unk>  in a 25-year-old woman after a salpingectomy Tubal<unk>  is when the egg is implanted in the fallopian tubes. Hair-like cilia located on the internal surface of the fallopian tubes carry the fertilized egg to the uterus. Fallopian cilia are sometimes seen in reduced numbers subsequent to an<unk> , leading to a hypothesis that cilia damage in the fallopian tubes is likely to lead to an<unk> . Women who smoke have a higher chance of an<unk>  in the fallopian tubes. Smoking leads to risk factors of damaging and killing cilia. As cilia degenerate, the amount of time it takes for the fertilized egg to reach the uterus will increase. The fertilized egg, if it doesn't reach the uterus in time, will hatch from the non-adhesive zona pellucida and implant itself inside the fallopian tube, thus causing the<unk> . Women with pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) have a high occurrence of<unk> . This results from the build-up of scar tissue in the fallopian tubes, causing damage to cilia. If however both tubes were completely blocked, so that sperm and egg were physically unable to meet, then fertilization of the egg would naturally be impossible, and neither normal<unk>  nor<unk>  could occur. Intrauterine adhesions (IUA) present in Asherman's syndrome can cause<unk>  cervical<unk>  or, if adhesions partially block access to the tubes via the ostia,<unk>  tubal<unk> . Asherman's syndrome usually occurs from intrauterine surgery, most commonly after D&C. Endometrial/pelvic/genital tuberculosis, another cause of Asherman's syndrome, can also lead to<unk>  as infection may lead to tubal adhesions in addition to intrauterine adhesions. Tubal ligation can predispose to<unk> . Reversal of tubal sterilization (tubal reversal) carries a risk for<unk> . This is higher if more destructive methods of tubal ligation (tubal cautery, partial removal of the tubes) have been used than less destructive methods (tubal clipping). A history of a tubal<unk>  increases the risk of future occurrences to about 10%. This risk is not reduced by removing the affected tube, even if the other tube appears normal. The best method for diagnosing this is to do an early ultrasound. Other Although some investigations have shown that patients may be at higher risk for<unk>  with advancing age, it is believed that age is a variable which could act as a surrogate for other risk factors. Vaginal douching is thought by some to increase<unk> es. Women exposed to DES in utero (also known as "DES daughters") also have an elevated risk of<unk> . However, DES has not been used since 1971 in the United States. It has also been suggested that pathologic generation of nitric oxide through increased iNOS production may decrease tubal ciliary beats and smooth muscle contractions and thus affect embryo transport, which may consequently result in<unk> . The low socioeconomic status may be risk factors for<unk> .
Ectopic pregnancy
Miscarriage
Ovarian torsion
Appendicitis
Tubo-ovarian abscess
Ovarian cyst
Ovarian pregnancy
Dysmenorrhea