In adults,<unk>  has been shown to be an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression, eating disorders, chronic low back pain, personality disorders, psychosis, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and bipolar disorder. It is also effective as part of treatment plans in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia, and with post-spinal cord injuries. In children or adolescents,<unk>  is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression and suicidality, eating disorders and obesity, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.<unk>  has also been applied to a variety of childhood disorders, including depressive disorders and various anxiety disorders. Criticism of<unk>  sometimes focuses on implementations (such as the UK IAPT) which may result initially in low quality therapy being offered by poorly trained practitioners. However, evidence supports the effectiveness of<unk>  for anxiety and depression. Evidence suggests that the addition of hypnotherapy as an adjunct to<unk>  improves treatment efficacy for a variety of clinical issues. The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends<unk>  in the treatment plans for a number of mental health difficulties, including PTSD, OCD, bulimia nervosa, and clinical depression. Patient age<unk>  is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with whom the therapist is dealing. Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age. Of the small number of studies examining<unk>  for the management of depression in older people, there is currently no strong support. Depression and anxiety disorders<unk>  has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression. The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that, among psychotherapeutic approaches,<unk>  and interpersonal psychotherapy had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of major depressive disorder. A 2001 meta-analysis comparing<unk>  and psychodynamic psychotherapy suggested the approaches were equally effective in the short term for depression. In contrast, a 2013 meta-analyses suggested that<unk> , interpersonal therapy, and problem-solving therapy outperformed psychodynamic psychotherapy and behavioral activation in the treatment of depression. According to a 2004 review by INSERM of three methods,<unk>  was either proven or presumed to be an effective therapy on several mental disorders. This included depression, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, and other anxiety disorders.<unk>  has been shown to be effective in the treatment of adults with anxiety disorders. Results from a 2018 systematic review found a high strength of evidence that<unk> -exposure therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms and lead to the loss of a PTSD diagnosis.<unk>  has also been shown to be effective for posttraumatic stress disorder in very young children (3 to 6 years of age). A Cochrane review found low quality evidence that<unk>  may be more effective than other psychotherapies in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. A systematic review of<unk>  in depression and anxiety disorders concluded that "CBT delivered in primary care, especially including computer- or Internet-based self-help programs, is potentially more effective than usual care and could be delivered effectively by primary care therapists." Some meta-analyses find<unk>  more effective than psychodynamic therapy and equal to other therapies in treating anxiety and depression. Theoretical approaches One etiological theory of depression is Aaron T. Beck's cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events, and the negative schema is activated later in life when the person encounters similar situations. Beck also described a negative cognitive triad. The cognitive triad is made up of the depressed individual's negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Beck suggested that these negative evaluations derive from the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person. According to this theory, depressed people have views such as "I never do a good job", "It is impossible to have a good day", and "things will never get better". A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification, and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema. A basic concept in some<unk>  treatments used in anxiety disorders is in vivo exposure.<unk> -exposure therapy refers to the direct confrontation of feared objects, activities, or situations by a patient. For example, a woman with PTSD who fears the location where she was assaulted may be assisted by her therapist in going to that location and directly confronting those fears. Likewise, a person with a social anxiety disorder who fears public speaking may be instructed to directly confront those fears by giving a speech. This "two-factor" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer. Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be "unlearned" (referred to as extinction and habituation). Specialised forms of<unk> <unk> -SP, an adaptation of<unk>  for suicide prevention (SP), was specifically designed for treating youths who are severely depressed and who have recently attempted suicide within the past 90 days, and was found to be effective, feasible, and acceptable. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a specialist branch of<unk>  (sometimes referred to as contextual<unk> . ACT uses mindfulness and acceptance interventions and has been found to have a greater longevity in therapeutic outcomes. In a study with anxiety,<unk>  and ACT improved similarly across all outcomes from pre-to post-treatment. However, during a 12-month follow-up, ACT proved to be more effective, showing that it is a highly viable lasting treatment model for anxiety disorders. Computerized<unk>  (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating depression and anxiety disorders, including children. Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls. CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face<unk>  in adolescent anxiety. Combined with other treatments Studies have provided evidence that when examining animals and humans, that glucocorticoids may lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations. A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better-improved treatment for treating people with anxiety disorders. Prevention For anxiety disorders, use of<unk>  with people at risk has significantly reduced the number of episodes of generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety symptoms, and also given significant improvements in explanatory style, hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes. In another study, 3% of the group receiving the<unk>  intervention developed generalized anxiety disorder by 12 months postintervention compared with 14% in the control group. Subthreshold panic disorder sufferers were found to significantly benefit from use of<unk> . Use of<unk>  was found to significantly reduce social anxiety prevalence. For depressive disorders, a stepped-care intervention (watchful waiting,<unk>  and medication if appropriate) achieved a 50% lower incidence rate in a patient group aged 75 or older. Another depression study found a neutral effect compared to personal, social, and health education, and usual school provision, and included a comment on potential for increased depression scores from people who have received<unk>  due to greater self recognition and acknowledgement of existing symptoms of depression and negative thinking styles. A further study also saw a neutral result. A meta-study of the Coping with Depression course, a cognitive behavioral intervention delivered by a psychoeducational method, saw a 38% reduction in risk of major depression. Bipolar disorder Many studies show<unk> , combined with pharmacotherapy, is effective in improving depressive symptoms, mania severity and psychosocial functioning with mild to moderate effects, and that it is better than medication alone. INSERM's 2004 review found that<unk>  is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bipolar disorder. This included schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, bulimia, anorexia, personality disorders and alcohol dependency. Psychosis In long-term psychoses,<unk>  is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses. Meta-analyses confirm the effectiveness of metacognitive training (MCT) for the improvement of positive symptoms (e.g., delusions). For people at risk of psychosis, in 2014 the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommended preventive<unk> . Schizophrenia INSERM's 2004 review found that<unk>  is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including schizophrenia. A Cochrane review reported<unk>  had "no effect on long‐term risk of relapse"
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Cognitive therapy
Cognitive remediation therapy
Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy
Cognitive behavioral training
Deep sleep therapy
Cognitive processing therapy
Behaviour therapy