<unk>  is caused by ingesting excessive amounts of both calcium (usually in the form of dietary supplements such as calcium carbonate, which is commonly taken to prevent or treat osteoporosis) and absorbable<unk>  (as are found in antacid drugs). Presently, consumption of extensively large amounts of calcium carbonate has replaced the over-ingestion of<unk>  products, or<unk>  and bicarbonate, as the most prominent cause of MAS. Excessive consumption of calcium generally means taking in more than 4 to 5 g of calcium carbonate every day. This can be attributed to the greater availability of over-the-counter calcium carbonate supplements to treat osteoporosis and dyspepsia, as well as the growing awareness among consumers of the potential health benefits of calcium intake. Calcium carbonate is also often prescribed to people with chronic kidney disease for the prevention of secondary hyperparathyroidism and to people receiving prolonged corticosteroid therapy that may lead to bone loss, putting them at a higher risk of calcium over-consumption and developing MAS. Other drugs reported to be associated with the development of MAS include thiazide diuretics, which causes increased reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys and hypovolemia that leads to contraction<unk> sis. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are also drugs associated with MAS because they decrease glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and thus reduce calcium excretion. Taking medications such as aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, which are absorbable<unk> , can also contribute to MAS in those who already consume a large amount of calcium. Pregnant individuals have an increased risk for developing MAS due to hyperemesis (which can cause hypovolemia) and enhanced gastrointestinal calcium absorption as a result of higher levels of prolactin or placental lactose signaling (resulting in hypercalcemia). Calcium carbonate is also commonly used in pregnant individuals to treat acid reflux, further putting them at risk for overconsumption of calcium and developing MAS.
Milk-alkali syndrome
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperinsulinism-hyperammonemia syndrome
Sarcoidosis
Jones syndrome
Refeeding syndrome
Leucine-sensitive hypoglycemia of infancy
Johanson–Blizzard syndrome