High-intensity sweeteners – one type of<unk>  – are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table<unk> . As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation. If the sucrose (or other<unk>  that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks or sweet teas that are labeled as "diet" or "light" that contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table<unk>  replacements that mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture sensation. In the United States, six high-intensity<unk> s have been approved for use: aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), saccharin, and advantame. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, and sweeteners must be proven as safe via submission by a manufacturer of a GRAS document. The conclusions about GRAS are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including rigorous toxicological and clinical studies. GRAS notices exist for two plant-based, high-intensity sweeteners: steviol glycosides obtained from stevia leaves (Stevia rebaudiana) and extracts from Siraitia grosvenorii, also called luo han guo or monk fruit. Cyclamates are used outside the United States, but are prohibited from being used as a sweetener within the United States. The majority of<unk> s approved for food use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk plant-derived<unk> s are known, including sorbitol, xylitol and lactitol. As it is not commercially profitable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing<unk> . For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, and glucose to sorbitol. Sorbitol, xylitol and lactitol are examples of<unk>  alcohols (also known as polyols). These are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing with high-intensity sweeteners. Allulose Allulose is a sweetener in the<unk>  family, with a chemical structure similar to fructose. It's naturally found in figs, maple syrup, and some fruit. While it comes from the same family as other<unk> s, it does not substantially metabolize as<unk>  in the body. The FDA recognizes that allulose does not act like<unk> , and as of 2019, no longer requires it to be listed with<unk> s on U.S. nutrition labels. Allulose is about 70% as sweet as<unk> , which is why it's sometimes combined with high-intensity sweeteners to make<unk> s. Acesulfame potassium Acesulfame potassium (Ace-K) is 200 times sweeter than sucrose (common<unk> , as sweet as aspartame, about two-thirds as sweet as saccharin, and one-third as sweet as sucralose. Like saccharin, it has a slightly bitter aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. Kraft Foods has patented the use of sodium ferulate to mask acesulfame's aftertaste. Acesulfame potassium is often blended with other sweeteners (usually aspartame or sucralose), which give a more sucrose-like taste, whereby each sweetener masks the other's aftertaste and also exhibits a synergistic effect in which the blend is sweeter than its components. Unlike aspartame, acesulfame potassium is stable under heat, even under moderately acidic or basic conditions, allowing it to be used as a food additive in baking or in products that require a long shelf life. In carbonated drinks, it is almost always used in conjunction with another sweetener, such as aspartame or sucralose. It is also used as a sweetener in protein shakes and pharmaceutical products, especially chewable and liquid medications, where it can make the active ingredients more palatable. Aspartame Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company. He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and accidentally spilled some aspartame on his hand. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. Torunn Atteraas Garin oversaw the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener. It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is about 180–200 times sweeter than<unk>  and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum. When cooked or stored at high temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like<unk> . When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original amino acids. Because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten a food product, and is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product. The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively since its discovery with research that includes animal studies, clinical and epidemiological research, and postmarketing surveillance, with aspartame being one of the most rigorously tested food ingredients to date. Although aspartame has been subject to claims against its safety, multiple authoritative reviews have found it to be safe for consumption at typical levels used in food manufacturing. Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries, including the UK Food Standards Agency, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and Health Canada. Cyclamate Sweet'N Low) In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration banned the sale of cyclamate in 1969 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and saccharin (at levels comparable to humans ingesting 550 cans of diet soda per day) caused bladder cancer. This information, however, is regarded as "weak" evidence of carcinogenic activity, and cyclamate remains in common use in many parts of the world, including Canada, the European Union and Russia. Mogrosides (monk fruit) Mogrosides, extracted from monk fruit and commonly called luo han guo, are recognized as safe for human consumption and are used in commercial products worldwide. As of 2017, it is not a permitted sweetener in the European Union, although it is allowed as a flavor at concentrations where it does not function as a sweetener. In 2017, a Chinese company requested a scientific review of its mogroside product by the European Food Safety Authority. It is the basis of McNeil Nutritionals's tabletop sweetener Nectresse in the United States and Norbu Sweetener in Australia. Saccharin<unk>  Museum, Berlin Apart from<unk>  of lead (used as a sweetener in ancient through medieval times before the toxicity of lead was known), saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times sweeter than sucrose and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other sweeteners. Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may cause bladder cancer in laboratory rats. In 1977, Canada banned saccharin due to the animal research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and also mandated further study of saccharin safety. Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial cytotoxicity) and a tumor forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization, "Saccharin and its salts was sic downgraded from Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, to Group 3, not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans, despite sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity to animals, because it is carcinogenic by a non-DNA-reactive mechanism that is not relevant to humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition." In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin, but restrict the levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it. The EPA has removed saccharin and its salts from their list of hazardous constituents and commercial chemical products. In a 14 December 2010 release, the EPA stated that saccharin is no longer considered a potential hazard to human health. Steviol glycosides (stevia) Stevia is
Sugar substitute
Salt substitute
Caloric restriction mimetic
Steroid ester
Prebiotic 
Protein supplement
Deodorant
Pharmacological chaperone