Computer-enhanced transcranial doppler. CCSVI was first described using specialized extracranial and transcranial doppler sonography. Five ultrasound criteria of<unk>  drainage have been proposed to be characteristic of the syndrome, although two are considered sufficient for diagnosis of CCSVI: * reflux in the internal jugular and vertebral veins, * reflux in the deep cerebral veins, * high-resolution B-mode ultrasound evidence of stenosis of the internal jugular vein, * absence of flow in the internal jugular or vertebral veins on Doppler ultrasound, and * reverted postural control of the main cerebral<unk>  outflow pathways. It is still not clear whether magnetic resonance venography,<unk>  angiography, or Doppler sonography should be considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of CCSVI. Use of magnetic resonance venography for the diagnosis of CCSVI in MS patients has been proposed by some to have limited value, and should be used only in combination with other techniques. Others have stated that magnetic resonance venography is a valid measure which has advantages over Doppler including the fact that results are more operator-independent. Diagnostic criteria have been criticized. Both the number of criteria and the need of being positive for two of them as enough for diagnosis are arbitrary ideas. Moreover, experienced groups in the use of ultrasound have not been able to show intracranial or extracranial reflux in MS patients or even healthy controls whereas the criterion of absence of flow and the criterion regarding stenosis are considered not valid since they are related to normal physiological processes and not pathology. These problems in the criteria have led some researchers to consider the criteria inadequate and more generally the concept of CCSVI flawed.
Chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency controversy
causes of Intracranial aneurysm
causes of Subarachnoid hemorrhage
causes of Epidural hematoma
Causes of hearing loss
complications of Vertebral artery dissection
medical cause of Epidural hematoma
Ramsay Hunt syndrome