Symptoms of<unk>  can occur any time in the first year postpartum. Typically, a diagnosis of<unk>  is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks. Emotional * Persistent sadness, anxiousness or "empty" mood * Severe mood swings * Frustration, irritability, restlessness, anger * Feelings of hopelessness or helplessness * Guilt, shame, worthlessness * Low self-esteem * Numbness, emptiness * Exhaustion * Inability to be comforted * Trouble bonding with the baby * Feeling inadequate in taking care of the baby * Thoughts of self-harm or suicide Behavioural * Lack of interest or pleasure in usual activities * Low libido * Changes in appetite * Fatigue, decreased energy and motivation * Poor self-care * Social withdrawal * Insomnia or excessive sleep * Worry about harming self, baby, or partner Neurobiology fMRI studies indicate differences in brain activity between mothers with<unk>  and those without. Mothers diagnosed with<unk>  tend to have less activity in the left frontal lobe and increased activity in the right frontal lobe when compared with healthy controls. They also exhibit decreased connectivity between vital brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus. Brain activation differences between depressed and nondepressed mothers is more pronounced when stimulated by non-infant emotional cues. Depressed mothers show greater neural activity in the right amygdala toward non-infant emotional cues as well as reduced connectivity between the amygdala and right insular cortex. Recent findings have also identified blunted activity in anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, and insula in mothers with<unk>  when viewing images of their own infants. More robust studies on neural activation regarding<unk>  have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters, hormones, and steroids. Onset and duration<unk>  onset usually begins between two weeks to a month after delivery. A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes there began prior to delivery. Therefore, in the DSM-5<unk>  is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as anytime either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery.<unk>  may last several months or even a year.<unk>  can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage. For fathers, several studies show that men experience the highest levels of<unk>  between 3–6 months postpartum. Parent-infant relationship<unk>  can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and longterm child development.<unk>  may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare. These childcare inconsistencies may include feeding routines, sleep routines, and health maintenance. In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, the<unk>  appears as postpartum psychosis. In these, or among women with a history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions, infanticide may occur. In the United States,<unk>  is one of the leading causes of annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births. According to research published in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, children can suffer the effects of<unk> . If a mother experiences<unk>  that goes untreated, it can have adverse effects on her children. When a child is in infancy, these problems can include unusual amounts of crying (colic) and not having normal sleeping patterns. These problems can have a cyclical effect, meaning that they can further agitate the mother's<unk>  and can even lead to the mother further developing<unk> . These cyclical effects can affect the way the mother maintains her relationship with her child. These can include the stopping of breastfeeding, as well as negative emotions such as withdrawal, disengagement, and even hostility. If a mother develops a hostile relationship, it can lead to extreme outcomes such as infanticide. As the child grows older,<unk>  can lead to the child experiencing irregularities in cognitive processes, behaviors, and emotions. In addition to these abnormalities, children who grew up around<unk>  also are susceptible to developing violent tendencies.<unk>  in Fathers Paternal<unk>  has not been studied as intently as its maternal counterpart. In men,<unk>  is typically defined as "an episode of major depressive disorder (MDD) occurring soon after the birth of a child". The cause may be distinct in males. Symptoms of<unk>  in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts.<unk>  in men is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery, and is correlated with maternal<unk> , meaning that if the mother is experiencing<unk> , then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well.<unk>  in men leads to an increase risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience<unk>  can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, distress, and reduce infant interaction. Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children.
Postpartum depression
Postpartum blues
Postpartum disorder
Dysphoric milk ejection reflex
Postpartum psychosis
Premenstrual syndrome
Post-adoption depression syndrome
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder