<unk> -language pathologists (SLPs) offer many services to children with<unk>  or language disabilities.<unk> -language pathology<unk> -language pathologists (SLPs) may provide individual therapy for the child to assist with<unk>  production problems such as stuttering. They may consult with the child's teacher about ways in which the child might be accommodated in the classroom, or modifications that might be made in instruction or environment. The SLP can also make crucial connections with the family, and help them to establish goals and techniques to be used in the home. Other service providers, such as counselors or vocational instructors may also be included in the development of goals as the child transitions into adulthood. The individual services that the child receives will depend upon the needs of that child. Simpler problems of<unk> , such as hoarseness or vocal fatigue (voicing problems) may be solved with basic instruction on how to modulate one's voice. Articulation problems could be remediated by simple practice in sound pronunciation. Fluency problems may be remediated with coaching and practice under the guidance of trained professionals, and may disappear with age. However, more complicated problems, such as those accompanying autism or strokes, may require many years of one-on-one therapy with a variety of service providers. In most cases, it is imperative that the families be included in the treatment plans since they can help to implement the treatment plans. The educators are also a critical link in the implementation of the child's treatment plan. For children with language disorders, professionals often relate the treatment plans to classroom content, such as classroom textbooks or presentation assignments. The professional teaches various strategies to the child, and the child works to apply them effectively in the classroom. For success in the educational environment, it is imperative that the SLP or other<unk> -language professional have a strong, positive rapport with the teacher(s).<unk> -language pathologists create plans that cater to the individual needs of the patient. If<unk>  is not practical for a patient, the SLP will work with the patient to decide upon an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) method or device to facilitate communication. They may work with other patients to help them make sounds, improve voices, or teach general communication strategies. They also work with individuals who have difficulties swallowing. In addition to offering these types of communication training services, SLPs also keep records of evaluation, progress, and eventual discharge of patients, and work with families to overcome and cope with communication<unk> s (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). In many cases, SLPs provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication or swallowing disorders. SLPs work with physicians, psychologists, and social workers to provide services in the medical domain, and collaborate with educational professionals to offer additional services for students to facilitate the educational process. Thus,<unk> -language services may be found in schools, hospitals, outpatient clinics, and nursing homes, among other settings. The setting in which therapy is provided to the individual depends upon the age, type, and severity of the individual's<unk> . An infant/toddler may engage in an early intervention program, in which services are delivered in a naturalistic environment in which the child is most comfortable—probably his/her home. If the child is school-aged, he/she may receive<unk> -language services at an outpatient clinic, or even at his/her home school as part of a weekly program. The type of setting in which therapy is offered depends largely upon characteristics of the individual and his/her disability. As with any professional practice that is informed by ongoing research, controversies exist in the fields that deal with<unk>  and language disorders. One such current debate relates to the efficacy of oral motor exercises and the expectations surrounding them. According to Lof, non-speech oral motor exercises (NS-OME) includes "any technique that does not require the child to produce a<unk>  sound but is used to influence the development of speaking abilities". These sorts of exercises would include blowing, tongue push-ups, pucker-smile, tongue wags, big smile, tongue-to-nose-to-chin, cheek puffing, blowing kisses, and tongue curling, among others. Lof continues, indicating that 85% of SLPs are currently using NS-OME. Additionally, these exercises are used for dysarthria, apraxia, late talkers, structural anomalies, phonological<unk> s, hearing<unk> s, and other disorders. Practitioners assume that these exercises will strengthen articulatory structures and generalize to<unk>  acts. Lof reviews 10 studies, and concludes that only one of the studies shows benefits to these exercises (it also suffered serious methodological flaws). Lof ultimately concludes that the exercises employ the same structures, but are used for different functions. The NS-OME position is not without its supporters, however, and the proponents are numerous. Interventions Intervention services will be guided by the strengths and needs determined by the<unk>  and language evaluation. The areas of need may be addressed individually until each one is functional; alternatively, multiple needs may be addressed simultaneously through the intervention techniques. If possible, all interventions will be geared towards the goal of developing typical communicative interaction. To this end, interventions typically follow either a preventive, remedial, or compensatory model. The preventive service model is common as an early intervention technique, especially for children whose other disorders place them at a higher risk for developing later communication problems. This model works to lessen the probability or severity of the issues that could later emerge. The remedial model is used when an individual already has a<unk>  or language<unk>  that he/she wishes to have corrected. Compensatory models would be used if a professional determines that it is best for the child to bypass the communication limitation; often, this relies on AAC. Language intervention activities are used in some therapy sessions. In these exercises, an SLP or other trained professional will interact with a child by working with the child through play and other forms of interaction to talk to the child and model language use. The professional will make use of various stimuli, such as books, objects, or simple pictures to stimulate the emerging language. In these activities, the professional will model correct pronunciation, and will encourage the child to practice these skills. Articulation therapy may be used during play therapy as well, but involves modeling specific aspects of language—the production of sound. The specific sounds will be modeled for the child by the professional (often the SLP), and the specific processes involved in creating those sounds will be taught as well. For example, the professional might instruct the child in the placement of the tongue or lips in order to produce certain consonant sounds. Technology is another avenue of intervention, and can help children whose physical conditions make communication difficult. The use of electronic communication systems allow nonspeaking people and people with severe physical disabilities to engage in the give and take of shared thought. Adaptability and limitations While some<unk>  problems, such as certain voice problems, require medical interventions, many<unk>  problems can be alleviated through effective behavioral interventions and practice. In these cases, instruction in<unk>  techniques or speaking strategies, coupled with regular practice, can help the individual to overcome his/her speaking difficulties. In other, more severe cases, the individual with<unk>  problems may compensate with AAC devices.<unk><unk> s can seriously limit the manner in which an individual interacts with others in work, school, social, and even home environments. Inability to correctly form<unk>  sounds might create stress, embarrassment, and frustration in both the speaker and the listener. Over time, this could create aggressive responses on the part of the listener for being misunderstood, or out of embarrassment. Alternatively, it could generate an avoidance of social situations that create these stressful situations. Language<unk> s create similar difficulties in communicating with others, but may also include difficulties in understanding what others are trying to say (receptive language). Because of the pervasive nature of language<unk> s, communicating, reading, writing, and academic success may all be compromised in these students. Similar to individuals with<unk><unk> s, individuals with language<unk> s may encounter long-term difficulties associated with work, school, social, and home environments. Assistive technology Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) includes all forms of communication other than oral communication that an individual might employ to make known his/her thoughts. AAC work to compensate for<unk> s that an individual might have with expressive language abilities. Each system works to maintain a natural and functional level of communication. There is no one best type of AAC for all individuals; rather, the best type of AAC will be determined by the strengths and weaknesses of a specific individual. While there are a large number of types of AAC, there are fundamentally two categories: aided and unaided. Unaided systems of communication are those that require both communication parties to be physically present in the same location. Examples of unaided systems include gestures, body language, sign language, and communication boards. Communication boards are devices upon which letters, words, or pictorial symbols might be displayed; the individual may interface with the communication board to express him/herself to the other individual. Aided systems of communication do not require both individuals to be
Speech and language impairment
Language delay
Specific language impairment
Motor speech disorders
Language disorder
Nonverbal learning disorder
Speech delay
Infantile speech