Traditional Treatments Our knowledge of renal<unk>  comes from animal studies. Based on these studies,<unk>  transplants and retrospective partial nephrectomy series indicate the risk of renal function impairment the longer the<unk>  injury persists. However, based on historical studies, the use of the duration of the<unk>  as a dichotomous marker has been found to have significant flaws in predicting renal function outcomes. The duration of<unk>  does not affect<unk>  function either in the short term or long term.<unk>  Preconditioning In patients who get a<unk>  transplant or a coronary artery bypass,<unk>  preconditioning is given. In<unk>  preconditioning, the<unk>  is given a tolerable amount of<unk> . This preconditions the<unk>  to tolerate subsequent<unk> -induced injuries. This reduces cell lysis and apoptosis of<unk>  cells and improves the overall renal function of the<unk> s post-ischemia as compared to not having the preconditioning. Furosemide to Promote Post-perfusion Diuresis A vial of furosemide taken intravenously or intramuscularly Furosemide is a common diuretic and is used for the prevention or to reverse acute<unk>  injury. A diuretic is a substance that promotes excretion of water from the body. When the<unk> s undergo<unk> , it leads to reperfusion or a return of blood supply to the organs. As such, using diuretics has helped in getting rid of excess water in the<unk> s after reperfusion. Taking furosemide as a tablet, as a liquid solution, or via injection is used as a preventative measure or as treatment of<unk>  has shown to reduce the severity of renal failure, reduce apoptosis induced by<unk> , and speed the recovery of renal function. This as also lead to the reduction of the need of surgical renal replacement in some patients. Fenoldopam Mesylate Fenoldopam is used postoperatively in treating Acute<unk>  Injury, if used before<unk>  damage. Similar to Furosemide, this can be taken orally or intravenously; however, bioavailability, or the amount of the drug that reaches the blood circulation, is reduced if taken orally. Fenoldopam is used as a vasodilator and can increase blood flow to the<unk> s, as well as renin secretion. Thus, it can be used to regulate the blood pressure in the arteries and reduce injury due to<unk> . Emerging Treatments Bendavia Bendavia is currently in clinical studies targeting mitochondrial dysfunction. It is protective in rat models of<unk>  when it was administered before the injury. Bendavia binds to cardiolipin on the inner mitochondrial membrane and this inhibits cytochrome c peroxidase activity. This protects respiration during the early reperfusion and accelerates the recovery of ATP. In the animal models, it was found that tubular cell death and dysfunction were reduced. Therapeutic Gases: CO, NO, and H2S This figure shows how Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxide, and Hydrogen Sulfide help in attenuating<unk>  by reducing inflammation, tissue injury, hypoxia, apoptosis of cells, and vasoconstriction. This was drawn using BioRender.com Carbon monoxide (CO) helps in stabilizing HIF, which helps in regulating autophagy and hypoxic response. Through this, inflammation and tissue injury are stabilized. Nitric Oxide (NO) is a byproduct of the metabolism of arginine to citrulline by NO synthase. This gas is available in all cells, and inhalation of NO has been found to be therapeutically active. This reduces pulmonary vasoconstriction and lessens apoptosis during renal<unk> . Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is also an endogenous product of metabolic activity in cells. This is a byproduct of the metabolism of cysteine by cystathionine-b-synthase. Like with NO, inhalation of H2S has been found to be therapeutic and has been shown to stabilize hypothermia and stabilize cardiovascular hemodynamics which protects from<unk>  injury. Mesenchymal Stem Cell Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) are multipotent mature stem cells that are capable of differentiating into different types of cells. This is a promising line of therapy as regenerative medicine has shown benefits in the restoration of the<unk> s. MSCs have anti-inflammatory properties and has been applied in animal and human patients. Because of their regenerative capabilities, the<unk>  can benefit from it by transdifferentiation into<unk>  cells. Moreover, they can give anti-inflammatory and immuno-modulatory properties and therefore protecting the<unk>  as well as repairing it from<unk>  injury.
Kidney ischemia
Renal ischemia
Renal colic
Pyonephrosis
Renal papillary necrosis
Obstructive uropathy
Renal cortical necrosis
Acute kidney injury