Collection<unk>  for therapeutic use can be collected from environmental sources that likely contain high quantities of bacteria and bacteriophages, such as effluent outlets, sewage or even soil. The samples are taken and applied to bacterial cultures that are to be targeted. If the bacteria die, as seen by plaques formed on a bacterial lawn, the<unk> s can be grown in liquid cultures, which is then centrifuged to pellet the bacteria, and collected from the supernatant, which is then passed through a filter to remove all but the<unk> s. The<unk>  lysate can then be further tested to see which ones show growth suppression effects (lysogeny) or destruction (lysis) of the target bacteria. Modes of treatment<unk> s are "bacterium-specific" and it is, therefore, necessary in many cases to take a swab from the patient and culture it prior to treatment. Occasionally, isolation of therapeutic<unk> s can require a few months to complete, but clinics generally keep supplies of<unk>  cocktails for the most common bacterial strains in a geographical area.<unk>  cocktails are sold in pharmacies in eastern countries. The composition of bacteriophagic cocktails has been periodically modified to add<unk> s effective against emerging pathogenic strains.<unk> s in practice are applied orally, topically on infected wounds or spread onto surfaces, or used during surgical procedures. Injection is rarely used, avoiding any risks of trace chemical contaminants that may be present from the bacteria amplification stage, and recognizing that the immune system naturally fights against viruses introduced into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Reviews of<unk>  indicate that more clinical and microbiological research is needed to meet current standards. Clinical trials Funding for<unk>  research and clinical trials is generally insufficient and difficult to obtain, since it is a lengthy and complex process to patent bacteriophage products. An official view is that the effectiveness of each individual<unk>  would need to be demonstrated separately, because administering them in combinations would be too complicated. Due to the specificity of<unk> s,<unk>  would be most effective as a cocktail injection, a modality generally rejected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Therefore, researchers and observers have predicted that if<unk>  is to gain traction, the FDA must change its regulatory stance on combination drug cocktails. Public awareness and education about<unk>  are generally limited to scientific or independent research rather than mainstream media. In 2007<unk>  1 and 2 clinical trials were completed at the Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital, London, for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections (otitis).<unk>  1 clinical trials were conducted at the Southwest Regional Wound Care Center of Lubbock, Texas, for a cocktail of<unk> s against P. aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli developed by Intralytix.<unk> Burn, a<unk>  1 and 2 trial of<unk>  against P. aeruginosa wound infection in France and Belgium in 2015–17, was terminated early due to lack of effectiveness. Locus Biosciences created a cocktail of three CRISPR-modified<unk> s. A 2019 study examined its effectiveness against E. coli in the urinary tract. Table 1 In February 2019, the FDA approved the first clinical trial of intravenously administered<unk>  in the United States. In July 2020, the FDA approved the first clinical trial of nebulized<unk>  in the United States. This double-blind, placebo-controlled study at Yale University will be focused on treating P. aeruginosa infections in patients with cystic fibrosis. In February 2020, the FDA approved a clinical trial to evaluate bacteriophage therapy in patients with urinary tract infections. The study started in December 2020 and aim to identify ideal bacteriophage treatment regimens based on improvements in disease control rates. In February 2021, the FDA approved a clinical trial to evaluate bacteriophage therapy in patients with chronic prosthetic joint infections (PJI). This study will start in October 2022 and be conducted by Adaptive<unk> utics in collaboration with Mayo Clinic. Administration<unk> s can usually be freeze-dried and turned into pills without materially reducing efficiency. Temperature stability up to 55 °C and shelf lives of 14 months have been shown for some types of<unk> s in pill form. Application in liquid form is possible, stored preferably in refrigerated vials. Oral administration works better when an antacid is included, as this increases the number of<unk> s surviving passage through the stomach. Topical administration often involves application to gauzes that are laid on the area to be treated. Successful treatments<unk> s were used successfully at Yale University by Benjamin Chan to treat a Pseudomonas infection in 2016. Intravenous<unk>  drip therapy was successfully used to treat a patient with multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in Thornton Hospital at UC San Diego in 2017. Nebulized<unk>  has been used successfully to treat numerous patients with cystic fibrosis and multidrug-resistant bacteria at Yale University as part of their compassionate use program. In 2019, a Brownsville, Minnesota, resident with a longstanding bacterial infection in his knee received a<unk>  treatment at the Mayo Clinic that eliminated the need for amputation of his lower leg. Individualised<unk>  was also successfully used by Robert T. Schooley and others to treat a case of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in 2015. In 2022, an individually adjusted<unk> -antibiotic combination as an antimicrobial resistance treatment was demonstrated and described in detail. The scientists called for scaling up the research and for further development of this approach.
Phage therapy
Music therapy
Aquatic therapy
Ultraviolet light therapy
Dance therapy
Virotherapy
Goeckerman therapy
Metaphor therapy