<unk>  encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.<unk> cal testing<unk> cal testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the examinations for the Chinese civil service. Written exams began during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in 1906. In Europe, mental assessment took a different approach, with theories of physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—described by Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy. When experimental<unk>  came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as psychometrics). James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of<unk> cal testing to the United States, and in fact coined the term "mental test". In 1901, Cattell's student Clark Wissler published discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia and Barnard students failed to predict academic performance. In response to 1904 orders from the Minister of Public Instruction, French<unk> sts Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence in 1905–1911. They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon introduced the concept of mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as idiots. Henry H. Goddard put the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as imbecile and feebleminded. In 1916, (after Binet's death), Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman modified the Binet-Simon scale (renamed the Stanford–Binet scale) and introduced the intelligence quotient as a score report. Based on his test findings, and reflecting the racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability "represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-Indians and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial." Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by<unk> st Robert Yerkes in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational<unk> sts for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel. Mental testing also became popular in the U.S., where it was applied to schoolchildren. The federally created National Intelligence Test was administered to 7 million children in the 1920s. In 1926, the College Entrance Examination Board created the Scholastic Aptitude Test to standardize college admissions. The results of intelligence tests were used to argue for segregated schools and economic functions, including the preferential training of Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black intellectuals such a Horace Mann Bond and Allison Davis. Eugenicists used mental testing to justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded (now referred to as intellectual disability). In the United States, tens of thousands of men and women were sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell. Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies. Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure, consistency of results, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally, effective prediction of behavior and life outcomes outside of testing situations. Developments in psychometrics include work on test and scale reliability and validity. Developments in item-response theory, structural equation modeling, and bifactor analysis have helped in strengthening test and scale construction. Mental health care The provision of<unk> cal health services is generally called clinical<unk>  in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school<unk>  and counseling<unk>  professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical<unk> sts. Clinical<unk> sts typically include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical<unk> . In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of professional<unk> . In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor's degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical<unk>  usually spend one year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries,<unk> sts do not get bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course following high school. Clinical<unk>  is at present the largest specialization within<unk> . It includes the study and application of<unk>  for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving<unk> cal distress, dysfunction, and/or mental illness. Clinical<unk> sts also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth. Central to the practice of clinical<unk>  are<unk> cal assessment and psychotherapy although clinical<unk> sts may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Credit for the first<unk>  clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner Witmer, who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was Morton Prince, an early advocate for the establishment of<unk>  as a clinical and academic discipline. In the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States was performed by psychiatrists, who are medical doctors.<unk>  entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat the mentally ill. Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and<unk> , and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities. Some in the clinical<unk>  community adopted behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the 1970s, cognitive-behavior therapy emerged with the work of Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive constructs. Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among clinical<unk> sts increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned. Mental health care today involves<unk> sts and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977, National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion." Graduate programs issuing doctorates in clinical<unk>  emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase through the 1980s. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct scientific research. The PsyD degree is more exclusively designed to train practitioners. Some clinical<unk> sts focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical<unk>  is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster<unk>  (see crisis intervention) involves professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events. The work performed by clinical<unk> sts tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training programs and<unk> sts are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. Diagnosis in clinical<unk>  usually follows the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The study of mental illnesses is called abnormal<unk> . Education An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used in educational<unk> . Educational<unk>  is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the<unk>  of teaching, and the social<unk>  of schools as organizations. Educational<unk> sts can be found in preschools, schools of all levels including post secondary institutions, community organizations and learning centers, Government or private research firms, and independent or private consultant . The work of developmental<unk> sts such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational<unk>  is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand. School<unk>  combines principles from educational<unk>  and clinical<unk>  to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise
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