Childhood disruptive behaviors<unk>  is one of the most extensively studied treatments for childhood disruptive behaviors.<unk>  tended to have larger effects for younger children than older children, although the differences between age groups were not statistically significant. Improvement in<unk> al mental health (depression, stress, irritability, anxiety, and sense of confidence) as well as<unk> al behavior is noted. Improvements in child and<unk>  behavior were maintained up to one year after<unk> , although the effects were small; very few studies have been done on the durability of the effects of<unk> . Families from economically disadvantaged backgrounds were less likely to benefit from<unk>  than their more advantaged counterparts, but this difference was attenuated if the low-income families received individual rather than group treatment. Overall, group formats of<unk>  delivery were less effective than individual formats, and the addition of individual therapy for the child did not improve outcomes.<unk> al psychopathology, substance abuse, and maternal depression are associated with less successful outcomes; this may be because the<unk> s' ability to learn and consolidate the skills being taught" is affected, or<unk> s may not be able to stay engaged in the program or translate the skills acquired to the home. Furlong et al (2013) concluded that group-based<unk>  is cost-effective in reducing conduct problems, and improving<unk> al health and<unk> ing skills, but that there is not enough evidence that it is effective on the measures of "child emotional problems and educational and cognitive abilities". Other childhood-onset conditions Although the bulk of the research on<unk>  examines its impact on disruptive behavior, it has also been studied as an intervention for other conditions. Conflict is high in families of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with<unk> s showing "more negative and ineffective<unk> ing (e.g., power assertive, punitive, inconsistent) and less positive or warm<unk> ing, relative to<unk> s of children without ADHD".<unk>  targets dysfunctional<unk> ing and school-related problems of children with ADHD, such as work completion and peer problems. Pfiffner and Haack (2014) say<unk>  is well-established as a treatment for school-age children with ADHD, but that questions persist about the best methods for delivering<unk> . A meta-analysis of evidence-based ADHD treatment in children further supports this, as researchers found wide variability in how<unk>  was carried out across previous studies. This analysis also noted that the clinicians involved in these studies often modified the<unk>  based on the needs of the family. This variation however, did not create significant differences in effectiveness of<unk>  across studies. A 2011 Cochrane review found some evidence that<unk>  improves general child behavior and<unk> al stress in treating ADHD, but has limited effects on ADHD-specific behavior. The authors concluded that there was a lack of data to evaluate school achievement, and a risk of bias in the studies due to poor methodology; existing evidence was not strong enough to form clear clinical guidelines with regard to<unk>  for ADHD, or to say whether group or individual<unk>  was more effective. A 2009 review of long-term outcomes in children with Tourette syndrome (TS) said that, in those children with TS who have other comorbid conditions,<unk>  is effective in dealing with explosive behaviors and anger<unk> . The US National Institute of Mental Health has designated the "gap between evidence-based treatments and community services" as an area critically in need of more research;<unk>  for disruptive behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders is an area of ongoing research.
Parent management training
Neuro-linguistic programming
Peer education
Online speech therapy
Social cognition and interaction training
Kangaroo care
Support group
Apitherapy