Phonemic<unk>  Phonemic<unk> , also referred to as phonological<unk>  or literal<unk> , refers to the substitution of a word with a nonword that preserves at least half of the segments and/or number of syllables of the intended word. This can lead to a variety of errors, including formal ones, in which one word is replaced with another phonologically related to the intended word; phonemic ones, in which one word is replaced with a nonword phonologically related to the intended word; and approximations, an attempt to find the word without producing either a word or nonword. These types of errors are associated with Wernicke's aphasia, among others. Phonemic<unk> s are often caused by lesions to the external capsule, extending to the posterior part of the temporal lobe or internal capsule. This type of<unk>  also occurs in other languages as well. For example, case studies have been performed with German speakers, which demonstrated that 30.8% of<unk> s occurred at the beginning of the word in patients with Wernicke's aphasia and 22.6% for patients with Broca's aphasia. In English speakers this tendency to create errors at the beginning of the word remained. * Types of phonemic<unk> s * Anticipatory errors occur when a syllable from later in the word replaces a syllable from earlier in the word - "papple" for apple or "lelephone" for telephone. * Perseverative errors occur when a syllable from earlier in the word replaces a syllable from later in the word - for example, "gingerjed" for gingerbread. * Paradigmatic errors based on similarity in how the sounds are formed can also occur - "marmer" for barber, i.e. * Addition errors, in which a segment is added that bears no relation to the intended word, are much rarer than anticipatory, perseverative, or paradigmatic errors, though they do occur. Most often what can be mistaken for an addition error is an anticipatory error from the words surrounding the intended one. However, an example of a possible addition error could be "selezant" for elephant. * Substitution errors involve a clear phonological substitution, such as "ragon" for wagon. * Epenthetic errors are the insertion of a segment into the target, as in the case of "plants" for pants. * Finally, metathetical errors are the full exchange of segments like "deks" for desk. Neologistic<unk>  Neologistic<unk> s, a substitution with a non-English or gibberish word, follow pauses indicating word-finding difficulty. They can affect any part of speech, and the previously mentioned pause can be used to indicate the relative severity of the neologism; less severe neologistic<unk> s can be recognized as a distortion of a real word, and more severe ones cannot. The hypothesized source for these neologisms is “a device which quasirandomly combines English phonemes in a phonotactically regular way.” A neologistic<unk>  can be thought of as a neologism resulting from aphasia, rather than any other of the sources with which they are associated. Neologistic<unk>  is often associated with receptive aphasia and jargon aphasia. * Types of Neologistic<unk> s * There are also various types of neologistic<unk> s. They can be phonologically related to a prior word, a following word, the intended word, or another neologism. The neologistic<unk>  shares phonemes or the position of phonemes with the related word. This most often occurs when the word and neologistic<unk>  are in the same clause. Neologistic<unk> s have a less stringent relationship with the target word than phonological<unk> s - where a phonological<unk>  has more than half of the target word’s phonemes, a neologistic<unk>  has less than half. Verbal<unk>  Verbal<unk> s are confusions of words or the replacement of one word by another real word; another definition is that of a contextually inappropriate English word or an English word of a syntactically incorrect class - the wrong part of speech, for example. Verbal<unk> s do not often preserve length, although the gender of the target word was preserved in more than half of the errors in one case study. It is hypothesized that verbal<unk> s are not the result of a random process but from a precise deficit in a single area. Verbal<unk> s are the only type of<unk> s that can also be linked to nonfluent aphasias, and they are mainly caused by lesions to the posterior temporal region of the brain, the head of the caudate nucleus, or both. * Examples * These errors can be semantic, in which the meaning of the word is related to that of the intended word (car for van, for example). Semantic<unk> s can be further subdivided into six different types. * Coordinate semantic<unk> s replace the target word with one that is from the same category, such as tiger for lion. * Associate semantic<unk> s replace the target word with one that is related to the target but is not of the same category, like replacing foot with shoe. * Superordinate semantic<unk> s replace a specific target word with a more generalized group to which the target word involves, such as replacing pear with fruit. * Subordinate semantic<unk> s are the opposite of superordinate semantic<unk> s and replace the target word with one that is more specific - rose, for flower, for example. * Part-whole semantic<unk> s replace the "whole" with the "part" as in finger for hand; or, conversely, the part with the whole, in the case of leg for foot. * Finally, a visual semantic<unk>  replaces the target word with a word that shares visual features with the target, such as knife for nail. * Random errors, in which the word has no relation to the target, also occur. Perseverative<unk>  Perseverative<unk>  is a type of<unk>  in which the previous response persists and interferes with retrieval of new responses. (See the experimental case study D.L.A published by Dennis in 1976.) It is associated with lesions in the left caudate nucleus.
Paraphasia
Metamorphopsia
Hypophonia
Dysmorphopsia
Dysarthria
Misophonia
Phonagnosia
Copropraxia