<unk> s are models of the<unk>  body used in computerized analysis. Since the 1960s, the radiological science community has developed and applied these models for ionizing radiation dosimetry studies. These models have become increasingly accurate with respect to the internal structure of the<unk>  body. As computing evolved, so did the<unk> s. Graduating from<unk> s based on simple quadratic equations to voxelized<unk> s, which were based on actual medical images of the<unk>  body, was a major step. The newest models are based on more advanced mathematics, such as non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) and polygon meshes, which allow for 4-D<unk> s where simulations can take place not only 3-dimensional space but in time as well.<unk> s have been developed for a wide variety of<unk> s, from children to adolescents to adults, male and female, as well as pregnant women. With such a variety of<unk> s, many kinds of simulations can be run, from dose received from medical imaging procedures to nuclear medicine. Over the years, the results of these simulations have created an assortment of standards that have been adopted in the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommendations.
Computational human phantom
Ultrasound research interface
Surgery simulator
Imaging phantom
In vivo bioreactor
Animal testing on rodents
Jaszczak phantom
Shepp–Logan phantom