Mechanism of action<unk> 's main effect is to lower the activity of T-cells; it does so by inhibiting calcineurin in the calcineurin–phosphatase pathway and preventing the mitochondrial permeability transition pore from opening.<unk>  binds to the cytosolic protein cyclophilin (immunophilin) of lymphocytes, especially of T cells. This<unk> —cyclophilin complex inhibits calcineurin, which is normally responsible for activating the transcription of interleukin 2. In T-cells, activation of the T-cell receptor normally increases intracellular calcium, which acts via calmodulin to activate calcineurin. Calcineurin then dephosphorylates the transcription factor NF-AT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells), which moves to the T-cell nucleus and increases the transcription of genes for IL-2 and related cytokines.<unk> , by preventing the dephosphorylation of NF-AT, leads to reduced effector T-cell function; it does not affect cytostatic activity.<unk>  also binds to the cyclophilin D protein that constitutes part of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP), thus preventing MPTP opening. The MPTP is found in the mitochondrial membrane of cardiac muscle cells. MPTP opening signifies a sudden change in the inner mitochondrial membrane permeability, allowing protons and other ions and solutes of a size up to ~1.5 kDa to go through the inner membrane. This change of permeability is considered a cellular catastrophe, leading to cell death. However, brief mitochondrial permeability transition pore openings play an essential physiological role in maintaining healthy mitochondrial homeostasis. Pharmacokinetics<unk>  is a cyclic peptide of 11 amino acids; it contains a single D-amino acid, which is rarely encountered in nature. Unlike most peptides,<unk>  is not synthesized by ribosomes.Some sources list the fungus under an alternative species name Hypocladium inflatum gams such as Pritchard and Sneader in 2005:* * However, the name, "Beauveria nivea", also appears in several other articles including in a 2001 online publication by Harriet Upton entitled " Origin of drugs in current use: the<unk>  story " (retrieved 19 June 2005). Mark Plotkin states in his book Medicine Quest, Penguin Books 2001, pages 46-47, that in 1996 mycology researcher Kathie Hodge found that it is in fact a species of Cordyceps.<unk>  is highly metabolized in humans and animals after ingestion. The metabolites, which include<unk>  B, C, D, E, H, and L, have less than 10% of<unk> 's immunosuppressant activity and are associated with higher kidney toxicity. Individual<unk>  metabolites have been isolated and characterized but do not appear to be extensively studied.
Ciclosporin
Voclosporin
Aminophenazone
Mycophenolic acid
Cyclizine
Prednisolone
Azathioprine
Cephalosporin