Tools<unk>  Checklist<unk>  is most commonly assessed with the<unk>  Checklist, Revised (PCL-R), created by Robert D. Hare based on Cleckley's criteria from the 1940s, criminological concepts such as those of William and Joan McCord, and his own research on criminals and incarcerated offenders in Canada. The PCL-R is widely used and is referred to by some as the "gold standard" for assessing<unk> . There are nonetheless numerous criticisms of the PCL-R as a theoretical tool and in real-world usage.<unk> c Personality Inventory Unlike the PCL, the<unk> c Personality Inventory (PPI) was developed to comprehensively index personality traits without explicitly referring to antisocial or criminal behaviors themselves. It is a self-report scale that was developed originally for non-clinical samples (e.g. university students) rather than prisoners, though may be used with the latter. It was revised in 2005 to become the PPI-R and now comprises 154 items organized into eight subscales. The item scores have been found to group into two overarching and largely separate factors (unlike the PCL-R factors), Fearless-Dominance and Impulsive Antisociality, plus a third factor, Coldheartedness, which is largely dependent on scores on the other two. Factor 1 is associated with social efficacy while Factor 2 is associated with maladaptive tendencies. A person may score at different levels on the different factors, but the overall score indicates the extent of<unk> c personality. Triarchic<unk>  Measure The Triarchic<unk>  Measure, otherwise known as the TriPM, is a 58-item, self-report assessment that measures<unk>  within the three traits identified in the triarchic model: boldness, meanness and disinhibition. Each trait is measured on separate subscales and added up resulting in a total<unk>  score. The TriPM includes various components of other measures for assessing<unk> , including meanness and disinhibition patterns within the<unk> c personality. However, there are differing approaches in the measurement of the boldness construct. The boldness construct is used to highlighting the social and interpersonal implications of the<unk> c personality. DSM and ICD There are currently two widely established systems for classifying mental disorders—the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) produced by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Both list categories of disorders thought to be distinct types, and have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are often broadly comparable, although significant differences remain. The first edition of the DSM in 1952 had a section on sociopathic personality disturbances, then a general term that included such things as homosexuality and alcoholism as well as an "antisocial reaction" and "dyssocial reaction". The latter two eventually became antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) in the DSM and dissocial personality disorder in the ICD. Both manuals have stated that their diagnoses have been referred to, or include what is referred to, as<unk>  or sociopathy, although neither diagnostic manual has ever included a disorder officially titled as such. Other tools There are some traditional personality tests that contain subscales relating to<unk> , though they assess relatively non-specific tendencies towards antisocial or criminal behavior. These include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory <unk> c Deviate scale), California Psychological Inventory (Socialization scale), and Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory Antisocial Personality Disorder scale. There is also the Levenson Self-Report<unk>  Scale (LSRP) and the Hare Self-Report<unk>  Scale (HSRP), but in terms of self-report tests, the PPI/PPI-R has become more used than either of these in modern<unk>  research on adults. Comorbidity Studies suggest strong comorbidity between<unk>  and antisocial personality disorder. Among numerous studies, positive correlations have also been reported between<unk>  and histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, paranoid, and schizoid personality disorders, panic and obsessive–compulsive disorders, but not neurotic disorders in general, schizophrenia, or depression. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is known to be highly comorbid with conduct disorder (a theorized precursor to ASPD), and may also co-occur with<unk> c tendencies. This may be explained in part by deficits in executive function. Anxiety disorders often co-occur with ASPD, and contrary to assumptions,<unk>  can sometimes be marked by anxiety; this appears to be related to items from Factor 2 but not Factor 1 of the PCL-R.<unk>  is also associated with substance use disorders. It has been suggested that<unk>  may be comorbid with several other conditions than these, but limited work on comorbidity has been carried out. This may be partly due to difficulties in using inpatient groups from certain institutions to assess comorbidity, owing to the likelihood of some bias in sample selection. Sex differences Research on<unk>  has largely been done on men and the PCL-R was developed using mainly male criminal samples, raising the question of how well the results apply to women. Men score higher than women on both the PCL-R and the PPI and on both of their main scales. The differences tend to be somewhat larger on the interpersonal-affective scale than on the antisocial scale. Most but not all studies have found broadly similar factor structure for men and women. Many associations with other personality traits are similar, although in one study the antisocial factor was more strongly related with impulsivity in men and more strongly related with openness to experience in women. It has been suggested that<unk>  in men manifest more as an antisocial pattern while in women it manifests more as a histrionic pattern. Studies on this have shown mixed results. PCL-R scores may be somewhat less predictive of violence and recidivism in women. On the other hand,<unk>  may have a stronger relationship with suicide and possibly internalizing symptoms in women. A suggestion is that<unk>  manifests more as externalizing behaviors in men and more as internalizing behaviors in women. Furthermore, one study has suggested substantial gender differences were found in the etiology of<unk> . For girls, 75% of the variance in severe callous and unemotional traits was attributable to environmental factors and just 0% of the variance was attributable to genetic factors. In boys, the link was reversed. Studies have also found that women in prison score significantly lower on<unk>  than men, with one study reporting only 11 percent of violent females in prison met the<unk>  criteria in comparison to 31 percent of violent males. Other studies have also indicated that high<unk> c females are rare in forensic settings.
Psychopathy
Gemütlose psychopathy
Externalizing disorder
Internalizing disorder
Tic disorder
Agoraphobia
Personality pathology
Kleptomania