Initial evaluation of a suspected<unk>  should begin with a thorough patient history, including mechanism of injury, and physical examination. Special attention should be focused on the neurovascular exam both before and after reduction, as injury to these structures may occur during the injury or during the reduction process. Subsequent imaging studies are frequently obtained to assist with diagnosis. * Standard plain radiographs, usually a minimum of 2 views * Generally, pre- and post-reduction X-rays are recommended. Initial X-ray can confirm the diagnosis as well as evaluate for any concomitant fractures. Post-reduction radiographs confirm successful reduction alignment and can exclude any other bony injuries that may have been caused during the reduction procedure. * In certain instances if initial X-rays are normal but injury is suspected, there is possible benefit of stress/weight-bearing views to further assess for disruption of ligamentous structures and/or need for surgical intervention. This may be utilized with AC<unk>  separations. * Nomenclature:<unk> s are named based on the distal component in relation to the proximal one. * Ultrasound * Ultrasound may be useful in an acute setting, particularly with suspected shoulder<unk> s. Although it may not be as accurate in detecting any associated fractures, in one observational study ultrasonography identified 100% of shoulder<unk> s, and was 100% sensitive in identifying successful reduction when compared to plain radiographs. Ultrasound may also have utility in diagnosing AC<unk> s. * In infants <6 months of age with suspected developmental dysplasia of the hip (congenital hip<unk> , ultrasound is the imaging study of choice as the proximal femoral epiphysis has not significantly ossified at this age. * Cross-sectional imaging (CT or MRI) * Plain films are generally sufficient in making a<unk>  diagnosis. However, cross-sectional imaging can subsequently be used to better define and evaluate abnormalities that may be missed or not clearly seen on plain X-rays. CT is useful in further analyzing any bony aberrations, and CT angiogram may be utilized if vascular injury is suspected. In addition to improved visualization of bony abnormalities, MRI permits for a more detailed inspection of the<unk> -supporting structures in order to assess for ligamentous and other soft tissue injury.
Joint dislocation
Intraarticular fracture
Nonunion
Retrolisthesis
Malunion
Back strain
Pseudofracture
Bunion