Acute management Urgent interventions, including therapeutic irrigation and wound debridement, are often necessary to clean the area of injury and minimize the risk of infection. Other risks of delayed intervention include long-term complications, such as deep infection, vascular compromise and complete limb loss. After wound irrigation, dry or wet gauze should be applied to the wound to prevent bacterial contamination. Taking photographs of the wound can help to reduce the need of multiple examinations by different doctors, which could be painful. Limb should be reduced and placed in a well-padded splint for immobilization of<unk> s. Pulses should be documented before and after reduction. Wound cultures are positive in 22% of pre-debridement cultures and 60% of post-debridement cultures of infected cases. Therefore, pre-operative cultures no longer recommended. The value of post-operative cultures is unknown. Tetanus prophylaxis is routinely given to enhance immune response against Clostridium tetani. Anti-tetanus immunoglobulin is only indicated for those with highly contaminated wounds with uncertain vaccination history. Single intramuscular dose of 3000 to 5000 units of tetanus immunoglobulin is given to provide immediate immunity. Another important clinical decision during acute management of<unk> s involves the effort to avoid preventable amputations, where functional salvage of the limb is clearly desirable. Care must be taken to ensure this decision is not solely based on an injury severity tool score, but rather a decision made following a full discussion of options between doctors and the person, along with their family and care team. Antibiotics Administration of antibiotics as soon as possible is necessary to reduce the risk of infection. However, antibiotics may not provide necessary benefits in<unk>  finger<unk> s and low velocity firearms injury. First generation cephalosporin (cefazolin) is recommended as first line antibiotics for the treatment of<unk> s. The antibiotic is useful against gram positive cocci and gram negative rods such as Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. To extend the coverage of antibiotics against more bacteria in Type III Gustilo<unk> s, combination of first generation cephalosporin and aminoglycoside (gentamicin or tobramycin) or a third generation cephalosporin is recommended to cover against nosocomial gram negative bacilli such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Adding penicillin to cover for gas gangrene caused by anaerobic bacteria Clostridium perfringens is a controversial practice. Studies has shown that such practice may not be necessary as the standard antibiotic regimen is enough to cover for Clostridial infections. Antibiotic impregnated devices such as tobramycin impregnated Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) beads and antibiotic bone cement are helpful in reducing rates of infection. The use of absorbable carriers with implant coatings at the time of surgical fixation is also an effective means of delivering local antibiotics. There has been no agreement on the optimal duration of antibiotics. Studies has shown that there is no additional benefits of risk of infection when giving antibiotics for one day, when compared to giving antibiotics for three days or five days. However, at present, there is only low to moderate evidence for this and more research is needed. Some authors recommended that antibiotics to be given for three doses for Gustilo Grade I<unk> s, for one day after wound closure in Grade II<unk> s, three days in Grade IIIA<unk> s, and three days after wound closure for Grade IIIB and IIIC. Wound irrigation There has been no agreement for the optimal solution for wound irrigation. Studies found out that there is no difference in infection rates by using normal saline or other various forms of water (distilled, boiled, or tap). There is also no difference in infection rates when using normal saline with castile soap compared with normal saline together with bacitracin in irrigating wounds. Studies also have shown that there is no difference in infection rates using low pressure pulse lavage (LPPL) when compared to high pressure pulse lavage (HPPL) in irrigating wounds. Optimal amount of fluid for irrigation also has not been established. It is recommended that the amount of irrigation solution to be determined by the severity of the<unk> , with 3 litres for type I<unk> s, 6 litres for type II<unk> s, and 9 litres for type III<unk> s. Wound debridement The purpose of wound debridement is to remove all contaminated and non-viable tissues including skin, subcutaneous fat, muscles and bones. Viability of bones and soft tissues are determined by their capacity to bleed. Meanwhile, the viability of muscles is determined by colour, contractility, consistency, and their capacity to bleed. The optimal timing of performing wound debridement and closure is debated and dependent on the severity of the injury, resources and antibiotics available, and individual needs. Debridement time can vary from 6 to 72 hours, and closure time can be immediate (less than 72 hours) or delayed (72 hours to up to 3 months). There is no difference in infection rates for performing surgery within 6 hours of injury when compared to until 72 hours after injury. Surgical management Early<unk>  immobilisation and fixation helps to prevent further soft tissue injury and promotes wound and bone healing. This is especially important in the treatment of intraarticular<unk> s where early fixation allows early joint motion to prevent joint stiffness.<unk>  management depends on the person's overall well being,<unk>  pattern and location, and the extent of soft tissue injury. Both reamed and unreamed intramedullary nailing are accepted surgical treatments for<unk>  tibial<unk> . Both techniques have similar rates of postoperative healing, postoperative infection, implant failure and compartment syndrome. Unreamed intramedullary nailing is advantageous because it has a lower incidence of superficial infection and malunion compared to external fixation. However, unreamed intramedullary nailing can result in high rates of hardware failure if a person's weight bearing after surgery is not closely controlled. Compared to external fixation, unreamed intramedullary nailing has similar rates of deep infection, delayed union and nonunion following surgery. For<unk>  tibial<unk> s in children, there is an increasing trend of using orthopedic cast rather than external fixation. Bone grafting is also helpful in<unk>  repair. However, internal fixation using plates and screws is not recommended as it increase the rate of infection. Amputation is a last resort intervention, and is determined by factors such as tissue viability and coverage, infection, and the extent of damage to the vascular system. Wound management Early wound closure is recommended to reduce the rates hospital-acquired infection. For Grade I and II<unk> s, wound can be healed by secondary intention or through primary closure. There is conflicting evident to suggest the effectiveness of Negative-pressure wound therapy (vacuum dressing), with several sources citing a decreased risk in infection, and others suggesting no proven benefit.
Open fracture
Tennis injuries
Chance fracture
Intracapsular fracture
Plantar fascial rupture
Burst fracture
Intraarticular fracture
Occult fracture