<unk>  is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes. No single factor can be identified as to why some adults behave abusively or neglectfully toward<unk> ren. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Society for Prevention of<unk>  and Neglect (ISPCAN) identify multiple factors at the level of the individual, their relationships, their local community, and their society at large, that combine to influence the occurrence of<unk>  maltreatment. At the individual level, such factors include age, sex, and personal history, while at the level of society, factors contributing to<unk>  maltreatment include cultural norms encouraging harsh physical punishment of<unk> ren, economic inequality, and the lack of social safety nets. WHO and ISPCAN state that understanding the complex interplay of various risk factors is vital for dealing with the problem of<unk>  maltreatment. The American psychoanalyst Elisabeth Young-Bruehl maintains that harm to<unk> ren is justified and made acceptable by widely held beliefs in<unk> ren's inherent subservience to adults, resulting in a largely unacknowledged prejudice against<unk> ren she terms<unk> ism. She contends that such prejudice, while not the immediate cause of<unk>  maltreatment, must be investigated in order to understand the motivations behind a given act of abuse, as well as to shed light on societal failures to support<unk> ren's needs and development in general. Founding editor of the International Journal of<unk> ren's Rights, Michael Freeman, also argues that the ultimate causes of<unk>  lie in prejudice against<unk> ren, especially the view that human rights do not apply equally to adults and<unk> ren. He writes, "the roots of<unk>  lie not in parental psycho-pathology or in socio-environmental stress (though their influences cannot be discounted) but in a sick culture which denigrates and depersonalizes, which reduces<unk> ren to property, to sexual objects so that they become the legitimate victims of both adult violence and lust". A girl who was burned during religious violence in Orissa, India. Parents who physically abuse their spouses are more likely than others to physically abuse their<unk> ren. However, it is impossible to know whether marital strife is a cause of<unk> , or if both the marital strife and the abuse are caused by tendencies in the abuser. Sometimes, parents set expectations for their<unk>  that are clearly beyond the<unk> 's capability. When parents' expectations are far beyond what is appropriate to the<unk>  (e.g., preschool<unk> ren who are expected to be totally responsible for self-care or provision of nurturance to parents) the resulting frustration caused by the<unk> 's non-compliance is believed to function as a contributory if not necessary cause of<unk> . Most acts of physical violence against<unk> ren are undertaken with the intent to punish. In the United States, interviews with parents reveal that as many as two thirds of documented instances of physical abuse begin as acts of corporal punishment meant to correct a<unk> 's behavior, while a large-scale Canadian study found that three quarters of substantiated cases of physical abuse of<unk> ren have occurred within the context of physical punishment. Other studies have shown that<unk> ren and infants who are spanked by parents are several times more likely to be severely assaulted by their parents or suffer an injury requiring medical attention. Studies indicate that such abusive treatment often involves parents attributing conflict to their<unk> 's willfulness or rejection, as well as "coercive family dynamics and conditioned emotional responses". Factors involved in the escalation of ordinary physical punishment by parents into confirmed<unk>  may be the punishing parent's inability to control their anger or judge their own strength, and the parent being unaware of the<unk> 's physical vulnerabilities. Some professionals argue that cultural norms that sanction physical punishment are one of the causes of<unk> , and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.<unk> ren resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to be abused or neglected. In addition, unintended pregnancies are more likely than intended pregnancies to be associated with abusive relationships, and there is an increased risk of physical violence during pregnancy. They also result in poorer maternal mental health, and lower mother-child relationship quality. There is some limited evidence that<unk> ren with moderate or severe disabilities are more likely to be victims of abuse than non-disabled<unk> ren. A study on<unk>  sought to determine: the forms of<unk>  perpetrated on<unk> ren with disabilities; the extent of<unk> ; and the causes of<unk>  of<unk> ren with disabilities. A questionnaire on<unk>  was adapted and used to collect data in this study. Participants comprised a sample of 31 pupils with disabilities (15<unk> ren with vision impairment and 16<unk> ren with hearing impairment) selected from special schools in Botswana. The study found that the majority of participants were involved in doing domestic chores. They were also sexually, physically and emotionally abused by their teachers. This study showed that<unk> ren with disabilities were vulnerable to<unk>  in their schools. Substance use disorder can be a major contributing factor to<unk> . One U.S. study found that parents with documented substance use, most commonly alcohol, cocaine, and heroin, were much more likely to mistreat their<unk> ren, and were also much more likely to reject court-ordered services and treatments. Another study found that over two-thirds of cases of<unk>  maltreatment involved parents with substance use disorders. This study specifically found relationships between alcohol and physical abuse, and between cocaine and sexual abuse. Also parental stress caused by substance increases the likelihood of the minor exhibiting internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Although the abuse victim does not always realize the abuse is wrong, the internal confusion can lead to chaos. Inner anger turns to outer frustration. Once aged 17/18, drink and drugs are used to numb the hurt feelings, nightmares, and daytime flashbacks. Acquisitive crimes to pay for the chemicals are inevitable if the victim is unable to find employment. Unemployment and financial difficulties are associated with increased rates of<unk> . In 2009 CBS News reported that<unk>  in the United States had increased during the economic recession. It gave the example of a father who had never been the primary care-taker of the<unk> ren. Now that the father was in that role, the<unk> ren began to come in with injuries. Parental mental health has also been seen as a factor towards<unk>  maltreatment. According to a recent<unk> ren’s HealthWatch study, mothers with positive symptoms of depression display a greater rate of food insecurity, poor health care for their<unk> ren, and greater number of hospitalizations. Worldwide<unk>  is an international phenomenon. Poverty and substance use disorders are common social problems worldwide, and no matter the location, show a similar trend in the correlation to<unk> . Differences in cultural perspectives play a significant role in how<unk> ren are treated. Laws reflect the population's views on what is acceptable - for example whether<unk>  corporal punishment is legal or not. A study conducted by members from several Baltic and Eastern European countries, together with specialists from the United States, examined the causes of<unk>  in the countries of Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia and Moldova. In these countries, respectively, 33%, 42%, 18% and 43% of<unk> ren reported at least one type of<unk> . According to their findings, there was a series of correlations between the potential risk factors of parental employment status, alcohol abuse, and family size within the abuse ratings. In three of the four countries, parental substance use was considerably correlated with the presence of<unk> , and although it was a lower percentage, still showed a relationship in the fourth country (Moldova). Each country also showed a connection between the father not working outside of the home and either emotional or physical<unk> . After the fall of the communism regime, some positive changes have followed with regard to tackling<unk> . While there is a new openness and acceptance regarding parenting styles and close relationships with<unk> ren,<unk>  has certainly not ceased to exist. While controlling parenting may be less of a concern, financial difficulty, unemployment, and substance use remain dominating factors in<unk>  throughout Eastern Europe. These cultural differences can be studied from many perspectives. Most importantly, overall parental behavior is genuinely different in various countries. Each culture has their own "range of acceptability," and what one may view as offensive, others may seem as tolerable. Behaviors that are normal to some may be viewed as abusive to others, all depending on the societal norms of that particular country. Asian parenting perspectives hold different ideals from American culture. Many have described their traditions as including physical and emotional closeness that ensures a lifelong bond between parent and<unk> , as well as establishing parental authority and<unk>  obedience through harsh discipline. Balancing disciplinary responsibilities within parenting is common in many Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam and Korea. To some cultures, forceful parenting may be seen as abuse, but in other societies such as these, the use of force is looked at as a reflection of parental
Child abuse
Physical abuse
Developmental regression
Psychological abuse
Sexual violence
Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia
Vitamin A deficiency
Substance abuse