Water treatment plant of Bragança, Portugal<unk>  can be used for many purposes, such as cooling water, water for rinsing and chemical production, purified water, and drinking water. However, due to the possible contaminants,<unk>  must be treated before it is allowed for human consumption or industrial use. There are several steps involved in the treatment of<unk> , and different methods in which it can take place. Reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis has been used for the production of demineralised water for over 30 years. In reverse osmosis, water is transported across a membrane under high pressure, leaving a product that consists mainly of water and a concentrate containing most other components such as minerals and unwanted residues. Many contaminants, including iron, manganese, ammonium, traces of pesticides and medicines, organic micro pollutants, and radioactive particles can be removed with reverse osmosis alone. This efficiency has made reverse osmosis the primary method of water purification, often being used in combination with other methods, as a final treatment. A downside to reverse osmosis is that the removing of most minerals from water can have negative effects on its taste. Minerals are sometimes added to drinking water that was already filtered to improve its taste. Conventional pre-treatment The conventional treatment method for water purification is a complex, multistage process that was used for many years. It generally consists of five primary steps. First,<unk>  is adjusted for alkalinity and pH with the addition of hydrated lime and carbon dioxide. Second, particulate matter is congregated with aluminum sulphate and other coagulants, such as polymers, which the water flows in a cascade that mixes the chemicals and<unk>  with the coagulants. Third, the water is slowly mixed in clarifiers where larger particles settle down to the bottom and are periodically removed (sedimentation). Fourth, water is directed from the clarifiers to the filters (e.g. anthracite and sand filter) to entrap any smaller particles that survived the clarification process. Finally, sodium hydroxide is added to adjust the final pH/alkalinity, sodium hypochlorite for disinfection and fluoride for fluoridation. This process is often used as a pre-treatment method while another processes, such as reverse osmosis, is used for the final treatment. A disadvantage of this method is its use of chemicals, such as ozone, flocculents, hydrogen peroxide, lime, and chlorine for the filtration process. These chemicals could be dangerous if used incorrectly or if they remained in the water after complete treatment. This requires special precautions, and each step of the process has to be controlled to achieve an overall optimal performance. The need for a complex control system for conventional treatment can result in it being financially costly. This has led to the development of alternative pre-treatment and treatment methods for<unk> . Ultrafiltration Drinking water treatment of 300 m3/h using ultrafiltration in Grundmühle waterworks (Germany) Ultrafiltration is a membrane filtration process and provides an alternative to conventional pre-treatment. In this method water is only pre-filtered with a common screen filter before being filtered at high pressure through a membrane, separating the water from contaminants within it. Ultrafiltration can be used on its own for water purification or as a pre-treatment for reverse osmosis. Its advantages over conventional pre-treatment include: very high water quality independent of the contaminants in the initial<unk> , a plant that is simpler in design and more flexible, which makes it easier to automate, lower use of chemicals, and final product free of viruses and microorganisms. Biofilm pre-treatment and Bio-diatomite Dynamic Membrane Reactor The biofilm membrane filtration method is used to remove harmful chemical by-products, such as NH4+-N, total nitrogen, and dissolved organic matter, that could form from disinfection processes. Biofilm Pre-treatment is a necessary step for water treatment in many parts of world due to its low operation cost and effectiveness at pollutant removal. In this process microorganisms remove contaminants in<unk>  and wastewater that are harmful to humans, but nutrients to them. Bio-diatomite dynamic membrane reactor filtration combines dynamic membrane technology for wastewater treatment, and microbial colonies that form diatomite particles to purify water. These methods are under development in China as part of addressing the country's pollution problems.
Raw water
Gripe water
Tar water
Wettable powder
Water
Human liquor
Word salad
Human feces