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Seamless walks us through how to make a huge ‘Vocodex’ growl bass. A vocoder (/ˈvoʊkoʊdər/, short for voice encoder) is an analysis and synthesis system, used to reproduce human speech. The vocoder was originally developed as a speech coder for telecommunications applications in the 1930s, the idea being to code speech for transmission. In the encoder, the input is passed through a multiband filter, each band is passed through an envelope follower, and the control signals from the envelope followers are communicated to the decoder. The decoder applies these (amplitude) control signals to corresponding filters in the synthesizer. Since the control signals change only slowly compared to the original speech waveform, the bandwidth required to transmit speech can be reduced. This allows more speech channels to share a radio circuit or submarine cable. By encrypting the control signals, voice transmission can be secured against interception. Its primary use in this fashion is for secure radio communication. The advantage of this method of encryption is that none of the original signal is sent, but rather envelopes of the bandpass filters. The receiving unit needs to be set up in the same filter configuration to resynthesize a version of the original signal spectrum. The vocoder has also been used extensively as an electronic musical instrument. The synthesis portion of the vocoder, called a voder, can be used independently for speech synthesis.

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The ping command is a built in linux and macOS command that shows the performance of the network connection to a remote server. It can be used to log network performance issues over time. The default ping command displays the results to standard output (the shell window). Used with the following options it routes the output to a file that you can look at later. The ping command will ping the remote server every second until you manually kill the process. This will create 86,400 pings per day in the output file. It's not something you want to forget about and let it run forever. It could create a very large file that fills up your drive space and crashes your system. I run my ping network monitor on a Raspberry Pi 4 so that it will run 24 hours per day in low power and uninterupted environment. Ping directed to a file You would normally just run the ping command interactivly and then stop it when you are done. But, that's not what we are doing today. We are looking for an intermident bug that may happen anytime in the future. For this we need to run the command for weeks at a time and be able to look at the results after a network error has been detected. Here is the ping command, running in the background, with the output directed to a file called "network.log". Copy and paste this text to your command line. ping google.com 2>&1 | while read pong; do date "+%c: $pong"; done >network.log & Here are the details of what this command does ping// the ping command to run google.com// name of the remote server 2>&1// routes stderr to stdout | while read pong; do date "+%c: $pong"; done// pipe the ping results and add the current date and time >network.log// routes output to file network.log &// at end means to run in background pipe command, represented by the vertical bar | takes the output of the first command and routes it into the second command. In this case it takes the output of the ping command and routes it into a command that prepends the current date and then uses the > command to route everthing to a file instead of standard out (stdout). & at the end of the line makes this command run in the background. This frees up your terminal so you can run other commands. It will continue running even when you exit your terminal and logout. The commands below show you how to find the background command later and control it. Jobs and Processes The jobs command only works for jobs you have started in the current shell. If you exit the shell and open a new one then this command will not display your jobs. You will need to use the other commands listed below to work with system level processes. Fun fact: jobs are started by a user, processes are started and managed by the system. A users job is also a system process. Every command running on the computer is assigned a unique process id (PID). You can use this PID to interact with background processes. The terms Command, Job, and Process are basically the same thing. They are programs running on your computer. topinto your shell to see a list of the top processes running on your current computer. Notice the PID column listed on the far left. Type qto exit this view. For a fun day of reading type man topto read all the details of the Use the jobs command to see running background jobs, -l shows the process id (PID). (That’s a lowercase L) Viewing your ping log cat command to view contents of the output file, use the | more option to show a page at a time. This could take awhile, you are getting 86,400 lines per day and paging through them a few lines at a time will get tedious. cat network.log or cat network.log | more Look at the output If all goes well you should see a time= value at the end of each line. This tells you the ping completed successfully and you have a good connection to the server. When the connection goes down you will receive error messages. These will be helpful in determining what went wrong. Example showing a request timout error Use grep to find interesting data grep command will help you find interesting data in your output file. cat network.log | grep -v time -v option tells grep to "invert match", so any line that does not contain the "time" string. This command will search the network.log for any line that does not contain the string "time". So for any ping command that returns anything other than a normal ping time will be displayed. This includes any error messages that you should look at. Example showing an unreachable server Find your running ping command pgrep command to find running ping jobs and return the process id (PID). Pgrep is included in many Linux distributions. pgrep returns the process id (PID) where the string matches. In this case the PID = 24895. Warning: Don't use this PID, use the PID you find on your own system. Stopping the ping command kill command to stop a running job. Be careful, you can kill the wrong job and crash your system. Make sure you enter the correct process id (PID) you found above. Here's nother command to find the running ping processes. Use ps if your distribution doesn’t include the pgrep command. The ps command displays the current process status for all running processes. It's a long list and you can use grep to show you just what you want. ps -aux | grep ping The process id on this distribution is in the second column from the left. In this case the PID = 24895. Removing the network.log When you are done with your analysis you can remove the network.log file with the rm command. Becareful not to remove the wrong file, this can crash your system. More info about the Jobs Command Use the linux manual pages to learn more about each command. You can search for the linux pipe command too.

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global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such as temperatures, precipitation, and storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that Earth’s climate has changed over almost every conceivable timescale since the beginning of geologic time and that the influence of human activities since at least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has been deeply woven into the very fabric of climate change. Giving voice to a growing conviction of most of the scientific community, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). In 2013 the IPCC reported that the interval between 1880 and 2012 saw an increase in global average surface temperature of approximately 0.9 °C (1.5 °F). The increase is closer to 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) when measured relative to the preindustrial (i.e., 1750–1800) mean temperature. The IPCC stated that most of the warming observed over the second half of the 20th century could be attributed to human activities. It predicted that by the end of the 21st century the global mean surface temperature would increase by 0.3 to 4.8 °C (0.5 to 8.6 °F) relative to the 1986–2005 average. The predicted rise in temperature was based on a range of possible scenarios that accounted for future greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation (severity reduction) measures and on uncertainties in the model projections. Some of the main uncertainties include the precise role of feedback processes and the impacts of industrial pollutants known as aerosols which may offset some warming. Many climate scientists agree that significant societal, economic, and ecological damage would result if global average temperatures rose by more than 2 °C (3.6 °F) in such a short time. Such damage would include increased extinction of many plant and animal species, shifts in patterns of agriculture, and rising sea levels. The IPCC reported that the global average sea level rose by some 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3 inches) between 1901 and 2010 and that sea levels rose faster in the second half of the 20th century than in the first half. It also predicted, again depending on a wide range of scenarios, that by the end of the 21st century the global average sea level could rise by another 26–82 cm (10.2–32.3 inches) relative to the 1986–2005 average and that a rise of well over 1 metre (3 feet) could not be ruled out. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The scenarios referred to above depend mainly on future concentrations of certain trace gases, called greenhouse gases, that have been injected into the lower atmosphere in increasing amounts through the burning of fossil fuels for industry, transportation, and residential uses. Modern global warming is the result of an increase in magnitude of the so-called greenhouse effect, a warming of Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and other greenhouse gases. In 2014 the IPCC reported that concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides in the atmosphere surpassed those found in ice cores dating back 800,000 years. Of all these gases, carbon dioxide is the most important, both for its role in the greenhouse effect and for its role in the human economy. It has been estimated that, at the beginning of the industrial age in the mid-18th century, carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere were roughly 280 parts per million (ppm). By the middle of 2014, carbon dioxide concentrations had briefly reached 400 ppm, and, if fossil fuels continue to be burned at current rates, they are projected to reach 560 ppm by the mid-21st century—essentially, a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations in 300 years. A vigorous debate is in progress over the extent and seriousness of rising surface temperatures, the effects of past and future warming on human life, and the need for action to reduce future warming and deal with its consequences. This article provides an overview of the scientific background and public policy debate related to the subject of global warming. It considers the causes of rising near-surface air temperatures, the influencing factors, the process of climate research and forecasting, the possible ecological and social impacts of rising temperatures, and the public policy developments since the mid-20th century. For a detailed description of Earth’s climate, its processes, and the responses of living things to its changing nature, see climate. For additional background on how Earth’s climate has changed throughout geologic time, see climatic variation and change. For a full description of Earth’s gaseous envelope, within which climate change and global warming occur, see atmosphere. 1938-T.J. Hileman/Glacier National Park Archives, 1981 - Carl Key/USGS, 1998 - Dan Fagre/USGS, 2006 - Karen Holzer/USGSGlobal warming is related to the more general phenomenon of climate change, which refers to changes in the totality of attributes that define climate. In addition to changes in air temperature, climate change involves changes to precipitation patterns, winds, ocean currents, and other measures of Earth’s climate. Normally, climate change can be viewed as the combination of various natural forces occurring over diverse timescales. Since the advent of human civilization, climate change has involved an “anthropogenic,” or exclusively human-caused, element, and this anthropogenic element has become more important in the industrial period of the past two centuries. The term global warming is used specifically to refer to any warming of near-surface air during the past two centuries that can be traced to anthropogenic causes. To define the concepts of global warming and climate change properly, it is first necessary to recognize that the climate of Earth has varied across many timescales, ranging from an individual human life span to billions of years. This variable climate history is typically classified in terms of “regimes” or “epochs.” For instance, the Pleistocene glacial epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago) was marked by substantial variations in the global extent of glaciers and ice sheets. These variations took place on timescales of tens to hundreds of millennia and were driven by changes in the distribution of solar radiation across Earth’s surface. The distribution of solar radiation is known as the insolation pattern, and it is strongly affected by the geometry of Earth’s orbit around the Sun and by the orientation, or tilt, of Earth’s axis relative to the direct rays of the Sun. Worldwide, the most recent glacial period, or ice age, culminated about 21,000 years ago in what is often called the Last Glacial Maximum. During this time, continental ice sheets extended well into the middle latitude regions of Europe and North America, reaching as far south as present-day London and New York City. Global annual mean temperature appears to have been about 4–5 °C (7–9 °F) colder than in the mid-20th century. It is important to remember that these figures are a global average. In fact, during the height of this last ice age, Earth’s climate was characterized by greater cooling at higher latitudes (that is, toward the poles) and relatively little cooling over large parts of the tropical oceans (near the Equator). This glacial interval terminated abruptly about 11,700 years ago and was followed by the subsequent relatively ice-free period known as the Holocene Epoch. The modern period of Earth’s history is conventionally defined as residing within the Holocene. However, some scientists have argued that the Holocene Epoch terminated in the relatively recent past and that Earth currently resides in a climatic interval that could justly be called the Anthropocene Epoch—that is, a period during which humans have exerted a dominant influence over climate. Though less dramatic than the climate changes that occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch, significant variations in global climate have nonetheless taken place over the course of the Holocene. During the early Holocene, roughly 9,000 years ago, atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns appear to have been substantially different from those of today. For example, there is evidence for relatively wet conditions in what is now the Sahara Desert. The change from one climatic regime to another was caused by only modest changes in the pattern of insolation within the Holocene interval as well as the interaction of these patterns with large-scale climate phenomena such as monsoons and El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During the middle Holocene, some 5,000–7,000 years ago, conditions appear to have been relatively warm—indeed, perhaps warmer than today in some parts of the world and during certain seasons. For this reason, this interval is sometimes referred to as the Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum. The relative warmth of average near-surface air temperatures at this time, however, is somewhat unclear. Changes in the pattern of insolation favoured warmer summers at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, but these changes also produced cooler winters in the Northern Hemisphere and relatively cool conditions year-round in the tropics. Any overall hemispheric or global mean temperature changes thus reflected a balance between competing seasonal and regional changes. In fact, recent theoretical climate model studies suggest that global mean temperatures during the middle Holocene were probably 0.2–0.3 °C (0.4–0.5 °F) colder than average late 20th-century conditions. Over subsequent millennia, conditions appear to have cooled relative to middle Holocene levels. This period has sometimes been referred to as the “Neoglacial.” In the middle latitudes this cooling trend was associated with intermittent periods of advancing and retreating mountain glaciers reminiscent of (though far more modest than) the more substantial advance and retreat of the major continental ice sheets of the Pleistocene climate epoch. The average surface temperature of Earth is maintained by a balance of various forms of solar and terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation is often called “shortwave” radiation because the frequencies of the radiation are relatively high and the wavelengths relatively short—close to the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation, on the other hand, is often called “longwave” radiation because the frequencies are relatively low and the wavelengths relatively long—somewhere in the infrared part of the spectrum. Downward-moving solar energy is typically measured in watts per square metre. The energy of the total incoming solar radiation at the top of Earth’s atmosphere (the so-called “solar constant”) amounts roughly to 1,366 watts per square metre annually. Adjusting for the fact that only one-half of the planet’s surface receives solar radiation at any given time, the average surface insolation is 342 watts per square metre annually. The amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is only a small fraction of the total solar radiation entering the atmosphere. For every 100 units of incoming solar radiation, roughly 30 units are reflected back to space by either clouds, the atmosphere, or reflective regions of Earth’s surface. This reflective capacity is referred to as Earth’s planetary albedo, and it need not remain fixed over time, since the spatial extent and distribution of reflective formations, such as clouds and ice cover, can change. The 70 units of solar radiation that are not reflected may be absorbed by the atmosphere, clouds, or the surface. In the absence of further complications, in order to maintain thermodynamic equilibrium, Earth’s surface and atmosphere must radiate these same 70 units back to space. Earth’s surface temperature (and that of the lower layer of the atmosphere essentially in contact with the surface) is tied to the magnitude of this emission of outgoing radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Earth’s energy budget is further complicated by the greenhouse effect. Trace gases with certain chemical properties—the so-called greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O)—absorb some of the infrared radiation produced by Earth’s surface. Because of this absorption, some fraction of the original 70 units does not directly escape to space. Because greenhouse gases emit the same amount of radiation they absorb and because this radiation is emitted equally in all directions (that is, as much downward as upward), the net effect of absorption by greenhouse gases is to increase the total amount of radiation emitted downward toward Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. To maintain equilibrium, Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere must emit more radiation than the original 70 units. Consequently, the surface temperature must be higher. This process is not quite the same as that which governs a true greenhouse, but the end effect is similar. The presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to a warming of the surface and lower part of the atmosphere (and a cooling higher up in the atmosphere) relative to what would be expected in the absence of greenhouse gases. It is essential to distinguish the “natural,” or background, greenhouse effect from the “enhanced” greenhouse effect associated with human activity. The natural greenhouse effect is associated with surface warming properties of natural constituents of Earth’s atmosphere, especially water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. The existence of this effect is accepted by all scientists. Indeed, in its absence, Earth’s average temperature would be approximately 33 °C (59 °F) colder than today, and Earth would be a frozen and likely uninhabitable planet. What has been subject to controversy is the so-called enhanced greenhouse effect, which is associated with increased concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human activity. In particular, the burning of fossil fuels raises the concentrations of the major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and these higher concentrations have the potential to warm the atmosphere by several degrees. In light of the discussion above of the greenhouse effect, it is apparent that the temperature of Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere may be modified in three ways: (1) through a net increase in the solar radiation entering at the top of Earth’s atmosphere, (2) through a change in the fraction of the radiation reaching the surface, and (3) through a change in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In each case the changes can be thought of in terms of “radiative forcing.” As defined by the IPCC, radiative forcing is a measure of the influence a given climatic factor has on the amount of downward-directed radiant energy impinging upon Earth’s surface. Climatic factors are divided between those caused primarily by human activity (such as greenhouse gas emissions and aerosol emissions) and those caused by natural forces (such as solar irradiance); then, for each factor, so-called forcing values are calculated for the time period between 1750 and the present day. “Positive forcing” is exerted by climatic factors that contribute to the warming of Earth’s surface, whereas “negative forcing” is exerted by factors that cool Earth’s surface. On average, about 342 watts of solar radiation strike each square metre of Earth’s surface per year, and this quantity can in turn be related to a rise or fall in Earth’s surface temperature. Temperatures at the surface may also rise or fall through a change in the distribution of terrestrial radiation (that is, radiation emitted by Earth) within the atmosphere. In some cases, radiative forcing has a natural origin, such as during explosive eruptions from volcanoes where vented gases and ash block some portion of solar radiation from the surface. In other cases, radiative forcing has an anthropogenic, or exclusively human, origin. For example, anthropogenic increases in carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are estimated to account for 2.3 watts per square metre of positive radiative forcing. When all values of positive and negative radiative forcing are taken together and all interactions between climatic factors are accounted for, the total net increase in surface radiation due to human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution is 1.6 watts per square metre. Herbert Lanks/Shostal AssociatesMorev Valery—ITAR-TASS/CorbisHuman activity has influenced global surface temperatures by changing the radiative balance governing the Earth on various timescales and at varying spatial scales. The most profound and well-known anthropogenic influence is the elevation of concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Humans also influence climate by changing the concentrations of aerosols and ozone and by modifying the land cover of Earth’s surface. Bruce Forster—Stone/Getty ImagesAs discussed above, greenhouse gases warm Earth’s surface by increasing the net downward longwave radiation reaching the surface. The relationship between atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases and the associated positive radiative forcing of the surface is different for each gas. A complicated relationship exists between the chemical properties of each greenhouse gas and the relative amount of longwave radiation that each can absorb. What follows is a discussion of the radiative behaviour of each major greenhouse gas. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Water vapour is the most potent of the greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere, but its behaviour is fundamentally different from that of the other greenhouse gases. The primary role of water vapour is not as a direct agent of radiative forcing but rather as a climate feedback—that is, as a response within the climate system that influences the system’s continued activity (see below Water vapour feedback). This distinction arises from the fact that the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere cannot, in general, be directly modified by human behaviour but is instead set by air temperatures. The warmer the surface, the greater the evaporation rate of water from the surface. As a result, increased evaporation leads to a greater concentration of water vapour in the lower atmosphere capable of absorbing longwave radiation and emitting it downward. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Of the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most significant. Natural sources of atmospheric CO2 include outgassing from volcanoes, the combustion and natural decay of organic matter, and respiration by aerobic (oxygen-using) organisms. These sources are balanced, on average, by a set of physical, chemical, or biological processes, called “sinks,” that tend to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Significant natural sinks include terrestrial vegetation, which takes up CO2 during the process of photosynthesis. A number of oceanic processes also act as carbon sinks. One such process, called the “solubility pump,” involves the descent of surface seawater containing dissolved CO2. Another process, the “biological pump,” involves the uptake of dissolved CO2 by marine vegetation and phytoplankton (small free-floating photosynthetic organisms) living in the upper ocean or by other marine organisms that use CO2 to build skeletons and other structures made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). As these organisms expire and fall to the ocean floor, the carbon they contain is transported downward and eventually buried at depth. A long-term balance between these natural sources and sinks leads to the background, or natural, level of CO2 in the atmosphere. Joanna B. Pinneo—Aurora/Getty ImagesIn contrast, human activities increase atmospheric CO2 levels primarily through the burning of fossil fuels—principally oil and coal and secondarily natural gas, for use in transportation, heating, and the generation of electrical power—and through the production of cement. Other anthropogenic sources include the burning of forests and the clearing of land. Anthropogenic emissions currently account for the annual release of about 7 gigatons (7 billion tons) of carbon into the atmosphere. Anthropogenic emissions are equal to approximately 3 percent of the total emissions of CO2 by natural sources, and this amplified carbon load from human activities far exceeds the offsetting capacity of natural sinks (by perhaps as much as 2–3 gigatons per year). CO2 has consequently accumulated in the atmosphere at an average rate of 1.4 parts per million (ppm) by volume per year between 1959 and 2006, and this rate of accumulation has been linear (that is, uniform over time). However, certain current sinks, such as the oceans, could become sources in the future (see Carbon cycle feedbacks). This may lead to a situation in which the concentration of atmospheric CO2 builds at an exponential rate. The natural background level of carbon dioxide varies on timescales of millions of years because of slow changes in outgassing through volcanic activity. For example, roughly 100 million years ago, during the Cretaceous Period (145 million to 66 million years ago), CO2 concentrations appear to have been several times higher than they are today (perhaps close to 2,000 ppm). Over the past 700,000 years, CO2 concentrations have varied over a far smaller range (between roughly 180 and 300 ppm) in association with the same Earth orbital effects linked to the coming and going of the Pleistocene ice ages (see below Natural influences on climate). In the early 21st century, CO2 levels briefly reached 400 ppm, which is approximately 43 percent above the natural background level of roughly 280 ppm that existed at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. According to ice core measurements, this level (400 ppm) is believed to be the highest in at least 800,000 years and, according to other lines of evidence, may be the highest in at least 5 million years. Radiative forcing caused by carbon dioxide varies in an approximately logarithmic fashion with the concentration of that gas in the atmosphere. The logarithmic relationship occurs as the result of a saturation effect wherein it becomes increasingly difficult, as CO2 concentrations increase, for additional CO2 molecules to further influence the “infrared window” (a certain narrow band of wavelengths in the infrared region that is not absorbed by atmospheric gases). The logarithmic relationship predicts that the surface warming potential will rise by roughly the same amount for each doubling of CO2 concentration. At current rates of fossil fuel use, a doubling of CO2 concentrations over preindustrial levels is expected to take place by the middle of the 21st century (when CO2 concentrations are projected to reach 560 ppm). A doubling of CO2 concentrations would represent an increase of roughly 4 watts per square metre of radiative forcing. Given typical estimates of “climate sensitivity” in the absence of any offsetting factors, this energy increase would lead to a warming of 2 to 5 °C (3.6 to 9 °F) over preindustrial times (see Feedback mechanisms and climate sensitivity). The total radiative forcing by anthropogenic CO2 emissions since the beginning of the industrial age is approximately 1.66 watts per square metre. Methane (CH4) is the second most important greenhouse gas. CH4 is more potent than CO2 because the radiative forcing produced per molecule is greater. In addition, the infrared window is less saturated in the range of wavelengths of radiation absorbed by CH4, so more molecules may fill in the region. However, CH4 exists in far lower concentrations than CO2 in the atmosphere, and its concentrations by volume in the atmosphere are generally measured in parts per billion (ppb) rather than ppm. CH4 also has a considerably shorter residence time in the atmosphere than CO2 (the residence time for CH4 is roughly 10 years, compared with hundreds of years for CO2). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Natural sources of methane include tropical and northern wetlands, methane-oxidizing bacteria that feed on organic material consumed by termites, volcanoes, seepage vents of the seafloor in regions rich with organic sediment, and methane hydrates trapped along the continental shelves of the oceans and in polar permafrost. The primary natural sink for methane is the atmosphere itself, as methane reacts readily with the hydroxyl radical (∙OH) within the troposphere to form CO2 and water vapour (H2O). When CH4 reaches the stratosphere, it is destroyed. Another natural sink is soil, where methane is oxidized by bacteria. As with CO2, human activity is increasing the CH4 concentration faster than it can be offset by natural sinks. Anthropogenic sources currently account for approximately 70 percent of total annual emissions, leading to substantial increases in concentration over time. The major anthropogenic sources of atmospheric CH4 are rice cultivation, livestock farming, the burning of coal and natural gas, the combustion of biomass, and the decomposition of organic matter in landfills. Future trends are particularly difficult to anticipate. This is in part due to an incomplete understanding of the climate feedbacks associated with CH4 emissions. In addition it is difficult to predict how, as human populations grow, possible changes in livestock raising, rice cultivation, and energy utilization will influence CH4 emissions. It is believed that a sudden increase in the concentration of methane in the atmosphere was responsible for a warming event that raised average global temperatures by 4–8 °C (7.2–14.4 °F) over a few thousand years during the so-called Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, or PETM. This episode took place roughly 55 million years ago, and the rise in CH4 appears to have been related to a massive volcanic eruption that interacted with methane-containing flood deposits. As a result, large amounts of gaseous CH4 were injected into the atmosphere. It is difficult to know precisely how high these concentrations were or how long they persisted. At very high concentrations, residence times of CH4 in the atmosphere can become much greater than the nominal 10-year residence time that applies today. Nevertheless, it is likely that these concentrations reached several ppm during the PETM. Methane concentrations have also varied over a smaller range (between roughly 350 and 800 ppb) in association with the Pleistocene ice age cycles (see Natural influences on climate). Preindustrial levels of CH4 in the atmosphere were approximately 700 ppb, whereas early 21st-century levels exceeded 1,770 ppb. (These concentrations are well above the natural levels observed for at least the past 650,000 years.) The net radiative forcing by anthropogenic CH4 emissions is approximately 0.5 watt per square metre—or roughly one-third the radiative forcing of CO2. The next most significant greenhouse gas is surface, or low-level, ozone (O3). Surface O3 is a result of air pollution; it must be distinguished from naturally occurring stratospheric O3, which has a very different role in the planetary radiation balance. The primary natural source of surface O3 is the subsidence of stratospheric O3 from the upper atmosphere (see below Stratospheric ozone depletion). In contrast, the primary anthropogenic source of surface O3 is photochemical reactions involving the atmospheric pollutant carbon monoxide (CO). The best estimates of the concentration of surface O3 are 50 ppb, and the net radiative forcing due to anthropogenic emissions of surface O3 is approximately 0.35 watt per square metre. Additional trace gases produced by industrial activity that have greenhouse properties include nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases (halocarbons), the latter including sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Nitrous oxide is responsible for 0.16 watt per square metre radiative forcing, while fluorinated gases are collectively responsible for 0.34 watt per square metre. Nitrous oxides have small background concentrations due to natural biological reactions in soil and water, whereas the fluorinated gases owe their existence almost entirely to industrial sources. The production of aerosols represents an important anthropogenic radiative forcing of climate. Collectively, aerosols block—that is, reflect and absorb—a portion of incoming solar radiation, and this creates a negative radiative forcing. Aerosols are second only to greenhouse gases in relative importance in their impact on near-surface air temperatures. Unlike the decade-long residence times of the “well-mixed” greenhouse gases, such as CO2 and CH4, aerosols are readily flushed out of the atmosphere within days, either by rain or snow (wet deposition) or by settling out of the air (dry deposition). They must therefore be continually generated in order to produce a steady effect on radiative forcing. Aerosols have the ability to influence climate directly by absorbing or reflecting incoming solar radiation, but they can also produce indirect effects on climate by modifying cloud formation or cloud properties. Most aerosols serve as condensation nuclei (surfaces upon which water vapour can condense to form clouds); however, darker-coloured aerosols may hinder cloud formation by absorbing sunlight and heating up the surrounding air. Aerosols can be transported thousands of kilometres from their sources of origin by winds and upper-level circulation in the atmosphere. Perhaps the most important type of anthropogenic aerosol in radiative forcing is sulfate aerosol. It is produced from sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions associated with the burning of coal and oil. Since the late 1980s, global emissions of SO2 have decreased from about 73 million tons to about 54 million tons of sulfur per year. Nitrate aerosol is not as important as sulfate aerosol, but it has the potential to become a significant source of negative forcing. One major source of nitrate aerosol is smog (the combination of ozone with oxides of nitrogen in the lower atmosphere) released from the incomplete burning of fuel in internal-combustion engines. Another source is ammonia (NH3), which is often used in fertilizers or released by the burning of plants and other organic materials. If greater amounts of atmospheric nitrogen are converted to ammonia and agricultural ammonia emissions continue to increase as projected, the influence of nitrate aerosols on radiative forcing is expected to grow. Both sulfate and nitrate aerosols act primarily by reflecting incoming solar radiation, thereby reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface. Most aerosols, unlike greenhouse gases, impart a cooling rather than warming influence on Earth’s surface. One prominent exception is carbonaceous aerosols such as carbon black or soot, which are produced by the burning of fossil fuels and biomass. Carbon black tends to absorb rather than reflect incident solar radiation, and so it has a warming impact on the lower atmosphere, where it resides. Because of its absorptive properties, carbon black is also capable of having an additional indirect effect on climate. Through its deposition in snowfall, it can decrease the albedo of snow cover. This reduction in the amount of solar radiation reflected back to space by snow surfaces creates a minor positive radiative forcing. Natural forms of aerosol include windblown mineral dust generated in arid and semiarid regions and sea salt produced by the action of waves breaking in the ocean. Changes to wind patterns as a result of climate modification could alter the emissions of these aerosols. The influence of climate change on regional patterns of aridity could shift both the sources and the destinations of dust clouds. In addition, since the concentration of sea salt aerosol, or sea aerosol, increases with the strength of the winds near the ocean surface, changes in wind speed due to global warming and climate change could influence the concentration of sea salt aerosol. For example, some studies suggest that climate change might lead to stronger winds over parts of the North Atlantic Ocean. Areas with stronger winds may experience an increase in the concentration of sea salt aerosol. Other natural sources of aerosols include volcanic eruptions, which produce sulfate aerosol, and biogenic sources (e.g., phytoplankton), which produce dimethyl sulfide (DMS). Other important biogenic aerosols, such as terpenes, are produced naturally by certain kinds of trees or other plants. For example, the dense forests of the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia in the United States emit terpenes during the summer months, which in turn interact with the high humidity and warm temperatures to produce a natural photochemical smog. Anthropogenic pollutants such as nitrate and ozone, both of which serve as precursor molecules for the generation of biogenic aerosol, appear to have increased the rate of production of these aerosols severalfold. This process appears to be responsible for some of the increased aerosol pollution in regions undergoing rapid urbanization. Human activity has greatly increased the amount of aerosol in the atmosphere compared with the background levels of preindustrial times. In contrast to the global effects of greenhouse gases, the impact of anthropogenic aerosols is confined primarily to the Northern Hemisphere, where most of the world’s industrial activity occurs. The pattern of increases in anthropogenic aerosol over time is also somewhat different from that of greenhouse gases. During the middle of the 20th century, there was a substantial increase in aerosol emissions. This appears to have been at least partially responsible for a cessation of surface warming that took place in the Northern Hemisphere from the 1940s through the 1970s. Since that time, aerosol emissions have leveled off due to antipollution measures undertaken in the industrialized countries since the 1960s. Aerosol emissions may rise in the future, however, as a result of the rapid emergence of coal-fired electric power generation in China and India. The total radiative forcing of all anthropogenic aerosols is approximately –1.2 watts per square metre. Of this total, –0.5 watt per square metre comes from direct effects (such as the reflection of solar energy back into space), and –0.7 watt per square metre comes from indirect effects (such as the influence of aerosols on cloud formation). This negative radiative forcing represents an offset of roughly 40 percent from the positive radiative forcing caused by human activity. However, the relative uncertainty in aerosol radiative forcing (approximately 90 percent) is much greater than that of greenhouse gases. In addition, future emissions of aerosols from human activities, and the influence of these emissions on future climate change, are not known with any certainty. Nevertheless, it can be said that, if concentrations of anthropogenic aerosols continue to decrease as they have since the 1970s, a significant offset to the effects of greenhouse gases will be reduced, opening future climate to further warming. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.There are a number of ways in which changes in land use can influence climate. The most direct influence is through the alteration of Earth’s albedo, or surface reflectance. For example, the replacement of forest by cropland and pasture in the middle latitudes over the past several centuries has led to an increase in albedo, which in turn has led to greater reflection of incoming solar radiation in those regions. This replacement of forest by agriculture has been associated with a change in global average radiative forcing of approximately –0.2 watt per square metre since 1750. In Europe and other major agricultural regions, such land-use conversion began more than 1,000 years ago and has proceeded nearly to completion. For Europe, the negative radiative forcing due to land-use change has probably been substantial, perhaps approaching –5 watts per square metre. The influence of early land use on radiative forcing may help to explain a long period of cooling in Europe that followed a period of relatively mild conditions roughly 1,000 years ago. It is generally believed that the mild temperatures of this “medieval warm period,” which was followed by a long period of cooling, rivaled those of 20th-century Europe. Land-use changes can also influence climate through their influence on the exchange of heat between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. For example, vegetation helps to facilitate the evaporation of water into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. In this process, plants take up liquid water from the soil through their root systems. Eventually this water is released through transpiration into the atmosphere, as water vapour through the stomata in leaves. While deforestation generally leads to surface cooling due to the albedo factor discussed above, the land surface may also be warmed as a result of the release of latent heat by the evapotranspiration process. The relative importance of these two factors, one exerting a cooling effect and the other a warming effect, varies by both season and region. While the albedo effect is likely to dominate in middle latitudes, especially during the period from autumn through spring, the evapotranspiration effect may dominate during the summer in the midlatitudes and year-round in the tropics. The latter case is particularly important in assessing the potential impacts of continued tropical deforestation. The rate at which tropical regions are deforested is also relevant to the process of carbon sequestration (see Carbon cycle feedbacks), the long-term storage of carbon in underground cavities and biomass rather than in the atmosphere. By removing carbon from the atmosphere, carbon sequestration acts to mitigate global warming. Deforestation contributes to global warming, as fewer plants are available to take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In addition, as fallen trees, shrubs, and other plants are burned or allowed to slowly decompose, they release as carbon dioxide the carbon they stored during their lifetimes. Furthermore, any land-use change that influences the amount, distribution, or type of vegetation in a region can affect the concentrations of biogenic aerosols, though the impact of such changes on climate is indirect and relatively minor. Since the 1970s the loss of ozone (O3) from the stratosphere has led to a small amount of negative radiative forcing of the surface. This negative forcing represents a competition between two distinct effects caused by the fact that ozone absorbs solar radiation. In the first case, as ozone levels in the stratosphere are depleted, more solar radiation reaches Earth’s surface. In the absence of any other influence, this rise in insolation would represent a positive radiative forcing of the surface. However, there is a second effect of ozone depletion that is related to its greenhouse properties. As the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is decreased, there is also less ozone to absorb longwave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface. With less absorption of radiation by ozone, there is a corresponding decrease in the downward reemission of radiation. This second effect overwhelms the first and results in a modest negative radiative forcing of Earth’s surface and a modest cooling of the lower stratosphere by approximately 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) per decade since the 1970s. There are a number of natural factors that influence Earth’s climate. These factors include external influences such as explosive volcanic eruptions, natural variations in the output of the Sun, and slow changes in the configuration of Earth’s orbit relative to the Sun. In addition, there are natural oscillations in Earth’s climate that alter global patterns of wind circulation, precipitation, and surface temperatures. One such phenomenon is the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a coupled atmospheric and oceanic event that occurs in the Pacific Ocean every three to seven years. In addition, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is a similar phenomenon that occurs over decades in the North Atlantic Ocean. Other types of oscillatory behaviour that produce dramatic shifts in climate may occur across timescales of centuries and millennia (see climatic variation and change). David H. Harlow/U.S.Geological SurveyExplosive volcanic eruptions have the potential to inject substantial amounts of sulfate aerosols into the lower stratosphere. In contrast to aerosol emissions in the lower troposphere (see above Aerosols), aerosols that enter the stratosphere may remain for several years before settling out, because of the relative absence of turbulent motions there. Consequently, aerosols from explosive volcanic eruptions have the potential to affect Earth’s climate. Less-explosive eruptions, or eruptions that are less vertical in orientation, have a lower potential for substantial climate impact. Furthermore, because of large-scale circulation patterns within the stratosphere, aerosols injected within tropical regions tend to spread out over the globe, whereas aerosols injected within midlatitude and polar regions tend to remain confined to the middle and high latitudes of that hemisphere. Tropical eruptions, therefore, tend to have a greater climatic impact than eruptions occurring toward the poles. In 1991 the moderate eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines provided a peak forcing of approximately –4 watts per square metre and cooled the climate by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) over the following few years. By comparison, the 1815 Mount Tambora eruption in present-day Indonesia, typically implicated for the 1816 “year without a summer” in Europe and North America, is believed to have been associated with a radiative forcing of approximately –6 watts per square metre. While in the stratosphere, volcanic sulfate aerosol actually absorbs longwave radiation emitted by Earth’s surface, and absorption in the stratosphere tends to result in a cooling of the troposphere below. This vertical pattern of temperature change in the atmosphere influences the behaviour of winds in the lower atmosphere, primarily in winter. Thus, while there is essentially a global cooling effect for the first few years following an explosive volcanic eruption, changes in the winter patterns of surface winds may actually lead to warmer winters in some areas, such as Europe. Some modern examples of major eruptions include Krakatoa (Indonesia) in 1883, El Chichón (Mexico) in 1982, and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. There is also evidence that volcanic eruptions may influence other climate phenomena such as ENSO. G.L. Slater and G.A. Linford; S.L. Freeland; the Yohkoh ProjectDirect measurements of solar irradiance, or solar output, have been available from satellites only since the late 1970s. These measurements show a very small peak-to-peak variation in solar irradiance (roughly 0.1 percent of the 1,366 watts per square metre received at the top of the atmosphere, for approximately 1.4 watts per square metre). However, indirect measures of solar activity are available from historical sunspot measurements dating back through the early 17th century. Attempts have been made to reconstruct graphs of solar irradiance variations from historical sunspot data by calibrating them against the measurements from modern satellites. However, since the modern measurements span only a few of the most recent 11-year solar cycles, estimates of solar output variability on 100-year and longer timescales are poorly correlated. Different assumptions regarding the relationship between the amplitudes of 11-year solar cycles and long-period solar output changes can lead to considerable differences in the resulting solar reconstructions. These differences in turn lead to fairly large uncertainty in estimating positive forcing by changes in solar irradiance since 1750. (Estimates range from 0.06 to 0.3 watt per square metre.) Even more challenging, given the lack of any modern analog, is the estimation of solar irradiance during the so-called Maunder Minimum, a period lasting from the mid-17th century to the early 18th century when very few sunspots were observed. While it is likely that solar irradiance was reduced at this time, it is difficult to calculate by how much. However, additional proxies of solar output exist that match reasonably well with the sunspot-derived records following the Maunder Minimum; these may be used as crude estimates of the solar irradiance variations. In theory it is possible to estimate solar irradiance even farther back in time, over at least the past millennium, by measuring levels of cosmogenic isotopes such as carbon-14 and beryllium-10. Cosmogenic isotopes are isotopes that are formed by interactions of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere and that subsequently fall to Earth, where they can be measured in the annual layers found in ice cores. Since their production rate in the upper atmosphere is modulated by changes in solar activity, cosmogenic isotopes may be used as indirect indicators of solar irradiance. However, as with the sunspot data, there is still considerable uncertainty in the amplitude of past solar variability implied by these data. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Solar forcing also affects the photochemical reactions that manufacture ozone in the stratosphere. Through this modulation of stratospheric ozone concentrations, changes in solar irradiance (particularly in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum) can modify how both shortwave and longwave radiation in the lower stratosphere are absorbed. As a result, the vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere can change, and this change can in turn influence phenomena such as the strength of the winter jet streams. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.On timescales of tens of millennia, the dominant radiative forcing of Earth’s climate is associated with slow variations in the geometry of Earth’s orbit about the Sun. These variations include the precession of the equinoxes (that is, changes in the timing of summer and winter), occurring on a roughly 26,000-year timescale; changes in the tilt angle of Earth’s rotational axis relative to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, occurring on a roughly 41,000-year timescale; and changes in the eccentricity (the departure from a perfect circle) of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, occurring on a roughly 100,000-year timescale. Changes in eccentricity slightly influence the mean annual solar radiation at the top of Earth’s atmosphere, but the primary influence of all the orbital variations listed above is on the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of incoming solar radiation over Earth’s surface. The major ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch were closely related to the influence of these variations on summer insolation at high northern latitudes. Orbital variations thus exerted a primary control on the extent of continental ice sheets. However, Earth’s orbital changes are generally believed to have had little impact on climate over the past few millennia, and so they are not considered to be significant factors in present-day climate variability. There are a number of feedback processes important to Earth’s climate system and, in particular, its response to external radiative forcing. The most fundamental of these feedback mechanisms involves the loss of longwave radiation to space from the surface. Since this radiative loss increases with increasing surface temperatures according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, it represents a stabilizing factor (that is, a negative feedback) with respect to near-surface air temperature. Climate sensitivity can be defined as the amount of surface warming resulting from each additional watt per square metre of radiative forcing. Alternatively, it is sometimes defined as the warming that would result from a doubling of CO2 concentrations and the associated addition of 4 watts per square metre of radiative forcing. In the absence of any additional feedbacks, climate sensitivity would be approximately 0.25 °C (0.45 °F) for each additional watt per square metre of radiative forcing. Stated alternatively, if the CO2 concentration of the atmosphere present at the start of the industrial age (280 ppm) were doubled (to 560 ppm), the resulting additional 4 watts per square metre of radiative forcing would translate into a 1 °C (1.8 °F) increase in air temperature. However, there are additional feedbacks that exert a destabilizing, rather than stabilizing, influence (see below), and these feedbacks tend to increase the sensitivity of climate to somewhere between 0.5 and 1.0 °C (0.9 and 1.8 °F) for each additional watt per square metre of radiative forcing. Unlike concentrations of other greenhouse gases, the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere cannot freely vary. Instead, it is determined by the temperature of the lower atmosphere and surface through a physical relationship known as the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, named for 19th-century German physicist Rudolf Clausius and 19th-century French engineer Émile Clapeyron. Under the assumption that there is a liquid water surface in equilibrium with the atmosphere, this relationship indicates that an increase in the capacity of air to hold water vapour is a function of increasing temperature of that volume of air. This assumption is relatively good over the oceans, where water is plentiful, but not over the continents. For this reason the relative humidity (the percent of water vapour the air contains relative to its capacity) is approximately 100 percent over ocean regions and much lower over continental regions (approaching 0 percent in arid regions). Not surprisingly, the average relative humidity of Earth’s lower atmosphere is similar to the fraction of Earth’s surface covered by the oceans (that is, roughly 70 percent). This quantity is expected to remain approximately constant as Earth warms or cools. Slight changes to global relative humidity may result from human land-use modification, such as tropical deforestation and irrigation, which can affect the relative humidity over land areas up to regional scales. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere will rise as the temperature of the atmosphere rises. Since water vapour is a very potent greenhouse gas, even more potent than CO2, the net greenhouse effect actually becomes stronger as the surface warms, which leads to even greater warming. This positive feedback is known as the “water vapour feedback.” It is the primary reason that climate sensitivity is substantially greater than the previously stated theoretical value of 0.25 °C (0.45 °F) for each increase of 1 watt per square metre of radiative forcing. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.It is generally believed that as Earth’s surface warms and the atmosphere’s water vapour content increases, global cloud cover increases. However, the effects on near-surface air temperatures are complicated. In the case of low clouds, such as marine stratus clouds, the dominant radiative feature of the cloud is its albedo. Here any increase in low cloud cover acts in much the same way as an increase in surface ice cover: more incoming solar radiation is reflected and Earth’s surface cools. On the other hand, high clouds, such as the towering cumulus clouds that extend up to the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, have a quite different impact on the surface radiation balance. The tops of cumulus clouds are considerably higher in the atmosphere and colder than their undersides. Cumulus cloud tops emit less longwave radiation out to space than the warmer cloud bottoms emit downward toward the surface. The end result of the formation of high cumulus clouds is greater warming at the surface. The net feedback of clouds on rising surface temperatures is therefore somewhat uncertain. It represents a competition between the impacts of high and low clouds, and the balance is difficult to determine. Nonetheless, most estimates indicate that clouds on the whole represent a positive feedback and thus additional warming. Another important positive climate feedback is the so-called ice albedo feedback. This feedback arises from the simple fact that ice is more reflective (that is, has a higher albedo) than land or water surfaces. Therefore, as global ice cover decreases, the reflectivity of Earth’s surface decreases, more incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the surface, and the surface warms. This feedback is considerably more important when there is relatively extensive global ice cover, such as during the height of the last ice age, roughly 25,000 years ago. On a global scale the importance of ice albedo feedback decreases as Earth’s surface warms and there is relatively less ice available to be melted. Another important set of climate feedbacks involves the global carbon cycle. In particular, the two main reservoirs of carbon in the climate system are the oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. These reservoirs have historically taken up large amounts of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Roughly 50–70 percent is removed by the oceans, whereas the remainder is taken up by the terrestrial biosphere. Global warming, however, could decrease the capacity of these reservoirs to sequester atmospheric CO2. Reductions in the rate of carbon uptake by these reservoirs would increase the pace of CO2 buildup in the atmosphere and represent yet another possible positive feedback to increased greenhouse gas concentrations. In the world’s oceans, this feedback effect might take several paths. First, as surface waters warm, they would hold less dissolved CO2. Second, if more CO2 were added to the atmosphere and taken up by the oceans, bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) would multiply and ocean acidity would increase. Since calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is broken down by acidic solutions, rising acidity would threaten ocean-dwelling fauna that incorporate CaCO3 into their skeletons or shells. As it becomes increasingly difficult for these organisms to absorb oceanic carbon, there would be a corresponding decrease in the efficiency of the biological pump that helps to maintain the oceans as a carbon sink (as described in the section Carbon dioxide). Third, rising surface temperatures might lead to a slowdown in the so-called thermohaline circulation (see Ocean circulation changes), a global pattern of oceanic flow that partly drives the sinking of surface waters near the poles and is responsible for much of the burial of carbon in the deep ocean. A slowdown in this flow due to an influx of melting fresh water into what are normally saltwater conditions might also cause the solubility pump, which transfers CO2 from shallow to deeper waters, to become less efficient. Indeed, it is predicted that if global warming continued to a certain point, the oceans would cease to be a net sink of CO2 and would become a net source. As large sections of tropical forest are lost because of the warming and drying of regions such as Amazonia, the overall capacity of plants to sequester atmospheric CO2 would be reduced. As a result, the terrestrial biosphere, though currently a carbon sink, would become a carbon source. Ambient temperature is a significant factor affecting the pace of photosynthesis in plants, and many plant species that are well adapted to their local climatic conditions have maximized their photosynthetic rates. As temperatures increase and conditions begin to exceed the optimal temperature range for both photosynthesis and soil respiration, the rate of photosynthesis would decline. As dead plants decompose, microbial metabolic activity (a CO2 source) would increase and would eventually outpace photosynthesis. Under sufficient global warming conditions, methane sinks in the oceans and terrestrial biosphere also might become methane sources. Annual emissions of methane by wetlands might either increase or decrease, depending on temperatures and input of nutrients, and it is possible that wetlands could switch from source to sink. There is also the potential for increased methane release as a result of the warming of Arctic permafrost (on land) and further methane release at the continental margins of the oceans (a few hundred metres below sea level). The current average atmospheric methane concentration of 1,750 ppb is equivalent to 3.5 gigatons (3.5 billion tons) of carbon. There are at least 400 gigatons of carbon equivalent stored in Arctic permafrost and as much as 10,000 gigatons (10 trillion tons) of carbon equivalent trapped on the continental margins of the oceans in a hydrated crystalline form known as clathrate. It is believed that some fraction of this trapped methane could become unstable with additional warming, although the amount and rate of potential emission remain highly uncertain. Modern research into climatic variation and change is based on a variety of empirical and theoretical lines of inquiry. One line of inquiry is the analysis of data that record changes in atmosphere, oceans, and climate from roughly 1850 to the present. In a second line of inquiry, information describing paleoclimatic changes is gathered from “proxy,” or indirect, sources such as ocean and lake sediments, pollen grains, corals, ice cores, and tree rings. Finally, a variety of theoretical models can be used to investigate the behaviour of Earth’s climate under different conditions. These three lines of investigation are described in this section. Although a limited regional subset of land-based records is available from the 17th and 18th centuries, instrumental measurements of key climate variables have been collected systematically and at global scales since the mid-19th to early 20th century. These data include measurements of surface temperature on land and at sea, atmospheric pressure at sea level, precipitation over continents and oceans, sea ice extents, surface winds, humidity, and tides. Such records are the most reliable of all available climate data, since they are precisely dated and are based on well-understood instruments and physical principles. Corrections must be made for uncertainties in the data (for instance, gaps in the observational record, particularly during earlier years) and for systematic errors (such as an “urban heat island” bias in temperature measurements made on land). Since the mid-20th century a variety of upper-air observations have become available (for example, of temperature, humidity, and winds), allowing climatic conditions to be characterized from the ground upward through the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Since the 1970s these data have been supplemented by polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites and by platforms in the oceans that gauge temperature, salinity, and other properties of seawater. Attempts have been made to fill the gaps in early measurements by using various statistical techniques and “backward prediction” models and by assimilating available observations into numerical weather prediction models. These techniques seek to estimate meteorological observations or atmospheric variables (such as relative humidity) that have been poorly measured in the past. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Modern measurements of greenhouse gas concentrations began with an investigation of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations by American climate scientist Charles Keeling at the summit of Mauna Loa in Hawaii in 1958. Keeling’s findings indicated that CO2 concentrations were steadily rising in association with the combustion of fossil fuels, and they also yielded the famous “Keeling curve,” a graph in which the longer-term rising trend is superimposed on small oscillations related to seasonal variations in the uptake and release of CO2 from photosynthesis and respiration in the terrestrial biosphere. Keeling’s measurements at Mauna Loa apply primarily to the Northern Hemisphere. Taking into account the uncertainties, the instrumental climate record indicates substantial trends since the end of the 19th century consistent with a warming Earth. These trends include a rise in global surface temperature of 0.9 °C (1.5 °F) between 1880 and 2012, an associated elevation of global sea level of 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3 inches) between 1901 and 2010, and a decrease in snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere of approximately 1.5 million square km (580,000 square miles). Records of average global temperatures kept by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) indicate that the years 1998, 2005, and 2010 are statistically tied with one another as the warmest years since modern record keeping began in 1880; the WMO also noted that the decade 2001–10 was the warmest decade since 1880. Increases in global sea level are attributed to a combination of seawater expansion due to ocean heating and freshwater runoff caused by the melting of terrestrial ice. Reductions in snow cover are the result of warmer temperatures favouring a steadily shrinking winter season. Climate data collected during the first two decades of the 21st century reveal that surface warming between 2005 and 2014 proceeded slightly more slowly than was expected from the effect of greenhouse gas increases alone. This fact was sometimes used to suggest that global warming had stopped or that it experienced a “hiatus” or “pause.” In reality, this phenomenon appears to have been influenced by several factors, none of which, however, implies that global warming stopped during this period or that global warming would not continue in the future. One factor was the increased burial of heat beneath the ocean surface by strong trade winds, a process assisted by La Niña conditions. The effects of La Niña manifest in the form of cooling surface waters along the western coast of South America. As a result, warming at the ocean surface was reduced, but the accumulation of heat in other parts of the ocean occurred at an accelerated rate. Another factor cited by climatologists was a small but potentially important increase in aerosols from volcanic activity, which may have blocked a small portion of incoming solar radiation and which were accompanied by a small reduction in solar output during the period. These factors, along with natural decades-long oscillations in the climate system, may have masked a portion of the greenhouse warming. (However, climatologists point out that these natural climate cycles are expected to add to greenhouse warming in the future when the oscillations eventually reverse direction.) For these reasons many scientists believe that it is an error to call this slowdown in detectable surface warming a “hiatus” or a “pause.” In order to reconstruct climate changes that occurred prior to about the mid-19th century, it is necessary to use “proxy” measurements—that is, records of other natural phenomena that indirectly measure various climate conditions. Some proxies, such as most sediment cores and pollen records, glacial moraine evidence, and geothermal borehole temperature profiles, are coarsely resolved or dated and thus are only useful for describing climate changes on long timescales. Other proxies, such as growth rings from trees or oxygen isotopes from corals and ice cores, can provide a record of yearly or even seasonal climate changes. The data from these proxies should be calibrated to known physical principles or related statistically to the records collected by modern instruments, such as satellites. Networks of proxy data can then be used to infer patterns of change in climate variables, such as the behaviour of surface temperature over time and geography. Yearly reconstructions of climate variables are possible over the past 1,000 to 2,000 years using annually dated proxy records, but reconstructions farther back in time are generally based on more coarsely resolved evidence such as ocean sediments and pollen records. For these, records of conditions can be reconstructed only on timescales of hundreds or thousands of years. In addition, since relatively few long-term proxy records are available for the Southern Hemisphere, most reconstructions focus on the Northern Hemisphere. The various proxy-based reconstructions of the average surface temperature of the Northern Hemisphere differ in their details. These differences are the result of uncertainties implicit in the proxy data themselves and also of differences in the statistical methods used to relate the proxy data to surface temperature. Nevertheless, all studies as reviewed in the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), which was published in 2007, indicate that the average surface temperature since about 1950 is higher than at any time during the previous 1,000 years. Theoretical models of Earth’s climate system can be used to investigate the response of climate to external radiative forcing as well as its own internal variability. Two or more models that focus on different physical processes may be coupled or linked together through a common feature, such as geographic location. Climate models vary considerably in their degree of complexity. The simplest models of energy balance describe Earth’s surface as a globally uniform layer whose temperature is determined by a balance of incoming and outgoing shortwave and longwave radiation. These simple models may also consider the effects of greenhouse gases. At the other end of the spectrum are fully coupled, three-dimensional, global climate models. These are complex models that solve for radiative balance; for laws of motion governing the atmosphere, ocean, and ice; and for exchanges of energy and momentum within and between the different components of the climate. In some cases, theoretical climate models also include an interactive representation of Earth’s biosphere and carbon cycle. Even the most-detailed climate models cannot resolve all the processes that are important in the atmosphere and ocean. Most climate models are designed to gauge the behaviour of a number of physical variables over space and time, and they often artificially divide Earth’s surface into a grid of many equal-sized “cells.” Each cell may neatly correspond to some physical process (such as summer near-surface air temperature) or other variable (such as land-use type), and it may be assigned a relatively straightforward value. So-called “sub-grid-scale” processes, such as those of clouds, are too small to be captured by the relatively coarse spacing of the individual grid cells. Instead, such processes must be represented through a statistical process that relates the properties of the atmosphere and ocean. For example, the average fraction of cloud cover over a hypothetical “grid box” (that is, a representative volume of air or water in the model) can be estimated from the average relative humidity and the vertical temperature profile of the grid cell. Variations in the behaviour of different coupled climate models arise in large part from differences in the ways sub-grid-scale processes are mathematically expressed. Despite these required simplifications, many theoretical climate models perform remarkably well when reproducing basic features of the atmosphere, such as the behaviour of midlatitude jet streams or Hadley cell circulation. The models also adequately reproduce important features of the oceans, such as the Gulf Stream. In addition, models are becoming better able to reproduce the main patterns of internal climate variability, such as those of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Consequently, periodically recurring events—such as ENSO and other interactions between the atmosphere and ocean currents—are being modeled with growing confidence. Climate models have been tested in their ability to reproduce observed changes in response to radiative forcing. In 1988 a team at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City used a fairly primitive climate model to predict warming patterns that might occur in response to three different scenarios of anthropogenic radiative forcing. Warming patterns were forecast for subsequent decades. Of the three scenarios, the middle one, which corresponds most closely to actual historical carbon emissions, comes closest to matching the observed warming of roughly 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) that has taken place since then. The NASA team also used a climate model to successfully predict that global mean surface temperatures would cool by about 0.5 °C for one to two years after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. More recently, so-called “detection and attribution” studies have been performed. These studies compare predicted changes in near-surface air temperature and other climate variables with patterns of change that have been observed for the past one to two centuries (see below). The simulations have shown that the observed patterns of warming of Earth’s surface and upper oceans, as well as changes in other climate phenomena such as prevailing winds and precipitation patterns, are consistent with the effects of an anthropogenic influence predicted by the climate models. In addition, climate model simulations have shown success in reproducing the magnitude and the spatial pattern of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere between roughly 1400 and 1850—during the Little Ice Age, which appears to have resulted from a combination of lowered solar output and heightened explosive volcanic activity. The path of future climate change will depend on what courses of action are taken by society—in particular the emission of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels. A range of alternative emissions scenarios known as representative concentration pathways (RCPs) were proposed by the IPCC in the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), which was published in 2014, to examine potential future climate changes. The scenarios depend on various assumptions concerning future rates of human population growth, economic development, energy demand, technological advancement, and other factors. Unlike the scenarios used in previous IPCC assessments, the AR5 RCPs explicitly account for climate change mitigation efforts. |scenario||temperature change (°C) | in 2090–99 relative to 1980–99 |sea-level rise (m) | in 2090–99 relative to 1980–99 |*Ranges of sea-level rise are based on various models of climate change that exclude the possibility of future rapid changes in ice flow, such as the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps. | Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report The results of each scenario in the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (2007) are depicted in the graph. The AR5 scenario with the smallest increases in greenhouse gases is RCP 2.6, which denotes the net radiative forcing by 2100 in watts per square metre (a doubling of CO2 concentrations from preindustrial values of 280 ppm to 560 ppm represents roughly 3.7 watts per square metre). RCP 2.6 assumes substantial improvements in energy efficiency, a rapid transition away from fossil fuel energy, and a global population that peaks at roughly nine billion people in the 21st century. In that scenario CO2 concentrations remain below 450 ppm and actually fall toward the end of the century (to about 420 ppm) as a result of widespread deployment of carbon-capture technology. Scenario RCP 8.5, by contrast, might be described as “business as usual.” It reflects the assumption of an energy-intensive global economy, high population growth, and a reduced rate of technological development. CO2 concentrations are more than three times greater than preindustrial levels (roughly 936 ppm) by 2100 and continue to grow thereafter. RCP 4.5 and RCP 6.0 envision intermediate policy choices, resulting in stabilization by 2100 of CO2 concentrations at 538 and 670 ppm, respectively. In all those scenarios, the cooling effect of industrial pollutants such as sulfate particulates, which have masked some of the past century’s warming, is assumed to decline to near zero by 2100 because of policies restricting their industrial production. The differences between the various simulations arise from disparities between the various climate models used and from assumptions made by each emission scenario. For example, best estimates of the predicted increases in global surface temperature between the years 2000 and 2100 range from about 0.3 to 4.8 °C (0.5 to 8.6 °F), depending on which emission scenario is assumed and which climate model is used. Relative to preindustrial (i.e., 1750–1800) temperatures, these estimates reflect an overall warming of the globe of 1.4 to 5.0 °C (2.5 to 9.0 °F). These projections are conservative in that they do not take into account potential positive carbon cycle feedbacks (see above Feedback mechanisms and climate sensitivity). Only the lower-end emissions scenario RCP 2.6 has a reasonable chance (roughly 50 percent) of holding additional global surface warming by 2100 to less than 2.0 °C (3.6 °F)—a level considered by many scientists to be the threshold above which pervasive and extreme climatic effects will occur. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The greatest increase in near-surface air temperature is projected to occur over the polar region of the Northern Hemisphere because of the melting of sea ice and the associated reduction in surface albedo. Greater warming is predicted over land areas than over the ocean. Largely due to the delayed warming of the oceans and their greater specific heat, the Northern Hemisphere—with less than 40 percent of its surface area covered by water—is expected to warm faster than the Southern Hemisphere. Some of the regional variation in predicted warming is expected to arise from changes to wind patterns and ocean currents in response to surface warming. For example, the warming of the region of the North Atlantic Ocean just south of Greenland is expected to be slight. This anomaly is projected to arise from a weakening of warm northward ocean currents combined with a shift in the jet stream that will bring colder polar air masses to the region. © Altrendo Nature/Getty ImagesEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The climate changes associated with global warming are also projected to lead to changes in precipitation patterns across the globe. Increased precipitation is predicted in the polar and subpolar regions, whereas decreased precipitation is projected for the middle latitudes of both hemispheres as a result of the expected poleward shift in the jet streams. Whereas precipitation near the Equator is predicted to increase, it is thought that rainfall in the subtropics will decrease. Both phenomena are associated with a forecasted strengthening of the tropical Hadley cell pattern of atmospheric circulation. Changes in precipitation patterns are expected to increase the chances of both drought and flood conditions in many areas. Decreased summer precipitation in North America, Europe, and Africa, combined with greater rates of evaporation due to warming surface temperatures, is projected to lead to decreased soil moisture and drought in many regions. Furthermore, since anthropogenic climate change will likely lead to a more vigorous hydrologic cycle with greater rates of both evaporation and precipitation, there will be a greater probability for intense precipitation and flooding in many regions. Regional predictions of future climate change remain limited by uncertainties in how the precise patterns of atmospheric winds and ocean currents will vary with increased surface warming. For example, some uncertainty remains in how the frequency and magnitude of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events will adjust to climate change. Since ENSO is one of the most prominent sources of interannual variations in regional patterns of precipitation and temperature, any uncertainty in how it will change implies a corresponding uncertainty in certain regional patterns of climate change. For example, increased El Niño activity would likely lead to more winter precipitation in some regions, such as the desert southwest of the United States. This might offset the drought predicted for those regions, but at the same time it might lead to less precipitation in other regions. Rising winter precipitation in the desert southwest of the United States might exacerbate drought conditions in locations as far away as South Africa. GSFC Scientific Visualization Studio/NASAA warming climate holds important implications for other aspects of the global environment. Because of the slow process of heat diffusion in water, the world’s oceans are likely to continue to warm for several centuries in response to increases in greenhouse concentrations that have taken place so far. The combination of seawater’s thermal expansion associated with this warming and the melting of mountain glaciers is predicted to lead to an increase in global sea level of 0.45–0.82 metre (1.4–2.7 feet) by 2100 under the RCP 8.5 emissions scenario. However, the actual rise in sea level could be considerably greater than this. It is probable that the continued warming of Greenland will cause its ice sheet to melt at accelerated rates. In addition, this level of surface warming may also melt the ice sheet of West Antarctica. Paleoclimatic evidence suggests that an additional 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming could lead to the ultimate destruction of the Greenland Ice Sheet, an event that would add another 5 to 6 metres (16 to 20 feet) to predicted sea level rise. Such an increase would submerge a substantial number of islands and lowland regions. Coastal lowland regions vulnerable to sea level rise include substantial parts of the U.S. Gulf Coast and Eastern Seaboard (including roughly the lower third of Florida), much of the Netherlands and Belgium (two of the European Low Countries), and heavily populated tropical areas such as Bangladesh. In addition, many of the world’s major cities—such as Tokyo, New York, Mumbai, Shanghai, and Dhaka—are located in lowland regions vulnerable to rising sea levels. With the loss of the West Antarctic ice sheet, additional sea level rise would approach 10.5 metres (34 feet). While the current generation of models predicts that such global sea level changes might take several centuries to occur, it is possible that the rate could accelerate as a result of processes that tend to hasten the collapse of ice sheets. One such process is the development of moulins—large vertical shafts in the ice that allow surface meltwater to penetrate to the base of the ice sheet. A second process involves the vast ice shelves off Antarctica that buttress the grounded continental ice sheet of Antarctica’s interior. If those ice shelves collapse, the continental ice sheet could become unstable, slide rapidly toward the ocean, and melt, thereby further increasing mean sea level. Thus far, neither process has been incorporated into the theoretical models used to predict sea level rise. Another possible consequence of global warming is a decrease in the global ocean circulation system known as the “thermohaline circulation” or “great ocean conveyor belt.” This system involves the sinking of cold saline waters in the subpolar regions of the oceans, an action that helps to drive warmer surface waters poleward from the subtropics. As a result of this process, a warming influence is carried to Iceland and the coastal regions of Europe that moderates the climate in those regions. Some scientists believe that global warming could shut down this ocean current system by creating an influx of fresh water from melting ice sheets and glaciers into the subpolar North Atlantic Ocean. Since fresh water is less dense than saline water, a significant intrusion of fresh water would lower the density of the surface waters and thus inhibit the sinking motion that drives the large-scale thermohaline circulation. It has also been speculated that, as a consequence of large-scale surface warming, such changes could even trigger colder conditions in regions surrounding the North Atlantic. Experiments with modern climate models suggest that such an event would be unlikely. Instead, a moderate weakening of the thermohaline circulation might occur that would lead to a dampening of surface warming—rather than actual cooling—in the higher latitudes of the North Atlantic Ocean. One of the more controversial topics in the science of climate change involves the impact of global warming on tropical cyclone activity. It appears likely that rising tropical ocean temperatures associated with global warming will lead to an increase in the intensity (and the associated destructive potential) of tropical cyclones. In the Atlantic a close relationship has been observed between rising ocean temperatures and a rise in the strength of hurricanes. Trends in the intensities of tropical cyclones in other regions, such as in the tropical Pacific and Indian oceans, are more uncertain due to a paucity of reliable long-term measurements. While the warming of oceans favours increased tropical cyclone intensities, it is unclear to what extent rising temperatures affect the number of tropical cyclones that occur each year. Other factors, such as wind shear, could play a role. If climate change increases the amount of wind shear—a factor that discourages the formation of tropical cyclones—in regions where such storms tend to form, it might partially mitigate the impact of warmer temperatures. On the other hand, changes in atmospheric winds are themselves uncertain—because of, for example, uncertainties in how climate change will affect ENSO. Global warming and climate change have the potential to alter biological systems. More specifically, changes to near-surface air temperatures will likely influence ecosystem functioning and thus the biodiversity of plants, animals, and other forms of life. The current geographic ranges of plant and animal species have been established by adaptation to long-term seasonal climate patterns. As global warming alters these patterns on timescales considerably shorter than those that arose in the past from natural climate variability, relatively sudden climatic changes may challenge the natural adaptive capacity of many species. A large fraction of plant and animal species are likely to be at an increased risk of extinction if global average surface temperatures rise another 1.5 to 2.5 °C (2.7 to 4.5 °F) by the year 2100. Species loss estimates climb to as much as 40 percent for a warming in excess of 4.5 °C (8.1 °F)—a level that could be reached in the IPCC’s higher emissions scenarios. A 40 percent extinction rate would likely lead to major changes in the food webs within ecosystems and have a destructive impact on ecosystem function. Surface warming in temperate regions is likely to lead changes in various seasonal processes—for instance, earlier leaf production by trees, earlier greening of vegetation, altered timing of egg laying and hatching, and shifts in the seasonal migration patterns of birds, fishes, and other migratory animals. In high-latitude ecosystems, changes in the seasonal patterns of sea ice threaten predators such as polar bears and walruses; both species rely on broken sea ice for their hunting activities. Also in the high latitudes, a combination of warming waters, decreased sea ice, and changes in ocean salinity and circulation is likely to lead to reductions or redistributions in populations of algae and plankton. As a result, fish and other organisms that forage upon algae and plankton may be threatened. On land, rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns and drought frequencies are likely to alter patterns of disturbance by fires and pests. Other likely impacts on the environment include the destruction of many coastal wetlands, salt marshes, and mangrove swamps as a result of rising sea levels and the loss of certain rare and fragile habitats that are often home to specialist species that are unable to thrive in other environments. For example, certain amphibians limited to isolated tropical cloud forests either have become extinct already or are under serious threat of extinction. Cloud forests—tropical forests that depend on persistent condensation of moisture in the air—are disappearing as optimal condensation levels move to higher elevations in response to warming temperatures in the lower atmosphere. Stephen Frink/CorbisEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.In many cases a combination of stresses caused by climate change as well as human activity represents a considerably greater threat than either climatic stresses or nonclimatic stresses alone. A particularly important example is coral reefs, which contain much of the ocean’s biodiversity. Rising ocean temperatures increase the tendency for coral bleaching (a condition where zooxanthellae, or yellow-green algae, living in symbiosis with coral either lose their pigments or abandon the coral polyps altogether), and they also raise the likelihood of greater physical damage by progressively more destructive tropical cyclones. In many areas coral is also under stress from increased ocean acidification (see above), marine pollution, runoff from agricultural fertilizer, and physical damage by boat anchors and dredging. Another example of how climate and nonclimatic stresses combine is illustrated by the threat to migratory animals. As these animals attempt to relocate to regions with more favourable climate conditions, they are likely to encounter impediments such as highways, walls, artificial waterways, and other man-made structures. Tim Flach—Stone/Getty ImagesWarmer temperatures are also likely to affect the spread of infectious diseases, since the geographic ranges of carriers, such as insects and rodents, are often limited by climatic conditions. Warmer winter conditions in New York in 1999, for example, appear to have facilitated an outbreak of West Nile virus, whereas the lack of killing frosts in New Orleans during the early 1990s led to an explosion of disease-carrying mosquitoes and cockroaches. Warmer winters in the Korean peninsula and southern Europe have allowed the spread of the Anopheles mosquito, which carries the malaria parasite, whereas warmer conditions in Scandinavia in recent years have allowed for the northward advance of encephalitis. In the southwestern United States, alternations between drought and flooding related in part to the ENSO phenomenon have created conditions favourable for the spread of hantaviruses by rodents. The spread of mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever in equatorial East Africa has also been related to wet conditions in the region associated with ENSO. Severe weather conditions conducive to rodents or insects have been implicated in infectious disease outbreaks—for instance, the outbreaks of cholera and leptospirosis that occurred after Hurricane Mitch struck Central America in 1998. Global warming could therefore affect the spread of infectious disease through its influence on ENSO or on severe weather conditions. Socioeconomic impacts of global warming could be substantial, depending on the actual temperature increases over the next century. Models predict that a net global warming of 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) beyond the late 20th-century global average would produce economic losses in some regions (particularly the tropics and high latitudes) and economic benefits in others. For warming beyond those levels, benefits would tend to decline and costs increase. For warming in excess of 4 °C (7.2 °F), models predict that costs will exceed benefits on average, with global mean economic losses estimated between 1 and 5 percent of gross domestic product. Substantial disruptions could be expected under those conditions, specifically in the areas of agriculture, food and forest products, water and energy supply, and human health. Agricultural productivity might increase modestly in temperate regions for some crops in response to a local warming of 1–3 °C (1.8–5.4 °F), but productivity will generally decrease with further warming. For tropical and subtropical regions, models predict decreases in crop productivity for even small increases in local warming. In some cases, adaptations such as altered planting practices are projected to ameliorate losses in productivity for modest amounts of warming. An increased incidence of drought and flood events would likely lead to further decreases in agricultural productivity and to decreases in livestock production, particularly among subsistence farmers in tropical regions. In regions such as the African Sahel, decreases in agricultural productivity have already been observed as a result of shortened growing seasons, which in turn have occurred as a result of warmer and drier climatic conditions. In other regions, changes in agricultural practice, such as planting crops earlier in the growing season, have been undertaken. The warming of oceans is predicted to have an adverse impact on commercial fisheries by changing the distribution and productivity of various fish species, whereas commercial timber productivity may increase globally with modest warming. Water resources are likely to be affected substantially by global warming. At current rates of warming, a 10–40 percent increase in average surface runoff and water availability has been projected in higher latitudes and in certain wet regions in the tropics by the middle of the 21st century, while decreases of similar magnitude are expected in other parts of the tropics and in the dry regions in the subtropics. This would be particularly severe during the summer season. In many cases water availability is already decreasing or expected to decrease in regions that have been stressed for water resources since the turn of the 21st century. Such regions as the African Sahel, western North America, southern Africa, the Middle East, and western Australia continue to be particularly vulnerable. In these regions drought is projected to increase in both magnitude and extent, which would bring about adverse effects on agriculture and livestock raising. Earlier and increased spring runoff is already being observed in western North America and other temperate regions served by glacial or snow-fed streams and rivers. Fresh water currently stored by mountain glaciers and snow in both the tropics and extratropics is also projected to decline and thus reduce the availability of fresh water for more than 15 percent of the world’s population. It is also likely that warming temperatures, through their impact on biological activity in lakes and rivers, may have an adverse impact on water quality, further diminishing access to safe water sources for drinking or farming. For example, warmer waters favour an increased frequency of nuisance algal blooms, which can pose health risks to humans. Risk-management procedures have already been taken by some countries in response to expected changes in water availability. Energy availability and use could be affected in at least two distinct ways by rising surface temperatures. In general, warmer conditions would favour an increased demand for air-conditioning; however, this would be at least partially offset by decreased demand for winter heating in temperate regions. Energy generation that requires water either directly, as in hydroelectric power, or indirectly, as in steam turbines used in coal-fired power plants or in cooling towers used in nuclear power plants, may become more difficult in regions with reduced water supplies. As discussed above, it is expected that human health will be further stressed under global warming conditions by potential increases in the spread of infectious diseases. Declines in overall human health might occur with increases in the levels of malnutrition due to disruptions in food production and by increases in the incidence of afflictions. Such afflictions could include diarrhea, cardiorespiratory illness, and allergic reactions in the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere as a result of rising levels of pollen. Rising heat-related mortality, such as that observed in response to the 2003 European heat wave, might occur in many regions, especially in impoverished areas where air-conditioning is not generally available. The economic infrastructure of most countries is predicted to be severely strained by global warming and climate change. Poor countries and communities with limited adaptive capacities are likely to be disproportionately affected. Projected increases in the incidence of severe weather, heavy flooding, and wildfires associated with reduced summer ground moisture in many regions will threaten homes, dams, transportation networks and other facets of human infrastructure. In high-latitude and mountain regions, melting permafrost is likely to lead to ground instability or rock avalanches, further threatening structures in those regions. Rising sea levels and the increased potential for severe tropical cyclones represent a heightened threat to coastal communities throughout the world. It has been estimated that an additional warming of 1–3 °C (1.8–5.4 °F) beyond the late 20th-century global average would threaten millions more people with the risk of annual flooding. People in the densely populated, poor, low-lying regions of Africa, Asia, and tropical islands would be the most vulnerable, given their limited adaptive capacity. In addition, certain regions in developed countries, such as the Low Countries of Europe and the Eastern Seaboard and Gulf Coast of the United States, would also be vulnerable to the effects of rising sea levels. Adaptive steps are already being taken by some governments to reduce the threat of increased coastal vulnerability through the construction of dams and drainage works. Toru Yamanaka—AFP/Getty ImagesSince the 19th century, many researchers working across a wide range of academic disciplines have contributed to an enhanced understanding of the atmosphere and the global climate system. Concern among prominent climate scientists about global warming and human-induced (or “anthropogenic”) climate change arose in the mid-20th century, but most scientific and political debate over the issue did not begin until the 1980s. Today, leading climate scientists agree that many of the ongoing changes to the global climate system are largely caused by the release into the atmosphere of greenhouse gases—gases that enhance Earth’s natural greenhouse effect. Most greenhouse gases are released by the burning of fossil fuels for heating, cooking, electrical generation, transportation, and manufacturing, but they are also released as a result of the natural decomposition of organic materials, wildfires, deforestation, and land-clearing activities (see The influences of human activity on climate). Opponents of this view have often stressed the role of natural factors in past climatic variation and have accentuated the scientific uncertainties associated with data on global warming and climate change. Nevertheless, a growing body of scientists has called upon governments, industries, and citizens to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases. All countries emit greenhouse gases, but highly industrialized countries and more populous countries emit significantly greater quantities than others. Countries in North America and Europe that were the first to undergo the process of industrialization have been responsible for releasing most greenhouse gases in absolute cumulative terms since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century. Today these countries are being joined by large developing countries such as China and India, where rapid industrialization is being accompanied by a growing release of greenhouse gases. The United States, possessing approximately 5 percent of the global population, emitted almost 21 percent of global greenhouse gases in 2000. The same year, the then 25 member states of the European Union (EU)—possessing a combined population of 450 million people—emitted 14 percent of all anthropogenic greenhouse gases. This figure was roughly the same as the fraction released by the 1.2 billion people of China. In 2000 the average American emitted 24.5 tons of greenhouse gases, the average person living in the EU released 10.5 tons, and the average person living in China discharged only 3.9 tons. Although China’s per capita greenhouse gas emissions remained significantly lower than those of the EU and the United States, it was the largest greenhouse gas emitter in 2006 in absolute terms. An important first step in formulating public policy on global warming and climate change is the gathering of relevant scientific and socioeconomic data. In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme. The IPCC is mandated to assess and summarize the latest scientific, technical, and socioeconomic data on climate change and to publish its findings in reports presented to international organizations and national governments all over the world. Many thousands of the world’s leading scientists and experts in the areas of global warming and climate change have worked under the IPCC, producing major sets of assessments in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2014. Those reports evaluated the scientific basis of global warming and climate change, the major issues relating to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and the process of adjusting to a changing climate. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The first IPCC report, published in 1990, stated that a good deal of data showed that human activity affected the variability of the climate system; nevertheless, the authors of the report could not reach a consensus on the causes and effects of global warming and climate change at that time. The 1995 IPCC report stated that the balance of evidence suggested “a discernible human influence on the climate.” The 2001 IPCC report confirmed earlier findings and presented stronger evidence that most of the warming over the previous 50 years was attributable to human activities. The 2001 report also noted that observed changes in regional climates were beginning to affect many physical and biological systems and that there were indications that social and economic systems were also being affected. The IPCC’s fourth assessment, issued in 2007, reaffirmed the main conclusions of earlier reports, but the authors also stated—in what was regarded as a conservative judgment—that they were at least 90 percent certain that most of the warming observed over the previous half century had been caused by the release of greenhouse gases through a multitude of human activities. Both the 2001 and 2007 reports stated that during the 20th century there had been an increase in global average surface temperature of 0.6 °C (1.1 °F), within a margin of error of ±0.2 °C (0.4 °F). Whereas the 2001 report forecast an additional rise in average temperature by 1.4 to 5.8 °C (2.5 to 10.4 °F) by 2100, the 2007 report refined this forecast to an increase of 1.8–4.0 °C (3.2–7.2 °F) by the end of the 21st century. Those forecasts were based on examinations of a range of scenarios that characterized future trends in greenhouse gas emissions (see Potential effects of global warming. The IPCC’s fifth assessment, released in 2014, further refined projected increases in global average temperature and sea level. The 2014 report stated that the interval between 1880 and 2012 saw an increase in global average temperature of approximately 0.85 °C (1.5 °F) and that the interval between 1901 and 2010 saw an increase in global average sea level of about 19–21 cm (7.5–8.3 inches). The report predicted that by the end of the 21st century surface temperatures across the globe would increase between 0.3 and 4.8 °C (0.5 and 8.6 °F), and sea level could rise between 26 and 82 cm (10.2 and 32.3 inches) relative to the 1986–2005 average. Each IPCC report has helped to build a scientific consensus that elevated concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are the major drivers of rising near-surface air temperatures and their associated ongoing climatic changes. In this respect, the current episode of climatic change, which began about the middle of the 20th century, is seen to be fundamentally different from earlier periods in that critical adjustments have been caused by activities resulting from human behaviour rather than nonanthropogenic factors. The IPCC’s 2007 assessment projected that future climatic changes could be expected to include continued warming, modifications to precipitation patterns and amounts, elevated sea levels, and “changes in the frequency and intensity of some extreme events.” Such changes would have significant effects on many societies and on ecological systems around the world (see Environmental consequences of global warming). The reports of the IPCC and the scientific consensus they reflect have provided one of the most prominent bases for the formulation of climate-change policy. On a global scale, climate-change policy is guided by two major treaties: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of 1992 and the associated 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC (named after the city in Japan where it was concluded). The UNFCCC was negotiated between 1991 and 1992. It was adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and became legally binding in March 1994. In Article 2 the UNFCCC sets the long-term objective of “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” Article 3 establishes that the world’s countries have “common but differentiated responsibilities,” meaning that all countries share an obligation to act—though industrialized countries have a particular responsibility to take the lead in reducing emissions because of their relative contribution to the problem in the past. To this end, the UNFCCC Annex I lists 41 specific industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition plus the European Community (EC; formally succeeded by the EU in 2009), and Article 4 states that these countries should work to reduce their anthropogenic emissions to 1990 levels. However, no deadline is set for this target. Moreover, the UNFCCC does not assign any specific reduction commitments to non-Annex I countries (that is, developing countries). The follow-up agreement to the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, was negotiated between 1995 and 1997 and was adopted in December 1997. The Kyoto Protocol regulates six greenhouse gases released through human activities: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Under the Kyoto Protocol, Annex I countries are required to reduce their aggregate emissions of greenhouse gases to 5.2 percent below their 1990 levels by no later than 2012. Toward this goal, the protocol sets individual reduction targets for each Annex I country. These targets require the reduction of greenhouse gases in most countries, but they also allow increased emissions from others. For example, the protocol requires the then 15 member states of the EU and 11 other European countries to reduce their emissions to 8 percent below their 1990 emission levels, whereas Iceland, a country that produces relatively small amounts of greenhouse gases, may increase its emissions as much as 10 percent above its 1990 level. In addition, the Kyoto Protocol requires three countries—New Zealand, Ukraine, and Russia—to freeze their emissions at 1990 levels. The Kyoto Protocol outlines five requisites by which Annex I parties can choose to meet their 2012 emission targets. First, it requires the development of national policies and measures that lower domestic greenhouse gas emissions. Second, countries may calculate the benefits from domestic carbon sinks that soak up more carbon than they emit (see Carbon cycle feedbacks). Third, countries can participate in schemes that trade emissions with other Annex I countries. Fourth, signatory countries may create joint implementation programs with other Annex I parties and receive credit for such projects that lower emissions. Fifth, countries may receive credit for lowering the emissions in non-Annex I countries through a “clean development” mechanism, such as investing in the building of a new wind power project. In order to go into effect, the Kyoto Protocol had to be ratified by at least 55 countries, including enough Annex I countries to account for at least 55 percent of that group’s total greenhouse gas emissions. More than 55 countries quickly ratified the protocol, including all the Annex I countries except for Russia, the United States, and Australia. (Russia and Australia ratified the protocol in 2005 and 2007, respectively.) It was not until Russia, under heavy pressure from the EU, ratified the protocol that it became legally binding in February 2005. The most-developed regional climate-change policy to date has been formulated by the EU in part to meet its commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. By 2005 the 15 EU countries that have a collective commitment under the protocol reduced their greenhouse gas emissions to 2 percent below their 1990 levels, though it is not certain that they will meet their 8 percent reduction target by 2012. In 2007 the EU set a collective goal for all 27 member states to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent below 1990 levels by the year 2020. As part of its effort to achieve this goal, the EU in 2005 established the world’s first multilateral trading scheme for carbon dioxide emissions, covering more than 11,500 large installations across its member states. In the United States, by contrast, Pres. George W. Bush and a majority of senators rejected the Kyoto Protocol, citing the lack of compulsory emission reductions for developing countries as a particular grievance. At the same time, U.S. federal policy does not set any mandatory restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions, and U.S. emissions increased over 16 percent between 1990 and 2005. Partly to make up for a lack of direction at the federal level, many individual U.S. states have formulated their own action plans to address global warming and climate change and have taken a host of legal and political initiatives to curb emissions. These initiatives include: capping emissions from power plants, establishing renewable portfolio standards requiring electricity providers to obtain a minimum percentage of their power from renewable sources, developing vehicle emissions and fuel standards, and adopting “green building” standards. Countries differ in opinion on how to proceed with international policy with respect to climate agreements. The EU supports a continuation of the Kyoto Protocol’s legally based collective approach in the form of another treaty, but other countries, including the United States, tend to support more voluntary measures, as in the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate that was announced in 2005. Long-term goals formulated in Europe and the United States seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 80 percent by the middle of the 21st century. Related to these efforts, the EU set a goal of limiting temperature rises to a maximum of 2 °C (3.6 °F) above preindustrial levels. (Many climate scientists and other experts agree that significant economic and ecological damage will result should the global average of near-surface air temperatures rise more than 2 °C [3.6 °F] above preindustrial temperatures in the next century.) Despite differences in approach, countries launched negotiations on a new treaty, based on an agreement made at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2007 in Bali, Indonesia, that will replace the Kyoto Protocol after it expires. At the 17th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP17) held in Durban, South Africa, in 2011, the international community committed to the development of a comprehensive, legally binding climate treaty that would replace the Kyoto Protocol by 2015. Such a treaty would require all greenhouse gas-producing countries—including major carbon emitters that do not abide by the Kyoto Protocol at present (such as China, India, and the United States)—to limit and reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. This commitment was reaffirmed by the international community at the 18th Conference of the Parties (COP18) held in Doha, Qatar, in 2012. Since the terms of the Kyoto Protocol were set to terminate in 2012, the COP17 and COP18 delegates agreed to extend the Kyoto Protocol to bridge the gap between the original expiration date and the date that the new climate treaty would become legally binding. Consequently, COP18 delegates decided that the Kyoto Protocol will terminate in 2020, the year in which the new climate treaty is expected to come into force. This extension had the added benefit of providing additional time for countries to meet their 2012 emission targets. A growing number of the world’s cities are initiating a multitude of local and subregional efforts to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases. Many of these municipalities are taking action as members of the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives and its Cities for Climate Protection program, which outlines principles and steps for taking local-level action. In 2005 the U.S. Conference of Mayors adopted the Climate Protection Agreement, in which cities committed to reduce emissions to 7 percent below 1990 levels by 2012. In addition, many private firms are developing corporate policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One notable example of an effort led by the private sector is the creation of the Chicago Climate Exchange as a means for reducing emissions through a trading process. As public policies relative to global warming and climate change continue to develop globally, regionally, nationally, and locally, they fall into two major types. The first type, mitigation policy, focuses on different ways to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. As most emissions come from the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation, much of the mitigation policy focuses on switching to less carbon-intensive energy sources (such as wind, solar, and hydropower), improving energy efficiency for vehicles, and supporting the development of new technology. In contrast, the second type, adaptation policy, seeks to improve the ability of various societies to face the challenges of a changing climate. For example, some adaptation policies are devised to encourage groups to change agricultural practices in response to seasonal changes, whereas other policies are designed to prepare cities located in coastal areas for elevated sea levels. In either case, long-term reductions in greenhouse gas discharges will require the participation of both industrial countries and major developing countries. In particular, the release of greenhouse gases from Chinese and Indian sources is rising quickly in parallel with the rapid industrialization of those countries. In 2006 China overtook the United States as the world’s leading emitter of greenhouse gases in absolute terms (though not in per capita terms), largely because of China’s increased use of coal and other fossil fuels. Indeed, all the world’s countries are faced with the challenge of finding ways to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions while promoting environmentally and socially desirable economic development (known as “sustainable development” or “smart growth”). Whereas some opponents of those calling for corrective action continue to argue that short-term mitigation costs will be too high, a growing number of economists and policy makers argue that it will be less costly, and possibly more profitable, for societies to take early preventive action than to address severe climatic changes in the future. Many of the most harmful effects of a warming climate are likely to take place in developing countries. Combating the harmful effects of global warming in developing countries will be especially difficult, as many of these countries are already struggling and possess a limited capacity to meet challenges from a changing climate. It is expected that each country will be affected differently by the expanding effort to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Countries that are relatively large emitters will face greater reduction demands than will smaller emitters. Similarly, countries experiencing rapid economic growth are expected to face growing demands to control their greenhouse gas emissions as they consume increasing amounts of energy. Differences will also occur across industrial sectors and even between individual companies. For example, producers of oil, coal, and natural gas—which in some cases represent significant portions of national export revenues—may see reduced demand or falling prices for their goods as their clients decrease their use of fossil fuels. In contrast, many producers of new, more climate-friendly technologies and products (such as generators of renewable energy) are likely to see increases in demand. To address global warming and climate change, societies must find ways to fundamentally change their patterns of energy use in favour of less carbon-intensive energy generation, transportation, and forest and land use management. A growing number of countries have taken on this challenge, and there are many things individuals too can do. For instance, consumers have more options to purchase electricity generated from renewable sources. Additional measures that would reduce personal emissions of greenhouse gases and also conserve energy include the operation of more energy-efficient vehicles, the use of public transportation when available, and the transition to more energy-efficient household products. Individuals might also improve their household insulation, learn to heat and cool their residences more effectively, and purchase and recycle more environmentally sustainable products.

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LEE COUNTY, Fla. — Just off US-41, there’s a growing garden with very little soil. Liz Jager and her family run EFC Farms in Fort Myers. They sell tens of thousands of lettuce heads grown in special tents. You won’t find soil in these tents though. This place runs almost solely on water, using an aquaponics system. “I was definitely looking for an opportunity to give back to the earth,” Jager said. The water is packed with nutrients provided by tilapia, which live in tanks on the property. “They excrete ammonia, that ammonia turns into nitrates and that’s what the lettuce actually uses to drink up and grow,” Jager said. “The roots are crazy, they’re kind of actually stuck in there. But this is actually how the lettuce gets the nutrients from the fish.” You don’t need dozens of fish, acres of land, or expensive equipment to start your own aquaponics venture. You can start small. Veggies and herbs are thriving in a much smaller aquaponics setup in the food forest at Florida Gulf Coast University. “One of our students AJ built this,” student Lilli Ganstrom said of their setup. “You can see we use the bamboo from our bamboo right over here. For an aquaponics system this small you’re usually going to be using like betta fish, so it’s something that you could do in your own backyard.” This kind of growth uses about ten percent of the water needed for soil-based farming. Food Forest manager Marco Acosta said aquaponics could help keep our waterways cleaner by keeping fertilizer and other material out. “An Aquaponics system should be a closed-loop system,” Acosta said. “So all the nutrients, all the water circulating throughout that system should stay within that system. Those nutrients are what are possibly contributing to the issue that we have currently with the red algae and the blue-green algae coming through from our waterways.” These growers hope more people will try their hand at aquaponics and create something new and sustainable. “The future of farming is all about innovation and thinking of things outside the box,” Jager said. “That’s really where we started learning.”

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Friday, 3 August 2012 - Buddhist Lent Day (Wan Khao Phansa) วันเข้าพรรษา(Khao Phansa Day) marks the beginning of the Buddhist lent, as annual three months disciplinary practice for Buddhist monks. Buddha had specified that during the three months of the raining season, monks should stop traveling and avoid the dangers of traveling during the rainy season by staying fixed in one temple. The Buddhist lent is observed by monks from the eighth lunar month to the eleventh lunar month. This is considered a sacred period of time for spiritual practice, a time to devote oneself more earnestly to the cultivation of mindfulness and compassion. Khao Phansa Day is on the first day after the full moon of the eighth lunar month, and marks the beginning of the three-month Buddhist ‘lent’ period. The tradition of Buddhist Lent or the annual three-month rains retreat known in Thai as “Phansa”. Khao Phansa means to remain in one place during the rainy season. Phansa represents a time of renewed spiritual vigor and Khao Phansa festival is a major Buddhism merit-making festival. This year วันอาสาฬหบูชา(Asalha Bucha Day) is on 2nd August 2012 and วันเข้าพรรษา(Khao Phansa Day) is on 3rd August 2012. วันอาสาฬหบูชา/wan aa-sǎan-hà-buu-chaa/ – Asalha Bucha Day วันอาสาฬหบูชา(Asalha Bucha Day) is considered to be one of the most significant Buddhist holy days. It falls on the full moon day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar year, generally in July. It is the day that Buddha delivered his first sermon known as “Dhammachakkappavattanasutta” which he preached to five ascetics. One ascetic named “Kotanya”, understood the insight knowledge of life that Buddha had taught and requested that Buddha ordain him as a monk. This event marked the first time that the Triple Gems were completed; there are Buddha himself, Dhamma (Buddha’s teachings) and the Sangha (the brotherhood of monks). This was the day that Buddhism was established in the world.

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Wednesday, Feb 15, 2023 From 9:40 a.m. to 11:05 a.m. Eastern Time This class is part of a four-part online series examining the history, geography and culture of the West. About the Event The past and present of the American West have captured the imagination of people throughout the world like no other region of the country. The cowboy herding cattle and the Indian fighting to maintain traditional lands and ancient cultures are but two iconic symbols of the West. But what is the West? How has this region had such an impact on the imagination, economy, society and culture of the country? This four-part series, offered by the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute at George Mason University, explores the geography, cultures and economies of the region throughout its history. The class will be held weekly on Wednesdays from February 1st through February 22. (If you miss classes and would like to watch a recording, please visit OLLI Mason’s YouTube Channel.) Instructor Richard Stillson has a Ph.D. in economics from Stanford University and a Ph.D. in history from Johns Hopkins University. He is the author of “Spreading the News: A History of Information in the California Gold Rush.” Contact AARP Virginia at [email protected] for more information. JOIN FOR JUST $16 A YEAR

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Dracunculiasis, also called Guinea-worm disease (GWD), is an infection by the Guinea worm.5 A person becomes infected when they drink water that contains water fleas infected with guinea worm larvae. Initially there are no symptoms. About one year later, the female worm forms a painful blister in the skin, usually on a lower limb. Other symptoms at this time may include vomiting and dizziness. The worm then emerges from the skin over the course of a few weeks. During this time, it may be difficult to walk or work. It is very uncommon for the disease to cause death. In humans, the only known cause is Dracunculus medinensis. The worm is about one to two millimeters wide, and an adult female is 60 to 100 centimeters long (males are much shorter at 12–29 mm or 0.47–1.14 in). Outside humans, the young form can survive up to three weeks, during which they must be eaten by water fleas to continue to develop. The larva inside water fleas may survive up to four months. Thus, for the disease to remain in an area, it must occur each year in humans. A diagnosis of the disease can usually be made based on the signs and symptoms. Prevention is by early diagnosis of the disease followed by keeping the person from putting the wound in drinking water to decrease spread of the parasite. Other efforts include improving access to clean water and otherwise filtering water if it is not clean. Filtering through a cloth is often enough to remove the water fleas. Contaminated drinking water may be treated with a chemical called temefos to kill the larva. There is no medication or vaccine against the disease. The worm may be slowly removed over a few weeks by rolling it over a stick. The ulcers formed by the emerging worm may get infected by bacteria. Pain may continue for months after the worm has been removed. Signs and symptoms Dracunculiasis is diagnosed by seeing the worms emerging from the lesions on the legs of infected individuals and by microscopic examinations of the larvae. As the worm moves downwards, usually to the lower leg, through the subcutaneous tissues, it leads to intense pain localized to its path of travel. The burning sensation experienced by infected people has led to the disease being called “the fiery serpent”. Other symptoms include fever, nausea, and vomiting. Female worms cause allergic reactions during blister formation as they migrate to the skin, causing an intense burning pain. Such allergic reactions produce rashes, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, and localized edema. When the blister bursts, allergic reactions subside, but skin ulcers form, through which the worm can protrude. Only when the worm is removed is healing complete. Death of adult worms in joints can lead to arthritis and paralysis in the spinal cord. The pain caused by the worm’s emergence—which typically occurs during planting and harvesting seasons—prevents many people from working or attending school for as long as three months. In heavily burdened agricultural villages fewer people are able to tend their fields or livestock, resulting in food shortages and lower earnings. A study in southeastern Nigeria, for example, found that rice farmers in a small area lost US$20 million in just one year due to outbreaks of Guinea worm disease. Guinea worm disease can be transmitted only by drinking contaminated water, and can be completely prevented through two relatively simple measures: Prevent people from drinking contaminated water containing the Cyclops copepod (water flea), which can be seen in clear water as swimming white specks. Drink water drawn only from sources free from contamination. Filter all drinking water, using a fine-mesh cloth filter like nylon, to remove the guinea worm-containing crustaceans. Regular cotton cloth folded over a few times is an effective filter. A portable plastic drinking straw containing a nylon filter has proven popular. Filter the water through ceramic or sand filters. Boil the water. Develop new sources of drinking water without the parasites, or repair dysfunctional water sources. Treat water sources with larvicides to kill the water fleas. Prevent people with emerging Guinea worms from entering water sources used for drinking. Community-level case detection and containment is key. For this, staff must go door to door looking for cases, and the population must be willing to help and not hide their cases. Immerse emerging worms in buckets of water to reduce the number of larvae in those worms, and then discard that water on dry ground. Discourage all members of the community from setting foot in the drinking water source. Guard local water sources to prevent people with emerging worms from entering. There is no vaccine or medicine to treat or prevent Guinea worm disease. Untreated cases can lead to secondary infections, disability and amputations. Once a Guinea worm begins emerging, the first step is to do a controlled submersion of the affected area in a bucket of water. This causes the worm to discharge many of its larvae, making it less infectious. The water is then discarded on the ground far away from any water source. Submersion results in subjective relief of the burning sensation and makes subsequent extraction of the worm easier. To extract the worm, a person must wrap the live worm around a piece of gauze or a stick. The process may take several weeks. Gently massaging the area around the blister can help loosen the worm. This is nearly the same treatment that is noted in the famous ancient Egyptian medical text, the Ebers papyrus from c. 1550 BC. Some people have said that extracting a Guinea worm feels like the afflicted area is on fire. However, if the infection is identified before an ulcer forms, the worm can also be surgically removed by a trained doctor in a medical facility. Although Guinea worm disease is usually not fatal, the wound where the worm emerges could develop a secondary bacterial infection such as tetanus, which may be life-threatening—a concern in endemic areas where there is typically limited or no access to health care. Analgesics can be used to help reduce swelling and pain and antibiotic ointments can help prevent secondary infections at the wound site. At least in the Northern region of Ghana, the Guinea worm team found that antibiotic ointment on the wound site caused the wound to heal too well and too quickly making it more difficult to extract the worm and more likely that pulling would break the worm. The local team preferred to use something called “Tamale oil” (after the regional capital) which lubricated the worm and aided its extraction. It is of great importance not to break the worm when pulling it out. Broken worms have a tendency to putrefy or petrify. Putrefaction leads to the skin sloughing off around the worm. Petrification is a problem if the worm is in a joint or wrapped around a vein or other important area. Use of metronidazole or thiabendazole may make extraction easier, but also may lead to migration to other parts of the body.

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It was already possible to chemically fingerprint fentanyl as an intact substance. PhD candidate Mirjam de Bruin-Hoegée explains: ‘By comparing the analysis results of different drug samples, you can investigate where a batch of drugs originates from. You can also determine to what extent the drugs someone is carrying with them, correspond to the products of certain dealers and producers. Several features can help to determine this, including certain chemical impurities in the drugs that relate to the production method applied.’ But this analysis of drug samples is of limited value when people die or almost die of an overdose and no traces of the drug itself can be found. Blood as an indicator De Bruin-Hoegée’s research has now shown that it should in principle be possible to determine the production process of the drug from the blood of users. She determined which of the impurities are the best indicators of the origin of fentanyl and which chemical analysis technique is best suited to determine this. She did this in the lab using human liver microsomes. These ‘micro-organs’ provide a representative picture of fentanyl metabolism in the human body. The next step would be to investigate real forensic samples, such as blood from overdose victims. ‘It is usually quite challenging to even detect traces of drugs in someone’s blood. But with the help of this research and the use of increasingly sensitive analytical techniques, it will soon be possible to not only detect those traces but also determine the production process of the drug used based on metabolites and impurities,’ says De Bruin-Hoegée. The research is part of the FACING project, a collaboration between the Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences (HIMS) of the University of Amsterdam and TNO Defence, Safety & Security. The project is funded by the DO-AIO fund of the Ministry of Defence and aims to develop advanced techniques for the analytical profiling of substances used as chemical weapons in wars and terrorist attacks. Mirjam de Bruin-Hoegée, Djarah Kleiweg, Daan Noort, Arian C. van Asten: Chemical attribution of fentanyl: The effect of human metabolism, in: Forensic Chemistry (June 2021).

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Stinging nettles (Urtica dioica) are forest herbs rich in vitamins A, C, iron, potassium, manganese, and calcium. The young plants are harvested to eat steamed, boiled for their rich broth, or dried for herbal tea. The “sting” from nettles is not from thorns, but from fine hair-like filaments that when brushed against the skin, inject formic acid, the same chemical also found in the stings and bites of ants and wasps, causing a histamine response in the skin. Interestingly, the juice from the plant contains a natural anti-histamine and helps reverse the effects of the sting. This formic acid is rendered inert when Stinging nettles are washed, cooked and/or dried. (Read more here!) Historically, Stinging nettles are used for their nutritive and mineral-rich benefits along with support for seasonal allergies. The leaves are mildly diuretic and mild galactagogues, and because of their vitamin and mineral content, are beneficial for third trimester, menstruation, perimenopause and postpartum and breastfeeding support. Find Stinging Nettles in:

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Pumpkin growers dread the tiny tan scabs that form on their fruit, each lesion a telltale sign of bacterial spot disease. The specks don’t just mar the fruit’s flesh — they provide entry points for rot-inducing fungus and other pathogens that can destroy pumpkins and other cucurbits from the inside out. Either way, farmers pay the price, with marketable yields reduced by as much as 90%. Despite the disease’s severity, scientists don’t know much about the genetics of the pathogen that causes it. Nearly all the molecular information required for accurate diagnostic testing and targeted treatments is lacking for the disease. In a new study, University of Illinois scientists, with the help of two undergraduate students, have assembled the first complete genome for the bacteria that causes the disease, Xanthomonas cucurbitae, and identified genes that are activated during infection. “Assembling a complete circular genome means we now have the resources to better understand what’s happening in the field. We can use this information to look at how the pathogen is spreading, whether there are differences in host specificity among sub-populations or strains, or how likely it is to develop resistance to chemical controls,” said Sarah Hind, assistant professor in the U of I Department of Crop Sciences and senior author on the Phytopathology study. If Hind’s team can learn more about these factors and how cucurbits respond to them, there may be a way to prevent the bacteria from penetrating pumpkin fruits in the first place. “That would really save the farmers,” Hind said. “They don’t care as much when it gets on the leaves, but if it infects the fruit, they’re in trouble. This project wouldn’t have been possible without the contributions of some really talented undergraduate students. We love having students participate in our research. They bring a sense of enthusiasm and eagerness — as well as really creative ideas — to the lab that would be hard to generate otherwise,” she added. Read the complete article at agrinews-pubs.com.

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What is Seismology? Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the Earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves. What are Seismic Waves? Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth, such as slip along a fault during an earthquake. Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides, avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves. Seismic waves travel through and around the Earth and can be recorded with seismometers. Types of Seismic Waves There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the Earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes send out seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

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In 2004, a huge iceberg recognized as A38 grounded on the British Abroad territory of South Ga Island. Afterward, a lot of community animals, together with younger penguins and seals, turned up dead. The similar situation is unfolding with the world’s biggest iceberg, A68a, as it appears by way of satellite imagery to be relocating toward the island. If the huge iceberg grounds on South Georgia, it is feared that it could trigger serious ecological challenges in the location. Continue on reading below Our Featured Video clips A68a is the largest iceberg on Earth nowadays at about 4,200 sq. kilometers. There are a lot of concerns about the risk of these types of a significant iceberg anchoring at South Georgia, supplied the biodiversity of the island. Penguin chicks and seal pups depend on the hunting prowess of their parents to survive. Timing is important in sustaining their lives, and delays in the return of parents can be fetal. If an iceberg gets trapped together the looking route, possibilities are that several chicks and pups will die. Experts also alert that if iceberg grounds, it could crush all the residing creatures on the seabed. Linked: Melting permafrost increases danger of tsunamis in Alaska “Ecosystems can and will bounce again of program, but there’s a risk right here that if this iceberg receives trapped, it could be there for 10 decades,” reported Geraint Tarling, ecologist at the British Antarctic Study. “And that would make a incredibly huge change, not just to the ecosystem of South Ga but its financial state as effectively.” Although satellite illustrations or photos suggest that the iceberg is on its way to South Ga, there is a opportunity that it could still veer off program. “The currents need to take it on what appears to be like a bizarre loop all around the south conclude of South Ga, ahead of then spinning it alongside the edge of the continental shelf and back off to the northwest,” stated Peter Fretwell, Geographic Info Officer at British Antarctic Study. “But it’s incredibly complicated to say exactly what will transpire.” By means of BBC Image by means of Nathan Kurtz / NASA

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Scuba diving is interesting to so many people. It seems so amazing to move freely under water and have some adventure. Scuba tanks are normally filled with compressed air. Air contains approximately 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen. The trouble arises in deep sea diving. Nitrogen gas dissolves in blood at high pressures. When divers dive deep into the sea, long-term inhalation of nitrogen can cause a feeling of euphoria, called nitrogen narcosis. The symptoms are similar to being drunk, including reduced concentration, trouble physical movements, and loss of dive control. Nitrogen narcosis in extreme levels can lead to unconsciousness. If the divers rise too quickly to the surface, they will encounter a rapid decrease in pressure. The dissolved nitrogen will be rapidly released from blood, and formation of gas bubbles occurs. This illness is known as “the bends”, which can be severely hazardous for divers. In the mid-1920s, Joel Henry Hildebrand introduced helium to replace nitrogen in scuba tanks. Helium has low solubility in blood. It is much lighter than nitrogen and released much faster from blood, decreasing the risk of getting “the bends”. Helium is an inert gas and safe to breathe. Since helium is non-toxic, it can be breathed for a long time without tissue damage. The helium concentration in a scuba tank depends on the depth the divers plan to go.

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*******Source-https://www.americancityandcounty.com/, Andy Castillo, First published 16, Aug, 2023 The eerie photographs of New York City shrouded in smoke from Canadian wildfires earlier this year brought national attention to the severe impact on quality of life air pollution can have. But even if it isn’t as noticeable, pollution is still a public health hazard. A large scientific research initiative led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and 21 universities aims to help local administrators see the impact on public health by investigating the skies above American cities to better understand how the sources of air pollution are shifting. The organizations will use satellites, seven research aircraft, vehicles, “dozens of stationary installations,” and instrumented backpacks to measure air pollution in all areas of the urban environment, and from all kinds of sources including transportation vehicles, industrial facilities, wildfires, agriculture, and products like paint and perfume. “This is an unprecedented scientific investigation — in scope, scale and sophistication — of an ongoing public health threat that kills people every year,” said Rick Spinrad, Ph. D, director of NOAA in a statement. “No one agency or university could do anything like this alone.” Data will be collected by a new geostationary satellite, TEMPO, which NASA launched via a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket in April. The largest airplane participating in the study, AEROMMA, is a DC-8 owned by NASA that has 30 specialized instruments onboard. The plane will be used to collect data over large North American metro centers like New York City, Chicago, Toronto, and Los Angeles. Two Gulfstream research aircraft will also be a part of the project. “In order to make progress on reducing air pollution that negatively affects millions of Americans, we need to have a better understanding of the current sources of pollutants and what happens to these pollutants once they are in the atmosphere,” said CSL scientist Carsten Warneke, a mission scientist who flies with the AEROMMA project. The data that’s collected will be run through “sophisticated chemical and weather models” and analyzed by scientists, a statement says, noting the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is also involved. The findings from the research will be shared with state and local environmental administrators and officials to help them make informed decisions about improving air quality. The statement notes that tailpipe and smokestack emissions have been substantially reduced by regulation. Ground-level ozone and fine particiles, however, have only modestly decreased in the same amount of time. Both contribute to the deaths of more than 100,000 Americans annually, according to the statement. Research from NOAA shows that, as pollution from the transportation sector has declined, consumer products derived from fossil fuels “may now contribute as much as 50% of total petrochemical VOC emissions in densely populated urban cities. These may not be properly accounted for in emission inventories or considered in air quality management strategies,” the statement says. “The campaigns may also have an opportunity to investigate another emerging air pollution source: wildfire smoke that has blanketed the Midwest and East Coast states this summer.” Corresponding with the air data that’s being collected, researchers from Yale University in New Haven, Conn. and Aerodyne Research, Inc., alongside those from NOAA, will take measurements from a rooftop at The City College’s New York campus, another site in Guilford, Conn., and a research tower on Long Island. And in Manhattan, scientists will carry air pollution sensors in backpacks to investigate surface pollution in underserved neighborhoods in New York City, where pollution directly impacts human health, especially during heat wave events. “This regional network of ground sites has enormous potential to help us understand urban and downwind air pollution—not just today but under a continually changing climate,” said Drew Gentner, a Yale University professor who is coordinating ground sites in New York and Connecticut.

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Mucking up the membrane © KATERYNA KON/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Bacterial pathogens that shield their cellular insides with a double membrane have been notoriously difficult to kill using antibiotic agents. A team from Genentech, a subsidiary of Roche, has now discovered a drug that blocks the sugar-coated fat molecules that form the highly impermeable membrane from reaching their final destination on the outside of nasty ‘Gram-negative’ superbugs, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia. The researchers searched through a large chemical library for compounds capable of blocking MsbA, a bacterial enzyme involved in shuttling these membrane molecules, known as lipopolysaccharides, out of the cytoplasm. They found one such compound, which they optimized to have better properties. Structural analysis of this optimized drug in complex with MsbA revealed an unprecedented mechanism of action — a dual-mode inhibition of the target enzyme that could provide the playbook for designing other antibiotics. This finding, reported in Nature, offers a promising new strategy for treating these types of infectious microbes, and could help inspire other efforts to discover drugs that work against similar vulnerabilities in bacterial defenses. - Nature 557, 196–201 (2018) doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0083-5

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What is Advanced Manufacturing? Advanced manufacturing refers to the use of cutting-edge skills or technologies to generate efficiencies and improvements in production processes. From advanced robotics to 3D printing, the sector has significant growth potential and is estimated to contribute £162 billion to the UK economy. Manufacturing is a key pillar of Scotland’s economy, and as Scotland’s largest city, Glasgow’s reputation stems from its role as one of the world’s first industrial and heavy engineering centres that earned the city the title of “workshop of the world”. With the challenge on to find smarter, better ways of making things, Glasgow is again at the vanguard of this advanced manufacturing revolution and remains the place for bold, brave companies to come together and inspire each other to do great things. Glasgow City Region is home to just under 3000 manufacturing companies with a combined turnover of over £10bn, employing over 55,000 people with a GVA contribution of £3.5bn. Glasgow is ranked no.1 of the UK’s 11 core cities for producing the highest number of both students and graduates in engineering and advanced manufacturing The Advanced Manufacturing District Scotland is an internationally recognised centre for innovation, research and manufacturing located next to Glasgow The University of Strathclyde’s Advanced Forming Research Centre (AFRC) was established in 2009 as a collaborative venture with Scottish Enterprise, the Scottish Government, and founding industry members Rolls-Royce, Boeing and Timet. It was one of the founding centres of the UK Government’s High Value Manufacturing (HVM) Catapult, and remains the only centre of its kind in Scotland. The AFRC is working with the Scottish Government, its agencies and Scottish industry to help deliver its manufacturing action plan, ‘A Manufacturing Future for Scotland’. The University and AFRC are the anchor partner for the National Manufacturing Institute Scotland (NMIS) – a £65 million factory for the future, and the centrepiece of the developing Advanced Manufacturing Innovation District (AMID) at Inchinnan. NMIS is a strategic collaboration between the Scottish Government and the University, aiming to drive fundamental change in the competitiveness of Scottish industry through adoption of cutting edge research, innovation and skills provision. The University is also a strategic partner in the new industry-led Medicines Manufacturing Innovation Centre (MMIC), another large-scale example of international collaboration in the AMID. AFRC is at the heart of the country’s manufacturing R&D sector, enabling all types of company ─ from global original equipment manufacturers through to local manufacturing businesses – to access the technology and expertise needed to deliver innovative processes and products. Demand initially came from the aerospace sector, but AFRC has now grown to support companies from across the manufacturing landscape including oil and gas, medical devices, energy, food and drink, automotive and general engineering. Strathclyde is part of a new strategic Boeing Scotland Alliance, which includes an £11.8m Research & Development project between Boeing and the AFRC. The project is supported by £3.5m of R&D funding from Scottish Enterprise and will see Boeing establish an R&D team in Scotland to look at metallic component manufacturing as the basis for future aircraft components. Engineering company Malin Group is set to build a marine manufacturing hub on the banks of the River Clyde. The Glasgow firm’s Scottish Marine Technology Park (SMTP) is to be built near the Erskine Bridge at Old Kilpatrick. It is expected to create nearly 1000 jobs and add £125.4 million a year to the economy, with a large fabrication facility and a deep-water jetty with 1100Te ship hoist, the largest of its kind in Scotland. Latest News Stories - Boost for startups in manufacturing sector as development partner named for new innovation district - Strathclyde Computer Science graduate wins Best Engineering Project prize - Research ties between Scotland and Australia could advance shipbuilding on the Clyde - NMIS appoints former UKRI Challenge Director as Chief Executive Officer - Pioneering cross border collaboration provides crucial support to UK forging and forming community - Wind Turbine Blade Recycling Project Powers up at the Lightweight Manufacturing Centre

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There’s increasing evidence that the balance of micro organisms (microbiota) in the body is paramount to overall general health. As humans we are colonised both on the skin surface and also internally. All organs carry micro organisms and the gut microbiome has recently attracted a great deal of scientific interest. We look at ecosystems in rivers, seas and rainforests and there is hardly a person out there that does not consider there is a requirement for balance. A natural environment where removal of the trees has an impact on smaller creatures and vice versa. There is also a requirement for balance in our own bodies. This means that the typically coined “good bacteria” need to be in balance with the rest of the microbiota. A typical way of looking at this is if you take a course of antibiotics. Often the prescriber will suggest a “live yogurt” which contains helpful bacteria cultures such as lactobacilli and can assist in averting the unpleasant side effects of antibiotics on the gut. I think in the main broad messages of healthy eating “5 a day” and the consumers’ interpretation of basing meals on starchy carbs is a bit of a confused picture, or perhaps nutritionists and healthcare professionals don’t emphasise the reality that is keeping a balance. Not just a “balanced diet” not just “carbs”, but a diet that balances the body. Carbs are recommended not as sugars, not as refined carbs, not white pasta with fatty, high sugar, high salt sauces, but unrefined fibrous carbs. The brown rice, wholemeal foodstuffs, peas, beans type of carbs. What do you get in a teaspoon of sugar? Well, sugar (pure carb) actually. What do you get in a teaspoon of oats? You get vitamins and minerals in addition to complex carbs soluble and insoluble fibre – protein and fat. Fermented products such as kefir are also thought to promote a healthy gut and may also assist as anti inflammatories. There’s so much more to learn. There is now an increasing number of studies which indicate that a healthy gut impacts on so many areas of health. Studies continue with observations in asthma, brain disease and autism in addition to colonic problems such as IBS and overall immunity. Our choices of food are not the only factor, but perhaps if we make small adjustments by increasing fibre, vegetables and fruits, perhaps consuming some fermented products and exercising regularly we may be doing ourselves a favour in ways that have not yet been fully documented. There is no quick fix for a healthy gut, no one “supplement” or magic pill, it’s all about a healthy lifestyle. Don’t aim for an overnight change it should be achievable, so small steps as you go. Any advice for a healthy diet please contact me whether it’s a family plan, individual, sport or something more specific, I’m here to help.

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Do you need to learn how much is 84.85 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 84.85 kg to lbs? Here it is. You will find in this article everything you need to make kilogram to pound conversion - both theoretical and practical. It is also needed/We also want to highlight that all this article is devoted to a specific number of kilograms - that is one kilogram. So if you want to learn more about 84.85 kg to pound conversion - keep reading. Before we get to the practice - that is 84.85 kg how much lbs conversion - we are going to tell you few theoretical information about these two units - kilograms and pounds. So let’s move on. We are going to start with the kilogram. The kilogram is a unit of mass. It is a basic unit in a metric system, in formal International System of Units (in short form SI). At times the kilogram can be written as kilogramme. The symbol of this unit is kg. First definition of a kilogram was formulated in 1795. The kilogram was defined as the mass of one liter of water. First definition was not complicated but difficult to use. Then, in 1889 the kilogram was described using the International Prototype of the Kilogram (in abbreviated form IPK). The IPK was prepared of 90% platinum and 10 % iridium. The IPK was in use until 2019, when it was replaced by a new definition. The new definition of the kilogram is build on physical constants, especially Planck constant. Here is the official definition: “The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.” One kilogram is equal 0.001 tonne. It could be also divided to 100 decagrams and 1000 grams. You know some information about kilogram, so now let’s move on to the pound. The pound is also a unit of mass. It is needed to emphasize that there are not only one kind of pound. What are we talking about? For example, there are also pound-force. In this article we want to centre only on pound-mass. The pound is used in the British and United States customary systems of measurements. To be honest, this unit is in use also in other systems. The symbol of this unit is lb or “. There is no descriptive definition of the international avoirdupois pound. It is just equal 0.45359237 kilograms. One avoirdupois pound could be divided to 16 avoirdupois ounces and 7000 grains. The avoirdupois pound was enforced in the Weights and Measures Act 1963. The definition of the pound was written in first section of this act: “The yard or the metre shall be the unit of measurement of length and the pound or the kilogram shall be the unit of measurement of mass by reference to which any measurement involving a measurement of length or mass shall be made in the United Kingdom; and- (a) the yard shall be 0.9144 metre exactly; (b) the pound shall be 0.45359237 kilogram exactly.” Theoretical part is already behind us. In next section we are going to tell you how much is 84.85 kg to lbs. Now you know that 84.85 kg = x lbs. So it is high time to know the answer. Just look: 84.85 kilogram = 187.0622293070 pounds. That is a correct result of how much 84.85 kg to pound. You can also round off the result. After it your outcome is exactly: 84.85 kg = 186.670 lbs. You know 84.85 kg is how many lbs, so let’s see how many kg 84.85 lbs: 84.85 pound = 0.45359237 kilograms. Naturally, in this case you can also round off the result. After it your result is exactly: 84.85 lb = 0.45 kgs. We also want to show you 84.85 kg to how many pounds and 84.85 pound how many kg results in charts. See: We are going to start with a table for how much is 84.85 kg equal to pound. |Kilograms (kg)||Pounds (lb)||Pounds (lbs) (rounded off to two decimal places)| |Pounds||Kilograms||Kilograms (rounded off to two decimal places| Now you learned how many 84.85 kg to lbs and how many kilograms 84.85 pound, so we can go to the 84.85 kg to lbs formula. To convert 84.85 kg to us lbs you need a formula. We are going to show you two formulas. Let’s begin with the first one: Amount of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the 187.0622293070 outcome in pounds The first version of a formula give you the most exact outcome. In some cases even the smallest difference can be significant. So if you want to get a correct outcome - this formula will be the best for you/option to convert how many pounds are equivalent to 84.85 kilogram. So let’s go to the second version of a formula, which also enables calculations to know how much 84.85 kilogram in pounds. The another formula is down below, have a look: Number of kilograms * 2.2 = the result in pounds As you can see, the second formula is simpler. It can be the best option if you need to make a conversion of 84.85 kilogram to pounds in easy way, for example, during shopping. Just remember that final outcome will be not so correct. Now we are going to show you these two formulas in practice. But before we are going to make a conversion of 84.85 kg to lbs we are going to show you easier way to know 84.85 kg to how many lbs without any effort. An easier way to know what is 84.85 kilogram equal to in pounds is to use 84.85 kg lbs calculator. What is a kg to lb converter? Converter is an application. Calculator is based on first version of a formula which we showed you in the previous part of this article. Thanks to 84.85 kg pound calculator you can quickly convert 84.85 kg to lbs. Just enter amount of kilograms which you want to calculate and click ‘calculate’ button. You will get the result in a second. So try to calculate 84.85 kg into lbs with use of 84.85 kg vs pound converter. We entered 84.85 as a number of kilograms. Here is the result: 84.85 kilogram = 187.0622293070 pounds. As you can see, this 84.85 kg vs lbs converter is easy to use. Now we can move on to our primary issue - how to convert 84.85 kilograms to pounds on your own. We are going to begin 84.85 kilogram equals to how many pounds conversion with the first version of a formula to get the most correct outcome. A quick reminder of a formula: Number of kilograms * 2.20462262 = 187.0622293070 the result in pounds So what have you do to check how many pounds equal to 84.85 kilogram? Just multiply number of kilograms, this time 84.85, by 2.20462262. It is exactly 187.0622293070. So 84.85 kilogram is 187.0622293070. It is also possible to round off this result, for example, to two decimal places. It is exactly 2.20. So 84.85 kilogram = 186.6700 pounds. It is high time for an example from everyday life. Let’s calculate 84.85 kg gold in pounds. So 84.85 kg equal to how many lbs? As in the previous example - multiply 84.85 by 2.20462262. It is exactly 187.0622293070. So equivalent of 84.85 kilograms to pounds, when it comes to gold, is exactly 187.0622293070. In this case it is also possible to round off the result. Here is the outcome after rounding off, this time to one decimal place - 84.85 kilogram 186.670 pounds. Now we can go to examples converted using a short version of a formula. Before we show you an example - a quick reminder of shorter formula: Amount of kilograms * 2.2 = 186.670 the outcome in pounds So 84.85 kg equal to how much lbs? And again, you have to multiply amount of kilogram, this time 84.85, by 2.2. See: 84.85 * 2.2 = 186.670. So 84.85 kilogram is 2.2 pounds. Do another conversion with use of this formula. Now calculate something from everyday life, for instance, 84.85 kg to lbs weight of strawberries. So let’s calculate - 84.85 kilogram of strawberries * 2.2 = 186.670 pounds of strawberries. So 84.85 kg to pound mass is exactly 186.670. If you know how much is 84.85 kilogram weight in pounds and are able to convert it using two different formulas, let’s move on. Now we are going to show you these outcomes in charts. We are aware that outcomes shown in tables are so much clearer for most of you. It is totally understandable, so we gathered all these results in tables for your convenience. Thanks to this you can easily make a comparison 84.85 kg equivalent to lbs outcomes. Let’s start with a 84.85 kg equals lbs table for the first version of a formula: |Kilograms||Pounds||Pounds (after rounding off to two decimal places)| And now let’s see 84.85 kg equal pound table for the second formula: As you can see, after rounding off, when it comes to how much 84.85 kilogram equals pounds, the outcomes are the same. The bigger amount the more considerable difference. Please note it when you need to do bigger number than 84.85 kilograms pounds conversion. Now you know how to convert 84.85 kilograms how much pounds but we are going to show you something more. Are you interested what it is? What do you say about 84.85 kilogram to pounds and ounces calculation? We are going to show you how you can calculate it little by little. Start. How much is 84.85 kg in lbs and oz? First things first - you need to multiply number of kilograms, in this case 84.85, by 2.20462262. So 84.85 * 2.20462262 = 187.0622293070. One kilogram is exactly 2.20462262 pounds. The integer part is number of pounds. So in this case there are 2 pounds. To convert how much 84.85 kilogram is equal to pounds and ounces you need to multiply fraction part by 16. So multiply 20462262 by 16. It is exactly 327396192 ounces. So your result is exactly 2 pounds and 327396192 ounces. You can also round off ounces, for example, to two places. Then your result is 2 pounds and 33 ounces. As you can see, calculation 84.85 kilogram in pounds and ounces is not complicated. The last conversion which we are going to show you is conversion of 84.85 foot pounds to kilograms meters. Both foot pounds and kilograms meters are units of work. To calculate it you need another formula. Before we give you it, see: Now have a look at a formula: Number.RandomElement()) of foot pounds * 0.13825495 = the result in kilograms meters So to convert 84.85 foot pounds to kilograms meters you need to multiply 84.85 by 0.13825495. It is exactly 0.13825495. So 84.85 foot pounds is 0.13825495 kilogram meters. You can also round off this result, for instance, to two decimal places. Then 84.85 foot pounds is 0.14 kilogram meters. We hope that this calculation was as easy as 84.85 kilogram into pounds calculations. This article was a huge compendium about kilogram, pound and 84.85 kg to lbs in calculation. Thanks to this calculation you learned 84.85 kilogram is equivalent to how many pounds. We showed you not only how to make a conversion 84.85 kilogram to metric pounds but also two other conversions - to know how many 84.85 kg in pounds and ounces and how many 84.85 foot pounds to kilograms meters. We showed you also other way to do 84.85 kilogram how many pounds conversions, this is using 84.85 kg en pound converter. It is the best solution for those of you who do not like calculating on your own at all or this time do not want to make @baseAmountStr kg how lbs calculations on your own. We hope that now all of you are able to do 84.85 kilogram equal to how many pounds calculation - on your own or using our 84.85 kgs to pounds converter. It is time to make your move! Let’s calculate 84.85 kilogram mass to pounds in the way you like. Do you want to make other than 84.85 kilogram as pounds calculation? For example, for 15 kilograms? Check our other articles! We guarantee that calculations for other numbers of kilograms are so easy as for 84.85 kilogram equal many pounds. We want to sum up this topic, that is how much is 84.85 kg in pounds , we prepared for you an additional section. Here we have for you all you need to remember about how much is 84.85 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 84.85 kg to lbs . Have a look. What is the kilogram to pound conversion? To make the kg to lb conversion it is needed to multiply 2 numbers. Let’s see 84.85 kg to pound conversion formula . See it down below: The number of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the result in pounds Now you can see the result of the conversion of 84.85 kilogram to pounds. The accurate result is 187.0622293070 lb. It is also possible to calculate how much 84.85 kilogram is equal to pounds with second, shortened version of the formula. Check it down below. The number of kilograms * 2.2 = the result in pounds So in this case, 84.85 kg equal to how much lbs ? The result is 187.0622293070 lb. How to convert 84.85 kg to lbs in an easier way? It is possible to use the 84.85 kg to lbs converter , which will make all calculations for you and you will get an accurate answer . |84.01 kg to lbs||=||185.21035| |84.02 kg to lbs||=||185.23239| |84.03 kg to lbs||=||185.25444| |84.04 kg to lbs||=||185.27648| |84.05 kg to lbs||=||185.29853| |84.06 kg to lbs||=||185.32058| |84.07 kg to lbs||=||185.34262| |84.08 kg to lbs||=||185.36467| |84.09 kg to lbs||=||185.38672| |84.1 kg to lbs||=||185.40876| |84.11 kg to lbs||=||185.43081| |84.12 kg to lbs||=||185.45285| |84.13 kg to lbs||=||185.47490| |84.14 kg to lbs||=||185.49695| |84.15 kg to lbs||=||185.51899| |84.16 kg to lbs||=||185.54104| |84.17 kg to lbs||=||185.56309| |84.18 kg to lbs||=||185.58513| |84.19 kg to lbs||=||185.60718| |84.2 kg to lbs||=||185.62922| |84.21 kg to lbs||=||185.65127| |84.22 kg to lbs||=||185.67332| |84.23 kg to lbs||=||185.69536| |84.24 kg to lbs||=||185.71741| |84.25 kg to lbs||=||185.73946| |84.26 kg to lbs||=||185.76150| |84.27 kg to lbs||=||185.78355| |84.28 kg to lbs||=||185.80559| |84.29 kg to lbs||=||185.82764| |84.3 kg to lbs||=||185.84969| |84.31 kg to lbs||=||185.87173| |84.32 kg to lbs||=||185.89378| |84.33 kg to lbs||=||185.91583| |84.34 kg to lbs||=||185.93787| |84.35 kg to lbs||=||185.95992| |84.36 kg to lbs||=||185.98196| |84.37 kg to lbs||=||186.00401| |84.38 kg to lbs||=||186.02606| |84.39 kg to lbs||=||186.04810| |84.4 kg to lbs||=||186.07015| |84.41 kg to lbs||=||186.09220| |84.42 kg to lbs||=||186.11424| |84.43 kg to lbs||=||186.13629| |84.44 kg to lbs||=||186.15833| |84.45 kg to lbs||=||186.18038| |84.46 kg to lbs||=||186.20243| |84.47 kg to lbs||=||186.22447| |84.48 kg to lbs||=||186.24652| |84.49 kg to lbs||=||186.26857| |84.5 kg to lbs||=||186.29061| |84.51 kg to lbs||=||186.31266| |84.52 kg to lbs||=||186.33470| |84.53 kg to lbs||=||186.35675| |84.54 kg to lbs||=||186.37880| |84.55 kg to lbs||=||186.40084| |84.56 kg to lbs||=||186.42289| |84.57 kg to lbs||=||186.44493| |84.58 kg to lbs||=||186.46698| |84.59 kg to lbs||=||186.48903| |84.6 kg to lbs||=||186.51107| |84.61 kg to lbs||=||186.53312| |84.62 kg to lbs||=||186.55517| |84.63 kg to lbs||=||186.57721| |84.64 kg to lbs||=||186.59926| |84.65 kg to lbs||=||186.62130| |84.66 kg to lbs||=||186.64335| |84.67 kg to lbs||=||186.66540| |84.68 kg to lbs||=||186.68744| |84.69 kg to lbs||=||186.70949| |84.7 kg to lbs||=||186.73154| |84.71 kg to lbs||=||186.75358| |84.72 kg to lbs||=||186.77563| |84.73 kg to lbs||=||186.79767| |84.74 kg to lbs||=||186.81972| |84.75 kg to lbs||=||186.84177| |84.76 kg to lbs||=||186.86381| |84.77 kg to lbs||=||186.88586| |84.78 kg to lbs||=||186.90791| |84.79 kg to lbs||=||186.92995| |84.8 kg to lbs||=||186.95200| |84.81 kg to lbs||=||186.97404| |84.82 kg to lbs||=||186.99609| |84.83 kg to lbs||=||187.01814| |84.84 kg to lbs||=||187.04018| |84.85 kg to lbs||=||187.06223| |84.86 kg to lbs||=||187.08428| |84.87 kg to lbs||=||187.10632| |84.88 kg to lbs||=||187.12837| |84.89 kg to lbs||=||187.15041| |84.9 kg to lbs||=||187.17246| |84.91 kg to lbs||=||187.19451| |84.92 kg to lbs||=||187.21655| |84.93 kg to lbs||=||187.23860| |84.94 kg to lbs||=||187.26065| |84.95 kg to lbs||=||187.28269| |84.96 kg to lbs||=||187.30474| |84.97 kg to lbs||=||187.32678| |84.98 kg to lbs||=||187.34883| |84.99 kg to lbs||=||187.37088| |85 kg to lbs||=||187.39292|

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We need each other. When human beings are struggling, we rely on one another through the gift of our very presence. Having the right person at your side can be incredibly comforting. But throw the wrong person in the mix, and things go haywire. What is it about our presence that can be calming or irritating or unsafe to another? We read each other’s faces and postures and observe gestures while we listen for tones of voice that cue safety or danger. This is a human superpower. When we have awareness of how we can deeply connect with others or unintentionally pull away from those who activate negative emotions, we begin to understand the power of relational contagion, or how our emotions are contagious, while sharing our authenticity when we need one another. We can literally feel how others are feeling through neurons in the brain called mirror neurons. Our tone of voice can tell the truth, and our students know this, no matter the words we speak. Think of your tone of voice as a personalized vocal fingerprint, which allows others to know how you are feeling and sense any situation as safe or threatening. Misreading Tone of Voice Our tones also carry significance because they project who we are as people. There are people with a consistent sarcastic tone, a warm caring tone, or a skeptical tone. Over time, these various tones can project their personality. Human beings have a negative brain bias; in states of heightened stress, we are quick to pick up on negative tones, and during the adolescent years we may read more neutral tones as negative. It’s critical that we be aware of our tone of voice, checking in with ourselves before we speak, especially if we notice growing irritation or anger in our nervous system. If a student is angry or defiant, functioning from his or her survival response, we can easily and quickly escalate one another. The more exhausted we are, the less tolerable we become. We often assume that our students understand how tones of voice, postures, and gestures impact others, but these nonverbal skills of communication may need to be taught, discussed, and shared in a co-regulatory experience with a trusted adult. In the adolescent years, when big emotions are prevalent, students may overreact to an ordinary experience or read someone’s expression as negative rather than neutral. Providing space and time to discuss the nuances of nonverbal communication helps grow the social skills that are often underdeveloped in childhood and adolescent years. Nonverbal communication can be cultural communication that we misinterpret or misunderstand as we carry a variety of neurodivergent and culturally divergent communication styles into our schools and classrooms. For example, eye contact is not a universally respectful gesture. Many cultures view eye contact in different ways and not through a White Eurocentric lens. Vocal tones, postures, and gestures can also be misunderstood through a lens that is not representative of how an educator might perceive a child’s or adolescent’s culture. Direct Instruction With Tone-of-Voice Exercises Discussing how our tone of voice invites people into our lives or unintentionally pushes them away is a critical practice for students and staff to work through together, sharing realistic experiences while providing feedback to one another. This could take place during a morning or afternoon gathering, at the beginning or end of a class or school day, or when there has been a disruptive incident, and we have an opportunity to share and repair. There are engaging ways to help students and ourselves understand the importance of our tone of voice and how it relates to others. Here are a few examples to try out with one another: A. Share the same sentence or phrase with a calm, angry, and then sad tone. - Please share that with everyone. - What happened to you? - Follow me. - I don’t know. - What do you mean? - I don’t understand. B. Examine angry and sad tones. Share what you notice about someone’s tone of voice when they are angry. How does their voice change? How can you tell when a friend is sad? What happens to their tone of voice? C. Discuss insights you gain solely from a person’s voice. When you hear someone’s voice but you cannot see them, how hard or easy is it to know how they are feeling? Why? D. Take a deep dive into the causes of misunderstandings. Have there been times when you assumed how you knew a family member, friend, or classmate was feeling or thinking but you were wrong? What did you misunderstand? As we think about the power of our tone of voice, we need to understand that we also communicate through sounds called vocal bursts. These are sounds like oh!, huh?, and hmm. They are communicated and understood across cultures—even across our entire species. Vocal bursts have been aligned with 24 emotions, and the research is fascinating. This study identifies and maps the 24 emotions as well as the aligned vocal bursts first researched by Alan Cowen and his colleagues while he was working at Stanford. In conclusion, we are traditionally word focused. We pay more attention to our words than how they are received and interpreted. Relationships grow stronger when we become intentional and aware of our superpower—the tone of voice, gestures, and postures that lie beneath our words.

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Welcome to Tech Altum C# Tutorial. In this tutorial we will first learn the fundamentals of object oriented like what is class and object, Constructor, Inheritance, Access Specifier, Abstract Class, Polymorphism, Generics, Collection, Grabage Collection etc with Practical example and Interview Questions. Class is the way to realize real time entity in oops. It is the user defined data type. Syntax of ClassConstructor There are two types of constructor and these are following:- Static Constructor(also known as class constructor)Constructor Type If you ask the question that can we call constructor from another constructor then I will say yes we can. Calling constructor from another constructor is known as constructor chaining. This can be done by the keyword this and base. Here we discuss on this keyword and will discuss base keyword in the article constructor with inheritance.Constructor Chaining We can give any suitable name to function but constructor name will be the name of class.Function v/s Constructor Static Variable is also known as class variable. It is declared like a global variable. Static variable is called using class name. We cannot call static variable with objectstatic variable We have two types of constructor. Static Constructor and Non Static Constructor. In this artical we have discussed the difference between static constructor and non static constructorstatic Constructor V/S Non Static Costructor Inheritance is property of oops by which we access one class into another class without writing the whole code. The class that is inherited is called base class and the class that does the inheritance is called a derived classInheritance When we inherit class into another class then object of base class is initialized first. If a class do not have any constructor then default constructor will be called.Base class constructor calling Access specifier defines the accessibility of class member. We can restrict and limit the accessibility of member of classes.Access Specifier At the time of overloading we generally use override with virtual. When we need to override the base class method into derived class than we use override keyword.Overried and New Interface in C# is basically a contract in which we declare only signature. The class which implemented this interface will define these signatures. Interface is also a way to achieve runtime polymorphism. We can add method, event, properties and indexers in interfaceInterface An Abstract class has been created using Abstract keyword while interface has been created using interface keyword.Difference between Abstract Class and Interface Array in C sharp is basically continues memory allocation of given type and size. We create array by using . int data = new int;Arrays To search any element in array we use Contains Function. This function is declared and defined in Array class. We have to pass the value in this method. If this value available in the given array then it will return true and if not then it will return false.Array Searching To search any element in array we use Contains Function. This function is declared and defined in Array class. We have to pass the value in this method. If this value available in the given array then it will return true and if not then it will return false.Array Merging Jagged array is simply an array of arrays. As we define 2-d array in which each column for each rows are same. But in case of jagged array we can define different column for each rows.Jagged Array Before understanding the operator overloading we need to understand why we use operator overloading. In the following example we have one class calculator which contains two variable x and y. and one web form where we create two variables in its cs file and add them.Operator Overloading In simple term collection in C# is a way to store objects. We use System.Collection namespace to work with collection.IEnumerable and IEnumerator

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Extrusion-die design problems are presented and a solution of the single-screw extrusion model is given to describe the operation of the single-screw extruder-die system. A computer program was developed to simulate the flow of a polymer through various exit cross-section die types: (i) circular, (ii) slit, (iii) annular, (iv) rectangular, (v) semicircular, (vi) ellipsoidal, etc. Pressure and temperature profiles, flow rate, shear rate and residence time were predicted. The pressure profile was simulated as a function of mass flow rate and die temperature. Keywords: extrusion dies, single-screw extrusion model, polymer flow through extruder die, computer simulation

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The full genome of the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) has now been sequenced. I find this really interesting, especially looking at how the genetic code differs from that of modern elephants. However, I think aiming to recreate a living mammoth is a step too far. They would not necessarily be adapted for today’s climate and habitats, and it would be unethical to breed them just to live in zoos. Of course this is still completely hypothetical; the task of ‘de-extincting’ the mammoth would extremely challenging. An international team of scientists has sequenced the complete genome of the woolly mammoth. A US team is already attempting to study the animals' characteristics by inserting mammoth genes into elephant stem cells. They want to find out what made the mammoths different from their modern relatives and how their adaptations helped them survive the ice ages.

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If you were impressed by the notion of self-driving cars, Hyperloop technology then wait till you get wind of this. Thanks to the rapid technological advancements, we’re drawing near to inventions that should be our next big step for revolutionizing the entire world. For example, once upon a time, a journey from one city to another would take months; now, we’ve managed to reduce the distance to mere hours. But can we take it to another level? That remains to be seen. However, dissertation help uk would say such a day that allows us to travel far distances while minimizing the pollution is not far. One such living breathing example of this can be Hyperloop. Maglev Trains and the issues associated with them If you know anything about trains, you’d know that an average train can travel up to 150mph. However, the fastest train was recorded to speed up to 600kph, a bullet train in China. It connects Shanghai’s Pudong Airport with Longyang Road station. The total time duration for this journey is that of seven and a half minutes which would otherwise be a half-hour long journey by car. Isn’t that fascinating? Although the said maglev train can be safe for the environment as they emit no gases that contribute to pollution, however, there are other factors that seem to bring it down. For instance, maglev trains are noisier than standard trains; guide paths are costlier, there’s a lack of infrastructure to build the paths for trains, etc. What are Hyperloop technologies? With the introduction of ground transport like Hyperloop, which is under the development of several companies, the transportation mode can drastically change. Relying on magnetic levitation like maglev trains, Hyperloop consists of pods that carry passengers while traveling through tubes or tunnels. As the air has been eradicated from the tubes, there’s barely any friction. Resulting in the pods traveling up to 1207kph. Other than that, there’s the matter of wheels that are absent in Hyperloop pods. However, if you’ve played air hockey, you’d be able to grasp the concept of the pods being able to float on air skis pretty easily. That and the magnetic levitation reducing the friction should be able to make Hyperloop quite a decent mode for transportation. Why Hyperloop in particular? Let’s have a look at what gives Hyperloop an upper hand as compared to other transportation modes. First of all, in the long run, Hyperloop can be cheaper and more feasible than your average transports. For instance, you could save up on your car gas or petrol if you chose Hyperloop. Furthermore, your average rail transportation used to pollute 0.2 pounds of harmful gasses per passenger mile annually, whereas there are hardly any emissions from Hyperloop that would endanger the environment. The high-speed rail is considerably faster than other options, which means you can easily cut back on your timing constraints. Furthermore, there wouldn’t be any more gridlocked roads, thus facilitating the passengers in their intercity travels in the most efficient manner. Connecting the dots with history You’d be surprised to know that the concept of the low pressure or vacuum tubes was a thing of the past. Back in the 19th century, pneumatic tubes were used to send mail, packages and such. Many other ideas have come to light since then; however, not much work has been carried out on the said ideas. However, Elon Musk showed special interest in the concept in August 2013 and proposed Hyperloop Alpha resulting in the modern system of transportation be improved. Musk believed that technology like Hyperloop would be significantly safer, affordable, weather-proof, and even self-powering, which makes us ponder that it might indeed be a better option. How does a Hyperloop pod works? Musk’s idea of a Hyperloop technology consists of passenger pods that would travel through a tube that would be constructed above the ground or below. Most of the air would be removed through pumps to keep the air friction to a minimum. As a result, the pods or capsules would be able to travel at airplane speeds nearly and that too while staying on the ground. All thanks to the reduced air pressure system of the Hyperloop tube. The pressure’s going to be about 1/6th of the pressure of Mars. In Musk’s model, the pods would be able to create an air cushion all on their own using 28 air-bearing skis instead of relying on the tracks for it. Thus, allowing the tube to be built as simple and cheap as possible. What is Virgin Hyperloop One? One of the commercially viable Hyperloop systems happens to be sourced by Virgin Hyperloop technology One. Founded in June 2014, there are currently 300 staff working for them. Furthermore, since the company aimed to present an operational system by 2021, they have managed to raise $295m. The ambitious company has various projects in progress in countries like Texas, Saudi Arabia, North Carolina, UAE, and India. In India, the government decided to build a Hyperloop between Pune and Mumbai. In order to construct a full route that’d comprise a 25 minutes journey, it’s going to take five to seven years. While talking about numbers. It was also mentioned that once the project gets completed, 150 million passenger trips could take place annually. What’s the experience going to be like? Even while travelling through an airplane, you get nausea when there’s an air pressure change which brings an important question to mind. How would it feel to travel through Hyperloop? Critics are saying that it’s going to be an uncomfortable experience given the nausea-inducing acceleration. On the other hand, the Virgin Hyperloop One would beg to differ. They’re saying it’d be equivalent to riding an elevator. Addressing the elephant in the room, how much would the Hyperloop tickets cost? Most have agreed that the prices will be kept affordable for the public. Hyperloop Transportation Technologies are expecting it to be a profitable system with low ticket prices. All in all, any dissertation writing service UK would say. The Hyperloop technology is something to look forward to eagerly. You May Also Like: Utthita Parsvakonasana Yoga and Parsvottanasana Yoga

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Прочитайте текст и закончите предложения в соответствии с со- держанием текста 1. The constitution of the United Kingdom is made up of … . 2. The Executive power is exercised by … . 3. The United Kingdom’s supreme legislative body is … . 4. The United Kingdom doesn’t have a single unified judicial system … . 5. The essence of common law is … . 6. For electoral purposes Britain is divided into … . 7. General elections take place on … . 8. The UK is a multi-party system and it is sometimes called a two-anda-half party system … . THE US SYSTEM OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT Overview of the United States Government and Policies 1. the system of checks and balances — система сдержек и противо- весов 2. to be vested in the Supreme Court — быть возложенным на Вер- ховный Суд 3. the electoral college — коллегия выборщиков 4. judicial review — судебный пересмотр, судебный контроль 5. a major political party — главная политическая партия 6. voter-turn-out — явка избирателей 7. “winner-take-all” principle — принцип «победителю достается все» 8. to reign supreme — царствовать Government of the United States is based on a written constitution. This constitution consists of a Preamble, seven Articles, and 27 Amendments. From this document, the entire federal government was created. It is a living document whose interpretation has changed over time. The amendment process is such that while not easily amended, US citizens are able to make necessary changes over time. Three Branches of Government. The USA is a presidential republic. The US Constitution was adopted by Congress in 1787. The Constitution created three separate branches of government. Each branch has its own powers and areas of influence. At the same time, the Constitution created a system of checks and balances that ensured no one branch would reign supreme. The three branches are: Legislative Branch. This branch consists of the Congress (the Senate and the House of Representatives) which is responsible for making the federal laws. The Congress can pass the law anyway if it gets a two-thirds majority votes. The President can veto (reject) it. Congress also plays an informative role. It informs the public about different and important subjects. Executive Branch. The executive power lies with the President of the United States who is given the job of executing, enforcing, and administering the laws and government. The president is to carry out the programmes of the Government, to recommend much of the legislation to the Congress. Judicial Branch. The judicial power of the United States is vested in the Supreme Court — the highest judicial organ of the state and the federal courts. Their job is to interpret and apply US laws through cases brought before them. Another important power of the Supreme Court is that of Judicial Review whereby they can rule laws unconstitutional. The Constitution is built on six basic principles: Popular Sovereignty; Limited Government; Separation of Powers; Checks and Balances; Judicial Review; Federalism. Political Process. While the Constitution sets up the system of government, the actual way in which the offices of Congress and the Presidency are filled is based upon the American political system. The US exists under a two-party system. The two major parties in America are the Democratic and Republican parties. Sometimes, a special issue produces a third party, but the third party often loses strength. Parties perform a wide variety of functions. They act as coalitions and attempt to win elections. Elections. In the United States elections are held at all levels including local, state, and federal. There are numerous differences from locality to locality and state to state. Even when determining the presidency, there is some variation with how the electoral college (a body of people representing the states of the USA, the system that is used in presidential elections) is determined from state to state. While voter-turn-out is barely over 50% during Presidential election years and much lower than that during midterm elections, elections can be hugely important. Закончите предложения в соответствии с содержанием текста. 1. The Constitution of the USA consists of … 2. The Constitution created … 3. The President of the USA is given the job of … 4. The judicial branch of the government is the system of courts in the USA. Its job is … 5. The USA exists under a two-party system. Sometimes, a special issue produces a third party, but … 6. Elections are held in the United States at all levels … Выберите правильный вариант ответа. 1. What is the United States of America? a) an absolute monarchy b) a federation of states c) a presidential republic 2. What does the Constitution of the USA consist of? a) a Preamble, ten Articles, thirty Amendments b) a Preamble, seven Articles, twenty seven Amendments c) statutes, customs, constitutional conventions 3. How many branches is the Government in the United States divided into? 4. How is the legislative branch of the Government called? c) the Supreme Court 5. What branch of the Government has the responsibility to carry out the law? a) the executive branch b) the legislative branch c) the judicial branch 6. What branch of the Government is the most powerful? 7. What is the highest executive power in the United States? a) the President b) the House of Representatives c) the Senate 8. What does the judicial branch do? a) makes and passes laws b) interprets and applies US laws c) executes, enforces and administers laws 9. What party system does the United States have? a) a one-party system b) a multi-party system c) a two-party system LEGAL SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD:

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Definition of shearling in English: 1A sheep that has been shorn once: [as modifier]: a group of shearling rams More example sentences - Wednesday October 2 will see the breeding sheep, with some 3,00 ewes and gimmer shearlings, starting at 10 am, followed by 280 rams at noon. - The order of sale will be slightly different in that first will come the gimmer shearlings followed by breeding ewes then store lambs and, finally, tups. - Last year's ewe lambs that would have been away - wintered and are now shearlings (shorn once), will now enter the flock to replace both the draft and the worn ewes. 1.1Wool or fleece from a shearling sheep. - Put away heavy and dark wools and tweeds, fur, shearling, mohair, angora, cashmere, down-filled or quilted leather or suede items, chunky wool knits, flannel and fleece. - Now they can choose from softer, shabby chic styles to sophisticated uses of toile, cashmere, leather and shearling. - Make your coffee run in cushy style with this cashmere pullover and merino shearling vest. 1.2chiefly US A coat made from or lined with shearling wool. - While it lacks the glamour factor of soft sensuous fur, a shearling's ability to keep out the cold is indisputable. - For products like shearlings, we usually apply some texturing in the design software so the customers can get a better idea of the final product. - I want somewhere I can fall into, throw off the seven-layer garb, and dine knowing those around me aren't hoping Bill Cunningham will shoot them for the ‘Sunday Styles’ section in their new shearling. Words that rhyme with shearlingyearling Definition of shearling in: - British & World English dictionary What do you find interesting about this word or phrase? Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.

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Who Needs a Periodontist? Healthy gums hold teeth firmly in place. Periodontal disease, which literally means ‘disease around the tooth,’ is caused by plaque on the gum line that hardens into tartar and becomes infective. Over time, the infection attacks the gum tissue that is holding and protecting your teeth. This is the first stage of periodontal disease known as gingivitis, and is characterized by red gums which bleed easily after brushing. If you don’t have gingivitis treated, it can turn into periodontal disease, which weakens the bone support for your teeth and will eventually result in the loss of the tooth. Periodontal disease has also been linked to a number of other diseases including diabetes, heart disease and low birth weight of babies. That’s why we recommend treating periodontal disease quickly and thoroughly. Periodontal Disease: Prevention and Intervention The best way to avoid periodontal disease is to make a concerted effort to look after your gums. This includes brushing properly twice a day, flossing once a day and visiting us at least twice a year. If we spot periodontal disease, our first course of action will be to remove as much of the tartar as we can so you can nurse your gums back to health (it’s often reversible). If that doesn’t work, one of our on-site periodontists, Dr. Ron Zohar or Dr. Stephen Goldman, can recommend a number of surgical or non-surgical options. Recognizing the Symptoms The good thing about periodontal disease is that it’s very easy to spot. Every evening when you brush and floss, look for the following: - a change in the colour of your gums (redness) - blood on your toothbrush or floss - puffy gums You can also keep an eye out for symptoms throughout the day. While these could be indicative of other conditions, periodontal disease will most likely be the culprit: - persistent bad breath - a metallic taste in your mouth - overly sensitive teeth Periodontal disease risk factors Age: In Canada, seven out of ten people will eventually have gum disease. The better care you take of your gums, the more likely you’ll be one of the three. Smoking: This has been shown to be one of the most significant risk factors in the development and progression of periodontal disease. Genetics: Some people are predisposed to gum disease. If the marker is identified, we can begin preventative treatment. Stress: Many periodontal diseases are infections and stress can magnify the damage caused by infections. Certain medications: Oral contraceptives, anti-depressants, and certain heart medicines are among the biggest offenders. Be sure to tell us about any new drugs you’ve started since your last visit. Bruxism: This is the habit of clenching or grinding your teeth, and it leads to a weakening of the gums and supporting tissues. Poor nutrition: The healthier you are, the better able you are to fight off infection anywhere in your body.

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Equipment and machinery work when these are powered by energizing signals either from electrical sources or batteries. Batteries play a key role in making the equipment and machinery portable and useful in multiple applications. Batteries are mainly of two types; Lead Acid Batteries These are used in vehicles and several industrial types of machinery. These are high current carrying batteries and maintenance of such batteries takes up a good amount of time and resources. Dry Cell Batteries Such batteries are mostly used in the domestic market and several types of equipment are used in our homes like a torch, calculator, mobile instrument, laptop, etc. As compared to lead-acid batteries, such batteries are relatively maintenance-free. Depending upon the usage, there are several variations in this category. Some dry cell batteries are Zinc Carbon, Zinc Chloride, Alkaline Manganese, Nickel Cadmium, Nickel-metal hydride, Lithium-ion, and primary button cells for the hearing aid, pacemaker, radio pagers, electronic watches, calculators, etc. The costs and rating of the battery depend upon its usage. For example, the Lynxmotion 6.0vdc Ni-MH 2800mAh battery pack made from five high capacity Sub-C cells and 18 gauge multi-conductor wire costs approximately £24. The sleek size of the battery makes it suitable enough for packing it inside the robot so that the robot doesn’t get unduly burdened. With a weight of just about 9.34oz, it doesn’t prove to be too much of a burden on the robot and allows freer movements. Navigation of shipping vehicles on high seas, airplanes, long route buses, automatic machines – like robots, etc. requires a system through which the vehicles can travel in the right direction. Compass is one such instrument that helps in such navigations. It can detect directions in comparison with the earth’s magnetic poles. The magnetized pointer turns towards the direction of the magnetic field of the earth. Earth acting as a giant bar magnet makes the task of compass comparatively easier. As we enter into the electronics and IT era, while on the one hand the smaller size of a compass instrument has made it a handy instrument, on the other, its accuracy has also improved to a great extent. For example, the Honeywell HMC6343 is one such fully integrated compass module that has the facility of tilt compensation as well. The pre-requisite for finding accurate direction from the erstwhile solid-state compass instruments was that these compasses be held flat, but the IC-based instruments prove to be far better under such conditions. It includes firmware for heading computation and calibration for magnetic distortions. This module is a combination of 3-axis magneto-resistive sensors and 3-axis MEMS accelerometers, support circuits, microprocessors, and the requisite algorithm. A robotic instrument can be programmed to accurately negotiate a route if the assistance of a compass can be provided to it. The route map can be fed to the robot and in case of a turn towards left or right, the signals from the compass will alert the robot, which will then adjust its movements accordingly. The Global Position System is another technologically advanced feature used for tracking and navigational purposes. In this case, the satellites put into orbit by different countries help in locating the position and speed of a particular vessel or object. Three key components of GPS include; satellites over the Earth; control and monitoring stations on Earth; and the GPS receivers owned by users (US Government, 2010). SiRF starⅢ high-performance GPS Chip Set is one such monitoring system, which is highly sensitive and can even track the navigating equipment at low signals. GPS helps in informing the concerned parties about the exact location of the individual or vessel, during walking, boating, driving, flying, etc. Developed by the US Department of Defence (DoD), originally, GPS was developed to help the US defense forces in locating military vessels and defense equipment, but gradually its use spread to other civilian purposes as well. When we talk about the GPS, we are more concerned about the receiving system of the navigation arrangement. Desired parameters are fed into the GPS receivers, which in turn start exchanging the signals between some of the concerned satellites orbiting the earth. The early days of GPS required a high power supply and huge instruments, but gradually the integrated circuit chips have started reducing the size of the GPS receiver. With small portable GPS receivers on hand, it is now possible to start tracking anywhere around the globe, without unduly worrying about the physical distances and other conditions. The ability of such GPS receivers to operate at temperatures ranging from -400C to +850C provides more mobility to the users. The SiRF starⅢ high-performance GPS Chip Set makes one of the highly sensitive tracking devices, with a sensitivity of -159 dBm. It’s time to first fix (TTFF) is quite fast at lower signal levels. In addition, this chipset has a built-in SuperCap and a built-in patch antenna while supporting the NMEA 0183 data protocol As the name itself a microcontroller is supposed to exert control over the micro functions of equipment, particularly in areas where it is almost impossible for human beings to exert accurate control. A small portion of current and signal is sent across to the microcontroller unit, which keeps comparing it with the standards set for the operation, and in case of any variation beyond the permissible limit, will act accordingly. On the one hand this helps in saving the equipment from damage while on the other hand it ensures that the equipment is able to perform the desired function all the time. The wide range of calculations and functions done by a microcontroller brings it into the category of a miniature computer. Microcontrollers can be found in a digital watch, our car, motorbike, the washing machine, microwave oven, a trawler, telephone, etc. In fact with the growth of networking and tech-savvy appetite around us, most consumer appliances these days have a microcontroller inside them. For example, a robotic model designed to help a retail outlet in keeping the shop floor in order takes cues from a microcontroller inside. In addition, the microcontrollers can also help in aligning the functioning of the robot to that of any remote location or equipment. Such kind of networking often helps on the production floor while ordering the inventories etc. The programming part for microcontrollers is done with the help of programming languages and software coding. For example, the Arduino Duemilanove (“2009”) is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega168 (datasheet) or ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It operates at 5 volts with a current of 40-50 mA (Arduino, 2010). A Motor controller can be similar to a microcontroller in some respects like it also controls the speed of an electric motor by taking feedback from the load side. While microcontroller has a multidimensional use, the motor controller is exclusively used for controlling the speed of motors. The motor controller helps in variable speed and direction control of the equipment attached with these motors. The controlling element could be manual or automatic, depending upon the usage and size of the motors. For example, if the motors are largely used in a big manufacturing plant, then the controllers can be manual. In this case, the controller will come out with some noise or siren and warn the person on duty that there’s some mismatch. The person on duty will accordingly make the changes in the motor speed or supplied current. But in the case of use in intelligent systems, the actuating and controlling task is done by the automated device itself. Pololu Qik 2s12v10 Dual Serial Motor Controller is one such motor controller chip that helps in maneuvering the speed and direction of two motors, thus proving to help control two different tasks simultaneously. It operates within a range of 6-16 V, with a current per channel up to 13A (30 A peak). Some of the advantages of using this chipset are (Pololu, 2010); - HF PWM for eliminating switching-induced motor shaft hum or whine - a robust, high-speed communication protocol with user-configurable error condition response - LEDs for better troubleshooting - reverse power protection Electric motors have been around us in different sizes and shapes for quite a while now. A motor is a device that converts different forms of energy into mechanical energy, which in turn imparts motion to the equipment attached to the motor. The key components of a motor include armature or rotor, Commutator, Brushes, Axle, Field magnet, and power supply. For example, a robot is required to move from one place to another place, to turn back, to move its hands and head, etc. All this requires motorized movements, and hence the use of motors. Dimension and operating current or voltages of a motor depending upon the purpose for which it is being used. For example a 12Vdc, 200RPM Gearhead Motor 90mA-1.5A motor will weigh around 150gms. Broadly, motors can be categorized into AC or DC motors, depending upon the operating voltage. Several motors work on AC as well as DC and are termed universal motors. Motors are further subdivided into servo, induction, synchronous, brushed or brushless, etc. The small dimensions of the Gearhead Motor make it further suitable for applications like robot design. These types of sensors are used for long-range or short-range distance sensing for adaptive cruise control, obstacle avoidance, and better efficiency. A robot will be able to avoid an obstacle if it can ‘see’ that object beforehand. In this case, the robot emits out some signals in the form of infra-red rays (IR) which come back to the programmable microcontroller of the robot after striking the object. The microcontroller then sends out appropriate signals so that the robot can adjust its speed and direction of movement accordingly. For example, the Sharp GP2D12 is an Analog distance sensor using uses infrared to detect an object between 10 cm and 80 cm away. This sensor has high immunity to ambient light and the color of the object. Arduino (2010). Arduino Duemilanove. Web. GlobalSat (2010). EM-406 GPS RECEIVER ENGINE BOARD-PRODUCT GUIDE. Web. Honeywell (2010). 3-Axis Compass with Algorithms HMC6343. Web. Pololu (2010). Pololu Qik 2s12v10 Dual Serial Motor Controller. Web. US Government (2010). Global Positioning System – Serving the World. Web.

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Clavulanic Acid: Combining Forces to Fight Infections Unlocking the Power of Clavulanic Acid As a naturally occurring substance, clavulanic acid has the potential to boost the effectiveness of certain antibiotics. In this section, we'll explore the origin of clavulanic acid and how it was discovered. We'll also discuss its role in enhancing the power of antibiotics, in order to better understand how this combination works together to fight infections. Clavulanic acid was first identified in the 1970s and is derived from the bacterium Streptomyces clavuligerus. Researchers noticed that this acid had the ability to inactivate certain enzymes that bacteria produce to resist antibiotics. By combining clavulanic acid with certain antibiotics, they found that the effectiveness of these antibiotics could be greatly increased, allowing them to better combat bacterial infections. Combating Antibiotic Resistance One of the main challenges in the field of medicine today is the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These bacteria have evolved to produce enzymes called beta-lactamases, which can break down the structure of antibiotics and render them ineffective. Clavulanic acid has the unique ability to inhibit these enzymes, making it a valuable tool in the fight against antibiotic resistance. When clavulanic acid is combined with certain antibiotics, such as amoxicillin, the result is a potent weapon against a wide range of bacterial infections. This combination is known as co-amoxiclav or Augmentin, and it is an essential tool in the arsenal of modern medicine. By blocking the action of beta-lactamases, clavulanic acid allows the antibiotic to work effectively, even against resistant bacteria. Conditions Treated by Clavulanic Acid Combinations Clavulanic acid is not an antibiotic itself, but it can greatly enhance the effectiveness of certain antibiotics. When combined with amoxicillin, the resulting medication can be used to treat a wide variety of bacterial infections. In this section, we'll discuss some of the most common conditions that can be treated with this powerful combination. Co-amoxiclav can be used to treat infections in various parts of the body, including the respiratory tract, urinary tract, skin, and soft tissues. Some common conditions treated with this combination include sinusitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and skin infections. In some cases, co-amoxiclav may also be used to treat more severe infections, such as meningitis or septicemia, when other antibiotics have proven to be ineffective. Administration and Dosage Co-amoxiclav is available in different forms, including tablets, liquid suspension, and injections. The appropriate form and dosage will depend on the specific infection being treated, as well as the patient's age and overall health. In this section, we'll discuss some general guidelines for administering co-amoxiclav and how to ensure the best possible outcomes. For most infections, co-amoxiclav is typically taken orally in tablet or liquid form. The dosage will vary depending on the severity of the infection and the patient's age and weight. It is essential to follow the prescribing doctor's instructions and complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the treatment is finished. This helps to ensure that the infection is fully eradicated and reduces the risk of antibiotic resistance developing. Potential Side Effects As with any medication, co-amoxiclav can cause side effects in some patients. While most side effects are mild and temporary, it's important to be aware of the possible risks and to contact a healthcare professional if you're concerned. In this section, we'll discuss some of the most common side effects associated with co-amoxiclav and how to manage them. Some common side effects of co-amoxiclav include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and mild skin rash. These side effects are usually temporary and will subside on their own as the body adjusts to the medication. However, if these side effects persist or worsen, it's important to contact a healthcare professional for advice. In rare cases, co-amoxiclav can cause more serious side effects, such as severe allergic reactions or liver problems. If you experience symptoms like difficulty breathing, severe skin rash, or yellowing of the skin or eyes, seek immediate medical attention. Drug Interactions and Precautions Before beginning treatment with co-amoxiclav, it's essential to inform your healthcare provider of any other medications you're taking, as well as any pre-existing conditions or allergies. In this section, we'll discuss some important precautions and potential drug interactions to be aware of when taking co-amoxiclav. Co-amoxiclav can interact with certain medications, such as anticoagulants, oral contraceptives, and allopurinol. These interactions can affect the effectiveness of the medications or increase the risk of side effects. Be sure to discuss your full medical history with your healthcare provider to ensure that co-amoxiclav is safe and appropriate for your needs. Clavulanic Acid: A Powerful Ally in the Fight Against Infections In conclusion, clavulanic acid is a valuable tool in the fight against bacterial infections, particularly those that have developed resistance to antibiotics. By combining forces with certain antibiotics, clavulanic acid can enhance their effectiveness and help to overcome the challenge of antibiotic resistance. With proper administration and awareness of potential side effects and drug interactions, co-amoxiclav can be an essential weapon in our ongoing battle against infectious diseases. Remember to always consult with a healthcare professional before starting any new medication, and to report any side effects or concerns promptly. Together, we can continue to harness the power of clavulanic acid and other medical breakthroughs to protect our health and well-being.

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AP Government: The Electoral College - YouTube. One of the most challenging aspects of the AP U.S. Government and Politics exam is the wide array of vocabulary terms that you need to understand in order to do well on the exam. Many of these terms and concepts dig deep into the U.S. Constitution, laws and policy, and the history of U.S. politics.and there are a lot of terms to know. This guide will help you get acquainted with 60. AP Government Friday,. the electoral votes are split based on a candidate’s statewide performance and his performance in each congressional district.. The Electoral College also allows a president to receive a mandate from the people, as every president must receive a majority of electoral votes to be elected. Ap Essay Should The Electoral College Be Abolished, how to write a desertation, college essays to get into west chester, research paper guidelines for high school. It could be said that the Electoral College was created for a different time in this country, but by some degree of fortune and foresight it is one of the staples of our government today. A definite benefit of the Electoral College has been the squelching of other parties, which in turn has helped to maintain the two-party system and Congress. POLS- 1100. Persuasive Essay- Electoral College. What should be done with the Electoral College—keep it, reform it, or replace it with something different? When dealing with issues concerning the Electoral College, many people get confused; it has often been called the “least understood aspect of American government” (Hubert, 2008). Ap us government electoral college 184 990 essays called. Terms; this constitution; featured such as. The constitution on government. Information by thirteen examples of government for your paper on the planet earth, copies of america. Us government shutdown essay Ever since the term papers study questions can help. AP Government Chapter 10 Send article as PDF. . Electoral choices that are made on basis of the voters’ policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues. Electoral College. A unique American institution, created by the Constitution.

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Download this one page summary of the paper by clicking here. What did we do? Gallbladder cancer is a lethal digestive tract cancer disproportionately affecting women, for which the risk factors are not fully understood. In this recently published paper, we investigated if exposure to arsenic through drinking water increases the risk of gallbladder cancer in Assam and Bihar. Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal pollutant, known to cause specific cancers at high levels in the drinking water, food, ambient air or through occupational exposure (i.e., >50-100 µg /L). Assam and Bihar are two states in India that report a high burden of gallbladder cancer and high arsenic contamination in groundwater used for drinking (next to West Bengal and Punjab). We evaluated if there are any links between the two in these regions. The study was carried out in large tertiary care hospital-settings that treat patients across different parts of Assam and Bihar. We recruited men and women aged 30-69 years from hospitals, with newly diagnosed, biopsy-confirmed gallbladder cancer (N=214) and unrelated cancer-free controls matched for age, sex, and state of residence (N=166). Long-term residential history, lifestyle factors (tobacco, alcohol, betel quid, diet and physical activity), family history, socio-demographics (age, sex, education, and occupation) and physical measurements (height, weight, waist circumference, blood pressure) were collected. We assessed arsenic exposure based on their residential history since childhood and the corresponding average concentration of groundwater arsenic at district-level. Monitoring of groundwater drinking water samples from tube wells for arsenic and other pollutants is undertaken by the Ministry of Jal Shakti through National Rural Drinking Water Programme, and the Central Ground Water Board. The average arsenic concentration in our study regions, based on 2017-2018 data, ranged between zero and 448.39 µg/L. We classified study participants into three equal groups (G1-3): (average median levels of arsenic with inter quartile range): G1-0.45(0.0-1.19) (µg/L); G2-3.75(2.83-7.38) (µg/L); G3-17.6(12.34-20.54) (µg/L). What did we find? Over a third of our participants were exposed to levels more than WHO guideline limit of 10 µg/L, and a 6% were exposed to levels more than or equal to 50 µg/L. Participants exposed to arsenic concentrations averaging 1.38-8.97 µg/L in groundwater had a 2-times greater risk of GBC, while those exposed to even higher arsenic levels (9.14-448.39 ug/L) experienced a 2.4 times increased risk of gallbladder cancer. The duration of residence in regions at these levels ranged between 16 and 70 years. Participants who lived in regions with the highest arsenic levels consumed tube-well water with sediments, unsatisfactory colour, odour, and taste than participants in regions with the lowest levels of arsenic. What is the significance of the findings? The study was conducted by Indian scientists at the Public Health Foundation of India, Centre for Chronic Disease Control, Dr. Bhubaneshwar Borooah Cancer Institute, Mahavir Cancer Sansthan and Research Centre, Indian Institute of Technology- Kharagpur, in collaboration with an expert in environmental arsenic exposure related health effects, from London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), in regions where both gallbladder cancer and arsenic contamination in drinking water are significant public health problems. First, the data offer preliminary insights on a risk factor with a potential preventive strategy for gallbladder cancer. Second, based on earlier recent surveys of household water levels it is estimated that 18-30 million people in rural and urban India (Podgorski et al 2020), including in our study regions, consume arsenic above 10 µg /L and up to 1500 µg /L in 2020. Thus, these findings may inform Jal Jeevan Mission-2024 fully aligned with Sustainable Development Goals of equitable clean and safe drinking water. What gaps in knowledge do these findings fill? Our study fills in the gap of a systematic epidemiological assessment in relevant Indian regions for the links between arsenic exposure and gallbladder cancer risk accounting for other important risk factors. Obtaining long-term residential history since childhood with information on potential sources of drinking water, is an important contribution of this study to the existing evidence base. What gaps remain? To date, there is limited evidence in the literature that gallbladder cancer risk is associated with arsenic exposure, with mixed results especially for low-moderate levels of exposure through drinking water, such as in our study. Our results are based on a sample size and could have been by chance. We also did not have biochemical validation from the primary drinking water source of the study individuals. So, our findings need to be confirmed in other regionally relevant settings of the country. What is the take home message? We investigated long-term exposure to differing levels of arsenic in drinking water, including low-to-moderate levels with gallbladder cancer risk among participants for residency durations of 15-70 years in two arsenic affected states of India. It may have broader public health implications, such as monitoring high-risk populations for early signs of arsenic poisoning. While the findings need to be confirmed, tackling ‘arsenic pollution’ may help reduce the burden of many other associated health outcomes. It is also important to note that in general, gallbladder cancers are very rare across other parts of the World and global regions with arsenic contamination in groundwater show positive correlations with gallbladder cancer. The experience gained in this study can also inform similar country settings that experience a high burden of gallbladder cancers and arsenic contamination in drinking water. For queries, please reach out to the lead author of the study Dr. Krithiga Shridhar ([email protected]).

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The smoke that wood releases as it burns is actually a mixture of many different types of gases, some harmless, but many harmful, especially if breathed in. The exact concentrations of each gas will depend on the type of wood and its condition. Dry, seasoned wood generally produces the least harmful smoke and the most heat. The more smoke that wood produces as it burns, the less heat it creates, so a small amount of smoke is desirable when burning wood. TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read) There are a mixture of gases omitted, made up of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide gases and volatile organic compounds, or VOCs The visible smoke in the air is not a gas, but actually a collection of what is known as "particulate matter." These are small collections of materials that have not quite burned up or have burned into ash that is light enough to float up on the air. These tend to be bits of wood fiber, burnt wood ta, and other light deposits, usually less than 10 microns in width. Carbon dioxide is the most common gas produced by burning wood. As an organic material, wood is largely carbon and when exposed to heat in the fire this carbon changes into carbon dioxide, the same gas that is produced when any type of biomass is burnt. Wood absorbs carbon dioxide through the air as it grows, changing it into carbon in its fibers. Burning the wood reverses this process, releasing about 1900g of CO2 for every 1000g of wood that is fully burnt. Carbon monoxide, or CO, is also released when wood is burnt, although in smaller quantities. This is another carbon gas, but it tends to be produced more often when the fire does not have much access to oxygen. It is odorless and colorless, and in large amounts can be more dangerous for humans than carbon dioxide. NOx and VOCs Wood also produces Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as it burns. NOx is an acidic compound that combines with water easily in the atmosphere, forming the infamous acid rain. Volatile Organic Compounds are evaporated carbon compounds that have a variety of unhealthy effects on human lungs, but they can also creates ozone when exposed to sunlight. Water vapor is also a very common type of gas emitted by wood when it is burnt, especially young wood that still has a lot of moisture trapped in its fibers. This water is heated by the fire until it evaporates along with tars and resins, floating away as water vapor. Although harmless on its own, this vapor can carry more dangerous particles from the smoke as it rises.

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It is important to remember that dental health is just as vital as physical health. In fact, it plays a significant role in maintaining your overall well-being. This assertion is just as true for children as it is for adults. Therefore, as a parent, it is crucial to remember that the healthier your child’s teeth are, the easier it is to maintain their health. Good oral hygiene plays a key role in maintaining proper dental health. Moreover, it can significantly reduce your child’s likelihood of suffering from tooth decay and other preventable oral diseases. So, as you map out a comprehensive care plan for your children, don’t forget to include their oral health. Here are some tips for looking after children’s teeth. 1. Positive Associations Positive associations are directly proportional to forming positive relationships. Therefore, by helping your child develop positive associations with their dental care, you increase their willingness to care for their teeth. You can form positive associations by making oral care fun and fear-free. There are numerous ways to encourage positive attitudes about oral health. Some examples include reading books, role-playing dental visits and incorporating games and songs into your children’s brushing routine. You can also offer positive reinforcement through rewards centred around good, healthy dental care habits and proper, consistent tooth brushing. Conversely, when speaking to them about the dentist, it is best to refer to the dental professional in favourable terms like “kind”, “helpful”, and “caring”. In addition, try to avoid projecting any fears you may have regarding the dentist onto them. 2. Good Habits Consistency plays a significant part in overall dental health. So, by forming good habits early and sticking to them, your children will enjoy better oral health throughout their lives. Here are some easy-to-follow routines to implement today. - Rinse with water after eating – the simple practice of swilling some water in your mouth after a meal can dramatically reduce acids and bacteria that form tooth decay, cavities and gum disease. - Brush well – tooth brushing is vital for healthy teeth and gums. Therefore, teaching your child how to brush using small, circular motions for two minutes twice daily is best. For more encouragement, use a timer or reward chart to help them keep their tooth brushing on track. - Avoid sugary and highly acidic foods, particularly lollies, carbonated drinks and sour candies. High acid content softens the tooth enamel (the tooth’s protective coating), which leads to damaged enamel, then cavities and the need for dental treatments. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that strengthens tooth enamel. Hence, using a toothpaste that comprises fluoride and drinking tap water are excellent ways to support strong enamel. Fortunately, Australian tap water contains added fluoride to help support the greater community’s oral health. Conversely, too much exposure to fluoride at a young age can bring about white stains. While these stains are harmless, they are unpleasant and cannot be eliminated. Therefore,dentists recommend against swallowing toothpaste and sucking the toothbrush. A common mistake many adults make is allowing their children to use adult toothpaste. This allowance is not ideal. Instead, it is better to stick to age-appropriate kinds of toothpaste as they have a milder flavour and contain appropriate fluoride levels. 4.Visiting the Dentist Bi-annual visits to the dentist are mandatory. The best time to begin scheduling these visits for your child is when they reach two years of age. To ensure a positive dental experience, you can support your child by remaining positive and calm. Moreover, try discussing what they can expect in advance so that things like the dentist’s equipment, the reclining chair and the suction noise don’t overwhelm and scare them. Finally,think about bringing along your child’s favourite comforter or toy if they are likely to feel anxious. Additionally, you call ahead to alert the dentist so they can takean extra gentle approach. There are numerous easy habits you can instil in your children that can significantly positively impact the health of their teeth and gums. As long as you employ positive reinforcement and encourage positive attitudes towards the processes and dentists, your children will be well-equipped to maintain their dental health throughout their lives.

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Hewlett Packard, also known as HP, is a renowned technology company that has played a significant role in the development of Silicon Valley. Founded in 1939 by William Hewlett and David Packard, HP started as a small startup in a garage in Palo Alto, California. Over the years, it grew into a global corporation and became one of the pioneers of the electronics revolution. - Early Beginnings at Stanford - Contributions to Silicon Valley - Why Did HP Leave California? - The Future of HP in Silicon Valley Early Beginnings at Stanford Both William Hewlett and David Packard were Stanford University alumni. Hewlett earned his AB in general engineering and his ENG in electrical engineering, while Packard was enthusiastic about electronics, thanks to Professor Fred Terman's radio engineering class. Their shared passion for technology and innovation led them to collaborate and launch Hewlett-Packard. Hewlett's graduate project, the resistance-capacitance oscillator, served as the foundation for the establishment of the Hewlett-Packard Company. The company gained recognition when the Walt Disney Company purchased eight HP oscillators for the movie fantasia, marking the birth of an industry. Contributions to Silicon Valley Hewlett Packard's presence in Silicon Valley was instrumental in shaping the region as a hub for technology and innovation. The company's success inspired other entrepreneurs and startups to establish their businesses in the area, creating a vibrant ecosystem of innovation and collaboration. HP's impact extended beyond its technological advancements. The company implemented a unique management philosophy known as the hp way. This approach emphasized employee empowerment, open communication, and a strong commitment to ethical business practices. The hp way became a model for other companies in Silicon Valley and beyond.Hewlett packard stock splits: exploring effects on investors Why Did HP Leave California? In recent years, there has been a trend of companies leaving California, including HP. One of the main reasons for this exodus is the high cost of living and doing business in the state. California has some of the highest taxes and regulations in the country, which can be burdensome for businesses. Furthermore, Texas has been attracting companies with its business-friendly environment, lower taxes, and lower cost of living. HP's decision to move its global headquarters from California to Texas is a strategic move aimed at reducing costs and improving the company's overall competitiveness. The Future of HP in Silicon Valley Although HP has relocated its global headquarters to Texas, the company still maintains a significant presence in Silicon Valley. It continues to invest in research and development, innovation, and partnerships in the region. HP recognizes the importance of Silicon Valley as a center for technological advancements and remains committed to supporting the local ecosystem. As technology continues to evolve, HP is well-positioned to adapt and thrive in the ever-changing landscape. The company's rich legacy in Silicon Valley serves as a reminder of its pioneering spirit and commitment to innovation. What is the hp way ? The hp way is a management philosophy implemented by Hewlett Packard that emphasizes employee empowerment, open communication, and ethical business practices.Save on hewlett packard with hp rebates Why did HP move its global headquarters to Texas? HP moved its global headquarters to Texas to take advantage of the state's business-friendly environment, lower taxes, and lower cost of living. Does HP still have a presence in Silicon Valley? Yes, HP still maintains a significant presence in Silicon Valley, despite relocating its global headquarters. The company continues to invest in research, innovation, and partnerships in the region. What is the significance of HP's legacy in Silicon Valley? HP's legacy in Silicon Valley is significant as it played a crucial role in shaping the region as a hub for technology and innovation. The company's success and management philosophy inspired other companies and entrepreneurs in the area. Hewlett Packard's journey from a small garage startup to a global technology corporation is a testament to its innovative spirit and commitment to excellence. The company's contributions to Silicon Valley have left a lasting impact on the region's technological landscape. While HP may have relocated its global headquarters, its legacy in Silicon Valley continues to inspire and shape the future of technology.Exploring the benefits and challenges of hewlett packard pension plan

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The threat of cyberwarfare is a growing fear among all intelligence communities. “In June 2009 the U.S. Cyber Command was created and in July of 2011 Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn III announced that as a matter of doctrine, cyberspace will be treated as an operational domain similar to land, air, sea, and space” (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012, 35). Cyber warfare is conducted by infiltrating the country’s computer networks to cause damage and/or disruption to various infrastructures. This could be as minimal as spying on another nation or as in-depth as implementing acts of sabotage directed towards specific targets such as military operations or the power grid. The threat of cyber warfare is not specific to one country. This is a potential threat that effects each country across the globe. China is a dominant power within the global arena and is consistently evolving with potential threats especially cyber technology. Chinese colonels Liang and Xiangsui claimed advanced technology gave the country’s adversaries a significant advantage, and proposed that China ‘build the weapons to fit the fight. Recently, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) confirmed the existence of its Online Blue Army (Colarik, &Janczewski, 2012, 35). China’s fear of the impact and devastation that can be caused by the internet has forced them to implement strict policies governing the freedom and use of the internet within the country and creating strong security measures against infiltration by outside sources. In 2014, China implemented the Central Internet Security and Informatization Leading Group to oversee all internet security. “This leading group is to deepen reform, protect national security, safeguard national interests, and promote the development of information technology. The group will have complete authority over online activities, including economic, political, cultural, social, and military” (Iasiello, 2017, 5). This group disseminates and monitors all information found on the web to ensure that there are no security breaches and the people are not in violation of the law. In 2015, China drafted a national cybersecurity law.“The chief goals of its 2015 draft national cybersecurity law are (1) ensure cybersecurity, (2) safeguard cyberspace sovereignty, national security, and the public interest, (3) protect the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons and other organizations, and (4) promote the healthy development of economic and social information” (Kolton, 2017, 126). Whereas the United States promotes a free internet, China’s main focus is on establishing an internet that is secure from all potential threats both external and internal. In 2016, China passed the “Cyber Security Law” that focused on the security of the internet and information systems and extended the ability of the government to oversee the information that was being shared to determine if it was done within accordance of their strict cyber security laws. This law helps the government to monitor any potential breaches of security by outside or internal sources. By implementing a stronger grasp of control over the internet, the government is able to reduce the potential of an attack or intrusion. Within this law, government agencies would be able to implement more guidelines for network security within industries to include energy, transport, military, defense, and many more (Iasiello, 2017, 6).These restrictions increase the control of the government over cybersecurity but also limits the freedoms of its citizens to explore the internet. China has created new training for its military to be prepared against potential cyber warfare attacks. It has “developed detailed procedures for internet warfare, including software for network scanning, obtaining passwords and breaking codes, and stealing data; information-paralyzing software, information-blocking software, information-deception software, and other malware; and software for effecting counter-measures” (Ball, 2011, 84). It has also increased its number of training facilities to focus only on network attacks on cyber infrastructure and defense operations. The amount of money China is investing in facilities and training of military personal increases its ability to remain secure within this global threat of cyber warfare. One fear for China is its dependence on Western technology. “China’s capabilities in cyber operations and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence are becoming more sophisticated, the country still depends largely on Western technology. Beijing is hoping to break that dependency through the Made in China 2025 plan” (Bey, 2018, 33). This is a mutual fear for both the US and China as they both rely on each other’s manufacturers with the fear that they will implement a trojan horse to intervene. Like China, Russia has increased its abilities in combating the potential threat of cyber warfare. However, Russia has taken a different approach to this threat by going on the offensive. Russia has focused on non-linear warfare within the cyber world, which is defined as “the collection of plans and policies that comprise the state’s deliberate effort to harness political, military, diplomatic, and economic tools together to advance that state’s national interest. Grand strategy is the art of reconciling ends and means” (Schnauffer, 2017, 22). To assert its dominance in the global arena, Russia has been utilizing its own forms of cyber attacks to collect information and become a dominant cyber power. Russia began its experiments with cyber warfare in 2007 in the clash with Estonia. This was done to determine its cyber capabilities as well as create a stronger resilience against future attacks. “Russia’s cyber experiment effectively shut down day-to-day online operations in Estonia’s cyber infrastructure for weeks, from news outlets to government institutions” (Shuya, 2018, 4). After this successful movement, Russia began to expand its focus to Georgia and Ukraine in 2008 and then in 2015, to offset local initiatives there which it considered to be against Russian national security interests. Russia has “developed multiple capabilities for information warfare, such as computer network operations, electronic warfare, psychological operations, deception activities, and the weaponization of social media, to enhance its influence campaigns” (Ajir& Valliant, 2018, 75). Russia has had a strong focus on using the tool of propaganda to disseminate key information to its citizens with the hope that they will abide by it as the real truth. Russia’s investment into technology and the freedom of speech allotted by the West has made the West not only extremely vulnerable to Russia, but also has expanded the reach of the Russia globally. Ajir and Valliant (2018) highlight several key points of the Russian strategy: Direct lies for the purpose of disinformation both of the domestic population and foreign societies; Concealing critically important information; Burying valuable information in a mass of information dross; Simplification, confirmation, and repetition (inculcation); Terminological substitution: use of concepts and terms whose meaning is unclear or has undergone qualitative change, which makes it harder to form a true picture of events, Introducing taboos on specific forms of information or categories of news; Image recognition: known politicians or celebrities can take part in political actions to order, thus exerting influence on the worldview of their followers; Providing negative information, which is more readily accepted by the audience than positive. This approach allows the Russian government to remain in control of information that is filtered to its citizens. The restriction of freedom reduces the capability of deciphering fact from fiction. Russia has also taken a defensive approach to cyber warfare by implementing strict laws that govern the use of the internet. The agency Roskomnadzor scans the internet for activity that is deemed illegal and detrimental to the Russian government. It has also implemented new laws to regulate internet activity. “The laws which came into force in November 2012 provided provisions for criminalizing slander, requiring nonprofits receiving funding from abroad to declare themselves “foreign agents,” and provide additional financial information and a final law sanctioning the blocking of websites featuring content that “could threaten children’s lives, health, and development” (Cross, 2013, 14). Many have deemed these laws as means to censor the internet, but the Russian government argues it is for the protection of its citizens. An opposite example of failing to employ measures to protect the country from a potential cyber warfare attack is Mexico. The main focus for Mexico has been on drug cartels and eliminating internal threats within their own government. Mexico has begun to implement its own version of cybersecurity due to its substantial growth in cyber-attacks over the years. However, its overall success has been limited due to a lack of understanding and outdated systems. “Incidents in cyberspace pose a challenge to Mexico due to a lack of institutional structures and there is a need to strengthen capabilities since it does not have any specialized government or public sector agencies certified under internationally recognized standard” (Kobek, 2017, 8). Without the establishment of a specific agency dedicated to cybersecurity, Mexico will continue to struggle against cyber warfare threats. Mexico must implement new security measures that are applicable to all main threats beyond the drug cartels. Currently, the government presence in Mexico is focused solely on actionable and tangible threats. There must be a reform to its current laws for “the armed forces require a law that reframes and modernizes the concepts of public safety, internal security, and national defense; clarifies the role, conditions, terms, and limits of the armed forces’ engagement; and establishes mechanisms to hold them accountable” (Payan& Correa-Cabrera, 2016, 3). The lack of accountability and oversight by the government to control key aspects, such as the military, and impose a stronger presence in the more demanding field of cybersecurity opens up the potential for a catastrophic event to occur within Mexico. China and Russia are prime examples of how strict policy governance of the internet will help to reduce the potential threat of an attack. They are micromanaging every aspect of the internet from restricting specific websites (social media) or establishing specific agencies to monitor and analyze all information that is being viewed from all sources. “With the United States and European democracies at one end and China and Russia at another, states disagree sharply over such issues as whether international laws of war and self-defense should apply to cyber-attacks, the right to block information from citizens, and the roles that private or quasi-private actors should play in Internet governance” (Forsyth, 2013, 94). The failure of this policy is the restriction of freedoms to citizens. As stated above, one of Russia’s main focuses is promoting propaganda that is anti-west and pro-Russia. The control over the internet does not allow their citizens to research the truth or have global interaction. This increases the risk of upheavals among the people, especially as technology continues to improve and loopholes are found to circumvent existing policies and hidden content is exposed. Another approach to cybersecurity is seen with the actions of NATO. It is focusing on improving its relationships with private security companies and “developing a Cyber Rapid Reaction Team (RRT)19 to protect its critical infrastructure, much like U.S. Cyber Command’s Cyber Protection Teams (CPTs)” (Ilves et al, 2016, 130). One downside to this approach is NATO is only able to apply defensive measures. It does not have the ability to implement an offensive attack. Creating a partnership with private companies provides it greater access and resources to potential cyber threats. Private companies have more funds available to pursue a stronger cyber security defense. A recommendation would be to create a joint European Union, United States, and NATO partnership against cyber warfare. Each has its own strengths that can be applied to a joint force against one common threat. A stronger partnership among key global powers will help to create a multifaceted approach to the threat of cyber warfare. The end goal of cyber warfare is the same for each country targeted. There is no specific adversary, but rather the substantial disruption or sabotage of key infrastructure. Although facing intense criticism and skepticism, it would be beneficial for the US, China, and Russia to form a partnership against cyber warfare. As each country is already connected via their technology companies, they are each a global power that encompasses a vast majority of the world. A collaboration of information and resources would provide a stronger protection amongst common non-state threats. However, the chief obstacle is the ability to trust each country to act within the realm of security, instead of using it as an opportunity to gain substantial access to an inside look of the country. Since the US often accuses China and Russia of being the biggest state perpetrators of cyber actions, this criticism may be near impossible to overcome, despite the possible advantages. According to the World Economic Forum, the table below lists the top countries best prepared against cyber-attacks. The United States is ranked number one with a significant margin above Canada. China and Russia who have implemented a very strict cyber security policy are not listed within the top 20. This is determined by the Global Cybersecurity Index, a partnership between private industries and international organizations that analyze all aspects of cybersecurity. This argues that the approach by countries such as China and Russia is geared more to the control over its citizens rather than executing a strong cybersecurity policy focused on legitimate external threats. Although, the table above does show that the United States is ranked number one in being able to protect the nation from potential cyber threats, it is only ranked at 82.4% effective. Russia and China have employed a different approach to cyber security that could be utilized to increase the overall effectiveness globally if each side was able to work together towards common threats. Ideally, such partnership would not only create new channels of connection and collaboration between adversaries, but would also set the stage for the more heavy-handed and restrictive policies of China and Russia to be loosened to the benefit of its citizens’ virtual freedom. The global strategy of computer hacking Whoever operates on the Web and has even interesting or relevant data sooner or later will always be hacked by someone or by some organizations. Usually “economic” hackers take the data of interest from the victim’s network and resell it in the dark web, i.e. the system of websites that cannot be reached by normal search engines. Currently, however, after the Bayonet operation of July 2017 in which many dark web areas were penetrated, we are witnessing a specialization of the dark web and an evolution of web espionage methods against companies and States. These operations which, in the past, were carried out by web amateurs, such as youngsters at home, are currently carried out by structured and connected networks of professional hackers that develop long-term projects and often sell themselves to certain States or, sometimes, to some international crime organizations. As often happens in these cases, the dark web was born from research in the military field. In fact, in the 1990s, the Department of Defense had developed a covert and encrypted network that could permanently protect the communications of the U.S. espionage “operatives” who worked abroad. Later the secret network became a non-profit network that could be used for the usual “human rights” and for protecting privacy, the last religion of our decadence. That old network of the State Department then intersected with the new TOR Network, which is the acronym of The Onion Router, the IT “onion” covering communication with different and often separable encryption systems. TOR lives on the Internet edge and it acts as the basic technology for its dark web. Like the “Commendatore” vis-à-vis Don Giovanni in Mozart’s opera. TOR, however, is a free browser that can be easily extracted from the Web. Obviously, the more the anonymity of those who use TOR and go on the dark web is covered by effective encryption systems, the more unintentional signals are left when browsing the dark web. Moreover, the farther you have to go, the more pebbles you need to go back, as in the Thumbelina fairy tale. TOR and the Dark Web were born to allow the communications of U.S. secret agents, but were later downgraded to “free” communication system to defend Web surfers from “authoritarian governments”. Currently the dark web hosts a wide underground market where drugs, stolen identities, child pornography, jihadist terrorism and all forms of illegal business are traded. Moreover, if these dark web services are paid with uncontrollable cryptocurrencies, it is very difficult to track any kind of dark web operations. Nowadays, about 65,000 URLs operate in the dark web, which means Internet websites and Universal Resource Locators that operate mainly via TOR. A recent study of a company dealing with cybersecurity has demonstrated that about 15% of all dark web URLs facilitate peer-to-peer communication between users and websites usually by means of chat rooms or websites collecting images, pictures and photos, which are often steganographic means and transmit hidden and concealed texts, but also for the exchange of real goods via specialized websites for peer-to-peer trading that are also encrypted, as can easily be imagined. Moreover, a further study conducted by a U.S. communication company specialized in web operations has shown that at least 50% of the dark websites is, in fact, legal. This means they officially deals with things, people, data and pictures that, apparently, also apply to “regular” websites. In other words, the dark websites have been created by means of a regular request to the national reference office of ICANN, which grants the domains and registers the permitted websites, thus communicating them to the Californian cooperative that owns the web “source codes”, although not in a monopolistic way. Currently all the large web organizations have a dark “Commendatore” in the TOR area, such as Facebook, and the same holds true for almost all major U.S. newspapers, for some European magazines but also for some security agencies such as CIA. Nevertheless, about 75% of the TOR websites listed by the above stated IT consultancy companies are specialized URLs for trading. Many of these websites operate only with Bitcoins or with other types of cryptocurrencies. Mainly illegal pharmaceuticals or drugs, items and even weapons are sold in the dark web. Said weapons are often advanced and not available in the visible and overt networks. Some URLs also sell counterfeit documents and access keys for credit cards, or even bank credentials, which are real but for subjects other than those for whom they were issued. In 2018 Bitcoin operations were carried out in the dark web to the tune of over 872 million US dollars. This amount will certainly exceed one billion US dollars in late 2019. It should be recalled that the total amount of money “laundered” in the world accounts for almost 5% of the world GDP, equal to 4 trillion US dollars approximately. Who invented the Bitcoin? In 2011, the cryptocurrency was used for the first time as a term of trade only for drug traffickers operating in the dark web, mainly through a website called Silk Road. The alias used for those exchanges was called Satoshi Nakamoto, that was also filmed and interviewed, but was obviously another. We should also recall web frauds or blackmails: for example, InFraud, a U.S. organization specialized in the collection, distribution and sale of stolen credit cards and other personal data. Before being discovered, InFraud had illegally made a net gain of 530 million US dollars. Another group of illegal operators, Fin7, also known as Carbanak, again based in the United States, has collected over a billion US dollars on the web and has put in crisis, by blackmailing them, some commercial organizations such as Saks Fifth Avenue and Chipotle, a widespread chain of burritos and other typical dishes of Mexican cuisine. Obviously the introduction of new control and data processing technologies, ranging from 5G to biometric sensors, or of personal monitoring technologies, increases the criminal potential of the dark web. Hence the dark web criminals will have an even larger mass of data from which to derive what they need. The methods used will be the usual ones, such as phishing, i.d. the fraudulent attempt to obtain or to deceive people into sharing sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by disguising oneself as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication possibly with a fake website, or the so-called “social engineering”, which is an online scam in which a third party pretends to be a company or an important individual in order to obtain the sensitive data and personal details of the potential victim, in an apparently legal way, or blackmail by e-mail and finally the manipulation of credentials. With a mass of additional data on their “customers”, the web criminals will be able to perfect their operations, thus making them quicker and more effective. Or the new web technologies will be able to accelerate the time needed for blackmail or compromise, thus allowing a greater number of frauds for more victims. Biometrics certainly expands the time for the use of data in the hands of cybercriminals. Facial detection or genetic and health data are stable, not to mention the poor security of data held by hospitals. Or we have to do with the widespread dissemination of genetic research, which will provide even more sensitive data to web swindlers. According to some recent analyses carried out by the specialized laboratories for the Web, 56% of the data most used by web criminals comes from the victims’ personal data, while 44% of the data used by swindlers comes from financial news. Moreover, specific types of credit cards, sold by geographical area, commercial type and issuing bank, can be bought in the dark web. 85% of them are credit cards accredited for a bank ceiling, while 15% of “customers” asks for debit cards. The web scammers, however, always prefer e-mail addresses even to passwords. Furthermore, less than 25% of the 40,000 dark web files have a single title. In the “dark” web there are over 44,000 manuals for e-frauds, available for sale and often sold at very low prices. The large and sometimes famous companies are the mainly affected ones. In 2018 the following companies were the target of cyberattacks in the United States: Dixus, a mobile phone company which was stolen 10 million files; the Cathay Pacific airline, with 9.4 million files removed, but also the Marriott’s hotel chain (500 million data/files removed) and finally Quora, a website of scientific documents and generic data. Over 45 million files were removed from Quora. How can we know whether we are the target of an attack from the Dark Web? There is certainly the presence of ransomware, such as the recent Phobos, which uses the Remote Desktop Protocols (RDP) that allow to control computers remotely. Then there is the Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS), which is a temporary block of the Web, apparently accidental, and finally there is the traditional malware, the “malicious” software that is used to disrupt the victims’ computer operations and collects the data present on their computers. However, the Dark Web ambiguity between common crime and the defence of “human rights” and safe communications in “authoritarian regimes” always remains. The United States, Iran, China and other countries have already created a “fourth army”, composed only of hackers, that operates with cyberattacks against the enemies’ defence and civilian networks. The US Cyber Command, for example, is estimated to be composed of as many as 100,000 men and women, who operate 24 hours a day to hit enemy servers (and also allies’ ones, when they contain useful information). Just think also of the private group Telecomix, which supported the 2011 Arab rebellions and, often, also the subsequent ones. Also in these months both Telecomix and Anonymous are working to permit the free use of the Syrian computer network. There is often an operative interface between these groups and the Intelligence Agencies, which often autonomously acquire data from private networks, which, however, soon become aware of the State operations. There is also cyber-rebellion, which tries – often successfully – to strike at the victims’ data stored, by deleting them. DDoS, the most frequent type of attack, often uses a program called Low Orbit Ion Cannot (LOIC) which allows a large number of connections to be established simultaneously, thus leading to fast saturation of the enemy server. The attacking computers can be used remotely and some groups of hackers use thousands of computers simultaneously, called “zombie machines”, to hit the database in which they are interested to delete it or to remove its files. This type of “fourth army” can inflict greater damage on a target country than a conventional armed attack. The faster the attack, the easier is to identify the origin of the operation. It is currently estimated that the “zombie” computers in the world are over 250 million – a greater network than any other today present in the military, scientific and financial world. Hence a very dangerous military threat to critical infrastructure or to the economic resources of any country, no matter how “advanced” it is technologically or in terms of military Defence. There have been reports of hackers linked to global drug organizations, especially Mexican cartels, and to jihadist or fundamentalist terrorist groups. Financial hacking, which often supports all these initiatives, remains fundamental. The South Korean intelligence services’ operative Lim was found “suicidal” after having purchased a program from the Milanese Hacking Team. A necessary tool for these operations is often a briefcase containing circuits which mimic the towers of cellular repeaters and store in the briefcase itself all the data which is transferred via cetel or via the Internet Network. The Central Bank of Cyprus, the German CDU Party and many LinkedIn accounts – a particularly favourite target of hackers – some NATO websites and, in Italy, some business and financial consultancy companies were attacked in this way. It is a completely new war logic, which must be analysed both at technical and operational levels and at theoretical and strategic levels. The Failures of 737 Max: Political consequences in the making Last month, as Boeing scaled new contracts for the 737 Max, horrific remains in Bishoftu, from the crashed Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302, witnessed the Dubai Air show in despair; the plane manufacturer had sealed another 70 contracts for the future. Still, the dreaded MCAS software is looking for a resolution at last. Two of the fatal Max 8 crashes have been reportedly caused by censor failures, accounted to software malfunctions. Hundred and fifty-seven people died inside flight 302, only months after Lion Air 610 crashed into the Java Sea with 180 passengers on board. Both accidents are predisposed towards the highly sophisticated Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System (MCAS), an algorithm that prevents 737 aircrafts from steep take offs; or de-escalates the vehicle at its own will. However, there is more to Boeing accidents than just a co-incidental MCAS failure. Largely, it is only a consequence of political and economic interests. While Boeing’s European competitor, Airbus, relaunched its A320’s in 2010, there were fewer changes in the operating manual. Airbus 320 Neo, as it was re-named, had larger engines on the wings, primarily designed for fuel efficiency. The Neo models claimed a whopping 7% increment in the overall performance; inviting thousands of orders worldwide. Consequently, Boeing’s market share of more than 35% was immediately under threat after Lufthansa introduced it for the first time in 2016. Despite of major competition from the A320, 737’s lack of ground clearance space, hindered for a major engine configuration. Nevertheless, Boeing responded to the mechanical challenge and introduced the MCAS for flight safety. As bigger engines in 737 was increasing the take-off weight, the MCAS would automatically re-orient the aeroplane’s steepness to avoid stall. Boeing’s lust to stay afloat in the competitive market, led by a robotic intrusion in flight controls did not fare too long. Flight investigations claimed that although Lion Air 610 was gaining altitude in normal circumstances, the MCAS read it wrongly; hence, pulling the aircraftlower, beyond the control of physical pilots. It was a design flaw, motivated by the need to overcome dwindling sales profits. Neither is Airbus enjoying smooth performances over the years; it however has not performed as miserly as the 737. Indigo, a major Indian airline is the largest importer of A320 Neo; despite new technologies, it has been warned of repeating problems like momentary engine vibration. Months back, an Indigo flight stalled on its way from Kolkata to Pune, before being forced to return to its departure. Unlike the Boeing 737, Airbus malfunctioning does not lead to a major disaster. There is an element of mechanical interference available to pilots flying the European prototypes. Still, it is not everything that separates the two giants. The Ethiopian disaster, scrutinized Boeing’s leadership at home; a congressional hearing concluded that after repeated attempts to warn the airline manufacturer to present information as transparently as possible, deaf ears have persisted. As the statement read, Boeing was hiding significant information away from airline companies and pilots. While it plans to resume sales in 2020, progress has been waning, in terms of improving the knowledge behind operating the 737 Max. The investigative hearing concluded that Boeing was manufacturing flying coffins. Unsurprisingly, there is little amusement towards the development of airline sales around the world. Visibly, there is a band of companies, preferring the American manufacturer to the other. The politics is simple; it is merely about technological superiority, but more related with subsidies and after sales services. Regardless of whether Boeing will scrap the 737 Max or improve the software configuration, doubts have presided over choosing to fly altogether with choosing to fly a specific model. Air travel could not be safer in 2020. That claim is in serious trouble. Digital Privacy vs. Cybersecurity: The Confusing Complexity of Information Security in 2020 There is a small and potentially tumultuous revolution building on the horizon of 2020. Ironically, it’s a revolution very few people on the street are even aware of but literally every single corporation around the globe currently sits in finger-biting, hand-wringing anticipation: is it ready to meet the new challenge of the California Consumer Privacy Act, which comes into full effect on January 1, 2020. Interestingly, the CCPA is really nothing more than California trying to both piggy-back AND surpass the GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) of the European Union, which was passed all the way back in 2016. In each case, these competing/coincident pieces of regulation aim to do something quite noble at first glance for all consumers: to enhance the privacy rights and data protection of all people from all digital threats, shenanigans, and malfeasance. While the EU legislation first of all focuses on the countries that make up the European Union and the California piece formally claims to be about the protection of California residents alone, the de facto reality is far more reaching. No one, literally no one, thinks these pieces can remain geographically contained or limited. Instead, they will either become governing pieces across a far greater transregional area (the EU case) or will become a driving spur for other states to develop their own set of client privacy regulations (the California case). Despite the fact that most people welcome the idea of formal legal repercussions for corporations that do not adequately protect consumer data/information privacy, there are multiple confusions and complexity hidden within this overly simple statement. As we head into 2020, what should be chief for corporations is not trying to just blindly satisfy both GDPR and CCPA. Rather, it should be about how to remedy these confusions first. However, that elimination is not nearly as easy to achieve as some might think. First off, a not-so-simple question: what is privacy? It is a bit awe-inspiring to consider that there are many ways to define privacy. When considering GDPR and CCPA, it is essential to have precise and explicit definitions so that corporations can at least have a realistic chance to set goals that are manageable and achievable, let alone provide them with security against reckless litigation. Failure to define privacy explicitly carries radically ambiguous legal consequences in the coming CCPA atmosphere, something all corporations should rightly avoid like the plague. Perhaps worse, no matter how much time you spend defining consumer privacy beforehand, trying to create this improved consumer protection digitally becomes almost hopelessly complicated. The high-technology, instant-communication, constant-access, massively-diversified world we live in today makes some argue that ‘digital privacy’ in any real sense is dead and buried without the possibility for resurrection. If this is true, then how quixotic will it be for corporations to try to meet the regulation demands of legislative projects like GDPR and CCPA if they do not first try to establish both clarity and transparency of terms and goals? This is not a nihilistic argument just trying to have every corporation around the world throw up its hands in despair and give up on improved consumer privacy and data protection. But note the word ‘improved.’ In order for corporations to realistically provide consumer data protection, the irony of ironies may be that the first successful step will be finally embracing transparency in admitting that ‘perfect digital privacy’ will not and cannot exist. Realistic cyber expectations mean admitting that external threats always have an upper hand over internal defenders. Not because they are more talented or more committed or more diligent. But because what it takes to successfully perpetrate a threat is far simpler, quicker, cheaper, and easier than what is necessary to successfully enact a comprehensive defense program that can answer those threats and remain agile, flexible, and adaptive far into the future. The broken glass analogy helps illustrate this conundrum. I am in charge of protecting 100 windows from being broken. But I must protect them from 1000 people coming toward me with rocks. Ultimately, it is far easier for the 1000 to individually achieve a single success (breaking a window) than it is for me to achieve success in totality (keeping all 100 windows intact). The resolution, therefore, is transparency: there is greater chance of ‘success’ for the chief actors (namely, me as defender and the client as owner of the windows) if I can be liberated from the impossible futility of ‘perfect protection’ and set a more realistic definition of protection as ‘true success.’ As long as there are recovery/restitution processes in place (replacing/repairing a broken window), then ‘success’ should be legitimately defined as a percentage less than 100. This is the same for corporations dealing with clients/consumers in the new world of 2020 CCPA: if the idea is that these pieces of legislations finally make corporations commit to perfect digital privacy and such perfection is the only definition of success against which they can measure themselves, then 2020 will be nothing but a year of frustration and failure. The funny thing in all of this is that the EU legislation somewhat admits the above. Consider the seven principles of data protection as laid out by GDPR: - Lawfulness, fairness, and transparency. - Purpose limitation. - Data minimization. - Storage limitation. - Integrity and confidentiality. Nothing in these seven principles would bring about the establishment of perfect digital privacy or sets the expectation that failures in consumer protection must never occur. But they do hint at a darker secret underlying the European concept of client privacy that sits in contradiction to the very essence of American economics. When people call CCPA the ‘almost GDPR,’ it is hinting at how the spirit of the two legislations are somewhat diametrically opposed to one another. The EU crafted GDPR under strong social democratic norms that encompass many of the core member governments. As such, it is most decidedly not legislation engineered to first protect the sacred right to free market business enterprise and a fundamental belief in the market to solve its own problems. Rather, GDPR has within it, implicitly, a questioning skepticism about the core priorities of major corporations and the belief that governance is the only way to make free-market economics work fairly. As such, GDPR is not just about protecting consumer data and information privacy from hackers, outside agents, and foreign actors: it is alsoabout protecting consumers from “untrustworthy corporations” themselves. This is something that should not infuse the CCPA (whether it does or not is yet to be determined and 2020 will therefore prove to be a very interesting judgment year). Because while California is staunchly to the left on the American political spectrum, it still operates as a constituent member of the US, the most fiercely protective country of its capitalist roots and belief in the sanctity of the free-market system. As such, government regulation in the EU that works for consumer privacy protection will not be looking at corporations as a willing or even necessarily helpful partner in a joint initiative. American government regulation should and must. As time progresses, if CCPA proves itself to be too close to GDPR, to European as opposed to American market norms, expect to see other states in the US create competing legislation. And even if those competing pieces aim to create a more ‘American’ conceptualization of consumer digital privacy as opposed to ‘European,’ what it means in real terms for corporations is yet more competing standards to try to synergize and make sense of. Thus, executive leaders in charge of information security in 2020 are going to need to have critical reasoning and analytical research skills far more than they ever have in the past. In the end, protecting consumer privacy and providing client data protection is an essential, proper, and critical element for doing business in 2020. Legislation like GDPR and CCPA are meant to help provide an acknowledged framework for all actors to understand the expectations and consequences of the success/failure of that mission. Having such protocols is a good thing. But when protocols do not recognize reality, skip over crucial elements of clarity and transparency, hide some of the futility that likely cannot be overcome, and ignore their own competing contradictions, then those protocols might end up providing more problems than protection. What corporations must do, as they head into 2020, is not blindly follow CCPA. Nor should they facetiously do superficial work to achieve ‘CCPA compliance’ while not really providing ‘privacy.’ What is most crucial is innovative executive thinking, where new analytical minds are brought in to positions like CISO (Chief Information Security Officer) that are intellectually innovative, entrepreneurial, adaptive, and agile in how they approach the mission of privacy and security. Traditionally, these positions have often been hired from very rigid and orthodox backgrounds. The enactment of CCPA in 2020 means it might be time to throw that hiring rulebook out. In real terms, the injection of new thinking, new intellectualism, new concept agility, and new practical backgrounds will be crucial for all information security leadership positions. Failure to do so will not just be the death of privacy, but the crippling of corporate success in the client relationship experience. 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For more information about Deaf Arts and current Deaf Artists, go to: https://deaf-art.org Quintus Pedius (died about 13) was a Roman painter and the first deaf person in recorded history known by name. He is the first recorded deaf painter and his education is the first recorded education of a deaf child. All that is known about him today is contained in a single passage of the Natural History by the Roman author Pliny the Elder. Bernardino di Betto, known also as Pintoricchio, was born between 1456 and 1460 in Perugia to a modest family of artisans. His real name was Betti Biagi, but he was often called Sordicchio, from his deafness and insignificant appearance, but Pinturicchio was his usual name. Joanot de Pau was an active painter in the Segarra, Solsonès and several Pyrenean regions. He is remembered, above all, for being born deaf-mute. Juan Fernandez de Navarrete was born in the beautiful town of Navarre, Spain near the mountain range of the Pyrenees. He was called El Mudo (the mute) since childhood. He lost his hearing at the age of three and never learned to talk. Juan's amazing drawings skills became evident when he began communicating his needs by drawing them out with charcoal on paper. The young artist never allowed his disabilities to hamper his dreams or ambitions and allowed his art to become his voice. Hendrick Avercamp (1585-1634) was one of the first Dutch landscape painters of the 17th century. He was deaf and mute and known as de Stomme van Kampen (“the mute of Kampen”). He is especially noted for his winter landscapes of his homeland. His landscapes are characterized by high horizons, bright clear colors, and tree branches darkly drawn against the snow or the sky. His paintings are lively and descriptive, with evidence of solid drawing skills that made him an ideal recorder of his contemporary life. 1700 - 1800 To Top In the winter of 1792-93, when Goya was 46, he developed a mysterious illness that nearly killed him. He survived but lost his hearing, and for the next 35 years was “deaf as a stump.” And yet, only after the illness did he achieve full mastery of the face in his portraits. Only after his hearing was gone did his skill as a portraitist reach its zenith, possibly, it has been suggested, because deafness made him more aware of gesture, physical expression, and all the minute particulars of how faces and bodies reveal themselves. Charles Shirreff was born in either 1749 or 1750. His last name has, at times, been spelled as Sherrif, Sherriff, or Shirref. At the age of three or four, Shirreff became deaf and mute. In 1760, his father approached Thomas Braidwood, owner of a school of mathematics in Edinburgh, seeking an education for the boy, then ten years old, in the hope that he could be taught to write. Charles became Braidwood's first deaf student; soon afterward, Braidwood founded Braidwood's Academy for the Deaf and Dumb, the first school of its kind in Britain." Eelke Jelles Eelkema (8 July 1788 – 27 November 1839), a painter of landscapes, flowers, and fruit, was born at Leeuwarden (NL) as the son of a merchant. On account of his deafness, which was brought on by an illness at the age of seven, he was educated in the first Dutch institution for the deaf and dumb at Groningen (1799). The Flemish Gerardus de San, first director of the Academie Minerva, instructed Eelkema in the art of drawing. Walter Geikie RSA (10 November 1795 – 1 August 1837) was a Scottish painter. At the age of two he suffered a "nervous fever" which left him deaf. He sketched in India ink with great truth and humor the scenes and characters of Scottish lower-class life in his native city. 1800 - 1900 To Top Mathias Stoltenberg (21 July 1799 – 2 November 1871) was a Norwegian painter. He earned his living mostly as a travelling portrait painter and furniture restorer. His paintings were later rediscovered and presented at the 1914 Jubilee Exhibition in Kristiania. He lost his sense of hearing as a child, and died in poverty in Vang in 1871. Bruno Braquehais was born in Dieppe, France in 1823. Although records don’t state how he lost his hearing, Braquehais was deaf from a young age. When he was nine years old, he started at the Royal Institute of the Deaf and Mute in Paris. He later found work as a lithographer. At the age of four, Paul Ritter became deaf due to illness. He became known in particular for his large-format architectural pictures of old Nuremberg with historical figure staffage against the background of the historically faithful architecture of the old town. In 1904, Veditz became president of the National Association of the Deaf (NAD). He had strong opinions about preserving sign language, so during his years as president he worked closely with Oscar Regensburg, the first chairman of NAD's Motion Picture Fund Committee to produce some of the earliest films that recorded sign language. Consequently, these videos are some of the most significant documents in deaf history. Fernand Joseph Job Hamar, born 15 July 1869 in Vendôme and died 10 March 1943 in Paris, was a French sculptor. During the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, between the Battle of Orleans (1870) and the Battle of Le Mans, the Prussian army pushed the Army of the Loire around Le Temple. The noise of the cannons caused the deafness of Fernand Hamar, according to his family. Around his tenth birthday, he entered the Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris. Slava Raškaj (2 January 1877 – 29 March 1906) was a Croatian painter, considered to be the greatest Croatian watercolorist of the late 19th and early 20th century. Being deaf ever since her birth, due to the difficulties in communication, she gradually withdrew from people, but not before her talent was noticed. Her works have been exhibited since 1898 in art pavilions of Zagreb, Moscow and Saint Petersburg. It was the best part of her short career when most valuable works were done, especially those painteid in this very Garden, by the ponds. A series of paintings of water lilies (‘Lopoci’) are considered as a sort of a hallmark of this great artist. Bust of Slava Raškaj in Nazorova Street in Zagreb. "The later sculptor and poet Gustinus Ambrosi, born on February 24, 1893, lost his hearing in 1900 as a result of meningitis." "In 1913 the sculptor, who was considered brilliant at an early age, received a state studio for life in Vienna and from that year attended the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna." Kazimierz Wiszniewski was an excellent graphic designer and artist who commemorated the beauty of Polish landscape and Polish architecture in his works. The art of Kazimierz Wiszniewski is also a very important part of the history of the deaf community in Poland. 1900 - 2000 To Top Johannes Tromp was born on December 13, 1872 in Jakarta (then Batavia). Tromp painted the daily lives of the fishing community, and especially pictures with children, showing them playing on the beach, shepherding goats or returning from the dunes. These scenes are all idyllic and resonate with a familial contentment that presumably reflected his own. Valentin de Zubiaurre Aguirrezábal ( Madrid , 1879 - 1963 ), was a Spanish painter. He was born deaf, as was his brother Ramón de Zubiaurre , also a painter, three years his junior. Both were children of the musical composer Valentin de Zubiaurre Urinobarrenechea . Emerson Romero was a Cuban-American silent film actor who worked under the screen name Tommy Albert. Romero developed the first technique to provide captions for sound films, making them accessible for the deaf and hard of hearing; his efforts inspired the invention of the captioning technique in use in films and movies today. Alexander Pavlovich Lobanov (Russian: Алекса́ндр Па́влович Лоба́нов; 30 August 1924 – April, 2003) was a Russian outsider artist. Born in Mologa (Russia) in 1924, Lobanov contracted meningitis before five years old and was left deaf and mute. For over fifty years he produced hundreds of works with very little variety in style or content. Peter Hans Dimmel (born August 31, 1928 in Vienna) is an Austrian sculptor and functionary in various deaf interest groups. His life's work includes more than 170 works, including many sculptures and restoration work for churches, especially with the material bronze. Dorothy "Dot" Miles (19 August 1931 – 30 January 1993) was a poet and activist in the deaf community. Throughout her life, she composed her poems in English, British Sign Language, and American Sign Language. Her work laid the foundations for modern sign language poetry in the US and UK. She is regarded as the pioneer of BSL poetry and her work influenced many contemporary Deaf poets. The German Deaf Theater (Deutsches Gehörlosen-Theater e.V., DGT for short) was founded over half a century ago with the aim that the deaf people can visit a theater in their language and that the deaf actors can come out of themselves and slip into other roles and still be themselves stay. Deaf actors have long been discriminated outsiders. That shouldn't be anymore. On stage they are free spirits and rebels who maintain the culture of the deaf. It is simply fascinating to see how the deaf actors on stage implement their creative ideas with such passion, as if it were about life and death, about everything or nothing. Alexander Martianov was born in 1960 in a village not far from the town of Vyatka in the Russian Federation. Mr Martianov has described his work in this way: “I find my own forms in art that can express my thoughts and internal images. I believe deafness has influenced my art in the sense that my world vision is connected to my deafness, and I try to express this in my work. My style has changed very little in recent years. Whatever changes there have been reflect my inner experience and images.” In 1976, the deaf American artist Alfredo Corrado went to France to work for the Nancy International Theater Festival. He meets Jean Grémion, French director already engaged in research on non-verbal theater. Founded in 1977, IVT is currently directed by Emmanuelle Laborit since 2002, Jennifer Lesage-David since 2014. Riksteatern’s Tyst Teater is a pioneer in the production of groundbreaking dramatic art in Swedish Sign Language. Ever since the start in 1970, thee have offered a unique selection of dramatic arts, seminars and meetings. Tyst Teater’s vision is to create the very best dramatic art in Swedish Sign Language, with and by artists and cultural performers who are deaf and members of the sign-language community. Theater Totti is the only sign language theater in Finland.It was founded in 1987. Theater Totti produces his performances for many different age groups, from children to adults and older generations. The plays can also be interpreted into speech for non-sign language viewers. Every year, Toti has one to two of the theater's own sign language productions in its repertoire. 2000 - now To Top In December 2001, Theatre Manu was established. The theatre's strategy document states that the theatre will be the best theatre in the world with its roots in deaf culture and the environment. Theater Manu is Norway's sign language theater. Teater Manu has developed into a state-funded institutional theater with eight employees, which has an office and stage at Grünerløkka in Oslo. Theater Manu is a touring professional theater with high quality performing arts, a young cultural institution that is recognized both nationally and internationally. The Signdance Collective is a touring performance company that was established in 2001. The company is culturally diverse with a team of experienced deaf and disabled artists at the helm. The company is one of the first in the world to utilise and introduce the concept of inclusive practice with a specific focus on disability-deaf led team work. In 2002 Paula Garfield founded Deafinitely Theatre alongside Steven Webb and Kate Furby having become frustrated with the barriers deaf actors and directors faced in mainstream media. They are the first deaf launched and deaf-led theatre company in the UK that works bilingually in British Sign Language and spoken English, producing work that caters to audiences of all ages. The first generalist theater school in sign language immersion, the ETU offers a two-year diploma course. The theater school, exclusively in sign language, is generalist, demanding, diploma-based and based on pedagogy by project. This innovative research site is enriched by numerous partnerships and exchanges.

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In 2008a€“09, evidence of Reston ebolavirus (RESTV) infections is discovered in domestic pigs and pig staff members inside the Philippine islands. With varieties of bats being shown to be the cryptic reservoir of filoviruses somewhere else, the Philippine federal government, in conjunction with the as well as Agriculture company from the un, set up a multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional organization to investigate Philippine bats because the achievable water tank of RESTV. The group started monitoring of flutter populations at multiple stores during 2010 utilizing both serology and molecular assays. A total of 464 bats from 21 varieties were tested. Most people receive both molecular and serologic proof RESTV issues in a number of flutter species. RNA got discovered with quantitative PCR (qPCR) in oropharyngeal swabs obtained from Miniopterus schreibersii, with three trials turning out a product on standard hemi-nested PCR whose sequences contrasted with a Philippine pig separate by an individual nucleotide. Uncorroborated qPCR detections might point to RESTV nucleic acid in a great many more bat varieties (meters. australis, C. brachyotis and Ch. plicata). We likewise recognized anti-RESTV antibodies in three bats (Acerodon jubatus) using both Western blot and ELISA. The studies suggest that ebolavirus problems are taxonomically widespread in Philippine bats, even so the visible lowest frequency and reduced widespread load warrants extended surveillance to elaborate the information, plus largely, to determine the taxonomic and geographical situation of ebolaviruses in bats in your community. Ebolaviruses were first explained in 1976, aetiologically connected with acne outbreaks of man haemorrhagic temperature in main and western Africa . While outbreaks happened to be erratic, the large mortality fee of Ebolaviruses and the associated Marburgviruses (kids Filoviridae) asked elaboration of their environment. The fundamental cause associated with viruses am cryptic [2, 3] whilst remaining elusive until Leroy et al. said serological and molecular evidence of good fresh fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Succeeding studies have announced proof of filovirus issues in numerous varieties of bats internationally , most notably Africa [1, 6a€“8], Europe and Asia [10, 11]. Reston infection (RESTV) was first outlined in 1989 whenever macaques transported from the Philippine islands to Reston, Virginia in america designed febrile, haemorrhagic problem, and asymptomatically affected a number of dog attendants getting work done in the primate investigation center [12, 13]. In 2008a€“09, RESTV is found in home-based pigs and pig staff members [14, 15] inside the Philippines. This season, in the auspices of this Food and Agriculture company of this un (FAO), most of us researched Philippine bats as you possibly can creatures reservoirs of RESTV. Below we offer the results of the surveillance. A maximum of 464 bats were taken, made up of 403 bats from 19 species at Bulacan and 61 bats from two type at Subic Bay (Fig. 1) (dinner table 1). Bulacan render 351 serum samples and 739 swab trials (148 pools) designed for testing: 299 oropharangeal swabs (60 swimming pools), 248 rectal swabs (50 pools) and 192 urine swabs (38 pools). A whole selection of trials wasn’t obtained from all bats. Subic Bay render 61 serum samples and 183 swab trials appropriate experiment: 61 oropharangeal swabs, 61 rectal swabs, 31 urogenital swabs and 30 urine products. Bat sampling regions in Bulacan state and Subic gulf Freeport Zone the Philippine area of Luzon Of this Bulacan trials, all sera comprise unfavorable on ELISA, and rectal and urine swabs swimming pools were damaging for RESTV RNA on qPCR. Five oropharangeal swab pools returned perhaps good results on qPCR (Table 2). Every one of the 25 component specific samples of the 5 pools was then investigated independently. Three of these person trials (within the very same pool) exhibited good results (stand 2). All three trials comprise from Miniopterus schreibersii caught in identical cavern for a passing fancy morning. In the traditional PCR, all three examples render an item whoever series differed by one nucleotide from a pig isolate series from ranch A in Bulacan state (Fig. 2). Similarly, into the phylogenetic examination, the three bat-derived PCR product or service sequences are generally most concerning the Reston separate from ranch A (Fig. 3). Succeeding tests of 23 duplicate and five extra (M. schreibserii) oropharangeal swabs presented because PAHC clinical from inside the qPCR generate six products with likely good results (four which were Miniopterus species), such as two three before discovered benefits (desk 2). Mainstream PCR was struggle to create a tidy PCR products for immediate sequencing belonging to the PAHC copy trials due to the smallest example amount and restricted RNA offer. Comparison of sequencing trace data files exhibiting the 1-nt variation. (a) Sequence through the prior Bulacan grazing A pig separate; (b) Sequence from bat oropharangeal swab T69. Equivalent sequences comprise extracted from bat oropharangeal swabs T70 and T71 (certainly not proven). The one nucleotide difference happens to be featured in striking and reddish, which corresponds to nt residue 1,274 of the Reston ebolavirus identify RESTV/Sus-wt/PHL/2009/09A grazing A (GenBank accession numbers JX477165.1) Phylogenetic evaluation by optimum risk approach, according to fractional NP sequences (519 bp) obtained from hemi-nested PCR. Bat-derived RESTV sequence are displayed in purple From the Subic compartment samples, four sera comprise potentially glowing on ELISA: three from Acerodon jubatus (s9, s21, s57), plus one from Pteropus vampyrus (s53). Three (s9, s21, s57) were likewise constructive on american blot (dining table 3). One sample (s57) showed a stronger reaction to EBOV rather than RESTV antigen (Fig. 4). All examples and swabs were https://besthookupwebsites.org/spdate-review/ damaging for RESTV RNA on qPCR. American blot assessment. Recombinant nucleoproteins from RESTV (rN) and EBOV (zN) were chosen to examine for reactivity in four ELISA good va i?tre (s9, s21, s53 and s57) then one ELISA damaging serum (s14). Anti-His mark monoclonal antibody (H) applied as a positive control

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A dark but vitally important part of history that’s often taught in schools is the Holocaust, a genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany against European Jews during the second world war. While facts should be presented, there is a delicate way that the subject can be taught so that it’s respectful but also so that students can not just understand intellectually, but truly feel the social emotional impact of this event. Here are a few tips for educators of high school students to help them approach this subject in an effective and impactful manner. When teaching the Holocaust to high schoolers, try to define as many terms as possible in ways that students will understand. Consider making posters with the words on them and images that can be associated with the terms. Include dates as well as important people who were part of this time in history. If you know of anyone who has family members who experienced the events of the Holocaust firsthand, then consider asking if they can speak to your class. When teaching the Holocaust to high schoolers, try to gather letters, diary entries, and interviews to give a personal touch so that the students can get a more intimate and emotionally connected understanding of the topic. Lessons From History When teaching about the Holocaust, you want to give as many historical, social and political details as possible. You also want to talk about the lessons that can be learned today so that the same actions aren’t repeated. Students can learn about how their actions have consequences and how there are people who face situations that are much worse than the ones that they might face but still overcome adversity with hope.

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Today Ms Chandonia's class learned that an algorithm is a set of instructions. They embarked on the Level 2 Beta version of the K-5 curriculum with code.org. It got a bit complicated at times but the students all helped each other and some great learning took place. Students learn how to solve problems, work cooperatively and think in a logical manner through these activities. Many students do not know it yet, but this exposure will help them when they seek out careers that use the skills that they are learning by practicing these visual coding activities. Sue Levine is a Teacher-Librarian in Atlanta, GA.

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Title: “”Paul Gauguin’s Willows: A Poetic Tribute to Nature’s Serenity”” Year Painted: 1889 Paul Gauguin’s painting “”Willows”” is a truly special masterpiece, created in 1889. This artwork carries immense significance, showcasing Gauguin’s unique approach to capturing the essence of nature and evoking a sense of serenity. In “”Willows,”” Gauguin presents a tranquil landscape where willow trees stand tall, their reflections gently mirrored in a calm body of water. The painting’s vibrant colors and expressive brushstrokes add an emotional depth, enhancing the poetic ambiance of the scene. Gauguin’s use of color in “”Willows”” is remarkable. The vibrant greens of the willow trees and the subtle blues of the water create a harmonious palette that exudes a sense of tranquility. The interplay of light and shadow adds dimension to the painting, evoking a serene atmosphere. This painting is special because it captures Gauguin’s ability to infuse nature with emotion. Through his artistic vision, he invites viewers to contemplate the inherent beauty and serenity of the natural world. “”Willows”” serves as a visual poem, transporting viewers to a peaceful realm where they can momentarily escape the chaos of everyday life. Gauguin’s expressive brushstrokes are another notable aspect of “”Willows.”” The energetic application of paint adds texture and movement to the artwork, creating a dynamic visual experience. The loose and fluid brushwork reflects Gauguin’s desire to capture the essence of nature rather than depict it in a purely realistic manner. “”Willows”” is a testament to Gauguin’s appreciation for the profound beauty of the natural world. It demonstrates his unique artistic approach, characterized by boldness, symbolism, and a departure from traditional artistic techniques. Through this painting, Gauguin invites viewers to connect with the serenity and harmony that can be found in the simplest elements of nature. This masterpiece has left an indelible mark on the history of art. Gauguin’s ability to capture the poetic essence of nature and his innovative approach to painting were influential for subsequent generations of artists. “”Willows”” stands as a testament to Gauguin’s artistic brilliance and his enduring impact on the art world. In conclusion, Paul Gauguin’s “”Willows”” is a truly special painting that pays homage to the serene beauty of nature. Painted in 1889, it exemplifies Gauguin’s ability to evoke a sense of tranquility and his unique artistic approach. Through vibrant colors, expressive brushwork, and a poetic atmosphere, “”Willows”” invites viewers to immerse themselves in the timeless beauty of the natural world. At our art gallery, we take pride in offering comprehensive global shipping to our esteemed clientele. We understand the significance of your art acquisitions and the need to transport them with utmost care. Hence, we are committed to delivering your chosen paintings to any address worldwide and free of any additional charge. Our reliable courier service partners are experienced in handling precious art pieces and ensure that your painting reaches you in pristine condition. We offer fully insured, door-to-door delivery, providing you with peace of mind that your artwork is protected during transit. Moreover, to accommodate your unique framing preferences, we offer the distinctive service of sending your purchased artwork directly to any framer across the globe. This enables you to have your painting framed locally by your trusted framer, reducing the risk of damage during transportation. Regardless of your location or your framer’s, we strive to make the process as seamless as possible. It is our goal to provide exceptional service that caters to your needs and ensures the safe delivery of your valuable artwork. We invite you to experience our hassle-free, worldwide shipping service, which is aimed at delivering your prized art pieces safely and efficiently, wherever you may be.

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CHICKS AND EGGS Teaching Points© Created by Lisa Frase www.effectiveteachingsolutions.com The Story of the Egg Father Rooster and Mother Hen wanted a family, so Mother Hen laid an egg. The inside of the egg looks like this- albumen The clear part around the yolk holds water for the unborn chick. yolk The yolk is the food for the unborn chick. egg cell The white spot is the egg cell. The egg cell is where the chick grows. shell The egg cell becomes the baby chick. Before the egg is hatched, it’s called an “embryo.” Mother Hen takes care of her chick by sitting on the egg and keeping it warm. Mother Hen turns her eggs and spreads her feathers over them to protect her chicks. It takes 21 days for a chick to hatch. Day 2 Day 1 On day 2, the heart begins to take shape and beat, and the ears begin to form. The journey continues… Day 4 Day 3 The tongue, tail, wing and leg buds appear. The chicks toes are showing! Our chick is growing… Day 6 Day 5 His organs and leg bones are forming. His beak and wing is visible. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 8 Day 7 His feathers are showing up. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 10 Day 9 Now he has eyelids, claws, and his comb. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 12 Day 11 He’s growing bigger! He is getting bigger everyday… Day 14 Day 13 His bones are getting stronger. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 16 Day 15 His scales, claws, and beak are firming up now. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 18 Day 17 His beak is turning and getting ready to peck through the shell. He is getting bigger everyday… Day 20 Day 19 He is almost ready to come out of his shell!

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There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.Tags: Get Paid To Do Homework OnlineThesis 1 OverviewInternational Review Of Business Research Papers SsciEarthquake Research PaperSolving Percent Problems Using EquationsThematic Essays On The Industrial RevolutionPlagiarism And The Internet EssaysProblem Solving For Toddlers Therefore, a successful executive must know the art of communication. Moreover, communication is a means whereby the employee can be properly motivated to execute company plans enthusiastically. No organisation, no group can exist without communication. Co-ordination of work is impossible and the organisation will collapse for lack of communication. It is therefore very important that both internal communication within your organisation as well as the communication skills of your employees are effective. Effective Communication is important for the development of an organization. It is something which helps the managers to perform the basic functions of management- Planning, Organizing, Motivating and Controlling. Communication skills whether written or oral form the basis of any business activity. Whilst that is a bold statement – without proper marketing collateral and communication internally and externally, most organisations will struggle to survive. Communication can also lead to productivity and helps to avoid unnecessary delays in the implementation of policies. Management must communicate with its customers, owners, the community as well as its prospective and present employees.

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3. build the budget worksheet The primary element of our project is the monthly budget worksheet. This worksheet lists all of the income and expense categories with columns for budgeted amounts, actual amounts, dollar difference, and percent difference. It also includes subtotals and totals. As you can see, an Excel worksheet window closely resembles an accountant’s paper worksheet. It includes columns and rows that intersect at cells. To build our budget worksheet, we’ll enter information into cells. In this chapter, we’ll create the budget worksheet as shown here. (We’ll apply formatting to the worksheet so it looks more presentable later in this project.) name the sheet The sheet tabs at the bottom of the worksheet window enable you to identify ...

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How to convert date to text in Excel (Easy Formula) A free Office suite fully compatible with Microsoft Office In Excel, the date and time are kept as numbers. A user may now utilise these dates and times in computations thanks to this. You may, for instance, extend a given date by a certain amount of days or hours. But occasionally you would like these dates to function more like text. In these circumstances, you must understand how to convert a date to text. Converting dates to text in Excel using the TEXT function: A numeric number can be turned into a text string and displayed in the format you define using the Excel TEXT function. The syntax for the Excel TEXT function is as follows: Where: TEXT(value, format text) You wish to turn the numeric number value into text. This might be a numeric value, the result of a formula, or a pointer to a cell that has a numeric value. The formatted text value should be given as a text string contained in quotation marks and named format text. For instance, you may use the formula below to turn a date in cell A1 into a text string using the standard month/day/year format used in the US: The value given by the TEXT formula is oriented to the left, which is the first indicator that points to a date that has been formatted as text, as you can see in the screenshot up above. There are a few other signs in Excel that might help you differentiate between dates and text strings in addition to alignment in a cell. Example 1: Different formats of date conversion to text strings: Excel's TEXT function has no trouble converting dates to text values since by definition dates in Excel are serial numbers. Choosing the appropriate display formatting for the text dates is perhaps the most difficult step. Excel understands the following date codes. month number without a leading zero is m month number with a leading zero is mm mmm - abbreviated form of the month name, for example Jan mmmm - full form of the month name, for example january mmmmm - use the month as the first letter, like M (stands for March and May) days without a leading zero is d Day number with a leading zero is dd. ddd is the abbreviation for the day of the week, such as Mon. dddd is the complete name for the day of the week, such as Monday. yy - two-digit year yyyy - four-digit year. Example 3. Excel's current date convert to text The Excel TEXT function may be used in conjunction with the TODAY function, which returns the current date, if you wish to convert the current date to text format, like in the following example: Using Excel's Text to Columns wizard to convert a date to text: Excel's TEXT function does a good job of converting dates to text, as you've just seen. However, if you dislike using Excel formulae, you might prefer this option. You already know how to use Text to Columns to convert text to date if you had a chance to read the first section of our Excel dates guide. The only difference is that you select Text rather than Date on the wizard's last step if you want to convert dates to text strings. Take the following actions: Select all of the dates you wish to convert to text in your Excel file.Locate the Data Tools group on the Data tab and select Text to Columns.Click Text to Columns after switching to the Data tab.Select the Delimited file type on the wizard's step 1 and then click Next. Select Delimited on the wizard's step 1 and then click Next.Make sure none of the delimiter boxes are ticked on step 2 of the wizard, then click Next. Uncheck every delimiter box on the wizard's step 2 and then click Next.Select Text under Column data format on the wizard's third and last step, then click Finish. That was quite simple, right? The picture below shows the outcome - dates converted to text strings in your Windows Regional settings' default short date format, which in my case is mm/dd/yyyy: Did you learn about how to covert date into text in Excel? You can follow WPS Academy to learn more features of Word Document, Excel Spreadsheets and PowerPoint Slides. You can also download WPS Office to edit the word documents, excel, PowerPoint for free of cost. Download now! And get an easy and enjoyable working experience - 1. How to get month name from a date in Excel (3 easy ways) - 2. Check if value is in list in Excel (3 easy methods) - 3. How to Copy File Names in Excel from a Folder? - 4. How to add text to beginning or end of all cells in Excel - 5. How to color cell based on value in Excel? - 6. How to compare two excel sheets and highlight differences

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1. Ecology A. Scientific study of interactions between organisms, each other and with their environment. B. Each organism plays a role for the survival for each other and for their environment. 2. Biosphere A. Contains the combined portions of the planet in which all life exists. 1. 3 other spheres a. Lithosphere (land) b. Hydrosphere (water) c. Atmosphere (air) A. Species/organism – Group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring. B. Populations – groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area. C. Communities – Groups of different populations that live together in a defined area. D. Ecosystem- Includes all the livings organisms (biotic) and nonliving things (abiotic) in a particular place (large area) E. Biome – Group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities, such as plants and animals of similarity. F. Biosphere- contains the combine planet in which all life exists. (Same as above notes) 1. Extends 8-10 km above Earth’s surface and to the deepest depth in the ocean.

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Ludmila Hresil and her niece were shopping at a Sears retail store. There were few shoppers in the store at the time. Hresil spent about ten minutes in the store's women's department, where she observed no other shoppers. After Hresil's niece completed a purchase in another part of the store, the two women began to walk through the women's department. Hresil, who was pushing a shopping cart, suddenly lost her balance and struggled to avoid a fall. As she did so, her right leg struck the shopping cart and began to swell. Hresil observed a gob on the floor where she had slipped. Later, a Sears employee said that it looked like someone spat on the floor, like it was phlegm. Under the reasonable person standard, did Sears breach a duty to Hresil by not cleaning up the gob? Hint: Assume that Hresil could prove that the gob was on the floor only for the ten minutes she spent in the women's department. The reasonable man or reasonable person standard is a legal fiction that originated in the development of the common law. The reasonable person is a hypothetical individual whose view of things is consulted in the process of making decisions of law. The question, "How would a reasonable person act under the circumstances" performs a critical role in legal reasoning in areas such as negligence and contract law. Rationale behind the standard The rationale for such a standard is that the law will benefit the general public when it serves its reasonable members, and thus a reasonable application of the law is sought, compatible with planning, working, or getting along with others. The reasonable person is not the average person: this is not a democratic measure. To predict the appropriate sense of responsibility and other standards of the reasonable man, 'what is reasonable' has to be appropriate to the issue. What the 'average person' thinks or might do is irrelevant to a case concerning medicine, for example. But the reasonable person is appropriately informed, capable, aware of the law, and fair-minded. Such a person might do something ... You will find the solution to this puzzling question inside...

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Draw a diagram of the side view of human brain and label the part which suits the following functions/descriptions: (i) It lies below and behind the cerebrum It consists of three parts. (ii) It is a cross-wise broad band of fibres which comments medulla oblongata, cerebellum and cerebrum. (iii) It is the lower most and hinder part which continues below into spinal cord. (iv) It is a small thick-walled area which lies hidden below the cerebrum. (v) It is the largest part of the brain which constitutes more than 80% and possesses 6-7 billion neurons. (vi) It takes part in relaying sensory impulses and regulation of smooth muscle activity?

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How can I keep from getting the H1N1 flu (swine flu)? Flu viruses spread from person to person mainly through coughing or sneezing by a sick person. Flu viruses may also be spread when a person touches something that is contaminated with the virus and then touches his eyes, nose, or mouth. H1N1 flu is often referred to as swine flu because the virus that causes it is similar to one found in pigs. However, the H1N1 virus is also similar to other flu viruses found in birds and humans, and it cannot be contracted through eating or handling pork products. Health officials believe that H1N1 flu spreads the same way as other flu viruses. A vaccine to protect against H1N1 flu is now available. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has more information about the H1N1 flu vaccine. Some simple everyday actions can help prevent the spread of germs that cause respiratory illnesses like H1N1 flu. Parents can set a good example by doing these things themselves: Teach children to wash their hands frequently with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds. (See “What is the best technique for washing my hands?” below.) Teach children to cough and sneeze into a tissue or into the inside of their elbow, rather than into their hands. Teach children to stay at least 6 feet away from people who are ill. Follow public health advice regarding school closures, avoiding crowds, and other so-called social distancing measures. In communities where H1N1 flu has occurred, avoid shopping malls, movie theaters, or other places where large groups of people may gather. What is the best technique for washing my hands to avoid getting the flu? Washing your hands often will help protect you from germs. The CDC and other health experts recommend washing hands with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds (about as long as it takes to sing “Happy Birthday” twice through). If soap and water are not available, alcohol-based disposable hand wipes or gel sanitizers may be used. You can find them in most supermarkets and drugstores. If using gel, rub your hands until the gel is dry. The gel doesn't need water to work; the alcohol in it kills the germs on your hands. What if my child comes in contact with someone who has H1N1 flu? Call the pediatrician to see whether your child should receive antiviral medication. What preparations should I take in case a family member becomes ill? Be prepared in case a family member becomes sick and needs to stay home for a week or so; a supply of over-the-counter medicines, alcohol-based hand rubs, tissues, and other related items might be useful and can help avoid the need for a sick family member to make trips in public while still contagious. What should I do if my child has flu symptoms? Take your child to the pediatrician if you think she may have H1N1 flu or any other flu. In children, symptoms of H1N1 flu are similar to those of the common flu. Children may have a fever, cough, chills, body aches, headache, fatigue, and, occasionally, vomiting and diarrhea. Young children may have difficulty breathing and be lethargic. Seek emergency care if your child is breathing fast or having trouble breathing, is not drinking fluids, is not waking up or interacting, doesn’t want to be held, or is not urinating. Other warning signs include bluish or grayish skin color or showing symptoms that improve but then return with a more severe cough and fever. What is the treatment for H1N1 flu? Keep your sick child well-hydrated, rested, and as comfortable as possible. Follow your pediatrician’s recommendations for medicine to ease symptoms. Do not give aspirin to children who may be ill with the flu. What is the best way to keep from spreading the virus? If you are sick, limit contact with other people as much as possible. Sick children should stay home from school or day care until they have been free of fever for 24 hours without the use of fever-reducing medicines. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing; it can help prevent those around you from getting sick. Put your used tissue in the wastebasket. If you don’t have a tissue, you should still cover your cough or sneeze with your hands. Then, wash your hands well and do so each time you cough or sneeze.

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And then there were two: can northern white rhinos be saved from extinction? | Environment “I watch these beautiful animals walk the path toward extinction every day,” keeper James Mwenda tells me. He’s out in the Kenyan bush, swatting flies. The anti-poaching K-9 dogs bark in the background. “I’ve watched their numbers fall from seven to two … Working with them and watching what’s happening – it’s an emotional free fall.” He smiles, clearly resigned to the pain of bearing witness. “But, I’ve dedicated my life to it.” The window to keep the northern white rhino from going functionally extinct to fully extinct is closing fast. Were things left only to nature, the two remaining rhinos – elderly, calm Najin and her feisty 20-year-old daughter Fatu – would be the last of their kind to graze the African grasslands. After civil war, habitat loss, and aggressive poaching, scientists declared the species extinct in the wild in 2008. Scientists now have a last-minute chance to bring the northern white rhinos back from the void, thanks to stem cell breakthroughs – but only if they can manage to work through the constraints of the pandemic. “In 2012, there was no hope for the northern white rhino,” Dr Thomas Hildebrandt, a Berlin-based expert in wildlife reproduction, tells me. But, inspired by an interdisciplinary conference on interstellar life, Hildebrandt used grant money to forge an international consortium dedicated to saving the species. “We realized we were not yet at the end. There was, suddenly, a new horizon.” He spearheaded “BioRescue” – a collaboration between the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, the Dvůr Králové Zoo in the Czech Republic, Italian laboratory Avantea, and Kenya’s Ol Pejeta and Kenya Wildlife Service. Hildebrandt believes increased international cooperation is the future of conservation, sharing resources without the expectation of payback. “It’s the moral thing to do,” he says. Covid-19 thwarted BioRescue’s 2019 momentum, disrupting travel and diverting science funding. They wondered if they would be able to harvest more egg cells from Fatu and the aging Najin and get them to a laboratory in Italy during a global pandemic. But given the cost and complexity – should they? How we answer this question not only determines the rhinos’ future, but our ability to pioneer processes that will be called upon to preserve other species. The stakes could not be higher. There are no longer any living northern white rhino males after the beloved Sudan was humanely euthanized at the advanced age of 45 in 2018. Ol Pejeta employs intense security measures against the constant threat of poaching: armed rangers, electric fences, the specialized K-9 unit, motion sensor cameras, and airplane surveillance. In 2014, scientists discovered that 20-year-old Fatu cannot conceive naturally, and recently that her mother Najin has a large tumor in her abdomen next to her left ovary, potentially compromising the egg harvesting process. Najin’s hind legs are weak and veterinarians believe a pregnancy – 16 months of depleted resources for the mother and a 100kg baby – would cause debilitating stress. In December, BioRescue harvested 14 egg cells from Fatu using an ultrasound-guided probe. Though sperm can be frozen, unfertilized eggs cannot. Thus, Fatu’s eggs are better traveled than any of us in 2021. They were overnighted via a charter flight from Nairobi to Frankfurt to Milan, then driven to the Avantea laboratory in Cremona, Italy. Once in Italy, Fatu’s eggs were matured and combined with frozen sperm from Suni, a bull born in 1980. (Though he died of natural causes in 2014, Suni’s sperm was collected when he was still relatively young. His sperm is considered healthier than that collected from the aged Sudan.) After eight of Fatu’s eggs were fertilized, two were deemed viable, and were cryofrozen on Christmas Eve, bringing the total frozen embryo count to five. Though Suni is dead and Fatu cannot conceive, science has christened this couple the future of the northern white rhino. In November 2015, I joined an NGO focused on ending extreme poverty for women in Nanyuki, Kenya. Before heading to our field work further north, we drove into the Ol Pejeta Conservancy after a brief but violent rainstorm. There, I witnessed the last remnants of several species: a handful of Grevy’s zebra, a reticulated giraffe, a cheetah, and – just beyond an electric fence and armed guards – the last three northern white rhinos. Sudan was still alive. I walked through Ol Pejeta’s rhinoceros cemetery, where a sign reads: “A Memorial to Rhinos Poached on the Conservancy Since 2004.” I stood next to a gravestone for Shemsha, a female black rhino who was “shot dead with both horns removed”. Rhino poachings are gruesome, calculated and a daily danger for both the rhinos and the rangers. That November, I photographed Sudan and Najin in their 700 acre enclosure. Now the photos remind me of those of the last passenger pigeon named Martha, or the last Carolina Parakeets named Incas and Lady Jane. When populations dwindle, a specificity occurs. A personal connection blooms, making investment more urgent, and the loss harder to bear. Mwenda thought he would leave his job as a keeper at Ol Pejeta after Sudan died. “No one wants to be associated with failure,” he says. “No one wants to watch a species die.” Mwenda recalls a day three years before Sudan was euthanized. “I was standing with him out in the field, feeding him bananas. I enjoyed looking at his lovely face. I think he was feeling good. But then I looked at him and saw he was dropping tears. I know scientists will say that rhinos do not cry. But I think maybe he was feeling empty. I laid my hands on him. After that day, I decided it was not about taking selfies with rhinos and making a photo about the last of a species. It’s about making meaning. I told Sudan I would become his voice when he was gone.” Mwenda thinks a lot about the youngest rhino, Fatu. Soon, her mother Najin’s age and tumor will lead to a decline. “Fatu is an ending,” Mwenda says. “This is her reality. She will have to bear the responsibility of being the last of her kind. She will be a symbol of political and human greed. That’s what her loneliness stands for. That is her work.” BioRescue must balance short term objectives – like extracting eggs and freezing embryos – with ambitious long-term plans. “We plan to have a calf on the ground in two to three years,” Hildebrandt tells me. First, scientists will plant Suni and Fatu’s embryos into a southern white rhino female, a similar rhino which diverged from the northern white rhino around a million years ago. Owuan, a sterilized southern white bull, arrived at the conservancy in early December to help indicate when the female is in heat, maximizing chances that the embryo will take. Luckily, frozen embryos are not the only path forward. Nobel Prize-winning scientist Shinya Yamanka’s work with mice shows that skin cells can be transfigured with stem cells to create gametes – or, as the everyday reader might think of it: test tube rhinos. According to Hildebrandt, enough skin cell samples exist to create the necessary genetic diversity for a healthy future population. Over 20 to 30 years, the population would grow in surrogates and sanctuaries. One day – perhaps when Fatu and the original scientists are gone – northern white rhinos will return to Uganda, the most feasible country in the rhino’s original range. The embryos are currently stored in a tank of liquid nitrogen kept at -196C, with a backup generator for additional security. Theoretically, the embryos will continue to be viable for thousands of years, waiting for science to catch up. “Liquid nitrogen buys us time,” Hildebrandt says. I think of Norway’s Svalbard Global Seed Vault, or as some call it – the Doomsday Vault. I imagine the analogous sperm and oocyte bank of endangered species, a frozen Noah’s Ark, where embryos from Fatu and Suni join embryos from vaquitas, cheetahs and Right Whales. A so-called Bio Bank. But liquid nitrogen cannot replace what Hildebrandt calls “social knowledge”. It’s critical that a baby northern white rhino spend time with Fatu and Najin to learn the proper head position for grazing. “A southern white rhino can provide a northern white rhino milk,” Hildebrandt says. “But not species-specific knowledge.” How do we determine which species are worth saving, and how far to go? How do we realize when we’re pushing western conservation standards and consequences on other nations – like punishing hungry locals hunting animals for bush meat, or asking them to change longstanding cultural beliefs and medicinal practices? Is conservation a global concern? These are questions that will be asked increasingly as the planet hurtles through its sixth mass extinction. I ask BioRescue if, ethically speaking, there’s a way the conservation community thinks about prioritizing spending to prevent extinction. For example, do we prioritize animals who have an important function in their ecological niche? Hildebrandt points out that preserving the integrity of keystone species and ecosystems is a public health issue. “We may get more pandemics as systems break down,” he notes, thinking about HIV, Ebola, Covid, and ones we can’t yet imagine. Unhealthy and unnatural ecosystems release pathogens and promote the spread of disease. “This is not just exotic conservation or a scientific exercise, like the mammoth project,” Hildebrandt explains, “but an attempt to repair a complex ecosystem. We are providing solutions for irresponsible behavior. It is much wiser to save species through responsible behavior, while we still can.” “Think of all the other ridiculous things humans spend money on. This may be cheap in comparison,” Jan Stejskal, director of international projects for the Dvůr Králové Zoo, tells me. “I believe in the value of the rhino himself,” Stejskal adds. “Who can ascribe value to an animal? It’s about more than subsistence. It’s deeper than that.” “It’s existential, a new philosophy,” Hildebrandt says. “Sudan is not dead for me. What is death? He is saving his species. This is life. It’s a complex process, but it’s possible to preserve life, and give opportunities to future generations.” Mwenda hopes that the upside of Covid’s impact on tourism is that Kenyans have been able to connect with wildlife through opportunities usually reserved for tourists. He wants Kenyans to see the northern white rhinos as not just good for tourists, but good for Africa. “These rhinos are my family,” Mwenda says. “I spend more time with them than my own family. I truly love them.” His shift is winding down as we finish our talk. Soon, he will escort Najin and Fatu to their evening enclosure, his favorite time of day. “Right now it sounds helpless,” Hildebrandt says. “But we have a fair chance. We just need support. The fragility of our planet is dramatic. We must act now.”

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Students often do well on tests given in their classrooms all year long, and then achieve disappointing results on national tests such as AP®, SAT®, ACT®, SBAC, and PARCC. While there are many reasons for these results, one that is often overlooked is that all of those national tests are “curved”, while many classroom teachers think that it would be cheating to curve tests, as it would be too easy on their students. Because many teachers don’t use a grading curve in their classrooms, however, they are forced to ask questions that are easier for students than those they will see on national exams, as well as giving class credit for work that doesn’t show evidence of learning such as homework, projects, etc. Then, those students walk into a national exam and face questions and problems that are far more rigorous than they saw all year long. Getting lots of low-level questions right on the classroom tests does little to prepare them for these more rigorous questions they now face. So, students who earned passing grades all year, fail the national exam which is supposed to correlate to that course. An effective answer to this problem is simple: teachers can correlate the rigor of their classroom tests to that of the national exams and also correlate the way those tests are graded on a curve. That’s why NJCTL created an Excel program for both AP, and other middle and high school courses which replicates the shape of the AP grading curve for teachers’ own tests. NJCTL also provides the added capability to reduce the extent of the curve so that unit tests are curved in the same manner, but to a lower extent. This program and directions to implement it can be found here.

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F. W. Simms in England noted in 1836 that the recent construction of canals and railroads had led to the introduction of a chain in which each link and its associated rings was 12 inches long. Chains of this sort, measuring either 50 or 100 feet overall, were soon known as engineer's chains. This example was sold by Keuffel & Esser in New York. It has 100 links made of No. 12 steel, brass handles and tallies, and measures 100 feet overall. The links and rings are brazed shut. There is a spring hook (snap) at 50 feet, so that the surveyor can separate the chain into two equal halves. New, it cost $11. The United States Geological Survey transferred it to the Smithsonian in 1907. Ref: Keuffel & Esser, Catalogue (New York, 1906), p. 505. F. W. Simms, A Treatise on the Principal Mathematical Instruments (Baltimore, 1836), p. 10.

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Ridimensionare gli arrays Another useful type of operation is reshaping of arrays. The most flexible way of doing this is with the reshape method. For example, if you want to put the numbers 1 through 9 in a 3×3 grid, you can do the following: Note that for this to work, the size of the initial array must match the size of the reshaped array. Where possible, the reshape method will use a no-copy view of the initial array, but with non-contiguous memory buffers this is not always the case. Another common reshaping pattern is the conversion of a one-dimensional array into a two-dimensional row or column matrix. This can be done with the reshape method, or more easily done by making use of the newaxis keyword within a slice operation: We will see this type of transformation often throughout the remainder of the book. Da ricordarselo; io sarei per l’altra versione. Concatenazione e suddivisione di arrays All of the preceding routines worked on single arrays. It’s also possible to combine multiple arrays into one, and to conversely split a single array into multiple arrays. We’ll take a look at those operations here. Concatenazione di arrays Concatenation, or joining of two arrays in NumPy, is primarily accomplished using the routines np.concatenate takes a tuple or list of arrays as its first argument, as we can see here: You can also concatenate more than two arrays at once: It can also be used for two-dimensional arrays: For working with arrays of mixed dimensions, it can be clearer to use the np.vstack (vertical stack) and np.hstack (horizontal stack) functions: np.dstack will stack arrays along the third axis. The opposite of concatenation is splitting, which is implemented by the functions np.vsplit. For each of these, we can pass a list of indices giving the split points: N split-points, leads to N + 1 subarrays. The related functions np.vsplit are similar: np.dsplit will split arrays along the third axis.

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Fever in Babies Welcoming a new baby into your home can be an exciting, but nerve-wracking time for parents. The nerves are understandable, considering that newborns don't come with instruction manuals, and babies aren't like little adults when they're sick -- they need special care. A fever in babies can be one of the scariest symptoms for parents, especially when that fever is high or the baby is only a few weeks old. In this article, you'll learn what causes infant fevers and what to do when your baby gets a fever. What Causes Infant Fevers? A fever isn't an illness -- it's a symptom of one. Usually if your baby has a fever, it means he has picked up a cold or other viral infection. Less commonly in infants, a fever is a sign of a bacterial infection such as a urinary tract infection or a more serious infection such as meningitis. Other causes of fever in babies include: - Reaction to a vaccination - Becoming overheated from being dressed too warmly or spending time outside on a hot day Fever in Babies: What Are the Signs? One common sign of fever in babies is a warm forehead, although not having a warm forehead doesn't mean that your baby doesn't have a fever. Your baby may also be crankier than usual. Other symptoms associated with fever in babies include: - poor sleeping - poor eating - lack of interest in play - convulsion or seizure How Do I Take My Baby's Temperature? You can take a child's temperature a few different ways, such as via the rectum (rectally), mouth (orally), ear, under the arm (axillary), or at the temples. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends only using digital thermometers in children. Mercury thermometers should not be used because they pose a risk of mercury exposure and poisoning if they break. Rectal thermometers provide the most accurate temperature readings, and can be easiest to take in an infant. Typically, babies can't hold an oral thermometer in place, and the reading of an ear or underarm thermometer are not as accurate. To take a rectal temperature, first make sure the thermometer is clean. Wash it with soap and water or wipe it off with rubbing alcohol. Lay your baby on the belly or on the back with legs bent into the chest. Apply a little bit of petroleum jelly around the thermometer bulb and gently insert it about 1 inch into the rectum opening. Hold the digital thermometer in place for about two minutes until you hear the "beep." Then gently remove the thermometer. At What Temperature Does My Baby Have a Fever? A baby's normal temperature can range from about 97 degrees Fahrenheit up to 100.3 degrees Fahrenheit. Most doctors say a rectal temperature over 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit is considered a fever.

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The Greek Genocide 100 years later – Is history repeating itself? Greeks of Pontus: Maintaining Identity Growing up in America with any ethnic background allows many of us to relate across cultures – simply by the similar ways in which our families share and preserve the keynotes of each of our cultures. For ethnicities in America today – Greeks, Italians, Arabs etc. it’s the ethnicity that comes first when describing their background, and citizenship that comes second. Greek-American, Italian-American, and Arab-American – to say ‘American-Greek’ sounds strange to us. Perhaps that speaks to the immigrant nature of the United States and the people who left their homelands to be here – and continue to do so to this day. Coming to America meant having the freedom to have pride in your culture and ethnicity and being free to practice your religion, so it may seem only natural to boast that part of one’s identity first. Although in the past – like today – this was not always an easy journey. Growing up ethnic in America is one thing, growing up Greek-American is another, but growing up Pontian-Greek brings with it a different side of cultural pride – one that has been hard fought, and remains hard fought to keep the culture alive. The region of Asia Minor once known as Pontus is located on the South coast of the Black Sea in modern day Turkey. Pontian Greeks (like all Greeks) hail themselves as the ‘Greekest’ of the Greeks –language and land, traced back beyond Alexander. In fact, one of the unique aspects of Pontic Greek dialect is that it maintains archaic Greek elements of the Ionian dialect, which was first introduced during the Hellenic colonization of the Pontic region around 800 B.C. Not only that, but Pontic dialect includes many aspects of Turkish vocabulary. Yet, by today’s national boundaries we (Pontians) are essentially ethnically Turkish and culturally Greek – though you would be hard pressed to find many Pontians today to admit to that Turkish part. The people descended from Pontus are dark haired, almond eyed and dark skinned Orthodox Christian Greeks. And like many of the Christians living in parts of the Arab world who face ISIS and its affiliates today, they were told to convert or die. In 1914 the Greeks, Armenians, and Assyrians of Asia Minor faced extermination or forced conversion by Kemal Ataturk’s troops. 100 years later, the world watches as the people of Iraq and Syria fight to survive against a similar fate. And much like a century ago – Turkey is playing a major role. A major world power, and a member of NATO – Turkey has turned a blind eye to the efforts of ISIS and has made little attempt to thwart the effects of their cause. And as Turkey’s President Erdogan tightens rights and restrictions on women, increasingly showing his Islamist tendencies, it appears that history is slated to repeat itself again. It has even been suggested that Erdogan is the new Ataturk. 100 Years Later: Today’s tools My childhood and adulthood were sprinkled with the not so subtle reminders of who our people were. Where we originally come from. Greece and Turkey were rarely referred to as ‘Greece’ or ‘Turkey’ – it was simply “the old country” when referring to Pontus. Because the old country, wasn’t the country it is today. The Greeks of Asia Minor faced the horrors of ethnic cleansing at the hands of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk during World War I. And though history has forgotten the millions of lives extinguished by these events – the community has not forgotten, and the war is not far from the memories of those still alive today. The imprint that ethnic cleansing can make on a culture is like a birthmark – it is passed from parents to children for generations. The past century has seen tens of millions lost to genocide. So often throughout history we have said ‘never again’ – and yet again comes, and we do nothing, or remain silent. One incredible asset that technology has afforded the global community is the ability to generate a collective voice to say ‘no more.’ It has also provided an opportunity for those members of cultures without a country to come together and form a collective community. Pages such as the Greek Genocide: 1914-1923 Facebook page use this technology and in doing so inform a new generation of what has happened in our past – the parts that the history books leave out. These technological tools also give us an opportunity to stand up to history repeating itself. The Facebook Page Operation Antioch continually shares the battles faced by Christians and other minorities in the Middle East today and how they are struggling to maintain identity while fighting terrorist groups seeking to eliminate them from history. These pages and others like them have allowed survivors and their descendants to develop a community to support the sufferers of genocide across the world. What is unique is that the very religious and ethnic boundaries that were the dividing platforms seem to be erased when one people can sympathize with the suffering of another. Today, all of those – Christian, Jewish, and Muslim alike – in the Middle East under the rule of ISIS and its affiliates who do not adhere to their extreme interpretation of Islam, are facing the same decimation that mine and so many others’ ancestors have faced. Today, we have the tools to speak out about these atrocities at the click of a button, or the swipe of a thumb. And though it may seem like the odds are insurmountable – we can help. Today, there are volunteer groups risking their lives to keep their people alive. The people of Syria have been facing waves of cleansing campaigns – whether political cleansing by Assad or ethnic cleansing by ISIS – yet there are still brave and selfless volunteers who stay behind, not fleeing the turmoil. And you can help. To read more about the Pontian Greeks of Asia Minor – check out my paper on Academia.edu: Tracing Transnationalism: Reconciling American Citizenship and Maintenance of Pontian Ethnic Identity Among First-Generation American Pontian Greeks in Northeast Ohio To help the White Helmets – Syria’s volunteer emergency medics – donate HERE. To help preserve the cultures of Asia Minor you can help the Asia Minor and Pontos Hellenic Research Center – donate HERE. You can also read more about the history of the Greek Genocide at greek-genocide.org

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A little known but critical function, metrology is one of the responsibilities of the Department of Food and Agriculture, which is California’s official keeper of the state’s physical standards of mass, volume, time, temperature, and length. These standards form the legal and scientific basis for all commercial transactions involving weights and measures. Since both buyer and seller rely on accurate measurement during commercial transactions, this function is the fundamental first step to providing equity and consumer protection in the marketplace. California’s official state standards are regularly calibrated to the federal standards held by the National Institute of Standards and Technology at the U.S. Department of Commerce. The U.S. standards are based on an international standard, The International Prototype of the Kilogram, which is a one-kilogram weight made of platinum and iridium that is kept just outside Paris, France in a vault at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). It could truly be considered the “weight of the world,” as it facilitates the globalization of manufacturing, marketing, and distribution and allows for confidence between international trading partners. This essential system was established by The Metre Convention, which was signed in 1875 and is now observed by 56 nations demonstrating equivalence between their national measurement standards. As for World Metrology Day, it is celebrated every May 20 in recognition of the signing of the Convention. This year’s theme is “We Measure For Your Safety”. For additional information about the Department of Food and Agriculture’s accredited metrology laboratory, please visit the Division of Measurement Standards website.

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Healthcare disparities refer to unequal access to medical treatment and services based on race, ethnicity, socio-economic status and geographic location. These disparities are a persistent challenge and have a significant impact on the health and well-being of millions of people across the country. Minority populations and those living in poverty are particularly vulnerable to healthcare disparities. They often have limited access to quality medical services and are at a higher risk of chronic health conditions. This is due to factors such as lack of insurance coverage, language barriers, cultural beliefs and geographic barriers that prevent access to care. Additionally, patients with chronic and/or serious health conditions are disproportionately affected. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) report stated that those who have consistent medical debt over the course of their lives are 76% more likely to suffer from chronic pain. Individuals encumbered with medical debt are also more likely to die younger. This is due to several reasons: - Lack of insurance coverage: People with chronic health conditions often require frequent and ongoing medical treatment, which can be expensive. Without insurance coverage, they may have limited access to the care they need, putting their health at further risk. - Inadequate medical services: Minority populations and low-income communities often lack access to quality medical services, making it difficult for people with chronic conditions to receive the care they need. This can lead to a lack of proper treatment and management of their conditions, which can lead to further health problems. - Cultural and language barriers: People with chronic health conditions who come from minority communities may face language and cultural barriers when seeking medical care. This can make it difficult for them to understand their health condition and treatment options, leading to inadequate care. - Limited access to specialty care: People with chronic and serious health conditions may require specialized medical services that are not readily available in their communities. This can result in a lack of proper treatment and management, leading to a decline in their health. - Financial toxicity: People with chronic health conditions may have to bear a disproportionate economic burden due to the high cost of medical care and lost income due to illness. Stressing about the financial burden can further exacerbate their health problems and reduce their quality of life. These disparities can have serious consequences for people with chronic and serious health conditions, leading to worse health outcomes and a lower quality of life. Patients experiencing financial toxicity may forego or delay care because of the financial burden. CoverMyMeds reports that 66% of patients experienced anxiety and depression symptoms as a consequence of delays in their therapy, and 54% of those, as a result, started taking medication in addition to their prescribed, but delayed therapies. What can be done to bridge the gaps and reduce disparities? Investing in and improving health equity requires a multifaceted, multidisciplinary approach. The COVID-19 pandemic has created additional challenges for patients and families due to unemployment, loss of insurance, expenses associated with hospital and intensive care unit admissions and expensive medications. Additionally, CMS has implemented a new health equity measure this year to keep this top of mind for providers. Providers can improve health equity by implementing the following strategies: - Addressing Social Determinants of Health (SDOH): Providers can identify and address social determinants such as poverty, education and housing that have a significant impact on patients' health outcomes. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), It is estimated that clinical care impacts only 20% of county-level variation in health outcomes, while SDOH affect as much as 50%, with socioeconomic factors such as poverty, employment and education delivering the largest impact on health outcomes. - Implement or improve patient financial assistance strategies: Providers may be offering patient assistance in some capacity, but the most efficient way is to utilize technology that automatically matches patients to programs and foundations that offer philanthropic aid to vulnerable populations. Additionally, improving the enrollment process beyond manual practices is critical for efficiency and to improve the ability to help as many patients as possible. - Improving cultural competence and language access services: Providers can provide training to staff to improve their cultural competence, which involves understanding and respecting patients' cultures, languages and beliefs. Additionally, providers can ensure that patients who are not fluent in English receive interpretation services to improve communication between patients and healthcare providers. - Increasing community outreach: Providers can partner with community organizations to educate and engage communities on health issues and provide care and wellness services to underserved populations. Reducing disparities in care will always be a challenge within healthcare. It may take decades until health equity is achieved. However, there are steps that providers can take now to inch us closer to an equitable state.

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SAMUEL BECKETT’S FAMED 1940s tragicomedy Waiting For Godot is about… well, what is it about? Some say the ‘Godot’ is God, others that he is a character who appears in the play. Beckett himself said that if he had meant ‘Godot’ to mean ‘God’, he’d have said God. - 1 Why Samuel Beckett wrote Waiting for Godot? - 2 What is the message of Waiting for Godot? - 3 What did Samuel Beckett subtitle Waiting for Godot? - 4 Who is Godot according to Beckett? - 5 Why is Waiting for Godot significant? - 6 What do the characters in Waiting for Godot represent? - 7 What does Godot symbolize? - 8 What happens in the end of the play Waiting for Godot? - 9 Why Waiting for Godot is an absurd play? - 10 What does the tree symbolize in Waiting for Godot? - 11 Who is Godot discuss what happens during Waiting for Godot? Why Samuel Beckett wrote Waiting for Godot? Speaking about the play, Beckett told one interviewer, “I began to write Godot as a relaxation to get away from the awful prose I was writing at the time ” (Cohn Duckworth, “The Making of Godot,” in Caseliookon Waiting for Godot, Ed. The play suggests that something important is to come to life but never does. What is the message of Waiting for Godot? The main themes in Waiting for Godot include the human condition, absurdism and nihilism, and friendship. The human condition: The hopelessness in Vladimir and Estragon’s lives demonstrates the extent to which humans rely on illusions—such as religion, according to Beckett—to give hope to a meaningless existence. What did Samuel Beckett subtitle Waiting for Godot? Beckett translated the text of Waiting for Godot from French to English himself. When he did this, he included the subtitle, “ A tragicomedy. ” This portmanteau suggests that the play blends elements of tragedy and comedy together. Who is Godot according to Beckett? Godot is ‘who’ we are waiting for, and in the course of the play that can take on many meanings. In Christianty, we wait for Jesus, the ‘second coming of Christ,’ therefore a Christian audience would view Godot in this way. The Jews on the other hand still await the coming of the Messiah. Why is Waiting for Godot significant? The significance of the title rests on the situational irony that the wait for Godot is entirely trifling. Yet, the collateral dynamics that result from this abortive task are as illogical as the wait itself. Within an existentialist context, the wait is symbolic of human reality. What do the characters in Waiting for Godot represent? It has often been discussed that Godot symbolizes death. Both the tramps Vladimir and Estragon are waiting for death, which does not approach them as their time has not come yet, therefore, they wait for it every day. What does Godot symbolize? The most important example is Godot, whose name evokes similarity to God for many readers. Along this reading, Godot symbolizes the salvation that religion promises, but which never comes (just as Godot never actually comes to Vladimir and Estragon). What happens in the end of the play Waiting for Godot? After his departure, Vladimir and Estragon decide to leave, but they do not move as the curtain falls. The next night, Vladimir and Estragon again meet near the tree to wait for Godot. After he leaves, Estragon and Vladimir decide to leave, but again they do not move as the curtain falls, ending the play. Why Waiting for Godot is an absurd play? Waiting for Godot” is an absurd play for not only its plot is loose but its characters are also just mechanical puppets with their incoherent colloquy. And above than all, its theme is unexplained. It is devoid of characterization and motivation. All this makes it an absurd play. What does the tree symbolize in Waiting for Godot? Significance of the ‘Tree’ in the Setting of Waiting for Godot. The ‘Tree’ generally represents the ‘cross’ on which Jesus Christ was crucified. As such, it is argued that the ‘Tree’ stands as a symbol of hope in the play; because it means that the religious dimension is not completely absent. Who is Godot discuss what happens during Waiting for Godot? The play follows two men, Vladimir and Estragon. The men wait beside a tree for a mysterious man, Godot. However, we learn that Godot constantly sends word that he will arrive tomorrow but that never happens. In other words, this play is where literally nothing happens with no certainty.

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The landscape that gives the West Coast of New Zealand its beauty also makes it inhospitable. In the 19th century gold prospectors and European migrants tried to settle the region, but the thick rainforest and wetlands defeated early attempts to settle the land. West coast rainforest is home to a huge diversity of flora and fauna and we see from the air the expansive forests where rich and diverse ecosystems thrive. The South Island is where Pounamu is found and we learn how this beautiful green jade stone plays an important role in historical and contemporary Maori culture. We cross from the West to the East Coast and see from the air, compelling evidence illustrating how New Zealand is being shaped and formed by tectonic plate movement. On the East coast, the abundant marine life including sperm whales, feeds in the rich waters of the Pacific while fur- ther south, in the province of Canterbury, we see the garden city of Christchurch that was severely damaged by earthquakes. From Christchurch, we fly back to the West Coast and travel North to Tasman Bay, overlooked by majestic mountains, flat open country, rivers, and bays that can only be reached by boat. Our journey ends at Farewell Spit, a long narrow sandspit pointing north and fringing the stormy Cook Strait.

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|≈||approximately equal to| |digits||indicates that digits repeat infinitely (e.g. 8.294 369 corresponds to 8.294 369 369 369 369 …)| The palm is an obsolete anthropic unit of length, originally based on the width of the human palm and then variously standardized. The same name is also used for a second, rather larger unit based on the length of the human hand. The cubit is an ancient unit based on the forearm length from the tip of the middle finger to the bottom of the elbow. Cubits of various lengths were employed in many parts of the world in antiquity, during the Middle Ages and as recently as Early Modern Times. The term is still used in hedge laying, the length of the forearm being frequently used to determine the interval between stakes placed within the hedge.

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Variation is the spice of life, especially on the genetic level. Any two humans, for example, differ on average by 20 million nucleotides out of a total of 3 billion. “There’s tremendous interest in understanding what those differences do,” says Charles F. Aquadro, professor of molecular biology and genetics, whose work is profiled in this Cornell Research story. “Do they matter? They must matter.” A population geneticist, Aquadro looks at changes in genetic variability in populations over time and space. He and his lab work mainly with drosophila, the fruit fly. The researchers seek to pinpoint changes in genes within and between species of drosophila, to infer the function of those differences, and then to understand the evolutionary forces that drove them to occur. They currently focus on the germline stem cell system, which generates gametes, the haploid germ cells that are the building blocks of sexual reproduction. “These are arguably the most important cells in an organism because unless they are regulated properly, the species doesn’t reproduce,” Aquadro says. Read the full article on Cornell Research. Aquadro also recently received a $1.3 million grant from the National Institutes of Health for his work to provide a framework with which to test the functional consequences and evolutionary forces driving gene changes in fruit flies. This work will contribute to understanding the genes and mechanisms that control stem cell fate decisions in drosophila as well as other organisms, including humans.

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The integrating sphere is a rounded device having a reflecting covering on its interior. It usually contains a light source and measures its total flux output. It gathers all the rays emitted by the item and is reflected by its reflecting covering. The integrating sphere efficiently integrates the measured light output from a source. Integrating sphere price may vary from company to company. What Integrating sphere does? An integrating sphere measures total luminous flux, which is distinct from illuminance. The luminous flux is the photometric unit of light perceived power and is measured in lumens. On the other hand, illumination is the light flux per unit area, measured in lux (lumen /m2). A similar relationship exists between radiant power (measured in Watts) and irradiance (measured in Watts/m2) in radiometry. Integrating spheres may also be used as a source of homogeneous brightness for cameras, imagers, etc. Measurements of reflectance and transmittance can be made by placing an object at an entry port of the integrating sphere or diagonally opposite the entry port. You may also use an integrating sphere to measure an accurate output of the available light source. An Integrating sphere typically has two ports. The light source may be positioned right up against the entry port and the detector at the exit port, where all the reflected beams concentrate, allowing the total flux from the light source to be measured. LISUN provides the best integrating sphere. The integrating sphere may also be used as a source of homogeneous brightness. If the detector is removed from the exit port, the diffuse input light becomes a constant source that may be used to calibrate cameras, imagers, etc. General-purpose includes optical, photometric, and integrating radiometric spheres. The round form of this device helps collect light. The coating within an integrating sphere varies based on the spectral range. Normally, the gold coating is utilized for IR and Teflon for UV and visible. To summarize the many useful applications of the integrating sphere, one may say: Calibrations for cameras and imagers using the integrating sphere as a light source. 2. Laser power metering: This method can measure the power of highly collimated, high-power laser sources. Because the percentage of flux received by a photodetector placed on the sphere surface is roughly equal to the fractional surface area consumed by its active area multiplied by a sphere multiplier constant, this method has been used to test industrial CO2 laser power. Integrating sphere price depends on its model. 3. Object reflectance and transmittance measurements: The item may be placed at the entry port of the integrating sphere, such that light passed through it bounces off the reflecting coating and is gathered by the detector. The same measurement may be made by removing the item and measuring the output flux of the light source to determine transmittance. The item may also be placed diagonally opposite the entry port and its reflectance measured.

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(Taken from Scott Plunkett's FCS 432 Course Pack) Human ecology evolves from “the assumption that humans are a part of the total life system and cannot be considered apart from all other living species in nature and the environments that surround them” (Andrews, Bubolz, & Paolucci, 1980, p. 32). · Humans are ecological organisms interdependent with other organisms in the environment. Humans cannot be considered as separate from other organisms or the environment. Individuals and groups are both biological and social in nature. · The ecosystem is comprised of the individual and/or family in interaction with the environment. · Ecosystems are based on the holistic premise that a change in any part of the system affects the system as a whole and also the parts of the system. This assumes the whole system and the parts are interdependent and operate in relation to each other. · Definition: To make suitable for a specific use or situation · An essential component of Human Ecological Theory. All components of the model adapt to one another. o For example: A child who goes to a new school with children he/she has never met, will find a way to fit in and adapt to his/her new environment. · Definition: The function or position of an organism or a population within an ecological community o For example: A family is a niche; a classroom is a niche. · Families are ecological organisms since they are comprised of humans. · Families, the environment, and the relationship within and between the two must be considered as interdependent and examined as a system. “Families are semi open, goal directed, dynamic, adaptive systems. They can respond, change, develop, and act on and modify their environment. Adaptation is a continuing process in family ecosystems” (p. 426). · The family interacts with more than one environment since it comes in contact and resides in multiple environments. · Human behavior is not determined by the environment. The environment does, however, pose certain constraints and limits to human behavior. It also provides opportunities for behavior. · The child impacts the environment and the environment impacts the child. · Important to understand and study development in the context of the everyday environment in which children are reared. o Therefore we examine the environment the child has direct contact with, and those he/ she does not. · Organism/Individual – Characteristics of the individual o Examples: cognitive development, temperament, personality traits, health, intelligence, abilities and/or disabilities · Microsystem – The settings within which the individual directly interacts. The settings with the most immediate and direct impact on a child’s biological and psychological development o Examples: family, school, day care, peers, doctor’s office, church/synagogue, neighborhood play area. o The key concept is the “direct contact” between the child and the niche · Mesosystem – The interrelationships between the various microsystems such as the link between the family and school. · Examples: parent-teacher conference, having friends come to one’s home, the family attending the school spring concert · Opportunities and expectations within the family, such as access to books and learning to read or emphasizing basic academic and socialization skills, may critically influence the child’s experiences and success in another microsystem, the school o The key concept is the “interaction” between two microsystems · Exosystem – The social, economic, political, religious, and other settings in which child is not personally involved but affect them in one of the Microsystems or bear on those who interact with the child. o Examples: government policies affecting schools, school board, Parks and Recreation Coordinator, parent’s place of employment, friends of family. o Key concept is that other contexts removed from the child’s immediate environment have a powerful impact on a child’s development · Macrosystem – The social milieu that encompases the microsystems, mesosystem, and exosystems. Macrosystems include the developing person’s society and subculture, which include the broader ideologies, belief systems, and institutional patterns or values of the culture. o Examples: laws, customs of the culture, economic and political systems, religion, ethnic group, socioeconomic status, American ideology.

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Brooks River Archeological District Brooks River Archaeological District Alaska Heritage Resources Survey Brooks River Archeological District |Location||Address restricted, along Brooks River, Katmai National Park and Preserve| |Nearest city||King Salmon| |NRHP reference #||78000342| |Added to NRHP||February 14, 1978| |Designated NHLD||April 19, 1993| The Brooks River Archaeological District encompasses a large complex of archaeological sites along the banks of the Brooks River in Katmai National Park and Preserve in the U.S. state of Alaska. It includes at least twenty separate settlement sites with documented occupation dates from 2500 BCE to recent (post-contact) history. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993. The site is partly occupied by the Brooks Camp, one of the major visitor areas of the park. The Brooks River is a relatively short river which connects Brooks Lake to Naknek Lake on the upper part of the Alaska Peninsula in Katmai National Park and Preserve. The river is the site of a salmon run that attracts large numbers of bears, and has been used since the establishment of the park as a hunting, fishing, and sightseeing location. Brooks Camp is located on the north bank of the river, near Brooks Falls. Since the 1960s the area has been the subject of regular archaeological activity, often in regard to the management of the facilities at the camp. This research has regularly exposed evidence of human habitation in the area. The geological history of the site provides remarkably well-demarcated periods of occupation, because regular volcanic activity in the region has deposited a number of (sometimes deep) ash layers in the area. The most recent of these eruptions was that of Novarupta in 1912, which was at least partly responsible for the creation of Katmai National Park. The eruption resulted in the destruction of a number of Native villages (including Savonoski), closer to the volcano, and the Brooks River area was one place they migrated to afterward. Bedded between the deposits of at least ten separate major volcanic events dating back to 6500 BCE, are numerous occurrences of evidence of human habitation. The oldest sites found at Brooks River date to c. 3000 BCE. Finds include the remains of pit houses (similar to barabaras), stone tools, projectile points, and evidence of toolmaking (debitage). Some of the oldest discoveries were made when the National Park Service wanted to prepare the site of a house for public display: during the excavation of one of the candidate sites, rains prompted the digging of a trench to channel water away from that site, and resulted in the discovery of additional sites in the new trench. - List of National Historic Landmarks in Alaska - National Register of Historic Places listings in Lake and Peninsula Borough, Alaska - National Register of Historic Places listings in Katmai National Park and Preserve - National Park Service (2007-01-23). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. - Federal and state laws and practices restrict general public access to information regarding the specific location of sensitive archeological sites in many instances. The main reasons for such restrictions include the potential for looting, vandalism, or trampling. See: Knoerl, John; Miller, Diane; Shrimpton, Rebecca H. (1990), Guidelines for Restricting Information about Historic and Prehistoric Resources, National Register Bulletin (29), National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, OCLC 20706997. - "Brooks River Archeological District". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2007-11-20. - Dumond, Don. "A Naknek Chronicle: Ten Thousand Years in a Land of Lakes and Rivers and Mountains of Fire" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2014-12-12.

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The Auditory-Verbal approach helps children with hearing impairment learn to listen. Their speech and language skills are allowed to develop in a natural way following normal developmental stages. The goal is for children who are deaf or hard of hearing to develop to their full potential in regular classrooms and living environments, and hence to function independently in mainstream society. Children with all degrees of hearing impairment, from mild to profound who are currently using hearing-aids and/or a cochlear implant have the opportunity to learn to listen and develop spoken language through the Auditory-Verbal approach. Therapy can begin as soon as a child, even an infant, has been fitted with hearing aids. Because the human brain develops most rapidly in infancy, therapy and parent teaching should start immediately during this crucial period. Children and their parents participate together in regular, diagnostic, individualised sessions. Parents learn how to create a listening environment through play and daily routines with their children.

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Ernst Josephson was a Swedish visual artist. He began his studies at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts of Stockholm and subsequently continued at École des Beaux-Arts, as well as at the Louvre. Josephson organized and led the “Opponents Movement”, which opposed the work of the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts and demanded modernization of the art curriculum. Other adherents of the Opponents Movement included artists such as Nils Kreuger, Karl Nordstrom and Eugene Jansson. Two of his best known works are “David” and “Saul” from 1878, and he is also acclaimed for “Strömkarlen” (The Nix) from 1884. As a portrait painter, he produced many works depicting fellow artists and landscapes. These works reflect his psychologically sharp eye and testify to his brilliant talent with color. Despite his great success as an artist, Josephson was financially destitute. He began to drink and devoted himself to spiritualism and religious ruminations, and later suffered from mental illness. Josephson created a large number of visionary paintings and drawings based on the world of myths and sagas during his illness.

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IN the search for the causes of various social phenomena characteristic of the Jews, most writers have been content to give 'race influence' a prominent place. The effects of the physical and social environment on the individual, or group of individuals, have been neglected. Once that remarkable cloak for our ignorance, 'race,' had served the purpose of explaining easily the causation of a given social fact, it was an easy matter to rest content with this explanation. It was repeatedly alleged that the Jews, though scattered in all the regions of the habitable globe, subjected to all varieties of climatic, social and economic conditions, nevertheless present everywhere the same characteristics with a remarkable uniformity. Demographic and social phenomena, such as fertility, mortality, marriage rates, illegitimacy, intermarriage, divorce, criminality, etc., were all attributed to ethnic origins, to Semitic influences. Anthropological research has, however, revealed that there is no such thing as Jewish race, that ethnically Jews differ according to the country and even the province of the country in which they happen to live, just as catholics or protestants in various countries differ from each other. It was shown that there are various types of Jews, tall and short, blond and brunette, brachycephalic and dolichocephalic, etc.; and that all these types appear to correspond to the types encountered among the non-Jewish population among which they live. 'Race' can, consequently, not be the only cause of the demographic and social peculiarities said to be characteristic of the Jews. Other causes are to be sought for. In the following studies statistical data of recent censuses in various European countries have been utilized in an attempt to find primarily whether the Jews do actually present uniformly, as has been alleged, similar social and demographic phenomena in every country, irrespective of difference of the physical and social environment. While the ethnic factor has not been neglected, still, in cases in which race influence is not sufficient to explain satisfactorily a social or demographic fact, or is in direct contradiction with actual conditions, the effects of the physical environment and of social conditions have been looked into. The author assumes that if an ethnic cause exclusively underlies a given social fact observed among the Jews, then we should

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Combating Water Pollution With Solar What is energy-water connection? Most people may know that burning fossil fuels emits toxic gasses that will both pollute the air and contribute to global warming. But you may ask, how does it affect our water? Fact is, energy-water connection is seen in the usage of water when producing energy. Take coal for example. For coal plants to function, they need water to be heated to create steam, which then turns turbines, generating electricity. In fact, virtually every stage of coal’s lifecycle—from mining to processing to burning—can impact local water supplies. How do fossil fuels contribute to water pollution? The operation process of drilling, fracking and mining fossil fuels poses a big threat to our waterways. In the case of coal plants, one system withdraws and discharges 70 and 180 billion gallons of water per year. When the waste water are discharged into rivers or lakes, they are typically hotter and can decrease fertility and increase heart rates in fish. Additionally, coal mining operations wash acid runoff into our waterways while oil spills and leaks during extraction or transport of fossil fuels pollute drinking water sources and put our freshwater or ocean ecosystems into jeopardy. Not to mention, enormous volumes of wastewater laden with heavy metals, radioactive materials, and other pollutants are generated during these operations. What happens when water becomes polluted? As the saying goes, water is the essence of life. Naturally, no living thing can survive very long without it. As a by-product of fossil fuels extraction operations, waste water is found to be contaminated with pollutants linked to cancer, birth defects, neurological damage, and much more. This waste is usually stored in open-air pits or underground wells, but incidents of leakage and overflow into waterways can happen and that will lead to a greater issue. Nuclear power plants also release nuclear isotope tritium into groundwater supplies. The toxic water pollution from these thermoelectric plants have been linked to cancer, neurological disorders, and environmental degradation. Naturally, when our water is contaminated, the opportunity for water-borne infections will skyrocket. How will going solar help combat water pollution? Solar energy is a reliable clean energy which does not require water in its generation of electricity. At the most, solar panels on your roof would only use water when you’re cleaning them off a couple times a year. On the contrary, coal plants use over 15,500 gallons of water for each megawatt hour (MWh) of electricity they produce while nuclear plants come in second at over 14,700 gallons of water per MWh. On top of that, solar panels do not generate any harmful waste as well. Hence, it will not require transport of fuels or disposal of waste products. Consequently, solar energy will greatly diminish and prevent the water pollution produced by traditional energy sources.

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Many of the scientific breakthroughs we read about in the media discuss discoveries in the lab that could be translated to promising therapies, or exciting new drugs that have just entered clinical trials. Months or years pass with no further mention of this amazing treatment. What happened? It’s tempting to hope that a newly discovered, promising drug could be used by patients within the next year. However before a drug can be used in the clinic, researchers need to evaluate its performance in small cohorts of volunteers and patients. I will briefly discuss the three phases of clinical trials below; you can read more about them here. Why are cancer treatments so expensive? In 2009, the estimated average cost of a clinical trial in the US was US$1.3-1.7 billion, and those costs continue to rise. With so many new drugs being developed, and many new advances in cancer treatments, it’s getting harder to prove that a new drug is significantly better than the existing options. In order to detect these incremental improvements, trials are recruiting more patients, for longer periods of time, and are using more advanced (and expensive) monitoring techniques, such as MRI or genome sequencing. All of this contributes directly to high drug costs once a treatment hits the market. Why do clinical trials fail? Considering the time and cost that goes into establishing a clinical trial, it is surprising to learn that over 62% of Phase III trials in the US fail – meaning that the investigated drug is not better than the current standard of care. There are many reasons for this, including a trial that may not have been properly designed. For instances, a drug might be effective in a small percentage of patients with specific characteristics, however if a clinical trial is conducted in a broader population, the effectiveness of the drug on the small percentage of “responders” will be lost within the larger population, resulting in failure of the trial. What does the future of clinical trials look like? In an effort to design clinical trials that have higher rates of success (and are therefore more beneficial for patients), researchers are moving away from large scale trials with diverse patient populations, and more towards smaller trials of targeted patient groups. For example, by categorizing cancer patients by the genomic profile of their tumours, and recruiting only a defined subset of patients that are likely to benefit from treatment, current clinical trials are starting to improve their success rates. The high costs and high failure rates of clinical trials are certainly cause for concern, however it’s important to remember that drugs do succeed, and many have dramatically changed the face of cancer treatment. For example, the drug Herceptin is a monoclonal antibody that targets a specific protein called HER2, which is thought to drive tumour growth. This oncogenic protein is over-expressed in the tumours of 25-30% of breast cancer patients. When the Herceptin antibody was evaluated in clinical trials, it was tested on patients whose tumours over-expressed HER2. Because of this effective design of the clinical trial, researchers were able to capture the positive effects of this drug that would have otherwise been lost had it been tested on patients with and without HER2 over-expression. Since its development in 1990 and approval by the FDA in 1998, Herceptin has had a tremendous impact on the treatment of patients with HER2+ breast cancer. New cancer treatments are being approved every year, some of which have met with great success. The hope is that as more drugs make their way successfully through clinical trials, patient outcomes will continue to improve. This article was written by Ashley Hickman. Ashley is in the second year of a Masters program at the University of Toronto where she studies how to regulate a very important cancer causing gene called myc. To learn more about Ashley and her research check out her bio on our members page. Amiri-Kordestani, L. & Fojo, T. Why do phase III clinical trials in oncology fail so often? J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 104, 568–569 (2012). Collier, R. Rapidly rising clinical trial costs worry researchers. CMAJ 180, 277–278 (2009).

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More than a third of elementary school children are failing to get sufficient sleep, and the consequences are significant. A new study has linked poor sleep with difficulties in paying attention in class, keeping up with school work, forgetfulness and absenteeism. Children of that age should get 10 hours sleep per night. The study, conducted by the University of Leeds in the UK, discovered that out of 1,100 children aged six to 11, 36-percent were getting eight hours or less sleep on a weekday night. One in seven were getting seven hours or less a night. The researchers found links between poor sleep and children having access to mobile phones or computer devices in their bedroom. They say parents should consider removing technology from their children’s bedrooms. The study was designed to provide an insight into the sleeping patterns of young children in the UK, an area that has previously received little attention from scientists. The study’s lead researcher, psychologist Dr Anna Weighall, set out to assess the use of technology such as mobile phones, tablets and computers in the run up to bedtime, the availability of technology in the bedroom, and what impact that was having on children’s sleep. The researchers identified that children who had access to technology in their bedroom were more likely to experience a shorter night’s sleep. One in 3 parents (34%) reported that their children use a smart phone, tablet, or other electronic device in the hour before bedtime, and many children sleep with ready access to electronic devices. Dr Weighall said: “There is a clear relationship between technology use and shorter sleep duration. We asked parents if their child had technology in the bedroom, and having the technology in the bedroom is associated with much shorter sleep durations in children. “Where parents are able to encourage their children not to have technology in the bedroom at all, the sleep outcomes are much better.” It’s not known what might be causing that effect but Dr Weighall has a number of theories. She said that scientists know that the light from a screen excites the brain, making it harder for those children who are using their phone in the run up to bedtime or in bed, to switch off. Unable to sleep, they could also get themselves locked in a vicious cycle of further technology use. Dr Weighall added: “It is conceivable that if a child can’t sleep, they are more likely to pick up their phone.”

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Power Struggle - Part 2 A Short Primer on "Load-frequency Control" If you ever wanted to know how to operate a central station turbine generator, but were afraid to ask, now's your chance. Here's your first question. How do you supply the right amount of electric energy from a generator when it is to serve a varying load as people, located far from the central station and out of sight are turning their electric switches on and off? The answer: you can do it by regulating the flow of steam energy. Just open or close a valve between a steam boiler drum and a steam turbine that permits steam flow into the central station turbine generator. Turning a water valve regulating flow of water energy from a penstock into a hydroelectric turbine generator will do the same thing. But how do you know how much steam from a boiler or water from a reservoir, to feed into the turbine generator? Easy. Watch a frequency meter. The turbine is quite a massive piece of machinery connected to the generator rotor that is also a pretty heavy thing, connected by a steel shaft perhaps six inches to a foot thick. It acts as the "flywheel" of the system. It stores kinetic energy just as the flywheel of an un-interruptible power system ("UPS") stores energy to maintain power for your computer during an unexpected power outage or the flywheel of your car stores energy it gives up as needed between power strokes from the cylinders or when you start up hill before you step on the gas. (It only has so much so you better push in on the clutch as the engine slows down too much or it will stall.) If the steam energy or water energy going into the turbine is less than the electrical energy needs of the load, or if one of your turbine generators breaks down, the turbine generators still on line will give up some of the rotational energy stored in their flywheels to make up the difference and fall below 60 cycles per second. The turbines and generators rotating on the same shaft, or directly coupled, will slow down and frequency will fall. If customers turn off their switches your turbine generators will receive too much steam energy – more than the customers are using -- the surplus goes to the stored energy and the frequency goes up above 60 cycles per second or 60 Hz. When frequency is right on 60 Hz, no corrective action is needed. If you have a scientific bent, the amount of energy stored is equal to the mass of the flywheel, in this case the mass of the turbine, generator, and connecting shaft, times the square of its rotational velocity or MV squared. As it gives up its stored energy it will slow down. The mass is unchanged so frequency drops. (Better shed some of your load before it slows down too much or it won't be able to come back up again. Those customers will be annoyed if you shed them for a few minutes but they'll really be irate if the system goes down completely; you have many generators, and it will take hours to rebuild your system carefully keeping everything in balance all the while. What a hard decision for a poor working stiff! Wrong decision and it's off with his head. ) You can shed load from your control center where you have remote control over circuit breakers at distribution substations. Maybe a plan of automatic load shedding keyed to low frequency will help as it frees the system dispatcher from responsibility for the decision. Frequency is available all over interconnected electric systems no matter how large the interconnection – even when it extends from the Rockies to the Atlantic -- so it is a handy signal on which to base the control of system operation. In these days of large scale interconnection it doesn't vary very much since it is determined by the sum total of energy stored in all the generators operating in parallel if the system stays together. That's a pretty big mass for all the generators from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains that are now operating normally in parallel. Plug a frequency meter into your wall socket and you will see it vary, usually only from 59.97 to 60.03. If a big unit trips off line somewhere, it might go down to 59.94 for a few minutes. If it goes down much below that, the trip of lines may have put you in an island of generation and transmission lines, separated from the remainder of the interconnection, with not enough generation to supply the load and not enough stored energy to give your system operator much time to react. For normal operation, to avoid having an operator stand there all day with his hand on the turbine valve, a fly-ball governor-- just like the one regulating the speed of your grandmother's Victorola -- can maintain a constant frequency by opening and closing turbine valves. Modern day systems with several generators will have a computer to allocate load among generators so that the least cost combination is supplying energy. 1890s Solution - In 1886 a single phase alternating current system constructed at Great Barrington, Massachusetts is quickly followed by another single phase system in Buffalo, NY, distributing electric energy for light and heat. Distribution lines from a central station extend to customers throughout the municipalities, no longer limited to 1/2 mile from the generating station. At the Telluride silver mine in Colorado, poly-phase AC invented by Nikola Tesla, an eccentric Serbian immigrant, is used to transmit electric power from a small hydroelectric development a few miles away to power electric motors in a mineshaft that is located on the face of a cliff. The mine owner used the new technology because there was just no place to locate a fossil fuel DC generator near the mineshaft. In Germany a high voltage transmission line 130 miles long transmits poly-phase alternating current from Laufen to Frankfurt. In 1896 the poly-phase AC service invented by Nikola Tesla that is now being promoted by George Westinghouse is deployed at Niarara Falls, permitting transmission of some of the hydropower to Buffalo, 18 miles away. Why sell power to Buffalo? So that sufficient power could be sold from the project to satisfy the minimum revenue required for an economically feasible Niagara development. With poly-phase AC you can start and run electric motors as well as lighting light bulbs and energizing heating elements. The use of poly-phase AC makes it possible to build larger AC central stations to serve several load centers many miles away from each other to serve light, heat, and power loads. War of the currents. Edison fights for the survival of the DC power system by staging electrocutions of cats, dogs, horses, and elephants using AC. He wires up the first death chair in Auburn Prison in 1888 with AC. He is very good at public relations. Nonetheless, the great economies of scale of large generating units and ability to vary voltages easily wins the day for AC because power from large generating units could be distributed in a single system to industrial, commercial and residential loads over a broad area. That would be impossible with DC. In 1889 Edison's electric power distributing company had merged with other Edison companies to form Edison General Electric. 1892 Edison General Electric merges with the Thomson-Houston company and changes its name to General Electric. 1910s - Entrepreneurs build larger generating stations serving two or three load centers using AC. They use high voltage primary distribution lines within the load centers and even higher voltage transmission lines between load centers. In fact two or more load centers, each with their own generator can operate "normally-in-parallel" connected by transmission. [ A short course on parallel operation. If two AC generators are supplying energy on the same circuit or transmission network, they are said to be operating "in-parallel". They will be electromagnetically interlocked. The heavier the transmission lines between them, the more rigid the interlock. If the lines are light, the generator phase angles can vary somewhat but the interlock will be maintained by energy from the leading generator automatically moving swiftly from the leading to the lagging generator (or motor) to restore the synchronism if the lines between them are heavy enough. If the synchronizing energy overloads the line, circuit breakers will trip it off before it the overload becomes so great that the line will be permanently damaged. Wall Street commences forming Public Utility Holding Companies to concentrate their control over small operating electric utilities, making it possible to integrate their load and create regional "superpower" systems. These regional electric power systems were proposed by former President Herbert Hoover (an engineer before he became a politician), W.S. Murray, and other engineers. The Eastern Seaboard was a favored location. These could use much larger coal fired steam turbines central generating units to serve regional load by integrating the load centers with high voltage transmission. The savings in power supply costs from savings in fuel and generator construction pay for the premium necessary to gain control. They could gain additional savings from an "economic dispatch" of the generators so that as load varied, power would come from the least cost combination of generators on line. Each electric utility or holding company system builds strong "backbone" transmission to connect its major power stations and its largest load centers. Under pressure from conservationist Pennsylvania Governor Gifford Pinchot, electric utilities in Pennsylvania interconnect and engage in central economic dispatch. They don't organize as "control areas". They bill one another for power transfers after the fact, having used central economic dispatch. Ultimately this will become the "PJM" or Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Maryland interconnection, now including Delaware as well. 1923 - Congress enacts regulations of hydroelectric power development and creates the Federal Power Commission (FPC). 1930s - The "War of the Currents" is over. AC has won. By this time, most DC systems are gone but Edison's name lives on as "the father of the electric power industry" even though he did his best to kill the AC power system which prevailed. His prowess at public relations is noted in some but not all biographies. Who ever heard of Nikola Tesla? In 1935 Congress enacts legislation to limit the economic power of electric utility holding companies and to regulate growing interstate commerce in electric power that the Supreme Court had held in the "Attleboro" case couldn't be regulated by the states even in the absence of conflicting federal legislation. The "death sentence" of Section 11 of the Public Utility Holding Company Act requires divestiture of all electric operating properties that can't be integrated but permits the Holding Company keep properties in a single integrated system that by integrating loads over large areas makes it feasible to install larger scale more economical base load generating units. The 1935 Federal Power Act lets businessmen build those divested isolated operating properties back up into integrated systems by acquisition of assets or merger under the regulation of the Federal Power Commission. Federal Power Commission orders interconnection of several power systems to improve bulk power supply in aid of war effort. FPC also plans a strong national "grid", a real "grid" but is persuaded after the war ends, by Philip Sporn, the CEO of the largest US electric utility, that the plan should be classified as a "military secret" and it becomes unavailable as a post-war political issue. A "grid" would have the capacity to meet most all loads supplied from most any combination of generators. We now start calling it a "grid" but calling it a grid doesn't make it one. The interconnection that was in place had a heavy backbone for each utility but the interconnections among utilities were of much lower capacity. In the 1950s many more electric utilities interconnect with adjacent utilities for frequency support of the larger generating units they are installing and develop methods of "area control", first with "flat tie-line control" used to regulate electric energy flows among "control areas", and when that proves inadequate for large interconnections, "tie-line-bias control" is developed and proves satisfactory. "Interconnected Systems Group" (ISG) is organized. Four large groups of control areas interconnect and commence operating normally-in-parallel. Why interconnect so widely? It is because generating units are getting larger. When one of them trips off line, you want as much rotating mass operating in parallel as possible so frequency won't decay quickly. You want to give the system dispatcher as much time as possible to restore the balance between generation and load, without having to cut off service to some of your customers. They need at least 15 minutes to reach other dispatchers at other control centers over the telephone. [Area control for the grid-maven. Generators operating normally-in-parallel are electromagnetically interlocked and power will flow to where it is needed to maintain frequency. If two electric utilities want to operate normally-in-parallel, they must find some way to allocate generation responsibilities to supply only their own customers. If they are operating normally-in-parallel they can no longer use frequency control since the frequency on the combined system is like the balance in a joint bank account – the balance will vary with your deposits and withdrawals, but the balance will also reflect what your wife deposits and withdrawals also. So to make sure you are not burning coal to supply your neighbor's customers, you change the control of the valves on your generators from frequency control to control by signals from a meter on the transmission tie line between the two electric utilities. Its signal is telemetered back to your control center. This is "flat tie-line control". If energy is flowing out of your "control area" into another "control area", it means you have an area control error and you must cut down on the flow of steam to your turbine or turbines. Conversely, when the meter shows an inward flow of energy, a flow into your control area, you are not doing your share and you must increase the supply of energy from your generators by permitting more steam to flow into the turbine or turbines to bring your tie line back to zero. Computers are helpful in all this. First analog, then digital computers are used. They can send raise or lower signals over telephone lines to your generators from your control center driven by your area control error. The system lambda is its incremental cost. If generation must be raised, raise it at the generator with the lowest incremental cost. Conversely if generation is to be lower, lower it at the one with the highest incremental cost. If you have more than one transmission boundary tie to other control areas, use the algebraic sum of flows to get the "Area Control Error" (ACE). But you still need to control frequency on the entire interconnection. To control frequency on the entire interconnection, you ask one of the utilities in the interconnection to continue to regulate on frequency. This flat tie-line control works OK on small interconnections but as interconnections get larger and larger it imposes too heavy a burden on the utility assigned to maintain frequency on the whole interconnection. Big swings in loading are imposed on his generators and his economics are bad. If you want to spread the burden of frequency control on the entire interconnection, flat tie-line control is counterproductive. If someone else's generator trips off line, your tie line meters reflect energy flowing out which is a signal to cut down your generation. But if the obligation to help the interconnection remain at 60 cycles per second is to be shared by all, you should be generating a little more until the utility suffering an outage can press more resources into its supply. The answer is "tie-line-bias control" in which a combination of tie-line readings and frequency are used by each control area and the obligation to maintain frequency on the interconnection is shared by all. When frequency is exactly 60 Hz, tie-line readings are used exclusively for system control. When frequency varies up or down from 60 Hz, utilities bias their control; they supply a little less or a little more than their individual responsibilities under flat tie-line control, to help maintain frequency at 60 Hz on the entire interconnection. Usually the "little more" or "little less" is based on the "natural frequency response characteristic" of the system which is its change in output resulting from governor response to the change in frequency. In this way the governors and the controller are in harmony. Frequency can fall off quite a bit when somebody's big 1,200,000 kW central station trips off line with a big hole in a boiler tube. (If it is a small hole, they can continue to operate it until the weekend. Then they can take if off line, cool down the boiler and plug the ends of the tube and wait for repair during the four weeks of boiler maintenance at low load time in the Spring or Fall. If it is a big generator, the rerouting of flows when it trips off line can cause protective relays on transmission lines to trip if those lines in the path of least resistance (really least impedance for AC lines) are not heavy enough to carry the flows.) A cascading outage can occur if the tripping on one line will reroute flows to other lines inadequate to hand the flow of power --as in fact it did in 1965. But the system operators should avoid a scenario where the trip of a single unit, or of a single transmission line, will cause a cascading outage.] The newly formed utility groups refer to themselves as the NE, NW, SE, and SW regions of the ISG. ISG publishes Operating Guides for its members. One of the ISG guides on transfers between control areas limits inter "control area" transfers to those which will not result in a cascading outage in the event of a outage of a single generator or a single transmission line. PART THREE CONTINUES NEXT WEEK... blog comments powered by Disqus

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Looking almost like a cosmic hyacinth, this image is anything but a cool, Spring flower… it’s a portrait of an enormous gas cloud radiating at more than seven million degrees Kelvin and enveloping two merging spiral galaxies. This combined image glows in purple from the Chandra X-ray information and is embellished with optical sets from the Hubble Space Telescope. It flows across 300,000 light years of space and contains the mass of ten billion Suns. Where did it come from? Researchers theorize it was caused by a rush of star formation which may have lasted as long as 200 million years. What we’re looking at is known in astronomical terms as a “halo” – a glorious crown which is located in a galactic system cataloged as NGC 6240. This is the site of an interacting set of of spiral galaxies which have a close resemblance to our own Milky Way – each with a supermassive black hole for a heart. It is surmised the black holes are headed towards each other and may one day combine to create an even more incredible black hole. However, that’s not all this image reveals. Not only is this pair of galaxies combining, but the very act of their mating has caused the collective gases to be “violently stirred up”. The action has caused an eruption of starbirth which may have stretched across a period of at least 200 million years. This wasn’t a quiet event… During that time, the most massive of the stars fled the stellar nursery, evolving at a rapid pace and blowing out as supernovae events. According to the news release, the astronomers who studied this system argue that the rapid pace of the supernovae may have expelled copious quantities of significant elements such as oxygen, neon, magnesium and silicon into the gaseous envelope created by the galactic interaction. Their findings show this enriched gas may have expanded into and combined with the already present cooler gas. Now, enter a long time frame. While there was an extensive era of star formation, there may have been more dramatic, shorter bursts of stellar creation. “For example, the most recent burst of star formation lasted for about five million years and occurred about 20 million years ago in Earth’s time frame.” say the paper’s authors. However, they are also quick to point out that the quick thrusts of star formation may not have been the sole producer of the hot gases. Perhaps one day these two interactive spiral galaxies will finish their performance… ending up as rich, young elliptical galaxy. It’s an act which will take millions of years to complete. Will the gas hang around – or will it be lost in space? No matter what the final answer is, the image gives us a first-hand opportunity to observe an event which dominated the early Universe. It was a time “when galaxies were much closer together and merged more often.” While this isn’t a true “cross eye” image, you can darn sure open the larger version, set it to screen size, cross your eyes and get a pretty astonishing result. If you don’t “get it”, then don’t worry. Just look at the pictures separately, because the Subaru Telescope has added a whole new dimension to a seasonal favorite – Stephen’s Quintet. Located in the constellation of Pegasus (RA 22 35 57.5 – Dec +33 57 36), this awesome little galaxy group also known as HIckson Compact Group 92 and Arp 319. In visual observation terms, there’s five – but only four are actually a compact group. The fifth is much closer… While literally volumes could be written about this famous group, the focus of this article is on the latest observations done by the Subaru Telescope. Each time the “Quints” are observed, it would seem we get more and more information on them! By employing a variety of specialized filters with Subaru’s Prime Focus Camera (Suprime-Cam), the two above images reveal different types of star-formation activity between the closer galaxy – NGC7320 – and the more distant members. It captures Stephen’s Quintet in three dimensions. So how is it done? Suprime-Cam has the capability of wide field imaging. By utilizing specialized filters, researchers can narrow the photographic process to specific goals. In this instance, they use narrowband filters to reveal star-forming regions within the grouping and their structures. These H-alpha filters are very specific – only allowing a particular wavelength of light to pass through – revealing the hydrogen emissions of starbirth. But here’s the tricky part. The images were taken with two different types of H-alpha filters – each one with a different recession velocity. With a setting of zero, we have an object which is moving away from the observer and close. The other has a greater recession velocity of 4200 miles (6,700 km) per second. This is an indicator of distant objects. For a color palette, red indicates the H-alpha emission lines while blue and green colors assigned to the images from the blue and red filters captured light so that the composite tricolor images aligned with human color perception in red, green, and blue. When processed, we get the two different views of Stephen’s Quintet as seen above. Says the imaging team; “The image on the left shows the galaxies when the observers used the Ha filter with a recession velocity of 0 while the one on the right shows them when they used the Ha filter with a recession velocity of 4,200 miles per second. The left image shows Ha emissions that indicate an active star-forming region in the spiral arms of NGC7320 in the lower left quadrant but not in the other galaxies. The right image contrasts with the left and shows a region of H-alpha emissions in the upper three galaxies but none from NGC7320. Two (NGC7318A and NGC7318B) of the four galaxies are shedding gas because of a collision while a third (NGC7319) is crashing in, creating shock waves that trigger vigorous star formation.” But that’s not all. In the figure below we can see the relationship of the galaxies. “Gas stripped from these three galaxies during galactic collisions is ionized by two mechanisms: shock waves and strong ultraviolet light emanating from the newborn stars.” reports the Subaru team. “This ionized gas emits bright light, which the H-alpha filter reveals. Thus the researchers believe that NGC7319 as well as NGC7318A/B are driving the star-forming regions in the Ha emitting region around NGC7318A/B.” But star-forming activity isn’t all you can derive from these images – they are also an indicator of distance. By exposing opposing recession velocities in the same image, observers are able to deduce where objects are located at different distances, yet close to each other. “The contrasting images show that NGC7320 is closer than the other galaxies, which show active star formation at a significantly higher recession velocity (4,200 miles per second) than NGC7320 (0).” explains the team. “NGC7320 is about 50 million light years away while the other four galaxies are about 300 million light years away. This explains the intriguing arrangement of the galaxies in Stephan’s Quintet.” Now is a great time to observe this cool cluster of galaxies for yourself… Before the Moon interferes again!

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An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Every device connected to Internet is assigned a unique number known as an Internet Protocol (IP) address. Similarly your internet IP address is given below. |Your IP address Details| |Zip/ Pin code||20146| |Time Zone||UTC -04:00|

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Customer Service Chat Get quote & make Payment The oxidation of sugar in the cell of higher organisms takes place in the ? Posted Date: 1/8/2013 12:03:43 PM | Location : Ask an Expert Nutrition, Assignment Help, Ask Question on Nutrition, Get Answer, Expert's Help, Nutrition Discussions Write discussion on Nutrition Your posts are moderated Write your message here.. Describe the plasma membrane of the beta-islet cell, Insulin binding to ins... Insulin binding to insulin receptors in the plasma membrane of a A. liver cell will lead to an enhance in the intracellular amounts of cAMP in the liver cell. B. beta-islet Denitrification - nutrient cycles, Denitrification - Nutrient Cycles N... Denitrification - Nutrient Cycles Nitrates are readily leached from the soil and also lost through denitrification the process by which molecular or gaseous nitrogen (N 2 ) as Distinguish between the terms pesticide and insecticide, Distinguish among ... Distinguish among the terms 'pesticide', 'insecticide' and 'herbicide. A pesticide is a compound which destroys or controls any organism which is considered to be harmful Explain antiarrhythmic drugs, Explain Antiarrhythmic Drugs? Amiodarone ... Explain Antiarrhythmic Drugs? Amiodarone may be considered in VT/VF that is refractory to shock. It might be given if the third shock is not successful. The dose is 300 mg IV i What are the cell movements, Q. What are the cell movements and how are the... Q. What are the cell movements and how are these movements created? Cell movements are movements executed by cell structures, like the movements of flagella and cilia, the pseu How poor selection of food causing the underweight, How Poor Selection of F... How Poor Selection of Food causing the Underweight? Poor Selection of Food: Poor selection of food along with irregular eating habits may be responsible for insufficient food Plants, why roots grow downword why roots grow downword Major renal processes that combined produce urine, Q. What are the three ma... Q. What are the three major renal processes that combined produce urine? Urine is made by the occurrence of three processes in the nephron that are tubular resorption, glomerul PROTOZOA., WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES & THE DISADVANTAGES OF PROTOZOA? WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES & THE DISADVANTAGES OF PROTOZOA? Pattern genetics, Ask questiRed-green color blindness is an X-linked recess... Ask questiRed-green color blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder. If Allison is heterozygous (a carrier), and her husband, Michael, is NOT colorblind. What is the chance that Accounting Assignment Help Economics Assignment Help Finance Assignment Help Statistics Assignment Help Physics Assignment Help Chemistry Assignment Help Math Assignment Help Biology Assignment Help English Assignment Help Management Assignment Help Engineering Assignment Help Programming Assignment Help Computer Science Assignment Help IT Courses and Help Why Us ? ~24x7 hrs Support ~Quality of Work ~Time on Delivery ~Privacy of Work Human Resource Management Literature Review Writing Help Follow Us | T & C Copyright by ExpertsMind IT Educational Pvt. Ltd.

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INTRODUCTIONAsthma is a condition that affects around 1 in 12 people, about 8% of the population. Currently, in the United Kingdom, 5.4 million people have this disease with an average of 3 people who lose their lives to it 1. In 2012 1,246 people died from asthma 358 were males and 888 were females. Deaths from asthma attacks are less frequent due to medication however although the mortality rates are low in asthma compared to other lung diseases, given the manageability of asthma it should be closer to zero, e. g., Asthma mortality rate is 1.1% in 2012 whereas COPD was 26.1% 2. Although asthma prevalence is 8%, it varies widely among different ethnicities. The severity of asthma is higher in specific ethnic groups, especially those in poverty-stricken areas because of environmental exposure, care received and stress 3. Asthma becomes more prevalent and worsens in women especially those who have an early onset of menstruation which suggests that there is a correlation between sex hormones and asthma. Although it is more common for women to suffer from asthma in adulthood, childhood asthma is more frequent in boys than girls 4. Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease with three factors, an increase in the responsiveness of the conducting airways resulting in AHR (Airway Hyper-responsiveness), reversible airway obstruction as well as airway inflammation 5. AHR causes the airway smooth muscle to constrict quickly due to a wide range of stimuli which leads to immune cells generating inflammation in the bronchi, narrowing the airways leading to breathlessness 168. A healthy lung function occurs when oxygen is inhaled through the mouth or nose and is taken down through the trachea which branches off into bronchi’s. Bronchi’s branch off into further bronchioles and at the end of each bronchiole are alveoli sacs where gas exchange occurs, taking oxygen to cells and tissues around the body as well as getting rid of waste products such as carbon dioxide. The most common type of asthma is allergic asthma which accounts for over 60% of asthma cases 7. Although all cases of asthma are not extrinsic (allergic), most allergic examples are seen in younger patients that show an immediate hypersensitivity to environmental allergens 5.Types of Asthma There are two types of asthma, Atopic asthma which is extrinsic and non-atopic asthma which is intrinsic. Atopic asthma is due to an allergy to antigens resulting in a heightened immune response to either food or inhaled common allergens 9. Usually, the allergens are airborne in the form of dust, smoke, animal dander and pollen. Intrinsic asthma is caused by recurrent infections of the bronchi due to bacteria or viruses which lead to an infection. Airway cooling can also lead to an attack which is due to exercise and change in temperatures (e. g. cold weather) or emotional stress, non-specific irritants cause these attacks. Another type of asthma classed as ‘mixed’ is when a patient has a combination of atopic and non-atopic asthma factors. Atopic asthma is more common and has a childhood onset due to a hypersensitivity reaction to the immune response. The symptoms that arise with an asthma attack is a wheezing type of respiration, pale skin, bluish colour to the lips or skin(cyanosis) along with a production of thick sputum as the attack progresses 10. The start of asthma depends highly on the dendritic cells (DC) and epithelial cells (EC) lining the airways. In asthma, the epithelial cell junctions are defective as it enables penetration of inhaled allergens. The activation of epithelial cells results in the release of chemokines such as CCL20, CCL19 etc. which attracts immature dendritic cells that can differentiate as well as activate inflammation and adaptive immunity 5.- Current medication and treatments- Inflammation- Future drug therapies Method WHERE? SEARCH BAR RESULTS Inclusion area Exclusion area Pubmed Allergic asthma 34,341 Full text, within 5 years, humans Anything over 10 years Pubmed Allergic asthma inflammation adults 311 Clinical trial phase 3, review, full text, within 5 years, humans Anything over 10 years Pubmed IgE in allergic asthma atopic 263 Clinical trial phase 3, review, full text, within 5 years, humans Anything over 10 years Pubmed allergic asthma, TH2, IgE 57 Clinical study, 2014-2017, full text, Anything over 5 years+, on animals, Google scholar Difference between extrinsic and intrinsic asthma inflammation 18,800 Since 2017 10 years+, anything on animals, anything to do with cancer or rhinitis PUBMED what is atopic asthma inflammation th2 children 72 2014+, CLINICAL TRIALS 10 years+ , anything on animals, anything to do with atopic eczema Pubmed Asthma and ethnic minorities: socioeconomic status 59 Clinical trials 10 years+ Pubmed Asthma and ethnic minorities: socioeconomic status 30(ref29) Clinical trials, 2009-2017 10 years+, anything to do with cancer I carried out my research on PubMed, narrowing down my results with more specific terminologies which reduced the amount of results which can be seen in the table above. My inclusion and exclusion stayed the same. Inclusions included papers on clinical studies within a 10-year space, clinical trials only on human subjects as well as being in phase 3 of the clinical trial to ensure that the data collected was sufficient. To further advance my search the exclusions consisted of papers no longer than 10 years as the research into asthma and the current treatments are still developing, certain areas in the information needed was narrowed down further to less than 5 years also excluding any research papers that included atopic eczema, cancer and rhinitis. Reference 1. asthma?, W. (2016). What is asthma? | Asthma UK. online Asthma UK. Available at: https://www.asthma.org.uk/advice/understanding-asthma/what-is-asthma/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA4bzSBRDOARIsAHJ1UO5WTlcloBpTlM00NObKvr4j2kFRti9xNn-5yxfJcDtfu8vcp5Le6q4aAiY1EALw_wcB Accessed 10 Nov. (2018). Asthma statistics | British Lung Foundation. online Available at: https://statistics.blf.org.uk/asthma Accessed 11 Dec. 2017.3. Forno, E., & Celedón, J. C. (2009). Asthma and Ethnic Minorities: Socioeconomic Status and Beyond. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 9(2), 154–1604. Asthma UK. (2018). Women | Asthma UK. online Available at: https://www.asthma.org.uk/advice/manage-your-asthma/women/ Accessed 9 Jan. 2018. 5. Chapel, H., Haeney, M. and Misbah, S. (2014). Essentials of Clinical Immunology. 6th ed. John wiley & sons, pp.94-97.6. Murdoch, J. and Lloyd, C. (2010). Chronic inflammation and asthma. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 690(1-2), pp.24-39.7. Aafa-md.org. (2018). Asthma Basics :: Asthma & Allergy Foundation of America of Maryland – Greater Washington DC. online Available at: http://www.aafa-md.org/asthma_basics. htm Accessed 14 Nov. 2017.8. Bihouée, T., Bouchaud, G., Chesné, J., Lair, D., Rolland-Debord, C. , Braza, F., Cheminant, M., Aubert, P. , Mahay, G., Sagan, C., Neunlist, M., Brouard, S. , Bodinier, M. and Magnan, A. (2018). Food allergy enhances allergic asthma in mice.9. https://www.

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Starter motor is one of the most important parts of the car. The starter motor is a small part but without this part the vehicle will not start. It works with the electricity it takes from the accumulator and enables the flywheel gears of the vehicle to rotate. With the rotation of the gear, the fuel and air in the vehicle fill into the engine. The starter engine is activated when the ignition is turned. As soon as the key is turned, the gear on the starter engages with the gear connected to the crankshaft. The flywheel transmits the rotational force to the crankshaft. The atmosphere in the vehicle and fuel mixes with each other and fills the engine. If you keep the key still twisted after the engine is initialized, you will damage the starter. This situation shortens the life of the starter engine. When you turn on the ignition, the gears will hit each other and you will continue the collision as long as you keep the key turned. Alternator is a product that meets our electricity needs in places where there is no electricity. It converts mechanical energy into alternating current. Alternating current is an alternating current. Apart from the alternating current electronic devices, it is used in electrical household appliances, shops and homes. The alternator converts the motion it receives from the engine into electricity. The system that converts the motion energy of the engine into electricity is the Alternator. The generates electricity, charging the battery and meeting the needs of systems operating with electricity. Especially when the engine is started, the battery current gives a lot of current and therefore the battery must always remain charged. MS004 COM device produced by MSG company is used for fast and high quality fault detection of starter motors, alternators and voltage regulators. Test Bench for Starter Motor and Alternators has high power. Since the equipment is small in size, it can be placed both in small services and in large specialist garages. MS004 COM Device can also test different alternators under load up to 100a.

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Arrow the Dog barks! His bark makes the air go between compressed and rarefied: The air molecules bounce back and forth a bit but don't really travel anywhere. We call that type of wave longitudinal, like this: But people show sound as "up-down" waves just because it is easier to show that way. A low frequency of vibration has a low pitch and makes a deep sound, like a growl. A high frequency has a high pitch, like a whistle. Sound frequency is often measured in "Hertz" (Hz) which is how many vibrations per second. Example: 50 Hertz means 50 times per second Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (depending on the human!). You can try it yourself: Below 20 Hz is called infrasound ("infra" means below), and above 20,000 Hz is ultrasound ("ultra" means beyond). We are most sensitive to sounds between 1,000 and 4,000 Hz: A Typical Hearing Sensitivity Curve (dB explained below) As we get older we are less sensitive to higher frequency sounds (a limit around 12,000 Hz is normal for an adult). Sound Intensity is the amount of power per unit area Usually measured as Watts per square meter (W/m2) (Note: 1 W/m2 is very loud, like a chain saw up close.) Loudness and Decibels Loudness is how powerful a sound seems to us. For a sound to seem twice as loud needs about ten times the intensity. Example: you feed 1 Watt of power into a speaker. Your friend says "twice as loud please!" You need to use about 10 watts to make them agree it now sounds twice as loud. So we use decibels (dB) to measure loudness: - +10 dB means 10× the intensity - +20 dB means 100× the intensity - +30 dB means 1000× the intensity The scale for sound starts at 0 dB, the quietest sound humans can hear, and goes up from there: |0||Quietest sound humans can hear||10-12| |140||Jet take off, Dangerous for ears||100| |194||Loudest sound possible, can kill| At 194 dB sound waves become shock waves (like a blast from an explosion). |Inverse Square: when one value decreases as the square of the other value.| Example: Sound and distance The further away we are from a sound, the less intense it is. The power per square meter decreases as the square of the distance. - the energy twice as far away is spread over 4 times the area - the energy 3 times as far away is spread over 9 times the area Speed of Sound Sound travels slowest in gases (such as air), faster in liquids (such as water) and fastest in solids. |Air at 20°C||343 m/s| |Air at 35°C||352 m/s| |Water at 20°C||1482 m/s| |Amazing! Sound travels about 17 times faster in Steel than Air! How Far is That Lightning Strike? Next time there is a thunderstorm watch for lightning and start counting seconds. The light reaches you almost immediately (at about 300,000 km/s), but the sound takes longer. 343 m/s is about 3 seconds per km, or 5 seconds per mile. |1 sec||340 m| |2 sec||700 m| |3 sec||1 km| |6 sec||2 km| |9 sec||3 km| So if you count 15 seconds until you hear thunder, the lightning strike was 5 km (3 miles) away. An echo is a reflection, usually of sound from a hard surface. The sound bounces off the wall (angle in matches angle out). You will hear the echo of the clap some time after you hear it from your hands. Sonar and Ultrasound Sonar (SOund Navigation And Ranging) is a way of listening to the echo of sound waves (usually underwater) to locate objects: Sonar sent out ... reflects off cute fish ... sound received. Sonar (with computer help) can map out the sea floor and even find shipwrecks! Bats use a similar method (called "echolocation"). They send out ultrasound squeaks (20 kHz to 120 kHz) to find their way at night, find insects to eat and even avoid hitting small wires! And ultrasound can be used for images inside our bodies. The Doppler Effect happens when a wave's source is moving in relation to us: - As the source approaches, the waves arrive at a higher frequency - And as the source moves away the waves have a lower frequency So a passing siren sounds like "nee-nee-nee-nee ... woooo-woooo" (or a passing race-car sounds like "eeee-yoooo"): |Approaching: higher frequency| |Leaving: lower frequency| This applies to all waves, including light waves and even waves on the sea: - On the sea, a boat can travel with the waves to make the up-and-down motion slower. - Light from stars that are moving away are "red-shifted" (a lower frequency of light) and those that move toward us are "blue-shifted"

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Kids design and build magnetic-field detectors and use them to find hidden magnets in this activity from Design Squad Nation. They also learn how NASA uses magnetometers to learn what is going on inside a planet or moon. People love treasure hunts. But, in this one, kids are looking for something invisible! As they build their mmagnetic detectors, the kids use the engineering design process, apply a variety of science concepts (e.g., force, magnetic fields, mapping), and learn how a planet's or moon's magnetic field gives NASA scientists insights into its structure and how it formed. This resource is useful for introducing components of Engineering Design (ETS) from the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) to grades 3-8 students.

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Graphic design, the art and profession of selecting and arranging visual elements—such as typography, images, symbols, and colours—to convey a message to an audience. Sometimes graphic design is called “visual communications,” a term that emphasizes its function of giving form—e.g., the design of a book, advertisement, logo, or Web site—to information. An important part of the designer’s task is to combine visual and verbal elements into an ordered and effective whole. Graphic design is therefore a collaborative discipline: writers produce words and photographers and illustrators create images that the designer incorporates into a complete visual communication. The evolution of graphic design as a practice and profession has been closely bound to technological innovations, societal needs, and the visual imagination of practitioners. Graphic design has been practiced in various forms throughout history; indeed, strong examples of graphic design date back to manuscripts in ancient China, Egypt, and Greece. As printing and book production developed in the 15th century, advances in graphic design developed alongside it over subsequent centuries, with compositors or typesetters often designing pages as they set the type. In the late 19th century, graphic design emerged as a distinct profession in the West, in part because of the job specialization process that occurred there, and in part because of the new technologies and commercial possibilities brought about by the Industrial Revolution. New production methods led to the separation of the design of a communication medium (e.g., a poster) from its actual production. Increasingly, over the course of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advertising agencies, book publishers, and magazines hired art directors who organized all visual elements of the communication and brought them into a harmonious whole, creating an expression appropriate to the content. In 1922 typographer William A. Dwiggins coined the term graphic design to identify the emerging field. Throughout the 20th century, the technology available to designers continued to advance rapidly, as did the artistic and commercial possibilities for design. The profession expanded enormously, and graphic designers created, among other things, magazine pages, book jackets, posters, compact-disc covers, postage stamps, packaging, trademarks, signs, advertisements, kinetic titles for television programs and motion pictures, and Web sites. By the turn of the 21st century, graphic design had become a global profession, as advanced technology and industry spread throughout the world. Typography is discussed in this essay as an element of the overall design of a visual communication; for a complete history, see typography. Similarly, the evolution of the printing process is discussed in this essay as it relates to developments in graphic design; for a complete history, see printing. Manuscript design in antiquity and the Middle Ages Although its advent as a profession is fairly recent, graphic design has roots that reach deep into antiquity. Illustrated manuscripts were made in ancient China, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. While early manuscript designers were not consciously creating “graphic designs,” scribes and illustrators worked to create a blend of text and image that was at once harmonious and effective at conveying the idea of the manuscript. The ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, which contained texts intended to aid the deceased in the afterlife, is a superb example of early graphic design. Hieroglyphic narratives penned by scribes are illustrated with colourful illustrations on rolls of papyrus. Words and pictures are unified into a cohesive whole: both elements are compressed into a horizontal band, the repetitive vertical structure of the writing is echoed in both the columns and the figures, and a consistent style of brushwork is used for the writing and drawing. Flat areas of colour are bound by firm brush contours that contrast vibrantly with the rich texture of the hieroglyphic writing. During the Middle Ages, manuscript books preserved and propagated sacred writings. These early books were written and illustrated on sheets of treated animal skin called parchment, or vellum, and sewn together into a codex format with pages that turned like the pages of contemporary books. In Europe, monastic writing rooms had a clear division of labour that led to the design of books. A scholar versed in Greek and Latin headed the writing room and was responsible for the editorial content, design, and production of books. Scribes trained in lettering styles spent their days bent over writing tables, penning page after page of text. They indicated the place on page layouts where illustrations were to be added after the text was written, using a light sketch or a descriptive note jotted in the margin. Illuminators, or illustrators, rendered pictures and decorations in support of the text. In designing these works, monks were mindful of the educational value of pictures and the capacity of colour and ornament to create spiritual overtones. Manuscript production in Europe during the Middle Ages generated a vast variety of page designs, illustration and lettering styles, and production techniques. Isolation and poor travel conditions allowed identifiable regional design styles to emerge. Some of the more distinctive medieval art and design approaches, including the Hiberno-Saxon style of Ireland and England and the International Gothic style prevalent in Europe in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, were used in manuscript books that achieved major graphic-design innovations. The Book of Kells (c. 800 ce), an illuminated Gospel book believed to have been completed in the early 9th century at the Irish monastery of Kells, is renowned as one of the most beautiful Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts. Its page depicting the appearance of Jesus Christ’s name in Matthew 1:18 is called the “Chi-Rho page.” The design presents the monogram XPI—which was used to signify Christ in many manuscripts—as an intricately designed pattern of shimmering colour and spiraling forms blossoming over a whole page. The Book of Kells’s Chi-Rho page is a paradigm of how graphical form can become a metaphorical expression of spiritual experience: it clearly conveys the sacred nature of the religious content. From the 10th through the 15th centuries, handmade manuscript books in Islamic lands also achieved a masterful level of artistic and technical achievement, especially within the tradition of Persian miniature painting. The pinnacle of the Shiraz school of Persian manuscript design and illustration is evident in a page illustrating the great 12th-century poet Neẓāmī’s Khamseh (“The Quintuplet”). This page depicts the Persian king Khosrow II in front of the palace of his beloved, Shīrīn. Human figures, animals, buildings, and the landscape are presented as refined shapes that are defined by concise outlines. These two-dimensional planes are filled with vibrant colour and decorative patterns in a tightly interlocking composition. The calligraphic text is contained in a geometric shape places near the bottom of the page. Early printing and graphic design While the creation of manuscripts led to such high points in graphic design, the art and practice of graphic design truly blossomed with the development of printmaking technologies such as movable type. Antecedents of these developments occurred in China, where the use of woodblock, or relief, printing, was developed perhaps as early as the 6th century ce. This process, which was accomplished by applying ink to a raised carved surface, allowed multiple copies of texts and images to be made quickly and economically. The Chinese also developed paper made from organic fibres by 105 ce. This paper provided an economical surface for writing or printing; other substrates, such as parchment and papyrus, were less plentiful and more costly to prepare than paper. Surviving artifacts show that the Chinese developed a wide range of uses for printing and that they achieved a high level of artistry in graphic design and printing from an early date. Artisans cut calligraphic symbols into woodblocks and printed them beautifully; printed sheets of paper bearing illustrations and religious texts were then pasted together to make printed scrolls. By the 9th or 10th century, paged woodblock books replaced scrolls, and literary, historical, and herbal works were published. Paper money and playing cards were also designed, their designs cut into woodblocks and printed. Chinese alchemist Bi Sheng invented a technique for printing with movable type about 1041–48. However, this technology did not replace the hand-cut woodblock in Asia, in part because the hundreds of characters used in calligraphic languages made setting and filing the movable characters difficult. Chinese inventions slowly spread across the Middle East and into Europe. By the 15th century, woodblock broadsides and books printed on paper were being made in Europe. By 1450 Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz (Germany) invented a method for printing text from raised alphabet characters cast on movable metal types. After this, printed books began to replace costly handmade manuscript books. Designers of early typographic books in Europe attempted to replicate manuscripts, often designing type styles based on current manuscript lettering styles. When the type was printed, spaces were left for illuminators to add pictures, ornate initials, and other decorative material by hand. In this way, the compositor or typesetter was in effect the designer as he set the type. Some surviving copies of Gutenberg’s landmark 42-line Bible have headers, initials, and sentence markers applied by hand in red and blue inks. Over time, typographic books developed their own design vocabulary. By the mid-15th century, printers combined woodblock illustrations with typeset text to create easily produced, illustrated printed books. They printed woodblock decorative borders and ornamental initials along with the type, subsequently having colour applied by hand to these printed elements. The first complete printed title page—identifying the book title, author, printer, and date—was designed for Regiomontanus’s Calendarium in 1476. The prevalence of movable type and increasingly advanced printing technology in Europe meant that, while other cultures continued to create manuscript designs and printed communications, major advances in graphic design over the next several centuries would often be centred in Europe. Graphic design in the 16th–18th centuries Renaissance book design The Renaissance saw a revival, or “rebirth,” of Classical learning from ancient Greece and Rome throughout Europe. Beginning in the late 15th century, printing played a major role in this process by making knowledge from the ancient world available to all readers. Typeface designs evolved toward what are now called Old Style types, which were inspired by capital letters found in ancient Roman inscriptions and by lowercase letters found in manuscript writing from the Carolingian period. The Italian scholar and printer Aldus Manutius the Elder founded his Aldine Press in 1495 to produce printed editions of many Greek and Latin classics. His innovations included inexpensive, pocket-sized editions of books with cloth covers. About 1500 Manutius introduced the first italic typeface, cast from punches cut by type designer Francesco Griffo. Because more of these narrow letters that slanted to the right could be fit on a page, the new pocket-sized books could be set in fewer pages. The prototype for Renaissance book design was the Aldine Press’s 1499 Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, believed to be written by Francesco Colonna. The design of the work achieves an understated simplicity and tonal harmony, and its elegant synthesis of type and image has seldom been equaled. The layout combined exquisitely light woodcuts by an anonymous illustrator with roman types by Griffo utilizing new, smaller capitals; Griffo cut these types after careful study of Roman inscriptions. Importantly, double-page spreads were conceived in the book as unified designs, rather than as two separate pages. During the 16th century, France became a centre for fine typography and book design. Geoffroy Tory—whose considerable talents included design, engraving, and illustration, in addition to his work as a scholar and author—created books with types, ornaments, and illustrations that achieved the seemingly contradictory qualities of delicacy and complexity. In his Book of Hours (1531), he framed columns of roman type with modular borders; these exuberant forms were a perfect complement to his illustrations. Typeface designer and punch-cutter Claude Garamond, one of Tory’s pupils, achieved refinement and consistency in his Old Style fonts. Printers commissioned types from him rather than casting their own, making Garamond the first independent typefounder not directly associated with a printing firm. Works by Tory, Garamond, and many other graphic artists and printers created a standard of excellence in graphic design that spread beyond France. The 17th century was a quiet time for graphic design. Apparently the stock of typeface designs, woodblock illustrations, and ornaments produced during the 16th century satisfied the needs of most printers, and additional innovation seemed unnecessary. Rococo graphic design The 18th-century Rococo movement, characterized by complex curvilinear decoration, found its graphic-design expression in the work of the French typefounder Pierre-Simon Fournier. After studying art and apprenticing at the Le Bé type foundry, Fournier opened his own type design and foundry operation. He pioneered standardized measurement through his table of proportions based on the French pouce, a now-obsolete unit of measure slightly longer than an inch. The resulting standard sizes of type enabled him to pioneer the “type family,” a series of typefaces with differing stroke weights and letter widths whose similar sizes and design characteristics allowed them to be used together in an overall design. Fournier designed a wide range of decorative ornaments and florid fonts, enabling French printers to create books with a decorative design complexity that paralleled the architecture and interiors of the period. Because French law forbade typefounders from printing, Fournier often delivered made-up pages to the printer, thereby assuming the role of graphic designer. Copperplate engraving became an important medium for book illustrations during this period. Lines were incised into a smooth metal plate; ink was pressed into these recessed lines; excess ink was wiped clean from the surface; and a sheet of paper was pressed onto the plate with sufficient pressure to transfer the ink from the printing plate to the paper. This allowed book illustrations to be produced with finer lines and greater detail than woodblock printing. In order to make text more compatible with these fine-line engravings, designers increasingly made casting types and ornaments with finer details. English engraver Robert Clee’s engraved trading card demonstrates the curvilinear decoration and fine detail achieved in both text and image by designers during the Rococo. Graphic design often involves a collaboration of specialists. Many 18th-century artists specialized in book illustration. One such artist was Frenchman Charles Eisen, who illustrated French poet Jean de La Fontaine’s Contes et nouvelles en vers (1762; Tales and Novels in Verse). In this work, Joseph Gerard Barbou, the printer, used types and ornaments by Fournier, full-page engravings by Eisen, and complex spot illustrations and tailpieces by Pierre-Phillippe Choffard. This superb example of Rococo book design combined the ornamented types, decorative initials, elaborate frames and rules, and intricate illustrations typical of the genre. Neoclassical graphic design In the second half of the 18th century, some designers tired of the Rococo style and instead sought inspiration from Classical art. This interest was inspired by recent archaeological finds, the popularity of travel in Greece, Italy, and Egypt, and the publication of information about Classical works. Neoclassical typographical designs used straight lines, rectilinear forms, and a restrained geometric ornamentation. John Baskerville, an English designer from the period, created book designs and typefaces that offered a transition between Rococo and Neoclassical. In his books he used superbly designed types printed on smooth paper without ornament or illustration, which resulted in designs of stately and restrained elegance. Baskerville’s fonts had sharper serifs and more contrast between thick-and-thin strokes than Rococo typefaces, and his letters had a more vertical, geometric axis. In the late decades of the 18th and early decades of the 19th centuries, Giambattista Bodoni, the Italian printer at the Royal Press (Stamperia Reale) of the duke of Parma, achieved Neoclassical ideals in his books and typefaces. Bodoni laid forth his design statement in Manuale tipografico (1788; “Inventory of Types”); another edition of this book was published in 1818, after his death, by his widow and foreman. Bodoni advocated extraordinary pages for exceptional readers. He achieved a purity of form with sparse pages, generous margins and line-spacing, and severe geometric types; this functional purity avoided any distractions from the act of reading. He drew inspiration from Baskerville as he evolved his preferences from Rococo-derived designs toward modern typefaces. The Didot family of French printers, publishers, and typefounders also achieved Neoclassical ideals in their work. Books designed by the Didots have minimal decoration, generous margins, and simple linear borders. Pierre Didot (known as Pierre l’aîné) achieved technical perfection in his printing of the lavish éditions du Louvre. In these designs, Pierre utilized types designed at his brother Firmin’s foundry, which provided a crisp counterpoint to the engraved illustrations by various artists working in the school of the French Neoclassical painter Jacques-Louis David. The idealized figures in ancient Roman environments in the éditions were engraved with flawless technique, obsessive detail, and sharp contrasts of light and shadow. Graphic design in the 19th century The Industrial Revolution and design technology The Industrial Revolution was a dynamic process that began in the late 18th century and lasted well into the 19th century. The agricultural and handicraft economies of the West had used human, animal, and water power, but they evolved into industrial manufacturing economies powered by steam engines, electricity, and internal-combustion motors. Many aspects of human activity were irrevocably changed. Society found new ways (often commercial) to use graphic designs and developed new technologies to produce them. Industrial technology lowered the cost of printing and paper, while making much-larger press runs possible, thus allowing a designer’s work to reach a wider audience than ever before. One popular medium for the graphic designer became the poster. Posters printed with large wood types were used extensively to advertise new modes of transportation, entertainment, and manufactured goods throughout the 19th century. This was possible in part because typefounders developed larger sizes of types for use on posted announcements and innovated new typefaces including sans serif, slab serif, and decorative designs. An American printer, Darius Wells, invented a lateral router that enabled the economical manufacture of abundant quantities of large wooden types, which cost less than half as much as large metal types. Wood-type posters usually had vertical formats; types of a mixture of sizes and styles were set in horizontal lines with a left-and-right alignment that created a visual unity. A poster produced in 1854 for the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, for example, combined typefaces that were outlined, drop-shadowed, decorative, sans serif, slab serif, extremely wide, and narrow, all innovations that appeared during the 19th century. The poster became even more popular as a result of advances in lithography, which had been invented about 1798 by Alois Senefelder of Bavaria. Building upon this discovery, colour lithographs, called chromolithographs, were widely used in the second half of the 19th century, and designers created increasingly colourful posters that decorated the walls of cities, publicizing events, traveling entertainment shows, and household products. Designers of chromolithographic prints drew all the elements—text and image—as one piece of artwork; freed from the technical restraints of letterpress printing, they could invent fanciful ornaments and lettering styles at will. Many chromolithographs reflected an interest in the 1856 publication of English designer Owen Jones’s The Grammar of Ornament, a methodical collection of design patterns and motifs that contained examples from Asian, African, and Western cultures. (Such explorations were consistent with the fascination with historicism and elaborate decoration found in architecture and product design during the Victorian era.) Momentum for this poster-design approach began in France, where poster designer Jules Chéret was a pioneer of the movement. Beginning his career in 1867, he created large-scale lithographic posters that featured vibrant colour, animated figures, textured areas juxtaposed against flat shapes, and happy, energetic figures capturing la belle époque of turn-of-the-century Paris. Chéret designed more than one thousand posters during his career. Chromolithography also made colourful pictures available to the homes of ordinary people for the first time in history. Designers developed ideas for packaged goods that were offered to the public in tins printed with iconic images, bright colours, and embellished lettering. They also created trade cards and “scrap,” which were packets of printed images of birds, flowers, and other subjects collected by children. As the century progressed, graphic design reached many people through magazines, newspapers, and books. The automation of typesetting, primarily through the Linotype machine, patented in the United States in 1884 by Ottmar Mergenthaler, made these media more readily available. One Linotype operator could do the work of seven or eight hand compositors, dramatically reducing the cost of typesetting and making printed matter less expensive. William Morris and the private-press movement During the 19th century, one by-product of industrialism was a decline in the quality of book design and production. Cheap, thin paper, shoddy presswork, drab, gray inks, and anemic text typefaces were often the order of the day. Near the end of the century, a book-design renaissance began as a direct result of the English Arts and Crafts Movement. William Morris, the leader of the movement, was a major figure in the evolution of design. Morris was actively involved in designing furniture, stained glass, textiles, wallpapers, and tapestries from the 1860s through the 1890s. Deeply concerned with the problems of industrialization and the factory system, Morris believed that a return to the craftsmanship and spiritual values of the Gothic period could restore balance to modern life. He rejected tasteless mass-produced goods and poor craftsmanship in favour of the beautiful, well-crafted objects he designed. In 1888 Morris decided to establish a printing press to recapture the quality of books from the early decades of printing. His Kelmscott Press began to print books in 1891, using an old handpress, rich dense inks, and handmade paper. Decorative borders and initials designed by Morris and woodblocks of commissioned illustrations were cut by hand. Morris designed three typefaces based on types from the 1400s. The Kelmscott Press recaptured the beauty and high standards of incunabula (texts produced when books were still copied by hand), and the book again became an art form. The press’s masterwork is the ambitious 556-page The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Four years in the making, the Kelmscott Chaucer has 87 woodcut illustrations from drawings by renowned artist Edward Burne-Jones. For the single work, Morris designed 14 large borders, 18 smaller frames for the illustrations, and over 200 initial letters and words. An exhaustive effort was required by everyone involved in the project. The influence of William Morris and the Kelmscott Press upon graphic design, particularly book design, was remarkable. Morris’s concept of the well-designed page, his beautiful typefaces, and his sense of design unity—with the smallest detail relating to the total concept—inspired a new generation of graphic designers. His typographic pages, which formed the overwhelming majority of the pages in his books, were conceived and executed with readability in mind, another lesson heeded by younger designers. Morris’s searching reexamination of earlier type styles and graphic-design history also touched off an energetic redesign process that resulted in a major improvement in the quality and variety of fonts available for design and printing; many designers directly imitated the style of the Kelmscott borders, initials, and type styles. More commercial areas of graphic design, such as job printing and advertising, were similarly revitalized by the success of Morris. The Kelmscott Press’s influence became immediately apparent in the rise of the private-press movement: printers and designers established small printing firms to design and print carefully crafted, limited-edition books of great beauty. Architect and designer Charles Robert Ashbee founded the Essex House Press in London, and bookbinder Thomas James Cobden-Sanderson joined printer Sir Emery Walker in establishing the Doves Press at Hammersmith. Books from the Doves Press, including its monumental masterpiece, the 1903 Doves Press Bible, are remarkably beautiful typographic books. They have no illustrations or ornaments; the press instead relied upon fine paper, perfect presswork, and exquisite type and spacing to produce inspired page designs. The Ashendene Press, directed by Englishman C.H. St. John Hornby, was another exceptional English private press of the period. Following the example of Morris, these private presses believed strongly in the social value of making attractive and functional visual communications that were available to citizens of all walks of life. In the United States, typeface designers, in particular Frederic W. Goudy and Morris F. Benton, revived traditional typefaces. Also inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement, American book designer Bruce Rogers played a significant role in upgrading book design. By applying the ideals of the beautifully designed book to commercial production, Rogers set the standard for well-designed books in the early 20th century. An intuitive classicist, Rogers possessed a fine sense of visual proportion. He also saw design as a decision-making process, feeling that subtle choices about margins, paper, type styles and sizes, and spatial position combine to create a unity and harmony. Type historian Beatrice Warde wrote that Rogers “managed to steal the Divine Fire which glowed in the Kelmscott Press books, and somehow be the first to bring it down to earth.” Art Nouveau was an international design movement that emerged and touched all of the design arts—architecture, fashion, furniture, graphic, and product design—during the 1890s and the early 20th century. Its defining characteristic was a sinuous curvilinear line. Art Nouveau graphic designs often utilized stylized abstract shapes, contoured lines, and flat space inspired by Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints. Artists in the West became aware of ukiyo-e prints as trade and communication between Eastern and Western nations increased during the last half of the 19th century. Building upon the example of the Japanese, Art Nouveau designers made colour, rather than tonal modeling, the primary visual attribute of their graphics. One of the most innovative posters of the Art Nouveau movement was artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec’s 1893 poster of the dancer Jane Avril, who was then performing at the Jardin de Paris. In this poster and others like it, Toulouse-Lautrec captured the lively atmosphere by reducing imagery to simple flat shapes that convey an expression of the performance and environment. Although Toulouse-Lautrec only produced about three dozen posters, his early application of the ukiyo-e influence propelled graphic design toward more reductive imagery that signified, rather than depicted, the subject. He often integrated lettering with his imagery by drawing it in the same casual technique as the pictorial elements. Alphonse Mucha, a young Czech artist who worked in Paris, is widely regarded as the graphic designer who took Art Nouveau to its ultimate visual expression. Beginning in the 1890s, he created designs—usually featuring beautiful young women whose hair and clothing swirl in rhythmic patterns—that achieved an idealized perfection. He organized into tight compositions lavish decorative elements inspired by Byzantine and Islamic design, stylized lettering, and sinuous female forms. Like many other designers at the time, Mucha first captured public notice for poster designs, but he also received commissions for magazine covers, packages, book designs, publicity materials, and even postage stamps. In this way, the role and scope of graphic-design activity steadily expanded throughout the period. Will Bradley, a self-taught American designer, emerged as another early practitioner of Art Nouveau. His magazine covers, lettering styles, and posters displayed a wide range of techniques and design approaches. Bradley synthesized inspiration from the European Art Nouveau and Arts and Crafts movements into a personal approach to visual imagery. By the 1890s, photoengraving processes (making printing plates from original artwork) had been perfected. These allowed much more accurate reproduction of original artwork than hand engraving, which was often only the engraver’s interpretation of the original. Bradley’s work, in which he integrated words and picture into a dynamic whole, was printed from plates using this new technology. Art Nouveau rejected historicism and emphasized formal invention, and so it became a transitional movement from Victorian design to the modern art movements of the early 20th century. This sense of transition is quite evident in the work of the Belgian artist and designer Henry van de Velde. After turning from Post-Impressionist painting to furniture and graphic design in the 1890s, he used lines and shapes inspired by the natural world and abstracted them to the point that they appeared as “pure form”; that is, they appeared as abstract forms invented by the designer rather than as forms from nature. In works such as his poster for Tropon food concentrate (1899), undulating linear movements, organic shapes, and warm-hued colours combine into a nonobjective graphic expression. Although this poster has been interpreted as signifying the process of separating egg yolks and whites, the typical viewer perceives it as pure form. Similarly exploring issues of form, and inspired in part by the theories and work of the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright, architects Charles Rennie Mackintosh and J. Herbert McNair joined artists (and sisters) Margaret and Frances Macdonald in a revolutionary period of creativity beginning in the 1890s. This group in Glasgow, Scotland, combined rectangular structure with romantic and religious imagery in their unorthodox furniture, crafts, and graphic designs. In a poster it made for the Glasgow Institute of Fine Arts (1895), for example, the group’s emphasis upon rising vertical composition is evident.

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There is an old saying – A rising river covers many rocks and a drying river uncover them. The downturn in global economic growth had led to many social issues raise their heads again. The education system is one of them. There are many issues relating to the current education system – poor standards of public education, falling education standards, rising cost of professional courses, a decrease in relevance among industries and more. The decade old question which is a common factor for all these problems is – “Role of governments in the education system”. The question is as old as the education system itself. To answer this question, first, we need to understand the purpose of the education system. Purpose of Education Education is an investment in human capital. And as continuous investment in physical capital is required for economic growth, increase in human capital is also required for economic & also social growth. Apart from providing economic gains education also serves society. For a society to be stable & Democratic it needs to have some basic common set of values along with a minimum level of literacy. Secondly, for a society to be progressive it needs innovative, diverse & free thoughts. Education can serve both these purposes but do so under different environments. Though it is very difficult to classify the level of education which will bifurcate for these two reasons & there is no clear answer for this. But what is clear that same set of environment cannot meet both objectives mentioned above. Returns on some basic education to meet the first point might be low at individual’s level but not at the societal level due to neighborhood effect. Also, opportunities to get this minimum education are not same for all. Under these circumstances, the government intervention is a must to provide this minimum education for all. Since this education must have a common set of values it needs government regulation in course curriculum and administration. The basic education can’t be set free. If allowed free, the teachings, practices of different systems, region, religion might contradict each other. For example, teachings of different religious schools, interpretation of history at different schools can be different & of opposing nature. That is why; the basic common education system should include the only fact based teaching, social rights & wrongs and introduce a practical way of life. Restrictive or conclusive education to children limits his view, it will not allow him to become a rational person. He will not be able to accept other different thoughts or views, thus making him biased or extremist in extreme case. Interpretation & more in depth study can be left for higher studies when an individual is ready to accept different thoughts & views and has the ability to develop his own reasoning. On the other hand, for education to be innovative, diverse it had to be freed from regulations & must be competitive. Higher returns on higher education attract individuals with greater force. But there are possible reasons for which a competent individual seeker for higher education might not avail it. For these reasons, higher education needs government financial support. But no regulations in curriculum or administration; controlled higher education system will not be able to match the pace of industrial & social changes. The social fabric of nation or composition of demand for human capital changes often and so should be higher teachings. To solve ever changing social problems or to produce technologies required by industry – thinkers, reformers, researchers should have free competitive learning that matches such changes. A regulated higher education system might lead to citizens who lack the ability to challenge or question the state functioning. There can be cases where states actions are not justifiable or need corrections. Under such circumstances, active citizens play a crucial role. There are two major assumptions here – Governments are efficient & individuals without common values will have conflicts with each other. Though, both these assumptions are questionable. First, Governments are never efficient & tend to have their own agendas. Governments often try to use the education system to serve themselves instead of society. To have continued power they might enforce their own interests/ideology into the education system. Thereby ensuring the loyalty of public towards the government. Second, it might be possible that peoples with different education system instead of fighting with each other make learning. Apart from these assumptions, the common values which should be imparted to citizens are also questionable. What are these common Values? How & who will define them? Therefore it is not easy to define the role of government in education system once and for all. It needs scrutiny from time to time. The government should not have a complete autonomy in the education system, not even in the basic education system. And should have enough control on higher or private institutions to stop them from becoming a monopoly or lead to exploitation in any form. A nation needs an overall education system which holds its peoples together & also forms a progressive society and makes its citizen capable to make a government which will serve the society and not individuals or certain specific groups and opposes the government if required.

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What does it mean to be a historian at St Nicholas Priory? In St Nicholas Priory we aim to think, speak and write like historians; ready to tackle the asking and answering of challenging questions using evidence collected through source analysis. Our children will develop a sense of curiosity about the past and begin to make connections about how it directly influences our future. Through the acquisition of a toolkit of skills rooted in critical source investigation, our children will become Historians. At St Nicholas Priory, we aim to equip our children with both the substantive knowledge (this is the subject knowledge and explicit vocabulary used about the past) and disciplinary knowledge (the critical use of this knowledge) to select, organise and integrate their knowledge through reasoning and inference in response to questions and challenges. This is what it means to be a historian at Priory. We encourage our Priory pupils to ask questions, to be active participants of their own learning and to use their innate curiosity to find connections between current and prior learning. Our curriculum is broad and balanced, ensuring that history is taught chronologically across all year groups – allowing for a broader understanding of key historical events. Pupils investigate various periods of history frequently across the school year in taught unit blocks, which allows for further development of retrieval skills. Long-term planning maps history topics for each year group with a focus on maintaining a linear, chronological progression of time. The school teaches history within a topic based curriculum supported by CUSP Unity resources and unit planning. Across the curriculum, core substantive knowledge concepts are threaded throughout our teaching and planning for every unit. These substantive concepts are: community, knowledge, invasion, civilisation, power and democracy. Medium-term planning has a clear focus and ensures the careful and concise completion of National Curriculum objectives with an additional focus on our locality. The history subject leader reviews these on a yearly basis – alongside the CUSP curriculum resources – to ensure that Priory children are taught a knowledge rich and critically aware curriculum. To better support our pupils development as historians, we also provide them with the key vocabulary and disciplinary knowledge to better understand the impact of their learning. These threads of disciplinary knowledge focus on: chronology, cause & consequence, change & continuity, similarity & difference, evidence and significance. Short-term planning breaks each CUSP unit down into distinct Knowledge Notes, which the class teachers use to centre each child’s learning on a particular concept within each unit. This concept driven approach better supports our children’s recall and retention of key events, which allows them to make higher value comparisons between units of past study. In order to ensure that our aims have been met, we perform frequent ‘deep dives’ into history, with a strong focus on listening to pupil voice, to better understand, monitor and evaluate the impact of our history curriculum. To better enhance our children’s learning, we believe that our children should discover and experience history for themselves whenever and wherever possible. Local trips and visits are carefully planned to ensure clear links between the wider curriculum and the teaching within the classroom. Through a hands-on approach, we deliver rich historical experiences to our children which inspire them to learn more, to bring their knowledge back with them into the classrooms and to create lasting memories. We at St Nicholas Priory are uniquely fortunate to have access to local history within the very walls in which we teach. Our school site alone has great local heritage and immense cultural significance to the town around us, with records dating back to the building of St Mary’s Hospital in the 13th century and the present building dating back to the 1930s. Our school has witnessed the changing fortunes and growth of Great Yarmouth as a hospital, grammar school, prison, children’s hospital and workhouse before becoming the centre for learning which it remains today. Our children will get to study this history that they walk through everyday! But we don’t limit our children to the study of our school, instead we encourage our pupils to research and understand the complex history of the great town around them! Our pupils will be able to use the critical thinking skills they acquire through their time at Priory to dive into their local history and discover its greater cultural significance. These local studies are woven throughout the taught curriculum of our school, from guiding our children to uncover the lost past of some of Great Yarmouth’s residents, to researching and celebrating Great Yarmouth as a port, a place for new beginnings. Our school is a Rights Respecting school, and we ensure that our children understand not only the rights that they have as children, but to stand up and advocate for change when something infringes upon these rights. We teach an intrinsic value to love and support each other; we celebrate the diversity within our school and local community; we teach our children to respect themselves and others. All of this plays a massive role in how we deliver each history unit. Our cohort of students are empathetic and empowered to make a change not only within their local community, but to support those across the world who are in need of aid. This advocacy is central to our school’s ethos and is therefore embedded within our school curriculum.

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- 1 What are the colour codes for cleaning? - 2 Why is colour coding important in cleaning? - 3 In what type of environment would you use this colour cleaning equipment? - 4 What kind of cleaning products are red coded? What are the colour codes for cleaning? What is colour coded cleaning and why is it important? - Code Red – red is for toilets and bathrooms. - Code Yellow – yellow is for infectious areas e.g. hospitals or medical centres. - Code Blue – blue is for general areas and general cleaning. - Code Green – green is for kitchen and food prep. Which color code is used for cleaning rooms? The industry standard color-coding system includes red for high-risk areas such as toilets and urinals; yellow for low-risk restroom areas including sinks and mirrors; blue for all-purpose cleaning (dusting, window cleaning, wiping desks, etc.) in other areas of a facility; and green for food-service areas. What is colour coding in housekeeping? The basic thinking behind Colour Coded cleaning is; you use colours to segregate the different types of areas you have to clean, Washrooms, Kitchens and General Areas and you then have colour coded cleaning equipment that only gets used in one area type. In what area would you use red colour coded cleaning equipment? Red is a colour that is universally associated with hazards. This red colour code has been assigned to areas such as urinals, toilets and washroom floors. The reason for this is that these areas are regarded as posing a high-risk of bacterial contamination, particularly in hospitals. Why is colour coding important in cleaning? Colour coding specific areas ensures that cleaning staff always use the right techniques and products for the place they are working on. It also prevents cross contamination. In simple terms, the last thing you want is the same cloth that has been used for cleaning a bathroom area then being used on a kitchen surface. What is a clean colour? A clean color is a color that has very little or no black or gray added to it. It “reads”, or our eyes and brains pick it up, as looking clear or pure or bright. Now let’s define a dirty color… A dirty color is a clean color that has been dulled down by adding gray or black. Why is Colour coding important in cleaning? Which Colour is used for Colour coding cleaning materials for isolation areas? The colour-coding scheme is: - Red: bathrooms, washroom, showers, toilets, basins and bathroom floors. - Blue: general areas including wards, departments, offices and basins in public areas. - Green: catering departments, ward kitchen areas and patient food service at ward areas. - Yellow: isolation areas. In what type of environment would you use this colour cleaning equipment? WHAT IS COLOUR CODED CLEANING? - Public areas – such as lobbies, receptions and hallways. - Washroom and toilets – this can include shower rooms and bathrooms. - Restaurant and bar – including dining areas and cafe lounge spaces. Where would you use yellow colour coded cleaning equipment? Colour-coded cleaning equipment is available in blue, green, red and yellow for use in designated areas. This helps prevent cross contamination and maintain high standards of hygiene. We recommend blue for general use, green for kitchens, red for toilets and yellow for elsewhere in bathrooms. What is the purpose of colour coding? Color coding’s main purpose is to separate and organize. This is especially important in the food industry where cross-contamination, allergen cross-contact, and cleaning chemical strength are all concerns. Using the closest brush at hand is a recipe for disaster—and a costly recall. Why is it important to use colour coding for cleaning products? Colour coding helps reduce the risk of cross contamination, improves hygiene and reduces the risk of bacteria transfer between work areas. Mops, buckets, handles, brooms, brushes, cloths, wipes, etc. can all be colour coded for the work place. What kind of cleaning products are red coded? By using only red-coded cleaning products such as cloths, mops, buckets and gloves to clean them, the risk of spreading bacteria outside of these areas is minimised. Which is the correct colour for cleaning equipment? Hello Joanne, a laundry room would usually fall in the category of ‘general lower risk areas (excluding food areas)’ and therefore blue colour coded cleaning equipment would normally be used. Since doing the BIC’s course where it was blue to clean shower basins, I have been advised that the colour should really be red. Is this correct. Why are there different colour codes for washrooms? Two different colour codes for high risk areas such as washrooms ensures that the same cleaning products are not used, for example, on toilet seats and bowls as on sinks and taps so helping to further prevent the spread of infection. The colour green has been assigned to food and drink preparation areas.

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Infrared Stellar Baby Pictures Infrared radiation from the Sun warms Earth and makes life possible here. This light comes in three wavelength ranges: near, mid, and far infrared. Our atmosphere absorbs infrared, and we cannot detect much of it from the ground. Instead, we use spacecraft to observe it. Stellar nurseries are active places, but the clouds of gas and dust that give birth to stars keep us from seeing the action. Infrared light from newly formed objects, however, passes through those clouds. The Spitzer Space Telescope focused its infrared-sensitive cameras on NGC1333 (left) in the constellation Perseus. Jets from newborn sunlike stars are sculpting their birth nebula. This is what people look like if we could see them in infrared.

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Tang Dynasty(618-907 CE) Political Development after Han Dynasty, China went back to regional small kingdom for next 400 years. In 581 CE Sui dynasty reunited, was short but influential. used Buddhism and the Confucian civil service system to establish legtimacy. Started construction of the Grand Canal, launched military campaigns to expand empire. Rebellions throughout 618 CE overthrew empire, but still had foundation for following dynasties. Tang Dynasty was more focused on scholars than soldiers. expanded its territory beyond China proper to Tiber and Korea. also completed the Grand Canal. offered support to Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucisnism. Capital,Changan,was major political center foreign diplomats visited from the Byzantine and Arab worlds. Confucian beliefs solified into Chinese government via examination system. Middle of 700s the Tang power declined because of high taxes causing tension in population. Led to regional rule and abdication of emperor. Afterwards period of rule by regional warlords for 50 years. Tang Dynasty(618-907 CE) Economic Developments Established military garrisons as far out as Kashgar, allowed for protection and security of Silk Road trade. An equal field system was established(all peasants received land for tax of grain and corvee, at death returned land to government). But still had difficulties breaking the power of large landowners. Changan major trading center and cosmopolitan city. The West market flourished with Indian,Iranian,Syrian, and Arab traders and their goods. By 640 CE, population reached 2 million making it the largest city in the world at that time. Tang Dynasty(618-907 CE) Cultural Developments Heavily influenced by spread of Bhuddism. Empress Wu concerned with any possible threat to her power, but started a school dedicated to Bhuddist and Confucian scholarship. Her support for Bhuddism and its art increased religion's influence through China. towards end of dynasty(from 841-845 CE) anti-buddhist campaigns destroyed many monostaries and weakened religion's influence.

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Diagnosis of infertility, inability to conceive a child, has been surviving for a long time. Such notion as "surrogate motherhood", which today is condemned and criticized by some society representatives, originated long before our civilization, according to historical chronicles. In the 21st century religious representatives are the first to speak against surrogacy. But going deeper into history, we can see that the Old Testament describes one of the surrogacy success stories. Wife of Abraham - Sarah was suffering from infertility. She invited her maid and allowed her to conceive and give birth to their child. It was believed in that time that if a woman cannot have a baby she could choose a woman to be a surrogate mother. Chosen woman conceived a baby with husband of infertile woman and after baby’s birth she gave the baby back. In this case wife took the child as her own putting him on knees after birth and considering him as genetically relative. History has many cases when in different countries slaves or concubines played the role of a surrogate mother. In those times people, of course, used only "traditional surrogacy", i.e. genetic parents were father and surrogate mother as fertilization took place in a natural way. Surrogacy was also described in the Sumerian Mesopotamia, XVIII century BC. Childbearing by another woman was even enshrined in the law code of Hammurabi King. In ancient Egypt, pharaohs often hade recourse to slaves who became surrogates and gave birth to pharaohs children. It was not isolated case – surrogacy was widely practiced by rich and aristocratic families. As one can see, surrogacy has deep roots and a long history. With the course of time and medicine development it has become possible to conduct surrogacy programs using biological material of infertile couple.

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Lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgender people, questioning, intersexes, and their allies represent a diversity of identities and expressions of gender and sexuality. Members of the community include people from different races, religions, ethnicities, nationalities, and socioeconomic classes. Intersectionality refers to the combining of multiple identities into one whole. Intersectionality brings a diversity of thought, perspective, understanding, and experience to heterosexual peers and other allies. Understanding its importance is an essential part of understanding why members of the LGBTQI community feel so strongly about their identity. Being part of an LGBT+ group can bring strengths and difficulties for people who identify within these communities. It’s significant for people who identify as LGBTQI to understand their own experiences related to sexual attraction and gender identity because these identities can be deeply personal. There is limited evidence suggesting that people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning (LGBTQ), intersex, two‑spirit, pansexual, or otherwise nonbinary may be at an increased risk of developing specific mental health issues in determining the mental health outcomes. However, these findings need further study before they can be considered conclusive. Adults who identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) are at least twice as likely as their straight peers to report having experienced any mental illness within the past year. Transgender people are almost four times as likely as cisgender people to experience a mental health condition. LGBTQ+ youth (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender often face additional challenges related to their sexual orientation or gender identity. Lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgender individuals are three times as likely to experience depression symptoms as heterosexual adults. Transgender youth face additional disadvantages regarding their mental health because they are twice as likely to feel depressive symptoms, seriously consider committing suicide, and commit suicide than heterosexual youth. Trauma-Informed Care for LGBT+ Individuals will reduce the likelihood that a member of the LGBT community will commit suicide or even think about it! Many LGBT+ individuals experience adverse effects from their social environment due to racism, homophobia, transphobia, classism, ableism, or xenophobia. For some people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, pansexual (LGBTQIA) individuals, these issues may be exacerbated by being gender minorities, leading to increased mental health challenges such as depression, history of trauma, physical abuse, sexual abuse, anxiety, minority stress, and self-harm. Trauma-Informed Care for LGBT+ Individuals must be at the center of their treatment! Important Risk Factors Of LGBTQI Mental Health Positive Changes In Societal attitudes towards homosexuality and LGBT people act as a protection for their mental health. In addition, however, this shift in acceptance has resulted in many youths coming out earlier than they would otherwise be expected. These early disclosures often happen when these young people feel comfortable enough to disclose their identities to gain access to peer support networks, such as sports teams, schools, and clubs. It may be challenging to deal with these issues when they arise because heterosexual parents usually don’t understand why their children need help. Fear of Rejection For some people who identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT), coming out can be an extremely challenging experience and may cause psychological distress. Rejection by someone who knows you well may feel like an attack upon yourself, but rejections from people outside your inner circle usually come because they don’t understand why you’re doing what you’re doing. A survey conducted by GLAAD found that nearly half (42%) of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, and gender-nonconforming people report having been rejected at some point by a parent or guardian. Family rejection can exacerbate anxiety disorders and levels of depression in LGBT people. Family rejection can also stem from a generation gap where parents do not understand current trends in society. People of color often experience family rejection at a higher rate than other ethnic minorities. According to recent research by the Gay Lesbian Straight Education Network (GLSEN), one out of five lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, gender nonconforming students has experienced childhood abuse or another related traumatic experience. Trauma-Informed Care for LGBT+ Individuals can help the person cope with the fear of rejection from their peers and family. Traumatic Life Events Feeling like an outcast because of their sexual orientation or gender expression has been called trauma by some researchers who are led to more outstanding trauma-informed care for people who feel in social isolation due to their sexuality. Social isolation will only exacerbate their mental health condition. Mental treatment and mental services can significantly benefit from understanding where their clients are coming from. When health care providers understand, their clients will gain more excellent emotional safety by expressing their true feelings to you. Discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender people includes any form of prejudice, hatred, intolerance, oppression, rejection, isolation, violence, harassment, bullying, hate speech, vandalism, arson, murder. Hate crime perpetrators target LGBT people because they believe their actions will be met with less punishment than if they had attacked someone who wasn’t part of the community. Discrimination against people because they identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex (LGBTQI), or any combination thereof may increase the likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and increase the risk for suicide. Behavioral health concerns such as transphobia and homophobia must be met with a desire to educate the perpetrator not to continue their actions. Substance Abuse Disorder Substance use disorders (SUDs) include alcohol abuse, substance dependence, nicotine addiction, opioid dependency, illegal drugs, cannabis abuse/dependence, pathological gambling, compulsive sexual behavior, binge eating disorder, and kleptomania. In general, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) adults are nearly twice as likely as their straight peers to suffer from a substance abuse problem. Substance abuse disorder will lead to other chronic health conditions such as thoughts of suicide, cardiovascular and respiratory disorders, and immunological disorders. Transgender people are almost four times as likely to experience substance abuse problems than cisgender people. LGBTQ students who don’t know if they’re gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, or something else may be at greater risk for using illicit drugs than their straight counterparts. High Homelessness Rate It has been reported that LGBTQI youths and young adults face a 120 percent greater chance of becoming homeless than their heterosexual peers. Often, these individuals experience family rejection or discrimination because they identify themselves differently from others. It’s exceptionally high for people of color that are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender youth. Homeless shelters often refuse to admit transgender, gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersex, questioning, two‑spirit, pansexual, polyamorous, demisexual, or otherwise non-heterosexual individuals. High Suicide Rate Many people in this community struggle in silence — and face worse health status as a result. - According to research by the CDC, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBTQ) people are significantly more likely than their straight peers to attempt suicide. - Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) youth face significant mental health challenges, including depression, anxiety, substance abuse, suicidal ideations, sexual abuse, and suicide attempts. Inadequate Trauma-Informed Care for LGBT+ Individuals There’s inadequate attention to the unique needs of people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBTQ). It may not always be easy, but this approach has advantages and disadvantages, making it worth trying out. A variety of factors affect an individual’s mental health condition —including gender identity, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, religion, socioeconomics, geographic location, culture, age, disability status, political affiliation, body size, etc.—and Race and socioeconomic status may influence not just whether someone receives health insurance but also which type of coverage is available. Suppose you’re struggling with any form of mental illness, including depression. In that case, anxiety, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) confronting them with an LGBT-friendly therapist may help improve your overall experience. An LGBT-friendly therapist may act as a confidential peer. Your therapist should understand Trauma-Informed Care for LGBT+ Individuals and how to better help you on your journey to a better life!

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Antibiotics have played a major role in the control of infectious diseases globally. The control of these diseases has helped improve the health and socio-economic status of people around the world. However, various strains of microbes, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites have developed resistance to existing antimicrobials. This resistance makes treatment progressively less effective and efficient, leading to higher mortality and morbidity and higher treatment cost. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) affects humans, livestock, aquaculture, agriculture, and the environment. In 2016, its was estimated that 700,000 deaths occur per year due to AMR, and if appropriate actions are not taken to control it, this figure will reach 10,000,000 per year by 2050. Most AMR cases will occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), where poverty is exacerbated by infectious diseases and weak health systems. Within these health systems, antimicrobials are often prescribed based on imprecise diagnostic techniques and patient request, leading to imprudent use, compounded by the widespread presence of counterfeit medication. To tackle AMR at a global level, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) formed a tripartite collaboration and developed the Global Action Plan on AMR (GAP). The GAP, ratified at the 68th World Health Assembly in 2015, listed five strategic objectives: - Improve awareness and understanding of AMR through effective communication, education, and training - Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research - Reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures - Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health - Develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries, and increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.

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William Booth Primary School's year 6 are finding out what it means to be a smart city and giving their ideas for how to make Nottingham, greener more sustainable and an even better place to live. Pupils in year 6 at William Booth Primary School will be taking part in a REMOURBAN smart city engagement event. Nottingham City Council will lead two sessions with the class to let them know about the REMOURBAN low carbon energy projects that are happening in their local area and introducing them to the term ‘smart city’. The sessions will be interactive and the children will be asked to consider what the cities of tomorrow will look like. After an introduction to the themes of climate change and smart and sustainable cities with videos and interactive materials, the children will be involved in games and group work to enhance their learning. At the end of the session the children will use what they have learnt to make posters to show how they think Nottingham could be a more sustainable city and what future Nottingham will look like. The event is organised in the framework of the joint citizen engagement activities organised by REMOURBAN cities of Valladolid, Nottingham, Tepebasi, Seraing and Miskolc. Visit REMOURBAN website This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 646511

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KS3 Computing Complete Revision & Practice (Ages 11-14) For unbeatable KS3 Computing Complete Revision & Practice, look no further than our all-in-one guide! It's bursting with full-colour study notes, tips and examples — including programming examples in Scratch and Python. There are plenty of warm-up questions and practice questions. Plus we've included mixed practice tests and a practice exam to see how much you really know — and answers to everything. What’s more, a free Online Edition of the whole book is included so you can read it on a PC, Mac or tablet — you'll have access from the moment you place your order via 'My Online Products' on the CGP website. Just use the unique code printed inside the cover to gain full access. This book can also be bought as a standalone Online Edition – we'll send you a code to redeem immediately.

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Both nature and nurture are two widely using terms in behavioral science. In the field of behavioral science, whenever you want to discuss about characteristics and specialties of a particular person, you talk about its nature and nurture. Most of people use both the words interchangeably, while talking about features of any person. This is a wrong thing. No doubt, both words are related with characteristics of persons. However, there is a vast difference in the meanings of both words. According to behavioral science, the nature is the name of those genetic or hereditary habits or characteristics of a person, which he takes from his ancestors. In these types of habit, there is no influence of his efforts or environmental factors. You can understand this thing by taking considering an example. If, the grand father or mother of a person is an actor and interest of that person is also towards acting. This is because of his nature, which he has borrowed from his ancestors. Behavioral science defines the term nurture as, it is the name of those characteristics of a particular person, which he has generated within himself with his deep efforts or automatically generated in him because of environmental impact. You can say that if a person becomes an actor by seeking acting with his great efforts, then obviously he becomes an actor. In this case, it is not necessary that any ancestor of this person remain actor in his whole life. Nature vs Nurture The crystal clear difference between nature and nurture is their origin. In case of nature, the characteristics of a person must resemble with his anyone ancestor. This is because of hereditary or genetic transfer from person to person. However, nurture related characteristics are the result of environmental factors or because of deep efforts for creating such habits or features in a person. Such characteristics of a person may be entirely different from his ancestors. - What is the Difference between Lava and Magma - What is the Difference between Human Eye and Animal Eye - What is the Difference between Wind Waves, Storm Surge, Tsunami and Tidal Wave - What is the Difference between Climate and Weather - What is the Difference between Yeast, Fungi, Mold and Mildew - What is the Difference between Global Warming, Cooling and Climate Change - What is the Difference between Summer, Winter, Autumn and Spring Seasons - What is the Difference between Bay Stream Lake Gulf River Sea and Ocean - What is the Difference between Sapphire, Jade, Emerald and Ruby

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Environmental conservation, carbon trading has emerged as a pioneering concept, captivating the minds of tech enthusiasts worldwide. This innovative approach to mitigating climate change has garnered significant attention, sparking curiosity among the tech-savvy individuals who are keen on understanding its intricacies. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve deep into the realm of carbon trading, demystifying its complexities and shedding light on how technology intersects with environmental sustainability. Understanding Carbon Trading Carbon trading, also known as carbon emissions trading, is a market-based mechanism designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The fundamental idea behind carbon trading is to create a financial incentive for industries and organizations to decrease their carbon footprint. This is achieved through a cap-and-trade system where a limit (cap) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted. Companies exceeding their allocated emissions must purchase permits (credits) from those who emit less, thereby creating a market for carbon emissions. The Role of Technology in Carbon Trading: To enhance the readability and flow of your text, it’s essential to use more of them. Technology plays a pivotal role in the success of carbon trading initiatives. With the advent of advanced data analytics, artificial intelligence, and blockchain technology, monitoring and verifying carbon emissions have become more efficient and transparent. Furthermore, tech enthusiasts are particularly intrigued by blockchain’s ability to create tamper-proof ledgers, ensuring the integrity of carbon credits. In addition, smart contracts, powered by blockchain, automate the verification and trading process, making it seamless and secure. Blockchain and Smart Contracts: Transforming Carbon Trading: Blockchain technology, the underlying force behind cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, has found a meaningful application in carbon trading. By creating a decentralized ledger, blockchain ensures that the data related to carbon emissions and transactions are immutable and cannot be altered. This level of transparency instills confidence in buyers and sellers, fostering a more robust carbon trading market. Moreover, smart contracts, self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly written into code, automate various stages of carbon trading. They facilitate seamless transactions, eliminating the need for intermediaries and reducing transaction costs. Tech enthusiasts are captivated by the efficiency and security offered by smart contracts, which are reshaping the landscape of carbon trading. Data Analytics: Optimizing Carbon Footprint Analysis: In the realm of carbon trading, data is invaluable. Advanced data analytics tools allow companies to analyze their carbon footprint comprehensively. Tech enthusiasts find solace in the power of big data analytics, which can process vast amounts of information to identify patterns and trends. By understanding their emissions data, businesses can strategize and implement measures to reduce their carbon footprint effectively. AI and Machine Learning: Enhancing Predictive Analysis: Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms have transformed predictive analysis in carbon trading. These technologies can predict future emissions, allowing organizations to proactively adjust their strategies. Machine learning models analyze historical data, enabling businesses to make data-driven decisions to optimize their carbon trading activities. Tech enthusiasts are fascinated by the ability of AI and ML to predict market trends and help companies stay ahead of the curve. The Future of Carbon Trading: Innovations on the Horizon: However, as technology advances, the future of carbon trading brims with exciting possibilities. For instance, tech enthusiasts eagerly anticipate innovations like IoT sensors for real-time emissions data. Furthermore, the integration of carbon trading platforms with renewable energy initiatives is rising, fostering a synergy between carbon reduction and sustainable energy production. Additionally, this integration not only benefits the environment but also creates new avenues for investment in clean energy solutions. Moreover, these advancements underscore the crucial link between technological innovation and environmental sustainability, showcasing the potential for a greener and more efficient future. Embracing the Intersection of Technology and Sustainability Technology offers hope and innovative solutions to combat climate change. Tech enthusiasts, leading this revolution, leverage their expertise for change. Understanding the symbiotic relationship between technology and sustainability paves the way for a greener future. Navigating carbon trading complexities, collaboration between tech enthusiasts and environmentalists ensures a balance between advancement and preservation.

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Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) 2.1.B: investigate and identify cellular processes including homeostasis, permeability, energy production, transportation of molecules, disposal of wastes, function of cellular parts, and synthesis of new molecules; 2.2.A: describe components of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and illustrate how information for specifying the traits of an organism is carried in the DNA; 2.2.B: explain replication, transcription, and translation using models of DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA); and 2.2.C: identify and illustrate how changes in DNA cause mutations and evaluate the significance of these changes; 2.4.A: interpret the functions of systems in organisms including circulatory, digestive, nervous, endocrine, reproductive, integumentary, skeletal, respiratory, muscular, excretory, and immune; and 2.4.B: compare the interrelationships of organ systems to each other and to the body as a whole. 3.1.C: compare the structures and functions of viruses to cells and describe the role of viruses in causing diseases and conditions such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome, common colds, smallpox, influenza, and warts; and 3.2.A: identify evidence of change in species using fossils, DNA sequences, anatomical similarities, physiological similarities, and embryology; and 3.2.B: illustrate the results of natural selection in speciation, diversity, phylogeny, adaptation, behavior, and extinction. 3.3.D: analyze the flow of matter and energy through different trophic levels and between organisms and the physical environment. 3.4.B: interpret interactions among organisms exhibiting predation, parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism; and 3.4.E: investigate and explain the interactions in an ecosystem including food chains, food webs, and food pyramids. 3.5.A: evaluate the significance of structural and physiological adaptations of plants to their environments; 4.1.A: investigate and identify properties of fluids including density, viscosity, and buoyancy; and 4.1.D: relate the chemical behavior of an element including bonding, to its placement on the periodic table; 4.2.A: distinguish between physical and chemical changes in matter such as oxidation, digestion, changes in states, and stages in the rock cycle; and 4.2.C: investigate and identify the law of conservation of mass; 4.3.B: relate the concentration of ions in a solution to physical and chemical properties such as pH, electrolytic behavior, and reactivity; and 4.3.D: demonstrate how various factors influence solubility including temperature, pressure, and nature of the solute and solvent; 5.1.A: calculate speed, momentum, acceleration, work, and power in systems such as in the human body, moving toys, and machines; 5.1.B: investigate and describe applications of Newton's laws such as in vehicle restraints, sports activities, geological processes, and satellite orbits; and 5.1.D: investigate and demonstrate [mechanical advantage and] efficiency of various machines such as levers, motors, wheels and axles, pulleys, and ramps. 5.2.B: demonstrate wave interactions including interference, polarization, reflection, refraction, and resonance within various materials; 5.3.A: describe the law of conservation of energy; 5.3.B: investigate and demonstrate the movement of heat through solids, liquids, and gases by convection, conduction, and radiation; and 5.3.D: investigate and compare economic and environmental impacts of using various energy sources such as rechargeable or disposable batteries and solar cells. Correlation last revised: 1/20/2017

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- The concentrated light heats up the titanium coating on a chip until it boils water surrounding the target cells, creating fissures that let the cargo inside. - It only takes 10 seconds for the laser to process an entire chip's worth of cells, and researchers estimate that they could fill a whopping 100,000 cells per minute. - That newfound scale should allow for studies that weren't possible before, such as stuffing cells with mitochondria (the "powerplant" of a cell) to see how mutant genes trigger diseases, and whether it could also bring antibodies and nanoparticles to fight illnesses. Lasers quickly load thousands of cells with nano-sized cargo 4. 12. 15 by Matthew Lincoln

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- A person who possesses the right to use and enjoy the profits and advantages of something belonging to another individual - Pertaining to or involving a right by virtue of which one can use, profit from, and enjoy someone else's property without degrading it or diminishing its substance - The tenant was a usufructuary, whose rights were limited to using and benefiting from the landlord's asset. - Under the agreement, the organization retained usufructuary rights to the building seriously limiting the range of the decisions the new owner could make. - Mary's usufructuary rights to the forest land allowed her to collect wood for her personal use as long as the forest was not harmed in the process.

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Vaccines News ArticlesExcerpts of key news articles on vaccines Get the measles vaccine, and you won't get the measles-or give it to anyone else. Right? Well, not always. A person fully vaccinated against measles has contracted the disease and passed it on to others. The startling case study contradicts received wisdom about the vaccine and suggests that a recent swell of measles outbreaks in developed nations could mean more illnesses even among the vaccinated. A fully vaccinated 22-year-old theater employee in New York City who developed the measles in 2011 was released without hospitalization or quarantine. This patient turned out to be unwittingly contagious. Ultimately, she transmitted the measles to four other people, according to a recent report in Clinical Infectious Diseases. Two of the secondary patients had been fully vaccinated. The other two ... showed signs of previous measles exposure that should have conferred immunity. Although public health officials have assumed that measles immunity lasts forever ... "the actual duration [of immunity] following infection or vaccination is unclear," says Jennifer Rosen, who led the investigation as director of epidemiology and surveillance at the New York City Bureau of Immunization. Note: Did you know that no one has died from measles in the US for 12 years, yet 98 measles vaccine related deaths have been reported in the same period? Read more on this excellent webpage. And read a rare local newspaper article report on one family who was awarded near $2 million for a vaccine injury only then to be ridiculed by vaccine supporters who claim these things never happen. And this US government webpage states, "Since the first National Vaccine Injury Compensation (VICP) claims were filed in 1989, 3,981 compensation awards have been made. More than $2.8 billion in compensation awards has been paid." Leading chemical experts are calling for a radical overhaul of chemical regulation to protect children from everyday toxins that may be causing a global ''silent epidemic'' of brain development disorders such as autism, dyslexia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. A review published in The Lancet Neurology on [February15] said current regulations were inadequate to safeguard fetuses and children from potentially hazardous chemicals found in the environment and everyday items such as clothing, furniture and toys. In the past seven years, the number of recognised chemical causes of neurodevelopmental disorders doubled from six to 12. These include lead, arsenic, pesticides such as DDT, solvents, methylmercury that is found in some fish, flame retardants that are often added to plastics and textiles, and manganese - a commonly mined metal that can get into drinking water. The list also controversially includes fluoride, a mineral found in water, plants and toothpaste. Many health authorities including the World Health Organisation and ... governments say low levels of fluoride in drinking water is safe and protects teeth against decay, but [the researchers] said a meta-analysis of 27 studies, mainly from China, had found children in areas with high levels of fluoride in water had significantly lower IQ scores than those living in low-level fluoride areas. Since 2006, the number of chemicals known to damage the human brain more generally, but that are not regulated to protect children's health, had increased from 202 to 214. Of the newly identified toxins, pesticides constitute the largest group. Note: For more evidence that fluoride in the water supply can be damaging to health, click here and here. For more on possible causes of autism including vaccines, see the deeply revealing reports from reliable major media sources available here. Emelie Olsson is plagued by hallucinations and nightmares. When she wakes up, she's often paralyzed, unable to breathe properly or call for help. During the day she can barely stay awake, and often misses school or having fun with friends. She is only 14, but at times she has wondered if her life is worth living. Emelie is one of around 800 children in Sweden and elsewhere in Europe who developed narcolepsy, an incurable sleep disorder, after being immunized with the Pandemrix H1N1 swine flu vaccine made by British drugmaker GlaxoSmithKline in 2009. Their fate, coping with an illness that all but destroys normal life, is developing into what the health official who coordinated Sweden's vaccination campaign calls a "medical tragedy" that will demand rising scientific and medical attention. Europe's drugs regulator has ruled Pandemrix should no longer be used in people aged under 20. "There's no doubt in my mind whatsoever that Pandemrix increased the occurrence of narcolepsy onset in children in some countries - and probably in most countries," says [Emmanuel] Mignot, a specialist in the sleep disorder at Stanford University in the United States. In total, the GSK shot was given to more than 30 million people in 47 countries during the 2009-2010 H1N1 swine flu pandemic. Because it contains an adjuvant, or booster, it was not used in the United States because drug regulators there are wary of adjuvanted vaccines. Note: For deeply revealing reports from reliable major media sources on the major risks of flu shots, click here. If you are thinking of getting a flu vaccine, it is most highly recommended to educate yourself on risk vs. benefits. See this link for more. To see Piers Morgan receive a flu shot on the Dr. Oz show and then come down with a flu less than 10 days later after having been guaranteed that wouldn't happen, click here. A whistleblower suit against Merck, filed back in 2010 by two former employees, [accused] the drugmaker of overstating the effectiveness of its mumps, measles, and rubella vaccine. The scientists claim Merck defrauded the U.S. government by causing it to purchase an estimated four million doses of mislabeled and misbranded MMR vaccine per year for at least a decade, and helped ignite two recent mumps outbreaks that the allegedly ineffective vaccine was intended to prevent in the first place. “As the single largest purchaser of childhood vaccines (accounting for more than 50 percent of all vaccine purchasers), the United States is by far the largest financial victim of Merck’s fraud. Specifically, the suit claims Merck manipulated the results of clinical trials beginning in the late 1990s so as to be able to report that the combined mumps vaccine ... is 95 percent effective, in an effort to maintain its exclusive license to manufacture it. However, instead of reformulating the vaccine whose declining efficacy Merck itself has acknowledged, the company reportedly launched a complicated scheme to adjust its testing technique so that it would yield the desired potency results. While the Justice Department has refused to rule on the case after conducting its own two-year investigation, the allegations ... offer an extremely damaging view into the inner process of a company accused of misleading both regulators and consumers about a vital medical product. A study in Finland has found that children vaccinated against the H1N1 swine flu virus with Pandemrix were more likely to develop the sleep disorder narcolepsy. The condition causes excessive daytime sleepiness and sufferers can fall asleep suddenly and unintentionally. The researchers found that between 2002 and 2009, before the swine flu pandemic struck, the rate of narcolepsy in children under the age of 17 was 0.31 per 100,000. In 2010 this was about 17 times higher at 5.3 per 100,000 while the narcolepsy rate remained the same in adults. Markku Partinen of the Helsinki Sleep Clinic and Hanna Nohynek of the National Institute for Health and Welfare in Finland, also collected vaccination and childhood narcolepsy data for children born between January 1991 and December 2005. They found that in those who were vaccinated the rate of narcolepsy was nine per 100,000 compared to 0.7 per 100,000 unvaccinated children, or 13 times lower. Pandemrix was the main vaccine used in Britain against the swine flu epidemic in which six million people were vaccinated. It was formulated specifically for the swine flu pandemic virus and is no longer in use. Note: The WHO stated "more than 12 countries reported cases of narcolepsy in children and adolescents using GlaxoSmithKline's swine flu vaccine." For powerful media reports suggesting that both the Avian Flu and Swine Flu were incredibly manipulated to promote fear and boost pharmaceutical sales, click here. For many news articles showing that vaccines are not tested adequately for safety and are at times politically and financially motivated, click here. For lots more from reliable sources on pharmaceutical corruption, click here. The first vaccine against human papillomavirus, or HPV, which causes cervical cancer, came out five years ago. It has become a hot political topic. Behind the political fireworks is a quieter backlash against a public health strategy that has won powerful advocates in the medical and public health community. Many find the public health case for HPV vaccination compelling. But Dr. Diane Harper, a professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine, says the vaccine is being way oversold. That's pretty striking, because Harper worked on studies that got the vaccines approved. And she has accepted grants from the manufacturers, although she says she doesn't any longer. Harper changed her mind when the vaccine makers started lobbying state legislatures to require schoolkids to get vaccinated. "Ninety-five percent of women who are infected with HPV never, ever get cervical cancer," she says. "It seemed very odd to be mandating something for which 95 percent of infections never amount to anything. Pap smear screening is far and away the biggest thing a woman can do to protect herself, to prevent cervical cancer," she says. Apart from the comparative advantages of vaccine versus Pap smears, Harper has another objection to mandating early vaccination at this point. She points out that studies so far show the vaccines protect for four or five years. Young women may need a booster shot later. As it stands now, Harper says, vaccinating an 11-year-old girl might not protect her when she needs it most - in her most sexually active years. Note: Read a more recent article on why the Gardasil vaccine may not be a wise choice. Merck, the company behind Gardasil, had to suspend a questionable lobbying campaign to make vaccination by this costly drug mandatory back in 2007. For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing vaccine controversy news articles from reliable major media sources. The Supreme Court closed the courthouse door ... to parents who want to sue drug makers over claims their children developed autism and other serious health problems from vaccines. The ruling was a stinging defeat for families dissatisfied with how they fared before a special no-fault vaccine court. The court voted 6-2 against the parents of a child who sued the drug maker Wyeth in Pennsylvania state court for the health problems they say their daughter, now 19, suffered from a vaccine she received in infancy. Justice Antonin Scalia, writing for the court, said Congress set up a special vaccine court in 1986 to ... create a system that spares the drug companies the costs of defending against parents' lawsuits. Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Sonia Sotomayor dissented. Nothing in the 1986 law ''remotely suggests that Congress intended such a result,'' Sotomayor wrote, taking issue with Scalia. Scalia's opinion was the latest legal setback for parents who felt they got too little from the vaccine court or failed to collect at all. Such was the case for Robalee and Russell Bruesewitz of Pittsburgh, who filed their lawsuit after the vaccine court rejected their claims for compensation. According to the lawsuit, their daughter, Hannah, was a healthy infant until she received the diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccine in April 1992. Within hours of getting the DPT shot, the third in a series of five, the baby suffered a series of debilitating seizures. Note: Vaccines have been strongly promoted for decades, yet the research supporting many vaccines is amazingly weak. For more powerful information questioning the efficacy of vaccines, click here. The risk of children suffering from flu can be halved if they take vitamin D, doctors in Japan have found. The finding has implications for flu epidemics since vitamin D, which is naturally produced by the human body when exposed to direct sunlight, has no significant side effects, costs little and can be several times more effective than anti-viral drugs or vaccine. Only one in ten children, aged six to 15 years, taking the sunshine vitamin in a clinical trial came down with flu compared with one in five given a dummy tablet. Mitsuyoshi Urashima, the Japanese doctor who led the trial, told The Times that vitamin D was more effective than vaccines in preventing flu. Vitamin D was found to be even more effective when the comparison left out children who were already given extra vitamin D by their parents, outside the trial. Taking the sunshine vitamin was then shown to reduce the risk of flu to a third of what it would otherwise be. The trial, which was double blind, randomised, and fully controlled scientifically, was conducted by doctors and scientists from Jikei University School of Medicine in Tokyo, Japan. Note: For important articles from reliable sources on health issues, click here. Dr. Julie Gerberding, former director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, was named president of Merck & Co Inc's vaccine division. Gerberding, who led the CDC from 2002 to 2009 and stepped down when President Barack Obama took office, will head up the company's $5 billion global vaccine business that includes shots to prevent chickenpox, cervical cancer and pneumonia. She had led CDC from one crisis to another, including the investigation into the anthrax attacks that killed five people in 2001, the H5N1 avian influenza, the global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome, or SARS, and various outbreaks of food poisoning. She may be charged with reigniting flagging sales of Merck's Gardasil vaccine to prevent cervical cancer by protecting against human papillomavirus or HPV. After an encouraging launch Gardasil sales have been falling and were down 22 percent in the third quarter at $311 million. Note: So the head of the CDC now is in charge of vaccines at one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Could this be considered conflict of interest? Could this possibly be payback for supporting the vaccine agenda so strongly for years? For more on the risks and dangers of vaccines, click here. As Germany launched its mass-vaccination program against the H1N1 flu virus on Monday, the government found itself fending off accusations of favoritism because it was offering one vaccine believed to have fewer side effects to civil servants, politicians and soldiers, and another, potentially riskier vaccine to everyone else. The German government prepared for its mass-vaccination campaign earlier this year by ordering 50 million doses of the Pandemrix vaccine. The vaccine, manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline, contains an immunity-enhancing chemical compound, known as an adjuvant, whose side effects are not yet entirely known. The Interior Ministry confirmed that it had ordered a different vaccine, Celvapan, for government officials and the military. Celvapan, which is made by U.S. pharmaceutical giant Baxter, does not contain an adjuvant and is believed to have fewer side effects. A “perplexing” Canadian study linking H1N1 to seasonal flu shots is throwing national influenza plans into disarray and testing public faith in the government agencies responsible for protecting the nation's health. Distributed for peer review last week, the study confounded infectious-disease experts in suggesting that people vaccinated against seasonal flu are twice as likely to catch swine flu. The paper has since convinced several provincial health agencies to announce hasty suspensions of seasonal flu vaccinations, long-held fixtures of public-health planning. “It has confused things very badly,” said Dr. Ethan Rubinstein, head of adult infectious diseases at the University of Manitoba. “And it has certainly cost us credibility from the public because of conflicting recommendations. Until last week, there had always been much encouragement to get the seasonal flu vaccine.” On Sunday Quebec joined Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Nova Scotia in suspending seasonal flu shots for anyone under 65 years of age. Quebec's Health Ministry announced it would postpone vaccinations until January. B.C. is expected to announce a similar suspension during a press conference Monday morning. Other provinces, including Manitoba, are still pondering a response to the research. Dr. Rubinstein, who has read the study, said it appears sound. “There are a large number of authors, all of them excellent and credible researchers,” he said. “And the sample size is very large – 12 or 13 million people taken from the central reporting systems in three provinces. The research is solid.” Note: For lots more from reliable sources on the dangers of vaccines, click here. The company that released contaminated flu virus material from a plant in Austria confirmed Friday that the experimental product contained live H5N1 avian flu viruses. And an official of the World Health Organization's European operation said the body is closely monitoring the investigation into the events that took place at Baxter International's research facility in Orth-Donau, Austria. The contaminated product, a mix of H3N2 seasonal flu viruses and unlabelled H5N1 viruses, was supplied to an Austrian research company. The Austrian firm, Avir Green Hills Biotechnology, then sent portions of it to sub-contractors in the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Germany. The contamination incident, which is being investigated by the four European countries, came to light when the subcontractor in the Czech Republic inoculated ferrets with the product and they died. Ferrets shouldn't die from exposure to human H3N2 flu viruses. Public health authorities concerned about what has been described as a "serious error" on Baxter's part have assumed the death of the ferrets meant the H5N1 virus in the product was live. But the company, Baxter International Inc., has been parsimonious about the amount of information it has released about the event. On Friday, the company's director of global bioscience communications confirmed what scientists have suspected. "It was live," Christopher Bona said in an email. Accidental release of a mixture of live H5N1 and H3N2 viruses could have resulted in dire consequences. Note: How on earth did the avian flu virus ever get into vaccines? Could it be that this was planned? For a powerful book by a Harvard-trained dentist suggesting there may be a hidden force behind the spread of deadly infectious diseases, click here. For more revealing reports on bird flu, click here. A special "vaccines court" hears cases brought by parents who claim their children have been harmed by routine vaccinations. The court buffers Wyeth and other makers of childhood-disease vaccines from ... litigation risk. The legal shield, known as the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Compensation Program, was put into place in 1986. Vaccines ... are poised to generate $21.5 billion in annual sales for their makers by 2012, according to France's Sanofi-Aventis SA, a leading producer of inoculations. Vaccines' transformation into a lucrative business has some observers questioning whether the shield law is still appropriate. Critics ... underscored the limited recourse families have in claiming injury from vaccines. "When you've got a monopoly and can dictate price in a way that you couldn't before, I'm not sure you need the liability protection," said Lars Noah, a specialist in medical technology. Kevin Conway, an attorney at Boston law firm Conway, Homer & Chin-Caplan PC, which specializes in vaccine cases and brought one of the recent autism suits, says the lack of liability for the pharmaceutical industry compromises safety. Even if they had won their cases, the families of autistic children wouldn't have been paid by the companies that make the vaccines. Instead, the government would have footed the bill, using the funds from a tax levied on inoculations. Note: For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing news articles on vaccines from reliable major media sources showing huge corruption and deception. Federal health officials won’t put new restrictions on the use of a mercury-based preservative in vaccines and other medicines. A group called the Coalition for Mercury-free Drugs petitioned the Food and Drug Administration in 2004 seeking the restrictions on thimerosal, citing concerns that the preservative is linked to autism. The FDA rejected the petition. Thimerosal, about 50 percent mercury by weight, has been used since the 1930s to kill microbes in vaccines. There have been suspicions that thimerosal causes autism. However, studies that tracked thousands of children consistently have found no association between the brain disorder and the mercury-based preservative. Critics contend the studies are flawed. Since 2001, all vaccines given to children 6 and younger have been either thimerosal-free or contained only trace amounts of the preservative. Thimerosal has been phased out of some, but not all, adult vaccines as well. Most doses of the flu vaccine still contain thimerosal. There also are minute amounts of mercury, as thimerosal or phenylmercuric acetate, in roughly 45 eye ointments, nasal sprays and nasal solutions, the FDA said. Note: Why are they still using mercury in flu shots when it is not necessary? Heavy metals are well known to be toxic to the human body. The studies mentioned above are almost entirely funded by pharmaceutical interests and government bodies working with them. For lots more on this major cover-up, click here. Amazon has apparently started removing anti-vaccine documentaries from its Amazon Prime Video streaming service. The move came days after a CNN Business report highlighted the anti-vaccine comment available on the site, and hours after Rep. Adam Schiff wrote an open letter to Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos, saying he is concerned "that Amazon is surfacing and recommending" anti-vaccination books and movies. Anti-vaccine movies that were previously available free for Prime subscribers, like "We Don't Vaccinate!," "Shoot 'Em Up: The Truth About Vaccines," and "Vaxxed: From Cover-Up to Catastrophe," are now "currently unavailable." While some anti-vaccine videos are gone from the Prime streaming service, a number of anti-vaccine books were still available for purchase on Amazon.com ... and some were still being offered for free to Kindle Unlimited subscribers. A sponsored post for the book "Vaccines On Trial: Truth and Consequences of Mandatory Shots" also remained live. Amongst the titles taken down are "VAXXED: From Cover-Up to Catastrophe," the notorious anti-vaccine documentary that was banned from the Tribeca Film Festival in 2016, and whose director, Andrew Wakefield, is one of the central figures in the anti-vaccine movements. Schiff had previously written letters to the heads of Facebook and Google, which owns YouTube, about anti-vaccine content on their platforms. Both companies publicly vowed to make changes to how anti-vaccine content is made available. Note: This New York Times article reports that facebook is also removing key vaccine content. Our freedom to access information on all sides of various debates is gradually being eroded by giants like amazon and facebook. The documentary "Vaxxed" presents solid, verifiable evidence of a major cover-up around vaccine safety. You can find it on this webpage. For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing news articles on vaccine risks from reliable major media sources. Then explore the excellent, reliable resources provided in our Health Information Center. When pharmaceutical company Moderna issued a press release about the promising results of its Phase I clinical trial for a coronavirus vaccine, the media and the markets went wild. Upon examining Moderna's non-peer reviewed press release, the actual data on the vaccine's success is ... flimsy. Of the 45 patients who received the vaccine, the data on "neutralising antibody data are available only for the first four participants in each of the 25-microgram and 100-microgram dose level cohorts." In other words, that means that when it comes to finding out whether the vaccine elicits an antibody response that could potentially fight the coronavirus, they only had data on eight patients. That's not enough to do any type of statistical analysis and it also brings into question the status of the other 37 patients who also received the vaccine. Moderna's messenger RNA vaccine ... uses a sequence of genetic RNA material produced in a lab that, when injected into your body, must invade your cells and hijack your cells' protein-making machinery called ribosomes to produce the viral components that subsequently train your immune system to fight the virus. There are unique and unknown risks to messenger RNA vaccines, including the possibility that they generate strong type I interferon responses that could lead to inflammation and autoimmune conditions. Messenger RNA vaccines have never before been brought to market for human patients. Note: To learn about the serious risks and dangers of these mRNA vaccines, don't miss the vitally important information given by Christiane Northrup, MD, in the first five minutes of this highly revealing video. Reader's Digest named Dr. Northrup one of "The 100 Most Trusted People in America." Dr. Northrup's work has been featured on The Oprah Winfrey Show, the Today Show, NBC Nightly News, Good Morning America, 20/20, and The Dr. Oz Show. For more, see concise summaries of revealing news articles on the coronavirus and vaccines from major media sources. Gardasil, the vaccine for HPV (human papillomavirus), may not be as safe as backers claim. Judicial Watch announced it has received documents from the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) revealing that its National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) has awarded $5,877,710 dollars to 49 victims in claims made against the highly controversial HPV (human papillomavirus) vaccines. To date 200 claims have been filed with VICP, with barely half adjudicated. “This new information from the government shows that the serious safety concerns about the use of Gardasil have been well-founded. Public health officials should stop pushing Gardasil on children.” said Judicial Watch President Tom Fitton. The CDC recommends the Gardasil vaccine, made by Merck Pharmaceuticals, for all females between 9 and 26 years to protect against HPV. The facts appear to contradict the FDA’s safety statements. The adverse reaction reports detail 26 new deaths reported between September 1, 2010 and September 15, 2011 as well as incidents of seizures, paralysis, blindness, pancreatitis, speech problems, short term memory loss and Guillain-Barré Syndrome. While it is not clear exactly what is causing so many adverse reactions, Gardasil does contain genetically engineered virus-like protein particles as well as aluminum, which can affect immune function. Merck studied the Gardasil vaccine in fewer than 1,200 girls under 16 prior to it being released to the market under a fast-tracked road to licensure. Note: For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing news articles on vaccine risks from reliable major media sources. Then explore the excellent, reliable resources provided in our Health Information Center. It might not be until fall 2021 that Americans "can be completely safe" from COVID-19, Bill Gates said in a Tuesday interview with Judy Woodruff on PBS Newshour. That's because it will take more than a year before a vaccine can be developed and deployed, according to researchers working to develop a treatment for COVID-19. "The vaccine is critical, because, until you have that, things aren't really going to be normal," the billionaire philanthropist told Woodruff. "They can open up to some degree, but the risk of a rebound will be there until we have very broad vaccination." Social distancing is helping to lower the number of COVID-19 cases. The goal, Gates explained, is to get that number down to a point where "contact tracing" (a process in which those within close contact with an infected person are closely monitored) can be done, in order to maintain necessary quarantines. To understand what life in the U.S. will look like six to 12 months from now, Gates suggested China as a good model. "They are sending people back to work, but they're wearing masks. They're checking temperatures. They're not doing large sporting events. And so they have been able to avoid a large rebound," he said. Beyond that, "returning to some semblance of normal," as Woodruff put it, can be predicted by watching the behaviors of other countries. Sweden, for example, isn't "locking down quite as much," so their experience will be informative, Gates explained. Note: In this video interview, Gates says we need to vaccinate everyone in the world. And he wants indemnity in case the vaccine he sponsors ends up killing or injuring many. Learn more about how Gates uses his billions to gain political power. And don't miss this most important video focused on how he is using fear of the virus to promote his agenda to require a "digital certificate" to ensure they've been vaccinated. For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing news articles on the coronavirus pandemic from reliable major media sources. When nurse Meleney Gallagher was told to line up with her colleagues on the renal ward at Sunderland Royal Hospital, for her swine flu vaccination, she had no idea the injection she was about to have had not gone through the usual testing process. It had been rushed into circulation after the swine flu virus had swept across the globe in 2009. Gallagher was one of thousands of NHS staff vaccinated with Pandemrix, a vaccine made by pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline (GSK). Eight years later, her career in the NHS is a memory and she's living with incurable, debilitating narcolepsy and suffers from cataplexy, a sudden, uncontrollable loss of muscle tone that can cause her to collapse without warning. Because of her condition, she can no longer work or drive. People with narcolepsy experience chronic fatigue and difficulty sleeping at night. They can have night terrors, hallucinations, and a range of mental health problems. Gallagher is not alone. More than a dozen frontline NHS staff are among around 1,000 adults and children across Europe who are believed to have developed narcolepsy after being given Pandemrix. Gallagher and four other NHS professionals – two nurses, a community midwife, and a junior doctor – have told how they felt pressured into receiving the vaccine, were given misleading information, and ultimately lost their careers. They are all suing GlaxoSmithKline seeking compensation for what they believe was a faulty drug that has left them with lifelong consequences. Note: Yet the media and big Pharma continually tout the safety of their vaccines. For more along these lines, see concise summaries of deeply revealing news articles on vaccines from reliable major media sources. The chairman and CEO of Pfizer, Albert Bourla, sold $5.6 million worth of stock in the pharmaceutical company on Monday. The sale took place on the same day Pfizer announced that its experimental coronavirus vaccine candidate was found to be more than 90% effective. Bourla's sale of Pfizer stock was part of a trading plan set months in advance. Known as 10b5-1 plans, they essentially put stock trades on autopilot. Executives are supposed to adopt these plans only when they are not in possession of inside information that can affect a company's stock price. On Aug. 19, Bourla implemented his stock-trading plan. The next day, Aug. 20, Pfizer issued a press release ... confirming that Pfizer and its German partner, BioNTech, were "on track to seek regulatory review" for its vaccine candidate. Daniel Taylor, an expert in insider trading ... told NPR that the close timing between the adoption of Bourla's stock plan and the press release looked "very suspicious." "It's wholly inappropriate for executives at pharmaceutical companies to be implementing or modifying 10b5-1 plans the business day before they announce data or results from drug trials," Taylor said. The stock sales by Pfizer's CEO brought to mind similar concerns with another coronavirus vaccine-maker, Moderna. Multiple executives at Moderna adopted or modified their stock-trading plans just before key announcements about the company's vaccine. Those executives have sold tens of millions of dollars in Moderna stock. Important Note: Explore our full index to revealing excerpts of key major media news articles on several dozen engaging topics. And don't miss amazing excerpts from 20 of the most revealing news articles ever published.

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Getting started with list Simple List and Nested List List can contain n number of items. The items in list are separated by comma >> a = [1,2,3] To access an element in the list use the index. The index starts from 0 >> a >> 1 Lists can be nested. >> nested_list = [ [1,2,3], ['a','b','c'] ] >> nested_list >> [1,2,3] >> nested_list >> 'a' Various forms of lists are either a basic data type or can be fairly easily constructed in most programming environments. For example, linked lists can be constructed if the programming language provides structures and pointers or references, or even with just two (resizable) arrays, one of next indexes and the other of the type being stored.

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Presentation on theme: " Suggest resources to get you started. Show how to interpret the data you find to speed you along in your search. Present some successful examples."— Presentation transcript: Suggest resources to get you started. Show how to interpret the data you find to speed you along in your search. Present some successful examples of AA research. To Recover and Preserve your past. A family’s history can vanish in one generation. It’s a legacy you leave your descendants. It’s a tribute to your ancestors. It’s interesting, surprising, and fun. You’ll meet a lot of 2 nd and 3 rd cousins you never heard of. It gives you a family medical history. It’s your own personal puzzle left to you by Fate. So. Are you ready for a challenge? Why Do Genealogy? You need a map. The Pedigree Chart. So, how do you find the information for the Chart? How Do You Get Started? Family members – especially elders. Family Reunions are full of old folks with stories. Old Family Bibles often have a filled-in Pedigree Page. Old photographs often have names on the back. WWI and WWII Draft Cards Social Security Records Birth Certificates Death Certificates Church Records Census Data Cemeteries Internet DNA Resources It should be easy to trace back to 1870 – or 140 years. If you count 25 years to a generation, that’s 5 generations. If you go that far, you will have found 62 ancestors. And some of your lines will trace back farther because you will often find great-great-great- grandparents living with their parents. With a little luck and some detective work you can get back much farther than 1870. How Far Back Can You Go? While most Africans in early America were slaves, many had been freed by the time of the American Revolution. Your chances of having one or more of these freed people somewhere in your linage is fairly significant. That makes it easier to trace them with pre-1870 census data. Here’s a “for instance.” Free People of Color Begin with yourself and work into the past. Finding your grandparents in the census is an excellent start. Starting The Family Tree In the old days we used microfilm copies. Today we go to the Internet. There are several excellent sources to research census data. And all of them are readily available for free. And you can use them from your home computer. The Census Many censuses were taken in a rather haphazard manner. Census Takers Don’t believe everything you see on a census. Look at several before drawing any conclusions Don’t think the names are going to be spelled then the way you spell them today. Don’t think the names will be spelled the same from one census to the next. So… Let’s take a look at a census. Here’s one from 1920 Molino, FL. Now we’re ready to trace some families Pulling up a Death Certificate Spouse's Name: Katie Williams Father's Name: Jim Williams Father's Birthplace: Dk Mother's Name: Pollie Mother's Birthplace: Dk Occupation: Laborer Place of Residence: Cedar Town Burial Place: Cedar Town Burial Date: 03 Mar 1931 Name: James Williams Death Date: 01 Mar 1931 Death Place: Cedar Town, Escambia, Florida Gender: Male Race (Original): C Race (Expanded): Colored Death Age: 75y Birth Date: 05 Apr 1855 Birthplace: Ala. Marital Status: Married Gilbert Bird to Maria Bird License date Sept. 18, 1871 Book G – Page 125 Escambia County Marriage Records 1821 to 1900 Let’s consider this marriage info for a moment. There are some very important clues in here. Why are they both named Bird? And didn’t they say in 1900 they had been married 52 years? That would have them married in 1848 – not 1871. Gilbert Bird to Maria Bird License date Sept. 18, 1871 Now we have a bit of a Mystery. So what do we do now? We’ll just have to get more data. Here is that 1900 census data again The Byrd Family in 1885 State Census Byrd GilbertB56 Saw Filer VA Byrd MariaB50 NC Byrd GilbertB23Son Laborer FL Byrd VergieB7 FL Byrd AngellaB10 FL 1885 Escambia Census ByrdHenryB29 FLVANC ByrdAnnB22 AL ByrdMariaB5 FL 1884 1883 1882 1881 1880 Let’s go back even farther So, is Nellie Mariah’s mother or Gilbert’s mother? Or is she a sister to one of them? Notice that both Mariah and Nellie are born in NC. Also note Nellie has a granddaughter, Annie, with her. And, Annie was born in AL in 1859 and has a daughter named Mariah whose mother was born in FL. Wait. What? Annie was born in AL and her “daughter’s” mom in FL? All of the kids Mariah (elder) has with her were born in FL. Annie is married – not widowed – but Mariah’s sons are single. Did anyone notice that Nellie’s family were all Mulatto? Censuses use: W for White I for Indian B for Black and M or Mu for Mulatto. Marriage Records often use C for Colored even back into the early 1800s. Early Race Indicators Watch for M or Mu in the Race Column. If you see M or Mu, even if only once out of several censuses, it probably means the person was Mulatto. This term is little used today because of connotations to slavery and oppression. Mulatto, however, existed as an official census category until 1930. B vs. M or Mu Mulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and white ancestry. The other partner could be White, Indian, Hispanic, Mulatto, Melungeon, Asian or Creole depending on the part of the country and the time period. View it as another clue that may help solve a link. And it may be, as we shall see shortly, a powerful clue. Or it may be merely an indication of light complexion. B vs. M or Mu The 1880 Byrd data looked promising at first glance. But what are all those 1880 clues trying to tell us? It just looks like a mess. Well, let’s compare that 1880 census with the 1885 census. What’s it all mean? In the 1885 census we had And in 1880 we had Here’s 1885 vs 1880 ByrdHenryB29 FLVANC ByrdAnnB22 AL ByrdMariaB5 FL ByrdGilbertB56 Saw FilerVA ByrdMariaB50 NC ByrdGilbertB23SonLaborerFla ByrdVergieB7 Fla ByrdAngellaB10 Fla Back to 1885 again Nellie must be the elder Mariah’s mother. Since Annie is listed as the granddaughter of Nellie in 1880 and is married to Henry Byrd in 1885. we might reason that she was really the granddaughter-in-law. Because little Mariah/Maria is also Henry’s daughter and the great-granddaughter of Nellie. Henry must be Nellie’s grandson so…. Using 2 censuses we solved the confusion and picked up 4 generations. So, what does this mean? Nellie – born in NC as was Mariah’s mother Gilbert and Mariah – Henry’s parents Henry who married Ann – Nellie’s grandson Little Mariah – great-granddaughter of Nellie and daughter of Henry This also shows that Mariah really was a Byrd before she married Gilbert Byrd. Here’s a Review Are we really sure that in 1880 the Annie with Nellie was the same Ann married to Henry Byrd in 1885? After all, the 1880 census said Henry was Single. Maybe Annie was married to another of Nellie’s grandsons. And Henry just happened to marry an Ann and had a daughter named Maria / Mariah by 1885. How can we tell which is the true story? BUT Henry Bird “C “ to Annie Horton “C” on 18 Apr 1878 H. Welch, Minister -- Allen Chapel A. M. E. Church Book J – Page 15 So the Annie listed as Nellie’s granddaughter in 1880 was, in fact, Henry’s wife. Plus we pick up data on their church. And find out Annie’s maiden name. Checking Henry’s Marriage If there’s a lesson with the Byrds, it’s this: Don’t look at clues in isolation. That 1880 census alone couldn’t explain the relationships. But added clues from the 1885 census clarified four generations of relationships. So, put each clue into context with other clues. Two or three clues combined can give you ten times more information than each individual clue taken alone. Combining Clues Moses Horton is not Annie Horton’s father. Annie Byrd Name: Annie Bird Death: 17 Mar 1918 in Molino, Florida Gender: Female Race: Black Death Age: 52y Estimated Birth Year: 1866 Birthplace: Pine Apple, Ala. Father's Name: Andrew Ford Father's Birthplace: Ala. Mother's Name: Nancy Horton Mother's Birthplace: Ala. Occupation: House Work Burial Place: Molino, Fla. Collection: Florida Deaths, 1877-1939 Many of the courthouses in the South were burnt. Those ancestors who were slaves won’t appear in a census by name when they were slaves. Gilbert, Mariah and Nellie were all Byrds. What’s the chance of two Byrd Families marrying? There’s a better explanation. Freed slaves usually had no last names. Many adopted the last names of their former owners. So it would be worth checking slave records of slave owning Byrds in NC. Because the surname data suggest that at one time Gilbert, Mariah & Nellie all lived on a Byrd plantation. Going back to the Byrds Up to now we have been tracing names. And we have good info on the Byrd family. This info will now come into play in a different way. When you get back to slave schedules you have to look for whole families – not individuals. Here’s why. Switching Gears Calling up slave data. In 1850 and 1860 slaves were listed on separate census schedules. In 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830 & 1840 slaves were included with the family. So, what does a slave schedule look like? Federal Slave Schedules It is not very satisfying to have to use the 38 year old black female in the 1860 slave schedule as Nellie. She should be 40 years old in 1860 And she should be Mulatto. So, let’s keep gathering data. Nellie In 1860 he is 22, in Jefferson County, FL and quite well-to-do with real estate of $7,400 and personal property of $1,400. He was born in Florida. His full name was William Capers Bird. More researching quickly turns up his father. W. C. Bird WWilliam’s father was Daniel Butler Bird 1788-1865 IIn the 1860 slave schedule of Jefferson County, FL Daniel had a 40 year old Mulatto female. WWe just found Nellie! Daniel Butler Bird At his point we don’t know for sure that we have found Nellie and her family. All we have done is found a slave schedule where they fit. There were no names on those slave records. We have merely found a good clue about where to go to check courthouse records. It will take the courthouse records that prove or disprove this link. We’ll look at some courthouse records in a minute. IMPORTANT NOTICE What’s next on the Byrds? After all, we don’t have any slaves’ names from the slave schedules. Okay, back to the chase Review I ruled out the Byrd/Bird slaveholders in NC. I had the good luck to find only one Bird family in FL that held slaves that matched Gilbert’s family. That left me with only one location to go research. Frequently, one family will be a near-perfect fit. But if you can’t find a fit, move on. Perhaps they didn’t take on the slave owner’s name. And let’s take one last look around for clues before we move on. From the Pensacola Journal 1908 A Clue from a Church Gilbert Bird’s DC Name: Gilburt Burd Death Date: 13 Dec 1925, Molino, Fla. Race (Original): Negro Death Age: 70y Birth Date: About 1855 Birthplace: Bagdad, Fla. Marital Status: Widowed Spouse's Name: Father's Name: Gilburd Burd Father's Birth: So. Carolina Mother's Name: Maria Mother's Birth: Florida Occupation: Mill Laborer Burial Place: Molino Slave Trading was Big Business. And it required good record keeping. So we go to the Courthouse…. For Slave Records which often mention parents’ names. For Wills which often list slaves by name and age. For ship manifests after 1808. Extracted from South CarolinaSouth Carolina records: Record: 202 of 272 records Series: S213003 Volume - 003P Page - 00495 Item - 00 Date: 1801/10/13 Description: DOUGLASS, NATHANIEL TO GEORGE POWERS, BILL OF SALE FOR A SLAVE NAMED PATIENCE. Record: 210 of 272 records Series: S213003 Volume - 003T Page - 00559 Item - 00 Date: 1805/03/29 Description: DOUGLAS, JOHN TO ROBERT VERREE, BILL OF SALE FOR A SLAVE NAMED EDY AND HER SON NAMED GEORGE. Record: 287 of 379 records Series: S213003 Volume - 004F Page - 00449 Item - 00 Date: 1813/10/15 Description: CHANLATTE, HARRIETTE CAMEAN TO ADEL POINTIS AND LAFINE CLEMENT, BILL OF SALE FOR A SLAVE NAMED CHARLOTTE, ABOUT 18 OR 19 YEARS OF AGE. Record: 227 of 272 records Series: S213003 Volume - 004I Page - 00400 Item - 00 Date: 1815/05/31 Description: DOUGLAS, JAMES TO JOHN WHITING, BILL OF SALE FOR A MALE SLAVE NAMED SANDY. Record: 229 of 272 records Series: S213003 Volume - 004I Page - 00432 Item - 00 Date: 1815/07/05 Description: DOUGLAS, JAMES, ATTY. FOR PATRICK MCDERMOT, ADMOR. OF THOMAS LYNCH TO SAMUEL CROMWELL, BILL OF SALE FOR A SLAVE NAMED POLLIDORE. Record: 230 of 272 records Series: S213003 Volume - 004I Page - 00435 Item - 00 Date: 1815/07/08 Description: KIRKPATRICK AND DOUGLAS TO DUNCAN LEITCH, BILL OF SALE FOR A SLAVE NAMED JACK, ABOUT 29 YEARS OLD. Slave Sale Records Dallas County Alabama …I give to my Daughters Louisa King Wife of Peyton King and Elizabeth Mitchell the Widow of A.J.D. Mitchell Decd, That is to say Man with a Woman and her six Children named as Collins, Charles, [Crachs?], Edward, Malinda, Duke, William, Celia and her two children Jordan and James a Woman named Mary, a woman named Lucy, a Woman named Mariah, a Woman named Maria Lucy, a Woman named Mariah, a Woman named Charlette - Wester a man, Isaach a man, Toney a man, Jocef a boy, Little Wash a boy, Littleton a man, Martha a Woman, Martin a man, John a boy, Nelson a small boy, Moses a man and Isham a man…. Extract from the Will of Anthony M. Minter In Article 1, Section 9, of the Constitution Congress was limited, expressly, from prohibiting the "Importation" of slaves, before 1808. Congress, however, passed a law that became effective on January 1, 1808. That law prohibited the importation of slaves into the United States The Beginning of the End of Slavery Eli Whitney’s cotton gin (1793) was inexpensive enough for plantation owners in the South to purchase. This greatly increased the demand for & value of slaves. Virginia and Maryland had slaves for their tobacco fields, but could make money selling their slaves south. Over 1 million slaves were sold into the Deep South 1820, Congress passed a stronger law to enforce the illegal importation of slaves from Africa making participation an act of piracy punishable by death. This led to exquisite record keeping by ship captains. A Million Slaves Sold South This bit of history works greatly in favor of the African-American researcher. Keep those dates (1808 and 1820) in mind as you search for records. Now – an example record. 7 Dec 1840 Ship Manifest From Virginia To New Orleans John C. Weldon Prince William County Virginia To G. G. Noel New Orleans And these are only a few of the records available. After researching numerous court records you will eventually arrive back at the debarkation of a slave ship. This leads to…. “We don't have to just say that we are from Africa anymore, we can say 'I'm from Sierra Leone,' or 'I'm from Cameroon.'" Dr. Rick Kittles DNA As impossible as it may seem, modern DNA techniques can track Y DNA and mDNA back hundreds of years. There is at least one company that does that. It is a Washington D.C. company run by Dr. Rick Kittles http://www.africanancestry.com/ Tracing back to your Ancestral Village in Africa “About 30% of black Americans who take DNA tests to determine their African lineage prove to be descended from Europeans on their father's side.” Dr. Rick Kittles Scientific Director of African Ancestry Another 2% carry Amerindian genes. What About Mixed Blood? If you have a European male ancestor on your paternal line - even twenty generations back – your lineage will show up as European even though all your other ancestors are of African heritage. It can be very misleading. Do the hard stuff first. Then use DNA to help sort out problems making connections. So, back to the hard stuff…. How Does That Affect DNA Testing? Heritage Quest Family Search Ancestry $ Three Places to Start Right out there in the library. But Ancestry is FREE… Ultimately, the difference is in how slaves were enumerated. From 1870 forward there is no difference. From 1850 to 1860 you use Slave Schedules vs. Censuses. And you have no slaves’ names. But this period is just like pre-1850 census research. Except the slave data is an order of magnitude better. Before 1850 the slave research is not significantly different. No one before 1850 was named except the Head of Household. And everyone had only an age bracket. Slaves included. How is AA Census Research Different? Here you have a problem finding the slave owner’s name. Here you have a problem finding the wife’s father’s name. But, while the problem of slaves not being named on the slave schedules lasts 20 years past 1850, the slave records are more comprehensive. So, for women, children and slaves before 1850 the censuses don’t list their names. For slaves in 1850 and 1860 the slave schedules still don’t list their names. This lack of names is a big problem for everyone when working backwards through the census data to match a person to a head of household or slave owner. Now, back to matching former slaves to a slave owner or, prior to 1850, a head of household. It comes at the transition from Slave to Free. Whether after the Civil War. Or earlier for Freedmen. And it’s a Bear. The Transition Problem One way is the way we have covered in the example of the Byrds. Assume the family took the slave owner’s name. This is probably the second easiest way. There are many ways. Here are a few. A more difficult way is to locate sharecropper contracts in the county where your family was listed in the 1870 census. Because most freed slaves were poor, illiterate and fearful of the wide-spread violence after the war, they often stayed on the plantation for several years. They would contract for a particular section of land to farm and agreed to let the owner sell what they raised and give them half the profits. Contracts Yet another way is to look at White families listed near them in the 1870 census. Since they may not have yet moved off of the old plantation they might be listed close to the former slave owner on the census. I have seen former slaves living with the former owner in the 1870 census. Propinquity Find family lore passed down from generation to generation. I have run across several beginning African- American researchers who already knew the last slave owner’s name. They got it from elders or reunions or 2 nd cousins or where ever. Family lore is usually quite accurate. The Easiest Way At some point, however, you have to use courthouse records to verify you actually got the final slave owner right. You have to do the same to match unnamed wives and children to a named head of household as well. And you use some of the same records – wills, contracts, etc. – but you also use slave records to match former slaves to a particular household. Early Free People of Color often had only first names. Large groups of families with the same last name may all be from the same slave owner and are unrelated. It’s not unheard of for a male to change his last name one or more times between 1870 and 1920. Having two race categories, B and Mu, often greatly assists research. Other Differences in AA Research 1.Collect family knowledge. 2.Locate grandparents in censuses. 3.Track grandparents back to their parents. 4.Keep tracking generations as far back as possible – usually 1870. 5.Access all of the data you have collected. 6.Make educated guess about state and county of last slave status – with slave holder’s name, if possible. 7.Match family to slave schedules in that county. 8.If you can’t find a match, go back to step 5. 9.Go to courthouse records for slaves’ names & parents. 10.Research slave holder’s family to see where they came from. 11.Keep going back following wills and slave sales adding generations as you go. 12.Debarkation from a slave ship marks end of research in US. Talk to all your family members to see what they know. Begin to complete your ancestry chart. Learn to use all the various resources available. Don’t depend on one site, like Ancestry, for all data. Search using all potential variations in a name. When you get back into slave schedules, search for families not individuals. Visit courthouses in the areas where your ancestors lived. Attend WFGS to learn of new sites as they come on line. Never give up.

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On this course you will learn the hand shapes, movements, grammar and structure of BSL. You will also explore the history, cultures, and experiences of deaf people, gaining an insight into life as a deaf person. About the Course York St John University is pleased to be offering a new Introduction to British Sign Language. Over the course of 9 weeks you will learn the basics of British Sign Language. Including: fingerspelling, lip reading, and the semiotic structure of BSL. Alongside the practical aspects of BSL you will learn about Deaf awareness and discover Deaf history and culture. Including: education, significant historical figures, and events. The course is facilitated by multi award winning Associate Professor of British Sign Language Amanda Smith. According to the British Deaf Association there are 151,000 individuals in the United Kingdom who use BSL. BSL users can experience communication barriers everyday This introductory course will help you understand and support BSL users. Amanda Smith is a Deaf British Sign Language (BSL) user, with experience teaching BSL for twenty two years, eighteen of which have been at York St John University. As an Associate Professor at York St John, she teaches on all levels of British Sign Language modules, facilitating learning for students who may never have signed a word to those who have some fluency in BSL. Including aspects of the deaf lived experience into teaching, to help raise awareness of deaf people as a cultural as well as linguistic minority. In 2011, she was awarded National Teacher of the Year by Signature and, in 2012, York Adult Tutor of the Year by City of York Council’s “York 800”. In 2019 she was nominated for the ‘inspirational teaching’ and ‘most supportive staff member’ of the year awards by York St John Students' Union.

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As parents, we naturally want the best for our children, and it’s only natural to want to encourage them. However, there is a fine line between providing praise and fostering an environment where children develop into underachievers. Overpraising children for even the most minor accomplishments can inadvertently lead to a sense of entitlement and a lack of motivation to excel. In this article, we’ll explore the potential pitfalls of praising your child for menial things and how it can contribute to underachievement. - The Dangers of Excessive Praise Excessive praise can lead to children seeking constant validation for even the smallest tasks. When children are constantly told they are “amazing” or “the best” for every minor effort, they may grow up with unrealistic expectations of constant admiration. - Encouraging a Fixed Mindset Praising children indiscriminately can inadvertently reinforce a fixed mindset, where they believe their abilities are inherent and unchangeable. This mindset can hinder their willingness to take on challenges or put in effort to improve. - Lowering Intrinsic Motivation Overpraising can undermine a child’s intrinsic motivation—the internal desire to achieve for the sake of personal satisfaction. When praise is tied to external validation rather than genuine accomplishment, children may become less inclined to pursue goals for their own fulfillment. - Fostering a Fear of Failure Children who are excessively praised may develop a fear of failure. They may become reluctant to try new things or take on challenges out of fear that they won’t meet the high standards set by their parents’ praise. - Unrealistic Self-Perception When children receive excessive praise, they may develop an inflated sense of self. This unrealistic self-perception can make it difficult for them to accurately assess their abilities and may lead to disappointment when they encounter situations where praise is not readily given. - The “Participation Trophy” Syndrome The “participation trophy” phenomenon is a prime example of overpraising, where every child receives a trophy or reward just for participating in an activity, regardless of their actual performance. This approach can lead to a sense of entitlement and a lack of motivation to excel. - The Importance of Constructive Feedback Instead of constant praise, children benefit from constructive feedback and encouragement that is specific and growth-oriented. This helps them develop resilience and the ability to learn from their mistakes. - Encouraging Effort and Persistence Praising your child for their effort, resilience, and determination fosters a growth mindset. Emphasize the importance of hard work and perseverance in achieving their goals. - Setting Realistic Expectations It’s essential to set realistic expectations for your child’s abilities and accomplishments. Celebrate genuine achievements and milestones, but avoid overhyping everyday tasks. - Balancing Praise with Honesty Being honest with your child about their strengths and areas for improvement is crucial. Encourage open communication and support them in setting achievable goals. While praise is an essential tool for building your child’s self-esteem and confidence, it must be administered thoughtfully and in moderation. Excessive praise for menial accomplishments can have unintended consequences, leading to a sense of entitlement and underachievement. Instead, focus on nurturing their intrinsic motivation, resilience, and growth mindset by providing specific and constructive feedback. By striking a balance between encouragement and honesty, you can help your child develop the skills and mindset necessary to succeed in life.

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The mysterious hand of the Canadian Indian Act is still present in First Nations communities, and is particularly evident in the realm of education. Until the late 1960s, schooling for First Nations children and youth was essentially “assimilationist.” “The primary purpose of formal education,” as stated in the report of the 1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, “was to indoctrinate Aboriginal peoples into a Christian, European world view, thereby ‘civilizing’ them” (Canada 1996, vol. 3, chap. 5, 2). Since the publication of “Indian Control of Indian Education” by the National Indian Brotherhood in 1972, over 40 years ago, policy changes in the form of federal-local education agreements, authorized under SGAs, for the most part have only reinforced the status quo of top-down, albeit partially delegated, federal control over education (Fallon and Paquette 2012, 3). Conformity with mainstream society, competition, and preparation for the workforce were viewed as the only way forward for all Canadian children and youth, including Aboriginals. Such assumptions effectively limited the scope of First Nations children’s educational, cultural, and social life by failing to recognize the legitimacy of Aboriginal holistic learning and indigenous knowledge (Marie Battiste 2002). Policies advocating the assimilation of Aboriginal students and, later on, their integration into provincial or non-Aboriginal schools were the prescriptions for “normal” educational provisions and practices deemed necessary to integrate children and youth into a hierarchically ordered, pluralist state (J.D. Moon 1993 ). Modifications to the Indian Act regime merely perpetuate the status quo in terms of federal dominance over First Nations peoples. In such a hierarchical social order, students are being prepared for a world still dominated by federal officials or indirectly managed by a chief and band council acting at the behest of the agents of non-Aboriginal society. Whatever their traditional authority might have been,” American political scientist J. Donald Moon once wrote, the chief has “come to owe his power mainly to his relationships to the ruling stratum” (Moon, 15). Managed devolution of power over education to First Nations amount to extending federal oversight in education governance. Authority is delegated sufficient to meet the minimum standard of First Nations control in principle, but not in actual practice. Since about 1980, federal policy has promoted First Nations control of education in the context of a model of integration in which First Nations students are permitted to enrol in provincial school systems offering educational services and programs. In addition, First Nations control over education has been gradually ceded to delegated education authorities as part of a larger strategy of fostering economic development in First Nations communities. Although presented as a means of decolonization, the federal and provincial governments have promoted self-government and local control primarily as a way of encouraging First Nations to give up traditional ways and enter the market society. Such experiments in devolution, as Gerald Fallon and Jerry Paquette aptly observe, have merely substituted a new form of neo-colonialism” that is “deeply rooted in a denial of First Nations peoples’ capacity to formulate their own conceptions of person and society” (2012, 12). Recent federal-local agreements negotiated as part of the devolution movement in Nova Scotia and British Columbia look promising, but — through control of the purse — actually might perpetuate the hegemony of the federal and provincial governments over First Nations communities. With a few exceptions, the SGAs provide limited devolution of power framed within what Fallon and Paquette term “the municipal model of self-government.” Some administrative autonomy is ceded, but only within limits set by outside educational authorities controlled by federal and, mostly, provincial governments. Despite appropriating the public language of First Nations empowerment, the real changes necessary to extend authentic “Aboriginalization” of education seem to be absent on the ground in First Nations communities and their schools. A decade ago, a report by Cynthia Wesley-Esquimault aptly entitled Reclaiming the Circle of Learning and written for the Ontario Assembly of Chiefs, warned that history was in danger of repeating itself in that recent shifts in the direction of devolution did not amount to fundamental change (Wesley-Esquimaux, 2004). The proposed 2013 First Nations Education Act was the latest mutation of devolution. Under the guise of supporting devolution, the federal government proposed to establish what amounted to a new system appropriating the provincial school board model, with significant strings attached. Despite the friendly sounding rhetoric, the legislation sought to fill the supposed void at the centre of the “non-system” of First Nations education (Canada 2013c). Confronted with what was depicted as a “fractured mirror” in education governance, Ottawa opted to nudge First Nations in the direction of creating more confederated boards to manage the more than 550 First Nations schools scattered across Canada’s ten provinces. Introducing a school board model, however, likely would curtail, rather than advance, the movement to community-based schools. A study for the Canadian School Boards Association, conducted from December 2010 to November 2011, raised red flags about the impact of centralization on the state of local democratic control in Canada’s provincially regulated school boards. Surveying national trends over the past two decades, the authors conclude that “the significance of the school district apparatus in Canada has diminished as provincial governments have enacted an aggressive centralization agenda” (Sheppard et al. 2013, 42). In another paper, Gerald Galway and a Memorial University research team claim that democratic school board governance is in serious jeopardy because trustees and superintendents now operate in a politicized policy environment that is “antagonistic to local governance” (Galway et al. 2013, 27–28). Elected school boards subscribing to a corporate policy-making model have also tended to stifle trustee autonomy and to narrow the scope of local, community decision-making (Paul W. Bennett 2012). The 2013 First Nations Education Act was rejected for good reason. Proposing conventional school board governance in First Nations communities will only impose a new set of system-wide standards and accountabilities while withholding curriculum autonomy and thwarting the introduction of holistic learning, Indigenous knowledge, and heritage languages. *Adapted from Paul W. Bennett and Jonathan Anuik, Policy Research Paper, Northern Policy Institute (Sudbury and Thunder Bay, ON, forthcoming, September 2014). What lessons can be learned from the rejection of the 2013 Canadian First Nations Education Act? Is the conventional image of First Nations education governance as a “fractured mirror” an accurate one? Does the shelving of the federal intiative signal the death knell for top-down devolution? What’s stopping policy-makers from building a new model from the First Nations communities upward?

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Smithsonite is named for James Smithson, the founder of the Smithsonian Institution. The luster of smithsonite sets it apart from other minerals: it has a silky to pearly luster giving natural specimens a certain play of light across its surface that resembles the fine luster of melted wax glowing under a candle flame. It is easy to wax poetically when discussing smithsonite's unique luster. It is really unusual and captivating and collectors can easily get hooked. Smithsonite in addition to wonderful luster also has a varied color assortment. The apple green to blue-green color is probably smithsonite's most well known color, but it is its purple to lavender color that is probably its most sought after hue. There also exists attractive yellow, white, tan, brown, blue, orange, peach, colorless, pink and red smithsonite specimens and all of them are a credit to this mineral. The typical crystal habit of smithsonite is an interesting form called botryoidal. This form has the appearance of grape bunches and is the result of radiating fibrous crystals that form from central attachment points and grow outward and into each other. The result is a rounded, bubbly landscape for which smithsonite is considered the classic example. There are also other habits more typical of Calcite Group minerals including rounded rhombohedrons and scalenohedrons. Most of these come from the famous mines of Tsumeb, Namibia and the Broken Hill Mine in Zambia. The Tsumeb specimens are colored by trace amounts of cobalt and can have some real exotic colors. The Kelly Mine, Magdalena, New Mexico has produced the absolute finest blue-green botryoidal masses of smithsonite. But there are many localities that have or are producing excellent specimens. Smithsonite has been and is still being used as an important, although rather minor ore of zinc. At Leadville, Colorado the smithsonite deposits were largely overlooked until their profit potential was finally realized. Many other zinc ore minerals may have been originally smithsonite before metamorphism or other altering processes, formed new minerals. Smithsonite forms in dry climates as a weathering product of primary sulfide zinc ores such as Smithsonite is not easy to confuse with many other minerals. has a similar botryoidal habit and blue-green color, but the fracture edges of smithsonite's specimens have a plastic-like look while hemimorphite reveals minute, radiating crystals. Prehnite has similar color and habit as well, but is much lighter and harder. Both of these minerals lack the melted wax luster of smithsonite. Its high density, good cleavage, crystal habit, luster, its reaction to hot HCl acid and its high hardness for a carbonate are all quite conclusive for smithsonite to be differentiated from all other minerals. With its lovely luster, many beautiful colors and interesting habits, smithsonite specimens are a source of real pleasure for collectors around the world. Color is commonly apple green, blue-green, lavender, purple, yellow and white as well as tan, brown, blue, orange, peach, colorless, gray, pink and red. Luster is usually pearly to resinous with light play across its surface and sometimes is simply vitreous. Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent. Crystal System is trigonal; bar 3 2/m Crystal Habits include the rhombohedrons and scalenohedrons with generally curved faces. But more commonly is botryoidal or globular. Cleavage is perfect in three directions forming rhombohedrons. Fracture is uneven. Hardness is 4 - 4.5. Specific Gravity is approximately 4.4 (heavy for nonmetallic minerals) Streak is white. Associated Minerals are those found in oxidation zones of zinc deposits such as hemimorphite, and other carbonate Other Characteristics: Effervesces slightly with warm hydrochloric (HCl) acid. Noteable Occurrences include Tsumeb, Namibia and the Broken Hill Mine in Zambia; the Kelly Mine, Magdalena, New Mexico; Leadville, Colorado; Utah; Idaho and Arizona, USA; Mexico; Laurion, Greece; Bytom, Poland; Moresnet, Belgium and many other localities. Best Field Indicators are luster, typical botryoidal habit, cleavage, hardness, reaction to hot acids and density.

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Promoting Diversity in Your Classroom by Elisa Shore I have students from over a dozen different countries at the John Adams campus, so I’m always looking for ways to help students learn about their classmates’ different cultures, celebrate their own unique diversity, and share this rich international experience with the school. At the beginning of each semester, therefore, I like to create a bulletin board highlighting the individual student, and his or her culture and country to promote this cultural diversity. The following lesson will work for all levels of ESL, with adjustments for various levels. Step One: Activating the Schema To activate students’ schema and get them ready for the activity, I begin by having students do a simple “Find someone who…” activity in which they interview several classmates from different cultures on basic information like name, place of origin, languages spoken, hobbies and interests, and occupation. After the interview activity, we board the name all the countries represented in the class, and then have a brief discussion of what we can gain by having such a diverse class. Usual responses include: having more opportunities to practice English by working with a student who speaks another language, learning about differences in education, work, social situation, and body language.) Sample “Find someone who...” Activity:| “Find someone who…”||Name | |1. was born in a different county than you. || ______________________| |2. grew up in the city.|| ______________________| |3. had a big family.|| ______________________| Step Two: Forming Questions and Answers Using cues or prompts from the textbook, or writing my own cues, I have the students work with a partner to form questions about their past and present. |Where/born || “Where were you born?” | |Where/grew up? || “Where did you grow up?”| |Did/live in the city? || “Did you live in the city?”| |Did/have a big family? ||“Did you have a big family?| After boarding and checking the answers for grammatical accuracy, we review how one might answer these questions, with attention to both grammar and content. |“Where were you born?” ||“I was born in Mexico City, Mexico.”| |“Did you live in the city?” ||“Yes, I did. I lived in a big city.”| |“Did you have a big family?” ||“Yes, I did. There were eight people in my family.”| Finally, students work with a partner from another culture and ask and answer the questions. Step Three: Writing a paragraph At this point, I show students a sample paragraph from a previous semester. For lower-levels, the paragraph may have three or four sentences, while higher levels can handle two or three short paragraphs. If you have access to a computer lab, you can have students write the paragraph in Word, and insert an image or two of their country or hometown into the document. Step Four: Creating the Bulletin Board I like to take a color photograph (35 millimeter or digital image) of each student pointing to his or her country on a large world map. Finally, take the completed documents and photographs, and place everything on a large bulletin board in a central location in the hallway for all students to read and enjoy. You will be greatly rewarded to see a crowd of students hovering daily around the board, reading the students’ stories and talking about their own culture and country. The end result is gratifying for the student-writers, the instructor, and the entire school! Click here to see photos of the bulletin board

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