Immunoglobulin compositions prepared from human plasma and suitable for intravenous administration are known in the art and for several decades have played an important role in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Immunoglobulins are used, for example, for the treatment of infections in humans and can be assigned to various classes with various biochemical and physiological properties. Immunoglobulin G participates in defending against viral antigens, whereas IgM is predominantly active in antibacterial and antitoxin immune responses.
The immunoglobulin solutions comprise IgG, IgA and IgM in various percentages, with different preparations having different treatment applications, e.g. preparations with a higher percentage of IgM are used in the prophylaxis or treatment of bacterial infections.
The immunoglobulin solutions are usually prepared from fractions of blood plasma or serum, e.g. Cohn fractions. These fractions are then subjected to a number of purification steps to remove contaminants such as viruses, denatured proteins, proteases and lipids.
Human plasma for fractionation is collected from thousands of donors and may contain pathogen viruses despite thorough testing of the source plasma. Therefore process steps to inactivate or remove viruses are essential in order to achieve safe products for use in medicine. Several techniques for virus inactivation/removal are known in the art, e.g. chemical treatments, irradiation with UVC light or nanometer filtration, which are performed in order to ensure overall virus safety.
The virus removal or inactivation capacity of the process steps is validated using laboratory scale models of the production process and for each step a removal or inactivation factor is determined. An increase of the inactivation/removal factor adds additional viral safety to the pharmaceutical product. Today guidelines from regulatory authorities require at least two effective steps for enveloped and non-enveloped viruses in the manufacture of plasma-derived pharmaceuticals. Although several methods, such as solvent/detergent treatment, octanoic acid treatment, nanometer filtration and heat treatment, are effective to inactivate or remove enveloped viruses there are only a few methods known to inactivate or remove non-enveloped viruses, for example Parvo viruses. These non-enveloped viruses are mostly very small, usually passing through nanometer filters with pore sizes above 20 nm. This pore size is too small for IgM molecules having a diameter up to 30 nm. Non enveloped viruses are effectively inactivated by chemicals like β-propiolactone which, however, also leads to a modified immunoglobulin with impaired functions. Another effective treatment is UVC-irradiation (EP1842561, CAF-DCF). However, known solvent/detergent treatments, octanoic acid treatment and mild heat treatment have no substantial effect on non-enveloped viruses.
As mentioned above, in addition to viruses which are potentially present it is also necessary to remove other contaminants like lipids, proteases, protein aggregates, and denatured immunoglobulins. The removal of all these contaminants is essential (1) to ensure the product complies with bio-safety guidelines regarding viral contamination, (2) in order for the product to be tolerated by the patient after intravenous administration, (3) to allow the product to be stable during long-term storage (any residual proteolytic activity might lead to degradation of the product over long-term storage, e.g. 2 years), and (4) to generate the desired compound mixture/pharmaceutical composition.
At the same time, however, it is essential that the purification steps to remove the contaminants do not interfere with the immunoglobulin molecules, so that as far as possible these retain their normal biological activity and are retained at high yield in solution. This balance is difficult to achieve since many known purification steps can also have a negative impact on the activity of the immunoglobulins, and in particular on IgM; for example extended irradiation times with UVC can reduce the yield of native and active IgM obtained in the final immunoglobulin solution. Not only does this lead to a reduction in efficacy of the final immunoglobulin solution but it can also cause the solution to be less well tolerated in vivo.
Aggregates and denatured immunoglobulins, the amount of which can be increased by certain purification steps, especially are a potential risk for the patients because they have a high capacity to activate complement unspecifically, leading to severe side effects in patients receiving these denatured immunoglobulins. Unspecific complement activation refers to the initiation of the complement cascade in the absence of specific antibody-antigen complexes. Unspecific complement activation is strictly to be avoided since it may cause undesirable side effects such as hypotension, flushing, headache, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, muscle pain, dyspnoea and tachycardia. Specific complement activation, on the other hand, is desirable and it occurs only after the immunoglobulins have bound to their specific antigens.
Unspecific complement activation is measured as the so called anticomplementary activity (ACA) by a standardized test described in the European Pharmacopoeia.
The role of the complement system in the immune defense of pathogens is well known. The complement system consists of about 20 proteins, which are activated sequentially. The classical complement pathway typically requires a specific antigen antibody complex for activation, whereas the alternative pathway can be activated by antigens without the presence of antibodies. The classical and the alternative pathway of complement activation all generate a protease C3-convertase. The C3-convertase cleaves and activates component C3, creating C3a and C3b, and causing a cascade of further cleavage and activation events over C5 convertase to C5a and C5b. C5b initiates the membrane attack pathway, which results in the membrane attack complex, consisting of C5b, C6, C7, C8, and polymeric C9. This is the cytolytic endproduct of the complement cascade which forms a transmembrane channel, which causes osmotic lysis of the target cells like bacteria.
Complement activation additionally results in the formation of anaphylatoxins, including the biologically active protein C5a. This anaphylatoxin is a potent chemotactic agent for immune and inflammatory cells and induces cell activation and causing the release of histamine from mast cells. In situations of excessive or uncontrolled and/or unspecific complement activation, the overproduction of C5a can cause deleterious effects to patients.
C5a is an effective leukocyte chemoattractant, causing the accumulation of white blood cells, especially neutrophil granulocytes, at sites of complement activation. C5a activates white blood cells and is a powerful inflammatory mediator. Whereas these functions are beneficial during specific antibody-antigen complex reactions all unspecific generation of C5a has to be avoided due to the potential side effects.
Unspecific complement activation is a particular issue for IgM immunoglobulin preparations (i.e. those comprising at least 5% IgM) as in contrast to IgG preparations IgM antibodies easily aggregate in solution. IgM preparations are difficult to stabilize especially if they are enriched compared to plasma concentrations and stored in liquid solution. It is also known that IgM is a vigorous activator of complement; a single molecule bound to an antigen can activate complement. This is in contrast to IgG, where two or more molecules of IgG must be bound to an antigen in close association with each other to activate complement.
Still further, the main indications treated by IgM containing immunoglobulin preparations are bacterial infections and sepsis. As these patients are already suffering from hypotension an additional unwanted generation of unspecific complement activation and C5a would lead to a clinical worsening of the patient's condition. Accordingly, IgM preparations have been described as being difficult to prepare for intravenous application.
There are several methods described in the art for the production of IgM containing immunoglobulin preparations from human plasma.
The initial purification of human IgM solutions has been carried out by classical Cohn plasma fractionation methods or its well known modifications (e.g. Cohn/Oncley, Kistler/Nitschmann). Using cold ethanol precipitation processes the IgM fraction is recovered in fraction III or fraction I/III (also called B or B+I). Starting from fraction III or I/III methods have been described for purification of protein solutions enriched in IgM. EP0013901 describes a purification method starting from fraction III including steps using octanoic acid, β-Propiolactone treatment and an adsorption step using an anionic exchange resin. This method is used to produce Pentaglobin®—to date the only commercially available intravenous IgM product. β-propiolactone is a well known chemical used in sterilization steps in order to inactivate viruses which are potentially present. As β-propiolactone is a very reactive substance which causes the chemical modification of proteins there is also substantial loss of the anti-viral and anti-bacterial activities of the immunoglobulins. On the other hand this chemical modification results in an reduced anticomplementary activity compared to an chemically unmodified immunoglobulin. EP0352500 describes the preparation of an IgM concentrate for intravenous application with a reduced anti-complementary activity by using anionic exchange chromatography, β-Propiolactone, UVC light irradiation and an incubation step at increased temperature (40° C. to 60° C.). The preparation produced by this method was stable in liquid solution for a limited time due to the chemical modification. The IgM concentration was above 50% from the total immunoglobulin content.
The preparation of protein solutions enriched in IgM without chemical modification by β-propiolactone has been described in EP0413187 (Biotest) and EP0413188 (Biotest). These methods involve subjecting a suitable protein solution to octanoic acid treatment and anionic exchange chromatography, starting from Cohn fraction III or II/III. In patent EP0413187 (Biotest) the octanoic acid treatment is carried out by stirring for 15 min, in order to remove lipids being present in Cohn fraction III.
The preparation according to EP0413187 had a low anticomplementary activity, between 0.6 and 0.8 CH50/mg protein, but had to be stabilized and virus inactivated by β-propiolactone. Low anticomplementary activity is considered to be ≦1 CH50/mg protein according to EP monograph for immunoglobulins.
EP0413188B1 (Biotest) describes the preparation of an IgM-enriched preparation for intravenous administration by using an anion exchange chromatography in order to reduce the anti-complementary activity. Additionally a heat treatment at pH 4-4.5 at 40 to 60° C., preferably between 50 and 54° C., was described to reduce the anticomplementary activity. This preparation had to be lyophilized to ensure stability of the preparation for several months. Long term stability as a liquid solution could not be shown.
M. Wickerhauser et al. “Large Scale Preparation of Macroglobulin”, Vox Sang 23, 119-125 (1972) showed that IgM preparations isolated by PEG precipitation had high anticomplementary activity (ACA) by a standard complement fixation test and this ACA activity was reduced 10 fold by incubating the IgM preparation at pH 4.0 at 37° C. for 8 hours followed by readjustment to neutral pH. It was not demonstrated if this 10 fold reduction is sufficient to ensure intravenous tolerability. The authors did not assess the specific complement activating potential of their IgM concentrate, nor did they assess safety in any animal or human model.
Another method describes the use of mild-heat treatment of IgM preparations at 40 to 62° C., preferably 45 to 55° C., at pH 4.0 to 5.0 (EP 0450412, Miles) to reduce the unspecific complement activation. In this patent application octanoic acid is added to a Cohn fraction III suspension in order to remove prekallikrein activator and lipoproteins by centrifugation. Nevertheless this mild heat treatment led to partial loss of antigenic determinants of IgM. This may increase the risk of generating neo-antigens leading to a increased immunogenicity in humans or the loss of activity.
The preparation of an IgM containing protein solution for intravenous application by using a protease treatment (e.g. with pepsin) after an octanoic acid precipitation step has been described in EP0835880 (U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,312, ZLB). Protease treatment leads to partial fragmentation of the immunoglobulin molecule impairing the full functional activity of the Fab and Fc parts. Therefore protease-treated immunoglobulins cannot be regarded as unmodified. Also this preparation method leads to about 5% fragments with a molecular weight of <100 kD.
The described methods to carry out the octanoic acid treatment (EP0413187 and EP0835880) have the drawback that the octanoic acid treatment is not effective with respect to removal and inactivation of non-enveloped viruses, and does not remove substantially all proteolytic activity.
In EP 0345543 (Bayer, Miles) a highly concentrated IgM preparation with at least 33% IgM for therapeutic use is disclosed, the preparation being substantially free of isoagglutinin titres. In this patent application an octanoic acid precipitation is carried out by adding the octanoic acid and the isoagglutinins are removed by Synsorb affinity chromatography. The final preparation had to be freeze dried.
Altogether the production of an IgM containing preparation with low anticomplementary activity is possible if the immunoglobulins are chemically or enzymatically modified and/or further purified by chromatography and/or subjected to a mild heat treatment. However, these methods have their drawbacks in the lack of virus removal/virus inactivation (and therefore virus safety), reduction in the amount of immunoglobulin molecules in native form and/or residual anticomplementary activity. As such, there is still a need to provide improved IgM containing immunoglobulin preparations suitable for intravenous administration in humans.