when did the new approach of affirmative action emerge in america
Affirmative action in the United States Affirmative action policies were developed to address long histories of discrimination faced by minorities and women, which reports suggest produced corresponding unfair advantages for whites and males.[14][15] They first emerged from debates over non-discrimination policies in the 1940s and during the Civil Rights Movement.[16] These debates led to federal executive orders requiring non-discrimination in the employment policies of some government agencies and contractors in the 1940s onwards, and to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited racial discrimination in firms with over 25 employees. The first federal policy of race-conscious affirmative action was the Revised Philadelphia Plan, which required government contractors to set "goals and timetables" for integrating and diversifying their workforce. Similar policies began to emerge through a mix of voluntary practices and federal and state policies in employment and education. Affirmative action as a practice was partially upheld by the Supreme Court in Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), while the use of racial or gender quotas for college admissions was concurrently ruled unconstitutional by the Court in Gratz v. Bollinger (2003).
Title IX Title IX was enacted as a follow-up to passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The 1964 Act was passed to end discrimination in various fields based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in the areas of employment and public accommodation.[2][3] The 1964 Act did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons not employed at educational institutions. Feminists during the early 1970s lobbied leaders to draft a separate law to include this demographic which was mostly applied to athletics, implicitly, at the time. This demographic was largely the student demographic enrolled at U.S. schools and universities. Title IX did not apply to employees, as they were already protected under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[4] While TitleÂ IX is best known for its impact on high school and collegiate athletics, the original statute made no explicit mention of sports. Coverage of sports was implied, however, as this was the topic on which the lobbying was based. President Barack Obama used Title IX to extend protections on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity, and physical or mental handicap through a series of "Dear Colleague" letters that remain in legal limbo.[5][6] Under U.S. President Donald Trump, this has been rescinded back to the original protections under the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[7][8]