The Tongzhi Emperor (27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), also known by his temple name Emperor Muzong of Qing, personal name Zaichun, was the ninth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign, from 1861 to 1875, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi. Although he had little influence over state affairs, the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the "Tongzhi Restoration", an unsuccessful modernization program.

The only surviving son of the Xianfeng Emperor, Tongzhi ascended the throne at the age of five under a regency headed by his mother and Empress Dowager Ci'an. The Self-Strengthening Movement began during his reign, in which Qing officials pursued radical institutional reforms following the disasters of the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion. Tongzhi assumed personal rule over the Qing government in 1873 and immediately came into conflict with his ministers, but was outmaneuvered by the empresses dowager. 

In 1875, Tongzhi succumbed to smallpox at the age of 18 following unsuccessful medical treatments, creating a succession crisis as he died without a male heir. In contravention of Qing's dynastic custom, the empresses dowager installed Cixi's nephew as his successor, who assumed the throne as the Guangxu Emperor.

Life
The only surviving son of the Xianfeng Emperor and Empress Dowager Cixi, the Tongzhi Emperor was namesake to the attempted political reform initiated by his mother, called the Tongzhi Restoration. His first regnal name was "Qixiang" (祺祥; Manchu: Fengšengge sabingga), but this name was later changed, as per tradition upon his succession, to "Tongzhi". The regnal name means 'order and prosperity' coming from the Confucian teaching that "there are many ways of being a good government, and they can all be summarized as order and prosperity".

The Tongzhi Emperor became emperor at the age of five upon the death of his father, the Xianfeng Emperor. His father's choice of a regent, Sushun, was removed in favor of a partnership between his mother Empress Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an.

While there had most likely been hopes that the Tongzhi Emperor would become a successful leader like the Kangxi Emperor (who ascended the throne as a child in 1661), those hopes would soon be disappointed, as the Tongzhi Emperor grew up to become an obstinate and dissolute young man who also expressed his dissatisfaction with his mother Empress Cixi.

In the fall of 1872, the teenage emperor married Empress Xiaozheyi and two official concubines. The Tongzhi Emperor apparently had wanted to take up power immediately, prompting a quarrel at court regarding the dismantling of the regency and the timing of it. However, the two empresses dowager stuck by the intended date of February 23, 1873.

The day after the Tongzhi Emperor took up the reins of power, the foreign powers requested an audience with the teenage emperor. The request precipitated a sharp disagreement between the ministers at the foreign legations, who made it clear that they would not perform the ritual kowtow to the emperor, and the Zongli Yamen (foreign affairs ministry), regarding the protocol to be observed. The Qing government was also loath to hold the audience within the confines of the Forbidden City, eventually settling on the "Pavilion of Purple Light" at one of the lakeside palaces to the west of the Forbidden City, which is now part of Zhongnanhai. The audience was finally held on 29 June 1873. After the audience, however, the foreign representatives made clear their annoyance at being received in a hall initially used by the Qing emperors to receive envoys of tributary states.

In the fall of 1874, the Tongzhi Emperor got into a clash with his ministers, which included his two uncles, Prince Gong and Prince Chun, largely over the emperor's plans to rebuild the Old Summer Palace at a time in which the empire was bankrupt, and over his dissolute behavior. The emperor reacted by firing the ministers, but Empresses Dowager Ci'an and Cixi intervened, and he had them reinstated. That December, it was announced that he was ill with smallpox, and the Empress Dowagers resumed the regency. He died on 12 January 1875, leaving no sons to succeed him.

The Tongzhi Emperor's death left the court in a succession crisis as he was childless. Eventually, the empresses dowager designated the Tongzhi Emperor's three-year-old cousin, Zaitian, as the heir to the throne. Zaitian was biologically Prince Chun's son, but was symbolically adopted as the Xianfeng Emperor's son to make him eligible to succeed the Tongzhi Emperor. Zaitian was thus enthroned as the Guangxu Emperor, with Empresses Dowager Ci'an and Cixi resuming their roles as regents. Empress Alute, Tongzhi's wife, refused to eat after his death and died seventy days after he did in an act of marital piety.

The Self-Strengthening Movement
The inspiration for the future Self-Strengthening Movement arose from the notion that China's defense in the face of war and rebellion must come from within, as the superior man strengthens himself under imperative of Heaven's robust action. The costs of war and rebellion dictated that the Qing dynasty undertake vigorous measures to ensure its survival. Moreover, the very survival of China itself was now at stake.

Self-strengthening efforts evolved in a succession of stages over a period of almost half a century. In 1840 Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu, impressed by the power of British warships in the initial battles of the Opium War, advocated adoption of Western naval technology. The paddle-wheel steamer Nemsis had run circles around cumbersome Chinese war junks. Some Chinese at first believed the paddle-wheels were powered by men inside the ship, but soon came to appreciate the power of steam, Commissioner Lin was the first self-strengthener.

Self-strengthening enterprises, including arsenals, shipyards, and technical schools, were now established in the principal treaty ports where access to Western technology was most direct. By 1860, the overwhelming bulk of the Chinese scholarly class had become cognizant of the enormity of changes that were taking place due to the increasingly prevalent Western presence in China. They now proclaimed that change was irresistible and advocated for deeper studies of Western technology. Many reforms were proposed and implemented such as the Self-Strengthening Movement, but ultimately the failure of reforms was due to multiple factors such as political machinations.

Family 
Empress

 Empress Xiaozheyi, of the Arute clan (孝哲毅皇后 阿魯特氏; 25 July 1854 – 27 March 1875), eighth cousin once removed皇后..嘉順皇后

Imperial Noble Consort

 Imperial Noble Consort Shushen, of the Fuca clan (淑慎皇貴妃 富察氏; 24 December 1859 – 13 April 1904)慧妃→皇貴妃..敦宜皇貴妃
 Imperial Noble Consort Gongsu, of the Arute clan (恭肅皇貴妃 阿魯特氏; 20 September 1857 – 14 April 1921)珣嬪→珣妃..珣貴妃→珣皇貴妃→莊和皇貴妃
 Imperial Noble Consort Xianzhe, of the Hešeri clan (獻哲皇貴妃 赫舍里氏; 2 July 1856 – 3 February 1932)瑜嬪→瑜妃..瑜貴妃→瑜皇貴妃→敬懿皇貴妃
 Imperial Noble Consort Dunhui, of the Sirin Gioro clan (敦惠皇貴妃 西林覺羅氏; 6 September 1856 – 18 May 1933)瑨貴人→瑨嬪..瑨妃→瑨貴妃→榮惠皇貴妃

Ancestry

See also

 Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)
 Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

References

Citations

Sources 

 
 Sterling Seagrave, Dragon Lady .
 Daily life in the Forbidden City, Wan Yi, Wang Shuqing, Lu Yanzhen. .
 Forbidden City: The Great Within, Second Edition. May Holdsworth, Caroline Courtauld. .

Further reading

 Jung Chang, Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China, (2013) .
 Mary Clabaugh Wright. The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862-1874. (Stanford: Stanford University Press,  1957).
 

1856 births
1875 deaths
1850s in China
1860s in China
1870s in China
19th-century Chinese monarchs
Child monarchs from Asia
Deaths from smallpox
Qing dynasty emperors
{{왕족 정보
|이름 = 동치제
|원래 이름 = 同治帝
|그림 = 清 佚名 《清穆宗同治皇帝朝服像》.jpg
|그림설명 = 
|서명     = 
|문장     = 
|문장설명 =

|작위     =  제9대 대청 황제
몽골 대칸
|재위     = 1861년 11월 11일 ~ 1875년 1월 12일
|대관식   = 
|즉위식   = 함풍(咸豊) 11년 10월 9일(1861년 11월 11일)
|전임자   = 함풍제
|후임자   = 광서제
|섭정     = 숙순공(1861년)재원공(1861년)단화공(1861년)혁흔공(1861년-1863년)효정현황후(1863년-1870년)효흠현황후(1870년-1873년)
|재상     = 
|수상     = 
|총리     =

|휘       = 아이신기오로 자이슌 (, )
|별호     = 
|연호     = 동치 (同治, , )
|묘호     = 목종(穆宗)
|존호     =
|시호     = 계천개운수중거정보대정공성지성효신민공관명숙의황제 (繼天開運受中居正保大定功聖智誠孝信敏恭寬明肅毅皇帝)
|능호     = 혜릉(惠陵)

|출생일   = 함풍(咸豊) 6년 3월 23일(1856년 4월 27일)
|출생지   = 청나라 베이징
|사망일   = 동치(同治) 13년 12월 5일(1875년 1월 12일)
|사망지   = 청나라 베이징에서 천연두와 매독의 합병증으로 인하여 병사
|매장지   = 
|능묘     = 청동릉

|왕조     = 청조
|가문     = 아이신기오로
|아버지   = 함풍제
|어머니   = 효흠현황후
|배우자   = 효철의황후
|자녀     = 
|친인척   = 
}}동치제(同治帝, 1856년 4월 27일(음력 3월 23일) ~ 1875년 1월 12일(음력 1874년 12월 5일))은 청나라의 제9대 황제(재위 1861년 ~ 1875년)이다. 휘는 재순(載淳), 묘호는 목종(穆宗)이며, 시호는 계천개운수중거정보대정공성지성효신민공관명숙의황제(繼天開運受中居正保大定功聖智誠孝信敏恭寬明肅毅皇帝)이다. 동치(同治)는 그의 연호이다.

 치세 
1861년 8월 22일에서 1875년 1월 12일까지 재위하였는데 즉위 당시 동치제의 나이가 아직 어렸기 때문에 종실 및 숙부 혁흔과 적모 동태후, 생모 서태후가 번갈아 가며 섭정하였다.

 생애 
1861년 8월 22일을 기하여 붕어한 아버지 함풍제의 뒤를 이어 5세의 나이에 즉위하였다. 친척 종실들인 숙순과 이혁친왕과 아이신기오로 두완후와가 차례로 섭정하였으며 뒤이어 이복 숙부 혁흔이 신유정변을 일으키며 1861년 12월 15일에서부터 1863년 3월 3일까지 섭정하였고 1863년 3월 3일에서부터 1870년 3월 3일까지 동태후가, 1870년 3월 3일에서부터 1873년 3월 3일까지 서태후가 섭정하였다. 그 후 1873년 3월 3일에서부터 1874년 12월 17일을 기하여 사촌 남동생 광서제에게 선위할 때까지 친정을 하였다. 그러나 그의 치세 시기 중 친정이 시작된 후에도 서태후는 명목상으로만 정권을 반납하였을 뿐 줄곧 아들을 감시하며 이전처럼 권력을 휘둘렀다. 17세 때 천연두를 앓고 있던 동치제가 1년 후 18세 때 사촌 동생 재첨한테 선위를 하였지만 이런 선위 작전도 사실은 서태후의 치맛바람이 섞인 입김이었다. 어려서부터 문후(問候)와 명절 시기에 예(禮)를 올릴 때를 제외하고는 어머니과의 교류가 없었던 동치제는 엄하고 냉정한 서태후보다 착하고 성실한 동태후와 보다 더 가까이 지냈다. 동치제가 15세가 되자 동태후와 서태후는 각각 그의 신붓감을 추천했는데 동치제는 생모 서태후가 아닌 적모 동태후가 고른 아로특씨를 황후로 선택했다. 이를 못마땅히 여긴 서태후는 동치제에게 아직 배워야 할 것이 많으니 학업에 방해가 되지 않도록 황후의 침실에 드나들지 말라고 주의를 주었다. 사촌 남동생 재첨한테 선위한 이듬해 1875년 1월 12일을 기하여 상황 동치제는 19세의 나이에 사망하였다.

 사인 
동치제의 공식적인 사인은 천연두였으며 그의 스승인 옹동화도 자신의 일기에 동치제가 천연두에 걸렸다고 적고 있다. 청대 황제의 의료 기록인 《만세야진약용약저부》(萬歲爺進藥用藥底簿)도 동치제의 사인을 천연두로 적었다. 그러나 민간에서는 동치제가 천연두가 아닌 매독으로 죽었다는 소문이 돌았다. 황후 아로특씨와 사이가 좋았음에도 서태후의 엄중한 감시 속에서 그녀와 마음대로 만날 수 없었던 동치제가 환관의 권유로 사창가에 드나들었고 매독에 걸렸는데 이를 증상이 비슷한 천연두로 속였다는 것이다. 동치제는 얼굴을 비롯한 피부에 붉은 반점이 생겼고 이를 짜내자 악취와 함께 붉은 종기가 났는데 서태후는 동치제가 자신의 얼굴을 보지 못하도록 거울을 치워버렸다고 한다. 황실 어의 이덕입(李德立)은 후에 '황제를 진찰하였을 때 성병 초기 증세가 있었지만 황실의 명예와 체통이 걸린 일이라 함부로 발설할 수 없었다.'고 증언하였다.

 가족 관계 
 조부모와 부모 
 조부: 선종 도광성황제(宣宗 道光成皇帝) 민녕(旻寧)
 조모: 효전성황후 뉴호록씨(孝全成皇后 鈕祜祿氏)
 부친: 문종 함풍현황제(文宗 咸豊顯皇帝) 혁저(奕詝)
 모친''': 효흠현황후 엽혁나랍씨(孝欽顯皇后 葉赫那拉氏)

황후

후궁

기년과 연호

각주

외부 링크 

1856년 출생
1875년 사망
청나라의 황제
유군
함풍제의 황자
퇴위한 군주
천연두로 죽은 사람
19세기 중국 사람
19세기 중국의 군주
서태후
19세기 성소수자 사람
양성애자
성소수자 왕족