History of Toulouse

The history of Toulouse, in Midi-Pyrénées, southern France, traces back to ancient teimes. After Roman rule, the city was ruled by the Visigoths and the Merovingian and Carolingian Franks. Capital of the County of Toulouse during the Middle Ages, today it is the capital of the Midi-Pyrénées region.

Before 118 BC: pre-Roman times
Archaeological evidence dates human settlement in Toulouse to the 8th century BC. Its location was advantageous; the Garonne River bends westward toward the Atlantic Ocean, and can be crossed easily. People settled on the hills overlooking the river,  south of present downtown Toulouse. Just north of the hills is a large plain suitable for agriculture, and the site was a center for trade between the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The city's early name was Tolosa; although researchers agree  that it was probably Aquitanian (an ancestor of the Basque language), its meaning is unknown. Toulouse's name has remained almost unchanged through the centuries (rare for a French city), despite Celtic, Roman and Germanic invasions.

The first inhabitants were apparently the Aquitani, of whom little is known. Later came Iberians from the south, who (like the Aquitani) were non-Indo-Europeans. During the third century BC the Volcae Tectosages (a Gallic tribe from Belgium or southern Germany) arrived, the first Indo-Europeans in the region. They settled in Tolosa, intermarrying with the local people, and their Gaulish language became predominant. By 200 BC, Tolosa is attested on coins as the capital of the Volcae Tectosages (which Julius Caesar called Tolosates—singular Tolosas—in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico). According to archaeologists, Tolosa was one of the wealthiest and most important cities in Gaul during the pre-Roman era. Gold and silver mines were nearby, and offerings to its shrines and temples accumulated wealth in the city.

118 BC–AD 418: Roman period

The Romans began their conquest of southern Gaul (later known as the Provincia) in 125 BC. In 118 BC they founded the colony of Narbo Martius (Narbonne, the Mediterranean city nearest to inland Toulouse) and made contact with the Tolosates, noted for their wealth and the position of their capital for trade with the Atlantic. Tolosa allied with the Romans, who established a fort on the plain north of the city (a key position near the border of independent Aquitania) but otherwise left Tolosa semi-independent.

In 109 BC the Germanic Cimbri tribe descended the Rhône Valley, invaded the Provincia and defeated the Romans, whose power was shaken along the recently conquered Mediterranean coast. The Tolosates rebelled against Rome, killing the Roman garrison, before Rome recovered and defeated the invaders. In 106 BC, Q. Servilius Caepio was sent to reconquer and punish Tolosa. With the aid of Tolosates who remained loyal to Rome, he captured the city and the wealth of its temples and shrines.

Tolosa was then incorporated into the Roman Provincia (Provincia Romana, the common name for the province of Transalpine Gaul with its capital at Narbo Martius). Although Tolosa was an important military garrison at the western border of the Roman empire, the city remained a backwater in the Provincia and people still lived in the old Celtic city in the hills. No Roman colony was established, and few soldiers settled in the area.

After the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, Tolosa did not participate in the uprisings against Rome during the Gallic wars and southern France would be the most Romanized part of France after the decline of the Roman Empire. Caesar established his camp on the Tolosa plain in 52 BC, conquering western Aquitania. With the conquest of Aquitania and Gaul, Tolosa was no longer a military outpost. Capitalizing on its position for trade between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic (both now under Roman control), the city grew rapidly.

The most important event in the city's history was the decision to relocate north of the hills. A typical Roman city, with straight streets, was founded on the plain on the beginning bank of the river between the end of Augustus' reign and the beginning of Tiberius' (about 10–30 AD). The population was forced to relocate to the new city (also named Tolosa), and the old settlement was abandoned. Walls were built around the new city, probably at the initiative of Emperor Augustus (who wanted to create a major city at the junction of the newly built Via Aquitania and the Garonne); such walls, unnecessary during the Pax Romana, were built as an imperial favor to indicate a city's status. Until the fall of Rome, the new Tolosa was a civitas of the province of Gallia Narbonensis (with its capital Narbo Martius—Narbonne—the new name of the old provincia).

With imperial favor and thriving trade, Tolosa became a major city in the Roman Empire. During the civil war following Nero's death, Tolosa native M. Antonius Primus led the armies of Vespasian into Italy, entered Rome in 69 AD and established the Flavian dynasty. Emperor Domitian, son of Vespasian and Primus' friend, granted Tolosa the honorific status of Roman colony. Another sign of imperial favor was Domitian's bestowal of the title of Palladia on the city in reference to Pallas Athena, goddess of arts and knowledge.

Palladia Tolosa was a major Roman city, with aqueducts, circus and theaters, thermae, a forum and an extensive sewage system. Protected by its walls and its distance from the Rhine, it escaped unscathed from the third-century invasions. With much of Gaul destroyed, Toulouse was the fourth-largest city in the western half of the Roman Empire after Rome, Treves and Arles. Around that time, Christianity entered the city; the Christian community expanded under Saint Saturnin (locally known as Saint Sernin), the first bishop of Toulouse, who was martyred in Toulouse about 250. In 313 the Edict of Milan established religious freedom in the empire, ending persecution of the Christians, and in 403 the Saint-Sernin basilica opened as a shrine for relics of Saint Saturnin.

On December 31, 406, the Rhine frontier was breached by tribes seeking to escape starvation during a harsh winter. In 407, Toulouse was besieged by the Vandals. Under its bishop, Saint Exuperius, the city resisted; the Vandals lifted the siege, moving into Spain and settling in North Africa. "The provinces of Aquitaine and of the Novempopulana (Gascony), of Lyon and of Narbonne are, with the exception of a few cities, one universal scene of desolation. And those which the sword spares without, famine ravages within. I cannot speak without tears of Toulouse which has been kept from failing hitherto by the merits of its reverend bishop Exuperius", wrote Jerome to a Roman widow in 409 (Letters cxxiii.16). In 413 (three years after they sacked Rome), the Visigoths under King Ataulf captured Toulouse; under pressure from Roman forces, they soon withdrew south of the Pyrenees. After the murder of Ataulf, his successor Wallia resolved to make peace with Rome. In exchange for peace, in 418 Emperor Honorius gave the Visigoths Aquitania and Toulouse (in Gallia Narbonensis, at the border of Aquitania). The Visigoths chose Palladia Tolosa as their capital, ending Roman rule of the city.

418–508: Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse

The Visigothic kings of Toulouse, one of the foederati (allies) of the Roman Empire in the West and limited to Aquitania and Toulouse, soon began encroaching on neighboring territories. As Roman allies the Visigoths helped defeat Germanic invaders in Spain (notably the Suebi), taking advantage of their position to expand their territory south of the Pyrenees. They tried to conquer the Mediterranean coast of the province of Gallia Narbonensis, but were opposed by Rome. In 439 the Roman general Litorius defeated the Visigoths at Narbonne, driving them back to Toulouse. Although he besieged the city, he was defeated and taken prisoner. Avitus, the praetorian prefect of Gaul with influence on King Theodoric I of the Visigoths, was then sent to Toulouse and concluded a peace. In 451, threatened by an invasion of the Huns in Gaul, he negotiated a treaty between Rome and the Visigoths and they defeated the Huns. In 455 Avitus, magister militum (senior military officer of the Empire) on a diplomatic mission to King Theodoric II of the Visigoths, was proclaimed the new Roman emperor in Toulouse by his Visigothic friends amid news that the Vandals had sacked Rome and Emperor Petronius Maximus had been murdered. Avitus' reign in Rome was brief, and he was defeated by his enemies in 456. This antagonized the Visigoths, who warred with the new Roman leaders, and a weaker Rome gave way. The Narbonne region was conquered by the Visigoths in 462.

King Euric (466–484), an enemy of Rome, extended the Visigothic territory in Gaul and Spain. In 475 he dissolved the treaty with Rome, proclaiming independence a year before the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Toulouse was now the capital of an expanding Gothic kingdom; by the end of the fifth century, the kingdom of Toulouse extended from the Loire Valley in the north to the Strait of Gibraltar in the south and from the Rhône in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west (the largest territory controlled from Toulouse).

Unlike most cities in western Europe, Toulouse remained prosperous during the Migration Period. Although the Visigoths professed Arianism (a non-Trinitarian form of Christianity) and lived apart from their Gallo-Roman subjects, they were generally well accepted for bringing protection and prosperity. Behind its first-century walls, the city encompassed the same area; most western European cities were hastily enclosing small portions of their imperial area. The treasure which the Visigoths seized in Rome in 410 (including that from the Temple in Jerusalem) was reportedly stored in Toulouse at the time. The Visigoths blended Roman and Gothic cultures, preserving Roman law in the 506 Breviary of Alaric (applying to the Visigoths and the local Roman population). The Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse was reportedly more Romanized and its state structure more elaborate than the Frankish kingdom north of the Loire Valley.

Under Clovis the Franks converted to Catholicism, receiving support from bishops opposing the Visigoths' Arianism and marching south to the northern borders of the Visigothic kingdom. War followed, and the Visigothic king Alaric II was defeated by Clovis at the Battle of Vouillé in 507. The Franks moved south, conquered Aquitania and captured Toulouse in 508. The Visigoths withdrew to Iberia, moving their capital to Toledo. Toulouse became part of Aquitaine, a smaller city in the Frankish kingdom.

508–768: Merovingian Franks and the duchy of Aquitaine
After the Frankish conquest, Toulouse began a period of decline and anarchy. Poor weather, plagues, demographic collapse and the decline of education and culture were common in the Frankish lands during the sixth and seventh centuries. Following Clovis' death in 511, Aquitaine and the rest of the kingdom were divided between his sons (the Merovingian dynasty). The Merovingian kings fought each other for control of the Frankish realm. Aquitaine was loosely controlled by Frankish kings, who delegated dukes to control the region in their name. In 680, the Duchy of Vasconia (founded 602) and Aquitaine merged under the first independent duke of Aquitaine: Felix, a Roman patrician from Toulouse. The Merovingian monarchy was weakened, and an independent local dynasty of dukes emerged in Aquitaine. Unrecognized by the Merovingians, they ruled as kings in Aquitaine (including the Basque-speaking area of Gascony south of the Garonne) with their capital Toulouse.

During the early eighth century the Arabs appeared in the region from the Mediterranean coast of Spain, capturing Narbonne from the last Visigoths in 719. Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, wali (governor) of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), mustered a strong army from North Africa, Syria and Yemen to conquer Aquitaine. Moving west from Narbonne, he besieged Toulouse. After three months, as the city was about to surrender, Duke Odo of Aquitaine (also known as Eudes)—who had left the city to find help—returned with an army and defeated the Arabs in the Battle of Toulouse on June 9, 721. Charles Martel refused to help, wishing to take advantage of the situation to recover Aquitaine, and Odo led an army of Aquitanians and Franks to fight the Arabs. The Battle of Toulouse was a crushing defeat for the Arabs; the army scattered, most of the soldiers were killed, al-Samh died of his wounds and the remainder of the Arab troops (under Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi) fled back to Narbonne. It is noted by Arab historians as the major check of Arab westward expansion.

Before 730 Odo allied with the Muslim ruler of Catalonia, Uthman ibn Naissa (also known as Munuza). The greatest threat to Duke Odo was his Frankish neighbor in the north. Odo married his daughter to Munuza and Arab raids in Aquitaine temporarily ended, enabling him to focus on the northern threat. In 731 Munuza rebelled against the new wali of al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi. Abd al-Rahman defeated him, and to punish Odo for his alliance he launched a raid on Aquitaine. Remembering the Battle of Toulouse, he crossed the Pyrenees west the city and defeated Odo's army in Bordeaux. With Bordeaux captured, the Arabs moved north towards the sacred Frankish abbey of Tours. Odo requested Frankish help; Charles Martel, leader of the Franks, mustered an army and met the Arabs near Poitiers. On 25 October 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, the Arabs were defeated and Abd al-Rahman died on the field. The scholars of Charlemagne, grandson of Charles Martel, extensively chronicled the battle.

After the Battle of Poitiers, Odo was obligated to pay homage to Charles Martel and recognize Frankish authority. The Franks were busy in Burgundy and did not move further south, leaving Odo independent until his death in 735. He was succeeded by his son, Duke Hunald I of Aquitaine (also known as Hunold and Hunaud). Hunald refused to recognize Charles Martel, who sent his troops south and captured Bordeaux in 736. Hunald was forced to accept Frankish authority, and Martel withdrew his troops from Aquitaine to attack Arab holdings on the Mediterranean coast near Narbonne. In 741 Charles Martel died and was succeeded by his son, Pippin the Short (Pépin le Bref). Hunald again rebelled against Frankish authority the following year; after his 745 defeat, he retired to a monastery. He was succeeded by his son, Waifer of Aquitaine (also known as Waifre and Gaifier). Pippin, busy at home and sharing power with his brother, left Waifer in possession of Aquitaine and became sole ruler of the Frankish realm in 747. In 751 he deposed the last Merovingian king and was elected king of the Franks with the support of the pope, founding the Carolingian dynasty.

In 752, Pippin resumed the conquest of Arab territories on the Mediterranean coast where his father had failed. Facing local resistance, including intervention by Duke Waifer, in 759 he captured Narbonne and ended Arab rule north of the Pyrenees. Aquitaine was now surrounded by the Frankish kingdom, and in 760 Pippin began its conquest. It took the Franks eight years to subdue Aquitaine, Toulouse and Gascony; in 768, the last pockets of resistance crumbled as Duke Waifer was betrayed and murdered under mysterious circumstances. Although Aquitaine was destroyed after eight years of scorched-earth tactics by Pippin and Waifer, the region would recover under Charlemagne.

768–877: Carolingian Franks and the Kingdom of Aquitaine
Toulouse, Aquitaine and Gascony were again part of the Frankish kingdom. After his victory, Pippin the Short died in 768 and was succeeded by his sons Charlemagne and Carloman. At Pippin's death, Hunald (son of Duke Waifer) staged an insurrection against Frankish power in Aquitaine. Charlemagne intervened, defeating him. In 771 Carloman died, leaving Charlemagne sole ruler of the Frankish realm. In 778, Charlemagne led his army into Spain against the Arabs. On his way back, in Roncesvalles, Charlemagne's rear guard was attacked in the pass by Basque warriors. Realizing that the local populations were not entirely loyal to the Franks, he reorganized the region's administration; direct Frankish government was instituted, and Frankish counts (deputies of the Frankish king) were appointed in cities such as Toulouse.

In 781 Charlemagne established the Kingdom of Aquitaine, comprising Aquitaine, Gascony and the Mediterranean coast from Narbonne to Nîmes (known as Gothia), and gave the crown of Aquitaine to his three-year-old son Louis. Similar kingdoms were established in Bavaria and Lombardy to ensure the loyalty of local populations. Crowns were also given to Charlemagne's other sons, and Aquitaine was known for its independence and wealth.

Charlemagne saw that he could not trust the local nobility of Vasconia, appointing Frankish counts and creating counties (such as Fezensac) which could fight regional dukes such as Lupus. Oversight of this Basque frontier seems to have been given to Chorson, count (or duke) of Toulouse. In 787 (or 789) Chorson was captured by Odalric the Basque (probably Lupus' son), who forced him into an agreement. Charlemagne replaced him with Count William in 790.

Charlemagne's reign saw the recovery of western Europe from the preceding dark age. Toulouse was a major Carolingian military stronghold against Muslim Spain, with military campaigns launched from the city nearly every year of Charlemagne's reign. In 801, Barcelona and a large part of Catalonia were conquered. With the northern areas of Aragon and Navarre in the Pyrenees, the region became the southern (Spanish March) of the Frankish empire.

In 814, Charlemagne died. His only surviving son was Louis, king of Aquitaine, who became Emperor Louis the Pious. The kingdom of Aquitaine was transferred to Pippin, Louis' second son. Gothia was detached from Aquitaine and administered directly by the emperor, recreating the former duchy of Aquitaine. Louis had three sons, and in 817 he arranged an allocation of shares in their future inheritance. Pippin was confirmed king of Aquitaine, Louis the German was made king in Bavaria and eldest son Lothar became co-emperor (with future authority over his brothers).

In 823 Charles the Bald, Louis the Pious' son with his second wife, was born and she wished to place her son in the line of succession. Strife between his three older sons and Louis and his new wife led to the gradual collapse of the Frankish empire. In 838 Pippin I of Aquitaine died, and Louis the Pious and his wife installed Charles the Bald as king of Aquitaine. At the 839 Assembly of Worms, the empire was re-divided. Charles the Bald received the western part of the empire, Lothar the central and eastern part and Louis the German Bavaria. Pippin II of Aquitaine, son of Pippin I who was recognized as king by the Aquitanians (but not the Basques, whose Vasconia had seceded from Aquitaine), and Louis the German opposed the partitions.

Louis the Pious died in 840, Lothar claimed the empire and war broke out. Originally allied with his nephew Pippin II, Louis the German allied with his half-brother Charles the Bald and they defeated Lothar. In August 843, they signed the Treaty of Verdun. The empire was divided into three parts. Charles the Bald received the western part, Francia Occidentalis (Western Frankland, soon called France); Louis the German the eastern part, Francia Orientalis (Eastern Frankland, soon the German Holy Roman Empire), and Lothar received the central part (soon to be conquered and divided between his brothers).

Family strife left the empire weak and undefended, and the Vikings took advantage of the situation. After the Treaty of Verdun, Charles the Bald moved south to defeat Pippin II and add Aquitaine to his territory. He conquered Gothia, and in 844 besieged Toulouse before withdrawing from the city. That year the Vikings entered the Garonne River, took Bordeaux and sailed as far as Toulouse, plundering and killing throughout the valley. They withdrew from Toulouse, without attacking the city.

In 845 Charles the Bald signed a treaty with Pippin II of Aquitaine, recognizing Pippin as king of Aquitaine in exchange for Pippin's relinquishing of northern Aquitaine (the County of Poitiers) to Charles. The Aquitanians, now dissatisfied with Pippin, asked Charles to topple him in 848. The following year Charles received Toulouse from Frédelon, the count of Toulouse recently appointed by Pippin, and Charles confirmed Frédelon as count of Toulouse. Aquitaine soon submitted to Charles; in 852 Pippin was imprisoned by the Basques and handed over to Charles (who placed him in a monastery).

In 852 Frédelon of Toulouse died, and Charles appointed Frédelon's brother Raymond the new count. This began the dynasty of the counts of Toulouse, who were descendants of Count Raymond I of Toulouse. In 855, following the example of his grandfather Charlemagne, Charles the Bald recreated the kingdom of Aquitaine (without Gothia) and gave the crown to his son Charles the Child. Pippin II of Aquitaine escaped from the monastery in 854, and unsuccessfully attempted to foment an insurrection in Aquitaine. He appealed to the Vikings for help and in 864, at the head of a Viking army, unsuccessfully besieged Toulouse. The Vikings left to plunder other areas of Aquitaine and Pippin II was captured and again placed in a monastery by his uncle, where he soon died.

In 866, Charles the Child died; Charles the Bald made his other son, Louis the Stammerer, the new king of Aquitaine. By then, the central state in the kingdom of France was losing its authority. Charles was unsuccessful at containing the Vikings and local populations relied on their counts, who became the chief authorities. As their power increased, they established local dynasties. Wars began between the central authorities and the counts and between counts, which weakened defenses against the Vikings. Western Europe, France in particular, entered a new dark age which would be more disastrous than that of the sixth and seventh centuries.

Charles the Bald signed the 877 Capitulary of Quierzy, allowing counts to be succeeded by their sons, before his death four months later; this formed the basis of feudalism in western Europe. He was succeeded as king of France by his son, Louis the Stammerer, king of Aquitaine. Louis did not choose any of his sons as the new king of Aquitaine, putting an end to the kingdom. He died in 879 and was succeeded by his two sons, Louis III and Carloman. Louis III inherited northwest France, and Carloman inherited Burgundy and Aquitaine. However, from 870 to 890 central power was so weak that the counts in southern France were autonomous and Paris would not reassert its authority over the south of France for four centuries.

877–10th century

By the end of the ninth century Toulouse was the capital of the county of Toulouse, and was ruled by the independent dynasty founded by Frédelon. The counts of Toulouse were challenged by those of Auvergne, who ruled the northeastern part of former Aquitaine and claimed Toulouse. The counts of Toulouse survived; although the county was a small part of the former Aquitaine, at the death of Count William the Pious of Auvergne in 918 it acquired Gothia. This doubled its territory, reuniting Toulouse with the Mediterranean coast from Narbonne to Nîmes. The county of Toulouse took shape from the city in the west to the Rhône in the east, an entity which would survive until the French Revolution as the province of Languedoc. Toulouse would never again be part of Aquitaine, whose capital would become Poitiers and then Bordeaux. William the Pious was the first to recreate the title of Duke of Aquitaine for himself during the 890s, and the count of Poitiers inherited the title in 927. In 932 King Rudolph of France, fighting the count of Poitiers, conferred the title of Duke of Aquitaine to new ally Count Raymond III Pons of Toulouse.

The French throne had become a nearly empty title. After Rudolph's death, a faction crowned the English-bred Carolingian prince Louis IV from Overseas. Raymond III Pons belonged to the opposing faction, and when he died in 950 Louis IV bestowed the title of Duke of Aquitaine on Louis IV ally Count William III Towhead of Poitiers. The title of Duke of Aquitaine would be held by the family of the counts of Poitiers, whose power base at Poitou was in northwestern Aquitaine. At the death of Carolingian king of France Louis V in 987 the Robertian faction had its chief, Hugh Capet, elected to the French throne; This ended the Carolingian dynasty. Hugh Capet founded the Capetian dynasty, which would rule France for the next eight centuries.

The counts of Toulouse extended their domain to the Mediterranean coast, but their rule was short-lived. During the 10th century civilization, the arts and education had declined; a rebirth of culture and order during the reign of Charlemagne was smothered by Viking invasions, augmented by poor weather and plagues which contributed to population loss. Large areas of western Europe returned to wilderness, and cities were depopulated. Churches were abandoned or plundered; Christianity lost much of its moral authority, although Roman culture survived in scattered monasteries. This contrasted with the flourishing emirate of Córdoba in Spain and the Byzantine Empire. Authority decentralized, falling from counts to viscounts to thousands of local feudal lords. By the end of the century, France was governed by thousands of local rulers who controlled one town or one castle and a few surrounding villages. Between 900 and 980 the counts of Toulouse gradually lost control to local dynastic rulers, and by 1000 ruled only a few scattered estates; the city was ruled by a viscount, independent of the counts.

Invasions had also resumed. Emir of Córdoba Abd al-Rahman III reunited Muslim Spain and brought the emirate to its zenith, transforming it into the caliphate of Córdoba in 929. During the 920s, he launched an offensive against the Christian kingdoms in northern Spain. In 920 one of Abd al-Rahman's armies crossed the Pyrenees, reaching Toulouse without capturing the city. Four years later, the Magyars launched a westward expedition and reached Toulouse before their defeat by Count Raymond III Pons. By the end of the 10th century, the Carolingian wars and subsequent invasions had left the county in disarray. Land was left uncultivated, and many farms were abandoned. Toulouse's proximity to Muslim Spain gave it a flow of knowledge and culture from the schools and printing houses of Córdoba, and it had retained more of the Roman legacy than northern France.

11th century

At the beginning of the millennium, the church was co-opted by the Toulouse administration; the Saint-Sernin church, the Daurade basilica and the Saint-Étienne cathedral were not maintained properly, and the Cluniac Reforms began. Bishop Isarn, aided by Pope Gregory VII, gave the Daurade Basilica to the Cluniac abbots in 1077. In Saint-Sernin he was opposed by Raimond Gayrard, a provost who had built a hospital for the poor and wanted to build a basilica. Supported by Count Guilhem IV, Gayrard received permission from Pope Urban II to dedicate the basilica in 1096.

During this period Toulouse developed more efficient agricultural methods; the suburbs of Saint-Michel and Saint-Cyprien were built and Saint-Sernin and Saint-Pierre des Cuisines developed. The Daurade bridge, connecting Saint-Cyprien to the city, was built in 1181.

12th century
The end of the 11th century marked the departure of count Raymond IV for the Crusades. Wars of succession followed, and Toulouse was besieged several times. In 1119 the city's population proclaimed Alphonse Jourdain count, and Jourdain reduced their taxes in gratitude.

At his death, an administration of eight capitulaires was created. Under the direction of the count, they regulated commerce and enforced the law. The Capitouls' first acts date to 1152.

In 1176 the chapitre had 12 members, each representing a district of Toulouse. The consuls opposed Count Raimond V; the city's population was divided, and in 1189 (after 10 years of fighting) the count submitted to the town council.

Construction of the Capitole de Toulouse began in 1190. With 24 members, the Capitouls gave themselves the rights of law enforcement, commerce and taxation. The Capitouls gave Toulouse relative independence for nearly 600 years, until the French Revolution.

13th century

Catharism was a Christian movement espousing the separation of the material and the spiritual, partially inspired by the Bogomils of Bulgaria. Accused of heresy, the Cathars had a large following in the south of France; during the 12th century. Simon de Montfort tried to exterminate them.

In Toulouse, the orthodox White Brotherhood pursued the heretical Black Brotherhood. The abbot of Foulques, who was in debt to the heretics, encouraged the Albigensian Crusade. The consuls, unwilling to encourage the city's division, defied the Pope and refused to identify the heretics. Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, an excommunicated Catholic, sympathised with the heretics because of the massacre at Béziers.

Although Simon de Montfort's first siege of Toulouse in 1211 was unsuccessful, two years later he defeated the city's army. With many hostages, he entered the city in 1216 and appointed himself as count. De Montfort was killed by a stone at the Siege of Toulouse in 1218. Until the final siege, the "whites" were opposed by the city's populace and Louis VII relented in 1219. Raymond VI, recognizing his support from the population (which helped him preserve his interests), gave his last prerogatives to the Capitouls.

13th to 14th century

The 1229 Treaty of Paris introduced the University of Toulouse, which aimed to teach theology and Aristotelian philosophy. Copied from the Parisian model, its curriculum was intended to combat heresy. The Dominican monastic order was founded, with its home in the Couvent des Jacobins de Toulouse. A nearly four-century inquisition (with suspected persons driven into exile or to conversion) began, centred in the city.

Convicted of heresy, Count Raimond VII died in 1249 without an heir; the county passed to the King of France, and the Capitouls' power weakened. In 1321, the Jews of Toulouse were victims of a massacre during the Shepherds' Crusade, during which homes in the Jewish Quarter were ransacked and those who refused to be baptized were killed. In 1323, the Consistori del Gay Saber was established in Toulouse to preserve the lyric art of the troubadours. Toulouse was the centre of Occitan literary culture for the next hundred years, and the Consistori existed until 1484. The city grew richer, active in the trade of Bordeaux wine, cereals and textiles with England. In addition to the inquisition, plague, fire, flood and the Hundred Years' War decimated Toulouse. Despite immigration the city's population declined by 10,000 in 70 years, and Toulouse had a population of 22,000 in 1405.

15th to 16th century

The 15th century began with the creation of a parlement by Charles VII. Promising exemption from taxes, the king reinforced his influence and defied the Capitouls.

Many food shortages occurred at this time. The roads were unreliable, and Toulouse experienced a major fire in 1463; buildings between the current rue Alsace-Lorraine and the Garonne were destroyed. The city's population increased, resulting in a housing shortage.

Beginning in 1463, trade in blue dye (woad) flourished. The dye, known at the time as "pastel", triggered a period of great prosperity. Toulouse used its new wealth to build the homes and public buildings that are today the core of the old city. The city's prosperity was short-lived; woad was eclipsed by indigo from India, which produced a darker, more-colorfast blue.

In the mid-16th century, the University of Toulouse had nearly 10,000 students. It was a centre of humanistic ferment, as the inquisition continued burning people at the stake. During the 1562 Riots of Toulouse, battles between Huguenots and Catholics resulted in over 3,000 deaths and the arson of 200 homes in the Saint-Georges quarter.

17th century

When Henry IV acceded to the throne, disorder ended in Toulouse. The parlement recognized the King of France, the edict of Nantes was accepted in 1600 and the Capitouls lost their remaining influence they had. A threat more serious than the Fronde reached Toulouse in 1629 and 1652: plague.

For the first time, the city and the local parlement cooperated to assist those affected by the epidemic. Most of the clergy and the wealthy left the city, but doctors were required to stay. Starvation led the remaining Capitouls to prevent the butchers and bakers from leaving.

La Grave Hospital accommodated those affected by the epidemic, quarantining them. The Pré des Sept Deniers also accepted many patients under hazardous conditions. Before closing its gates, the city attracted the poor with a medical infrastructure offering more hope than the countryside.

In 1654, when the second epidemic ended, the city was devastated. However, during plague-free periods two major projects were completed: the Pont-Neuf in 1632 and the Canal du Midi in 1682. Famine occurred in 1693.

18th century

Louis de Mondran, inspired by his stay in Paris, was the new city planner. Principal achievements of this period were the Grand Rond, the Cours Dillon, and the facade of the Capitole.

In 1770, the Cardinal of Brienne laid the first stone of the channel named for him. The channel, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and the Canal du Midi to the Canal Lateral à la Garonne, was finished six years later. Their confluence is known as Ponts-Jumeaux.

Economic inequality increased, with work for local architects and sculptors. The Reynerie was the summer residence of the husband of the Comtesse du Barry.

At the end of the century, the Blue Penitents worshiped at the Saint-Jérome church. The local parlement condemned the Protestants, exercising its power in the trial and execution of Jean Calas. Toulouse's population supported the parlement when it felt threatened by the monarchy, and the eight Capitouls were now chosen by the parlement.

19th century

The French Revolution changed Toulouse's role and its political and social structure.
The city marked the Parisian movement with looting. Five months later, when the Ancien Régime was abolished, parlement and the Capitouls received little popular support.

Toulouse's regional influence was reduced to the department of Haute-Garonne. Clergy were required to observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, imposed by the National Constituent Assembly. A new archbishop was named, over the objections of Loménie de Brienne. The Capitouls were abolished on December 14, 1789; Joseph de Rigaud was Toulouse's first mayor, elected on February 28, 1790.

In 1793, during the Paris Commune, Toulouse refused to join the Provence and Aquitaine federalists in Paris. The prospect of war against Austria and internal resistance initiated the Reign of Terror. In 1799 the fortified city resisted attack of British and Spanish royalist armies in the first battle of Toulouse, and Napoleon visited the city in 1808.

In 1814, during the battle of Toulouse, the British army entered the city (which had been abandoned by the imperial army). It was the last battle of the Empire, since Napoleon had abdicated eight days earlier; French commander Jean-de-Dieu Soult had not been informed. Wellington's army was welcomed by royalists, preparing Toulouse for the restoration of Louis XVIII.

20th century

Present day

The AZF chemical plant in Toulouse exploded on September 21, 2001. The explosion, which destroyed the plant— from the city centre—also damaged houses (including more than 20,000 flats), schools, churches, monuments and shops. Twenty-nine people died, and several thousand were injured. The explosion originated in a building containing ammonium nitrate.

In March 2012 local Islamic extremist Mohammed Merah opened fire at a Jewish school in Toulouse, killing a teacher and three children. One of the children, an eight-year-old girl, was shot in the head at point-blank range and a 17-year-old boy was critically wounded. President Nicolas Sarkozy called it an "obvious" antisemitic attack: "I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how close we feel to them. All of France is by their side." The Israeli Prime Minister condemned the "despicable anti-Semitic" murders. After a 32-hour siege and standoff with the police outside his house followed by a raid, Merah jumped off a balcony and was shot in the head and killed. Merah had told police during the standoff that he intended to continue attacking, and loved death as the police loved life. He claimed a connection to al-Qaeda.


Cavanillesia hylogeiton

Cavanillesia hylogeiton is a species of trees in the family Malvaceae. It is native to South America.


Krittivasi Ramayan

Krittivasi Ramayan (), or Krittibasi Ramayan or Sri Ram Panchali (), composed by 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha, is rendition of the Ramayana into Bengali. Written in the traditional Ramayan Panchali form of Middle Bengali literature, the Krittivasi Ramayana is not just a rewording of the original Indian epic, but a vivid depiction of the society and culture of Bengal in the Middle Ages.

The text is also remembered for its exploration of the concept of Bhakti, which would later contribute to the emergence of Vaishnavism in Gangetic Bengal and the surrounding regions.

Plot

Rama and Durga

During the Battle between, Rama and Ravana,the sage Narada ordens Rama to do a puja to Durga, and offers Durga many Blue Lotuses and one of his eyes, while Durga gives Rama a new eye and Durga helps Rama in the battle.

Manuscripts

The total number of manuscripts (puthis) containing the Krittivasi Ramayan text is approximately 2,221. Most of these contain only fragments of the text.

Extant manuscripts are presently stored in West Bengal universities such as the University of Calcutta, Visva-Bharati University, Rabindra Bharati University, Jadavpur University, University of Burdwan, and the University of North Bengal. There are also puntis preserved in the Silchar Normal School Library, Assam; Jahangirnagar University and the University of Dhaka, Bangladesh; the British Museum and the School of Oriental and African Studies in the United Kingdom; and the Bibliothèque nationale de France in France.

Timeline of Krittivasi Ramayan

The original Krittivasi Ramayan is dated to the first half of the 15th century. In the next four centuries, it underwent various changes at the hands of various puthi scribes. The current version of the epic was revised by Jaygopal Tarkalankar and was published in 1834. Later in the 20th century, various editions were published based on the Jaygopal Tarkalankar version.

Bengal in Krittivasi Ramayan

Krittivasi Ramayana is not only a translation, but contains picturesque descriptions of Bengali social life and its values.

Influence of Krittivasi Ramayan

The epic of Krittivas has had a profound impact on the literature of Bengal and the surrounding regions. Tulsidas—the 16th century Hindi Ramayana translator—was deeply moved by the theme of Bhakti, just as Krittivas was. The story of Rama as depicted by Krittivas Ojha inspired many later-day poets, including Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Rabindranath Tagore.

Notes

External links
 Biography of Krittibas Ojha in Bengali

Translation in English
 Ramayana, Shudha Mazumdar (translator), foreword by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Orient Longman, New Delhi 1958


Sinclair River

The Sinclair River is a river of the Canterbury Region of New Zealand's South Island. It flows south from the Jollie Range and is one of the headwaters of the Clyde River, part of the upper Rangitata River system.


Yesterday (Shanice song)

"Yesterday" is a song by Shanice. It was the second single from Shanice's fourth studio album, Shanice.

Music video
A music video was filmed for the song but was not released. A rough draft of the video leaked in February, 2008 which can be viewed on Shanice's YouTube channel.

Charts


Novoufimsk

Novoufimsk () is a rural locality (a village) in Iglinsky District, Bashkortostan, Russia. The population was 22 as of 2010. There is 1 street.


Carmenta haematica

Carmenta haematica, the Argentine root borer, is a moth of the family Sesiidae. It was described by Ureta in 1956, and is known from Argentina and Chile.

Adults are day flying and have orange (female) or clear (male) wings with a wingspan of 20–24 mm. Adults emerge in late summer, and larvae develop during the fall, winter and spring. The species is mostly univoltine, but the presence of some large larvae and pupae during most months indicated some variation.

The larva of the species have been found on plants in the genus Gutierrezia, including Gutierrezia solbrigii and Grindelia chiloensis. They have seven instars and are about 24 mm long when fully grown. The larvae enter the plant at the base of the twigs or leaves or sometimes bore directly into the crowns. They are cannibalistic after the second instar and usually only one large larva occurs in a single plant. Larger larvae tunnel in the larger roots and make an exit hole in a large stem. A silken tube is often protruded from the exit hole.


Kendell Kroeker

Kendell Kroeker is an American politician and a former Republican member of the Wyoming House of Representatives representing District 35 since January 11, 2011.

Education
Kroeker earned his BS from the University of Colorado Boulder.

Elections
2012 Kroeker won the three-way August 21, 2012 Republican Primary, winning by 3 votes with 747 votes (44.0%), and was unopposed for the November 6, 2012 General election, winning with 3,717 votes.
2010 When Republican Representative Roy Cohee retired and left the District 35 seat open, Kroeker won the five-way August 17, 2010 Republican Primary with 792 votes (33.2%), and won the November 2, 2010 General election with 2,911 votes (69.4%) against Democratic nominee Jack Walts.


Thomas Rea

Thomas Herald Rea (1929 – February 7, 2016) was an American dermatologist known for his research into treatments for leprosy.

Early life
Rea was born in 1929 in Three Rivers, Michigan. He graduated from Oberlin College and the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor's medical school, where he also completed his dermatology residency.

Career
Rea worked for the U.S. Army Medical Corps in Korea and in the dermatology department at New York University before moving to Los Angeles in 1970. From 1981 to 1996, he was the head of the dermatology division at University of Southern California.

Work
Rea and his colleague Robert Modlin researched the role the immune system played in symptoms of leprosy, which led to the development of new treatments for the disease that rendered it non-contagious and allowed leprosy patients to live normal lives. Rea also supported the use of thalidomide to treat a complication of leprosy.

Death
Rea died on February 7, 2016, at his home in the San Gabriel Mountains, after a battle with cancer.


Craig Gilroy

Craig Gilroy (born 11 March 1991) is an Irish rugby union player from Belfast, Northern Ireland. He plays wing for Ulster and for Ireland.
Gilroy made headlines with his try-scoring exploits in the victory over Munster in the April 2012 Heineken Cup quarter final. He also took part in the semi final against Edinburgh with which Ulster went through to the Heineken Cup final, winning 22–19. He scored a hat trick of tries against Italy in the Stadio Olympico in a convincing 63-10 win for Ireland in the 2017 six nations.

Early life
Gilroy is the middle of five children and was brought up in Bangor, County Down in Northern Ireland before moving to Belfast upon becoming part of the first team. He was educated and boarded at Methodist College Belfast. He twice won the Ulster Schools' Cup with Methodist College Belfast, scoring several tries in his final year as the school won the cup two years running.

Ulster
In 2010 Gilroy was promoted to the Ulster Rugby first team. Gilroy scored 8 tries during the 2010–11 Celtic League. Gilroy burst onto the scene and scored his first two tries of the 2010–11 season in a match against the Cardiff Blues which Ulster won 37–15. Gilroy again scored twice the next game against Benetton Treviso when Ulster rugby won 19–9. He then made his tally to 5 tries when he scored against Leinster rugby but it was not good enough and Leinster won 30–13. He was ruled out for two games with an injury but scored a try against Cardiff Blues to make him known a young talent. He scored once again in the 23–10 win over Aironi. During the 2010–11 season, Gilroy's club, Dungannon RFC, came fifth.

In 2011–12 he scored his first try against Aironi, and then scored against Connacht Rugby in a 22–3 win. He then scored in a 30–12 win over Newport Gwent Dragons to have his Pro12 try number at 3. He also scored 3 times in the Heineken Cup. He scored tries in pool play against Aironi and Leicester Tigers.
Gilroy made the news with the try that gave Ulster a 22–16 win in the quarterfinals against Munster at Thomond Park to send Ulster through to the Heineken Cup semi final. This try won him the IRUPA award in 2012. He also played in Ulster's 42–14 loss to Leinster in the 2012 Heineken Cup final. Gilroy was also nominated for Irish Young Player of the Year for the 2011–12 season, but that award went to Munster back row Peter O’Mahony. He was also named Ulster young player of the year. Dungannon RFC made a big improvement in 2011–12 season finishing in third place.

Early during the 2012–13 season, Gilroy signed a three-year contract extension to remain with Ulster until summer 2016. In February 2015 he earned his 100th cap for Ulster in a 43–3 win over Treviso, scoring two tries in a Man of the Match performance.

Ireland
During the Ireland Six nations campaign in 2012, Gilroy was called up to train with the six additional youngsters alongside Fionn Carr, Jack McGrath, Ian Nagle, Peter O'Mahony and Tiernan O'Halloran.

On 29 May 2012, Gilroy was selected for the 2012 mid-year (non-cap) friendly with the Barbarians. This was his first game for Ireland. Gilroy scored his first international try on 15 minutes. Gilroy later put Ireland ahead with a try on 65 minutes. The Barbarians went on to win the match.

On 17 November 2012, Gilroy scored a hat-trick of tries for Ireland in a non-test match against Fiji at Thomond Park.
On 24 November 2012, Gilroy was selected for the test against Argentina, scoring the opening try on his test debut in a 46–24 win.

He was selected in the Ireland team to face Wales in the opening match of the 2013 Six Nations Championship in Cardiff.

On 11 Feb 2017, Gilroy came on as a substitute for Ireland against Italy in Rome and he scored a hat-trick of tries.


Kiggaella

Kiggaella is a genus of hymenopteran insects belonging to the family Eulophidae. There is just one described species, Kiggaella oryzae, only known from rice paddies in Karnataka and Kerala states, India.

K. oryzae has a body length of around 1.2 mm. This insect can be distinguished from similar Minotetrastichus spp. by the lack of any grooves in the scutellum, wings more than three times as long as broad and one pair of cercal setae much longer than the others.

This insect is clearly a parasitoid although the host species as yet is unknown. Its association with paddy fields suggests it may parasitise a pest of rice which could give it potential as a biological control agent.


Manuela Bezzola

Manuela Bezzola (born August 12, 1989) is a Swiss taekwondo practitioner. She defeated Chinese Taipei's Yang Shu-Chun for the gold medal in the  women's 51 kg division at the 2009 Summer Universiade in Belgrade, Serbia. She also captured a bronze medal in the bantamweight division (53 kg) at the 2010 European Taekwondo Championships in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Bezzola qualified for the women's 49 kg class at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, after placing second from the European Qualification Tournament in Istanbul, Turkey. She lost the preliminary round of sixteen match to Charlotte Craig of the United States, who was able to score four points at the end of the game.


Libya Al Ahrar TV

Libya Al Ahrar (Arabic: ليبيا الأحرار) is a Libyan TV channel broadcast by satellite from its headquarters in Doha. The channel was created in 2011 during the Libyan Civil War. It presents news, opinions, analysis, photo and video reports about Libya in specific and the region in a wider scope. It focuses on Libya’s revolution and future toward building a democratic state.

Structure
Libya TV was founded by Libyans who lived in Qatar that time. Mahmud Shammam was the person who helped to bring the full support from the Qatari government. Moahamad Al Akari was the first General Manager, Serage Beshti was the Head of Administration, and Huda Al Srari was Head of PR. Currently it engulfs around 50 employees working to provide exposure to Libyans different opinions.
Huda Alsrari were named to be head of Doha operation later 2013 and held this position till mid of 2014 before she had to resign with Mahmoud Shamam.

The headquarters is in Doha, and additional studios are located in Benghazi and Tripoli. Libya TV claims to have correspondents "throughout Libya." Along with Arabic, the channel also broadcasts a show in the Tamazight language and will contain English programming in the future.

Funding
Libya TV is mostly funded by Libyan expatriate businessmen. Qatar provides "facilities and technical staff" through Alrayyan TV station.

Notable broadcasts
Libya TV's plan for April 2011 was to broadcast four hours of original programs, including a news segment and a talk show, daily. Libya TV now broadcasts 12 hours per day both in Arabic and the Amazight language.

In the weeks prior to the battle of Tripoli, Libya TV aired recorded phone calls between key figures in the Gaddafi regime in which they discussed moving bodies of the deceased to places where NATO had previously targeted during airstrikes.

On 21 August 2011, amidst the Battle of Tripoli, then- Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril gave a speech on Libya TV urging revolutionary fighters against looting, revenge killings, abusing foreign nationals and mistreating prisoners of war. He also called for unity and asked that police and army units in Tripoli disavow Gaddafi but remain at their posts.
On 20 October 2011, Libya TV was the first news channel to report the capture and subsequent death of Muammar Gaddafi."


Grießen Pass

Grießen Pass (el. 975 m.) is a high mountain pass in the Austrian Alps between the federal states of Salzburg and Tyrol.

It connects the Kitzbühel Alps and the Leogang Steinberge.

The road over the pass leads from Hochfilzen in Tyrol to Leogang in Salzburg, but it lies almost entirely in the state of Salzburg.

The pass is traversed by the Salzburg-Tyrol Railway and the Hochkönig-Straße (B164).


Żelechlinek

Żelechlinek  is a village in Tomaszów Mazowiecki County, Łódź Voivodeship, in central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Żelechlinek. It lies approximately  north of Tomaszów Mazowiecki, and  east of the regional capital Łódź.


Football at the 1963 South Pacific Games

The 1963 South Pacific Games was the first edition of the tournament and was held in Fiji from 29 August to 7 September.

Participants

 Papua New Guinea

Matches

First round

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Final

Sources
Results on RSSSF

1963
P
Pac


Spock

Spock or Mr. Spock is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise. Spock first appeared in the original Star Trek series serving aboard the starship Enterprise as science officer and first officer, and later as commanding officer of two iterations of the vessel. Spock's mixed human-Vulcan heritage serves as an important plot element in many of the character's appearances. Along with Captain James T. Kirk and Dr. Leonard "Bones" McCoy, he is one of the three central characters in the original Star Trek series and its films.

After retiring from active duty in Starfleet, Spock serves as a Federation ambassador, and later becomes involved in the ill-fated attempt to save Romulus from a supernova, leading him to live out the rest of his life in a parallel timeline.

Spock was played by actor Leonard Nimoy in the original Star Trek series, in the animated Star Trek series, eight of the Star Trek feature films, and a two-part episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. The character has appeared in numerous Star Trek novels, comics, and video games. Multiple actors have also played the character after Nimoy: several portrayed the various stages of Spock's rapid growth in the film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, and Zachary Quinto has played Spock in the feature films Star Trek (2009), Star Trek Into Darkness (2013), and Star Trek Beyond (2016). Star Trek: Discovery has used actor Ethan Peck to portray the role of Spock.

Appearances

Background
Spock's backstory has been explained during the course of several episodes of Star Trek: The Original Series, the 2009 film Star Trek and the episode "Yesteryear" of Star Trek: The Animated Series. Spock was born to the Vulcan Sarek and the human Amanda Grayson.  Due to this mixed race heritage Spock had to be removed from Amanda's body and raised in a test tube for two months, during which time Vulcan scientists made subtle chemical adjustments to the fetus to ensure its survival.  The fetus was returned to Amanda's body to complete the human gestation period, then put in an incubator for four months to complete the Vulcan gestation period.  He is the first such mixed race child to survive.

Spock has a troubled childhood due to his mixed heritage. On his homeworld, he was repeatedly bullied and tormented by full-blooded Vulcan children, who wished to incite the emotions of his human nature. For a time, he grew up alongside his older half-brother Sybok, until the older brother was cast out for rejecting logic. In the episode "Amok Time", it is revealed that Spock became betrothed to T'Pring (Arlene Martel) during his childhood.

Sarek supported Spock's scientific learning and supporting his application to the Vulcan Science Academy, as mentioned in "Journey to Babel". In the 2009 film Star Trek, Spock is seen rejecting his acceptance into the Vulcan Science Academy on the basis that they would never fully accept someone who was only half-Vulcan. Although this film set up the Kelvin timeline seen in this and later films, writer Roberto Orci stated that he felt that the actions were unaffected by the changes in this timeline and so would have occurred in the same manner prior to The Original Series. Because Spock did not enter the VSA, and sought to join Starfleet instead, he did not speak to his father for the following 18 years.

"The Cage" and the first season

Spock appeared as the science officer on the USS Enterprise in the first pilot for the series, "The Cage". This was not shown on television at the time, but the events of the episode were shown in the two-part episode "The Menagerie" of the first season, and Spock's previous 11 years of service on the Enterprise were described. Spock was one of the members of the away team who joined Captain Christopher Pike (Jeffrey Hunter) on a mission to Talos IV in order to investigate a distress call. Spock did appear in the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before", but this was broadcast initially as the third episode. During the events of that pilot, Spock became concerned at the risk to the ship posed by Lieutenant Commander Gary Mitchell (Gary Lockwood) and suggested possible solutions to Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner).

The earliest appearance of Spock in the series as broadcast was "The Man Trap", the first such episode. When he needs to knock out an evil version of Kirk in "The Enemy Within", he uses a Vulcan nerve pinch. Spock and Chief Engineer Montgomery "Scotty" Scott (James Doohan) work together to rejoin the good and evil versions of the Captain, which had been split following a transporter accident. During "Miri", he finds himself to be the only member of the landing party to be immune to the physical effects of the disease affecting human adults on the planet. However, he realises that he is probably a carrier and could infect the Enterprise if he were to return. Doctor Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley) manages to devise a cure, allowing the team to return to the ship.

When Simon van Gelder enters the bridge armed with a phaser in "Dagger of the Mind", Spock subdues him with a nerve pinch. He later conducts a mind meld with van Gelder as part of the investigation into the activities of the nearby colony. After the power to the colony is shut down, and a protective force field drops, Spock leads an away team to rescue Kirk. Spock is reunited with Christopher Pike (Sean Kenney) in "The Menagerie". Pike had been promoted to Fleet Captain but suffered an accident, resulting in severe burns and confining him to a wheelchair and restricting his communication to yes/no answers via a device connected to his brainwaves. Spock commits mutiny and directs the ship to travel to Talos IV, a banned planet. He recounts the events of "The Cage" under a tribunal to Kirk, Pike and Commodore Jose I. Mendez (Malachi Throne). As the Enterprise arrives at the planet, Mendez is revealed to be a Talosian illusion. At the same time, the real Mendez communicates from Starfleet, giving permission for Pike to be transported to the planet, and all charges against Spock are dropped.

While the Enterprise is under threat in "Balance of Terror", Spock is accused by Lieutenant Stiles (Paul Comi) of knowing more about the Romulans than he admits when the alien's similar physical appearance is revealed. Spock hypothesises that they are an offshoot of the Vulcan race. He saves the Enterprise, manning the phaser station and saves the life of Stiles in the process. Spock leads a landing party on the shuttlecraft Galileo in "The Galileo Seven", which is damaged and pulled off course and lands on the planet Taurus II. Lieutenant Boma (Don Marshall) criticises Spock's fascination with the weaponry of the natives after the death of Lieutenant Latimer (Rees Vaughn) at their hands. After Scotty uses the power packs of the party's phasers to supply enough energy to get the damaged shuttle back into orbit, Spock decides to dump and ignite the remaining fuel to attract the attention of the Enterprise. The procedure is successful and the crew on the shuttle are rescued.

Spock is reunited with Leila Kalomi (Jill Ireland) in "This Side of Paradise"; after joining an away team to the planet Omicron Ceti III. After being affected by planet spores, Spock begins showing emotion and re-initiates his romantic liaison with Kalomi. The impact of the spores on him is cured after Kirk goads him into anger, and once freed of the effects, Spock is able to initiate a solution which cures the rest of the crew. Spock attempts to mind meld with a non-humanoid Horta in "The Devil in the Dark", having initially suggested that Kirk should kill the creature. Following a second mind meld, Spock relays the history of the Horta and is able to create peace between the aliens and a nearby colony. Both Spock and Kirk undertake guerrilla warfare against the occupying Klingon forces on the planet Organia, prior to the establishment of the Organian Peace Treaty in "Errand of Mercy". To restore the timeline, he travels with Kirk back to 1930's New York City in "The City on the Edge of Forever". He uses technology of that period to interface with his tricorder over the course of the weeks they spend in the period before witnessing Edith Keeler's (Joan Collins) death.

Season two and three
In the premiere episode of the second season, "Amok Time", Spock begins to undergo pon farr, the Vulcan blood fever, and must undergo a ritual mating in the next eight days or die. Kirk disobeys Starfleet orders and takes the Enterprise to the planet Vulcan so that Spock can undergo the mating ritual. When they arrive, he is reunited with T'Pring (Arlene Martel). She rather wishes to be with Stonn (Lawrence Montaigne), a full-blooded Vulcan. She demands the ritual kal-if-fee fight instead, and selects Kirk as her champion, who unknowingly agrees to a fight to the death with Spock. McCoy persuades T'Pau (Celia Lovsky) to let him inject Kirk with something to alleviate the issues with Vulcan's thinner atmosphere and make the fight fair. The fight begins, and Spock gains the upper hand, garroting Kirk and killing him. McCoy orders an emergency transport directly to sickbay, while Spock is told by T'Pring that it was all a game of logic which would let her be with Stonn no matter the outcome. No longer feeling the effects of the pon farr, Spock returns to the Enterprise where he discovers that McCoy had injected Kirk with a paralyzing agent which merely simulated death and that the Captain was still alive.

During the course of the encounter with the Nomad space probe in "The Changeling", Spock undertakes a mind meld with the machine. Kirk stops the meld when he realises that Spock's personality starts to be changed by the contact. Following a transporter accident which transports Kirk, McCoy, Uhura and Scotty to a Mirror Universe and swaps them with their counterparts in the episode "Mirror, Mirror", they encounter a different version of Spock. Sporting a beard, he grows suspicious of the activities of the suddenly changed personnel and under Starfleet orders, attempts to kill Kirk. Mirror-Spock is knocked unconscious, and is treated by McCoy while the others head to the transporter to attempt to return to their universe. Spock awakes and mind melds with McCoy to discover why Kirk did not have him killed. Discovering what took place, he agrees to help them return and as he mans the transporter controls, Kirk implores him to take control and save not only the ship but his Terran Empire from implosion at the hands of tyrants. The switch is once again successful, and the crew members return to their relevant universes.

The Motion Picture and the film series
At the beginning of Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), Spock is no longer in Starfleet, having resigned and returned home to pursue the Vulcan discipline of Kolinahr. Spock is unable to complete the Kolinahr ritual after he senses the coming of V'ger, and rejoins Starfleet to aid the Enterprise crew in their mission. Spock, promoted to captain, is commanding officer of the Enterprise at the beginning of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982). At the film's end, he transfers his "katra" – the sum of his memories and experience – to McCoy, and then sacrifices himself to save the ship and its crew from Khan Noonien Singh (Ricardo Montalbán). The sequel, Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984), focuses on his crewmates' quest to recover Spock's body, learning upon arrival that he has been resurrected by the Genesis matrix after landing on the planet at the end of the previous film. At the film's conclusion, Spock's revived body is reunited with his katra. Spock is next seen in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986), which depicts his recovery from the after-effects of his resurrection. In the film's final scene, he joins the crew of the newly commissioned USS Enterprise-A under Kirk's command. In Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989), Spock and the Enterprise crew confront the renegade Sybok, Spock's half-brother. Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991) reunites the Enterprise crew on a mission to prevent war from erupting between the Federation and Klingon Empire. Spock serves as a special envoy to broker peace with the Klingons after a natural disaster devastates their homeworld.

Star Trek: The Next Generation
After a period in which the production team avoided mentioning some aspects of The Original Series, Spock was mentioned by name in Star Trek: The Next Generation in the episode "Sarek" (1990). Executive producer Michael Piller later described this one act as "the breakthrough which allowed us to open the doors, that allowed us to begin to embrace our past".

Spock appears in "Unification" (1991), a two-part episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Set 75 years after the events of The Undiscovered Country, the episode focuses on Federation Ambassador Spock's attempt to reunite the Romulans with their Vulcan brethren. Filming of The Undiscovered Country overlapped with production of this episode, and the episode references Spock's role in the film.

Reboot films

Star Trek (2009)
Spock's next appearance in the live action Star Trek franchise is the 2009 Star Trek film. Nimoy was given approval rights over Spock's casting and supported Quinto's casting.

In the film's flashback (set 19 years after the events of "Unification", and as depicted in the comic miniseries Star Trek: Countdown), Ambassador Spock (Nimoy) promises the Romulans he will use Vulcan technology to save them from a rogue supernova that threatens to destroy their Empire. He pilots an advanced starship equipped with red matter, a powerful substance able to create artificial black holes. The mission is only partially successful, and in the aftermath Spock is pursued into the past by Nero (Eric Bana), a Romulan driven mad by the loss of his homeworld and family, setting into motion the events of the film.

In the film's opening act, Nero's ship emerges in the year 2233, and through its interaction with the inhabitants, inadvertently creates an "alternate, parallel 'Star Trek' universe". Twenty-five years later in the new reality, Spock's ship emerges, and Nero captures him and the red matter. Stranded in the alternate past, the prime version of Spock helps the alternate, younger version of himself and Kirk (Zachary Quinto and Chris Pine, respectively) thwart Nero's attempt to destroy the Federation.

The film also features Jacob Kogan in several scenes depicting Spock's childhood, including his abuse at the hands of other Vulcan children due to his half-Human heritage, and his relationship with his parents (Ben Cross and Winona Ryder). The film also depicts Kirk and Spock's initial clashes at Starfleet Academy, and the gradual development of their friendship based on shared mutual respect, what the elder Spock calls "... a friendship that will define them both in ways they cannot yet realize." A major change in characterization from the primary timeline is alternate Spock's involvement with alternate Uhura (Zoe Saldana), his former student. At the end of the film, the young Spock opts to remain in Starfleet while his older self stays in the altered universe to aid the few surviving Vulcan refugees, as Nero had destroyed Vulcan, Spock's home planet.

Star Trek Into Darkness (2013)

In Star Trek Into Darkness, Spock Prime is described as living on 'New Vulcan' while the younger Spock remains aboard the Enterprise struggling with the loss of his homeworld, as well as his relationships with Uhura and James T. Kirk. Spock nearly dies protecting a planet from an active volcano, but Kirk breaks the Prime Directive and saves him.  Spock Prime is contacted by Spock on the Enterprise, to find out details on Khan. Spock Prime initially reminds his alternate self that he will not interfere with the events in the alternate timeline. That being said, he then informs Spock that Khan was a dangerous man, and the greatest threat that the Enterprise ever faced in his own timeline, and warns that he is likely as dangerous in Spock's alternate timeline as well. When asked whether Khan was defeated, Spock Prime answers that he eventually was defeated, but at great cost (referring to the events of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan). When Kirk contracts radiation poisoning and dies in front of Spock (a transposed parallel of events in the prime timeline where Spock dies in front of Kirk), an enraged Spock attempts to kill Khan to avenge Kirk before Uhura informs him that Khan's regenerative blood can revive Kirk. Nearly a year later, Spock remains as Kirk's chief science officer and executive officer as the Enterprise departs on its first five-year mission of deep-space exploration.

Into Darkness would be Nimoy's final appearance as Spock Prime, as well as the last role of his career. He died in 2015, shortly before production began on Star Trek Beyond.

Star Trek Beyond (2016)

In Star Trek Beyond, Spock receives word that Ambassador Spock (Spock Prime) has died. Impacted by this, Spock later tells McCoy that he intends to leave Starfleet to continue the ambassador's work on New Vulcan. At the end of the film, Spock receives a box containing some of Ambassador Spock's personal effects, and reflecting on a photograph of the older crew of the Enterprise from the series' original timeline, he chooses to remain in Starfleet.

Star Trek: Discovery
In August 2018 it was announced that Ethan Peck would join the cast of Star Trek: Discovery as Spock in the show's upcoming second season, portraying a Spock younger than both Nimoy's and Quinto's renditions of the character, as Discovery is set several years before the Original Series and Kelvin Timeline films.

As of his appearances on Discovery, Spock is a Lieutenant, serving under Captain Christopher Pike on the Enterprise. Due to the trauma Spock suffered because of his visions of the "Red Angel", he is on leave from the Enterprise and under psychiatric care. His adopted sister Michael Burnham is attempting to help him recover.

Star Trek: Short Treks
In 2019, it was announced that the character Spock would appear in three Star Trek: Short Treks, along with Captain Pike.

Development

The Original Series
The earliest known mention of Spock was in a conversation between Star Treks creator Gene Roddenberry and actor Gary Lockwood, in which Lockwood suggested Leonard Nimoy for the role. The trio had previously worked together on Roddenberry's The Lieutenant in the episode "In the Highest Tradition". Roddenberry agreed to the idea, but was required to audition other actors for the part. At the time, Roddenberry sought DeForest Kelley to play the doctor character in the pilot, "The Cage", but both NBC executives and director Robert Butler wanted him to play Spock. Roddenberry offered the part to both Kelley and Martin Landau, but they both turned him down. When offered, Nimoy accepted the part but was apprehensive about the make-up which had not been determined at that point.

During an interview segment of TV Land's 40th Anniversary Star Trek Marathon on November 12, 2006 Leonard Nimoy stated that Gene Roddenberry's first choice to play Spock was George Lindsey. Because of the flippant way Nimoy makes the comment it has been suggested that he was joking. The claim Lindsey was offered the role is given more credibility when Lindsey's close friend Ernest Borgnine writes in his autobiography, "my hand to God - he turned down the part of Mr. Spock on TV's Star Trek, the role that made Leonard Nimoy famous."

The character evolved from having a metal plate in his stomach through which he ingested energy to being a half-Martian in the original 1964 pitch with a "slightly reddish complexion and semi-pointed ears". Due to Roddenberry's concern that a Mars landing might take place before the end of the series, Spock's home planet was changed. Lee Greenway conducted the initial makeup tests on Nimoy, but after four or five days, Fred Phillips was asked to take over. Phillips in turn asked John Chambers to create Spock's ears, as he was working on getting an appropriate shade of red for Spock's skin; this idea was later abandoned in favor of a yellow hue because of the effects on black and white television. Nimoy hated the ears, and Roddenberry promised him that if he was still unhappy by the 13th episode then they'd find a way to write them out. The NBC executives were also concerned, as they felt it made the character satanic.

At Roddenberry's insistence, Spock was the only character retained for the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before". However, NBC demanded that he be only a background character, and when it went to series, the tips of Spock's ears were airbrushed out on promotional materials. It was during early episodes such as "The Corbomite Maneuver" and "The Naked Time" that Nimoy came to understand the nature of the character. After eight episodes, NBC executives complained to Roddenberry that there was not enough Spock in the series – "Spockmania" had begun. In response, Spock was moved to a more prominent role within the series, such as taking the lead role in "This Side of Paradise" over Sulu. The popularity of the character caused frictions with Shatner, and rumours spread that he was going to be dropped from the show and replaced as the lead by Nimoy as Spock. A drawn out contract renegotiation at the start of season two resulted in Roddenberry considering whether or not to replace Nimoy and the character. Both Mark Lenard and Lawrence Montaigne were seriously considered.

The character continued to develop, with Nimoy creating the Vulcan salute during the filming of "Amok Time". This was based on a Jewish Kohen he had seen as a child. During the course of the season, a rift grew between Nimoy and Roddenberry and by the end of the year, they only spoke through formal letters. After the departure of producer Gene L. Coon and the stepping back of Roddenberry during the third season, Nimoy found that the writing of Spock deteriorated. In particular, he did not like the character being made a fool of during the episode "Spock's Brain". The interracial kiss between Kirk and Uhura in "Plato's Stepchildren" had been intended by the writers to be between Spock and Uhura, but Shatner persuaded them to change it.

Phase II and the film franchise

Nimoy agreed to return to Spock during one of the early 1970s attempts to create a Star Trek film, entitled Star Trek: The God Thing, but dropped out after his likeness as Spock was used without permission to advertise Heineken beer. He was persuaded to return when production turned to the film Star Trek: Planet of the Titans as directed by Philip Kaufman. However, this was dropped in favor of a new television series, Star Trek: Phase II. After being offered only a recurring part by Roddenberry, Nimoy refused to appear at all. When the work moved on again, to Star Trek: The Motion Picture, director Robert Wise persuaded Nimoy to return as the character. During the course of the production, Nimoy presented traits of method acting and would not break character.

Nimoy returned for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan with the promise of a dramatic death scene. Nimoy enjoyed the production of the film so much that he asked if the previously irrevocable death could be reversed. Nimoy did not know how this was going to happen until he saw the film. To facilitate his return in the following film, Paramount executives agreed that Nimoy could direct it and following the success, he was asked to direct once more for Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. The call for Spock to betray Kirk and side with his half-brother Sybok in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier was changed at Nimoy's insistence, as he felt the character had already come to terms with his human-side and Sybok would have no influence on him. Nimoy organised Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, appointing the director, writers and producers. To hand over to Star Trek: The Next Generation at the time of The Undiscovered Country, Nimoy agreed to appear as Spock in the episode "Unification". Nimoy subsequently turned down the directing role on Star Trek Generations as the role for Spock was limited; the character's lines were subsequently given to Chekov and Scotty.

When recasting the role for 2009's Star Trek, Nimoy was asked his opinion. He highlighted the work of Zachary Quinto, as he felt he looked similar and could sufficiently portray the inner thought process of the character. Quinto became the first actor to be cast for the film, and Nimoy agreed to return as the version of the character from the "Prime" universe. Nimoy said that he returned because of the enthusiasm from director J.J. Abrams and the writers, and because it made him feel appreciated. Nimoy made a final appearance as Spock in Star Trek Into Darkness as a favor to Abrams. At the time, he did not rule out returning again, but he died prior to the following film. In Star Trek Beyond, Quinto's Spock mourns the loss of Spock Prime, as played by Nimoy.

Mind melds

Spock is one of the character's of Star Trek known to conduct the universe's Vulcan aliens signature mind melds.

Examples:

 "Dagger of the Mind" (TOS)
"The Devil in the Dark"
"Spectre of the Gun"
"One of Our Planets Is Missing" (TAS)
"Star Trek: The Motion Picture"
"Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country"
"Star Trek" (2009 film)

Reception
"Given the choice", Nimoy said years after the show ended, "If I had to be someone else, I would be Spock." He recalled, more than a decade after the show's cancellation:

From early on, the public reacted very positively—even fanatically—to his character, in what The Boston Globe in 1967 described as "Spockmania". Headshots of Spock became popular souvenirs, with the rare ones of the actor laughing the most valuable. Nimoy reported that "within two weeks after ["Amok Time"], my mail jumped from a few hundred letters to 10,000 a week". When he appeared as Spock as grand marshal of a Medford, Oregon parade in April 1967, thousands gathered to receive autographs: "They surged forward so quickly that I was terrified someone would be crushed to death; and then they started pressing against the bandstand so hard it began to sway beneath my feet!" After being rescued by police, "I made sure never to appear publicly again in Vulcan guise", Nimoy stated.

Fans asked Nimoy questions about current events such as the Vietnam War and LSD as if he were the Vulcan scientist; one even asked the actor to lay his hands on a friend's eyes to heal them. When a biracial girl wrote asking for advice on how to deal with persecution as "a half-breed", Nimoy responded that young Vulcans had treated Spock similarly and that she should, as he did, "realize the difference between popularity and true greatness". The actor believed that the character appealed to viewers, especially teenagers, because

To Nimoy's surprise, Spock became a sex symbol; Isaac Asimov described the character as "a security blanket with sexual overtones", and Nimoy reported that "I've never had more female attention on a set before. And get this: they all want to touch the ears!" (When a young woman asked "Are you aware that you are the source of erotic dream material for thousands and thousands of ladies around the world?", he replied "May all your dreams come true".) Nimoy speculated that Spock appealed to women because

NASA made Spock an informal mascot. Nimoy was invited to be guest of honor at the March 1967 National Space Club dinner and to take an extensive tour of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, MD. The actor concluded from the warm and intense reception he received that astronauts like John Glenn and aerospace industry engineers, secretaries, and shareholders alike all regarded Star Trek, and especially the character of Spock, as a "dramatization of the future of their space program".

An asteroid in the Eos family discovered on August 16, 1971 was named Mr. Spock after the discoverer James B. Gibson's cat (which had been named Mr. Spock, who was likewise "imperturbable, logical, intelligent, and had pointed ears").

The character proved inspirational to many budding scientists and engineers. Nimoy has said that many of them, on meeting him, were eager to show him their work and discuss it with him as if he were a scientific peer, as opposed to an actor, photographer, and poet. His stock response in these situations was "it certainly looks like you're headed in the right direction".

In 2004, Spock was ranked number 21 in Bravo's list of The 100 Greatest TV Characters. In 2008, UGO named Spock one of the 50 greatest TV characters. According to Shatner, much of Star Treks acting praise and media interest went to Nimoy.

In 2012, IGN ranked the character Spock, as depicted in the original series and the 2009 film Star Trek, as the second top character of the Star Trek universe, with Kirk in the top spot.

In 2016, Adam Nimoy released his documentary film For the Love of Spock, about his father and his iconic character.

In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Spock the 5th most attractive person in the Star Trek universe, in between Michael Burnham and Seven of Nine. In 2018, they ranked Spock as one of the top 8 most powerful character's of Star Trek (including later series).

In 2018, CBR ranked Spock the 6th best Starfleet character of the Star Trek franchise.

Reaction to Spock's death
The Wrath of Khan had its first public screening at a science-fiction convention in Overland Park, Kansas on May 8, 1982, almost a month before general release. Although Paramount executives were concerned that Spock's death would set fans against the movie, the audience actually applauded after Spock's death scene. "It was sensational. I hate to be given to superlatives but it absolutely reached everything we wanted it to. I couldn't ask for anything better," said co-producer Robert Sallin of the advance audience's reaction.

Critical reaction to Spock's death was mixed. Film critic Roger Ebert lauded Spock's death: "He makes a choice in Star Trek II that would be made only by a hero, a fool, or a Vulcan. And when he makes his decision, the movie rises to one of its best scenes, because the Star Trek stories have always been best when they centered on their characters." On the other hand, The Washington Posts Gary Arnold stated Spock's death "feels like an unnecessary twist, and the filmmakers are obviously well-prepared to fudge in case the public demands another sequel."

Twenty-five years later, Spock's death in The Wrath of Khan ranks number 2 on Total Film's list of 25 greatest Star Trek movie moments, and number 1 on IGN Movie's top 10 Star Trek movie moments.

Star Trek (2009)
Ty Burr of The Boston Globe described Quinto's performance in the 2009 film as "something special", and stated that Nimoy's appearance "carries much more emotion than you'd expect". Slate said Quinto played Spock "with a few degrees more chill" than Nimoy brought to the original character. Entertainment Weekly said that Quinto "... invests Spock with a new layer of chilly-smoldering sex appeal, [and] Quinto does a fantastic job of maintaining Spock's calm, no-sweat surface but getting quietly hot and bothered underneath."

Cultural impact

Spock has been parodied by, and has also been the inspiration for, pop culture works in various media. Composer/keyboardist George Duke's 1976 Solo Keyboard Album features two tracks which pay homage to Spock: "Spock Gets Funky" and "Vulcan Mind Probe". Rock guitarist Paul Gilbert wrote the song "Mr. Spock" on his Space Ship One album. Swedish synthpop band S.P.O.C.K makes music heavily influenced by the Star Trek universe. Even Nimoy got in on the act; assuming the Spock character, Nimoy recorded a number of novelty songs, the first being "Highly Illogical", in which Spock pointed out the foibles of human thought, such as relationships, automobiles, and greed. The second song, "A Visit to a Sad Planet", was darker in tone and told the story of Spock visiting Earth in the future and discovering it had been ruined by war, violence, and environmental irresponsibility. According to comic book writer and editor Bob Budiansky, The Transformers character Shockwave was inspired by Spock. Spock's utilitarian perspective that "the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few" is cited in a legal decision rendered by the Texas Supreme Court. Leonard Nimoy's second-season Spock costume shirt was expected to sell at auction for over $75,000.

Spock's physical appearance in the Original Series episode "Mirror, Mirror" (1967) has itself spawned a trope of the "evil twin" archetype found in various fictional genres. In that episode, several members of the Enterprise travel to a parallel universe inhabited by evil versions of themselves. The parallel universe version of Spock is distinguished physically by his goatee. Science fiction blog io9 said that Spock's beard in the episode introduced "the best shorthand ever for evil parallel universe duplicates". Examples of the evil goatee's appearances in other media include Bender's "evil twin" Flexo in Futurama and a 2009 episode of The Colbert Report featuring Stephen Colbert and Dan Maffei wearing fake goatees while pretending to be evil versions of themselves.  The name of progressive rock band Spock's Beard is a direct reference to Spock's goatee in this episode.

Fan productions
In addition to television, feature films, books, and parodies, Spock has also been portrayed in non-canon fan fiction. Since 2004, the online fan production Star Trek: Phase II has continued the further voyages of the cancelled initial series. The fan-series' creators feel "Kirk, Spock, McCoy, and the rest should be treated as 'classic' characters like Willy Loman from Death of a Salesman, Gandalf from Lord of the Rings, or even Hamlet, Othello, or Romeo. Many actors have and can play the roles, each offering a different interpretation of said character."

The fan series Star Trek: Phase II has featured three actors in the role of Spock. Spock was portrayed by Jeffrey Quinn for the pilot and first three episodes, by Ben Tolpin in episodes 4 and 5, and by Brandon Stacy in episodes 6 through 11. Stacy also served as a stand-in for Zachary Quinto in the 2009 Star Trek film.

The independent online fan series Star Trek Continues featured Todd Haberkorn as Spock in three vignettes and eleven full episodes between 2013 and 2017.

In scientific illustrator Jenny Parks' 2017 book Star Trek Cats, Spock is depicted as an Oriental Shorthair.

"Spocking" Canadian $5 notes
There has been a practice of altering the portrait of Canada's seventh prime minister, Wilfrid Laurier, on Canadian five-dollar notes to look like Spock. After the death of Leonard Nimoy in 2015, there was an increase in that practice.

Notes


Damaskeening

In horology, damaskeening is decorative patterning on a watch movement.   The term damaskeening is used in America, while in Europe the terms used are Fausses Côtes, Côtes de Genève  or Geneva Stripes.  Such patterns are made from very fine scratches made by rose engine lathe using small disks, polishing wheels or ivory laps.  These patterns look similar to the results of a spirograph or Guilloché engraving.

The earliest known damaskeened American watch movement is E. Howard & Company movement SN 1,105, a gilded brass movement with a helical hairspring. In the period between 1862 and 1868, the same Boston firm damaskeened approximately 400 Model 1862-N (Series III) gilt movements as well, and about 140 nickel-plated brass movements then were so decorated between 1868 and 1870. Howard used damaskeening in this period to draw the viewer's eye to the Reed's patented main wheel, an important technical feature of the watches. Damaskeening was first used in America on solid nickel movements in 1867 by the U.S. Watch Co of Marion, NJ. In 1868-69, the American Watch Company of Waltham, MA employed damaskeening on small numbers of top grade nickel Model 16KW (a.k.a., Model 1860) and nickel Model 1868 movements. Damaskeening then quickly spread to most other American watch manufacturers and watch grades.

Two-tone damaskeening can be created by applying a thin plating of gold and then having the damaskeening scrape through the gold outer layer and into the nickel plate, or simply creating damaskeening on the gold layer.  This creates patterns with two colors.


Platinum Tour

The Platinum Tour presented by Crystal Light is the fifth headlining concert tour by American country music singer Miranda Lambert. The tour was in support of her fifth studio album, Platinum (2014). The first leg of the tour began on July 10, 2014, in Fort Loramie, Ohio and ended on September 20, 2014, in Honolulu with there being thirty dates for that leg. Lambert kicked off the second leg called, the "Certified Platinum Tour" on January 15, 2015, in Evansville, Indiana. This leg will end on July 9, 2015, in Calgary, Alberta. The third leg called the "Roadside Bars & Pink Guitars Tour" began on September 25, 2015, in Billings, Montana and ended on October 19, 2015. The tour ended on March 13, 2016. The 2015 legs of tour grossed $20 million.

Background
The tour was first announced in May 2014, and began on July 10, with the first leg ending on September 20. Lambert says, "Platinum represents a lifestyle for me. It's the color of my hair, wedding ring, my airstream trailer, so it's just a natural fit for the name of my new album and its why we decided to name the tour Platinum too."  A second leg was later added beginning on January 2, 2015 and will end on March 26. The shows in March 2016 are a part of the C2C: Country to Country festival and will be Lambert's first European shows.

Concert synopsis
At the beginning of the show, there is "a montage paying homage to female pioneers", such as Sally Ride. Then on a black screen "a slogan in white text" and in capital letters appears saying, "Well-behaved women rarely make history." Before the show began, "there was a screening of the music video for "Somethin' Bad", her hit song with Carrie Underwood. Lambert starts the show with "Fastest Girl in Town" and closes with "Gunpowder & Lead". During "Famous in a Small Town" the video screen shows "clips of Lambert as a child and as a young country star starting her career."

On March 6, 2015, in Oklahoma City and on March, 7, in Wichita, Kansas, Lambert surprised the audience by bringing her husband, Blake Shelton up on stage to sing "God Gave Me You".

Fan interaction
Inspired by Lambert's song and video, "All Kinds of Kinds", Lambert wants to know what "kinds of kinds" the fans are. Concert goers can uploaded photos of themselves online for a chance for their photo to be shown on the big screen during the show.

Opening acts

Neal McCoy
RaeLynn
Danielle Bradbery
Florida Georgia Line
Tyler Farr
Justin Moore
Thomas Rhett

Setlist

"Fastest Girl in Town"
"Kerosene"
"Platinum"
"Little Red Wagon"
"Baggage Claim"
"Hard Staying Sober"
"Over You"
"All Kinds of Kinds"
"Me and Charlie Talking"
"Babies Makin' Babies"
"Famous in a Small Town"
"Mississippi Queen"
"Mama's Broken Heart"
"Bring Me Down"
"Smokin' and Drinkin'"
"The House That Built Me"
"Automatic"
"New Strings"
"White Liar"
"Gunpowder and Lead"
Encore
 "Gravity Is a Bitch"
"Somethin' Bad"

Tour dates

Fairs, festivals and other performances
 This concerts was a part of the Country Concert at Hickory Hills Lake.
 This concert was a part of the Great Jones County Fair.
 This concert was a part of the Faster Horses Fest.
 This concert was a part of the Oregon Jamboree.
 This concert was a part of Stagecoach Festival.
 This concert was a part of Big Barrel Country Music Festival.
 This concert was a part of Dauphin's Countyfest.
 This concert was a part of the North Dakota State Fair.
 This concert was a part of Cheyenne Frontier Days.
 This concert was a part of WE Fest.
 This concert was a part of the Pepsi Gulf Coast Jam.
 This concert was a part of Cause for the Paws.
 These concerts are a part of the C2C: Country to Country music festival.

Critical reception
Nate Chinen of the New York Times says, "She hit her marks, but seemed to be punching from a distance for the third of the show. It was as if she had grown weary of her own ironclad image, or the delivery system around it, or the many forms of upkeep required." "Whatever the case, as she labored, her band smoothly churned, with a balance of muscle and finesse."

The Wichita Eagle's Denise Neil remarked how Lambert thrilled the crowd at Intrust Bank Arena in Wichita.

Notes


E. Grey Lewis

E. Grey Lewis (1940–2005) was an American lawyer who served as General Counsel of the Navy from 1973 to 1977.

Biography
Lewis was born in 1940 in Atlantic City, New Jersey and educated at the Peddie School where he was student body president. He attended Princeton University, receiving a B.A. in Politics in 1959. While there, he was on the swim team, the rowing team, and was a member of the American Whig–Cliosophic Society. He also participated in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while in university and upon graduation, joined the United States Army. After completing his army service, he enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania Law School and graduated in 1963.

Assistant United States Attorney
After leaving law school, Lewis became an Assistant United States Attorney for the District of Columbia. He later became an Assistant U.S. Attorney in the United States Department of Justice Civil Division.

General Counsel of the Navy
In 1973, President of the United States Richard Nixon nominated Lewis as General Counsel of the Navy and, after Senate confirmation, he held this office from August 1, 1973 until April 21, 1977. For his service to the United States Department of the Navy, Lewis was awarded the Navy Distinguished Public Service Award.

Upon leaving the Department of the Navy, Lewis founded a Washington, D.C. law firm, Lewis, Kominers & James. He later became a partner at McDermott Will & Emery.

Arizona Commissioner of Agriculture
From 1980 to 1985, he served as the Arizona Commissioner of Agriculture.

Death
Lewis died in 2005 in Alexandria, Virginia.


Frances Jenkins Olcott

Frances Jenkins Olcott (1872–1963) was the first head librarian of the children's department of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh in 1898.  She also wrote many children’s books and books for those in the profession of providing library service to children and youth.

Early life

Olcott was born in 1872 in Paris, France near the Garden of the Batignolles.  She later lived in Albany, New York at both her parents' and grandmother's houses; this was followed by years in the country suburbs of Albany where she was tutored by her parents who provided her with a formative education.

Her father, Franklin Olcott, born in America, but educated in Göttingen and Würzburg in German, worked in the American Consular Service. He tutored her in German and the classics. Her mother, Julia Olcott, translated children’s stories from French. According to Olcott, her father's strong vocabulary, love for poetry, and researcher’s mind and her mother's fine critical powers, delicate feelings for words, and eager mind, helped to develop her intellectual skills and analytical abilities and had a strong influence on her writing. Olcott mentions the importance that her religious influences as a child had upon her writing as well. Her grandmother's formal and dignified religious influence was present alongside her parents’ Bible readings and daily prayers.

She earned her high school certificate through Regents Examinations before taking entrance examinations for the New York State Library School where she graduated in 1896.

Career

Librarian
Olcott was an assistant librarian of the Brooklyn Public Library from 1897–1898.  She then became the first librarian to develop and head the Children's Department at Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh and to organize a formal training program known as The Training School for Children's Librarians. Her children's department was a laboratory where she and her staff tested methods, evolved standards, and worked out problems regarding reading engagement, content selection, and material organization.  Her team's results were published and shared with other libraries and schools; her educationally minded staff with two expert bibliographers helped eventually create what became her Carnegie-supported Training School for Children's Librarians.

Olcott started outreach programs to bring books into homes, schools, detention centers, and beyond.  Her efforts helped a large immigrant population at the time learn how to adapt to a new country.  She promoted the idea of having home libraries for children, and she and her colleagues would set up a reading hour where groups of children would meet in a home in the community to be read to by the librarians.

Writer
In 1911 Olcott left both Pittsburgh and her position of librarian and moved back to New York to write books for children, and books on how to be an effective children's librarian.  She wrote and edited more than 24 volumes, which sold in her lifetime for more than a half million dollars.

She was asked to write the section "Library Works with Children" for the American Library Association 1914 Manual of Library Economy.

Works

 1898 "Fairy Tales for Children", bibliography
 1905 "Rational Library Work and the Preparation for It"
 1909 "Story Telling: A Public Library Method"
 1910 "The Public Library: A Social Force in Pittsburgh"
 1912 The Children's Reading
 1913 The Arabian Nights' Entertainments, translated by Edward William Lane; selected, ed., and arranged by Olcott; illustrated by Monro S. Orr
 1913 Story-telling Poems
 1914 Good Stories for Great Holidays
 1914 "Library Work with Children", American Library Association
 1915 More Tales from the Arabian Nights, transl. Lane, ed. Olcott, illus. Willy Pogány
 1915 The Jolly Book for Boys and Girls, eds. Olcott and Amena Pendleton, illus. Amy M. Sacker
 1917 Tales of the Persian Genii, illus. Willy Pogány
 1917 The Red Indian Fairy Book, illus. Frederick Richardson
 1918 The Book of Elves and Fairies, illus. Milo Winter
 1919 The Wonder Garden: Nature Myths and Tales from All the World Over, illus. Milo Winter
 1920 Story-telling Ballads, Selected and Arranged, illus. Milo Winter
 1922 Grimm's Fairy Tales, illus. Rie Cramer
 1922 Good Stories for Great Birthdays
 1922 Stories about George Washington: with a selection of famous poems
 1925 Wonder Tales from China Seas, illus. Dugald Stewart Walker
 1926 Wonder Tales from Windmill Lands, illus. Herman Rosse
 1927 Wonder Tales from Pirate Isles, illus. Herman Rosse
 1928 Wonder Tales from Baltic Wizards, illus. Victor G. Candell
 1929 Wonder Tales from Fairy Isles, illus. Constance Whittemore
 1930 Wonder Tales from Goblin Hills, illus. Harold Sichel,

 The 1918, 1919, and 1920 books illustrated by Milo Winter are anthologies published by Houghton Mifflin. Their title pages display longer titles, each of which continues and concludes "for Story-telling and Reading Aloud and for the Children's Own Reading".