Microraptor

Microraptor (Greek, μικρός, mīkros: "small"; Latin, raptor: "one who seizes") is a genus of small, four-winged paravian dinosaurs. Numerous well-preserved fossil specimens have been recovered from Liaoning, China. They date from the early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation (Aptian stage), 120 million years ago. Three species have been named (M. zhaoianus, M. gui, and M. hanqingi), though further study has suggested that all of them represent variation in a single species, which is properly called M. zhaoianus. Cryptovolans, initially described as another four-winged dinosaur, is usually considered to be a synonym of Microraptor.

Like Archaeopteryx, well-preserved fossils of Microraptor provide important evidence about the evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs. Microraptor had long pennaceous feathers that formed aerodynamic surfaces on the arms and tail but also on the legs. This led paleontologist Xu Xing in 2003 to describe the first specimen to preserve this feature as a "four-winged dinosaur" and to speculate that it may have glided using all four limbs for lift. Subsequent studies have suggested that Microraptor was capable of powered flight as well.

Microraptor was among the most abundant non-avialan dinosaurs in its ecosystem, and the genus is represented by more fossils than any other dromaeosaurid, with possibly over 300 fossil specimens represented across various museum collections.

Description

With adult specimens estimated up to ) and with a weight estimated up to , Microraptor was among the smallest-known non-avian dinosaurs. Holtz estimated it at . An estimate by Benson et al. in 2012 was that Microraptor had a maximum length of . Aside from their extremely small size, Microraptor were among the first non-avialan dinosaurs discovered with the impressions of feathers and wings. Seven specimens of M. zhaoianus have been described in detail, from which most feather impressions are known. Unusual even among early birds and feathered dinosaurs, Microraptor is one of the few known bird precursors to sport long flight feathers on the legs as well as the wings. Their bodies had a thick covering of feathers, with a diamond-shaped fan on the end of the tail (possibly for added stability during flight). Xu et al. (2003) compared the longer plumes on Microraptors head to those of the Philippine eagle. Bands of dark and light present on some specimens may indicate color patterns present in life, though at least some individuals almost certainly possessed an iridescent black coloration. Several anatomical features found in Microraptor, such as a combination of unserrated and partially serrated teeth with constricted 'waists', and unusually long upper arm bones, are shared with both primitive avians and primitive troodontids. Microraptor is particularly similar to the basal troodontid Sinovenator; in their 2002 description of two M. zhaoianus specimens, Hwang et al. note that this is not particularly surprising, given that both Microraptor and Sinovenator are very primitive members of two closely related groups, and both are close to the deinonychosaurian split between dromaeosaurids and troodontids.

Coloration

In March 2012, Quanguo Li et al. determined the plumage coloration of Microraptor based on the new specimen BMNHC PH881, which also showed several other features previously unknown in Microraptor. By analyzing the fossilized melanosomes (pigment cells) in the fossil with scanning electron microscope techniques, the researchers compared their arrangements to those of modern birds. In Microraptor, these cells were shaped in a manner consistent with black, glossy coloration in modern birds. These rod-shaped, narrow melanosomes were arranged in stacked layers, much like those of a modern starling, and indicated iridescence in the plumage of Microraptor. Though the researchers state that the true function of the iridescence is yet unknown, it has been suggested that the tiny dromaeosaur was using its glossy coat as a form of communication or sexual display, much as in modern iridescent birds.

Paleobiology

Wings and flight
Microraptor had four wings, one on each of its forelimbs and hindlimbs, somewhat resembling one possible arrangement of the quartet of flight surfaces on a tandem wing aircraft of today. It had long pennaceous feathers on arms and hands  with legs and feet . The long feathers on the legs of Microraptor were true flight feathers as seen in modern birds, with asymmetrical vanes on the arm, leg, and tail feathers. As in modern bird wings, Microraptor had both primary (anchored to the hand) and secondary (anchored to the arm) flight feathers. This standard wing pattern was mirrored on the hindlegs, with flight feathers anchored to the upper foot bones as well as the upper and lower leg. Though not apparent in most fossils under natural light, due to obstruction from decayed soft tissue, the feather bases extended close to or in contact with the bones, as in modern birds, providing strong anchor points.

It was originally thought that Microraptor was a glider, and probably lived mainly in trees, because the hindwings anchored to the feet of Microraptor would have hindered their ability to run on the ground. Some paleontologists have suggested that feathered dinosaurs used their wings to parachute from trees, possibly to attack or ambush prey on the ground, as a precursor to gliding or true flight. In their 2007 study, Chatterjee and Templin tested this hypothesis as well, and found that the combined wing surface of Microraptor was too narrow to successfully parachute to the ground without injury from any significant height. However, the authors did leave open the possibility that Microraptor could have parachuted short distances, as between closely spaced tree branches. Wind tunnel experiments have demonstrated that sustaining a high-lift coefficient at the expense of high drag was likely the most efficient strategy for Microraptor when gliding between low elevations. Microraptor did not require a sophisticated, 'modern' wing morphology to be an effective glider. However, the idea that Microraptor was an arboreal glider relies on it to have regularly climbed or even lived in trees, when study of its anatomy have shown that its limb proportions fall in line with modern ground birds rather than climbers, and its skeleton shows none of the expected adaptations in animals specialized for climbing trees.

Describing specimens originally referenced as a distinctive species (Cryptovolans pauli), paleontologist Stephen Czerkas argued Microraptor may have been a powered flier, and indeed possibly a better flyer than Archaeopteryx. He noted that the Microraptor's fused sternum, asymmetrical feathers, and features of the shoulder girdle indicated that it could fly under its own power, rather than merely gliding. Today, most scientists agree that Microraptor had the anatomical features expected of a flying animal, though it would have been a less advanced form of flight compared to birds. For example, some studies suggest the shoulder joint was too primitive to allow a full flapping flight stroke. In the ancestral anatomy of theropod dinosaurs, the shoulder socket faced downward and slightly backward, making it impossible for the animals to raise their arms vertically, a prerequisite for the flapping flight stroke in birds. Studies of maniraptoran anatomy have suggested that the shoulder socket did not shift into the bird-like position of a high, upward orientation close to the vertebral column until relatively advanced avialans like the enantiornithes appeared. However, other scientists have argued that the shoulder girdle in some paravian theropods, including Microraptor, is curved in such a way that the shoulder joint could only have been positioned high on the back, allowing for a nearly vertical upstroke of the wing. This possibly advanced shoulder anatomy, combined with the presence of a propatagium linking the wrist to the shoulder (which fills the space in front of the flexed wing and may support the wing against drag in modern birds) and an alula, much like a "thumb-like" form of leading edge slot, may indicate that Microraptor was capable of true, powered flight.

Other studies have demonstrated that the wings of Microraptor were large enough to generate the lift necessary for powered launching into flight even without a fully vertical flight stroke. A 2016 study of incipient flight ability in paravians demonstrated that Microraptor was capable of wing-assisted incline running, as well as wing-assisted leaping and even ground-based launching.

Stephen Czerkas, Gregory S. Paul, and others have argued that the fact Microraptor could fly and yet is also very clearly a dromaeosaurid suggests that the Dromaeosauridae, including later and larger species such as Deinonychus, were secondarily flightless. The work of Xu and colleagues also suggested that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids were probably small, arboreal, and capable of gliding, although later discoveries of more primitive dromaeosaurids with short forelimbs unsuitable for gliding have cast doubt on this view. Work done on the question of flight ability in other paravians, however, showed that most of them probably would not have been able to achieve enough lift for powered flight, given their limited flight strokes and relatively smaller wings. These studies concluded that Microraptor probably evolved flight and its associated features (fused sternum, alula, etc.) independently of the ancestors of birds.

Hindwing posture

Sankar Chatterjee suggested in 2005 that, in order for Microraptor to glide or fly, the forewings and hindwings must have been on different levels (as on a biplane) and not overlaid (as on a dragonfly), and that the latter posture would have been anatomically impossible. Using this biplane model, Chatterjee was able to calculate possible methods of gliding, and determined that Microraptor most likely employed a phugoid style of gliding: launching itself from a perch, the animal would have swooped downward in a deep U-shaped curve and then lifted again to land on another tree. The feathers not directly employed in the biplane wing structure, like those on the tibia and the tail, could have been used to control drag and alter the flight path, trajectory, etc. The orientation of the hindwings would also have helped the animal control its gliding flight. Chatterjee also used computer algorithms that test animal flight capacity to test whether or not Microraptor was capable of true, powered flight, as opposed to or in addition to passive gliding. The resulting data showed that Microraptor did have the requirements to sustain level powered flight, so it is theoretically possible that the animal flew, as opposed to gliding.

Some paleontologists have doubted the biplane hypothesis, and have proposed other configurations. A 2010 study by Alexander et al. described the construction of a lightweight three-dimensional physical model used to perform glide tests. Using several hindleg configurations for the model, they found that the biplane model, while not unreasonable, was structurally deficient and needed a heavy-headed weight distribution for stable gliding, which they deemed unlikely. The study indicated that a laterally abducted hindwing structure represented the most biologically and aerodynamically consistent configuration for Microraptor. A further analysis by Brougham and Brusatte, however, concluded that Alexander's model reconstruction was not consistent with all of the available data on Microraptor and argued that the study was insufficient for determining a likely flight pattern for Microraptor. Brougham and Brusatte criticized the anatomy of the model used by Alexander and his team, noting that the hip anatomy was not consistent with other dromaeosaurs. In most dromaeosaurids, features of the hip bone prevent the legs from splaying horizontally; instead, they are locked in a vertical position below the body. Alexander's team used a specimen of Microraptor which was crushed flat to make their model, which Brougham and Brusatte argued did not reflect its actual anatomy. Later in 2010, Alexander's team responded to these criticisms, noting that the related dromaeosaur Hesperonychus, which is known from complete hip bones preserved in three dimensions, also shows hip sockets directed partially upward, possibly allowing the legs to splay more than in other dromaeosaurs.

Ground movement

Due to the extent of the hindwings onto most of the animal's foot, many scientists have suggested that Microraptor would have been awkward during normal ground movement or running. The front wing feathers would also have hindered Microraptor when on the ground, due to the limited range of motion in the wrist and the extreme length of the wing feathers. A 2010 study by Corwin Sullivan and colleagues showed that, even with the wing folded as far as possible, the feathers would still have dragged along the ground if the arms were held in a neutral position, or extended forward as in a predatory strike. Only by keeping the wings elevated, or the upper arm extended fully backward, could Microraptor have avoided damaging the wing feathers. Therefore, it may have been anatomically impossible for Microraptor to have used its clawed forelimbs in capturing prey or manipulating objects.

Implications

The unique wing arrangement found in Microraptor raised the question of whether the evolution of flight in modern birds went through a four-winged stage, or whether four-winged gliders like Microraptor were an evolutionary side-branch that left no descendants. As early as 1915, naturalist William Beebe had argued that the evolution of bird flight may have gone through a four-winged (or tetrapteryx) stage. Chatterjee and Templin did not take a strong stance on this possibility, noting that both a conventional interpretation and a tetrapteryx stage are equally possible. However, based on the presence of unusually long leg feathers in various feathered dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and some modern birds such as raptors, as well as the discovery of further dinosaur with long primary feathers on their feet (such as Pedopenna), the authors argued that the current body of evidence, both from morphology and phylogeny, suggests that bird flight did shift at some point from shared limb dominance to front-limb dominance, and that all modern birds may have evolved from four-winged ancestors, or at least ancestors with unusually long leg feathers relative to the modern configuration.

Feeding

In 2010 researchers announced that further preparation of the type fossil of M. zhaoianus revealed preserved probable gut contents. These consisted of mammalian bones, including possible skull, limb, and vertebral fragments and also a whole foot. The foot skeleton is similar to those of Eomaia and Sinodelphys. It corresponds to an animal with an estimated snout to vent length of  and a mass of . The unguals of the foot are less curved than in Eomaia or Sinodelphys, indicating that the mammal could climb but less effectively than in the two latter genera.

In the December 6, 2011 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Jingmai O'Connor and coauthors described a Microraptor specimen containing bird bones in its abdomen, specifically a partial wing and feet. Their position indicate that the dinosaur swallowed a tree-perching bird whole.

In 2013 researchers announced that they had found fish scales in the abdominal cavity of a Microraptor specimen. This new finding corrects the previous position that Microraptor hunted only in an arboreal environment. They also argued that the specimen showed a probable adaptation to a fish-eating diet: the good preservation of the mandible shows that the first three teeth were inclined anterodorsally, a character often associated with piscivory. Microraptor was an opportunistic feeder, hunting the most common prey in both arboreal and aquatic habitats.

In 2019, a new genus of scleroglossan lizard (Indrasaurus) was described from a specimen found in the stomach of a Microraptor. The Microraptor apparently swallowed its prey head first, a behavior typical of modern carnivorous birds and lizards. The Indrasaurus bones lacked marked pitting and scarring, indicating that the Microraptor died shortly after eating the lizard and before significant digestion had occurred.

Unlike its fellow paravian Anchiornis, Microraptor has never been found with gastric pellets, despite the existence of four Microraptor specimens that preserve stomach contents. This suggests that Microraptor passed indigestible fur, feathers, and bits of bone in its droppings instead of producing pellets.

Based on the size of the scleral ring of the eye, it has been suggested Microraptor hunted at night. However, the discovery of iridescent plumage in Microraptor has cast doubt on this conclusion, as no modern birds that have iridescent plumage are known to be nocturnal.

History

Naming controversy

The initial naming of Microraptor was controversial, because of the unusual circumstances of its first description. The first specimen to be described was part of a chimeric specimen—a patchwork of different feathered dinosaur species (Microraptor itself, Yanornis and an as-of-yet undescribed third species) assembled from multiple specimens in China and smuggled to the USA for sale. After the forgery was revealed by Xu Xing of Beijing's Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Storrs L. Olson, curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution, published a description of the Microraptor's tail in an obscure journal, giving it the name Archaeoraptor liaoningensis in an attempt to remove the name from the paleornithological record by assigning it to the part least likely to be a bird. However, Xu had discovered the remainder of the specimen from which the tail had been taken and published a description of it later that year, giving it the name Microraptor zhaoianus.

Since the two names designate the same individual as the type specimen, Microraptor zhaoianus would have been a junior objective synonym of Archaeoraptor liaoningensis and the latter, if valid, would have had priority under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. However, there is some doubt whether Olson in fact succeeded in meeting all the formal requirements for establishing a new taxon. Namely, Olson designated the specimen as a lectotype, before an actual type species was formally erected. A similar situation arose with Tyrannosaurus rex and Manospondylus gigas, in which the former became a nomen protectum and the latter a nomen oblitum due to revisions in the ICZN rules that took place on December 31, 1999. In addition, Xu's name for the type specimen (Microraptor) was subsequently used more frequently than the original name; as such, this and the chimeric nature of the specimen would render the name "Archaeoraptor" a nomen vanum (as it was improperly described) and the junior synonym Microraptor a nomen protectum (as it's been used in more published works than "Archaeoraptor" and was properly described).

Additional specimens

The first specimen referred to Microraptor represented a small individual and included faint feather remnants, but was otherwise not well preserved and lacked a skull.
In 2002 Mark Norell et al. described another specimen, BPM 1 3-13, which they did not name or refer to an existing species. Later that year Stephen Czerkas et al. named the specimen Cryptovolans pauli, and referred two additional specimens (the first to show well-preserved feathers) to this species. The generic name was derived from Greek kryptos, "hidden", and Latin volans, "flying". The specific name, pauli, honors paleontologist Gregory S. Paul, who had long proposed that dromaeosaurids evolved from flying ancestors.

The type specimens of C. pauli were collected from the Jiufotang Formation, dating from the early Albian and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in Liaoning, China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the holotype; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the paratype LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged.

Czerkas et al. (2002) diagnosed the genus on the basis of having primary feathers (which in the authors' opinion made it a bird), a co-ossified sternum, a tail consisting of 28 to 30 vertebrae and a third finger with a short phalanx III-3. Some of the feathers Czerkas described as primary were actually attached to the leg, rather than the arm. This, along with most of the other diagnostic characters, is also present in the genus Microraptor, which was first described earlier than Cryptovolans. However, BPM 1 3-13 has a longer tail, proportionately, than other Microraptor specimens that had been described by 2002, which have 24 to 26 tail vertebrae.

Subsequent studies (and more specimens of Microraptor) have shown that the features used to distinguish Cryptovolans are not unique, but are present to varying degrees across various specimens. In a review by Phil Senter and colleagues in 2004, the scientists suggested that all these features represented individual variation across various age groups of a single Microraptor species, making the name Cryptovolans pauli and Microraptor gui junior synonyms of Microraptor zhaoianus. Many other researchers, including Alan Feduccia and Tom Holtz, have since supported its synonymy.

A new specimen of Microraptor, BMNHC PH881, showed several features previously unknown in the animal, including the probably glossy-black iridescent plumage coloration. The new specimen also featured a bifurcated tailfan, similar in shape to previously known Microraptor tailfans except sporting a pair of long, narrow feathers at the center of the fan. The new specimen also showed no sign of the nuchal crest, indicating that the crest inferred from the holotype specimen may be an artifact of taphonomic distortion.

Numerous further specimens likely belonging to Microraptor have been uncovered, all from the Shangheshou Bed of the Jiufotang Formation in Liaoning, China. In fact, Microraptor is the most abundant non-avialan dinosaur fossil type found in this formation. In 2010, it was reported that there were over 300 undescribed specimens attributable to Microraptor or its close relatives among the collections of several Chinese museums, though many had been altered or composited by private fossil collectors.

Study and debate

Norell et al. (2002) described BPM 1 3-13 as the first dinosaur known to have flight feathers on its legs as well as on its arms.

Czerkas (2002) mistakenly described the fossil as having no long feathers on its legs, but only on its hands and arms, as he illustrated on the cover of his book Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight. In his discussion of Cryptovolans in this book, Czerkas strongly denounces Norell's conclusions; "The misinterpretation of the primary wing feathers as being from the hind legs stems directly to [sic] seeing what one believes and wants to see". Czerkas also denounced Norell for failing to conclude that dromaeosaurs are birds, accusing him of succumbing to "...the blinding influences of preconceived ideas." The crown group definition of Aves, as a subset of Avialae, the explicit definition of the term "bird" that Norell employs, would definitely exclude BPM 1 3-13. However, he does not consider the specimen to belong to Avialae either.

Czerkas's interpretation of the hindleg feathers noted by Norell proved to be incorrect the following year, when additional specimens of Microraptor were published by Xu and colleagues, showing a distinctive "hindwing" completely separate from the forelimb wing. The first of these specimens was discovered in 2001, and between 2001 and 2003 four more specimens were bought from private collectors by Xu's museum, the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology. Xu also considered these specimens, most of which had hindwings and proportional differences from the original Microraptor specimen, to be a new species, which he named Microraptor gui. However, Senter also questioned this classification, noting that as with Cryptovolans, most of the differences appeared to correspond with size, and likely age differences. Two further specimens, classified as M. zhaoianus in 2002 (M. gui had not yet been named), have also been described by Hwang and colleagues.

Czerkas also believed that the animal may have been able to fly better than Archaeopteryx, the animal usually referred to as the earliest known bird. He cited the fused sternum and asymmetrical feathers, and argued that Microraptor has modern bird features that make it more derived than Archaeopteryx. Czerkas cited the fact that this possibly volant animal is also very clearly a dromaeosaurid to suggest that the Dromaeosauridae might actually be a basal bird group, and that later, larger, species such as Deinonychus were secondarily flightless (Czerkas, 2002). The current consensus is that there is not enough evidence to conclude whether dromaeosaurs descended from an ancestor with some aerodynamic abilities. The work of Xu et al. (2003) suggested that basal dromaeosaurs were probably small, arboreal, and could glide. The work of Turner et al. (2007) suggested that the ancestral dromaeosaur could not glide or fly, but that there was good evidence that it was small-bodied (around 65 cm long and 600–700 g in mass).

Classification

The cladogram below follows a 2012 analysis by paleontologists Phil Senter, James I. Kirkland, Donald D. DeBlieux, Scott Madsen and Natalie Toth.


Joan Caulfield

Beatrice Joan Caulfield (June 1, 1922 – June 18, 1991) was an American actress and model. After being discovered by Broadway producers, she began a stage career in 1943 that eventually led to signing as an actress with Paramount Pictures. In the opinion of Ephraim Katz in The Film Encyclopedia, published in 1979, "For several years she was among Paramount's top stars, radiating delicate femininity and demure beauty but rarely much else."

Early life
Beatrice Joan Caulfield was born on June 1, 1922 in West Orange, New Jersey. She attended Miss Beard's School in Orange, New Jersey. Caulfield was the niece of Genevieve Caulfield, who received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963 for her work with blind children. During her teenage years, the family moved to New York City, where she eventually attended Columbia University. While at Columbia, Caulfield was active in many plays presented by the university's drama group. She also ventured into being a model with the Harry Conover Agency and "became a favorite with top-drawer fashion magazines," with her pictures appearing in many national magazines, including being on the cover of Life magazine's May 11, 1942, issue.

Career

Stage
Caulfield appeared on Broadway in Beat the Band in 1942. Directed by George Abbott it ran for 67 performances.

She had a great success portraying the troublesome teenager Corliss Archer in the 1943 hit comedy play Kiss and Tell, also under the direction of Abbott. It was a huge success, running for 956 performances until 1945. After a year in the role, Caulfield left the production to pursue offers from Hollywood and she was replaced by her sister Betty Caulfield. (Shirley Temple would play Caulfield's role in the 1945 film version of Kiss and Tell.) Paramount offered her a contract which gave her six months off a year to do a play.

Film
In July 1944 Paramount put Caulfield in a lead role in her first film: Miss Susie Slagle's (1946), a drama about medical students with Sonny Tufts and Veronica Lake.

The film was not released for a number of months due to a backlog of films. Made after but released earlier was Duffy's Tavern (1945), in which Caulfield had a cameo along with most of Paramount's talent roster.

Caulfield was Bob Hope's leading lady in Monsieur Beaucaire (1946), a popular comedy.

She was with Bing Crosby and Paul Draper in Blue Skies (1946). When original director Mark Sandrich died, Caulfield was pulled out of the film but Crosby insisted she stay. Eventually Draper was replaced with Fred Astaire. The result was a huge box office success. Caulfield waived her right to take time off to do stage work.

Caulfield was teamed with William Holden in Dear Ruth (1947), based on the hit play by Norman Krasna.

She was reunited with Crosby in Welcome Stranger (1947), another huge hit, and had a cameo in another all-star Paramount film, Variety Girl (1947).

One of Caulfield's most memorable film roles was when she was loaned out to Warner Bros. to appear in The Unsuspected (1947) with Claude Rains and Audrey Totter. Caulfield, taking over a role intended for Virginia Mayo, was billed over Rains.

Back at Paramount, Caulfield did The Sainted Sisters (1948) with Lake playing roles intended for Betty Hutton and Diana Lynn.

Universal borrowed her for a film noir, Larceny (1948).

Paramount offered Caulfield $100,000 for 40 weeks work but she walked out on it to do Voice of the Turtle and Coquette on stage on the east coast. She said she did this because "I want to become a really great actress one day," and felt she needed the experience from stage. "Actresses in the movies spend most of their acting time with the hairdresser and the costumer." She returned to Paramount to do a sequel to Dear Ruth, Dear Wife (1948).

Caulfield went to Columbia to make a musical with Robert Cummings, The Petty Girl (1950) which she said she did to change from the "sweet young thing" parts she did at Paramount. She said she intended on staying in Hollywood.

She did a film for her husband's company, The Lady Says No (1951), releasing through United Artists.

Television
In the early 50s Caulfield began guest starring on television shows such as Robert Montgomery Presents, Lux Video Theatre, The Ford Television Theatre, Schlitz Playhouse and Hollywood Opening Night. She said she preferred working in television.

In 1953, she signed a contract with CBS. In the 1953 and 1954 seasons, she had co-starred with Barry Nelson (the original James Bond, albeit on television) in the television version of My Favorite Husband, which was based upon the Lucille Ball radio series that had evolved into I Love Lucy.

She had a good support role in The Rains of Ranchipur (1955). In August 1955 she left her CBS contract to pursue feature work.

She was in  Celebrity Playhouse, Schlitz Playhouse again, Screen Directors Playhouse,  and The Ford Television Theatre again.

Being the subject of an episode of This Is Your Life in 1957 brought Caulfield to the attention of television executives. In the words of a newspaper writer, "She photographed so beautifully that the show was hardly over before she was being approached for television appearances."

During the 1957–1958 season, Caulfield starred in Sally, a short-lived situation comedy, in the role of a traveling companion to an elderly widow, played by Marion Lorne. At midseason, Gale Gordon and Arte Johnson joined the cast.

When the series ended, Caulfield continued to guest star on shows like Pursuit, General Electric Theater, Hong Kong, Cheyenne, Burke's Law, and My Three Sons. She did stage shows like I Am a Camera and had the occasional role in a feature, such as Cattle King (1963), Red Tomahawk (1967) and Buckskin (1967).

In 1967, she starred in the TV series The High Chaparral as Annalee Cannon in the pilot episode. She was murdered in the episode and that was the premise for the whole plot.

Later years
In the 1960s and 1970s, Caulfield was active in touring companies of plays, summer stock theater and dinner theater across the country. She guest starred in a 1966 episode of My Three Sons as Florence, a visiting former girlfriend who Steve could not remember ever knowing. She could be seen in the pilot for The Magician (1973), The Daring Dobermans (1973), The Hatfields and the McCoys (1975), The Space-Watch Murders (1975), Pony Express Rider (1976), and episodes of Baretta and Murder, She Wrote.

Recognition
Caulfield has a star at 1500 Vine Street in the Television section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was dedicated February 8, 1960.

Cultural legacy
An urban legend states that Caulfield's film Dear Ruth (1947) inspired author J.D. Salinger to name the protagonist of his novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951) "Holden Caulfield" after seeing a movie theater marquee with the film's stars: Caulfield and William Holden. However, Holden Caulfield was mentioned in Salinger's short story "Last Day of the Last Furlough" in the July 15, 1944 issue of the Saturday Evening Post, three years before Dear Ruth. The earliest known use of the Caulfield name, including a mention of Holden, is in the unpublished 1942 story "The Last and Best of the Peter Pans." A more common version of the legend claims that Salinger was taken by Joan Caulfield upon first seeing her in a modeling photo or a publicity still or an acting performance. Since Joan was a leading model by 1941 and her acting career began in 1942 with an appearance in the short-lived Broadway musical Beat the Band, this version of the legend makes his using her surname for his character at least possible.

Personal life
In 1950, Caulfield married film producer Frank Ross, with whom she had a son, Caulfield Kevin Ross (born 1959). Ross produced and directed her 1951 film The Lady Says No, with David Niven taking second billing as her romantic interest. Caulfield was in a car accident in 1959. She separated from Ross, blaming the stress of working on Sally, then she found out she was pregnant. Ross and Caulfield were divorced in 1960.

In 1960, Caulfield married dentist Robert Peterson, with whom she had her second son, John Caulfield Peterson (born 1962). Her second marriage ended in divorce as well, in 1966.

Caulfield was a Republican who campaigned for Dwight Eisenhower during the 1952 presidential election..

Death
Caulfield died from cancer, aged 69, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, and had lived in Beverly Hills, California. A.C. Lyles spoke the eulogy.

At the time of her death, she had one grandchild. She died within 24 hours of actress Jean Arthur, the first wife of her husband Frank Ross. Arthur had been married to Ross in 1932, and they divorced in 1949.

Partial filmography

 Duffy's Tavern (1945) as Joan Caufield
 Miss Susie Slagle's (1946) as Margaretta Howe
 Monsieur Beaucaire (1946) as Mimi
 Blue Skies (1946) as Mary O'Hara
 Dear Ruth (1947) as Ruth Wilkins
 Welcome Stranger (1947) as Trudy Mason
 The Unsuspected (1947) as Matilda Frazier
 Variety Girl (1947) as Herself
 The Sainted Sisters (1948) as Jane Stanton
 Larceny (1948) as Deborah Owens Clark
 Dear Wife (1949) - Ruth Seacroft
 The Petty Girl (1950) as Prof. Victoria Braymore
 The Lady Says No (1951) as Dorinda Hatch
 The Rains of Ranchipur (1955) as Fern Simon
 Cattle King (1963) as Sharleen Travers
 Red Tomahawk (1967) as Dakota Lil McCoy
 Buckskin (1968) as Nora Johnson
 The Daring Dobermans (1973) as Claudia
 Pony Express Rider (1976) as Charlotte

Radio appearances


The 1991 Castilian-Manchegan regional election was held on Sunday, 26 May 1991, to elect the 3rd Cortes of the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha. All 47 seats in the Cortes were up for election. The election was held simultaneously with regional elections in twelve other autonomous communities and local elections all throughout Spain.

For the third consecutive time, the election was won by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, which under José Bono obtained a new absolute majority, with 27 out of 47 seats and over 52% of the share. The People's Party (PP), a party formed in 1989 from the merger of the People's Alliance (AP), the People's Democratic Party and the Liberal Party (PL), obtained 19 seats and 35.9% of the vote. United Left (IU) entered the Courts for the first time with 1 seat.

The three parties' gains came at the cost of the Democratic and Social Centre (CDS), which lost 2/3 of its votes and its 4 seats, being expelled from the Courts as a result.

Overview

Electoral system
The Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha were the devolved, unicameral legislature of the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha, having legislative power in regional matters as defined by the Spanish Constitution and the Castilian-Manchegan Statute of Autonomy, as well as the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a President of the Junta of Communities. Voting for the Cortes was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over eighteen, registered in Castilla–La Mancha and in full enjoyment of their political rights.

The 47 members of the Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list proportional representation, with a threshold of 3 percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied in each constituency. Parties not reaching the threshold were not taken into consideration for seat distribution. Additionally, the use of the D'Hondt method might result in an effective threshold over three percent, depending on the district magnitude. Seats were allocated to constituencies, corresponding to the provinces of Albacete, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara and Toledo. Each constituency was entitled to an initial minimum of five seats, with the remaining 22 allocated among the constituencies in proportion to their populations.

The electoral law provided that parties, federations, coalitions and groupings of electors were allowed to present lists of candidates. However, groupings of electors were required to secure the signature of at least 1 percent of the electors registered in the constituency for which they sought election. Electors were barred from signing for more than one list of candidates. Concurrently, parties and federations intending to enter in coalition to take part jointly at an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within ten days of the election being called.

Election date
The term of the Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha expired four years after the date of their previous election. Legal amendments earlier in 1991 established that elections to the Cortes were to be fixed for the fourth Sunday of May every four years. The previous election was held on 10 June 1987, setting the election date for the Cortes on Sunday, 26 May 1991.

The Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha could not be dissolved before the date of expiry of parliament. In the event of an investiture process failing to elect a regional President within a two-month period from the first ballot, the candidate from the party with the highest number of seats was to be deemed automatically elected.

Opinion polls
The table below lists voting intention estimates in reverse chronological order, showing the most recent first and using the dates when the survey fieldwork was done, as opposed to the date of publication. Where the fieldwork dates are unknown, the date of publication is given instead. The highest percentage figure in each polling survey is displayed with its background shaded in the leading party's colour. If a tie ensues, this is applied to the figures with the highest percentages. The "Lead" column on the right shows the percentage-point difference between the parties with the highest percentages in a given poll. When available, seat projections are also displayed below the voting estimates in a smaller font. 24 seats were required for an absolute majority in the Cortes of Castilla–La Mancha.

Results

Overall

Distribution by constituency

Aftermath

Notes


Arijana Marić Gigliani

Arijana Marić Gigliani (; born 27 February 1979) is a Croatian-Bosnian opera singer (dramatic soprano). Her voice is known for its power and extension, usable in many operatic roles.

Early life

Arijana Marić Gigliani was born 27 February 1979 in Sarajevo, SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SFR Yugoslavia. She received her primary musical education in Sarajevo. Her first operatic appearance in front of an audience was during the 1987-1988 season of the Sarajevo National Theatre, where she played Hugh Crome in the children's opera The Little Sweep, by Benjamin Britten. In the 1990-1991 season, Gigliani performed in the children's choir in a Serbo-Croatian version of Carmen.

Gigliani attended a musical high school in Sarajevo, where she played violin and graduated in 1997. During the Bosnian War, she played violin as an associate player with the Sarajevo Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1998, she moved to Zagreb, Croatia to study operatic solo singing under Croatian opera soprano Lidija Horvat Dunjko. In 2005, she graduated from the Music Academy of Zagreb with a master's degree in music. Since then, she has continued to train professionally with Bulgarian operatic tenor Stojan Stojanov Gančev.

Professional career
Gigliani made her professional debut in May 2005 at the Sarajevo National Theatre, in the role of Jelena in Nikola Šubić Zrinski, by Ivan Zajc. Her subsequent work has included a dozen solo performances in Croatia and abroad, such as in Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic. She also performed solo concerts with the Sarajevo Philharmonic Orchestra and Dubrovnik Symphonic Orchestra.

Her roles have included Lady Macbeth in Giuseppe Verdi's Macbeth, Berta in The Barber of Seville, by Gioachino Rossini, and Abigaille in Verdi's Nabucco.

Teaching career
Gigliani has also taught singers in secondary education and college. From 2008 to 2011, she won a dozen domestic and international awards with her students.

Awards
International Opera Competition 2008 in Belgrade, Serbia: 1st class award
International Opera Competition 2010 in Herceg Novi, Montenegro: 1st class award


2008–09 Wessex Football League

The 2008–09 Wessex Football League was the 23rd season of the Wessex Football League. The league champions for the first time in their history were Poole Town, who were denied promotion to the Southern League due to ground grading problems. VT were promoted as runners-up. There was the usual programme of promotion and relegation between the two Wessex League divisions.

For sponsorship reasons, the league was known as the Sydenhams Wessex League.

League tables

Premier Division
The Premier Division consisted of 22 clubs, reduced from 23 the previous season, after A.F.C. Totton were promoted to the Southern League, and Downton and Ringwood Town were relegated to Division One. Two new clubs joined:
Laverstock & Ford, runners-up in Division One.
Newport (IOW), relegated from the Southern League.

Division One
Division One consisted of 21 clubs, the same as the previous season, after Laverstock & Ford were promoted to the Premier Division, and Liss Athletic left the league. Two clubs were relegated from the Premier Division:
Downton
Ringwood Town

* Totton & Eling had one point deducted.


Grey-rumped treeswift

The grey-rumped treeswift (Hemiprocne longipennis) is a species of bird in the Hemiprocnidae family. There are currently four extant species in the family. Like the other members of Hemiprocnidae, this species is closely related to true swifts as well. However, unlike true swifts, the treeswifts are arboreal in nature, often seen perched on trees, high tension power transmission lines and on pylons. When perched, the wing tips cross over the tail. This species is commonly found in peninsular Malaysia but has an extremely large range with limited information about the population trend,.

Description
Adult male with a distinct dark grey throat and chest contrasting with a white belly. Ear coverts are dull orange red/chestnut colored. Adult female lacks the dull orange red/chestnut coloration on the ear coverts. When perched the wing tips cross over across the tail. Both sexes have a greenish sheen to the upper parts.

Distribution
It is found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests

Ecology and Behaviour
The birds occasionally catch insects in flight by sallying from perches. They build nests on tree branches. The half-saucer shaped nest is made from hardened saliva interspersed with feathers, mosses and/ or flakes of tree bark. The single egg is reportedly attached to nest surface with saliva. Owing to the fragile nature of the nest, it is attached only on one side to the branch. Thus, the bird does not sit directly on the nest for incubation. Similarly, it is also reported that the parent birds brooded by perching on the branch above the nest and fluffing their breast feathers out to cover it.

Both sexes help incubate the egg. During the shifting of parental care, the partner perches near the incubating adult and carefully slides over the nest.


Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho)

Black Coal (c.1840-1893) was a prominent leader of the Northern Arapaho people during the latter half of the 19th Century. Serving as an intermediary between the Northern Arapaho and the United States, he helped lead the transition from free-roaming life and armed resistance to American expansion, to alliance and eventual settlement alongside the Eastern Shoshone at today's Wind River Indian Reservation.

Rise to Leadership
Black Coal's name Niawasis refers to a story of him rolling in black ashes after a victory in a fight. (The name is not a reference coal, the fossil fuel.) He rose to prominence due to his war deeds in the 1860s in the Powder River Country, in which the Arapaho allied with war parties of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Black Coal fought in engagements like the July 1865 Battle of Platte Bridge in which Caspar Collins was killed, and the attack on Fort Phil Kearney in December 1866.

In 1865 at the Battle of the Tongue River soldiers attacked Northern Arapaho leader Black Bear's camp of 500 people and killed 35 warriors. Following this, the Arapaho grew increasingly unable to raise large war parties of their own. By the late 1860s, alliance and negotiation, rather than armed resistance, became the path for the Arapaho. Starting in 1868, Arapahos regularly enlisted as scouts in the U.S. Army. Black Coal would come came to serve a major intermediary role in carrying out the conciliatory strategy, keeping Arapahos out of conflict with the United States and the Shoshones as much as he was able.<ref>Loretta Fowler, Arapaho Politics: 1851-1878, University of Nebraska Press 1986.</ref> While he was initially lower status than chiefs like Black Bear and Medicine Man, their deaths in 1870 and 1871 left Black Coal to be regarded as the leader of the Antelopes nischéhiinenno, the largest band of Northern Arapahoes.

Arapaho Leadership
According to historian Loretta Fowler, leaders in the Northern Arapaho during the 1860s and 1870s did not rule by fiat or make decisions on an individual level. Instead, leaders were chosen by consensus of the tribe and with the blessing of the Water Pouring Old Men, ceremonial leaders who held the highest authority within the tribe. In this position, intermediary chiefs were expected to serve as go-betweens that could faithfully and powerfully argue for Arapaho interests and communicate Arapaho consensus to outsiders like U.S. Army generals, agency officials, and diplomats of the United States. This strategy helped to maintain Arapaho sovereignty and leadership structures, and also insulated ceremonial leaders from interactions with the United States. Fowler argues that this structure has persisted today in modified form, even as elected tribal council members act as the official political leadership of the Northern Arapaho, they are influenced by leadership of ceremonial elders.

The United States preferred to select "head chiefs" that could speak for all members of the tribe in negotiations. In this case, from 1871 Black Coal was considered the head Northern Arapaho chief by government officials, when in fact he had only the authority to speak the consensus of the tribe. Chief Sharp Nose was considered the second-ranking chief by government officials until Black Coal's death in 1893. In fact, Black Coal and Sharp Nose typically spoke the same consensus for their different bands.

Intermediary Chief
Black Coal, along with Sharp Nose and Sorrel Horse, were Northern Arapaho signatories on the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), granting them rights to hunt north of the Platte River so long as game persisted. For the next few years, Black Coal alternately stayed near Red Cloud Agency, Fort Fetterman, and other posts to receive rations, and led his band on hunting expeditions.

Black Coal refused to join Lakotas and Cheyennes in attacking the Shoshone in the Wind River Basin in 1874. The U.S. Army was poised to strike the Shoshone's enemies, and through two Shoshone scouts located and attacked Black Coal's camp of up to 112 lodges and 600-700 people on Bates Creek, a tributary of Nowood Creek in the Bridger Mountains (Wyoming). The fight at Bates Battlefield resulted in the death of 18-34 Arapahoes. Seventeen lay dead in a pile in a deep ravine that cut through the center of the camp. Chief Black Coal had his horse shot out from under him, and two fingers of his right hand were shot off. This wound is in evidence in the 1877 photo of the Arapaho delegation to Washington D.C. After initially suffering heavy losses, the Arapaho climbed a bluff to the east of the creek and laid down heavy fire from behind the cover of limestone boulders, forcing the soldiers and Shoshones to withdraw. Captain Bates wrote that the battle would have been more successful had the Shoshones not commenced yelling their war whoops before the attack and spoiling the element of surprise. In this way, some of the Arapaho survivors may have survived because of the early warning they got from Shoshone war traditions. After this fight, some of the Arapahoes went south and stayed for several years, some going as far as Oklahoma. Black Coal moved to Pumpkin Butte and then located at Red Cloud Agency.Loretta Fowler, Arapaho Politics: 1851-1878, University of Nebraska Press 1986. pp. 49-52.

When the U.S. Army went into the field in 1876 to attack the Cheyenne at the beginning of the Great Sioux War, Black Coal's band was headed south to Fort Fetterman on March 1, signaling their peaceful intent. Black Coal enlisted as a U.S. Army scout during this period, to secure higher status within the tribe, rations, Army pay, and hopefully the favor of U.S. Army officials that could bolster their case for securing a permanent reservation for the Northern Arapaho. Sharp Nose, leader of another band of Northern Arapaho, was chief of the Arapaho Scouts and served with Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie at the November 25, 1876 Dull Knife Fight on the Red Fork of Powder River that broke the resistance of the Northern Cheyenne.

Seeking a permanent home for the Arapaho, Black Coal traveled to visit the Southern Arapaho Reservation on the Canadian River in Oklahoma in 1876, but found the location unsuitable. In 1877, Black Coal, along with Sharp Nose and interpreter Friday, went to Washington D.C. as part of a delegation that met President Rutherford B. Hayes. The goal of the delegation was to secure a permanent home for the Arapaho that would not be along the Missouri River or in Oklahoma Territory, a land Black Coal described as "sickly." Black Coal's speeches from this event show his mastery of persuasive speaking, arguing that the Arapaho would readily participate in farming and other "civilizing" programs in exchange for "good land" where they could farm. Within months, the United States was seeking permission of the Shoshones to locate the Arapahoes on the Sweetwater River, south of the Shoshone agency.

The Northern Arapaho were later resettled on the Shoshone reservation, to be closer to the agency where they could receive rations. For the rest of his life, Black Coal worked to solidify this informal arrangement and codify Arapaho rights to live on Wind River.

Settling on the Reservation at Wind River
Black Coal was leader of the Antelope Band of Northern Arapahoes, numbering about 700 people. They located principally near the forks of the Wind River and the Popo Agie River, leading other members of the tribe to refer to them as the "Forks of the River People" or nóonó'owú'unénno''. Today this community is known as "Arapahoe" and is located near the St. Stephens Mission and the city of Riverton, Wyoming. Black Coal converted to Catholicism and lent his support to missionary efforts.

Sharp Nose's band located near today's village of Ethete, while Friday's band located on Trout Creek.

Death
Black Coal died at age 53 on July 10, 1893. He was buried on the bluffs west of St. Stephen's Mission. A monument placed at the grave carries the inscription, "Erected by the Northern Arapahoes in honor of a brave and honest man."

Return of Black Coal's Headdress
In December 2019, retired professor Temple Smith or Marblehead, Massachusetts contacted the Black Coal Senior Center and the Northern Arapaho Tribal Historic Preservation Office to inquire about returning Black Coal's headdress to the Northern Arapaho. Smith's great-grandfather was a dentist in Buffalo, Wyoming who had traveled to the Wind River country in the 1870s or 1880s, where he had done dental work on Black Coal's teeth. The chief gave an eagle feather headdress to the dentist as a token of thanks. The Smith family held onto the headdress for more than a century, storing it in their attic, until a delegation of from the Northern Arapaho arrived to repatriate the headdress in January 2020. After driving the headdress back to Wyoming, the item was treated at the University of Wyoming Archaeological Repository with a freezing process to kill any insects or microbes.

A cedaring ceremony was held at the Native American Center on the University of Wyoming Campus on January 27, 2020, in which Northern Arapaho Council Member Sam Dresser prayed over the headdress and it was cedared in the four directions, in preparation for the final return of the headdress to the Wind River Indian Reservation.


Timeline of Lübeck

The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.

Prior to 13th century

 1138 – Town sacked.
 1143 – New town founded by Adolf II of Holstein near site of old town.
 1158 – Town ceded by Adolf II of Holstein to Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony.
 1160 – Seat of Catholic diocese of Lübeck relocated to Lübeck from Oldenburg in Holstein.
 1173 – Lübeck Cathedral construction begins.
 1177 – Benedictine  founded.
 1188 – Town charter issued by Henry the Lion.

13th–15th centuries

 1201 – Danes in power.
 1210 – Lübeck Cathedral construction completed (approximate date).
 1226 – Lübeck becomes an Imperial Free City.
 1250 –  (church) built.
 1310 – Marienkirche (church) built (approximate date).
 1312 –  founded.
 1356 – St. Catherine's Church built (approximate date).
 1368 – Hanseatic League adopts Lübeck's city seal.
 1379 – Circle Company founded.
 1408 – Uprising.
 1420 - Paper mill established.
 1442 –  built.
 1444 – Burgtor (city gate) built.
 1450 – Merchants Company founded (approximate date).
 1462 –  becomes mayor.
 1463 – Bernt Notke creates Dance of Death artwork for the Marienkirche.
 1475 - Printing press in operation.
 1477
 Crucifix created by Bernt Notke erected in Lübeck Cathedral.
 Holstentor (city gate) built.
 1491 – Artist Hans Memling creates triptych for the Lübeck Cathedral.

16th–18th centuries
 1515 – St. Anne's Priory built.
 1530 – Protestant reformation.
 1531 – Katharineum (school) opens.
 1533 – Jürgen Wullenwever becomes mayor.
 1535 – Shipowners' Guild house built.
 1586 – Outer Holstentor (city gate) built.
 1630 – Last Hanseatic Diet meets at Lübeck.
 1668 – Dieterich Buxtehude becomes organist at the Marienkirche.
 1697 – Buthman's Bierstube (tavern) in business.
 1793 – Gesellschaft zur Beförderung gemeinnütziger Tätigkeit (charitable society) established.

19th century
 1801 – Town "temporarily occupied" by Danes.
 1802 – Town walls dismantled.
 1806 – 5 November: Town occupied by French forces.
 1810 – 12 November: Town becomes part of the French Empire.
 1813 – French occupation ends.
 1825 – Navigation School founded.
 1832 – Lübecker General-Anzeiger newspaper begins publication.
 1835 –  (newspaper) in publication.
 1851 – Population: town 26,093; territory 54,166.
 1857 - Population: town 30,717; territory 49,324.
 1866 – Lübeck becomes part of the North German Confederation.
 1867 – Wilhelm-Theater opens.
 1868
 Lübeck joins the German Customs Union.
 Schiffergesellschaft (restaurant) in operation.
 1874 –  (church) restored.
 1875 – Population: 44,799.
 1890 – Population: town 63,590; territory 76,485.
 1891 – Sacred Heart Church consecrated.
 1893 –  built.
 1900 – Elbe-Trave canal opens.

20th century
 1904 – City Theatre opens.
 1905 – Population: town 91,541; state 105,857.
 1915 – St. Anne's Museum opens.
 1917 – Lübeck Airport constructed.
 1919
 Ballsportverein Vorwärts Lübeck (sport club) formed.
 Population: town 113,071.
 1921 – Sportvereinigung Polizei Lübeck (sport club) formed.
 1924 – Stadion an der Lohmühle (stadium) opens.
 1942 – Bombing of Lübeck in World War II.
 1945 – VfB Lübeck (sport club) formed.
 1946 - Lübecker Nachrichten and Lübecker Freie Presse newspapers begin publication.
 1948 – Lübecker Kantorei (choir) founded.
 1973 – Lübeck Academy of Music founded.
 1982
 Lübeck Museum of Theatre Puppets established.
 Lübeck Cathedral reconstructed.
 1987 – City centre becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 2000 –  becomes mayor.

21st century

 2001 – International School of New Media established.
 2005 – Herren Tunnel opens.
 2012 – Population: 211,713.


Tous les mêmes

"Tous les mêmes" () is a song by Belgian singer Stromae, released in 2013. The song has peaked at number one on music charts in both Belgium and France.

Music video
The music video, directed by Henry Scholfield, was released on YouTube on 18 December 2013 and features Stromae partly dressed as a woman. The track shows the life of female Stromae, annoyed as she is with the attitude of men and what they do. Throughout the video, Stromae depicts various stereotypical remarks women make about men, accompanied by the non-verbal cues the other characters in the video make. The lighting effects in the video (green light for male Stromae, pink light for female Stromae) aid the interpretation of the song. The video has received over 255 million views as of January 2020.

Chart positions

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications


Zaidal

Zaidal (, also spelled Zaydal) is a town in the Homs Governorate of central Syria, just east of Homs, forming a part of its suburbs. Nearby localities include Fairouzeh to the south and the Homs neighborhoods of Karm al-Zaitun, al-Sabil and al-Zahra to the west. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Zaidal had a population of 5,710 in 2004. The town has a large Christian community.

Notable people
 Rosemary Barkett (1939-): American judge and former nun, whose parents were from Zeidal.
 Ramón Exeni (1938-): Argentine recognized physician, whose father was from Zeidal.


Coconut Dracula

"Coconut Dracula" is a single by American rock band Islander. The song was released as the first single from the band's debut album, Violence & Destruction.

Music video
The video for the song begins with a group of kids wearing masks entering an abandoned building. As two of the kids cause further damage to the building, one of them breaks away and finds smoke flares. Two of the kids exit the building before walking around the streets of a city. One of the kids breaks off onto his own, wandering the streets. The exploits of the children are inter-cut with footage of the band performing the song and driving at night.

Track listing
 "Coconut Dracula" – 4:07

Chart positions

Personnel
 Mikey Carvajal – vocals
 Chris Doot – bass
 Eric Frazier – drums
 Andrew Murphy – guitar


Afocal system

In optics an afocal system (a system without focus) is an optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length. This type of system can be created with a pair of optical elements where the distance between the elements is equal to the sum of each element's focal length (d = f1+f2). A simple example of an afocal optical system is an optical telescope imaging a star, the light entering the system is at infinity and the image it forms is at infinity (the light is collimated). Although the system does not alter the divergence of a collimated beam, it does alter the width of the beam, increasing magnification. The magnification of such a telescope is given by

Afocal systems are used in laser optics, for instance as beam expanders, Infrared and forward looking infrared systems, camera zoom lenses and telescopic lens attachments such as teleside converters, and photography setups combining cameras and telescopes (Afocal photography).


Mistake (album)

Mistake is the third studio album by American indie rock band D+, released in 2002.

Track listing
 "Mistake" – 4:40
 "The Business" – 3:44
 "God Beyond God" – 5:53
 "Are You Done" – 0:53
 "Megadose" – 2:37
 "What's Not To Fall In Love With" – 4:42
 "You're So Right" – 3:27
 "Take You For Granted" – 3:53

Personnel
Bret Lunsford
Karl Blau – bass, vocals
Phil Elvrum
D+ – Recording
Liz Guy/Sprout – viola
Dave Matthies – additional recording


Robert Pringle House

The Robert Pringle House is a historic house in Charleston, South Carolina.

It can be definitely dated because its builder, Judge Robert Pringle, had his initials and 1774 inscribed in a stone used in the construction. The -story house is three bays wide and six bays deep. Unlike most Charleston single houses, 70 Tradd Street has two rooms on each of its first two floors that are not of the same size. Rather, the front room is three bays deep and is separated by a stair hall from a two-bay room to the rear. In August 1789, a deed was prepared which included a description of the house as being two floors--either a mistake or perhaps an indication that the third floor was a later enlargement. The piazzas and street front door reflect early 19th-century style. Despite those alterations to the house, the interior woodwork is still a high-style Georgian style. Indeed, the house has been described as one of the "better Georgian Colonial buildings still standing in Charleston."

Following the death of Robert Pringle in 1776, the house was inherited by his son, John Julius Pringle. The younger Pringle was appointed to serve as the United States attorney for South Carolina by George Washington after the Revolutionary War in 1789. From 1792 to 1808, he served as the Attorney General for South Carolina.  He declined President Thomas Jefferson's invitation to serve as the United States Attorney General in 1805.

The house remained in the Pringle family until 1886. The current owner's family has owned the house since 1909. A series of the dependencies behind the house were restored and received a Carolopolis Award for excellence in restoration from the Charleston Preservation Society in 2010.


Demographic history of Romania

This article presents the demographic history of Romania through census results. See Demographics of Romania for a more detailed overview of the country's present-day demographics.

The 1930 census was the only one to cover Greater Romania. Censuses in 1948, 1956, 1966, 1977, 1992, 2002 and 2011 covered Romania's present-day territory. All but the 1948 census, which asked about mother tongue, had a question on ethnicity. Moldavia and Wallachia each held a census in 1859. The Romanian Old Kingdom conducted statistical estimates in 1884, 1889 and 1894, and held censuses in 1899 and 1912. Ion Antonescu's regime also held two: a general one in April 1941, and one for those with "Jewish blood" in May 1942.

1860 census

1887 estimate

*Mainly in Dobruja (details)

December 1899 census

19 December 1912 census

29 December 1930 census

6 April 1941 census

25 January 1948 census

21 February 1956 census

15 March 1966 census

5 January 1977 census

7 January 1992 census

18 March 2002 census

20 October 2011 census

Ethnic figures for 2011 are given as a percentage of individuals for whom data is available, while the "data unavailable" cohort is given as a percentage of the total population.

Notes

External links

 2011 Romanian Census site from the National Institute of Statistics

Romania


Tomiaki Iso

is a Japanese rower. He competed in the men's eight event at the 1976 Summer Olympics.


L. Jean Lewis

Laura Jean Lewis (born c. 1954) is a former senior investigator for the Resolution Trust Corporation. She is credited with initiating the Whitewater investigation against President Bill Clinton.

Lewis is a native of Houston, Texas; her father was a major general in the U.S. Army. She has a degree in political science from Sam Houston State College.

Lewis joined the Resolution Trust Corporation office in Kansas City, Missouri as a senior criminal investigator in 1991. Among other assignments she was investigating the failure of Madison Guaranty Savings and Loan, a Little Rock savings and loan company owned by James McDougal, who had been the Clintons' partner in Whitewater, a failed land development project in the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas. When the connection between the Clintons and McDougal became a news story, she refocused on the Madison Guaranty case. On September 2, 1992, just prior to the 1992 presidential election, she submitted a criminal referral to the FBI naming Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton as witnesses in the Madison Guaranty case. U.S. Attorney Charles A. Banks and the FBI determined that the referral lacked merit, but she continued to pursue it. Between 1992 and 1994 she issued several additional referrals against the Clintons and repeatedly called the U.S. Attorney's Office in Little Rock and the Justice Department about the case.

Lewis later appeared before the Senate Whitewater Committee. Before the hearings it was claimed that her testimony could prove to be "more troublesome for Bill Clinton than Paula Jones"; however, her testimony did not provide any sensational or new information, and she eventually fainted under cross examination and had to be helped from the hearing room.

She was later suspected of illegally recording a conversation with a senior government attorney during the investigation.  She was herself investigated for various wrongdoings, including misuse and mishandling of classified material, secretly recording conversations with her colleagues, and use of government equipment for personal gain.  She later admitted to using her office to market T-shirts and mugs lettered "B.I.T.C.H." (Bubba/Bill, I'm Taking Charge, Hillary).

Lewis was appointed in 2003 as chief of staff of the Pentagon Inspector General's Office in the United States government. On February 26, 2004 she again attracted attention when her office was supposed to look into Halliburton contracts.


Kafr Dan

Kafr Dan () is a Palestinian village in the Jenin Governorate, located 8 km northwest of Jenin in the northern West Bank. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) census, the town had a population of  5,148 in 2007.

Location
Kafr Dan is located north-west of Jenin;  just east of Al-Yamun and north of Burqin.

History
Pottery remains from the Roman, Byzantine, early Muslims and the Middle Ages have been found here.

Ottoman era
Kafr Dan, like the rest of Palestine, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, and in the census of 1596, the village appeared as "Kafradan”, located  in the nahiya of Sara in the liwa of Lajjun. It had a population of 9 households, all Muslim.  They paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, olive trees, goats and beehives, in addition to  occasional revenues; a total of  6,000 akçe. Pottery remains from the Ottoman era have also been found here.

In 1838 Edward Robinson, calling it Kefr Adan, noted it  among many other villages on the plain; Lajjun, Umm al-Fahm, Ti'inik, Silat al-Harithiya, Al-Yamun and el Barid,   located in the District of Jenin, also called Haritheh esh-Shemaliyeh.

In 1870 Victor Guérin found at Kafr Dan “a broken column and a certain number of cut stones of ancient appearance.”
Guérin estimated that the village had 300 inhabitants.

In 1882 Kafr Dan was described as a "village of moderate size on the slope of the hills, built of stone, with olives below, and a well on the west,” in the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine. They called the village “Kefr Adan”.

British Mandate  era
In the 1922 census of Palestine, conducted  by the British Mandate authorities, Kufr Dan had a population of 486; all Muslims, increasing in  the 1931 census to  603,  still all Muslim, in a total of  135  houses.

In  the 1945 statistics,   the population was 850, all Muslims, with 7,328 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey.  5 dunams were used for citrus and bananas, 2,680  for plantations and irrigable land, 3,799 for cereals, while 34 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

Jordanian era
In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and after the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Kafr Dan  came under Jordanian rule.

The Jordanian census of 1961 found 1,262 inhabitants.

Post 1967
After the Six-Day War in 1967, Kafr Dan has been under Israeli occupation.
In 2007, Marayieh Mohammed, a fighter with the Al Quds Brigades, died in the village at the hands of plain-clothed Israeli soldiers.

In 2009, Kafr Dan Village Council was upgraded into a municipality. The mayor, Bilal Mer'i, joined with Prime Minister Rami Hamdullah for the ceremony.


Boxing at the 2010 South American Games – Men's 48kg

The Men's 48 kg event at the 2010 South American Games had its quarterfinals held on March 22, the semifinals on March 24 and the final on March 27.

Medalists

Results


Watai

Watai (written: 渡井) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include:

, Japanese footballer
, Japanese chess player


Dear Santa (1998 film)

Dear Santa or Secret Santa is a 1998 American Christmas film directed by Fred Olen Ray and starring D.L. Green, Harrison Myers, and Debra Rich.

Cast
 D.L. Green -  Gordon / Gordon's Father
 Harrison Myers -   Teddy
 Debra Rich -   Carla
 Robert Quarry -   Mr. Ambrose (as Robert Connell)
 Richard Gabai -  Kirk
 Tena Fanning -   Lillith
 Ariana McClain - Margo
 Bennett Curland - Santa Claus
 Kim Ray -  The Elf
 Rick Montana - Louie
 Michael Lee Jones - Donny
 Edrie Warner -  Mrs. Sanders


Savannah Mall

Savannah Mall is an enclosed regional shopping mall on the southside of Savannah, Georgia. The mall opened on August 29, 1990 and has four anchor stores: Bass Pro Shops, Burlington Coat Factory, Dillard's, and Target. A 10 unit food court on the upper level of the mall features restaurants such as Subway and Sbarro. Since 2013 the food court has housed an animal-themed carousel. The center court features a variety of different functions, from fashion and flower shows, to art exhibits and Santa Claus at Christmas time.

History
When opened in 1990, Savannah Mall was expected to succeed Savannah's older Oglethorpe Mall. Savannah Mall was considered upscale and featured stores exclusive to the market like Blockbuster Music, Abercrombie & Fitch, Ann Taylor, Banana Republic, United Colors of Benetton, and The Disney Store. Belk and J.B. White opened with the mall. Parisian and Montgomery Ward opened in 1991. Montgomery Ward's building was slated for Jordan Marsh, but plans for this were canceled when the chain folded. Montgomery Ward pulled out of the mall in 1998 when the company began struggling. Also that year Dillard's acquired J.B. White and retired the JB White name. Parisian and Belk both left the mall in early 2003. At this point, many stores were leaving the mall and by 2005, there were more than 20 vacancies, with some stores relocating to Oglethorpe Mall, and others exiting the Savannah market altogether.

In August 2003, Bass Pro Shops opened in the space vacated by Parisian. Target opened its first Savannah area store in the mall in October 2004. Target demolished the Belk building to construct a new, two-level  building. Target occupies the second level, and Burlington Coat Factory re-entered the Savannah market with a location on the first floor in 2006. Steve & Barry's opened in 2004 in the former Montgomery Ward. A.C. Moore opened as a junior anchor  in 2007.

In 2008, the mall's owners undertook multimillion-dollar renovations with improvements focused on energy conservation, lighting and additional ADA access. The mall also received a new logo and modern features like Wi-Fi internet access.

Today
Although the mall still retains national anchors, most of the in-line stores are local. Steve & Barry's closed in late 2008 when the entire chain folded, leaving that building vacant once again.

In May 2011, Virginia College  opened a career center inside the vacant Steve & Barry's/Montgomery Ward, while the rest became Famous Labels which later closed. The Famous Labels space later became Pole Position Raceway in December 2014, although this store closed after only three months. A  Toby Keith's I Love This Bar & Grill was also slated to open, but legal disputes over delays in the restaurant's opening resulted in it being evicted in April 2015 before completion.

Savannah Mall was previously owned by Savannah Teachers' Association (1990–1998), Jones Lang LaSalle (1998–2007), and SSF Savannah Properties, LLC (Jan 2007 – May 2007).


Costria

Costria is a genus of moths in the family Cossidae. Species are found in South America (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana).

Species
 Costria abnoba (Schaus, 1901)
 Costria elegans Schaus, 1901
 Costria okendeni (Druce, 1906)

 Names brought to synonymy
 Costria arpi (Schaus, 1901), a synonym for Cossula arpi
 Costria corita (Schaus, 1901), a synonym for Simplicivalva corita
 Costria discopuncta (Schaus, 1901), a synonym for Spinulata discopuncta
 Costria maruga (Schaus, 1901), a synonym for Spinulata maruga
 Costria striolata (Schaus, 1901), a synonym for Simplicivalva striolata


Khora Ramji Chawda

Khora Ramji Chawda (1860–1923), better known as Seth Khora Ramji, was a reputed railway contractor, coal mines owner, banker and philanthropist of the early 20th century in India, who worked from Dhanbad and Jharia.

Life-sketch
He was born in a small village called Sinugra in Cutch and belonged to small but enterprising Mestri community. He was one the reputed Railway Contractors of his times and his exploits were mentioned by British authorities. He is also credited by them to be the first Indian to break monopoly of Europeans in Jharia coalfields. He established his first Colliery name Khas Jharia Colliery in 1895 and moved on to establish five more by 1910. He was also a financing partner in many coalfields of Jharia coal belt and additionally worked as a Private Banker. With his half-brother, Jethabhai Lira Jethwa (1862-1932) he owned Khas Jinagora Colliery, which operated under name & style of J. & K. Ramji.

As per British records – a few lines are quoted –

Some of the works done by Khora Ramji Chawda of Sinugra are : 1880 : Hubli Loco Shed & other Works, 100 Miles work in North Western Railway, 20 Miles Work in Southern Maratta Railway, 177 miles in 1882–84 Hotgi to Gadag with his brothers in SMR, 22 Miles Railway in East Bengal Railway, 1888 – 128 miles in Bilaspur to Jharsuguda with fellow Mistris section including Bridge over Champa River in BNR, in 1894 Jharia Branch line of EIR, 1895 : Railway line in East Coast Railway & Bridge over Ganjam. His last Railway work was in 1903 : Bridge over Ganges river in Allahbad – Lucknow section. While working for this bridge, he was harassed by Engineer I.L. Gail, so he decided to stop Railway Contracts. He also became a Private Banker. .

Khora Ramji and Brothers established collieries at Khas Jharia, Jeenagora, Jamadoba, Balihari, Fatehpur, Gareria, Bansjora & Bagadih.  In Pure Jharia Colliery Khora Ramji and brothers were partners with Diwan Bahadur D.D. Thacker. Khora Ramji was also partner in Khimji Walji & Company's Indian Jharia Colliery located at Tisra.

The credit of being first Indian to break the monopoly of British in Jharia Coalfields goes to Seth Khora Ramji Chawda of Sinugra. In the life sketch of Khora Ramji given in Encyclopedia of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa – the British have noted this fact in year 1920 – "In Jharia Coalfield he was first Indian to seize the opportunity and by his prompt entry into colliery business, he was able to remove the stigma that would otherwise be levelled against his community as backward class." Further, details are given in the book Diary of Golden Days at Jharia – A Memoir & History of Gurjar Kashtriya Samaj of Kutch in Coalfields of Jharia – written by Natwarlal Devram Jethwa -Quote:  He similarly purchased about eight coal-fields from years 1895–1909. Further, he also encouraged fellow Mistri contractors to purchase the land and even financed them to do so. He later approached Raja of Jharia for lease of mining rights and laid foundation of his colliery business. The location of his three collieries named Jeenagora, Khas Jherria, Gareria is mentioned also in 1917 Gazetteers of Bengal, Assam, Bihar & Orissa.:- Unquote As per details given in Diary of Golden Days at Jharia – A Memoir & History of Gurjar Kashtriya Samaj of Kutch in Coalfields of Jharia – written by Natwarlal Devram Jethwa – Quote: "Seth Khora Ramji headed the first association as mentioned by British authorities in Encyclopaedia Bengal, Bihar & Orissa (1920).

Khora Ramji died in year 1923. Several after his death two of his collieries, Khas Jharia & Golden Jharia, which worked on maximum 260-foot-deep shafts, collapsed due to now infamous underground fires, in which their house & bungalow also collapsed on 8 November 1930, causing 18 feet subsidence and widespread destruction. The coal mines at that time were run by his sons Karamshi Khora, Ambalal Khora and others. Ambalal Khora also carried on father's legacy as a railway contractor, who died in a railway accident. The Khas Jeenagora mine was later on run solely by sons of Jetha Lira Jethwa, Karsanjee Jethabhai and later Devram Jethabhai Jethwa till 1938–39 after which the mine was sold and family established themselves as importers of coal mining machinery in Calcutta.

However, business of some other coal mines of Seth Khora Ramji were carried on by his brothers and successors, which were finally taken over by government when the coal mines in India were nationalised in 1971–72.

As a philanthropist, in his native village Sinugra, he had built and donated in year 1910 a Hindu temple, wells, welcome-gate, Chabutro and a primary school, which is now named Seth Khora Ramji Prathmik Shala. He also donated major fund along with some other Mistri colliery owners to start a Gujarati school named the Jharia Anglo-Gujarati School at Jharia in 1905. He also owned farm-lands, the produce of which was given away to poor and needy. In the year 1920, when he held a large public charity event and a yagna at Sinugra, he was honoured by Maharao of Cutch, Khengarji III, who sent him a Paghdi. Further, at Mathura he along with Jetha Lira Jethwa of Sinugra had built and donated a Dharamashala now named Kutch Kadia Dharamshala in the years 1889–1900, when they were stationed there for railway contract job.


Freeskiing

Freeskiing, or new school skiing is a specific type of alpine skiing, which involves tricks, jumps, and terrain park features, such as rails, boxes, jibs, or other obstacles. This form of skiing resulted from the growth of snowboarding combined with the progression of freestyle skiing. "Newschoolers", or those who specifically ski in this style, as opposed to traditional freestylers, freeriders, big mountain skiers, and racers, are often found in terrain parks, which are designed specifically for tricks.

Controversially, freestyle skiing is viewed as its own sport, but some view it as a subset of freeskiing. Some participants view it as a separate sport and do not refer to it as freestyle. The sport does not require participants to compete, but there are competitive events available at every level of the sport. Currently there are two Olympic freeskiing events, half-pipe skiing and slopestyle. These events make up two of the four Olympic freestyle skiing events.

The sport has seen continual growth since its inception in the late 1990s.  There is currently a growing number of professional freeskiers, most of whom compete, specializing in a certain freeskiing discipline, while a few do not compete, but rather produce and star in videos.

History

In the 1990s freestyle skiers, discouraged by restrictive rules placed on the sport by the International Ski Federation (FIS), began trying their tricks in what were at the time snowboard-only terrain parks. Early newschool skiers were very aware of the developing style and attitude of snowboarding, and adopted these for their own sport. The Newschool Skier is related more to the snowboarder in his/her style than to the traditional skier's style.

The FIS freestyle skiing events were governed by restrictive rules that were unpopular in the growing ski community, and slowed down the progression of the sport. Such rules included a ban on inverted tricks in mogul runs, a limit on the number of flips in aerial competitions, and a lack of ski park or pipe competitions. The "Newschool" movement was a breakaway fraction of the freeskiers who were unhappy with the FIS.

The breakaway faction was led by the New Canadian Air Force, which included the "Godfather of freeskiing", Mike Douglas, and others such as Vincent Dorion, JP Auclair and Shane Szocs. Also contributing significantly in these early days were Julien Regnier and "the Three Phils", namely, Phil Larose, Phil Belanger and Phil Dion, all of whom were teammates at Dynastar. After helping Salomon develop their first twin-tip ski, the "1080", the New Canadian Air Force began jumping and filming in traditionally snowboarder dominated terrain parks.

In recent years, many ski resorts have introduced terrain parks where skiers and snowboarders can attempt tricks. These parks include many features like rails, boxes, jumps, hips, quarterpipes, and halfpipes. It is now quite common for 'Newschool' skiers to use urban features in towns and cities to perform tricks also done in the snowpark. A popular choice of equipment for this terrain is the twin-tip ski. Twin-tip skis come in all shapes and sizes, and were originally made specifically for newschool skiing. The varieties of twin-tip skis are now more versatile, being marketed towards skiers of all styles and abilities. Twin-tip skis are turned up at both ends to allow for both regular (forwards) and switch (backwards) skiing.

Underpinning the revolution was a myriad of Movies, Websites and Magazines that showcased this new style of riding.  Contests alone could not give an avenue for self-expression like intended, and a very healthy media distribution channel formed.   Through these channels, athletes gained the ability to express themselves not only within the confines of contests, but also through imagery, videos and news articles.

In 2007, the formation of the Association of Freeskiing Professionals (AFP), created a unified global tour of competitions and ranking system for freeskiing athletes. Created as a unified voice for the athletes, the AFP organized freeskiing competitions in slopestyle, ski half pipe and big air disciplines under consistent guidelines of AFP sanctioned judging and format standards. This calendar of AFP sanctioned competitions and the AFP rankings serve as a roadmap for emerging talent in the sport, event organizers, coaches, nations, and the general public in regard to the sport of Freeskiing. Since 2008 the AFP has named World Champions in each discipline for men and women. The Overall World Championship is awarded each year to the best combined ranking in all disciplines (excluding big air for women). In 2012 the AFP changed the name of the Overall World Championship trophy to the Sarah Burke Trophy in honor of the fallen women's skiing pioneer Sarah Burke who died in a 2012 skiing accident in Utah.

On April 6, 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the addition of the men's and women's ski halfpipe and slopestyle events to the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Olympic status for ski halfpipe is expected to have a direct impact on the training, funding, and resources available to athletes. In January 2011, the United States Ski and Snowboard Association launched U.S. Freeskiing in partnership with The North Face, which would presumably supply Olympic uniforms.

Newschool terrain

Backcountry

Any skiing outside the prepared or marked trails is referred to as backcountry or off-piste skiing. This form of skiing is probably the most mortally dangerous (depending on where and how it is done) because of the high speeds, large drops (sometimes with hidden rocks in the landing), and avalanches. This type of skiing has been banned in certain areas of the world because of chances of injury or death. Many see this form of skiing to be the most freeing, because it creates a relationship of just the skier and mountain. Backcountry skiers consist of both newschool skiers who perform tricks off various terrain features, and oldschoolers as well.

Park

Park is skiing on man-made features provided by the ski area such as jumps, rails, boxes, and halfpipes. According to Freeskier's 2010 Travel Guide the top resorts in North America for park are Breckenridge, Mammoth, Aspen/Snowmass, Park City, Poley Mountain, Whistler Blackcomb, Alivia, and Mount Snow.

Street or urban skiing

Street or urban skiing consists of sliding or grinding skis on rails, walls, ledges, or other features found in urban areas. Some professional freestyle or newschool skiers, such as Clayton Vila and Will Wesson, specialize in skiing on urban features, while being filmed, producing segments for skiing film companies such as Level 1 productions, Stept Productions, or 4bi9 media.
In 2016, the X Games created a video competition called “X Games Real Ski” where a group of professional skiers selected by the X Games have the opportunity to film and submit an urban segment. Winners are selected by a panel of judges, and the public is also given an opportunity to vote for the fan favorite.

Industry

"Core" Ski Manufacturers

There are many relatively small companies that have supported and greatly added to the progression of Newschool Skiing. These companies make skis specific for Newschool Skiing. Line is believed to be the first newschool skiing company.

Equipment

Freeskiing requires at least three pieces of gear. Skis, Ski boots and ski bindings. In addition to this, many skiers choose to use poles, goggles, ski clothing and safety gear such as helmets and avalanche gear. Almost everything used by freeskiers is designed specifically for use in freeskiing rather than ordinary skiing.

Types of skis

There are three kinds of newschool skis: powder, all-mountain and park (twin tip).

Powder

Powder skis, also called big-mountain or backcountry skis, have a wide waist width, making them ideal for places with heavy powder. The extra surface area helps skiers to float above premium powder. However, they can be difficult to use on slopes with less snow or groomed trails, especially for beginning to moderate skiers. Experienced skiers sometimes buy powder skis as an alternate pair, to be used when conditions warrant it. True backcountry skis have a waist width of 90 to 110 millimeters, while powder skis are the widest type, measuring from 110 to 140 millimeters.

All-mountain

Most Alpine skis fall into this category. All-mountain skis are designed to perform in all types of snow conditions and at most speeds. Narrower all-mountain skis are better for groomed runs, while wider styles handle better in powder and poor conditions. Other names for this style of ski include mid-fat skis, all-purpose skis, and the one-ski quiver.

Park

Park skis are often designed with a more symmetrical shape to make switch (backwards) skiing much easier and reinforced edges to withstand rails. Eric Pollard designed the first two symmetrical skis, the Anthem and the Invader. Pollard now has his own pro model skis from Line skis called the EP Pro (Mr. Pollard's Opus - 2012), the Elizabeth and the Sir Francis Bacon. Some new powder and all-mountain skis are created with 'reverse camber' (aka 'rocker') meaning that the tips and tails are bent up slightly to make powder landings easier.

Terminology

Rail Tricks

 Spin on
 When a skier spins around before landing on a rail, generally done in increments of 180 degrees starting at 270 (e.g. 270,450 630). When performed, spin on tricks are called in the following fashion: spin amount (can be full name or abbreviated) + on. For example, 450-on, and 4-on are both proper ways to call a trick.

 Spin out
 When a skier spins at the end of a rail, generally done increments of 180 degrees starting at 270 (e.g. 270, 450, 630). When performed, spin out tricks are called in the following fashion: spin amount (can be full name or abbreviated) + out. For example, 450-out, and 4-out are both proper ways to call a trick.

 Switch-up
 While sliding a rail the skier jumps and turns 180 degrees so they end up sliding the rail in the opposite direction. Also called 'swap'. Swaps can be done 'frontside' or 'backside/blindside'. As well, skiers can switch-up more than 180 degrees; for example, a '360-switch-up'/'3-swap' involves the skier jumping on a rail feature, spinning 360 degrees, and landing again on the rail.

 K-Fed
 A front switch-up blind 270 out. Higher increments of spin are called "Super-Fed", "Super-Duper-Fed", "Future-Fed" and "Super-Future Fed" for spins of 450, 630, 810, and 990 out, respectively. The term "K-Fed" was invented by the members of 4bi9 media, more specifically Tyler Barnes.

 Blind swap two out
 A blind switch-up front 270 out. This trick is sometimes referred to as a Britney.
 Disaster
 Gap over one kink on a kinked rail.

 50/50
 Both skis on the rail feature, parallel to the feature.

 Ski Slide
 One ski is on the rail feature, while the other is off

 Hippy Killer, Bindsoul, Jack Knife, Dick Squeeze, etc...
 All are "rail wizardry" tricks popularized by Andy Parry. The Hippy Killer, the most well-known of these, involves bringing your trailing ski up and over the side of a box, using your ski to latch on the underside of the box, and then using this to perform a switch up.

Jump Tricks

 Spin
 The most basic of jump tricks; a skier spins upright while airborne in increments of 180 degrees. Often abbreviated as just the first number for spins below 1000 degrees and the first two numbers for spins above 1000 degrees (e.g. two full spins, or 720 degrees of rotation is abbreviated to '7' while a 1080 is abbreviated to '10').

 Backflip
 A backwards flip.

 Rodeo
 An off-axis flip thrown backwards with a spin (most commonly 540 - 'Rodeo 5').

 Misty
 An off-axis flip thrown forwards with a spin (most commonly 540 - 'Misty 5').

 Side flip Loop
 A flip thrown directly towards the shoulder. It is essentially a cartwheel in the air.

 Lincoln Loop
 A tilted backflip done more like a backflip in direction but as side flip with the body

 Flat Spin
 An off-axis flip that is thrown over the shoulder. It is in-between a backflip and a lincoln loop.

 Cork
 Backwards thrown off-axis spin, at no point should the feet be over the head.

 D-Spin
 Backwards thrown off-axis spin, similar to a cork except the feet will be more at-level with head, or even slightly above.

 Bio
 Forwards thrown off-axis spin, at no point should the feet be over the head.

Slang
 Steeze
 Used to say something such as a skiers style, or a particular trick, was visually appealing or 'steezy'. 'Steeze' is a portmanteau of 'style' and 'ease'. Example: 'Man, that flip you did was steezy'; or, 'you have killer steeze'.

 Spin-to-Win
 A common complaint in the ski community when a competition is won by performing more difficult tricks - or those with greater amounts of rotation, with less emphasis on style or perfection.

 Sandbag
 The act of participating in an event where one's skill far exceeds that of the intended group. A professional competing in an amateur competition would be said to be 'sandbagging' the competition.

 Solid Seven
 A derogatory term used to say something was visually appealing.

Gaper
 Derogatory term for an inexperienced skier. A stereotypical "gaper gap" is one between the skier's goggles and helmet or hat. See also punter, jerry.

 Punter
 Derogatory term for an inexperienced skier, especially a day tripper.

 Jerry
 Derogatory term for an inexperienced skier with little knowledge of ski etiquette or culture, or a skier who has expensive equipment or a look modelled after a pro, yet little skill.

 Cool Story Hansel
 A largely antiquated term used by newschoolers to inform another skier that they don't really care what they have to say.

 Stomped
 An effortless looking and balanced landing.

 Train
 Two or more skiers hitting a single jump at or near the same time so that at least two people are airborne at the same time.

 Hucked
 Someone doing a trick on a smaller jump than is usual for the trick ("He hucked a 1080 on that tiny jump") OR someone attempting a trick with a large amount of uncertainty success ('She had never tried a rodeo before; but, she just hucked it').

 Future Spin
 A spin trick where the skier spins so much that the number of degrees spun exceeds the numerical value of the current year. To successfully land a future spin at this day and age, a skier would have to spin 2020 degrees or more (closest rotation would be 2160 degrees, that is, six full revolutions).

 Afterbang
 Landing an outrageous trick and acting as if it took little effort; 'leaned back and relaxed'.

Notable skiers


Tromba (skipper)

Tromba is a genus of skippers in the family Hesperiidae.


Le Noyer, Cher

Le Noyer is a commune in the Cher department in the Centre-Val de Loire region of France.

Geography
An area of forestry and farming comprising the village and a couple of hamlets situated in the valley of the Sauldre river, some  northeast of Bourges, at the junction of the D55, D85, D94 and the D74 roads.

Population

Sights
 A seventeenth-century farm and mill.
 The church of Notre-Dame, dating from the twelfth century.
 The chateau of Boucard, rebuilt in the sixteenth century over the feudal castle.