KWGN-TV

KWGN-TV, virtual channel 2 (UHF digital channel 34), is a CW-affiliated television station licensed to Denver, Colorado, United States. The station is owned by Nexstar Media Group, as part of a duopoly with Fox affiliate KDVR, channel 31 (and its Fort Collins-licensed satellite KFCT, channel 22). The two stations share studios on East Speer Boulevard in Denver's Speer neighborhood (to the immediate south of the studios of ABC affiliate KMGH-TV, channel 7); KWGN-TV's transmitter is located atop Lookout Mountain, near Golden. The station's signal is relayed on three low-power translators: K14JZ-D in Peetz, K49EX-D in Anton and K31IQ-D in Sterling. There is no separate website for KWGN-TV; instead, it is integrated with that of sister station KDVR.

On cable, KWGN-TV is available on Comcast Xfinity in standard definition on channel 2, and in high definition on digital channel 656. It is also carried on CenturyLink Prism channels 2 and 1002. KWGN is also available to subscribers of satellite provider Dish Network throughout the United States as part of its superstations package (for grandfathered subscribers that purchased the a la carte tier before Dish halted sales of the package to new subscribers in September 2013), and is carried on cable television providers in parts of the western United States. The station is authorized for cable and satellite distribution as a U.S. superstation by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC); however, KWGN is not currently available on any pay television providers in that country.

History

Early years
The station first signed on the air as KFEL-TV on July 18, 1952. It was owned by Colorado broadcasting pioneer Gene O'Fallon along with KFEL radio (AM 950, now KKSE), and was the first television station to sign on in the state of Colorado. It was also first station on the VHF band to sign on the air following the Federal Communications Commission's decision to lift its freeze on television station licenses that year. The station originally operated as a primary affiliate of the DuMont Television Network, sharing the affiliation with KBTV (channel 9, now NBC affiliate KUSA), but also cherry-picked programs from NBC, ABC and CBS. The station's original studio facilities were located in a remodeled brick warehouse at 550 Lincoln Street.

Gotham Broadcasting, owned by J. Elroy McCaw (who also owned radio station WINS in New York City), purchased the station from O'Fallon in 1955. John M. Shaheen, the founder of aviation services company Tele-Trip Inc., which later became a subsidiary of Mutual of Omaha, subsequently acquired a 50% ownership interest in the station. Channel 2's call letters were changed that same year to KTVR; the station lost the DuMont affiliation when the network shut down on August 6, 1956, after which it became an independent station. During the late 1950s, the station was briefly affiliated with the NTA Film Network. In 1959, McCaw became the sole owner of channel 2, buying out Shaheen's share in the station.  In 1963, McCaw changed the call letters to KCTO (for "Channel TwO").

Under Tribune ownership
In September 1965, the station was acquired by Tribune Broadcasting – then known as WGN Continental Broadcasting. After the sale was finalized in March 1966, the new owners changed the call letters to KWGN-TV after its new sister station and the company's flagship, WGN-TV in Chicago (the WGN calls refer to the longtime slogan of the company's former flagship newspaper, the Chicago Tribune, "World's Greatest Newspaper"; the newspaper division was split into a separate company in August 2014). At the time of its purchase, KWGN became Tribune's fourth television station property—after WGN-TV, WPIX in New York City, and KDAL-TV (now KDLH) in Duluth, Minnesota, the latter of which was owned by Tribune from 1960 to 1978.

When WGN Continental Broadcasting bought channel 2, it gave the station a significant technical overhaul, allowing it to broadcast programming in color. KWGN promoted itself as Colorado's only all-color station, because all of its local programs were produced in the format. Denver's three major network affiliates—KOA-TV (channel 4, now KCNC-TV), KLZ-TV (channel 7, now KMGH-TV) and KBTV—were broadcasting national network programs in color, but had yet to equip their studios with color cameras for local programming production. As an independent station, KWGN aired a mix of off-network sitcoms and dramas, cartoons, movies, syndicated game shows and locally produced programs such as Blinky's Fun Club, Denver Now, Afternoon at the Movies with Tom Shannon and public affairs program Your Right to Say It.

Beginning in the 1960s, the station started building a massive network of translators across the state. Around this time, KWGN became a regional superstation (long before that term was coined and popularized by Atlanta station WTBS). At its height, it was available on nearly every cable system in Colorado and Wyoming, as well as portions of Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, South Dakota, Utah and Washington. KWGN was attractive to cable systems because its programming had no duplication with programs seen on the local network affiliates within their given markets. Additionally, it was the only independent station that was available in much of the region until the 1980s. It remained the only independent station in Denver—and indeed, in all of Colorado—until eventual sister station KDVR (channel 31) signed on in August 1983. To this day, KWGN remains available on most cable systems in Colorado and Wyoming, as well as on several systems in western Nebraska and Kansas.

The station moved its operations from the Lincoln Street facility to a new building in suburban Greenwood Village in 1983. As one of the strongest independent stations in the country, KWGN was approached by Fox to affiliate with the upstart network upon its October 1986 debut. However, channel 2 turned the offer down. Station and company officials were skeptical of Fox's business model, and were confident enough in KWGN's schedule that they felt they didn't need a network affiliation. However, most Fox affiliates were essentially programmed as independents until the network began airing a full week's worth of programming in 1993, so KWGN would not have had to give up many of its syndicated shows. Additionally, by this time, most of the smaller markets in its vast cable footprint had enough stations to provide Fox affiliates at the outset, making the prospect of KWGN as a multi-state Fox affiliate unattractive to Tribune. The affiliation instead went to KDVR.

WB affiliation
On November 2, 1993, the Warner Bros. Television division of Time Warner and the Tribune Company announced the creation of The WB Television Network; KWGN and the majority of Tribune's other independent stations (except for Atlanta's WGNX, which joined CBS one month prior to The WB's launch) were tapped to serve as the nuclei for the new network. KWGN became a charter affiliate of The WB when it launched on January 11, 1995; however, its existing lineup was largely unaffected at first, since The WB initially ran programming only on Wednesday evenings, gradually adding additional nights of programming between September 1995 and September 1999; by that time, the network offered primetime programming on Sunday through Friday evenings, along with children's programming on weekdays and Saturday mornings.

In October 1995, Fox Television Stations proposed a divestiture of KDVR (which it had acquired from Renaissance Broadcasting three months earlier in exchange for its former owned-and-operated station in Dallas, KDAF (now a sister station to KWGN), which had lost Fox programming to that market's longtime CBS affiliate, KDFW, in a groupwide affiliation deal with Fox and then-KDFW owner, New World Communications) to Qwest Broadcasting, a company backed by Quincy Jones and Tribune Broadcasting; in the sale proposal, Fox would have moved its programming to KWGN, while the WB affiliation would have moved to KDVR after the sale to Qwest was finalized. However, this deal never came to fruition.

In 1996, the station altered its longstanding "Denver's 2" branding to "Denver's WB2," to reflect its network affiliation; the "WB2" branding continued to be used in some form for the remainder of KWGN's tenure with the network. During its existence as a WB affiliate, KWGN also served as the network's default affiliate for most of Colorado, including the Colorado Springs–Pueblo and Grand Junction markets—a status that was reflected under the "WB2 Colorado" moniker that was used during the final years of The WB's run.

CW affiliation

On January 24, 2006, Time Warner and CBS Corporation announced that the two companies would shut down The WB and UPN and combine the respective programming from the two networks to create a new "fifth" network called The CW. With the announcement, Tribune Broadcasting signed ten-year agreements for KWGN and 16 of the company's 18 other WB-affiliated stations (three of which it would sell to other groups shortly before The CW launched) to become charter affiliates of The CW. In preparation for the affiliation switch, the station retitled its newscasts from WB 2 News to News 2 on August 14, 2006. The affiliation switch took place on September 18, 2006, the day after The WB ended operations, upon which it changed its general branding to "CW 2" (former UPN affiliate KTVD (channel 20) would end up affiliating with MyNetworkTV, whose launch was announced by News Corporation nearly one month after the CW launch announcement on February 22).

On July 7, 2008, KWGN removed references to its CW affiliation from its branding in both station promotions and its on-air logo, as part of a decision by Tribune Broadcasting to de-emphasize the network brand from its CW-affiliated stations as a result of the network's relatively weak ratings, choosing to reposition them as more "local" stations; KWGN began referring to itself simply as "2," featuring the CW branding era's "2" logotype within a solid circle logo.

LMA and legal duopoly with KDVR
On September 17, 2008, Tribune Company announced that it would enter KWGN into a local marketing agreement with Local TV, owners of Fox affiliate KDVR, effective on October 1, 2008, as a result of the formation of a "broadcast management company" that was created to provide management services to stations owned by both Tribune Broadcasting and Local TV. Although it was the longer-established of the two stations, KWGN served as the junior partner in the virtual duopoly. As a result, the station would migrate its operations into KDVR's studio facility on Speer Boulevard in downtown Denver (based at the same location where KWGN's original studios were located during the station's first 30 years on the air). The move resulted in both stations combining their news departments and sharing certain syndicated programming.

On March 30, 2009, KWGN changed its on-air branding once again to "2 the Deuce," in an attempt to appeal to younger viewers and become more involved in local issues. On March 1, 2010, the locally produced talk show Everyday with Libby and Natalie (which debuted in 2008) was renamed as simply Everyday and moved to KWGN from KDVR (effectively changing timeslots as a result moving from late afternoons to late mornings with the program's station switch); Libby Weaver co-hosted the program with Natalie Tysdal until June 1, 2009, after which Weaver was replaced by Chris Parente. After Peter Maroney took over as general manager of KDVR/KWGN following the 2009 departure of Dennis Leonard, other noticeable changes to the station took hold with the locally produced consumer talk program Martino TV (which also moved to KDVR) being replaced in its 11:00 a.m. timeslot by repeats of Maury.

In May 2010, KWGN dropped "The Deuce" branding and temporarily began to simply identify by the station's call letters. The following month, the station changed its website domain from 2thedeuce.com to KWGN.com to reflect the branding change; that September, the station rebranded itself as "Channel 2, The CW". That fall, the station dropped Live! with Regis and Kelly from its schedule, which moved to sister station KDVR; this left WGN-TV (which itself lost rights to the talk show in September 2013) and St. Louis sister station KPLR-TV as the only Tribune-owned stations and two of the few CW affiliates that carry the show. On July 22, 2011, KWGN debuted a new on-air appearance and branding (becoming known as "Colorado's Own Channel 2," resembling the former "Denver's 2" identity from the 1980s and early 1990s), as well as reformatting its local news programming to a more traditional format. On July 1, 2013, Tribune announced it would purchase Local TV outright for $2.75 billion. The sale was finalized on December 27, creating a legal duopoly between KDVR and KWGN.

Aborted sale to Sinclair; sale to Nexstar
On May 8, 2017, Hunt Valley, Maryland-based Sinclair Broadcast Group announced that it would acquire Tribune Media for $3.9 billion, plus the assumption of $2.7 billion in debt held by Tribune, pending regulatory approval by the FCC and the U.S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division. On May 9, 2018, Sinclair (on behalf of Tribune) announced it had sold KDVR to Fox Television Stations (which owned channel 31 from 1995 until it was sold to Local TV in 2007), as part of a $910-million deal that also involved six other Tribune-owned stations (Fox affiliates KTXL/Sacramento, KCPQ/Seattle, KSWB-TV/San Diego, WJW/Cleveland and KSTU/Salt Lake City, and CW affiliate WSFL-TV/Miami).

Three weeks after the FCC's July 18 vote to have the deal reviewed by an administrative law judge amid "serious concerns" about Sinclair's forthrightness in its applications to sell certain conflict properties, on August 9, 2018, Tribune announced it would terminate the Sinclair deal, intending to seek other M&A opportunities. Tribune also filed a breach of contract lawsuit in the Delaware Chancery Court, alleging that Sinclair engaged in protracted negotiations with the FCC and the U.S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division over regulatory issues, refused to sell stations in markets where it already had properties, and proposed divestitures to parties with ties to Sinclair executive chair David D. Smith that were rejected or highly subject to rejection to maintain control over stations it was required to sell. The termination of the Sinclair sale agreement places uncertainty for the future of Fox's purchases of KSTU and the other six Tribune stations included in that deal, which were predicated on the closure of the Sinclair–Tribune merger.

On December 3, 2018, Irving, Texas-based Nexstar Media Group announced it would acquire the assets of Tribune Media for $6.4 billion in cash and debt. The deal—which would make Nexstar the largest television station operator by total number of stations upon its expected closure late in the third quarter of 2019—would put KDVR and KWGN-TV under common ownership with Nexstar's existing properties in Colorado Springs–Pueblo (Fox affiliate KXRM-TV and CW affiliate KXTU-LD and Grand Junction (Fox affiliate KFQX, MyNetworkTV affiliate KGJT-CD and CBS affiliate KREX-TV as well as its Montrose-based satellite KREY). However, reports preceding the purchase announcement stated that, as it did during the group's failed purchase by Sinclair, Fox Television Stations may seek to acquire certain Fox-affiliated stations owned by Tribune—with the KDVR/KWGN duopoly potentially being a candidate for resale—from the eventual buyer of that group.

Digital television

Digital channels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

Analog-to-digital conversion
KWGN shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 2, on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition UHF channel 34. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 2.

Sports coverage
KWGN served as the over-the-air flagship home of the Colorado Rockies from 1993 to 2002 and Denver Nuggets in 1990-91 and from 1995 to 2004.

News operation

KWGN-TV presently broadcasts 41 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with seven hours each weekday and three hours each on Saturdays and Sundays). There is a considerable amount of sharing between KWGN and KDVR in regards to news coverage, video footage and the use of reporters; though both outlets maintain their own primary on-air personalities (such as news anchors and meteorologists) that only appear on one station; several KWGN on-air staffers that remained with the station after the LMA was formed simultaneously joined KDVR's news department with the consolidation of news operations.

Channel 2 was the first television station in the Denver market to air a locally produced nightly primetime newscast. The 9:00 p.m. newscast, which debuted shortly after the station signed on, remained a constant through several ownership changes. In 1966, the newscast was expanded to one hour—becoming the only hour-long newscast in the market at that point. Titled The Big News, the program heavily concentrated on local stories because filmed national and international news reports were not available through news feeds to stations that lacked a network affiliation during that period. If a major national story occurred, anchor Ron Voigt would read the wire copy while black-and-white wire photos supplied by the Associated Press were shown on-camera.

From the late 1960s until 1975, The Big News had two regular commentators to provide news analysis, George Salem and Gene Amole. The final segment of the newscast was titled "Speak Out" and was often devoted to phone calls from viewers. The program was also known for its meteorologist, Ed Bowman (known as "Weatherman Bowman"), who came to KWGN from KOA-TV-AM. Bowman frequently discussed the jet stream during his forecast segment, which he represented on-air by drawing large arcs over a map of the continental United States. The station's sports director during the 1960s and early 1970s was Fred Leo, who had provided play-by-play analysis for many of the area's professional sports teams. KWGN's newscast grew to be a strong competitor to the primetime network programs it competed against in the 9:00 timeslot on KBTV/KUSA, KOA-TV/KCNC and KLZ-TV/KMGH.

The first time that KWGN programmed news outside its established 9:00 slot was in 1997, when it premiered an hour-long midday newscast at 11:00 a.m. The program lasted three years, and was cancelled in the fall of 2000. On July 16, 2000, legitimate competition sprang up for KWGN's primetime newscast for the first time when KDVR debuted the hour-long Fox 31 News at 9 O'Clock, which gradually became an avid competitor to KWGN's longer-established late newscast. Also in 2000, the station debuted a weekday morning newscast titled WB2day (which eventually adopted the present title Daybreak in 2012), a mix of news, entertainment and lifestyle features that initially aired for three hours from 6:00 to 9:00 a.m. In 2004, KWGN added an hour onto the newscast from 5:00 to 6:00 a.m., expanding it to four hours. The program grew to beat competing local and national morning news programs in certain age demographics. An 11:00 a.m. newscast returned to the schedule on September 11, 2006. On July 7, 2008, KWGN branched out its news programming into early evenings for the first time with the launch of a half-hour 5:30 p.m. newscast, anchored by Kellie MacMullan and Ernie Bjorkman. One month later on August 4, 2008, the station expanded its 11:00 a.m. newscast to one hour.

After entering into the local marketing agreement with KDVR, major changes were made to KWGN's news programming. First on January 12, 2009, the station discontinued its 5:30 p.m. newscast as KDVR expanded its own early evening newscast to an hour starting at 5:00 p.m. On March 2, 2009, KWGN moved its newscasts to a temporary set in preparation for its March 30 move from its Greenwood Village facility to KDVR's studios on Speer Boulevard. Subsequently, on March 30, when KWGN's operations were formally integrated with KDVR, channel 2 shifted its flagship 9:00 p.m. newscast to 7:00 p.m. to avoid competing with KDVR's prime time newscast; as a result, the newscast traded time slots with The CW's prime time schedule, which the station began airing on a one-hour delay from 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. at the network's permission (this also effectively resulted in the newscast being reduced to airing only on Monday through Friday evenings in part due to The CW airing a three-hour primetime lineup on Sundays at the time; although The CW turned its Sunday primetime slots over to the network's affiliates in September 2009, the 7:00 p.m. newscast remains a weeknight-only broadcast ). KWGN discontinued the 11:00 a.m. newscast once again on May 29, 2009, which was replaced the following Monday with Martino TV, a lifestyle program featuring paid segments from local businesses. At that time, KWGN began broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition.

On July 18, 2016, KWGN started a 4:00 p.m. weekday newscast. This newscast is anchored by current KWGN 7:00 p.m. anchor, Deborah Takahara, and longtime former Denver newsman Mike Landess. Mike returns to Denver from KYTX in Tyler, Texas. Landess previously anchored evening newscasts for KMGH and KUSA/KBTV in Denver.

On September 12, 2016, KWGN became the first station in the Mountain Time Zone to launch an 11:00 p.m. weeknight newscast hosted by Mike Barz and Erika Gonzalez.

Beginning March 27, 2017, Ernie Bjorkman - weeknight anchor (1984–1988 and 1998–2008), returns to KWGN.

On September 23, 2017, KWGN expanded the hour-long 7:00 p.m. newscast to weekends for the first time since the newscast launched on March 30, 2009. It's also the first time KWGN delivers local news on weekends since 2009.

Notable former on-air staff
 Asha Blake - weeknight anchor (2004–2007; later at KTLA in Los Angeles)
 Tom Martino - consumer reporter and host of Martino TV (2009–2010)
 Russell Scott - host of Blinky's Fun Club and Captain Dooley (1966–1998; deceased)


Eduardo Di Giovanni

Eduardo Di Giovanni (7 November 1875, Syracuse, Sicily - 16 March 1979) was an Italian politician. He represented the Italian Socialist Party (1946-1947) and the Italian Democratic Socialist Party (1947-1948) in the Constituent Assembly of Italy. He represented the Italian Democratic Socialist Party in the Senate of the Republic from 1948 to 1953.


Jigme Dorji National Park

The Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), named after the late Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, is the second-largest National Park of Bhutan. It occupies almost the entire Gasa District, as well as the northern areas of Thimphu District, Paro District, Punakha, and Wangdue Phodrang Districts. It was established in 1974 and stretches over an area of 4316 km², thereby spanning all three climate zones of Bhutan, ranging in elevation from 1400 to over 7000 meters. About 6,500 people in 1,000 households live within the park, from subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry. It is listed as a tentative site in Bhutan's Tentative List for UNESCO inclusion.

Flora and fauna
The park provides sanctuary for 37 known species of mammals including several endangered, threatened or vulnerable species, such as the takin, snow leopard, clouded leopard, Bengal tiger, bharal or Himalayan blue sheep, black musk deer, Himalayan black bear, red panda, Ussuri dhole, and spotted linsang. It is also home to the Indian leopard, serow, sambar, barking deer, goral, marmot, pika and more than 300 species of birds. It is also the only park in Bhutan where the national animal (takin), flower (blue poppy), bird (raven) and tree (cypress) exist together.

Cultural sites
Jigme Dorji also contains sites of cultural and economic significance. Mount Jomolhari and Mount Jitchu Drake are worshipped as homes of the local deity. The fortresses of Lingshi Dzong and Gasa Dzong are sites of historical importance. The rivers Mo Chhu, Wangdi Chhu and Pa Chhu have their sources in the glacial lakes located in the park.

Glaciers

Jigme Dorji National Park covers most of northern Gasa District, including the bulk of Lunana and Laya Gewogs.   These gewogs are the site of some of the most notable and precarious glaciers of Bhutan. These glaciers have thawed significantly over the course of recorded history, causing lethal and destructive glacial lake outburst floods. Chief among the glaciers and glacial lakes within the park are Thorthormi, Luggye, and Teri Kang. As the seasons allow, temporary camps of laborers work within the park to reduce water levels to assuage the threat of flooding downstream.


Renown (1794 ship)

Renown was launched in 1794 at New Bedford, Massachusetts. She made four voyages from Nantucket as a whaler. In 1813, while she was on her fifth American whaling voyage, she became the first American whaler that British whalers captured in the South Seas. She was sold in London and under the name Adam became first a London-based transport and then a British Southern Whale Fishery whaler. She made four whaling voyages and was wrecked in 1825 at the outset of her fifth British whaling voyage.

American whaler
Renowns service prior to 1997 is currently obscure.

1st whaling voyage (1797–1799)
Captain Alpheus Coffin sailed Renown in 1797 from Nantucket on her first whaling voyage. She was bound for Brazil and the Pacific. On 29 November 1797 she stopped at Desterro for provisions, refreshment, water, and wood. She received permission to stay for 10 days. Coffin returned to Nantucket in 1799 with 1250 barrels of sperm oil and 150 barrels of whale oil.

2nd whaling voyage (1801–1802)
Captain Thaddeus Coffin sailed from Nantucket in 1801, bound for Brazil and the Pacific. In May Renown was at Valparaiso. She returned on 26 November 1802 with 500 barrels of sperm oil.

3rd whaling voyage (1803–1805)
Captain Alpheus Coffin sailed from Nantucket in 1803, bound for the Pacific. Renown returned on 3 November 1805 with 1250 barrels of sperm oil.

4th whaling voyage (1810–1811)
A master, who is currently unknown, sailed Renown from Nantucket in 1810 and returned in March 1811.

5th whaling voyage (1811–1813)
Captain Zaccheus Barnard sailed from Nantucket on 4 August 1811. A British letter of marque whaler captured Renown in 1813. At the time she had 1637 barrels of sperm oil.

Capture
Renown was the first American whaler captured in the South Seas during the War of 1812. Her captors put her crew ashore at Massafuero (Más Afuera) Island. The Nantucket whalers Perseveranda and Sukey later rescued the crew.{{refn|Sukey, John Macy, master, had sailed from Nantucket in October 1811. The British captured Sukey, Masson, master,off the Virginia coast as she was returning from the South Seas.<ref>[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c2735026?urlappend=%3Bseq=257 Lloyd's List №4846.]</ref> Perseveranda (or Perseverance), Thomas Paddock, master, had sailed from Nantucket in July 1811. She returned to Nantucket in 1813. The British captured her in 1814. She was sold in NY.|group=Note}}

British whaler
On 20 November 1813 the prize Renown arrived at Gravesend from the South Seas.

New owners renamed Renown Adam. She first entered Lloyd's Register in 1814 with Hannibal master, Bridges & Co., owner, and trade London transport. The Register of Shipping for 1815 showed her with Honeybel, master, Rains, owner, and trade London transport.

On 20 March 1814 the transport Adam arrived at Gibraltar from Portsmouth. On 1 December, Adam, Hannibal, master, was at Deal, bound for Bermuda. On 30 May 1815 the transport Adam arrived at Portsmouth from Havana.

1st whaling/sealing voyage (1815–1818)
Captain Simeon Coleman sailed from London on 14 December 1815, bound for the Pacific. Adam was at Portsmouth on 6 January 1816, and St Jago on 5 February. She returned to Rio de Janeiro on 18 April 1818 from Peru, and London from Rio and the South Seas on 31 July 1818 with 500 casks of oil and 2250 skins.

2nd whaling voyage (1819–1820)
Captain Foster sailed from Gravesend on 7 April 1819, bound for the South Seas. Adam returned on 8 December 1820.

3rd whaling voyage (1821–1822)
Captain Coffin sailed from Gravesend on 11 February 1821, bound for the South Seas. On 26 March she was at .The coordinates reported in Lloyd's List put Adam in the middle of what is today Algeria. Swapping East for West, and increasing the degrees by an order of magnitude puts her in the Atlantic, well off the coast of West Africa. On 22 July she was at Woolwich Bay with 38 tons of oil. By October or so she was at  with 80 tons of oil. On 26 December Adam was at St Helena. She left on 3 January 1822, southward bound. Between 29 February and 8 March 1822 she was at Saint Helena. She then sailed for the Brazil Banks. She left the Brazil Banks on 29 April. Adam returned on 19 July 1822 with 400 casks of oil.

4th whaling voyage (1822–1824)
Captain Coffin was at Deal on 26 August 1822, bound for the South Seas. She sailed on 1 September from Deal and on 12 September from Portsmouth. Adam returned on 17 June 1824 with 270 casks of oil, plus fins (baleen).

Fate
The Register of Shipping for 1826 shows Adam with Rozier, master, Lyddeker, owner, and trade London–South Seas. On 1 March 1825 a gale developed at Deal. Adam, Razier, master, returned from off Folkestone and attempted to anchor but the crew lost one cable and was unable to clear her chain. She was driven on shore and bilged. She had been sailing from London, bound for the South Seas. She had set out on 20 February.

Notes, citations, and references
Notes

Citations


Cocoa Ice

Cocoa Ice is a 1997 illustrated children's book by Diana Appelbaum, illustrated by Holly Meade.  It was published by Orchard Books.

Cocoa Ice tells parallel stories of two little girls, one in Maine, where ice is harvested on the rivers, the another in Santo Domingo, where cocoa beans are grown, who are linked by an 1870s Yankee trading schooner and its captain. The two little girls enjoy their different versions of "cocoa ice."

Prizes and awards
 Lupine Award, Maine Library Association, Honor Book, 1997


Viddalen Valley

Viddalen Valley () is a broad ice-filled valley which drains eastward between the south end of Ahlmann Ridge and the Borg Massif in Queen Maud Land. It was mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by the Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE) (1949–52) and air photos by the Norwegian expedition (1958–59) and named Viddalen, meaning "the wide valley."


Oak Grove (Eastville, Virginia)

Oak Grove is a historic plantation house located near Eastville, Northampton County, Virginia. The original section of the manor house was built about 1750, and is a 1 1/2-story, gambrel-roofed colonial-period structure.  It has a two-story Federal style wing added about 1811, and a two-story Greek Revival style wing added about 1840. The house was remodeled and enlarged in the 1940s. Also on the property are the contributing five early outbuildings, three 20th century farm buildings, and a well tended formal garden designed by the Richmond landscape architect Charles Gillette.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.


Ryan VZ-3 Vertiplane

The Ryan VZ-3 Vertiplane, also known by the company designation Ryan Model 92 was an American experimental vertical/short take-off (VSTOL) aircraft built by the Ryan Aeronautical Company for the United States Army.

Design and development
The VZ-3 was a simple proof-of-concept experimental aircraft using blown flaps to achieve a short or near vertical take-off. It was a high-wing monoplane powered by an Avco Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine located inside the fuselage driving two large-diameter propellers mounted, one on each wing. It had a T-tail and originally a tailwheel fixed landing gear. It had wide-span double retractable trailing-edge flaps, these were extended into the propeller slipstream for takeoff. To enable control while in the hover it had a universally-jointed jet-deflection nozzle at the rear of the aircraft. It was later modified with a nose-wheel landing gear.

The VZ-3 could make a near-vertical takeoff within 30 ft (9m) at a speed of 25 mph (40 km/h) and the aircraft could be put into the hover up to a height of 3,700 ft (1,100 m).

Operational history
The aircraft conducted a 21-flight test program for the United States Army until it crashed in 1959. It was rebuilt with an open cockpit lengthened fuselage and handed over to NASA for further trials. Following retirement the VZ-3 is on display at the United States Army Aviation Museum.

Operator

United States Army
NASA

Specifications


1962 Memorial Cup

The 1962 Memorial Cup final was the 44th junior ice hockey championship of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association. The George Richardson Memorial Trophy champions Hamilton Red Wings of the Ontario Hockey Association in Eastern Canada competed against the Abbott Cup champions Edmonton Oil Kings of the Central Alberta Hockey League in Western Canada. In a best-of-seven series, held at the Guelph Memorial Gardens in Guelph, Ontario, Kitchener Memorial Auditorium in Kitchener, Ontario, and the Barton Street Arena in Hamilton, Ontario, Hamilton won their 1st Memorial Cup, defeating Edmonton 4 games to 1.

Schedule and scores
Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) president Jack Roxburgh announced the original schedule for the 1962 Memorial Cup with all games played at Maple Leaf Gardens and broadcast by CFTO-TV. The CAHA was threatened with legal action by K.D. Soble who owned both the Red Wings and CHCH-TV in Hamilton, Ontario, if the CAHA did not share the broadcast profits. The dispute was resolved with games moved to the Hamilton Forum, Guelph and Kitchener, Ontario. CFTO would no longer broadcast the series, and CHCH would cover all games. Roxburgh reaffirmed that the CAHA controlled broadcast rights for its games, and not the individual arenas. As a result of the change, the teams received a share of the television revenue.

Scores:
Game 1: Hamilton 5-2 Edmonton (in Hamilton)
Game 2: Hamilton 4-2 Edmonton (in Guelph)
Game 3: Edmonton 5-3 Hamilton (in Guelph)
Game 4: Hamilton 3-0 Edmonton (in Guelph)
Game 5: Hamilton 7-4 Edmonton (in Kitchener)

Winning roster
Bud Blom, Joe Bujdoso, Bryan Campbell, Bob Dean, John Gofton, Bob Hamilton, Ron Harris, Larry Harrop, Earl Heiskala, Paul Henderson, Roger LaFreniere, Lowell MacDonald, Pit Martin, Jim Peters, Wayne Rivers, Bob Wall, Jack Wildfong, Larry Ziliotto. Captain: Howie Menard Coach: Eddie Bush


Canting arms

Canting arms are heraldic bearings that represent the bearer's name (or, less often, some attribute or function) in a visual pun or rebus. The term was derived from the Anglo-Norman cant, meaning song or singing.

French heralds used the term armes parlantes (), as they would sound out the name of the armiger. Many armorial allusions require research for elucidation because of changes in language and dialect that have occurred over the past millennium.

Canting arms – some in the form of rebuses – are quite common in German civic heraldry. They have also been increasingly used in the 20th century among the British royal family. When the visual representation is not straightforward but as complex as a rebus, this is sometimes called a rebus coat of arms.
An in-joke among the Society for Creative Anachronism heralds is the pun, "Heralds don't pun; they cant."

Examples of canting arms

Personal coat of arms
A famous example of canting arms are those of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother (consort of King George VI of the United Kingdom). Her arms (pictured below) contain in sinister (i.e. on the bearer's left, viewer's right) the bows and blue lions that make up the arms of the Bowes and Lyon families.

Municipal coat of arms
Municipal coats of arms which interpret the town's name in rebus form are also called canting. Here are a few examples.

Ecclesiastical coats of arms

Notes


Bodoude

Bodoude  is a village in the Assoli Prefecture in the Kara Region  of north-eastern Togo.


Magnoptera

Magnoptera is a genus of moths in the subfamily Arctiinae. It contains the single species Magnoptera watsoni, which is found in Chile.


Geology of Great Britain

The geology of Great Britain is renowned for its diversity. As a result of its eventful geological history, Great Britain shows a rich variety of landscapes across the constituent countries of England, Wales and Scotland. Rocks of almost all geological ages are represented at outcrop, from the Archaean onwards.

Overview

Seismographical research shows that the crust of the Earth below Great Britain is from 27 to 35 km (17 to 22 miles) thick. The oldest surface rocks are found in north west Scotland and are more than half as old as the planet. These rocks are thought to underlie much of Great Britain (although boreholes have only penetrated the first few kilometres), but next appear extensively at the surface in Brittany and the Channel Islands. The youngest rocks are found in south east England.

Bedrock and past volcanism
The bedrock geology consists of a complex mix of generally older metamorphic rocks overlain by varying sequences of sedimentary rocks into both of which igneous rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences.

Great Britain does not have any active volcanoes now, but has had an active volcanic past. The last active volcanoes stopped erupting about 60 million years ago and the islands are no longer located upon any tectonic boundary or active volcanic region, nor are there other geological phenomena in the island group able to give rise to active volcanism. However, on a geological timescale, a considerable degree of active and large-scale volcanism occurred in Great Britain, and many famous landmarks are formed of the eroded igneous rocks formed during these orogenies (mountain-building periods). The British Geological Survey lists Snowdonia and the Lake District as having extremely large volcanic eruptions around 450 million years ago (mya), Edinburgh Castle lying upon the remains of a volcano dating back 350 mya, and some islands of western Scotland as being remnants of volcanoes from around 60 mya.

Superficial deposits
Overlain on this bedrock geology ("solid geology" in the terminology of maps) is a varied distribution of unconsolidated material of more recent origin. It includes material deposited by glaciers (boulder clay, and other forms of glacial drift such as sand and gravel). "Drift" geology is often more important than "solid" geology when considering building works, drainage, siting water boreholes, sand and gravel resources and soil fertility. Although "drift" strictly refers to glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits, the term on geological maps has traditionally included other material including alluvium, river terraces, etc. Recent maps use the terms "bedrock" and "superficial" in place of "solid" and "drift".

Geological history
This description of the geological history of Great Britain is based on that of P. Toghill.

Precambrian

Archaean eon
The Lewisian gneiss, the oldest rocks in Great Britain, date from at least 2,700 Ma (Ma = million years ago) in the Archaean eon, the Earth itself being about 4,600 Ma old. They are found in the far north west of Scotland and in the Hebrides, with a few small outcrops elsewhere. Formed from rock originally deposited at the surface of the planet, the rocks were later buried deep in the Earth's crust and metamorphosed into crystalline gneiss.

Proterozoic eon
South of the gneisses are a complex mixture of rocks forming the North West Highlands and Grampian Highlands in Scotland. These are essentially the remains of folded sedimentary rocks that were originally 25 km thick, deposited over the gneiss on what was then the floor of the Iapetus Ocean. The process started in about 1,000 Ma, with a notable 7 km thick layer of Torridon Sandstone being deposited about 800 Ma, as well as the debris deposited by an ice sheet 670 Ma.

Palaeomagnetic evidence indicates that 520 Ma, what is now Great Britain was split between two continents, separated by  of ocean. The north of Scotland was located at about 20° south of the equator on the continent of Laurentia near the Tropic of Capricorn, while the rest of the country was at about 60° south on the continent of Gondwana near the Antarctic Circle.

In Gondwana, England and Wales were near a subduction zone. Both countries were largely submerged under a shallow sea studded with volcanic islands. The remains of these islands underlie much of central England with small outcrops visible in many places. Around 600 Ma, the Cadomian Orogeny (mountain building period) caused the English and Welsh landscape to be transformed into a mountainous region, along with much of north west Europe.

Palaeozoic era

Cambrian period
In the early Cambrian period, the volcanoes and mountains of England and Wales were eroded as the land became flooded by a rise in sea level, and new layers of sediment were laid down. Much of central England formed a stable block of crust, which has remained largely undeformed ever since. Sandstones were deposited in the north of Scotland. The first animals with hard shells evolved at this time, consequently, fossils become much more common in rocks formed during this and later periods.

Ordovician period
500 million years ago, in the Ordovician period, southern Great Britain, the east coast of North America and south-east Newfoundland broke away from Gondwana to form the continent of Avalonia, which by 440 Ma had drifted (by the mechanisms of plate tectonics) to about 30° south.

During this period, north Wales was subject to volcanic activity. The remains of these volcanoes are still visible, one example of which is Rhobell Fawr dating from 510 Ma. Large quantities of volcanic lava and ash known as the Borrowdale Volcanics covered the Lake District and this can still be seen in the form of mountains such as Helvellyn and Scafell Pike.

The Ordovician also saw the formation of the Skiddaw slate deposits around 500 Ma.

Silurian period
Deposition continued into the early part of the Silurian period, with mudstones and sandstones being laid down, notably in Wales.

Avalonia had now joined with the continent of Baltica, and the combined landmass collided with Laurentia at about 20° south between 425 and 400 Ma, joining the southern and northern halves of Great Britain together. The resulting Caledonian Orogeny produced an Alpine-style mountain range in much of north and west Great Britain. The continental collision was probably at an oblique angle rather than a head-on collision, and this probably led to movement along strike-slip faults trending north-east to south-west across Scotland, the Great Glen Fault being the best example (some of these fault zones may have been old lines of weakness from earlier earth movements).

Volcanic ashes and lavas deposited during the Silurian are still found in the Mendip Hills and in Pembrokeshire.

Devonian period

The collision between continents continued during the Devonian period, with continuing uplift, and more volcanic deposits such as those now forming Ben Nevis. Sea levels varied considerably, with the coastline advancing and retreating from north to south across England. The uplifted region was gradually eroded down, resulting in the deposition of numerous sedimentary rock layers in lowlands and seas. The rocks of marine origin in the county of Devon gave the period its name, though deposits of this age are found in many other places, such as the Brecon Beacons, the Midland Valley of Scotland, and the Orkney Islands. Most of these are of terrestrial origin and are informally known as the Old Red Sandstone.

The Caledonian mountains had largely been eroded away by the end of the period during which the country would have experienced an arid desert climate as it was located close to the equator at between 10° and 15° south.

Carboniferous period
Around 360 Ma, at the start of the Carboniferous period, Great Britain was lying at the equator, covered by the warm shallow waters of the Rheic Ocean, during which time the Carboniferous Limestone was deposited, as found in the Mendip Hills, north and south Wales, in the Peak District of Derbyshire, north Lancashire, the northern Pennines and southeast Scotland. Caves developed more recently in the limestone of some of these areas by the action of carbonic acid and other organic acids in rainwater and groundwater.

These were followed by dark marine shales, siltstones, and coarse sandstones of the Millstone Grit. Later, river deltas formed and the sediments deposited were colonised by swamps and rain forest. It was in this environment that the cyclic Coal Measures were formed, the source of the majority of Great Britain's extensive coal reserves that powered the Industrial Revolution. Coal can be found in many areas of Great Britain, as far north as the Midland Valley of Scotland, as far south as Kent, although coal mining has largely been concentrated in the Scottish Midlands, English Midlands, northern England and Wales.

Throughout the period, southwest England in particular was affected by the collision of continental plates. The mountain building period known as the Variscan orogeny, which occurred around 280 Ma, caused major deformation in south west England. Towards the end of this period granite was formed beneath the overlying rocks of Devon and Cornwall, now exposed at Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor, giving rise to mineralised deposits of copper and tin. The general region of Variscan folding was south of an east–west line roughly from south Pembrokeshire to Kent. The main tectonic pressure was from the south or south-east, and there developed dextral strike-slip faulting. The Devon-Cornwall massif may originally have been some distance further east, then to be moved westwards. Lesser Variscan folding took place as far north as Derbyshire and Berwick-upon-Tweed.

By the end of the Carboniferous period, the various continents of the Earth had fused to form the super-continent of Pangaea. Great Britain was located in the interior of Pangea, where it was again subject to a hot arid desert climate with frequent flash floods leaving deposits that formed beds of red sedimentary rock, somewhat similar to the later, Triassic New Red Sandstone.

Permian period
The Permian was characterised for 30 million years by arid desert conditions and the erosion of the land that had uplifted in the Variscan Orogeny, southwest England and adjacent areas of the present-day English Channel. Later, much of Great Britain was submerged in shallow waters as the polar ice sheets melted and the Tethys Ocean and Zechstein Sea formed, depositing shale, limestone, gravel, and marl, before finally receding to leave a flat desert with salt pans.

Mesozoic era

Triassic period
As Pangaea drifted during the Triassic, Great Britain moved away from the equator until it was between 20° and 30° north. Red beds, including sandstones and red mudstones form the main sediments of the New Red Sandstone. The remnants of the Variscan uplands in France to the south were eroded down, resulting in layers of the New Red Sandstone being deposited across central England, and in faulted basins in Cheshire and the Irish Sea. A basin developed in the Hampshire region around this time. Rifting occurred within and around Great Britain, prior to the breakup of the super-continent in the Jurassic period.

Rock fragments found near Bristol appear to indicate that, in 214 Ma, Great Britain was showered with a fine layer of debris from an asteroid impact at the Manicouagan Impact Crater in Canada, although this is still being debated.

Jurassic period
As the Jurassic period began, Pangaea began to break up, sea levels rose and Great Britain drifted on the Eurasian Plate to between 30° and 40° north. With much of Great Britain under water again, sedimentary rocks were deposited and can now be found underlying much of England from the Cleveland Hills of Yorkshire to the Jurassic Coast in Dorset. These include sandstones, greensands, oolitic limestone of the Cotswold Hills, corallian limestone of the Vale of White Horse and the Isle of Portland.

The burial of algae and bacteria below the mud of the sea floor during this time resulted in the formation of North Sea oil and natural gas, much of it trapped in overlying sandstone by salt deposits formed as the sea levels fell to form the swamps and salty lakes and lagoons that were home to dinosaurs.

Cretaceous period
The modern continents having formed, the Cretaceous saw the formation of the Atlantic Ocean, gradually separating northern Scotland from North America. The land underwent a series of uplifts to form a fertile plain.

After 20 million years or so, the seas started to flood the land again until much of Great Britain was again below the sea, though sea levels frequently changed. Chalk and flints were deposited over much of Great Britain, now notably exposed at the White Cliffs of Dover and the Seven Sisters, and also forming Salisbury Plain. The high sea levels left only small areas of land exposed, which accounts for the general lack of land-origin sand, mud or clay sediments found from around this time. Some of the late Cretaceous strata are, in fact, almost pure chalk.

Cenozoic era

Palaeogene period
In the early Palaeogene period, between 63 and 52 Ma, the last volcanic rocks in Great Britain were formed. The major eruptions at this time produced the Antrim Plateau, the basaltic columns of the Giant's Causeway and the lavas and igneous intrusions of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland.

An early phase of the Alpine Orogeny, about 50 Ma, was responsible for the shaping of the London Basin syncline, the Weald-Artois Anticline to the south, the North Downs, South Downs and Chiltern Hills.

During the period, the North Sea formed and Great Britain was uplifted. Some of this uplift was along old lines of weakness left from the Caledonian and Variscan Orogenies long before. The uplifted areas were then eroded, and further sediments, such as the London Clay, were deposited over southern England, while the English Channel was characterised by mud flats and river-deposited sands. Much of the midlands and north of England may have been covered by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits at the start of the Palaeogene, but these were lost through erosion. By 35 Ma, the landscape was colonised by trees such as beech, oak, redwood and palm, along with grasses.

Neogene period

Miocene and Pliocene epochs
In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs of the Neogene, further uplift and erosion occurred, particularly in Wales, the Pennines, and the Scottish Highlands. During the middle and late Miocene, 12 to 5.3 million years ago, a diverse warm-temperate forest grew in the UK.

Quaternary period

Pleistocene epoch

The major changes during the Pleistocene were brought about by several recent ice ages. The most severe was the Anglian Glaciation, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as London and Bristol. This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the River Thames onto its present course.

There is extensive evidence in the form of stone tools that southern England was colonised by human populations during the warm Hoxnian Stage that followed the Anglian Glaciation. It is possible that the English Channel repeatedly opened and closed during this period, causing Great Britain to become an island from time to time. The oldest human fossils found to date in the British Isles, which include the skull of Swanscombe Man from 400,000 years ago, and the earlier Clactonian Man, also date from this period.

The Wolstonian Glaciation, between about 352,000 to 130,000 years ago, which is thought to have peaked around 150,000 years ago, was named after the village of Wolston southeast of Coventry which is thought to mark the southern limit of the ice.

The Wolstonian Stage was followed by the Ipswichian Stage, during which hippopotamus are known to have lived as far north as Leeds.

During the most recent Devensian glaciation, which is thought to have started around 115,000 years ago, peaked around 20,000 years ago and ended a mere 10,000 years ago, the Usk valley and Wye valley were eroded by glaciers, with the icesheet itself reaching south to Wolverhampton and Cardiff. The oldest human remains in Great Britain, the Red Lady of Paviland (29,000 years old), date from this time. It is thought that the country was eventually abandoned as the ice sheet reached its peak, being recolonised as it retreated. By 5,000 years ago, it is thought that Great Britain was warmer than it is at present.

Among the features left behind by the ice are the fjords of the west coast of Scotland, the U-shaped valleys of the Lake District and erratics (blocks of rock) that have been transported from the Oslo region of Norway and deposited on the coast of Yorkshire.

Holocene epoch
The last twelve thousand years are known as the Holocene Epoch. Amongst the most significant geological features created during this period are the peat deposits of Scotland, and of coastal and upland areas of England and Wales. Many of the lowland deposits, such as the Somerset Levels, The Fens and Romney Marsh have recently been artificially drained.

Since humans began clearing the forest during the New Stone Age, most of the land has now been deforested, speeding the natural processes of erosion. Large quantities of stone, gravel and clay are extracted each year, and by 2000 11% of England was covered by roads or buildings.

At the present time, Scotland is continuing to rise as a result of the weight of Devensian ice being lifted. Southern and eastern England is sinking, generally estimated at 1 mm (1/25 inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing compaction of the recent clay deposits.

In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to global warming appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.

Great Britain continues to be subject to several very minor earthquakes each month, and more occasional light to moderate ones. During the 20th century, 25 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of 4.5 to 6.1 were felt, many of them originating within the Isles themselves.

Geological features
Cheddar Gorge - the largest gorge in Great Britain
Jurassic Coast - a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Great Glen Fault
Highland Boundary Fault
Southern Uplands Fault
Midland Valley of Scotland
Fingal's Cave - columnar Tertiary basaltic formation (similar to the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland)
Salisbury Plain
Tees-Exe line
Whin Sill
Siccar Point in Berwickshire provided early proof of the immense age of the Earth.
The Moine Thrust was the first thrust belt to be discovered by geologists.
London Basin
Hampshire Basin
North Downs
Weald
South Downs
London-Brabant Massif
Cornubian batholith - Early Permian intrusion in the South West of England, forming moors where exposed at the surface, such as Dartmoor
Lizard Complex - a piece of obducted oceanic crust, (i.e. an Ophiolite).
Iapetus Suture - line of closure of the Iapetus suture.

Geological resources
Great Britain's complex geology has provided it with a wide range of geological resources including abundant supplies of coal, the initial extraction of which powered the Industrial Revolution. During the 20th century, the exploitation of North Sea oil and gas provided further energy supplies for the nation. Geothermal energy and onshore oil have also been exploited to a lesser extent.

A wide variety of stone has been worked for building and general construction needs (e.g. sand and gravel) while other minerals have been mined or quarried for the chemical industry (e.g. salt), the production of metals (e.g. copper and tin) or other uses (e.g. china clay).

Events
 Storegga Slides, caused a tsunami c. 6100 BC
 Garth tsunami 5,500 years ago
 Bristol Channel floods, 1607 were caused by a tsunami
 1580 Dover Straits earthquake
 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused a tsunami that hit Cornwall
 1884 Colchester earthquake
 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake

Institutions

Government agencies
British Geological Survey

Learned societies
Geological Society of London
Edinburgh Geological Society
Royal Geological Society of Cornwall

Pioneers of British geology
Mary Anning 1799–1847
Thomas George Bonney 1833–1923
William Buckland 1784–1856
William Conybeare 1787–1857
James Hutton 1726–1797 the "Father of modern geology"
Charles Lapworth 1842–1920
Sir Charles Lyell 1797–1875
Gideon Mantell 1790–1852
Sir Roderick Murchison 1792–1871
John Phillips 1800–1874
Adam Sedgwick 1785–1873
William Smith 1769–1839 the "Father of English geology"

Awards
Wollaston Medal


Eurypylus

In Greek mythology, Eurypylus  ( Eurypylos) was the name of several different people:

 Eurypylus, was a Thessalian king, son of Euaemon and Ops. He was a former suitor of Helen thus he led the Thessalians during Trojan War.
 Eurypylus, was son of Telephus and Astyoche. He was a great warrior, who led a Mysian contingent that fought alongside the Trojans against the Greeks in the Trojan War, and was killed by Achilles' son Neoptolemus
 Eurypylus, son of Poseidon and king of Cos.
 Eurypylus, another son of Poseidon by the Pleiad Celaeno. He ruled over the Fortunate Islands.
 Eurypylus, a son of Heracles and Eubote, daughter of Thespius.
Eurypylus, a son of King Thestius of Pleuron and Eurythemis, daughter of Cleoboea. He was the brother of Althaea, Leda, Hypermnestra, Evippus, Plexippus and Iphiclus. Eurypylus participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, during which he insulted Atalanta and was killed by Meleager.
Eurypylus, son of Telestor and father of Asterodia.
Eurypylus, a son of Dexamenus who accompanied Heracles in his Trojan campaign. According to Pausanias, some authors related of him, and not of the son of Euaemon, the story of the cursed chest.
Eurypylus, a son of Eurystheus killed by Heracles at a sacrificial meal alongside his brothers Perimedes and Eurybius.
Eurypylus, one of the suitors of Penelope, from Dulichium.
Eurypylus, a son of Temenus, brother of Agelaus, Callias and Hyrnetho. As Temenus intended to leave his kingdom to Hyrnetho and Deiphontes, Eurypylus and his brothers hired assassins to kill Temenus, but the army still supported their sister and her husband.
Eurypylus, father of two daughters Morphe and Clyte, who were said to have been the first prostitutes in history.


Haymarket North Extension

The Haymarket North Extension is a section of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority's rapid transit Orange Line which currently constitutes the northern section of the line. It runs from North Station through an underground crossing of the Charles River (with the 2003-completed Leonard Zakim Bridge later built directly over it), then along the Haverhill Line right-of-way to Oak Grove station in Malden, Massachusetts. Built to replace the Charlestown Elevated and originally intended to be extended as far as Reading, it opened in stages between 1975 and 1977.

History

Need
Unlike the Washington Street Elevated (which was built as the same time and with a similar design), the Charlestown El was located very near Boston Harbor and the Mystic River tidal estuary, and was thus continually exposed to accelerated corrosion caused by salt air.  The elevated was also unpopular with many local residents, as it was noisy and blocked out sunlight to Main Street. In 1965, a promised removal of the elevated structure was part of a compromise deal by Edward J. Logue to secure local support of a planned redevelopment project. With an elevated line thus politically infeasible, and a full-length tunnel too expensive, the project was designed to use existing railroad rights-of-way with limited tunneling. A groundbreaking was held on September 22, 1966.

Route and construction

The extension replaced the Orange Line portion of the Canal Street Incline, where the old El came to the surface north of Haymarket, with a tunnel under Canal Street to a new underground station at North Station, replacing the elevated station.  The tunnel continues north under the Charles River to Charlestown, with an aboveground station at Community College that roughly replaced the former City Square and Thompson Square stations. The extension runs on the surface under the Interstate 93 elevated viaduct - constructed at the same time - and crosses the Haverhill Line and Newburyport/Rockport Line on a flyover, touching down at Sullivan Square (which replaced a nearby El station of the same name). The Charlestown El closed on April 4, 1975, and the new segment from Haymarket to Sullivan opened on April 7.

The next section, from Sullivan over the new Edward Dana Bridge to Wellington, opened on September 6, 1975. The Wellington Shops for railcar maintenance, which replaced the Sullivan Square Shops and later the Forest Hills Shops, were opened with this extension. From Sullivan northwards, the extension runs entirely along the Haverhill Line right of way, which substantially lowered land acquisition difficulties before construction. An additional segment to the elevated Malden Center, which includes a platform for the Haverhill Line, opened on December 27, 1975. After debate about how far the extension would run, it was decided that it would terminate at the north edge of development in Malden, rather than continue through a narrow pass between the Middlesex Fells and the Pine Banks and into the less-dense suburbs of Melrose and Wakefield. The sixth and terminal station of the Extension, Oak Grove, opened on March 20, 1977.

Reading plans and third track
The extension was originally planned to continue further north to Reading and replace commuter rail service entirely between Boston and Reading.  Under that plan, without commuter tracks between Boston and Reading, all Haverhill trains would have continued to use the Lowell Line and Wildcat Branch.  That routing was used for all Haverhill service between 1959 and its termination in 1976.  (When Haverhill service returned in 1979, it was routed via Reading; only a handful of rush hour trains, plus Amtrak's Downeaster service, still use the Wildcat Branch.)

A third express track was built as part of the extension; it would have been extended north to provide express service to Reading. The  actually built run from just south of Community College to just north of Wellington. In September 1972, the MBTA announced the previously private decision that due to a lack of immediate funding to continue the line past Oak Grove, express service would not be run, as the time savings from Malden would be limited and the third track space through Malden was needed for commuter rail. In 1982, a General Accounting Office report criticized the MBTA for spending $2.3 million in federal funds on the third track, though the MBTA argued that the inability to run express service was due to political forces beyond MBTA control.

The third track is occasionally used for other purposes like testing new equipment and rerouting trains during extreme weather conditions. In 2007, it was used to test new Blue Line cars. During the Assembly station project, outbound trains were shifted to the third track and inbound trains to the normal outbound track to allow construction work on the station.

Architecture
Like the stations of the South Shore Line (the Braintree branch of the Red Line), built in the same period, the original Haymarket North Extension stations were constructed in a Brutalist style, with angular concrete forms.  Community College and Sullivan Square, enclosed under the I-93 viaduct, are primarily rectilinear forms; the later stations incorporate angled forms for staircases and elevators as well.

Assembly station
In the early 2000s, Somerville began planning the Assembly Square development, built on the abandoned site of the former Somerville Assembly automobile plant.  A key piece of the development was an infill station at the site between Sullivan Square and Wellington to reduce the number of car trips generated.  After two years of construction, Assembly station opened on September 2, 2014.  It was the first fully new station on the MBTA subway system since 1987, and the first infill station since Science Park in 1955.  Assembly station has an island platform between the two main tracks; during construction, outbound trains were diverted onto the normally-unused third track, and inbound trains onto the outbound track.  The station has a boxy form, with a similar shape to the original Extension stations but built in a different style.

Station listing
Stations are listed in order from the northern terminus successively to the south.


Greenwich, New South Wales

Greenwich is a suburb  on the Lower North Shore of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Greenwich is located  north-west of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of the Municipality of Lane Cove.

The suburb occupies a peninsula on the northern side of Sydney Harbour, at the opening of the Lane Cove River. The suburb features harbour views, a few pockets of bushland, shops, restaurants, cafes and a harbour swimming pool with shark net.

History
The suburb's name is derived from its namesake Greenwich, by the banks of the River Thames in London. Parramatta River had been known as the 'Thames of the Antipodes' and other nearby suburbs were also named after Thames localities of Putney, Woolwich and Henley.

The Cammeraygal clan of the Kuringgai people were the first inhabitants of the Greenwich area, and lived along the foreshores of the harbour, hunting in the hinterland and trading with other clans.

The first known occasion when a European went to the area was in 1788, when Lieutenant Henry Ball passed through the area while returning from a trip to the Middle Harbour area. Land grants began in 1794 and industries developed in the area during the 1830s.

Aboriginal people were still present in the 1820s, but disease and displacement had driven them out by the 1860s.

Early land grants were made to Samuel Lightfoot, a convict, in 1794, and William Gore, public servant, in 1813. Gore built a road from his farm at Artarmon to Gore Cove, which was the beginning of Greenwich Road.

In the 1830s George Green and his father Amaziah bought land in Greenwich, with access to the harbour, and along with others began a shipbuilding industry on the foreshore. When Green subdivided his land in 1840, the name 'Greenwich' was mentioned for the first time.

Greenwich House—a two-storey Georgian home made from sandstone blocks—was built on the  estate of George Green in 1836 and still stands on the corner of George and St Lawrence Streets. The house was eventually sold, by the mortgage holders, to Gother Kerr Mann in the early 1850s, and remained in that family until 1949.

The eastern tip of Greenwich is called Manns Point, after Gother Kerr Mann (1809-1899). Mann was the first Chief Commissioner for Railways, the Superintendent of convicts at Cockatoo Island and the builder of Fitzroy Dock.

By the early 1880s Greenwich Point already had a post office, general store, and school, with around 16 houses. Upper Greenwich took longer to develop, with most of the area still virgin bush. But with the improvement in north shore roads, and increasing subdivision in upper Greenwich, some grander houses were built near River Road, and new estates were subdivided as Greenwich became a commuter suburb.

Between the 1880s and the 1940s a number of successful dairies operated in Greenwich, run by the Anderson, Hogan, Mather and Clarke families. The milk from Anderson's was delivered by boat along the Lane Cove River and to the residents of Cockatoo Island. Hogan's dairy at Chisholm Street had 300 cows by the time it closed in 1928. Clarke's dairy was on the site of the current golf course.

Light industry was set up along the foreshores of Greenwich, including Shipbuilding, brickmaking, quarrying, and the Patent Asphaltum Company which refined bitumen and manufactured building materials. The Shell Transport and Trading Company opened a terminal at Gore Bay in 1901, importing and distributing petroleum products. It grew over time to include the sites of the Patent Asphaltum works, and several wharves, as well as the shale oil refining works of John Fell & Co. By the late 1930s, over 500 workers were employed at the Shell site. Today fuel products unloaded at Gore Bay are transferred by an underground pipe to the Clyde Refinery.

Greenwich was the northern portal of the first tunnel under Sydney Harbour. The tunnel was dug by the New South Wales Government Railways to Birchgrove to provide a reliable way to get electricity from the Pyrmont Power Station to the tram network on the north shore. Cables had previously been laid on the floor of the harbour, but damaged by ships dragging their anchors. The tunnel was commenced in 1913 and excavated by hand, completed in 1924. Part of the tunnel is through the silt at the bottom of the river, so required constant pumping until it was allowed to flood in 1930 and abandoned from 1969. The tunnel was excavated almost entirely from the Greenwich side, as the residents on Long Nose Point at Balmain (now Birchgrove) successfully objected to the noise of the compressor powering pneumatic drills. There were both the tunnel portal and a vertical shaft nearer the water used for excavation. The tunnel passes between the floor of the harbour and the Balmain coal mine further below the harbour. The tunnel is excavated entirely through Hawkesbury sandstone which lies below the silt and sediment which form the floor of the harbour. At its lowest point, it is  below sea level.

Heritage listings
Greenwich has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 95 River Road: Pallister, Greenwich
 Sydney Harbour railway electricity tunnel

Education
Greenwich Public School is a local primary school with two separate campuses located 1.5 kilometres apart. It was opened in 1876 as a provisional school, after repeated petitions from residents, and became a public school in 1880, with a new building and site in Mitchell Street in 1881. In 1909 the school moved to the site of the current infants school in Greenwich Road, and the primary school moved to Kingslangley Road in 1950. The children of former Prime Minister John Howard, attended the school.

Transport
Greenwich Point ferry wharf on the Parramatta River is served by Sydney Ferries Cockatoo Island ferry services between Circular Quay and Cockatoo Island. A second wharf on the Lane Cove River is served by peak-hour Captain Cook Cruises services. State Transit bus route 265 from Greenwich Point runs to McMahons Point and Lane Cove. The closest train stations are at Wollstonecraft and St Leonards.

Sport and recreation
The Greenwich Village Games are held every four years featuring numerous sports and competitions held mainly at Bob Campbell Oval (Gore Creek Oval) and Lane Cove Aquatic Centre. Greenwich Sports Club, which was founded in 1936, organises football (soccer) for men, women and children and netball for girls. There are two sailing clubs as well. One is situated at the mouth of the Lane Cove River and the other off Greenwich Point.

A Scout Hall is located in the eastern side of Greenwich, and is the usual meeting place for the Greenwich/Wollstonecraft Scout group, as well as for other local organisations.

Population

Demographics

At the 2016 census, there were 5,613 residents in Greenwich. 61.7% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 5.6%, New Zealand 2.6%, China 2.5% and India 2.4%.  74.9% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 2.8% and Cantonese 2.3%. The top responses for religious affiliation were No Religion 34.4%, Catholic 22.5% and Anglican 16.4%.

Greenwich's population has a median weekly household income of $2,555, compared with $1,438 in Australia. The most common types of occupation for employed persons were Professionals 46.8%, Managers 17.4%, Clerical and Administrative Workers 11.5%, Sales Workers 7.5%, and Community and Personal Service Workers 7.0%. Of all households, 68.7% were family households, 25.7% were single person households and 5.7% were group households.

Notable residents
 Norman Hetherington (1921 – 2010), artist, cartoonist, teacher, and puppet designer (Mr Squiggle)
  Antonia Kidman, journalist and sister of actress Nicole Kidman
  Andrew Olle (1947 – 1995), ABC radio and television presenter
  Ruth Park (1917 – 2010), author

Religion
The Catholic Church maintains Mary Help of Christians Chapel and the adjacent Clancy Terrace retirement village, and there are Anglican, Presbyterian and LDS Churches.

Politics
Greenwich falls within the Federal Parliament electoral division of North Sydney, currently represented by Trent Zimmerman, a member of the Liberal Party. The seat was held by Joe Hockey from 1996 federal election until 2015.

For NSW state elections, Greenwich is in the electorate of Lane Cove, presently held by Anthony Roberts, a member of the Liberal Party, who has held the seat since 2003.

Gallery


Eugen von Daday

Eugen von Daday or Jenő von Daday (1855–1920) was a Romanian professor of zoology in Hungary in the late 19th and early 20th century. Daday was an expert on aquatic invertebrates, particularly crustaceans. Daday collected and identified many species and genera within the borders of the Hungarian empire, and received samples of invertebrates from collectors around the world. After his death in 1920, Daday's collection of crustaceans was acquired by the Hungarian Natural History Museum.


Salt tectonics

Salt tectonics, or halokinesis, or halotectonics, is concerned with the geometries and processes associated with the presence of significant thicknesses of evaporites containing rock salt within a stratigraphic sequence of rocks. This is due both to the low density of salt, which does not increase with burial, and its low strength.

Salt structures (excluding undeformed layers of salt) have been found in more than 120 sedimentary basins across the world.

Passive salt structures

Structures may form during continued sedimentary loading, without any external tectonic influence, due to gravitational instability. Pure halite has a density of 2160 kg/m3. When initially deposited, sediments generally have a lower density of 2000 kg/m³, but with loading and compaction their density increases to 2500 kg/m³, which is greater than that of salt.  Once the overlying layers have become denser, the weak salt layer will tend to deform into a characteristic series of ridges and depressions, due to a form of Rayleigh–Taylor instability. Further sedimentation will be concentrated in the depressions and the salt will continue to move away from them into the ridges. At a late stage, diapirs tend to initiate at the junctions between ridges, their growth fed by movement of salt along the ridge system, continuing until the salt supply is exhausted. During the later stages of this process the top of the diapir remains at or near the surface, with further burial being  matched by diapir rise, and is sometimes referred to as downbuilding. The Schacht Asse II and Gorleben salt domes in Germany are an example of a purely passive salt structure.

Such structures do not always form when a salt layer is buried beneath a sedimentary overburden. This can be due to a relatively high strength overburden or to the presence of sedimentary layers interbedded within the salt unit that increase both its density and strength.

Active salt structures

Active tectonics will increase the likelihood of salt structures developing. In the case of extensional tectonics, faulting will both reduce the strength of the overburden and thin it.  In an area affected by thrust tectonics, buckling of the overburden layer will allow the salt to rise into the cores of anticlines, as seen in salt domes in the Zagros Mountains and in El Gordo diapir (Coahuila fold-and-thrust belt, NE Mexico).

If the pressure within the salt body becomes sufficiently high it may be able to push through its overburden, this is known as forceful diapirism. Many salt diapirs may contain elements of both active and passive salt movement. An active salt structure may pierce its overburden and from then on continue to develop as a purely passive salt diapir.

Reactive salt structures

In those cases where salt layers do not have the conditions necessary to develop passive salt structures, the salt may still move into relatively low pressure areas around developing folds and faults. Such structures are described as reactive.

Salt detached fault systems
When one or more salt layers are present during extensional tectonics, a characteristic set of structures is formed. Extensional faults propagate up from the middle part of the crust until they encounter the salt layer. The weakness of the salt prevents the fault from propagating through. However, continuing displacement on the fault offsets the base of the salt and causes bending of the overburden layer. Eventually the stresses caused by this bending will be sufficient to fault the overburden. The types of structures developed depend on the initial salt thickness. In the case of a very thick salt layer there is no direct spatial relationship between the faulting beneath the salt and that in the overburden, such a system is said to be unlinked. For intermediate salt thicknesses, the overburden faults are spatially related to the deeper faults, but offset from them, normally into the footwall; these are known as soft-linked systems. When the salt layer becomes thin enough, the fault that develops in the overburden is closely aligned with that beneath the salt, and forms a continuous fault surface after only a relatively small displacement, forming a hard-linked fault.

In areas of thrust tectonics salt layers act as preferred detachment planes. In the Zagros fold and thrust belt, variations in the thickness and therefore effectiveness of the late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian Hormuz salt are thought to have had a fundamental control on the overall topography.

Salt weld
When a salt layer becomes too thin to be an effective detachment layer, due to salt movement, dissolution or removal by faulting, the overburden and the underlying sub-salt basement become effectively welded together. This may cause the development of new faults in the cover sequence and is an important consideration when modeling the migration of hydrocarbons.
Salt welds may also develop in the vertical direction by putting the sides of a former diapir in contact.

Allochthonous salt structures

Salt that pierces to the surface, either on land or beneath the sea, tends to spread laterally away and such salt is said to be "allochthonous". Salt glaciers are formed on land where this happens in an arid environment, such as in the Zagros Mountains. Offshore tongues of salt are generated that may join together with others from neighbouring piercements to form canopies.

Effects on sedimentary systems
On passive margins where salt is present, such as the Gulf of Mexico, salt tectonics largely control the evolution of deep-water sedimentary systems; for example submarine channels, as modern and ancient case studies show.

Economic importance
A significant proportion of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are found in structures related to salt tectonics, including many in the Middle East, the South Atlantic passive margins (Brazil, Gabon and Angola) and the Gulf of Mexico.


Nihilist communism

Nihilist Communism: A Critique of Optimism — the Religious Dogma that states there will be an Ultimate Triumph of Good over Evil — in the Far Left is a collection of anti-authoritarian, anti-political, anti-organizational communist perspectives cardinally developed by two anglophone authors using the pen names Frère and Le Garçon. Since 2003, they have written collaboratively as Monsieur Dupont.

Nihilist Communism aims to level "a critique of optimism in the far left". Rather than attempting to establish new and popular sets of positions, it is counterpoised against, among many other things, the "religious" dogma of the Marxist and anarchist milieus. It attempts to disencumber itself of its content in order to explore new concepts and ideas.


Marek Michał Żabka

Marek Michał Żabka (born 1955) is a Polish arachnologist.

He received a master's degree in biology in 1978 from the Higher School of Agriculture and Pedagogy (Wyższa Szkoła Rolniczo-Pedagogiczna) in Siedlce – now the Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities. He then worked there, first as an assistant and then as adjunct professor. In 1984, he was awarded a PhD in biological sciences by the Department of Earth Sciences and Biology at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań under the supervision of Jerzy Prószyński. He became a full professor at the Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities in 2006, and served as the head of the Department of Zoology and as the director of the Institute of Biology. He had various internships abroad, including at the Queensland Museum, the Australian Museum, the Humboldt University of Berlin and the University of Papua New Guinea.

Marek Żabka's main research area is the spider family Salticidae (jumping spiders), especially their systematics and biogeography. He has produced nearly 80 scientific publications, popular science articles and a book. The World Spider Catalog lists 25 genus names or synonyms and 237 species names or synonyms of which he is either the sole author or a co-author. Nine jumping spider species and one ant spider species have been given the specific name zabkai.


Trebouxia

Trebouxia is a unicellular green alga . It is a photosynthetic organism that can exist in almost all habitats found in polar, tropical, and temperate regions . It can either exist in a symbiotic relationship with fungi in the form of lichen or it can survive independently as a free-living organism alone or in colonies . Trebouxia is the most common photobiont in extant lichens . It is a primary producer of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems . It uses carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b to harvest energy from the sun and provide nutrients to various animals and insects . It introduced nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis into the terrestrial habitats approximately 450 million years ago . It is also a bioindicator of habitat disturbances, freshwater quality, air pollution, carbon dioxide concentration, and climate change. Furthermore, its life cycle is complex and much research needs to be done to characterize it more completely   . For decades, the presence of sexual reproduction was unknown . However, recent molecular evidence of recombination and the observation of sexual fusions of gametes to form zygotes suggest that sexual reproduction occurs.

Trebouxia is a paraphyletic group . The horizontal gene transfer of protein encoding genes occurred between fungi and Trebouxia  .There is also evidence of intron horizontal gene transfer among different strains of Trebouxia in lichen thalli . The presence of globose cells in fossil lichens from the Lower Devonian period (415 million years ago) that look similar to Trebouxia indicate the significance of Trebouxia fungi symbiosis throughout the history of Earth .

History of Knowledge
	The genus Trebouxia was initially described by Puymaly in 1924 . The genus was divided into two genera Trebouxia and Pseudotrebouxia  . Some recent studies imply that the differences between two groups are invalid and the genus should be divided in different ways such as splitting Trebouxia into two genera Asterochloris (including photobionts of Cladoniinae family) and Trebouxia (including photoboints of Lecanorineae family) . Furthermore, Trebouxia’s systematic location and taxonomy has been uncertain for decades. Initially, in 1995, the group was placed in the order Pleurastrales  and then in Microthamniales . Later in 2002, it was part of the order Chlorococcales  and now it is placed in the order Trebouxiales . It is unknown whether all photobionts described as “trebouxioid” belong to a single genus . Also, it is also unclear how many and which species should be accepted and recognized .
	Furthermore, in earlier years, classification and nomenclature of species was based on organism’s color, size, growth and shape of colonies, texture, and the lichen it was isolated from . It was believed that each algae species belonged to a specific lichen species .  However, in recent years, each Trebouxia species has been treated independently from lichen species since the same species of Trebouxia can be associated with many lichens . Now, the classification and nomenclature of species is based on pyrenoid structure, electron dense vesicles, chloroplast and grana shape, vegetative cell size and thickness of cell wall .

Habitat and ecology

	Trebouxia is a photosynthetic autotrophic genus that can exist in almost every environmental condition in nature. It can be found in the tropics, Arctic, Antarctic, boreal forest, fresh water, marine, bare rocks, wood debris, tree bark, sandstone, soil, hot and semi-arid deserts     . Some species can live in extreme conditions such as dry valleys of Antarctica with less than 5% soil moisture or habitats that are rich in iron and metals  . It can tolerate a wide range of temperatures and prolonged periods of desiccation   ;  . Carotenoids such as xanthophyll astaxanthin allow Trebouxia to tolerate high irradiance  .
	Furthermore, Trebouxia can exist in its free-living form or in a lichen thallus as a photobiont partner with its fungi mycobiont . The release or escape of alga zoospores from intact lichens is a source of free-living algae colonies or single free-living cells. Moreover, the same Trebouxia species can be associated with many mycobiont species or many Trebouxia strains can inhibit single lichen     .  However, the maturation of the lichen could lead to the elimination of all Trebouxia strains except one . Also, Trebouxia species are not selective towards their fungal symbionts while fungal species are very selective regarding their algae partners . In areas where algae species are scarce, fungi are less selective and forms a symbiotic relationship with any Trebouxia species and later on switch to a more suitable algae species . Some Trebouxia species are highly dependent on their fungal partners and cannot exist as independent organisms  . Fungi obtain nutrients through self parasitism or selectively harvesting old Trebouxia cells . Trebouxia, on the other hand, provides 90% of its photosynthetic products to the mycoboint . Pyrenoglobuli (lipid rich stores in the pyrenoid of Trebouxia) are used by the mycoboint for energy and water .
	Trebouxia acts as an important primary producer in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems . Trebouxia uses carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b to harvest energy from the sun and synthesize organic compounds that serve as a substantial food source for a wide range of heterotrophs including animals, invertebrates and insects .

Description of the organism

Morphology
	Trebouxia is a unicellular spherical green alga that contains a star-like (stellate) or aggregated chloroplast with a single pyrenoid (aggregation of enzymes) at the centre . The size of cells can range from 8- 21 um in length  . Trebouxia is divided into two groups based on shape of vegetative cells and nature of chromatophore. In the first group, chromatophores are located in the parietal position during the cell division and are deeply incised with irregular, narrow processes that extend to the cell wall and compress against it . The shape of vegetative cells is ellipsoidal in group 1 . In group 2, chromatophores are smooth-margined structures located in a central position during the cell division and are not compressed against the cell wall . The vegetative cells are spherical in group 2 .
	All Trebouxia associated with lichen possess lipid-rich globules in their pyrenoids known as pyrenoglobuli  . Pyrenoglobuli are used by fungi in the lichen thallus for energy and as a water source . Trebouxia phycobionts possess different amounts and types of pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids in different environmental conditions. For instance, Antarctic Trebouxia contains low chlorophyll a, high chlorophyll b, and diverse carotenoids compared to Mid-European Trebouxia phycobionts due to the low-temperature fluorescence spectra in Antarctica .

Reproduction and life cycle
	Reproduction in Trebouxia is mediated by autospores and zoospores. Autospores are non-motile spores that have the same shape as their parent cells . They are produced inside the parent cells . Zoospores are motile spores that are produced inside the lichen thalli and released. They are similar in structure and size in all Trebouxia taxa . They are 4-6 um in size and do not possess a cell wall . This allows them to change shape and fit into the fungal network  .  Later in development, they round up to form walls and become vegetative cells . The zoospores are flattened cells that contain a cup- shaped green chromatophore and two flagella of equal length arising from the basal body and extending beyond the length of body  . They contain one contractile vacuole, nucleus, dictyosome, chloroplast, and single mitochondrial reticulum or branched mitochondria linked to microbody . Some species have a stigma (eyespots) which helps orient zoospores towards high light intensity . There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum cisternae. One type connects to two basal bodies and one nucleus . The other type attaches to left and right plasma membrane at cell surfaces .
	The cell division of Trebouxia occurs by the cleavage of the chromatophore into two equal halves followed by the pyrenoid division. The pyrenoid can either divide by simple constriction or it can disappear during the division of the chromatophore as observed during zoosporogenesis . In some cells, the nucleus divides before the second division of chromatophore halves whereas in other cells it divides after the second division of the chromatophore by migrating to centre of cell between chromatophore halves . The detail of cell division is understudied and more research needs to be conducted.
	Trebouxia has a complex life cycle. The details of the life cycle are not properly understood and more research is required. Reproduction in Trebouxia can occur by zoospores or autospores. Zoospores are flagellated motile stages within lichens that migrate and settle near fungal spores when liquid water is present     . The clustering of zoospores around fungal spores can lead to the secretion of an attractant that induces zoospores settlement    . Once the zoospores settle, they change shape and round up to fit into the fungal network . The first cell division after zoospore settlement can either result in the formation of zoosporangium/ autosporagium with 4 to 32 adhering autospore packages (tetrads) or into differentiated vegetative cells. These differentiated vegetative cells are later transformed into zoosporangium/ autosporangia with numerous small autospores, but without adhering packages or tetrad formation . The formation of autospores can occur in two ways. The first way is in which species with permanent aplanosporic (autospore) state arrest the development of zoospores . The division of the chloroplast is accompanied by rounding off and developing a cell wall . In the second way, polygonal- like divisions of the chloroplast form reproductive daughter cells with the cell walls independent of parent cells . The production of aplanospores (autospores) in the second way leads to the development of 16-32 spores in the sporangium .
	For many years, no sexual structures or observation of sexual reproduction in Trebouxia were observed  . However, in recent years, through molecular methods, evidence of recombination  and sexual fusions of gamates of the same size suggests the occurrence of sexual reproduction . The zygotes, quite distinct from zoospores, are 6.6 um in diameter and smooth walled with two round chloroplasts . First, the gametes pair up and fuse with each other, leading to the formation of zygotes . Then, the flagella disappear and the zygote develops in a normal vegetative pattern .
	Initially, it was thought that the fungus suppresses sexual reproduction in Trebouxia to inhibit the formation of novel genotypes that could be less suitable for symbiosis . However, it has recently been proposed that Trebouxia are more likely to reproduce sexually in lichen thallus . Furthermore, gametes from different Trebouxia species can escape the thallus and fuse to form hybrids or divide asexually to form micro colonies that can later be lichenized by fungi spores . Additional evidence of viable fungi spores and Trebouxia spores in fecal matter of lichen eating mites provides insight into short and long distance dispersal modes .

Genetics

The symbiosis between Trebouxia and fungi resulted in three horizontal gene transfer events of protein encoding genes from the fungus genome to the Trebouxia genome . Within lichen, horizontal gene transfer can also occur among photobionts . The horizontal gene transfer events of introns among different Trebouxia species have been documented . Many introns can self splice or reverse the splicing reaction or gain motility at DNA or RNA levels that can mediate the transfer process . It is suggested that intron horizontal gene transfer occurs upon the direct cell to cell contact of different Trebouxia strains in immature lichen thallus . When a lichen thallus matures, only one strain of Trebouxia remains while others are eliminated . Viruses that infect Trebouxia and fungi also aid in horizontal gene transfer among different phycobiont species .
Furthermore, different techniques have been developed to identify different Trebouxia strains within lichen thalli. ITS rDNA (internal transcribed spacer regions recombinant DNA) sequence comparisons with the aid of Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are easy and fast ways to identify different Trebouxia species that inhabit a thallus .

Fossil history
		It is known that the most widespread photobiont in extant lichens is Trebouxia. The fossil lichens from the Lower Devonian (415 million years ago) are composed of algae or cyanobacteria and fungi layers . Through the analysis of scanning electron microscopy, the globose structure of photobionts in Chlorolichenomycites salopensis lichen species during the Lower Devonian looks similar to Trebouxia species .

Practical importance
		One of the first organisms to colonize terrestrial habitats were lichens. Lichens, along with few other organisms, introduced nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis into terrestrial environments approximately 450 million years ago . They played a significant role in making the harsh terrestrial environment suitable for the colonization of other organisms such as land plants, animals, and insects . Even today lichens make many unsuitable extreme habitats more suitable for species to colonize and survive. Lichens increase the amount of organic matter and organic nitrogen in the soil by producing organic acid that increases rock weathering .
		Furthermore, lichens are a critical bioindicators of habitat disturbances, freshwater quality, air pollution, carbon dioxide measures, and long term ecological continuity of undisturbed forests  . Lichens are also used to date the divergence times of many extinct or extant species . Moreover, lichens are critical in climate change and global warming studies to understand the effects of increasing green house gasses such as carbon dioxide in natural environments .  The position of Trebouxia at the base of the food chain as a primary producer is critical for the maintenance of freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems .


National Register of Historic Places listings in Adams County, Washington

Current listings

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I Didn't Know What Time It Was

"I Didn't Know What Time It Was" is a popular song composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Lorenz Hart for the musical Too Many Girls (1939). Early hit versions were recorded by Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw. The Crampton Sisters 1964 revival for the DCP label was a Hot 100 entry.

The song was introduced by Richard Kollmar and Marcy Westcott in the musical Too Many Girls. It was performed by Trudy Erwin – dubbing for Lucille Ball in the 1940 film version produced by RKO – and interpolated into the score of the 1957 film Pal Joey, where it was sung by Frank Sinatra.

Other versions
 Art Blakey with Wayne Shorter – Ugetsu (1963)
 Betty Carter – Betty Carter Live at the Village Vanguard (1970)
 Chick Corea – Expressions (1994)
 Stan Getz and Gerry Mulligan – Getz Meets Mulligan (1957)
 Peggy Lee – Black Coffee (1953)
 Brad Mehldau – The Art of the Trio Vol. 1 (1997)
 Charlie Parker – Charlie Parker with Strings (1949)
 Artie Shaw  (1939)
 Cassandra Wilson – Blue Skies (1988)
 David "Fathead" Newman – Captain Buckles (1971) Lois Jordan (1954)