data_context/context_information.json

[
    {
        "context": "It is known to form materials into structural components having different diameters and shapes via induction heating of a blank during the forming process, such as during the stamping or inflating process to form the structural component. The induction heating process generates heat within the material by inducing a current in the material, whereby the material's resistance to the electrical current generates heat as the current is passed therethrough. Examples of such induction heating processes are described in 7,269,986; 7,024,897; 7,003,996; 6,613,164 and 6,322,645, which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "0",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that it is known to form materials into structural components having different diameters and shapes via induction heating of a blank during the forming process , such as during the stamping or inflating process to form the structural component .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "Microcapsules can be constructed of various types of wall or shell materials to house varying core material for many purposes. The encapsulation process is commonly referred to as microencapsulation. Microencapsulation is the process of surrounding or enveloping one substance, often referred to as the core material, within another substance, often referred to as the wall, shell, or capsule, on a very small scale. The scale for microcapsules may be particles with diameters in the range between 1 and 1000 m that consist of a core material and a covering shell. The microcapsules may be spherically shaped, with a continuous wall surrounding the core, while others may be asymmetrical and variably shaped. General encapsulation processes include emulsion polymerization, bulk polymerization, solution polymerization, and/or suspension polymerization and typically include a catalyst. Emulsion polymerization occurs in a water/oil or oil/water mixed phase. Bulk polymerization is carried out in the absence of solvent. Solution polymerization is carried out in a solvent in which both the monomer and subsequent polymer are soluble. Suspension polymerization is carried out in the presence of a solvent usually water in which the monomer is insoluble and in which it is suspended by agitation. To prevent the droplets of monomers from coalescing and to prevent the polymer from coagulating, protective colloids are typically added. Through a selection of the core and shell material, it is possible to obtain microcapsules with a variety of functions. This is why microcapsules can be defined as containers, which can release, protect and/or mask various kinds of active core materials. Microencapsulation is mainly used for the separation of the core material from the environment, but it can also be used for controlled release of core material in the environment. Microencapsulation has attracted a large interest in the field of phase change materials PCMs. A PCM is a substance with a high heat of fusion, melting and solidifying at a certain temperature, which is capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy. Heat is absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa; thus, PCMs are classified as latent heat storage units. The latent heat storage can be achieved through solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas and liquid-gas phase change, but solid-liquid is typically used in thermal storage applications as being more stable than gas phase changes as a result of the significant changes in volume occupied by the PCM. Because of this ability, PCMs are currently being used in a wide variety of fields including textiles, food and medical industries, computer cooling, spacecraft thermal systems, and solar power plants. Generally, the most commonly used PCMs in use today are those made from paraffin waxes. Additionally, because PCMs transition from solid to liquid when heated past the melting point, paraffin waxes are most easily handled when encapsulated, with the most common outer wall being an organic polymer. This allows PCMs to be handled as free-flowing solids past the melting temperature of the PCM, and the organic polymer wall improves controlled release of the PCM, if that is desired, and structural stability of the capsule. Some disadvantages exist in current organic polymer wall systems of the microencapsulated PCMS, including flammability too high, low far infrared FIR absorption, little to no defense against bacterial and fungal growth, and low thermal conductivity. Previously, to combat these limitations, researchers have tried direct encapsulation of PCMs with inorganic walls, such as calcium carbonate CaCO3, silica, aluminum hydroxide AlOH3, and oxides of metals such as Mg, Ca, Ti, and Zn, but the walls have been ineffective at containing the PCM. In particular, a major issue with this type of direct encapsulation is the amount of PCM that leaks from the capsule, as much as 30% leakage. Leakage of the PCM in such quantities, especially when the PCM is a paraffin wax, could increase the flammability of the microcapsules. Furthermore, in order to obtain a complete wall of inorganic material encapsulating the paraffin core, a mass ratio of around 40/60 wax core/wall must be used. This high mass ratio causes a nearly 60% loss in enthalpy, which significantly lowers the ability to effectively use the PCM core for many of the applications mentioned above. Therefore, wall materials are limited to organic polymers. Some further potential applications of PCMs include heating/cooling systems in buildings as well as solar energy storage. Efficient heating and cooling systems in buildings have come a long way in recent years; however, there is still room for improvement. Because of PCMs' ability to store and release heat when needed, PCMs have applications in heating/cooling systems in buildings. However, due to the flammability of organic PCMs, the applications are limited. Additionally, solar panels are becoming much more efficient at energy conversion; however, a method of storage of this energy for later use is needed. Energy is released in the form of FIR light from the sun, and radiates both during day and night. Because of this, a material that is able to absorb FIR energy and store it as heat would be desirable in solar energy applications. PCMs have the ability to store and release heat over longer periods of time. Since the development of microencapsulated PCMs, there has been a constant need for improved microcapsules. In particular, there is a need to find a way to use inorganic materials as walls of microcapsules in a way to get the benefits of the inorganic material without leakage of the core and without decreasing the heat of fusion of the microcapsule.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "1",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that to prevent the droplets of monomers from coalescing and to prevent the polymer from coagulating , protective colloids are typically added .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "At present, when manufacturing an OLED device, metal or alloy having active property is usually adopted to manufacture a metal cathode of the OLED device, while conductive transparent indium tin oxide ITO or tin oxide SnO2 material is adopted to manufacture an anode of the OLED device. As to the material for cathode, it should have a relatively lower electron escape energy namely, a lower work function, in order for injecting electrons into an organic layer; while, as to the material for anode, it should have a relatively greater work function, in order for injecting holes into organic layers including a hole injection layer, a hole transportation layer and the like. Specifically, metal having active property, such as magnesium aluminum alloy, aluminum or the like, is used as the material for cathode. Normally, the metallic material for cathode is required to be formed as a film on a surface of a substrate by using a vacuum evaporation device. In case that aluminum metal is adopted as the metallic material for cathode, since there is a relatively lower vapour pressure at the melting point of aluminum metal, the temperature under which the evaporation process is implemented is set to be higher than the aluminum metal's melting point 660 C. where the aluminum metal is in a melting state. At this point, it is common that the molten aluminum metal material creeps along an inner wall of the crucible, which is the so-called upward creepage phenomenon, and finally overflows from the top of the crucible, resulting in damage to the heating source.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "2",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that as to the material for cathode , it should have a relatively lower electron escape energy namely , a lower work function , in order for injecting electrons into an organic layer ; while , as to the material for anode , it should have a relatively greater work function , in order for injecting holes into organic layers including a hole injection layer , a hole transportation layer and the like .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "With oil reserves being depleted, the possibility of using fuel cells as an alternative means to provide electrical energy is attracting ever-increasing interest. Of the many types of fuel cell devised to date, proton exchange membrane fuel cells PEMFCs are of greater and greater potential with the world moving towards a hydrogen-based technology. PEMFCs can cleanly and efficiently convert the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into water and electrical & thermal energy. In PEMFCs, hydrogen and oxygen react at separate electrodesanode and cathode respectivelywith the hydrogen being disassociated at the anode with the use of a catalyst into protons and electrons. The protons so generated diffuse through the electrically insulating polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrons travel by an external load circuit to the cathode, the passage of the electrons along this external load circuit providing the current output of the fuel cell. At the cathode, molecular oxygen combines with the protons that have passed through the polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrons that have passed through the external load circuit to form water. A key feature of PEMFCs, therefore, is the nature of the polymer electrolyte membrane PEM interposed between the anode and the cathode. Often this membrane is referred to as a proton exchange membrane also PEM given the requirement of the membrane to facilitate the migration of protons but not electrons within the fuel cell. In addition to these functions, the membrane must not permit the passage of gas in either direction and be able to withstand the reductive and oxidative chemistries taking place at the cathode and anode respectively. The polymer electrolyte Nafion, which is a sulfonated tetrafluroroethylene-based fluoropolymer-copolymer discovered in the 1960's, is probably the PEM most commonly used. The utility of Nafion in PEMFCs is believed to arise from its ability to transport protons as a consequence of its pendant sulfonic acid side groups, but that it is electrically insulating to anions or electrons. Over time, Nafion loses fluorine from its structure. Nafion relies on the presence of water to function as a conductor of protons. This means that PEMFCs employing Nafion as PEM are restricted to operating temperatures of less than 100 C. , implying low-temperature applications. At temperature approaching and in excess of 100 C. , so-called fuel cell dehydration takes place the PEM becomes too dry to conduct protons to the cathode effectively resulting in a drop in power output. This illustrates a particular difficulty inherent to PEMFCs: the presence and maintenance of appropriate amounts of water. Effective management of the water generated within PEMFCs is a key issue in relation to the success of PEMFCs. Whilst problems can exist in Nafion-based PEMFCs, with other PEMs too much water can also be detrimental. It would be advantageous to expand the range of potential application of PEMFCs, in particular to further their use in electric vehicles EVs. Since automotive air cooling systems can operate effectively at temperatures of around 130 to 140 C. , increasing the temperature at which PEMFCs can function would be particularly advantageous to the automotive industry as it seeks to accelerate research into the incorporation of PEMFCs into EVs on account of the present environmental and economic climate. Being able to operate PEMFCs at this temperature range would obviate the need for expensive cooling systems which are otherwise be necessary where PEMFCs employ PEMs such as Nafion. Accordingly, an increasingly popular approach taken with PEMFCs is to focus on high temperature PEMFCsHTPEMFCsin which alternative polymers such as polybenzimidazole PBI are used on account of their high thermal stability. Unfortunately, a disadvantage with PBI is observed in its pure state is a very low conductivity of the order 1012 S/cm. Improved conductivities have been found when PBI is doped at relatively high levels of with phosphoric acid typically 5 to 7 moles of H3PO4 per unit of monomer of PBI resulting in PBIH3PO4. PBIH3PO4 has been reported by O E Kondsteim et al. Energy 32 2007 418-422 to possess conductivity of approximately 6. 8102 S/cm at 200 C. with approximately 560 mol % pyrophosphoric acid equating to about 5 molecules of H3PO4 per repeat unit within the PBI. However, a further disadvantage of PBI-based PEMs is the decrease in mechanical strength that takes place within increasing temperature and increased level of doping. Also, acid leaches out at temperatures of about 160 C. A third PEM of potential use in HTPEMFCs is not based upon the use of a polymer but rather the use of heteropolyacids HPAs, such H6P2W21O71, which has been reported to exhibit good conductivity, dependant on relative humidity K A Record et al. , US Department of Energy Journal of Undergraduate Research, VI 2006, 53-58; and L Wang, Electrochimica Acta 52 2007, 5479-5483. Polymer composites are mentioned in WO2007/082350 and are described as comprising at least one inorganic proton-conducting polymer functionalised with at least one ionisable group and/or at least one hybrid proton-conducting polymer functionalised with at least one ionisable group, and at least one organic polymer capable of forming hydrogen bonds. There remains an ongoing need for the provision of proton exchange membranes suitable for use in HTPEMFCs which can operate at temperatures in excess of 100 C. , and ideally, be less dependent upon the relative humidity within the HTPEMFC.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "3",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that in addition to these functions , the membrane must not permit the passage of gas in either direction and be able to withstand the reductive and oxidative chemistries taking place at the cathode and anode respectively .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "Passive geolocation of ground emitters is commonly performed by collection platforms such as surveillance aircraft using direction finding DF angles. These angles define the line-of-sight LOS from the aircraft to the emitter and are computed using the response of an antenna array on the aircraft to the emitter's RF signal. Systems that depend entirely upon DF angles for geo-location often convert each DF angle measurement to a direction of arrival DOA angle measurement and use these converted measurements for geolocation. DOA is the angle equivalent to antenna azimuth when defined relative to a local-level coordinate frame at the current aircraft position. DOA is computed using antenna azimuth, an estimate of the elevation angle to the target, the antenna array mounting angles on the aircraft, and aircraft navigation system output. Associated with each angle measurement is a Line-of-Bearing LOB that is computed from received RF energy at a collection platform, and represents the platform position of receipt and measured direction of received energy. LOBs are computed and stored with the goal of using intersecting LOBs to compute the geolocation of the emitter. This can be accomplished using multiple surveillance platforms at different locations, using motion of a single surveillance platform over time a typical operational scenario, or a combination of both. For the simple case of one emitter, or of multiple LOBs filtered down to a single emitter by frequency, bandwidth, or other signal characteristics, the LOBs intersect in one location and the geolocation of the emitter can be computed in a number of relatively straightforward methods. However, when there are multiple emitters in the operational space that cannot be discriminated by signal characteristics, the LOBs are clustered such that they belong to the same emitter prior to computing the geolocation. Geolocation performance is typically degraded in a dense emitter environment due to the difficulty of correlating each LOB with the correct target emitter, and preventing the geolocation of numerous false or ghost targets. What is needed is a system and method for performing emitter geolocation in emitter-rich environments. The methods and systems described herein satisfy that need.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "4",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that geolocation performance is typically degraded in a dense emitter environment due to the difficulty of correlating each lob with the correct target emitter , and preventing the geolocation of numerous false or ghost targets .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "1. This invention relates to overbased calcium sulfonate greases made with added calcium hydroxyapatite as a base source and the method for manufacturing such greases to provide improvements in both thickener yield and expected high temperature utility as demonstrated by dropping point, even when the oil-soluble overbased calcium sulfonate used to make the grease is considered to be of poor quality. 2. Description of Related ArtOverbased calcium sulfonate greases have been an established grease category for many years. One known process for making such greases is a two-step process involving the steps of promotion and conversion. Typically the first step promotion is to react a stoichiometric excess amount of calcium oxide CaO or calcium hydroxide CaOH2 as the base source with an alkyl benzene sulfonic acid, carbon dioxide CO2, and with other components to produce an oil soluble overbased calcium sulfonate with amorphous calcium carbonate dispersed therein. These overbased oil-soluble calcium sulfonates are typically clear and bright and have Newtonian rheology. In some cases, they may be slightly turbid, but such variations do not prevent their use in preparing overbased calcium sulfonate greases. For the purposes of this disclosure, the terms overbased oil-soluble calcium sulfonate and oil-soluble overbased calcium sulfonate and overbased calcium sulfonate refer to any overbased calcium sulfonate suitable for making calcium sulfonate greases. Typically the second step conversion is to add a converting agent or agents, such as propylene glycol, iso-propyl alcohol, formic acid or acetic acid, to the product of the promotion step, along with a suitable base oil such as mineral oil, to convert the amorphous calcium carbonate to a very finely divided dispersion of crystalline calcium carbonate. Because an excess of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide is used to achieve overbasing, a small amount of residual calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide may also be present and will be dispersed. The crystalline form of the calcium carbonate is preferably calcite. This extremely finely divided calcium carbonate, also known as a colloidal dispersion, interacts with the calcium sulfonate to form a grease-like consistency. Such overbased calcium sulfonate greases produced through the two-step process have come to be known as simple calcium sulfonate greases and are disclosed, for example, in 3,242,079; 3,372,115; 3,376,222, 3,377,283; and 3,492,231. It is also known in the prior art to combine these two steps, by carefully controlling the reaction, into a single step. In this one-step process, the simple calcium sulfonate grease is prepared by reaction of an appropriate sulfonic acid with either calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide in the presence of carbon dioxide and a system of reagents that simultaneously act as both promoter creating the amorphous calcium carbonate overbasing by reaction of carbon dioxide with an excess amount of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide and converting agents converting the amorphous calcium carbonate to very finely divided crystalline calcium carbonate. Thus, the grease-like consistency is formed in a single step wherein the overbased, oil-soluble calcium sulfonate the product of the first step in the two-step process is never actually formed and isolated as a separate product. This one-step process is disclosed, for example, in 3,661,622; 3,671,012; 3,746,643; and 3,816,310. In addition to simple calcium sulfonate greases, calcium sulfonate complex grease compounds are also known in the prior art. These complex greases are typically produced by adding a strong calcium-containing base, such as calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide, to the simple calcium sulfonate grease produced by either the two-step or one-step process and reacting with stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of complexing acids, such as 12 hydroxystearic acid, boric acid, acetic acid, or phosphoric acid. The claimed advantages of the calcium sulfonate complex grease over the simple grease include reduced tackiness, improved pumpability, and improved high temperature utility. Calcium sulfonate complex greases are disclosed, for example, in 4,560,489; 5,126,062; 5,308,514; and 5,338,467. All of the known prior art teaches the use of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide as the sources of basic calcium for production of calcium sulfonate greases or as a required component for reacting with complexing acids to form calcium sulfonate complex greases. The known prior art generally teaches that the addition of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide needs to be in an amount sufficient when added to the amount of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide present in the overbased oil-soluble calcium sulfonate to provide a total level of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide sufficient to fully react with the complexing acids. There are also prior art references for using tricalcium phosphate as an additive in lubricating greases. For instance, 4,787,992; 4,830,767; 4,902,435; 4,904,399; 4,929,371 all teach using tricalcium phosphate as an additive for lubricating greases. However, it is believed that no prior art references teach the use of calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca5PO43OH, as a calcium-containing base for reaction with acids to make lubricating greases, including calcium sulfonate-based greases. The known prior art also generally teaches against the use of calcium carbonate as a separate ingredient or as an impurity in the calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide, other than the presence of the amorphous calcium carbonate dispersed in the calcium sulfonate after carbonation in making calcium sulfonate greases for at least two reasons. The first being that calcium carbonate is generally considered to be a weak base, unsuitable for reacting with complexing acids. The second being that the presence of unreacted solid calcium compounds including calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxyapatite interferes with the conversion process, resulting in inferior grease compounds if the unreacted solids are not removed prior to conversion or before conversion is completed. Additionally, the prior art does not provide a calcium sulfonate complex grease with both improved thickener yield and dropping point. The known prior art requires an amount of overbased calcium sulfonate of least 36% by weight of the final grease product suitable grease in the NGLI 2 category with a demonstrated dropping point of at least 575 F. The overbased oil-soluble calcium sulfonate is one of the most expensive ingredients in making calcium sulfonate grease, therefore it is desirable to reduce the amount of this ingredient while still maintaining a desirable level of firmness in the final grease thereby improving thickener yield. Specifically, it is desirable to have an overbased calcium sulfonate grease wherein the percentage of overbased oil-soluble calcium sulfonate is less than 36% and the dropping point is consistently 575 F or higher when the consistency is within an NLGI 2 grade or the worked 60 stroke penetration of the grease is between 265 and 295. Higher dropping points are considered desirable since the dropping point is the first and most easily determined guide as to the high temperature utility limitations of a lubricating grease.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "5",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that however , it is believed that no prior art references teach the use of calcium hydroxyapatite , ca5po43oh , as a calcium-containing base for reaction with acids to make lubricating greases , including calcium sulfonate-based greases .?"
            }
        ]
    },
    {
        "context": "Insect inhibitory proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis Bt are known in the art. These proteins are used to control agriculturally relevant pests of crop plants by spraying formulations containing these proteins onto plants/seeds or by expressing these proteins in plants and in seeds. Only a few Bt proteins have been developed for use in formulations or as transgenic traits for commercial use by farmers to control Coleopteran and Lepidopteran pest species, and no Bt proteins have been used for commercial control of Hemipteran pest species. Certain Hemipteran species, particularly Lygus bugs, are pests of cotton and alfalfa, and typically are only controlled using broad spectrum chemistries, , endosulfan, acephate, and oxamyl, which can persist and harm the environment. However, dependence on a limited number of these Bt proteins can result in occurrence of new pests resistant to these proteins, and reliance on broad-spectrum chemistries can harm the environment. Hence, there is a continuous need for the discovery and commercial development of new proteins active against pests of crop plants.",
        "qas": [
            {
                "id": "6",
                "question": "What is the solution for the problem that however , dependence on a limited number of these bt proteins can result in occurrence of new pests resistant to these proteins , and reliance on broad-spectrum chemistries can harm the environment .?"
            }
        ]
    }
]