# document

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"The red-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius), also known as the black-cheeked white-nosed monkey, red-tailed guenon, redtail monkey, or Schmidt's guenon, is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae.\nIt is found in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and possibly Burundi. The red-tailed monkey is usually black, red, or orange. Although native to this region, it has spread north and south as well as it can survive in different habitats and under different conditions. It is a distinct creature in its habitats and is gradually becoming endangered due to deforestation and over-exploitation through hunting and predation.\n\n== Taxonomy and classification ==\nThere are five subspecies recognized for this species:\n\nCercopithecus ascanius ascanius\nCercopithecus ascanius atrinasus\nCercopithecus ascanius katangae\nCercopithecus ascanius whitesidei\nCercopithecus ascanius schmidti\n\n== Anatomy ==\n\n=== Distinguishing features ===\n\nThe red-tailed monkey is named as it sounds, for its red coloration of the tail's underside as well as the bi-coloration of the tail as the reddish color increases from the base to the tip. "


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"There are other features characteristic to this mammal as well such as the white nose and cheeks in the midst of black or dark grey body fur. Red-tailed monkeys also have very large, elastic cheeks which are used in gathering food and storing it in their mouths for safety.\n\n=== Size ===\nSizes of their bodies range between individuals as well as between the sexes as males are larger than the females. Body length ranges from 1 to 2 foot (12-24 inches), without the tail included, males being on the upper end of the scale and females being on the lower. Adult males also weigh between 7 and 10 pounds and females weigh slightly less between 6 and 8 pounds. The tail length can reach up to 35 inches long which can be twice the body length for some red-tailed monkeys. The tail helps the monkeys achieve balance.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\n=== Communication and vocalization ===\nRed-tailed monkeys communicate using different methods which are characteristic of communicating specific behaviors or things. Physical and vocal communication are used between members of social groups of these monkeys to demonstrate social dominance, submissiveness, or greeting. "


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"Vocal communication is used between members of social groups of red-tailed monkeys in which the more submissive monkey will make a soft, oscillating call to its elder. Physical communication is exhibited in nose to nose greetings where two red-tailed guenons touch their noses together. This is a sign of affection and can be followed by playful behavior. Visual communication is used as a sign of warning to others to stay away and as a defense against predators. Red-tailed monkeys practice staring or staring with their mouth open. When these monkeys implement staring, they lift their eyebrows to retract the skin on their forehead which makes the skin on the face expand backwards revealing the underneath of their eyelids. On the dark fur background, their eyelids can be seen very easily by others and understand it as a display that the red-tailed monkey is being  threatened and the other species needs to stay away. Head-bobbing is another threat display in which the monkey moves its head up and down. These types of communication can be used separately or together depending on how  threatened the monkey feels to its surroundings. "


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"Other types of communication are used such as chemical and olfactory communication; however, not much information is available on this type of communication.\n\n=== Feeding habits ===\nRed-tailed monkeys are primarily fructivorous, but are considered omnivorous because they will eat leaves, flowers, or insects in times where fruit is scarce. As they forage, these monkeys gather their findings in the expandable cheeks of their mouths. The pouches will hold a large amount of food where they can forage in one area and then carry their food away to another location where it is safe to consume without the threat of another stealing from them.\n\n=== Social structure ===\nRed-tailed monkeys are social primates that form groups that can range in size from 7 to 30 individuals. The groups consist of one dominant male and females and their offspring, male or female juveniles. Groups generally stay together through all periods of the day and through life, except for males who reach maturity. These males will leave the group they were born into and go on to form all male groups with other red-tailed monkey males or survive alone until they can replace the dominant male of a different social group. "


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"The females practice allomaternal care in which the various females in a group will help take care of their own young as well as the young of other females in the group. Often, the different social groups will congregate for support from each other when food is unlimited and in abundance.Red-tailed monkeys have been observed interacting with blue monkeys, including interspecies grooming.\n\n=== Activity and habitat ===\nRed-tailed monkeys are active in the early morning and evening which is characterized as diurnal activity. They act as important seed dispersers as they collect fruit and other food items. Their dispersal is throughout the tropical forest of in East and Central Africa ranging to Kenya and many areas of the Congo. The red-tailed monkey species is categorized in recognized subspecies and these subspecies have different ranges, the subspecies C. a. schmidti having the widest distribution from Congo into countries of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda and the subspecies C. a. atrinasus having the smallest distribution restricted to a local habitat of Zovo, Angola. They are primarily arboreal but will come to the ground. In the trees, they are very active and travel at greater speeds than being on the ground. "


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"On the ground, they travel quadrupedally, on all four legs. While they show a dominating preference for being arboreal in activity and where they choose to rest, they forage on the ground and as a result, they spend an adequate amount of their time on the forest floor as well.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nLike all placental mammals, red-tailed monkeys produce viviparous young. They tend to only give birth to a single young per mating season. Their mating system is characterized as polygynous meaning that one male mates with multiple females and is a common sight in mammals due to advantages of the grouped social system. The most prominent and successful mating season is from the month of November extending into the month of February; however, breeding can occur throughout the course of an entire year. In some studies, it has been seen that the red-tailed monkey will interbreed and hybridize with another species in its genus: the blue monkey (C. mitis). "


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"The hybrids have been seen on the terrestrial island of Gombe, Tanzania, and this hybridization could serve a vital purpose in the reproduction of both the red-tailed and blue monkey species, and quite possibly, produce a new species in the future.\n\n== Conservation status ==\nConservation efforts for the red-tailed monkey are of \"least concern\" as listed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This has been justified because this species of monkey is located at many different habitats throughout the Congo and throughout East-Central Africa. Also, the species is quite abundant in these areas and they have an average lifespan of about 28 years. The red-tailed monkey is subject to predation by crowned eagles, wild cats, and occasionally, humans and chimpanzees. Despite the influence of predation on their population, no major threat to this species in terms of endangerment is posed, although some locations of their habitat suffer from deforestation and hunting pressure as well.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links =="


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"The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus Panthera native to the Americas. With a body length of up to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) and a weight of up to 158 kg (348 lb), it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world. Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides, although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals. The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises, and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.\nThe modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Today, the jaguar's range extends from core Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America, the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. "


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"It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest, wetlands and wooded regions. It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush apex predator. As a keystone species, it plays an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and in regulating prey populations.\nThe jaguar is threatened by habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, poaching for trade with its body parts and killings in human\u2013wildlife conflict situations, particularly with ranchers in Central and South America. It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002. The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s. Priority areas for jaguar conservation comprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs), defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars. The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina.\nThe jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas, including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe word \"jaguar\" is possibly derived from the Tupi-Guarani word yaguara meaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'. "


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"In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic , while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables . Indigenous peoples in Guyana call it jaguaret\u00e9.\n\"Onca\" is derived from the Portuguese name on\u00e7a for a spotted cat in Brazil that is larger than a lynx; cf. ounce. The word \"panther\" is derived from classical Latin panth\u0113ra, itself from the ancient Greek \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1 (p\u00e1nth\u0113r).\n\n== Taxonomy and evolution ==\n\n=== Taxonomy ===\nIn 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis onca.\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies. In 1939, Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens.\nPocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. The description of P. o. palustris was based on a fossil skull.\nBy 2005, nine subspecies were considered to be valid taxa.\n"


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"Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus Panthera and observed that it shares several morphological features with the leopard (P. pardus). He, therefore, concluded that they are most closely related to each other. Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal north\u2013south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation. DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar populations in Colombia was high in the past. Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be a monotypic taxon.\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nThe Panthera lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago to 11.75 to 0.97 million years ago,\nand the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia.\nSome genetic analyses place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with which it diverged 3.46 to 1.22 million years ago, but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard.The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1.95\u20131.77 mya. "


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"The modern species may have descended from Panthera gombaszoegensis, which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago. Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene.Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American P. o. augusta and South American P. o. mesembrina.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe jaguar is a compact and well-muscled animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion. It stands 68 to 75 cm (26.8 to 29.5 in) tall at the shoulders.\nIts size and weight vary considerably: weights are normally in the range of 56\u201396 kg (123\u2013212 lb). Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg (348 lb).\nThe smallest females weigh about 36 kg (79 lb). "


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"It is sexually dimorphic, with females typically being 10\u201320% smaller than males. The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from 1.12 to 1.85 m (3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in). The tail is 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in) long and the shortest of any big cat.\nIts muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other Panthera species with similar body weight.Further variations in size have been observed across regions and habitats, with size tending to increase from north to south. Jaguars in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 kg (110 lb), which is about the size of a female cougar (Puma concolor).\nJaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of about 95 kg (209 lb) in males and of about 56\u201378 kg (123\u2013172 lb) in females.The jaguar's coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots. The spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they become rosettes which may include one or several dots. "


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"The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip. They are elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a median stripe, and blotchy on the belly. These patterns serve as camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows.\nJaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas.The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head. The rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle.\nIt has powerful jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion.\nIt has an average bite force at the canine tip of 887.0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 118.6.\n"


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"A 100 kg (220 lb) jaguar can bite with a force of 4.939 kN (1,110 lbf) with the canine teeth and 6.922 kN (1,556 lbf) at the carnassial notch.\n\n=== Color variation ===\nMelanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers. The black morph is less common than the spotted one.\nBlack jaguars have been documented in Central and South America. Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a dominant allele.In 2004, a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico. Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica's Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve, in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nIn the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River in Colorado and coastal Louisiana.\nIn 1919, sightings of jaguars were reported in the Monterey, California region.\nIn 1999, its historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 19,000,000 km2 (7,300,000 sq mi), stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina. "


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"By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about 8,750,000 km2 (3,380,000 sq mi), with most declines in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina.\nIts present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay.Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.\nBetween 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains.The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America; open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) but avoids montane forests. It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover. "


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"In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density. A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi-arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole.\n\n== Behavior and ecology ==\nThe jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight.\nHowever, jaguars living in densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day, whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night.\nThe activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species. Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers. They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore. Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars.\n\n=== Ecological role ===\n\nThe adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it is at the top of the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild. "


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"The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and seed-eating mammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems.\nHowever, field work has shown this may be natural variability, and the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists.The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar (Puma concolor). In central Mexico, both prey on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey, respectively. In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability. Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves. In Mexico and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator.\nIn South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over 22 kg (49 lb). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg (4 and 49 lb), which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size.\nThis situation may be advantageous to the cougar. "


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"Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes.\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\n\nThe jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 kg (2.2 to 286.6 lb); it prefers prey weighing 45\u201385 kg (99\u2013187 lb), with capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) being the most selected. When available, it also preys on marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) and black agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa). In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans. Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats. One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish.\nThe jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce.\n"


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"The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg (75 lb) was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) of meat.The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) and the yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulatus). It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain. It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often through the ears.\nIt has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to \"cracking open\" turtle shells; armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the late Pleistocene extinctions. However, this is disputed, as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance.Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal. "


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"In the dry season from April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March.The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey. The cat will slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders.\n\n"


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"=== Social activity ===\n\nThe jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs. In 1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in the Paraguay River valley. A radio-collared female moved in a home range of 25\u201338 km2 (9.7\u201314.7 sq mi), which partly overlapped with another female. The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females.The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces to mark its territory.\nThe size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density. The home ranges of females vary from 15.3 km2 (5.9 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 53.6 km2 (20.7 sq mi) in the Amazon to 233.5 km2 (90.2 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest. Male jaguar home ranges vary from 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 180.3 km2 (69.6 sq mi) in the Amazon to 591.4 km2 (228.3 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest and 807.4 km2 (311.7 sq mi) in the Cerrado.\n"


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"Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area. Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild. In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co-operative interactions.\n\nThe jaguar roars or grunts for long-distance communication; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild. This vocalization is described as \"hoarse\" with five or six guttural notes. Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting, during courting, or by a mother comforting her cubs. This sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity. Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing.\n\n=== Reproduction and life cycle ===\n\nIn captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual maturity at the age of about 2.5 years. "


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"Estrus lasts 7\u201315 days with an estrus cycle of 41.8 to 52.6 days. During estrus, she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations.\nShe is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously.Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days.\nThe male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years.\nHis mean ejaculate volume is 8.6\u00b11.3 ml.Generation length of the jaguar is 9.8 years.In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs.\nThe young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts.\nJaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years. They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive individuals may live 22 years.In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs in Emas National Park. DNA paternity testing of blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs. Two more cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013. "


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"Infanticide may be combated by the female hiding her cubs and distracting the male with courtship behavior.\n\n=== Attacks on humans ===\n\nThe Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar. According to Charles Darwin, the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant.\nThe first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008.\nTwo children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana.\nThe jaguar is the least likely of all big cats to kill and eat humans, and the majority of attacks come when it has been cornered or wounded.\n\n== Threats ==\n\nThe jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20\u201325% since the mid-1990s. Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its range. "


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"Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States.In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century. In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation.\nBetween 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to 83.759 km2 (32.340 sq mi), with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs).\nBy 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation.In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching. Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure.\nIn Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014.\n"


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"In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry savannas and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzo\u00e1tegui.\nIn Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests.\nIn the Alto Paran\u00e1 Atlantic forests, at least 117 jaguars were killed in Igua\u00e7u National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and 2008.\nSome Afro-Colombians in the Colombian Choc\u00f3 Department hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat.\nBetween 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize.The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s.\nSignificant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted.\nInterview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade.\n"


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"Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima, Iquitos and Pucallpa.Human-wildlife conflict, opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala.\nSeizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in China.\nBetween 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru. In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction.\nIn Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal.\n\n"


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"In 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world's first protected area for jaguar conservation.\n\n=== Jaguar Conservation Units ===\nIn 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called \"Jaguar Conservation Units\" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67,598 km2 (219 to 26,100 sq mi); 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including:\nthe Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico\nthe Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala\nthe Choc\u00f3\u2013Dari\u00e9n moist forests from Honduras and Panama to Colombia\nVenezuelan Llanos\nnorthern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil\nTropical Andes in Bolivia and Peru\nMisiones Province in ArgentinaOptimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk. "


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"They cover an area of 2,600,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi) and range in length from 3 to 1,102 km (1.9 to 684.8 mi) in Mexico and Central America and from 489.14 to 1,607 km (303.94 to 998.54 mi) in South America.\nCooperation with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors.\nSeven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14.25 km (8.85 mi) and a length of no more than 320 km (200 mi). The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer.In August 2012, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 3,392.20 km2 (838,232 acres) in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar. The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019, in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico.In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016. The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010 to about 4,800 individuals in 2018. "


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"This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental institutions and landowners.An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees. Since co-occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species.\nCentral American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range.\n\n=== Approaches ===\n\nIn setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective.To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars, camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used, and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to study jaguar health and diet.Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism. "


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"Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts. A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires. If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population.\n\n== In culture and mythology ==\n\nIn the pre-Columbian Americas, the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength. In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chav\u00edn culture became accepted over most of today's Peru by 900 BC. The later Moche culture in northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics. In the Muisca religion in Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals.\nThe skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoqu\u00eda Region.\n"


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"The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was derived from the Chibcha words nymy and quyne, meaning \"force of the jaguar\".Sculptures with \"Olmec were-jaguar\" motifs were found on the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco; they show stylized jaguars with half-human faces. In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar b'alam in many of the Mayan languages. Balam remains a common Maya surname, and it is also the name of Chilam Balam, a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important knowledge. Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial site in Guatemala, which indicates that Mayans may have kept jaguars as pets.The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar warrior. "


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"In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful deity Tezcatlipoca.A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County, Missouri. The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures 104 mm \u00d7 98 mm (4.1 in \u00d7 3.9 in).\nRock drawings made by the Hopi, Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much larger than an ocelot.The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal of Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms.\nThe flag of the Department of Amazonas features a black jaguar silhouette leaping towards a hunter.\nThe crest of the Argentine Rugby Union features a jaguar.\n\n== See also ==\nList of largest cats\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Jaguar Panthera onca\". IUCN Cat Specialist Group.\n\"Jaguars: Born free\". BBC Natural World. 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2021.\nPeople and Jaguars a Guide for Coexistence\nFelidae Conservation Fund\n\"Jaguar\" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920."


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"The hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), or hyacinthine macaw, is a parrot native to central and eastern South America. With a length (from the top of its head to the tip of its long pointed tail) of about one meter it is longer than any other species of parrot. It is the largest macaw and the largest flying parrot species; the flightless k\u0101k\u0101p\u014d of New Zealand outweighs it at up to 3.5 kg. While generally easily recognized, it could be confused with the smaller Lear's macaw. Habitat loss and the trapping of wild birds for the pet trade have taken a heavy toll on their population in the wild, so the species is classified as Vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List, and it is protected by its listing on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nEnglish physician, ornithologist, and artist John Latham first described the hyacinth macaw in 1790 under the binomial name Psittacus hyacinthinus. "


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"Tony Pittman in 2000 hypothesized that although the illustration in this work appears to be of an actual hyacinthine macaw, Latham's description of the length of the bird might mean he had measured a specimen of Lear's macaw instead. However, Latham's description was based on a taxidermic specimen, which was the only one Latham knew to exist up until 1822. It was prepared from a living animal originally belonging to Lord Orford, and given to the land agent Parkinson for display in the Leverian Museum after it died.Nonetheless, Latham mentions another bird, which he calls the 'blue maccaw', supposedly the same size. This blue macaw was already described in Latham's 1781 volume of his A general synopsis of birds as merely a variety of the blue and yellow macaw, and was previously figured in the work of Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1760), Patrick Browne (1756) and Eleazar Albin (1738) as a macaw found in Jamaica. Albin, Browne and Brisson all reference even older authors and state the bird also occurs on the mainland, and Albin states this bird is the female version of the scarlet macaw. "


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"Latham mentions that the provenance of parrots in general was often confused by the fact that the birds were much traded across the world for the purposes of sale.It is one of two extant and one probably extinct species of the South American macaw genus Anodorhynchus.\n\n== Description ==\nThe largest parrot by length in the world, the hyacinth macaw is 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long from the tip of its tail to the top of its head and weighs 1.2\u20131.7 kg (2 lb 10 oz \u2013 3 lb 12 oz). Each wing is 38.8\u201342.5 cm (15+1\u20444\u201316+3\u20444 in) long. The tail is long and pointed. Its feathers are entirely blue, lighter above. However, the neck feathers can sometimes be slightly grey. The ring around the parrots eyes and area just underneath the beak are a strong, vibrant yellow.\n\n== Ecology ==\nA main predator is the toco toucan, which consumes a large percentage of the eggs. Eggs are also regularly preyed on by corvids such as jays and crows, opossums, skunks and coatis. The young are parasitized by larvae of flies of the genus Philornis.\n\n"


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"== Behaviour ==\n\n=== Food and feeding ===\n\nThe majority of the hyacinth macaw diet is composed of the nuts from specific palm species, such as acuri and bocaiuva palms. They have very strong beaks for eating the kernels of hard nuts and seeds. Their strong beaks are even able to crack coconuts, the large brazil nut pods, and macadamia nuts. The birds also boast dry, smooth tongues with a bone inside them that makes them an effective tool for tapping into fruits. The acuri nut is so hard, the parrots cannot feed on it until it has passed through the digestive system of cattle. In addition, they eat fruits and other vegetable matter. The hyacinth macaw generally eats fruits, nuts, nectar, and various kinds of seeds. Also, they travel for the ripest of foods over a vast area.In the Pantanal, hyacinth macaws feed almost exclusively on the nuts of Acrocomia aculeata and Attalea phalerata palm trees. "


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"This behaviour was recorded by the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates in his 1863 book The Naturalist on the River Amazons, where he wrote that\n\nIt flies in pairs, and feeds on the hard nuts of several palms, but especially of the Mucuja (Acrocomia lasiospatha). These nuts, which are so hard as to be difficult to break with a heavy hammer, are crushed to a pulp by the powerful beak of this macaw.\nCharles Darwin remarked on Bates's account of the species, calling it a \"splendid bird\" with its \"enormous beak\" able to feed on these palm nuts.In captivity, the palm nuts native to the hyacinth macaw's natural habitat are often not readily available. In these circumstances the macadamia nut (which is native to Australia) is a suitable, nutritious and readily-accepted alternative. Coincidentally, the hyacinth macaw is one of the only birds with the necessary jaw strength to open the nut, which requires 300psi of pressure to crack the shell.\n\n=== Tool use ===\nLimited tool use has been observed in both wild and captive hyacinth macaws. Reported sightings of tool use in wild parrots go as far back as 1863. "


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"Examples of tool use that have been observed usually involve a chewed leaf or pieces of wood. Macaws often incorporate these items when feeding on harder nuts. Their use allows the nuts the macaws eat to remain in position (prevent slipping) while they gnaw into it. It is not known whether this is learned social behavior or an innate trait, but observation on captive macaws shows that hand-raised macaws exhibit this behavior, as well. Comparisons show that older macaws were able to open seeds more efficiently.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nNesting takes place between July and December, with nests constructed in tree cavities or cliff faces depending on the habitat. In the Pantanal region, 90% of nests are constructed in the manduvi tree (Sterculia apetala). The hyacinth macaw depends on the toucan for its livelihood. The toucan contributes largely to seed dispersal of the manduvi tree that the macaw needs for reproduction. However, the toucan is responsible for dispersing 83 % of the seeds of Sterculia apetala, but also consumes 53% of eggs preyed. Hollows of sufficient size are only found in trees around 60 years of age or older, and competition is fierce. "


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"Existing holes are enlarged and then partially filled with wood chips. The clutch size is one or two eggs, although usually only one fledgling survives as the second egg hatches several days after the first, and the smaller fledgling cannot compete with the firstborn for food. A possible explanation for this behaviour is what is called the insurance hypothesis. The macaw lays more eggs than can be normally fledged to compensate for earlier eggs that failed to hatch or firstborn chicks that did not survive. The incubation period lasts about a month, and the male tends to his mate whilst she incubates the eggs. The chicks leave the nest, or fledge, around 110 days of age, and remain dependent on their parents until six months of age. They are mature and begin breeding at seven years of age.\n\n=== General traits ===\nHyacinth macaws are the longest psittacine. They are also very even-tempered and can be calmer than other macaws, being known as \"gentle giants\". An attending veterinarian must be aware of specific nutritional needs and pharmacologic sensitivities when dealing with them. Possibly due to genetic factors or captive rearing limitations, this species can become neurotic/phobic, which is problematic.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe hyacinth macaw occurs today in three main areas in South America: In the Pantanal region of Brazil, and adjacent eastern Bolivia and northeastern Paraguay, in the cerrado regions of the eastern interior of Brazil (Maranh\u00e3o, Piau\u00ed, Bahia, Tocantins, Goi\u00e1s, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Minas Gerais), and in the relatively open areas associated with the Tocantins River, Xingu River, Tapaj\u00f3s River, and the Maraj\u00f3 island in the eastern Amazon Basin of Brazil. Smaller, fragmented populations may occur in other areas.Over the last few decades the known range in Bolivia has grown. It is well known from the far southeast of the country near the tri-national border point with Brazil and Paraguay, where it is considered an emblematic symbol of the region, and locals often feed the macaws maize, like chickens. In the early 1990s it became apparent the species also occurred in the remote Noel Kempff Mercado National Park area a few hundred kilometres northward. Most of the Bolivian population of this macaw is thought to be found in the San Mat\u00edas Integrated Management Natural Area, an area with extensive pantanal (swamp). "


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"Censuses conducted within in 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2014, revealed stable population numbers: respectively 231, 107, 134, and 166. Bird counts in such a swampy and difficult to navigate terrain are inherently inadequate. The censuses were performed by visiting locations with previous reported sightings, however, it was not always possible to visit all sites, coverage varied. Thus in 2011 the earlier estimated population of about 300 birds in this area was considered to be largely accurate. A 2014 study which correlated sightings to habitat and extrapolated this over a larger area found the birds occur in the northern part of the Natural Area, and a similar population likely also occurs in an equally sized area to the north of this, outside of the Natural Area. "


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"In a 2018 Mongabay Latam article, park rangers relate that there is anecdotal evidence the population was increasing and spreading, as more sightings were being reported by local inhabitants and the bird was now confirmed for the first time in a number of adjacent municipalities.The hyacinth macaw has escaped or been deliberately released in to Florida, USA, but there is no evidence that the population is breeding and may only persist due to continuing releases or escapes.It prefers semi-open, somewhat wooded habitats. It usually avoids dense, humid forest, and in regions dominated by such habitats, it is generally restricted to the edge or relatively open sections (e.g. along major rivers). In different areas of their range, these parrots are found in savannah grasslands, in dry thorn forest known as caatinga, and in palm stands or swamps, particularly the moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa).A 2014 Bolivian study in San Mat\u00edas Integrated Management Natural Area which correlated sightings to habitat found that areas including seasonally inundated savannas, wetlands and anthropogenic areas habitats interspersed with a mosaic of savannas, were the best indicators for the presence of the macaws. "


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"The most preferred habitat by far was anthropogenic, which are primarily cattle ranches practising extensive grazing in this area. The authors, however, were not very impressed by these results, and cautioned the methodology might be flawed.\n\n== Conservation and threats ==\n\nThe conservation status of the hyacinth macaw is assessed as vulnerable. The first proper estimate of its total wild population was published by Munn in 1987 as 3,000 individuals, with a range of 2,500 to 5,000. Yamashita estimated the total world captive population as equal or slightly more than that in 1988. An anonymous blogger associated with the NGO the World Wildlife Fund claimed in 2004 that an estimated 10,000 birds were taken from the wild in the 1980s, of which half were destined for the Brazilian market, and that the wild population had increased to 6,500.The hyacinth macaw is protected by law in Brazil and Bolivia, and commercial export of wild sourced specimens is banned by its listing on Appendix I of the CITES. "


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"A number of long-term studies and conservation initiatives are in place; the Hyacinth Macaw Project in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul has carried out important research by ringing individual birds, and has created a number of artificial nests to compensate for the small number of sites available in the region.The Minnesota Zoo with BioBrasil and the World Wildlife Fund are involved in hyacinth macaw conservation.\n\n=== Threats ===\nThroughout the macaw's range, habitat is being lost or altered due to the introduction of cattle ranching and mechanised agriculture, and the development of hydroelectric schemes. Annual grass fires set by farmers can destroy nest trees, and regions previously inhabited by this macaw are now unsuitable also due to agriculture and plantations. Locally, it has been hunted for food, and the Kayapo Indians of Gorotire in south-central Brazil use its feathers to make headdresses and other ornaments. While overall greatly reduced in numbers, it remains locally common in the Brazilian Pantanal, where many ranch-owners now protect the macaws on their land.Parrots as a whole, being of the family Psittacidae, are some of the most threatened birds in the world. "


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"This family has the most endangered species of all bird families, especially in the neotropics, the natural home of the hyacinth macaw, where 46 of 145 species are at a serious risk of global extinction. This species qualifies as 'Vulnerable' on the IUCN Red List because the population has suffered rapid reductions with the remaining threats of illegal trapping for the cage bird trade and habitat loss A few serious threats to the survival of the species in the Pantanal include human activities, mainly those resulting in habitat loss, the burning of land for pasture maintenance, and illegal trapping The exceptionally noisy, fearless, curious, sedentary, and predictable nature of this species, along with its specialization to only one or two species of palm in each part of its range, makes them especially vulnerable to capture, shooting, and habitat destruction.Although the species has a low genetic variability, it does not necessarily pose a threat to their survival. This genetic structure accentuates the need for protection of hyacinth macaws from different regions to maintain their genetic diversity. "


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"Nevertheless, the most important factors negatively affecting the wild population prove to be habitat destruction and nest poaching.In the Pantanal, habitat loss is largely contributed to the creations of pastures for cattle, while in many other regions, it is the result of clearing land for colonization. Similarly, large areas of habitat in Amazonia have been lost for cattle ranching and hydroelectric power schemes on the Tocantins and Xingu Rivers. Many young manduvi trees are then being grazed on by cattle or burnt by fire, and the Gerias is speedily being converted to land for mechanized agriculture, cattle ranching, and exotic tree plantations. Annual grass fires set by farmers destroy a number of nest trees, and the rise of agriculture and plantations has made habitats formerly populated by the macaws unsuitable to maintain their livelihoods. Moreover, increase in commercial demand for feather art by the Kayapo Indians threatens the species, as up to 10 macaws are needed to make a single headdress.In the event of the macaws being taken from their natural environment, a variety of factors alter their health such as inadequate hygiene conditions, feeding, and overpopulation during the illegal practice of pet trade. "


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"Once birds are captured and brought into captivity, their mortality rates can become very high. Records reveal a Paraguayan dealer receiving 300 unfeathered young in 1972, with all but three not surviving. Due to the poor survival rates of the young, poachers concentrate more heavily on adult birds, which depletes the population at a rapid pace.According to Article 111 of Bolivian Environmental Law #1333, all persons involved in the trade, capture, and transportation without authorization of wild animals will suffer a two-year prison sentence, along with a fine equivalent to 100% of the value of the animal. While many trackers have been arrested, the illegal pet trade still largely continues in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Unfortunately, animal trafficking is not necessarily viewed as a priority in the city, leaving national departmental and municipal governments unwilling to halt the trade in city centers, and local police reluctant to get involved. This ideology has in turn resulted in a lack of enforcement regarding trade in both CITES-restricted species and threatened species, with little to no restrictions regarding humane treatment of the animals, disease control, or proper hygiene. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"In the trade centers, the hyacinth macaw demanded the highest price of US$1,000, proving it to be a very desirable and valued bird in the pet trade industry.\n\n=== Conservation steps taken to preserve the hyacinth macaw ===\nIn 1989, the European Endangered Species Programme for the hyacinth macaw was founded as a result of concerns about the status of the wild population and the lack of successful breeding in captivity. Breeding in captivity still remains difficult, being that hand-reared hyacinth macaw offspring have demonstrated to have higher mortality rates, especially within the first month of life. Additionally, they have a higher incidence of acute crop stasis than other macaw species due, in part, to their specific dietary requirements. The hyacinth macaw is protected by law in Brazil and Bolivia, and international trade is prohibited by its listing on Appendix I of the CITES. Appendix I has banned exporting the bird in all countries of origin, and several studies and conservational initiatives have been taken. The Hyacinth Macaw Project in the Caiman Ecological Refuge, located in the Pantanal, has employed artificial nests and chick management techniques, along with effectively raising awareness among cattle ranchers. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"Many ranch owners in the Pantanal and Gerais, to protect the birds, no longer allow trappers on their properties.A number of conservation actions have been proposed, including the study of the current range, population status, and extent of trading in different parts of its range. Additionally, propositions have been made to assess the effectiveness of artificial nest boxes, enforce legal measures preventing trade, and experiment with ecotourism at one or two sites to encourage donors. Furthermore, the Hyacinth Macaw Project in Mato Grosso do Sul has carried out important research by ringing individual birds and has created a number of artificial nests to compensate for the small number of sites available in the region. Furthermore, proposals to list the species as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act have been made to further protective measures in the US and to create Bolivian and Paraguayan trade management authorities under presidential control.\n\n=== Long-term prospects ===\nEach of the three main populations should be managed as a separate biological entity so as to avoid numbers dropping below 500. While the birds may be in decline in the wild, notably higher populations of captive macaws are being held in zoos and private collections. "


id: 5886bd7850723c8b431f3049d922f4ae
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"If success in managing and replanting the macaw's food trees and erecting nest boxes as an experiment in the Pantanals is seen, the species could survive. Survival rates could also be enhanced if ranch owners would leave all large and potential nest trees standing and eliminate all trapping on their properties. Ultimately, should these factors work in tandem with erection of nest boxes, fencing off of certain saplings, and the planting of others, the long-term prospects of the hyacinth macaw species would be greatly improved.\n\n== Aviculture ==\nThe hyacinth macaw is sometimes kept as a companion parrot. Not recommended for novice bird-keepers, this bird requires large amounts of space, regular exercise and a custom-built stainless steel cage, as its powerful beak can easily destroy most commercially available parrot cages. In order to remain healthy, the species requires regular social interaction and play with humans or other birds. This large macaw, like most parrots has a natural inclination to chew objects and due to its physical size and strength, can cause considerable damage. "


id: 3dd8e5f5bfcdd50c371b3c50a30695
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"It is recommended that an entire room of the owner's home is set aside for use by the bird, which should be provided with plenty of safe, destroyable wooden and leather objects to keep it amused. It is also a very expensive pet: US$10,000 is not an uncommon price for a young hyacinth macaw. The World Parrot Trust recommends that the hyacinth macaw should not be kept permanently indoors and that it should have access to an enclosure of at least 15m (50 ft) for part of the year.This bird is often described as \"gentle\". It is not generally an aggressive bird and it appears to enjoy interacting playfully with humans. It can cause bite injuries simply from playfully \"mouthing\" its owner, however, and this behavior should be discouraged with training begun when the bird is young.The hyacinth macaw can learn to talk, but it is not as gifted in that area as some other species. Nonetheless, it is an intelligent bird that may learn to use words and phrases in the correct context. It can live for over 50 years in captivity.\n\n"


id: 19d8ebc411cc429a1e2f2e4549e205c3
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"== See also ==\nList of macaws\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nHyacinth macaw on the Internet Bird Collection\nHyacinth macaw media from ARKive\nThe Blue Macaws website\nIn-Depth Blue Macaw Research\nAudio File of the hyacinth macaw"


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"The red kangaroo (Osphranter rufus) is the largest of all kangaroos, the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia, and the largest extant marsupial. It is found across mainland Australia, except for the more fertile areas, such as southern Western Australia, the eastern and southeastern coasts, and the rainforests along the northern coast.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe initial description of the species by A.G. Desmarest was published in 1822. The type location was given as an unknown location west of the Blue Mountains.\nThe author assigned the new species to the genus Kangurus. In 1842, Gould reassigned the species to the genus Osphranter,\na taxon later submerged as a subgenus of Macropus. A taxonomic restructure in 2015 in Taxonomy of Australian Mammals by Jackson and Groves\npromoted Osphranter back to genus level, redefining the red kangaroo, among others, as species within the genus Osphranter. This was further supported by genetic analysis in 2019.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThis species is a very large kangaroo with long, pointed ears and a square shaped muzzle [snout/nose]. They are sexually dimorphic as the males have short, red-brown fur, fading to pale buff below and on the limbs. "


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"Females are smaller than males and are blue-grey with a brown tinge, pale grey below, although arid zone females are coloured more like males. It has two forelimbs with small claws, two muscular hind-limbs, which are used for jumping, and a strong tail which is often used to create a tripod when standing upright.\nMales grow up to a head-and-body length of 1.3\u20131.6 m (4.3\u20135.2 ft) with a tail that adds a further 1.2 m (3.9 ft) to the total length and are referred to by Australians as \"Big Reds\". Females are considerably smaller, with a head-and-body length of 85\u2013105 cm (33\u201341 in) and tail length of 65\u201385 cm (26\u201333 in). Females can weigh from 18 to 40 kg (40 to 88 lb), while males typically weigh about twice as much at 55 to 90 kg (121 to 198 lb). The average red kangaroo stands approximately 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall to the top of the head in upright posture. "


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"Large mature males can stand more than 1.8 m (5.9 ft) tall, with the largest confirmed one having been around 2.1 m (6.9 ft) tall and weighed 91 kg (201 lb).The red kangaroo maintains its internal temperature at a point of homeostasis about 36 \u00b0C (97 \u00b0F) using a variety of physical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations. These include having an insulating layer of fur, being less active and staying in the shade when temperatures are high, panting, sweating, and licking its forelimbs.\nThe red kangaroo's range of vision is approximately 300\u00b0 (324\u00b0 with about 25\u00b0 overlap), due to the position of its eyes.\n\n== Locomotion ==\nThe red kangaroo's legs work much like a rubber band, with the Achilles tendon stretching as the animal comes down, then releasing its energy to propel the animal up and forward, enabling the characteristic bouncing locomotion. They can reach speeds of around 60 km/h (37 mph). The males can cover 8\u20139 m (26.2\u201329.5 ft) in one leap while reaching heights of 1.8\u20133 m (5.9\u20139.8 ft), though the average is 1.2\u20131.9 m (3.9\u20136.2 ft).\n\n== Ecology and habitat ==\n\nThe red kangaroo ranges throughout western and central Australia. "


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"Its range encompasses scrubland, grassland, and desert habitats. It typically inhabits open habitats with some trees for shade. Red kangaroos are capable of conserving enough water and selecting enough fresh vegetation to survive in an arid environment. The kangaroo's kidneys efficiently concentrate urine, particularly during summer. Red kangaroo primarily eat green vegetation, particularly fresh grasses and forbs, and can get enough even when most plants look brown and dry. One study of kangaroos in Central Australia found that green grass makes up 75\u201395% of the diet, with Eragrostis setifolia dominating at 54%. This grass continues to be green into the dry season. Kangaroos also primarily consumed this species, along with Enneapogon avanaceus, in western New South Wales where they comprised much as 21\u201369% of its diet according to a study. During dry times, kangaroos search for green plants by staying on open grassland and near watercourses. While grasses and forbs are preferred, red kangaroos will also eat certain species of chenopods, like Bassia diacantha and Maireana pyramidata, and will even browse shrubs when its favoured foods are scarce. However, some perennial chenopods, such as round-leaf chenopod Kochia are avoided even when abundant.\n\n"


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"At times, red kangaroos congregate in large numbers; in areas with much forage, these groups can number as much as 1,500 individuals. Red kangaroos are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, resting in the shade during the day. However, they sometimes move about during the day. Red kangaroos rely on small saltbushes or mulga bushes for shelter in extreme heat rather than rocky outcrops or caves. Grazing takes up most of their daily activities. Like most kangaroo species, they are mostly sedentary, staying within a relatively well-defined home range. However, great environmental changes can cause them to travel great distances. Kangaroos in New South Wales have weekly home ranges of 258\u2013560 ha, with the larger areas belonging to adult males. When forage is poor and rainfall patchy, kangaroos will travel 25\u201330 km to more favourable feeding grounds. Another study of kangaroos in central Australia found that most of them stay close to remaining vegetation but disperse to find fresh plants after it rains. The red kangaroo is too big to be subject to significant non-human predation. They can use their robust legs and clawed feet to defend themselves from attackers with kicks and blows. "


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"However, dingoes and eagles can kill and eat joeys. Joeys are thus protected in their mother's pouch. The red kangaroo does have some major predators, like crocodiles. Extinct predators include the marsupial lion, the thylacine, Megalania, the locally extinct komodo dragon and the wonambi. Kangaroos are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if threatened by a predator. If pursued into the water, a kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.\n\n== Behaviour ==\n\nRed kangaroos live in groups of 2\u20134 members. The most common groups are females and their young. Larger groups can be found in densely populated areas and females are usually with a male. Membership of these groups is very flexible, and males (boomers) are not territorial, fighting only over females (flyers) that come into heat. Males develop proportionately much larger shoulders and arms than females. Most agonistic interactions occur between young males, which engage in ritualised fighting known as boxing. They usually stand up on their hind limbs and attempt to push their opponent off balance by jabbing him or locking forearms. If the fight escalates, they will begin to kick each other. "


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"Using their tail to support their weight, they deliver kicks with their powerful hind legs. Compared to other kangaroo species, fights between red kangaroo males tend to involve more wrestling. Fights establish dominance relationships among males, and determine who gets access to estrous females. Dominant males make agonistic behaviours and more sexual behaviours until they are overthrown. Displaced males live alone and avoid close contact with others.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe red kangaroo breeds all year round. The females have the unusual ability to delay the birth of their baby until their previous joey has left the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause. Copulation may last 25 minutes. The red kangaroo has the typical reproductive system of a kangaroo. The neonate emerges after only 33 days. Usually only one young is born at a time. It is blind, hairless, and only a few centimetres long. Its hind legs are mere stumps; it instead uses its more developed forelegs to climb its way through the thick fur on its mother's abdomen into the pouch, which takes about three to five minutes. Once in the pouch, it fastens onto one of the two teats and starts to feed. "


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"Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it leaves the pouch for the last time. While the young joey will permanently leave the pouch at around 235 days old, it will continue to suckle until it reaches about 12 months of age. A doe may first reproduce as early as 18 months of age and as late as five years during drought, but normally she is two and a half years old before she begins to breed.\n\n"


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"The female red kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, red kangaroo mothers may \"have up to three generations of offspring simultaneously; a young-at-foot suckling from an elongated teat, a young in the pouch attached to a second teat and a blastula in arrested development in the uterus\".The red kangaroo has also been observed to engage in alloparental care, a behaviour in which a female may adopt another female's joey. This is a common parenting behaviour seen in many other animal species like wolves, elephants and fathead minnows.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\nThe red kangaroo is an abundant species and has even benefited from the spread of agriculture and creation of man-made waterholes. However, competition with livestock and rabbits poses a threat. "


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"It is also sometimes shot by farmers as a pest, although a \"destruction permit\" is required from the relevant state government.Kangaroos dazzled by headlights or startled by engine noise often leap in front of vehicles, severely damaging or destroying smaller or unprotected vehicles. The risk of harm to vehicle occupants is greatly increased if the windscreen is the point of impact. As a result, \"kangaroo crossing\" signs are commonplace in Australia.\nPeak times for kangaroo/vehicle crashes are between 5:00 PM and 10:00 PM, in winter, and after extended dry-weather spells.\n\n=== Commercial use ===\nLike all Australian wildlife, the red kangaroo is protected by legislation, but it is so numerous that there is regulated harvest of its hide and meat. Hunting permits and commercial harvesting are controlled under nationally approved management plans, which aim to maintain red kangaroo populations and manage them as a renewable resource. Harvesting of kangaroos is controversial, particularly due to the animal's popularity.In the year 2000, 1,173,242 animals were killed. In 2009 the government put a limit of 1,611,216 for the number of red kangaroos available for commercial use. The kangaroo industry is worth about A$270 million each year, and employs over 4000 people.\n"


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"The kangaroos provide meat for both humans and pet food. Kangaroo meat is very lean with only about 2% fat. Their skins are used for leather.\n\n== See also ==\nRoo bar\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Macropus rufus at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The big (or large) hairy armadillo (Chaetophractus villosus) is one of the largest and most numerous armadillos in South America. It lives from sea level to altitudes of up to 1,300 meters across the southern portion of South America, and can be found in grasslands, forests, and savannahs, and has even started claiming agricultural areas as its home. It is an accomplished digger and spends most of its time below ground. It makes both temporary and long-term burrows, depending on its food source.Armadillos are protected from predators by a series of thin, bony plates along the head and back. They reach sexual maturity at around 9 months and have been known to live over 30 years in captivity. Though this animal is routinely harvested for its meat and its shell, or simply killed by farmers, it has shown resiliency, and populations seem to be handling this exploitation well. Currently, no protective practices are in place for this armadillo, but it does live in many protected areas. This species of armadillo is a preferred research animal due to its adaptability to laboratory settings, and relative hardiness in situations of stress.\n\n"


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"== Description and taxonomy ==\n\nChaetophractus villosus or the big hairy armadillo is the most abundant species of armadillo in Argentina. The armadillo's head and body are covered by protective bony plates, with its head plate being the most prominent. Along its back, flexible bands that encircle the torso allow flexibility in this otherwise stiff armor. The underside of this armadillo is densely covered in hair and this trait is how it got its common name. Long, coarse hairs also project from the bony plates, making this armadillo much hairier than other related species. The average individual grows from 26 to 34 cm (10 to 13 in) in body length, 22\u201340 cm (8.7\u201315.7 in) in extreme cases, and weighs 2 kg (4.4 lb), with a range of 1\u20133 kg (2.2\u20136.6 lb) by the time it reaches maturity. The tail measures 9 to 17 cm (3.5 to 6.7 in) long. Powerful front claws are used for both foraging and avoiding predators. "


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"The armadillo can use specially evolved membranes in its nose to obtain oxygen from the surrounding soil particles without inhaling any of the soil itself.The genus Chaetophractus consists of two or three species, C. vellerosus (the screaming hairy armadillo), C. nationi (the Andean hairy armadillo, which may actually be a population of C. vellerosus), and C. villosus. These species are recognized by the large amount of hair that extends all over their bodies, but especially on their undersides. The skulls follow the same patterns as other dasypodids, but females exhibit longer bones in the rostrocaudal plane, which is one of the key characteristics that shows the sexual dimorphism of these species. Not much is known about the cranial morphology of these species, especially bone descriptions. More research is being done to better describe these species and the skeletal differences between them.  For now, body size, habitat, and behaviors are the best way to discern the differences.\n\n== Diagnosis ==\nWhen trying to determine the differences between these species, a few noticeable traits stand out. The first difference is size; C. villosus is the larger species. "


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"It can grow to a length of 34 cm (13 in). C. vellerosus is much smaller, being able to fit in the palm of a hand when fully grown, usually weighing only a kilogram. Both species are covered with much more hair than any other armadillos, mostly sprouting from its underside or between the bony plates along its back. When C. villosus is sexually aroused with an erect penis, species determination is easier. Its penis can be as long as 35 mm, and usually remains completely withdrawn inside a skin receptacle. The lesser hairy armadillo can usually be found in higher altitudes because its smaller size and slower metabolic rate helps it survive in areas with less food.\n\n== Fossil record ==\nThe presence of a carapace containing osteoderms is one of the very distinctive features of armadillos, and is true for fossil taxa as well. These elements are evident frequently in the paleontological record due to their resilience. Three distinct areas are recognized in these hardened plates. The outer and inner parts are made of thin, compact bone, while the middle zone is thicker and contains tissues for hair follicles and sweat glands. "


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"The presence of red bone marrow is rare in members of Chaetophractus, but widespread in Dasypus novemcinctus osteoderms. These findings propose an early split of both subfamilies and maintain the hypothesis that the Euphractinae are more derived than the Dasypodinae.C. villosus earliest known fossils were found in the Pampean region, which suggests this is where the species originated. Fossil records then indicate the migration into Patagonia as the main dispersal route, which most likely occurred after the Pleistocenic glaciations. Using molecular dating, scientists estimated the first armadillos emerged around the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. This was followed by the divergence of anteaters and sloths in the Early Eocene era.\n\n== Geographic distribution ==\nThe C. villosus home range encompasses the Pampas and Patagonia as far south as Santa Cruz, Argentina and Magallanes, Chile. It is found in the Gran Chaco Province of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, and is starting to migrate south into the Tierra del Fuego province of Argentina, as well. It can be found in the Biob\u00edo province and south to Ais\u00e9n Province, both in eastern Chile. Climate change, allegedly, and the opportunistic tendencies of this armadillo are allowing them to live in more areas. "


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"Unlike some other armadillos, the big hairy armadillo has not experienced drastic change in its territory. It has not migrated as far north as some other species.\n\n== Ecology ==\nMembers of Chlamyphoridae, including C. villosus, have evolved very interesting and specific traits to help them survive. The most recognizable of these are the bony plates that cover the armadillos' heads and backs. These protective plates allow the individual a fair measure of protection against its natural predators. This species also has a remarkable respiratory adaptation when the nostrils are completely covered in soil. It is able to maintain sufficient respiratory movements due to a mechanism that allows it to use air that fills the space between soil particles, without inhaling the particles themselves. This, along with its powerful digging claws and high surface-area-to-mass ratio, contributes to this fossorial, or subterranean, lifestyle. Even with the added challenge of burrowing, this armadillo maintains similar ratios as nonfossorial species and suggests it has adapted to a burrowing lifestyle as a way to avoid extreme temperatures and predators, rather than any help it could receive from foraging.Little is known about the hemostasis of this species. "


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"Platelet counts are similar between sexes and they seem to remain similar even when in captivity. They are comparable to most other mammals and react in the same manner to proven agonists. More studies in this area could reveal biomedical advances, but little more is known now.Scientists conducting studies on the C. villosus penis muscles revealed this species' very long penis exhibits variability. During its waking hours, it remains hidden beneath a skin receptacle, until it becomes erect and it projects outside in a rostral direction. During its slow wave sleep phase, penile protrusion makes some very complex movements. The penis during this phase is not erect, but remains outside of its receptacle. During paradoxical sleep, no erections occur, and the penile muscles share the characteristics of the rest of the body.\n\n== Life history and behavior ==\nChaetophractus villosus spends most of its time burrowing in the ground and looking for insects or worms as its main foraging method. Its powerful front claws and snout allow it to rout through the sediment with relative ease. "


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"When the armadillo detects a predator, it will run to the nearest burrow and wedge itself in using its legs; only the bony plates are exposed to predators. When it cannot get to one of its burrows, it will lay down flat on the ground to better protect its softer underside.Most of this armadillo's activity occurs starting at dusk and continues on into the night. It can be seen active in the day, however, when enough food cannot be found during the night. It uses its sense of smell to find prey, and shovels soil away to reach it. Most individuals breed in the late winter or spring, but in captivity they have been known to conceive year round. After a gestation period of 60 to 75 days, the female will usually give birth to a litter of one to two young which are suckled for another 50 to 80 days.C. villosus seems to be able to burrow through most sediment, but tends to shy away from rockier terrains. They tend to burrow into the side of a hill rather than on flat ground. "


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"Their temporary burrows (in search of food or safety) are usually shallower and not as complex as their home burrows, which are usually much deeper and can be quite complex, with many escape tunnels and dens. The orientation of their burrows depends largely on the wind direction. This allows them to be well adapted to arid desert terrain.\n\n== Conservation ==\nC. villosus is rated as a least concern species, due to its large population and widespread habitat range. It also has a remarkable ability to adapt to many changing environments. It is considered a least concern species because it is not predicted to decrease into any of the threatened categories any time soon. In fact, the population seems to be increasing.\n\n== References =="


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"Sanzinia madagascariensis, also known as the Malagasy tree boa  or Madagascar tree boa, is a boa species endemic to the island of Madagascar. It was considered conspecific with the Nosy Komba ground boa. Like all other boas, it is non-venomous.\n\n== Description ==\nAdults average 4\u20135 feet (122\u2013152 cm) in length, although 6\u20137 foot (183\u2013213 cm) specimens are not uncommon. Thermoreceptive pits are located between the labial scales. Females are larger than males.\nIt is greenish in colour and is found on the east side of Madagascar.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nEndemic to Madagascar. The type locality given is \"Madagascar\". Favors trees and shrubs near streams, rivers, ponds and swamps.\n\n== Conservation status ==\nThis species was classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2006 with the following criteria: A1cd (v2.3, 1994). This means that a population reduction of at least 20% has been observed, estimated, inferred or suspected over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat, and based on actual or potential levels of exploitation.\n"


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"It is now listed as Least Concern (LC) as it is widespread, present in heavily degraded habitats and it is not subject to any known or suspected threats.Also listed as CITES Appendix I, which means that it is threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for example for scientific research.\n\n== Feeding ==\nArboreal and generally nocturnal, S. madagascariensis feeds on mammals and birds. Its thermoreceptive pits help it to locate its prey. It will also leave the trees to actively hunt for small mammals on the ground.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nOvoviviparous, females give birth to up to 12 young at a time, each about 15 inches (38 cm) in length.When females become gravid, their skin color darkens. This adaptation provides increased heat absorption for the developing young. After giving birth, the color returns to normal as soon as it next sheds its skin. Neonates are a bright red that may warn predators to \"stay away\", while simultaneously providing camouflage among brightly colored treetop flowers.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nWhen Kluge (1991) moved Sanzinia madagascariensis (A.M.C. Dum\u00e9ril & Bibron, 1844) to Boa together with Acrantophis madagascariensis (A.M.C. "


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"Dum\u00e9ril & Bibron, 1844), it resulted in homonymy. To fix this nomenclatural problem, he proposed the specific name manditra as a replacement for S. madagascariensis.It has since been shown that the Malagasy boids and the genus Boa do not form a monophyletic group, so that the lumping of Sanzinia, Acrantophis and Boa was incorrect, and the name Sanzinia madagascariensis is therefore the correct name for this species.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nSanzinia madagascariensis at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 10 July 2008."


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"Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii or Panolia eldii), also known as the thamin or brow-antlered deer, is an endangered species of deer endemic to South Asia.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe species was first described by John McClelland in 1840 based on specimens obtained in Manipur, India. It was described more detailed by Percy Eld in 1841; it was suggested to call the deer Cervus Eldii. McClelland coined the scientific name Cervus (Rusa) frontals in 1843.\nIn 1850, John Edward Gray proposed the name Panolia eldii for the deer. It has recently been proposed that it should be moved back to the genus Panolia on the basis of recent genetic findings that place it closer to Pere David's deer than to other members of the genus Rucervus.The three subspecies of the Eld's deer are:\nRucervus eldii eldii: The Manipuri brow-antlered deer is found in Manipur, India. It is called the sangai in Meitei.\nR. e. thamin: The Burmese brow-antlered deer found in Myanmar, and westernmost Thailand.\nR. e. siamensis: The Thai brow-antlered deer is found in Cambodia, China, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, and should perhaps be treated as a separate species. "


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"The population on the Chinese island of Hainan is sometimes considered another subspecies, P. e. hainanus, but this is not supported by genetic evidence. It was described by Lydekker in 1915.\n\n== Appearance ==\nThe following measurements have been reported for the Eld's deer:\nHead\u2013body length: 150\u2013180 cm (59\u201371 in)\nShoulder height: 110\u2013125 cm (43\u201349 in)\nTail length: 20\u201330 cm (8\u201312 in)\nWeight: 125\u2013175 kg (276\u2013386 lb)\nAntler length: 99 cm (39 in)\nThe deer are generally of medium size and are similar to the size and shape of the related barasingha (R. duvaucelli). The species has a very regal and graceful Cervus-like physique. Its legs are thin and long, and has a long body with a large head on a thin neck. The throat of a male has a thick mane of long hair. Males (stags) are taller and heavier than the females (hinds or does). Their coats, rough and coarse, change colour with the season; in summer the colour is reddish-brown, while in winter, it turns dark brown, with males tending to be darker than the females. The tail is short in length and the rump has no distinct patch. "


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"Despite these features, they are actually related to the P\u00e8re David's deer. The antlers, bow- or lyre-shaped, do not grow upwards, but tend to grow outwards and then inwards; a smaller branch grows towards the front of the head. The brow tines are especially long and noticeable. The brow-antlered deer is so named because they have long brow tines. The antlers of Eld's deer are structurally different from those of barasingha but have similarities to those of P\u00e8re David's deer, consistent with the genetic relationship. They shed their antlers every year, with the largest size attained during the breeding season.\n\n== Conservation status ==\nThe conservation status of three subspecies of Eld's deer, by country, are:\n\n=== India ===\nThe Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), covering an area of 40 km2 (15.4 sq mi) of marshland called the Phumdis within the larger Loktak Lake, was gazetted in 1977 specifically to protect the Rucervus eldii eldii, the sangai in Meitei. Over time, public awareness and local support have evolved for conserving the subspecies of the endemic endangered Elds' deer. Concerted actions have been initiated to stop encroachment of the park and adequate security arrangements have been made to stop poaching. "


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"This fact is very somberly presented in a story form in a popular children's magazine called Chandamama, which gives a first-person symbolic narrative by the affected 'deer' itself. The final conclusion by the deer, quoted below, concisely puts the security provided in the park in a proper perspective.\n\"'Thanks to these youngsters who live nearby', he said. I was happy and felt indebted to the youngsters for saving our lives. My friend added that these people really loved and respected the Sangai deer. They believed that killing the Sangai was an unpardonable sin. According to a Meitei legend, the Sangai are the link between humans and nature. So, killing us would mean breaking a bond. My friend informed me that people concerned about animals like us have formed a group. They teach others to protect animals, too.The news that people are trying their best to save the phumdis, deer like me, and the Loktak Lake, infuses new hope in me. 'How nice of them!'I thought.\nAnyway, it is getting dark and my friend and I have to return to our herd. And those of you who are around can enjoy our dancing gait as we trot back home. "


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"It would be great if I could meet you again. We could dance together at KLNP, if you can make it here some time!\"The home range of brow-antlered deer in the park is confined to 15\u201320 km2 (5.8\u20137.7 sq mi) in the southwestern part of the lake where phumdis on which the deer thrive are abundant. A study conducted on the proportion, on the basis of body weight of stag, hind and fawn, is reported to be 4:2:1. The sangai distribution dictated by shelter and availability of food is high near Toyaching, Pabotching and the Yang Kokchambi area.Censuses conducted by the wildlife wing of the Forest Department in 1975, 1990, 2000 and 2003 has shown the Eld's deer population was 14, 76, 162 and 180, respectively. The 2000 survey of 162 deer included 54 stags, 76 hinds and 32 fawns. The reports of 2004 indicate a figure of 182 as referred in another section here, which shows the subspecies in Manipur is on the rise.A successful captive breeding programme is underway at the Alipore Zoological Gardens in Kolkata, and many specimens of the deer have been bred here.\n\n"


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"=== Burma ===\nFor protection of the thamin subspecies of the Eld's deer, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary (both protected sanctuaries) and Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park were chosen. Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, with an area of 104 sq mi (269.4 km2) in Myanmar's central plains, 125 sq mi (323.7 km2) northwest of the city of Mandalay, has Indaing deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by Dipterocarpus tuberculatus and is the habitat for four species of deer: thamin, muntjac (Muntiacus muntjac), hog deer (Axis porcinus), and sambhar (Rusa unicolor).  Subject to indiscriminate hunting in the past (till the ownership of guns was controlled after the 1960s), the thamin, highly threatened, now has a population of about 1,000. Initially, the Smithsonian National Zoo acquired a few thamin for observations and subsequently shifted a few to its Conservation and Research Center at Front Royal, Virginia for biological study.\nFor a cross\u2013check of the biological studies done at the research center, the Smithsonian Institution selected the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, a protected park. Special studies on the thamin deer were conducted by the conservation scientists headed by Christen Wemmer of the Smithsonian. "


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"They gathered details on the biology and survival of the species by duly correlating with the changes that occurred in the ecology of the region of the Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary. Under the research project study, the ecology of thamin and a series of training courses in biodiversity were organised. The thamin's life cycle studies on 11 male and eight female radio\u2013collared deer, supported by field studies by the scientists, revealed:\nIts life cycle was well-tuned to the seasonal rhythm of its environment.\nAn average group size was 2.5 per 1.6 km2 (0.62 sq mi); deer mother with young appeared to be the basic social unit.\nMales were in velvet when they were in bachelor groups.\nAfter new grass sprouts in the ashes of February and March fires, they gathered to graze on tender shoots.\nMales moved through the herds seeking receptive females.\nMarch and April were the months of rut.\nMales with their newly hardened antlers were in a state of anorexia and sexual obsession during this period.\nThey operated in a specific home range of about 3.5 sq mi (9.1 km2) to 2.7 sq mi (7.0 km2).\n"


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"When food was short, some animals migrated into farmland for a few months before returning to the park; during the day they hid in small patches of degraded forest and at night they forayed into the croplands.\nSmithsonian National Zoological Park, which has been closely associated with the preservation of the thamin deer, has in its conclusive observations stated: \"Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS) in Myanmar (Burma) protects the largest population of the endangered Eld's deer left in the world. It also represents one of the largest remaining patches of dipterocarp forest\u2013a dry forest that is one of the most threatened and least protected forest types globally. Local people rely on these forests for their livelihood. The forests provide wood, food, shelter, and medicine. Restricting people's access to these forests by declaring them protected is probably not a sustainable solution and will put greater burden on lower income households potentially increasing poverty. However, if people continue to use and abuse forests unregulated they will disappear and with them the Eld's deer and many other species.\""


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"With external funding for such protection drying up, though, the efforts had not yielded encouraging results and the conclusion was the conditions were not conducive even to protect the protected parks given the political and funding situation in the country.\nThe picture is not encouraging in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, either. The Burmese brow-antlered deer is 'Near Threatened' and still occurs in reasonable numbers.\n\n=== Thailand ===\nThe situation of protected areas for the Eld's deer is much worse in Thailand and along its border areas with Laos and Cambodia; it is feared that it may be difficult to prevent the \"decline and likely extirpation of Eld's deer from the wild in Thailand\".\n\n=== Other countries ===\nIn Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, Eld's deer was hunted for the traditional medicinal trade (particularly of this subspecies) and to meet demand for captive animals (especially from zoos) and forest habitat was degraded (deforested) to meet agriculture and infrastructural developments. The subpopulation in Hainan considered as a subspecies by Chinese conservationists was almost extinct in the wild.In the Savannakhet Province of Laos, conservation efforts centred around community management caused the local population to increase from 80 to 170. "


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"A 130,000 hectare National Eld\u2019s Deer Sanctuary was created in the area.\n\n== Assessment ==\nIn over 200 recent years of known history, the number of this species has declined substantially. Based on estimated rates of the decline of this species assessed in three generations (supposed to be at least a 15-year period) for all the species, the average value is reported to be in excess of 50%. Based on this assessment, IUCN has categorized the species as Endangered. In this assessment for determining the species-level, the numbers in India were considered to be numerically small (also found to be increasing), hence the numbers of wild populations only of Eld's deer P. e. thamin in Myanmar and P. e. siamensis of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam were considered. The decline in population has been mainly attributed to hunting. In the case of the Myanmar thamin, the decline is discernible but not striking. The categorization is considered a middle-ground situation considering the extensively diverse conditions and conservation trends in the geographically isolated and distinct populations of this species.\n\n"


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"== Subspecies ==\n\n=== Breeding ===\nFemale Eld's deer are generally found alone or in pairs with their young, but during the mating season, females and their young gather in herds of up to 50 individuals. Males also move around singly except during mating season. When rutting takes place, males compete with each other to gain control of a harem of females with which they can then mate. After a long gestation period, normally a single calf is born. The young have white spots at birth which fade away as they grow; they are weaned at seven months of age, and become sexually mature from 18 months of age onwards. The gestation period for three species is 220 to 240 days, with birthing occurring:.\nFor Manipur deer, between October and end of December\nFor the Burmese thamin, between October and November\nFor the siamensis deer in Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, between October and November\n\n=== Numbers in the wild ===\nIn India, the Eld's deer sangai subspecies  is confined to the peculiar floating bog called Phumdis in Loktak Lake and is numbered at less than a few hundred animals. "


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"The subspecies P. e. siamensis, which occupied the vast monsoon forests from Thailand to Hainan was extinct in Thailand, very few in number in Laos and Cambodia, and almost extinct in Vietnam. A few hundred deer were protected in a large enclosure in Hainan Island, China. The estimated figures are:\n\n180 animals (2004) of P. e. eldii in Manipur\n2,200 (United Nations estimate) \u2013 1992 survey for P. e. thamin of Burma and Thailand\nIn low tens (2004) \u2013 for P. e. siamensis, considered as possibly extinct in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam\n\n=== Numbers in captivity (zoos) ===\nIn 2003, the estimated number of captive animals of the three subspecies in zoos were 180 P. e. eldii, 1100 P. e. thamin and 23 P. e. siamensis.\n\n== Peculiarities ==\nPeculiarities to each subspecies include:\nR. e. eldii of Manipur, India is associated with wetlands. It has adaptations of the hooves (feet) to move easily in their marshland (boggy ground) habitat of phumdis. It lives in significantly different ecosystems compared to other subspecies and in divergent morphology. Antlers are shed every year and reach their largest size during the breeding season.\n"


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"R. e. thamin of Burma and Thailand are not associated with wetlands and live in three forest types: indaing forest (dominated by the tree Dipterocarpus tuberculatus) equivalent to deciduous dipterocarp forest (dipterocarp trees which belong to the family Dipterocarpaceae are resinous trees found in the Old World tropics) of Indochina and Thailand, deciduous forests of dry (thandahat), and mixed (teak).\nR. e. siamensis of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam are not associated with wetlands. They are found in deciduous dipterocarp forests.\n\n== Habits ==\nSome observations on the habits of Eld's deer common to all three subspecies are a) active most of the time, seek shelter from the midday sun and migrate for short periods seeking water in the dry season and food in the growing season, b)seek areas that are seasonally burned in search of new grasses that grow after the burn, c) their diets comprise a variety of grasses, herbaceous plants, and shoots, grasses, fruit and wetland plants and they poach into cultivated crops to graze and browse in nearby fields of rice, lentils, maize, peas and grapes.\n\n"


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"== Threats ==\nThamin are prized as game by hunters due to their impressive antlers and hides that are in demand in local markets. They are also widely hunted for food; they were believed to have been used to feed armies during many Asian wars. Their population has additionally declined due to intense development activities necessitating reclamation of land for grazing, cultivation and fish farming within their range. In Myanmar, deforestion of the diperocarp forests is cited as a reason for the threat faced by the thamin deer. The habitat available for their protection is very limited; only 1% of the protected forests are suitable for its protection in South Asia. Even in protected areas, the animals are poached. Another striking problem is finding adequate funds and political will to protect the species. The species have a fragmented distribution and are therefore at risk from inbreeding and loss of genetic variation. The film The Return of Sangai is a documentary by George Thengummoottil about the species in Keibul Lamjao National Park.\n\n"


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"== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nE-Pao.Net - Sangai : A cry in the wilderness\nARKive - images and movies of the Eld's deer (Cervus eldii)\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060209002557/http://www.greenapple.com/~jorp/amzanim/eldsdeer.htm\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060114080709/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/EldsDeer/\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150905082956/http://www.indianwildlifeimages.com/product_display.php?cat=Sangai%20Deer"


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"The fulvous whistling duck or fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bicolor) is a species of whistling duck that breeds across the world's tropical regions in much of Mexico and South America, the West Indies, the southern United States, sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent. It has plumage that is mainly reddish brown, long legs and a long grey bill, and shows a distinctive white band across its black tail in flight. Like other members of its ancient lineage, it has a whistling call which is given in flight or on the ground. Its preferred habitat consists of wetlands with plentiful vegetation, including shallow lakes and paddy fields.\nThe nest, built from plant material and unlined, is placed among dense vegetation or in a tree hole. The typical clutch is around ten whitish eggs. The breeding adults, which pair for life, take turns to incubate, and the eggs hatch in 24\u201329 days. The downy grey ducklings leave the nest within a day or so of hatching, but the parents continue to protect them until they fledge around nine weeks later.\nThe fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night on seeds and other parts of plants. "


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"It is sometimes regarded as a pest of rice cultivation, and is also shot for food in parts of its range. Despite hunting, poisoning by pesticides and natural predation by mammals, birds, and reptiles, the large numbers and huge range of this duck mean that it is classified as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe whistling ducks, Dendrocygna, are a distinctive group of eight bird species within the duck, goose and swan family, Anatidae, which are characterised by a hump-backed, long-necked appearance and the whistled flight calls that give them their English name. They were an early split from the main duck lineage, and were predominant in the Late Miocene before the subsequent extensive radiation of more modern forms in the Pliocene and later. The fulvous whistling duck forms a superspecies with the wandering whistling duck. "


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"It has no recognised subspecies, although the birds in northern Mexico and the southern US have in the past been assigned to D. b. helva, described as having paler and brighter underparts and a lighter crown than D. b. bicolor.The duck was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 and given the name Anas fulva but the name was \"preoccupied\", or already used, by Friedrich Christian Meuschen in 1787 for another species. This led to the next available name proposed by French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816 from a Paraguayan specimen as Anas bicolor. The whistling ducks were moved to their current genus, Dendrocygna, by British ornithologist William John Swainson in recognition of their differences from other ducks. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek dendron, \"tree\", and Latin cygnus, \"swan\", and  bicolor is Latin for \"two-coloured\". \"Fulvous\" means reddish-yellow, and is derived from the Latin equivalent fulvus. Old and regional names include large whistling teal, brown tree duck, Mexican duck, pichiguila, squealer and Spanish cavalier.\n\n"


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"== Description ==\nThe fulvous whistling duck is 45\u201353 cm (18\u201321 in) long; the male weighs 748\u20131,050 g (26.4\u201337.0 oz), and the female averages marginally lighter at 712\u20131,000 g (25.1\u201335.3 oz). The wingspan ranges from 85 to 93 cm.It is a long-legged duck, mainly different shades of brown; head, neck and breast are particularly rich buff (fulvous) with a darker back. The mantle is more darker shade of brown with buff-tipped feathers, the flight feathers and tail are dark brown, and a dark brown to black stripe runs through the center of the crown down the back of the neck to the base of the mantle. It has whitish stripes on its flanks, a long grey bill and grey legs. In flight, the wings are brown above and black below, with no white markings, and a white crescent on the rump contrasts with the black tail. All plumages are fairly similar, but the female is slightly smaller and duller-plumaged than the male. The juvenile has paler underparts, and appears generally duller, especially on the flanks. There is a complete wing moult after breeding, and birds then seek the cover of dense wetland vegetation while they are flightless. "


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"Body feathers may be moulted throughout the year; each feather is replaced only once annually.These are noisy birds with a clear whistling kee-wee-ooo call given on the ground or in flight, frequently heard at night. Quarrelling birds also have a harsh repeated kee. In flight, the beating wings produce a dull sound. The calls of males and females show differences in structure and an acoustic analysis on 59 captive birds demonstrated 100% accuracy in sexing when compared with molecular methods.Adult birds in Asia can be confused with the similar lesser whistling duck, which is smaller, has a blackish crown and lacks an obvious dark stripe down the back of the neck. Juvenile fulvous whistling ducks are very like young lesser whistling ducks, but the crown colour is still a distinction. Juvenile comb ducks are bulkier than whistling ducks and have a dark cap to the head. In South America and Africa, juvenile white-faced whistling ducks are separable from fulvous by their dark crowns, barred flanks and chestnut breasts.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe fulvous whistling duck has a very large range extending across four continents. "


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"It breeds in lowland South America from northern Argentina to Colombia and then up to the southern US and the West Indies. It is found in a broad belt across sub-Saharan Africa and down the east of the continent to South Africa and Madagascar. The Indian subcontinent is the Asian stronghold. It undertakes seasonal movements in response to the availability of water and food. African birds move southwards in the southern summer to breed and return north in the winter, and Asian populations are highly nomadic due to the variability of rainfall. This species has strong colonising tendencies, having expanded its range in Mexico, the US and the West Indies in recent decades with northerly range expansions into California in late 19th century and rice-growing regions of the U.S. Gulf Coastal Plain in the early to mid-20th century, given its affinity for rice-growing areas. Breeding in the northern American region is restricted to the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas and Louisiana and localities in southern California and south- and east-central Florida. "


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"Observations of the bird outside the nesting season, especially since the 1950s have been recorded in temperate regions as far north as the Mississippi River Basin, eastern Great Lakes region, and along the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts right up to southern Canada. Wandering birds can turn up far beyond the normal range, sometimes staying to nest, as in Morocco, Peru and Hawaii.The fulvous whistling duck is found in lowland marshes and swamps in open, rice fields, flat country, and it avoids wooded areas. It is not normally a mountain species, breeding in Venezuela, for example, only up 300 m (980 ft), but the single Peruvian breeding record was at 4,080 m (13,390 ft).\n\n== Behaviour ==\n\nThis species is usually found in small groups, but substantial flocks can form at favoured sites. It walks well, without waddling, and normally feeds by upending, though it can dive if necessary. It does not often perch in trees, unlike other whistling ducks. It flies at low altitude with slow wingbeats and trailing feet, in loose flocks rather than tight formation. "


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"It feeds during the day and at night in fairly large flocks, often with other whistling duck species, but rests or sleeps in smaller groups in the middle of the day. They are noisy and display their aggression towards other individuals by throwing back their heads. Before taking off in alarm, they often shake their head sideways.Several arthropod parasites have been recorded on this duck, including chewing mites of the families Philopteridae and Menoponidae, feather mites and skin mites. Internal helminth parasites include roundworms, tapeworms and flukes. In a survey in Florida, all 30 ducks tested carried at least two helminth species; none had blood parasites. Only one duck had no mites or lice.\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nBreeding coincides with the availability of water. In South America and South Africa, the main nesting period is December\u2013February, in Nigeria it is July\u2013December, and in North America mid-May\u2013August. In India, the breeding season is from June to October but peaking in July and August. "


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"Fulvous whistling ducks show lifelong monogamy; the courtship display is limited to some mutual head-dipping before mating and a short dance after copulation in which the birds raise their bodies side by side while treading water.Pairs may breed alone or in loose groups. In South Africa, nests may be within 50 m (160 ft) of each other, and breeding densities of up to 13.7 nests per square kilometre (35.5 per square mile) have been found in Louisiana. The nest, 19\u201326 cm (7.5\u201310.2 in) across, is made from plant leaves and stems and has little or no soft lining. It is usually built on the ground (unlike the Black-bellied whistling duck), in marsh vegetation, and in artificial habitats such as shallowly-flooded rice fields, in dense vegetation and close to water, but sometimes in tree holes. In India, the use of tree holes, and even the old nests of raptors or crows, is much more common than elsewhere. Eggs are laid at roughly 24- to 36-hour intervals, starting before the nest is complete, resulting in some losses from the clutch. "


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"They are whitish and on average measure 53.4 mm \u00d7 40.7 mm (2.10 in \u00d7 1.60 in) and weigh 50.4 g (1.78 oz). The clutch is usually around ten eggs, but other females sometimes lay into the nest, so 20 or more may be found on occasion. Eggs may also be added to the nests of other species, like ruddy duck.Both sexes incubate, changing over once a day, with the male often taking the greater share of this duty. The eggs hatch in about 24\u201329 days, The downy ducklings are grey, with paler upperparts, and a white band on the neck, and weigh 22\u201338 g (0.78\u20131.34 oz) within a day of hatching. Like all ducklings, they are precocial and leave the nest after a day or so, but the parents protect them until they fledge around nine weeks later. Eggs and duckling may be preyed on by mammals, birds and reptiles; one parent may try to distract a potential predator with a broken-wing display while the other adult leads the ducklings away. "


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"Birds are sexually mature after one year, and the maximum known age is 6.5 years.In South Africa, a few records of hybridization with the white-faced whistling duck have been noted in the wild; in most parts of southern Africa, the two species breed at different times, bicolor during the dry season (April to September) and viduata during the rains (October to March). Hybridization in captivity is more frequent but limited to other species in the genus Dendrocygna.\n\n== Feeding ==\n\nThe fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night, often in mixed flocks with relatives such as white-faced or black-bellied whistling ducks. Its food is generally plant material, including seeds, bulbs, grasses and stems, but females may include animal items such as aquatic worms, molluscs and insects as they prepare for egg-laying, which may then comprise up to 4% of their diet. Ducklings may also eat a few insects. Foraging is by picking plant items while walking or swimming, by upending, or occasionally by diving to a depth of up to 1 m (3.3 ft). Favoured plants include water snowflake, aquatic ragweeds, bourgou millet, shama grass, Cape blue water lily, waxy-leaf nightshade, beakrush, flatsedge and polygonums. "


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"Rice is normally a small part of the diet, and a survey in Cuban rice fields found that the plants taken were mainly weeds growing with the crop. However, in a study in Louisiana, 25% of the diet of incubating females consisted of cereal.\n\n== Status ==\nThe International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates the population of the fulvous whistling duck to be from 1.3 to 1.5 million individuals around the world. This may be an underestimate since regional assessments suggest 1 million birds in the Americas, 1.1 million in Africa and at least 20,000 in South Asia for a grand total of 2.12 million ducks around the world. The population appears to be declining, but the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the vulnerability criteria for extinction. The large numbers and huge breeding range mean that this duck is classified by the IUCN as being of Least Concern. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.The fulvous whistling duck has expanded its range in the West Indies, and into the southern US. "


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"A series of invasions from South America and reaching the eastern US commenced around 1948, fueled by rice cultivation, and breeding was recorded in Cuba in 1964, and Florida in 1965. Some Florida birds still winter in Cuba. In Africa, it bred on the Cape Peninsula between 1940 and the 1960s. A survey of eighteen species which had colonised the area in recent decades found that most were wetland species that had used irrigated farmland as \"stepping stones\" across the arid country separating the peninsula from the breeding main range. However, the status of the two whistling duck species featured in the research is dubious since they are popular ornamental species, so their origin is unclear.Outside North America it is subject to hunting for food or because of its liking for rice, and persecution means that it is now rare in Madagascar. Pesticides used on rice fields may also have an adverse impact, causing liver and breast muscle damage even at sub-lethal levels.\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== Cited texts ==\nAli, Salim; Ripley, Dillon S (1978). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.\n"


id: 5a636dd741666bea3eacc828560ed99f
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content_type: text
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"Barlow, Clive; Wacher, Tim; Disley, Tony (1997). A Field Guide to birds of The Gambia and Senegal. Boroughbridge, Sussex: Pica Press. ISBN 978-1-873403-32-7.\nFeduccia, Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07861-9.\nHilty, Steven L (2003). Birds of Venezuela. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-6418-8.\nJobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.\nJohnsgard, Paul (1965). Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Associates.\nKear, Janet (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854645-0.\nMadge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World (Helm Identification Guides). London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5.\nPhillips, John Charles (1922). A Natural History of the Ducks. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin.\nSwainson, William (1837). On the Natural History and Classification of Birds. Vol. 2. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman.\nVieillot, Louis Jean Pierre (1816). Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle (in French). Vol. 5. Paris: Deterville.\n\n== External links ==\n\nFulvous Whistling-duck videos at the Internet Bird Collection\nTribe Dendrocygnini (Whistling or Tree Ducks) from Johnsgard, Paul A. "


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"Ducks, Geese, and Swans of the World\nSpecies text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds\nCalls at Xeno-canto"


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"The pygmy hippopotamus or pygmy hippo (Choeropsis liberiensis) is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of West Africa, primarily in Liberia, with small populations in Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ivory Coast. It has been extirpated from Nigeria.The pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal. It is one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being its much larger relative, the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) or Nile hippopotamus. The pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations, but like the hippo, it is semiaquatic and relies on water to keep its skin moist and its body temperature cool. Behaviors such as mating and giving birth may occur in water or on land. The pygmy hippo is herbivorous, feeding on ferns, broad-leaved plants, grasses, and fruits it finds in the forests.\nA rare nocturnal forest creature, the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild.\nPygmy hippos were unknown outside West Africa until the 19th century. Introduced to zoos in the early 20th century, they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens. "


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"The survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild; in a 2015 assessment, the International Union for Conservation of Nature estimated that fewer than 2,500 pygmy hippos remain in the wild.Pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat, as forests are logged and converted to farm land, and are also vulnerable to poaching, hunting for bushmeat, natural predators, and war. Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia.\n\n== Taxonomy and origins ==\nNomenclature of the pygmy hippopotamus reflects that of the hippopotamus; the plural form is pygmy hippopotamuses or pygmy hippopotami. A male pygmy hippopotamus is known as a bull, a female as a cow, and a baby as a calf.  A group of hippopotami is known as a herd or a bloat.\n\nThe pygmy hippopotamus is a member of the family Hippopotamidae where it is classified as a member of the genus Choeropsis (\"resembling a hog\"). Members of Hippopotamidae are sometimes known as hippopotamids. Sometimes the sub-family Hippopotaminae is used. Further, some taxonomists group hippopotami and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea or Hippopotamoidea.\n"


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"A sister species of the pygmy hippopotamus may have been the little-studied Malagasy pygmy hippopotamus (Hippopotamus madagascariensis), one of three recently extinct species from Madagascar. H. madagascariensis was the same size as C. liberiensis and shared its terrestrial behavior, inhabiting the forested highlands of Madagascar, rather than open rivers. It is believed to have gone extinct within the last 500 years.The taxonomy of the genus of the pygmy hippopotamus has changed as understanding of the animal has developed. Samuel G. Morton initially classified the animal as Hippopotamus minor, but later determined it was distinct enough to warrant its own genus, and labeled it Choeropsis. In 1977, Shirley C. Coryndon proposed that the pygmy hippopotamus was closely related to Hexaprotodon, a genus that consisted of prehistoric hippos mostly native to Asia.This assertion was widely accepted, until Boisserie asserted in 2005 that the pygmy hippopotamus was not a member of Hexaprotodon, after a thorough examination of the phylogeny of Hippopotamidae. He suggested instead that the pygmy hippopotamus was a distinct genus, and returned the animal to Choeropsis.  ITIS verifies Hexaprotodon liberiensis as the valid scientific name.  "


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"All agree that the modern pygmy hippopotamus, be it H. liberiensis or C. liberiensis, is the only extant member of its genus. The American Society of Mammalogists moved it back to Choeropsis in 2021, a move supported by the IUCN.\n\n=== Nigerian subspecies ===\nA distinct subspecies of pygmy hippopotamus existed in Nigeria until at least the 20th century, though the validity of this has been questioned. The existence of the subspecies, makes Choeropsis liberiensis liberiensis (or Hexaprotodon liberiensis liberiensis under the old classification) the full trinomial nomenclature for the Liberian pygmy hippopotamus. The Nigerian pygmy hippopotamus was never studied in the wild and never captured. All research and all zoo specimens are the Liberian subspecies. The Nigerian subspecies is classified as C. liberiensis heslopi.The Nigerian pygmy hippopotamus ranged in the Niger River Delta, especially near Port Harcourt, but no reliable reports exist after the collection of the museum specimens secured by I. R. P. Heslop, a British colonial officer, in the early 1940s. It is probably extinct. The subspecies is separated by over 1,800 km (1,100 mi) and the Dahomey Gap, a region of savanna that divides the forest regions of West Africa. "


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"The subspecies is named after I. R. P. Heslop, who claimed in 1945 to have shot a pygmy hippo in the Niger Delta region and collected several skulls. He estimated that perhaps no more than 30 pygmy hippos remained in the region.Heslop reportedly sent four pygmy hippopotamus skulls he collected to the British Museum of Natural History in London. These specimens were not subjected to taxonomic evaluation, however, until 1969 when G. B. Corbet classified the skulls as belonging to a separate subspecies based on consistent variations in the proportions of the skulls. The Nigerian pygmy hippos were seen or shot in Rivers State, Imo State and Bayelsa State, Nigeria. While some local populations are aware that the species once existed, its history in the region is poorly documented.\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nThe evolution of the pygmy hippopotamus is most often studied in the context of its larger cousin. Both species were long believed to be most closely related to the family Suidae (pigs and hogs) or Tayassuidae (peccaries), but research within the last 10 years has determined that pygmy hippos and hippos are most closely related to cetaceans (whales and dolphins). "


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"Hippos and whales shared a common semi-aquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around 60 mya.This hypothesized ancestor likely split into two branches about six million years later. One branch would evolve into cetaceans, the other branch became the anthracotheres, a large family of four-legged beasts, whose earliest member, from the Late Eocene, would have resembled narrow hippopotami with comparatively small and thin heads.Hippopotamids are deeply nested within the family Anthracotheriidae. The oldest known hippopotamid is the genus Kenyapotamus, which lived in Africa from 16 to 8 mya. Kenyapotamus is known only through fragmentary fossils, but was similar in size to C. liberiensis. The Hippopotamidae are believed to have evolved in Africa, and while at one point the species spread across Asia and Europe, no hippopotami have ever been discovered in the Americas. Starting 7.5 to 1.8 mya the Archaeopotamus, likely ancestors to the genus Hippopotamus and Hexaprotodon, lived in Africa and the Middle East.While the fossil record of hippos is still poorly understood, the lineages of the two modern genera, Hippopotamus and Choeropsis, may have diverged as far back as 8 mya. The ancestral form of the pygmy hippopotamus may be the genus Saotherium. "


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"Saotherium and Choeropsis are significantly more basal than Hippopotamus and Hexaprotodon, and thus more closely resemble the ancestral species of hippos.\n\n=== Extinct pygmy and dwarf hippos ===\nSeveral species of small hippopotamids have also become extinct in the Mediterranean in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene. Though these species are sometimes known as \"pygmy hippopotami\" they are not believed to be closely related to C. liberiensis. These include the Cretan dwarf hippopotamus (Hippopotamus creutzburgi), the Sicilian hippopotamus (Hippopotamus pentlandi), the Maltese hippopotamus (Hippopotamus melitensis) and the Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus (Hippopotamus minor).These species, though comparable in size to the pygmy hippopotamus, are considered dwarf hippopotamuses, rather than pygmies. They are likely descended from a full-sized species of European hippopotamus, and reached their small size through the evolutionary process of insular dwarfism which is common on islands; the ancestors of pygmy hippopotami were also small and thus there was never a dwarfing process. There were also several species of pygmy hippo on the island of Madagascar (see Malagasy hippopotamus).\n\n== Description ==\n\nPygmy hippos share the same general form as a hippopotamus. They have a graviportal skeleton, with four stubby legs and four toes on each foot, supporting a portly frame. "


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"Yet, the pygmy is only half as tall as the hippopotamus and weighs less than 1/4 as much as its larger cousin. Adult pygmy hippos stand about 75\u2013100 cm (2.46\u20133.28 ft) high at the shoulder, are 150\u2013175 cm (4.92\u20135.74 ft) in length and weigh 180\u2013275 kg (397\u2013606 lb). Their lifespan in captivity ranges from 30 to 55 years, though it is unlikely that they live this long in the wild.The skin is greenish-black or brown, shading to a creamy gray on the lower body. Their skin is very similar to the common hippo's, with a thin epidermis over a dermis that is several centimeters thick. Pygmy hippos have the same unusual secretion as common hippos, that gives a pinkish tinge to their bodies, and is sometimes described as \"blood sweat\" though the secretion is neither sweat nor blood. This substance, hipposudoric acid, is believed to have antiseptic and sunscreening properties. The skin of hippos dries out quickly and cracks, which is why both species spend so much time in water.The skeleton of C. liberiensis is more gracile than that of the common hippopotamus, meaning their bones are proportionally thinner. "


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"The common hippo's spine is parallel with the ground; the pygmy hippo's back slopes forward, a likely adaptation to pass more easily through dense forest vegetation. Proportionally, the pygmy hippo's legs and neck are longer and its head smaller.\n\nThe orbits and nostrils of a pygmy hippo are much less pronounced, an adaptation from spending less time in deep water (where pronounced orbits and nostrils help the common hippo breathe and see). The feet of pygmy hippos are narrower, but the toes are more spread out and have less webbing, to assist in walking on the forest floor.Despite adaptations to a more terrestrial life than the common hippopotamus, pygmy hippos are still more aquatic than all other even-toed ungulates. The ears and nostrils of pygmy hippos have strong muscular valves to aid submerging underwater, and the skin physiology is dependent on the availability of water.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nThe behavior of the pygmy hippo differs from the common hippo in many ways. Much of its behavior is more similar to that of a tapir, though this is an effect of convergent evolution. "


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"While the common hippopotamus is gregarious, pygmy hippos live either alone or in small groups, typically a mated pair or a mother and calf. Pygmy hippos tend to ignore each other rather than fight when they meet. Field studies have estimated that male pygmy hippos range over 1.85 km2 (460 acres), while the range of a female is 0.4 to 0.6 km2 (100\u2013150 acres).Pygmy hippos spend most of the day hidden in rivers. They will rest in the same spot for several days in a row, before moving to a new spot. At least some pygmy hippos make use of dens or burrows that form in river banks. It is unknown if the pygmy hippos help create these dens, or how common it is to use them. Though a pygmy hippo has never been observed burrowing, other artiodactyls, such as warthogs, are burrowers.\n\n=== Diet ===\nLike the common hippopotamus, the pygmy hippo emerges from the water at dusk to feed. It relies on game trails to travel through dense forest vegetation. It marks trails by vigorously waving its tail while defecating to further spread its feces. The pygmy hippo spends about six hours a day foraging for food.\n\n"


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"Pygmy hippos are herbivorous. They do not eat aquatic vegetation to a significant extent and rarely eat grass because it is uncommon in the thick forests they inhabit. The bulk of a pygmy hippo's diet consists of ferns, broad-leaved plants and fruits that have fallen to the forest floor. The wide variety of plants pygmy hippos have been observed eating suggests that they will eat any plants available. This diet is of higher quality than that of the common hippopotamus.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nA study of breeding behavior in the wild has never been conducted; the artificial conditions of captivity may cause the observed behavior of pygmy hippos in zoos to differ from natural conditions. Sexual maturity for the pygmy hippopotamus occurs between three and five years of age. The youngest reported age for giving birth is a pygmy hippo in the Zoo Basel, Switzerland which bore a calf at three years and three months. The oestrus cycle of a female pygmy hippo lasts an average of 35.5 days, with the oestrus itself lasting between 24 and 48 hours.Pygmy hippos consort for mating, but the duration of the relationship is unknown. In zoos they breed as monogamous pairs. "


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"Copulation can take place on land or in the water, and a pair will mate one to four times during an oestrus period. In captivity, pygmy hippos have been conceived and born in all months of the year. The gestation period ranges from 190 to 210 days, and usually a single young is born, though twins are known to occur.The common hippopotamus gives birth and mates only in the water, but pygmy hippos mate and give birth on both land and water. Young pygmy hippos can swim almost immediately. At birth, pygmy hippos weigh 4.5\u20136.2 kg (9.9\u201313.7 lb) with males weighing about 0.25 kg (0.55 lb) more than females. Pygmy hippos are fully weaned between six and eight months of age; before weaning they do not accompany their mother when she leaves the water to forage, but instead hide in the water by themselves. The mother returns to the hiding spot about three times a day and calls out for the calf to suckle. Suckling occurs with the mother lying on her side.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nThe greatest threat to the remaining pygmy hippopotamus population in the wild is loss of habitat. "


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"The forests in which pygmy hippos live have been subject to logging, settling and conversion to agriculture, with little efforts made to make logging sustainable. As forests shrink, the populations become more fragmented, leading to less genetic diversity in the potential mating pool.Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia. Their meat is said to be of excellent quality, like that of a wild boar; unlike those of the common hippo, the pygmy hippo's teeth have no value. The effects of West Africa's civil strife on the pygmy hippopotamus are unknown, but unlikely to be positive. The pygmy hippopotamus can be killed by leopards, pythons and crocodiles. How often this occurs is unknown.C. liberiensis was identified as one of the top 10 \"focal species\" in 2007 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) project. Some populations inhabit protected areas, such as the Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone.Basel Zoo in Switzerland holds the international studbook and coordinates the entire captive pygmy hippo population that freely breeds in zoos around the world. Between 1970 and 1991 the population of pygmy hippos born in captivity more than doubled. "


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"The survival of the species in zoos is more certain than the survival of the species in the wild. In captivity, the pygmy hippo lives from 42 to 55 years, longer than in the wild. Since 1919, only 41 percent of pygmy hippos born in zoos have been male.\n\n== History and folklore ==\n\nWhile the common hippopotamus was known to Europeans since classical antiquity, the pygmy hippopotamus was unknown outside its range in West Africa until the 19th century. Due to their nocturnal, forested existence, they were poorly known within their range as well. In Liberia the animal was traditionally known as a water cow.Early field reports of the animal misidentified it as a wild hog. Several skulls of the species were sent to the American natural scientist Samuel G. Morton, during his residency in Monrovia, Liberia. Morton first described the species in 1843. The first complete specimens were collected as part of a comprehensive investigation of Liberian fauna in the 1870s and 1880s by Dr. Johann B\u00fcttikofer. "


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"The specimens were taken to the Natural History Museum in Leiden, The Netherlands.The first pygmy hippo was brought to Europe in 1873 after being captured in Sierra Leone by a member of the British Colonial Service but died shortly after arrival. Pygmy hippos were successfully introduced to Europe in 1911. They were first shipped to Germany and then to the Bronx Zoo in New York City where they also thrived.In 1927, Harvey Firestone of Firestone Tires presented Billy the pygmy hippo to U.S. President Calvin Coolidge. Coolidge donated Billy to the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. According to the zoo, Billy is a common ancestor to most pygmy hippos in U.S. zoos today.Several folktales have been collected about the pygmy hippopotamus. One tale says that pygmy hippos carry a shining diamond in their mouths to help travel through thick forests at night; by day the pygmy hippo has a secret hiding place for the diamond, but if a hunter catches a pygmy hippo at night the diamond can be taken. Villagers sometimes believed that baby pygmy hippos do not nurse but rather lick secretions off the skin of the mother.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nVideos of Pygmy Hippos at Arkive.org\nPygmy hippo caught on camera in Liberia (video), BBC News 2011-12-19\nRare pygmy hippos caught on film, BBC News 2008-03-10\nCamera trap results, Sapo National Park, Liberia, Zoological Society of London (EDGE of Existence Programme). 10 March 2008. First reports showing Pygmy Hippos in wild, surviving Liberian Civil War.\nPygmy hippos survive two civil wars, Zoological Society of London Press Release, 10 March 2008.\nEDGE of Existence \"(Pygmy hippo)\", Saving the World's most Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species"


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"The Florida red-bellied cooter or Florida redbelly turtle (Pseudemys nelsoni) is a species of turtle in the family Emydidae.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe specific name, nelsoni, is in honor of American biologist George Nelson (born 1873).\n\n== Geographic range ==\nP. nelsoni is endemic to Florida, and southern Georgia. Fossils of P. nelsoni have also been found along the coast of South Carolina from the Pleistocene Epoch, indicating that the historic range of this species used to extend further north. Today, its northern counterpart, the Northern Red-bellied Cooter (Psuedemys rubriventris) occupies this region.\n\n== Biology ==\nThe Florida redbelly cooter is mainly herbivorous, and can be found in nearly any type of aquatic habitat. It feeds on a variety of aquatic plants including waterweed (Vallisneria and Elodea), duckweed (Lemna and Wolffia), and arrowhead (Sagittaria) species. It reaches particularly high densities in spring runs, and occasionally can be found in brackish water. It appears to have an intermediate salinity tolerance compared to true freshwater forms and the highly specialized terrapin (Malachemys). This species is active year-round and spends a large portion of the day basking on logs. They are noted for sometimes laying their eggs in the nest mounds of alligators. "


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"Sex is temperature-dependent with males being born at cooler temperatures and females being born at warmer temperatures with a pivotal temperature of about 28.5 \u00b0C. The Florida redbelly is closely related to the Peninsula cooter (Pseudemys floridana) and can often be found basking on logs together.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Florida redbelly can be distinguished from other similar turtles by its distinctive red-tinged plastron (belly) and two cusps (like teeth) on its upper beak. Like most Pseudemys turtles, this species is a fairly large river turtle. Carapace length in mature turtles can range from 20.3 to 37.5 cm (8.0 to 14.8 in). Females, which average 30.5 cm (12.0 in) in carapace length and weigh 4 kg (8.8 lb), are noticeably larger than males, which are around 25 cm (9.8 in) and 1.8 kg (4.0 lb) in mass.\n\n== Export ==\nFlorida redbellies are commonly exported for consumption and the pet trade, with about 50% wild caught individuals and 50% captive bred.\nMost of US export statistics (as collected by the World Chelonian Trust in 2002\u20132005) simply describe exported turtles by the genus, Pseudemys, without identifying the species. They are exported by the million, and are mostly farm-raised.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nFlorida red-bellied cooter Southeast Ecological Science Center.\n\n== Further reading ==\nCarr AF (1938). \"Pseudemys nelsoni, a New Turtle from Florida\". Occ. Pap. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 8: 305\u2013310. (Pseudemys nelsoni, new species).\nErnst CH, Barbour RW, Lovich JE (1994). Turtles of the United States and Canada. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian Institution Press.\nHubbs C (1995). \"Springs and Spring Runs as Unique Aquatic Systems\". Copeia 1995 (4): 989\u2013991.\nReed RN, Gibbons JW (2004). \"Conservation status of live U.S. nonmarine turtles in domestic and international trade\" \u2013 a report to: U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Aiken, South Carolina, Savannah River Ecology Lab: 1-92."


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"Graptemys is a genus of freshwater turtles containing 14 species, commonly known as map turtles.  Graptemys are small to medium-sized turtles that are sexually dimorphic, with females attaining as much as twice the length and ten times the mass as males in some species. Depending on the species, adult males range from 7\u201316 cm (2.75\u20136.25 in), adult females 10\u201329.5 cm (4\u201311.62 in), and hatchlings 2.5\u20133.8 cm (1\u20131.5 in),:\u200a202\u2013209 p.\u200a although some sources indicate female Barbour's map turtles (Graptemys barbouri) grow to 33 cm (13 in) in length.   Most species have a distinctive dark pigmented keel that is often notched or serrated running down the center of the carapace and serrated scutes on the rear margin. The head, neck, and limbs exhibit bold patterns of yellow (occasionally orange or red) lines and spots against darker green, olive, or black base colors. The patterns on the head can be important characters in identifying the various species. The common name \"map turtle\" is derived from the intricate patterns on their shells that are suggestive of topographical maps, although the patterns are more apparent in some species than others, and often become obscure in older specimens. "


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"Some species are occasionally called \"sawbacks\", in reference to the serrated keels on their shell.They are endemic to North America, where most species occur in the rivers of the Gulf Coast of the United States, although three species are more wide-ranging, dispersed throughout the eastern two thirds of the greater Mississippi River basin, into the Great Lakes region, and east to New York and southeast Canada. Most Graptemys are lotic, river turtles, having a preference for moving water and larger lakes, and with long legs, broad feet, and long fully webbed digits they are well adapted for swimming in currents. They primarily feed on fresh water mussels, clams, snails, insects (including larva and eggs), bryozoans, sponges, algae, and various vegetation. Fish only appear in the diets of a few species and then only in a relatively small percentage of the diet. Within this spectrum of food items there is significant niche partitioning among the sexually dimorphic males and females, and microcephalic, mesocephalic, and megacephalic species occurring in the same river drainages. Like all turtles, map turtles are oviparous, typically laying eggs from late June to August. "


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"Females lay two to 15 eggs per clutch and depending on a number of variables such as species, size, and age among other factors, may skip a year between clutches, or lay as many four clutches a year.Seven of the 14 species are listed as either near threatened, vulnerable, or endangered by the IUCN Red List as of 2021, and two species, the yellow-blotched map turtle (G. flavimaculata) and the ringed map turtle (G. oculifera) are listed as threatened by the U.S. Federal Government.\n\n== Species ==\n\nThe following species and subspecies are recognized as being valid (listed alphabetically by specific name and subspecific name). Nota bene: A binomial authority or trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Graptemys.\n\n"


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"=== Extant species ===\nGraptemys barbouri Carr & Marchand, 1942 \u2013 Barbour's map turtle\nGraptemys caglei Haynes & McKown, 1974 \u2013 Cagle's map turtle\nGraptemys ernsti Lovich & McCoy, 1992 \u2013 Escambia map turtle\nGraptemys flavimaculata Cagle, 1954 \u2013 yellow-blotched map turtle or yellow-blotched sawback\nGraptemys geographica (Lesueur, 1817) \u2013 northern map turtle, formerly known as the common map turtle\nGraptemys gibbonsi Lovich & McCoy, 1992 \u2013 Pascagoula map turtle\nGraptemys nigrinoda Cagle, 1954 \u2013 black-knobbed map turtle\nGraptemys oculifera (Baur, 1890) \u2013 ringed map turtle\nGraptemys ouachitensis Cagle, 1953 \u2013 Ouachita map turtle\nGraptemys pearlensis Ennen, Lovich, Kreiser, Selman, Qualls, 2010 \u2013 Pearl River map turtle\nGraptemys pseudogeographica (Gray, 1831) \u2013 false map turtleG. p. kohnii  (Baur, 1890) \u2013 Mississippi map turtle\nG. p. pseudogeographica (Gray, 1831) \u2013 false map turtle\nGraptemys pulchra Baur, 1893 \u2013 Alabama map turtle\nGraptemys sabinensis Cagle, 1953 \u2013 Sabine map turtle\nGraptemys versa Stejneger, 1925 \u2013 Texas map turtle\n\n=== Fossil species ===\nAn extinct species from the Suwannee River drainage in Florida, Graptemys kerneri belonging to the female megacephalic subclade, was described in 2011 from Pleistocene fossil records.\n\n"


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"\u2020Graptemys kerneri Ehret & Bourque, 2011\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe generic name Graptemys is derived from two compounded Greek words, graptos, meaning inscribed or in writing, in reference to the patterns on the turtles shells, and emydos, meaning a freshwater turtle. The trivial names, or specific epithets, of four of the species in the genus are patronyms or eponyms, named in honor of prominent herpetologist, each of whom made significant contributions to studies on North American turtles: Thomas Barbour (G. barbouri); Fred Ray Cagle (G. caglei); Carl Henry Ernst (G. ernsti); J. Whitfield Gibbons (G. gibbonsi). One subspecies is named for the collector of the type specimen, Joseph Gustave Kohn (G. pseudogeographica kohnii). Three species are named for the rivers in which they were first discovered: Ouachita River (G. ouachitensis); Sabine River (G. sabinensis); Pearl River (G. pearlensis). "


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"The other species are all named for various aspects of the topographic map like patterns and other markings, colors, and contours of the carapace, that are most apparent in the juveniles and young adults of these attractive turtles: G. flavimaculata, flavus = yellow, maculatus = spotted or blotched; G. geographica, geographica = geographic map like; G.  nigrinoda, niger = black, nodus = knot, node, or knob; G. oculifera, oculus = eye, fero = to bear (eye shape rings on the pleurals scutes); G. pseudogeographica, pseudo = false, geographica = geographic map like; G. pulchra, pulchra = beautiful; G. versa, vers = to change (probably referring to the contrasting head patterns compared to G. pseudogeographica).\n\n== Description ==\n\nGraptemys species superficially resemble many other species of aquatic turtles, including sliders (Trachemys) and cooters (Pseudemys).  However, they are distinguished by a keel that runs the length of the center of the carapace. In some southern species, the keel can result in vertebral spines, resulting in the map turtle's other common name \u2014 \"sawback\". They also typically grow to a smaller size at maturity. They are given the common name \"map turtle\" due to the map-like markings on the carapace. "


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"Map turtles are known for intricate head markings and strong sexual dimorphism with mature females twice the length and 10 times the mass of mature males.\n\n=== Feeding morphology ===\nFemales of all map turtle species can be partitioned into three groups based on head (alveolar) width and corresponding ecology and phylogeny.\n\nMicrocephalic females are narrow headed, sympatric with a broader headed species, and consume few mollusks.  Microcephalic species include yellow-blotched, black-knobbed, ringed, Ouachita, and Sabine map turtles.\nMesocephalic females have moderately broad heads and tend to eat mostly mollusks along with softer bodied prey. Mesocephalic species include Cagle's, northern, false, Mississippi, and Texas map turtles.\nMegacephalic females have exceptionally broad heads, and feed almost exclusively on mollusks. Megacephalic females include Barbour's, Escambia, Pascagoula, Pearl River, and Alabama map turtles.Males do not fit neatly into the three groups describing head width, with differences in head width likely not influencing diet.\nDue to these differences in head size and jaw strength, females tend to eat much larger prey than the males such as snails, clams, and crayfish whereas the males eat insects and smaller crustaceans."


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":\u200a237 p.\nIncluding deadwood material inside of the Graptemys habitat then the chances of more Graptemys migrating or being born in that area is greater. The population can use a healthy habitat that can support a significant number of Graptemys and dead wood will help with this.\n\n== Distribution ==\n\nMap turtles are endemic to North America. The genus ranges from the Great Lakes region and St. Lawrence River of southern Quebec and Ontario, Canada, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and the Hudson River and Delaware River basins on the Atlantic coast, west to the eastern margins of the Great Plains. Most species occur in rivers, moving waters, or larger lakes. Eleven of the 14 species have relatively limited distributions, restricted to river basins draining into the Gulf of Mexico, in the US states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, southwest Georgia, and the Florida panhandle. Three species are more wide ranging, include the Ouachita Map Turtle (G. ouachitensis) and the False Map Turtle (G. pseudogeographica) which range extensively in the Mississippi River drainage and its tributaries including much of the mid west, with the latter also ranging west into east Texas. "


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"The Northern Map Turtle (G. geographica) is the most widespread species, occurring in both Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico river drainages, from southern Quebec, Canada, west to Minnesota and eastern Kansas, south to New Jersey and above (north) of the fall line in Georgia, Alabama, and extreme northern Louisiana.:\u200a202\u2013209 pp.\n\n== Ecology and natural history ==\n\n=== Habitat ===\nMap turtles are predominantly lotic, living in moving water, such as rivers and larger creeks, streams, and bayous. The northern and wide-ranging Mississippi River species (G. geographica, G. pseudogeographica, G. ouachitensis) tend to inhabit more diverse habitats, including sloughs, oxbow lakes, and backwater areas of river bottoms, as well as lakes and occasionally even ponds and marshlands. Other species use these environments much less frequently, or as juveniles or during seasonal flooding, and a few species have never been reported from areas beyond the main channels of their respective river systems (e.g. G. gibbonsi, G. pearlensis, G. sabinensis). Several species will inhabit manmade reservoirs in their river systems, while other species are very uncommon in such impoundments (e.g. G. oculifera, G. versa), and still others are entirely absent from reservoirs (e. g. G. caglei). "


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"With few exceptions (G. barbouri, G. flavimaculata, G. nigrinoda), most species do not occur in tidally influenced waterways, estuaries, or brackish waters, which are occupied by their closest relative the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin). The upstream distributional limits of many species are often associated with the level of sunlight penetration through the forest canopy. Larger, wider waterways allow sunlight to reach the surface, providing for the growth of aquatic vegetation and algae (food) and basking sites for Graptemys populations. Smaller streams in the shadow of forest canopies, or that receive brief patchy sunlight, are rarely inhabited by Graptemys.:\u200a84\u201387,\u200a255\u2013360 pp.\u200a:\u200a272\u2013343 pp.\n\nThe ecology of many species of map turtles, particularly habitat use and diet, have been well studied. Specific habitat use often differs among males and females of the same species, as well as sympatric species sharing a river system, all inextricably linked to their diets in a somewhat complex example of  niche differentiation. Ten of the 14 Graptemys species share a river basin with another Graptemys species, and three species occur in regions of Alabama, and portions of the Mississippi River. "


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"Generally the mesocephalic and megacephalic females occupy deeper areas with stronger currents and hard-bottom, limestone sections of rivers, and males inhabit slower, shallower areas of the rivers nearer to the shore, largely correlated with their respective diets and prey distribution. Graptemys rarely walk on land or move between waterways. Most species are reluctant to bask on river banks and are seldom seen even on fallen trees with one end resting on the bank. Basking sites are most often fallen tree and deadwood emerging from water with no direct contact to the banks. Although the wide-ranging, northern species (G. geographica, G. pseudogeographica, G. ouachitensis) tend to be more flexible in their basking habits.:\u200a84\u201387,\u200a255\u2013360 pp.\u200a:\u200a272\u2013343 pp.\u200aThe natural meandering of rivers, riparian forest, and fallen trees and deadwood in the water are all key and vital elements to sustain most map turtle populations, particularly the Gulf Coast species. The outer bend in a river is typically the deeper side, with the stronger current of the main channel, eroding and cutting into the outer bank and falling trees of the riparian zone forest as it does. "


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"While the inside of the bend is shallower, with a slower current, dropping silt deposits and building beaches and sandbars. The meandering course maintains a diverse spectrum of water depths, temperatures, currents, soft and hardpan bottoms, as well as fallen trees and logs that get lodged in the bends. Beaches and sand bars are essential nesting sites. The presence of partially submerged deadwood and trees are critical, not only for basking, but for the growth of algae, bryozoans, sponges, snails, insects and their eggs larva that live in the growth, which are important food items for turtles.:\u200a84\u201387,\u200a255\u2013360 pp.\u200a:\u200a272\u2013343 pp.\n\n=== Courtship behavior ===\nAdult Graptemys males have greatly elongated claws on the front feet, which are used in courtship behavior.  The male faces the considerably larger female and \"fans\" her face, vibrating his foreclaws against her head to induce her to cooperate in mating.\n\n=== Longevity ===\nComplete and accurate longevity records for map turtles are lacking. "


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"A review of zoo records published in 1992 identified the maximum period of time that many species of Graptemys lived in captivity in North American zoos, ranging from eight to 35 years, including: Barbour's map turtle (G. barbouri) 31 years 8 months; false map turtle (G. pseudogeographica ssp.)32 years and 6 months; Mississippi map turtle (G. pseudogeographica kohnii) 35 years 5 months. However, it is important to note that in every example these records involve turtles that were acquired by the zoos as adults from the wild, or of unknown origins and of undetermined ages. Therefore the records only reflect the period of time that an individual turtle was maintained at the institutions before it died, not the full lifespan of the individual.:\u200a13 p.\u200a Subsequently, the longevity of two female Barbour's Map Turtles (G. barbouri) of unknown ages and origin at the Columbus Zoo were reported at 37 and 43 years. Herpetologist Carl Ernst noted northern map turtles (G. geographica) and Alabama map turtles (G. pulchra) likely live well over 20 years in the wild,:\u200a300 & 339 p.\u200a and ringed map turtles (G. oculifera) are known to live at least 30 years in the wild. "


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"Based on records of other turtles in the Emydidae family, it is likely Graptemys longevity exceeds these records significantly, perhaps by decades.:\u200a114 p.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe most frequently cited and best-documented threats to map turtle and sawback populations involve modifications of the rivers and lakes they inhabit and their take for the pat trade.:\u200a198 p.\n\nThe limited ranges and restricted habitats of most species make Graptemys particularly vulnerable to conservation issues. The destruction and fragmentation of habitat through the engineering of rivers and lakes, such as channelization, dams and impoundments, gravel and sand mining, pollution, clearing and development of riparian zones, and the removal of logs and deadwood from waterways are among the foremost conservation threats to map turtles. These activities degrade or destroy nesting sites (sandbars), prey species and prey habitat, and basking sites that are essential for thermoregulation and the turtles survival. The pet trade is another significant threat to the survival of map turtles. In the year in 2000 alone, 200,000 live Graptemys were exported from the USA, predominantly to Europe, and this does not take into account the domestic market."


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":\u200a192\u2013206 p.\u200aA variety of human activities such as bycatch in gillnetting and fyke nets, injuries form boat propellers, and \"plinking\", the practice of shooing turtles for target practice, or for the misinformed idea that they are significant competitors for game fish, all contribute to mortalities. Seemingly benign activities such as the regular use of sandbar beaches for recreation, swimming, and heavy boat traffic are known to cause turtles to abandon stretches of rivers and nesting sites. Some lesser threats include invasive species such as fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) which are known to prey on eggs and hatchlings. Invasive plants such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), congon grass (Imperata cylindrica), cocklebur (Xanthium stramarium), and the Chinese tallow tree (Triadica sebifera) are all known to degrade Graptemys habitat and nesting beaches. Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) has been associated with steep declines of black-knobbed map turtles in some areas. Conversely, maps turtles are known to feed on some non-native species of clams (Corbicula) and mussels (Dreissena).:\u200a210\u2013214 p.\u200aThe United States Federal Government list two species, the yellow-blotched map turtle (G. flavimaculata) and the ringed map turtle (G. oculifera) as threatened species. "


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"In Texas the state government list the Cagle's Map Turtle (G. caglei) as a threatened species. The state of Louisiana list the ringed map turtle (G. oculifera) as threatened and the Ouachita map turtle (G. ouachitensis) and Sabine Map Turtle (G. sabinensis) as vulnerable. The state of Mississippi list the yellow-blotched map turtle (G. flavimaculata) as threatened and the ringed map turtle (G. oculifera) and  black-knobbed map turtle (G. nigrinoda) as endangered. In Alabama, all six species of map turtles occurring in the state are classified as nongame species protected by the state. In Georgia the Barbour's map turtle (G. barbouri) is as threatened and the northern map turtle (G.  geographica) and Alabama map turtle (G. pulchra) are considered rare species ranked S1 and S3 respectively. In Florida Barbour's map turtle (G. barbouri) is state-designated as threatened. The Government of Canada list the Northern Map Turtle (G. geographica) is a species of special concern. Seven of the 14 Graptemys species are listed as either, near threatened, vulnerable, or endangered by the IUCN Red List as of 2021 As of 2021, all Graptemys are listed as Appendix III by CITES.\n\n"


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"== Pet trade ==\nThroughout the pet trade, the Mississippi map turtle, the northern map turtle, and Ouachita map turtle were bred and hatched out by the thousands in the 1970s. Various other turtles were available, but as the salmonellosis Four-inch Law was established, map turtles and others slowly decreased in popularity. Today, these same three still hold the title for most common among the pet trade. Other species being captive-bred more often include the Texas map turtle, Cagle's map turtle, and the black-knobbed map turtle. Some harder-to-find map turtles include the yellow-blotched map turtle and the Pearl River map turtle.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nAn Overview of Map Turtles in the United States, Reptile & Amphibian Magazine, November/December 1993, p. 6-17.\nARKive - images and videos of the Cagle's map turtle (Graptemys caglei)\nOuachita map turtle - Graptemys ouachitensis Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide.\nFalse map turtle - Graptemys pseudogeographica Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide.\nCommon map turtle - Graptemys geographica Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide.\n- ' 'Graptemys Geographica' '\n\n== Further reading ==\nAgassiz, L. (1857). "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America. Vol. I. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. li + 452 pp. (Graptemys, new genus, p. 252).\nCarl H. Ernst and Jeffrey. E. Lovich. (2009). Turtles of the United States and Canada. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, Maryland. xii, 827 pp. ISBN 0-8018-9121-3 (Genus Graptemys pages 272-343).\nPeter V. Lindeman. (2013). The Map Turtle and Sawback Atlas, Ecology, Evolution, Distribution, and Conservation. (Vol. 12 Animal Natural History Series). University of Oklahoma Press. Norman, OK. xxi, 460 pp. ISBN 978-0-8061-4406-1\nSmith, H.M., and E.D. Brodie Jr. (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3 (paperback). (Genus Graptemys, p. 48, including identification key to species)."


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"The central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), also known as the inland bearded dragon, is a species of agamid lizard found in a wide range of arid to semiarid regions of eastern and central Australia.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nPogona vitticeps was first described by German zoologist Ernst Ahl in 1926, who placed it in the genus Amphibolurus.\n\n== Description ==\n\nAdults of this species can reach a total length of up to 60 cm (24 in), with the tail accounting for more than half. Some sexual dimorphism is present: males can be distinguished from females by a wider cloacal opening, a wider base of the tail, a larger head and beard, and the possession of hemipenes. Males also have more pronounced femoral pores than females (these can be seen as waxy bumps on the underside of the back legs). Bearded dragons vary widely in colour, including brown, reddish-brown, red, yellow, white and orange. They are capable of undergoing moderate changes in coloration, and scales along both sides of the throat, neck, and head form a row of narrow spines that runs down each side of the body to the tail. "


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"When feeling threatened, a bearded dragon will flatten its body against the ground, puff out its spiny throat and open its jaws to make itself appear larger. The bearded dragon is so named because of the pouch-like projection (also called the guttural pouch) on the underside of the neck and chin area which typically turns darker than the rest of the body. It also boasts spiny projections. Both of these characteristics appear similar to a human's beard. Males typically have a darker \"beard\" than females, and during mating season and courtship it will typically darken to near-black. The bearded dragon, like most agamid lizards, has strong legs which enable it to lift its body completely off the ground while it moves. This is done to reduce the heat taken in from the ground, as well as to increase the air flow over the belly to cool itself further.\nA study conducted in 2014 established the existence of endogenous circadian rhythm in pigmentation changes in Pogona vitticeps. If exposed to light, the dorsal skin of the lizard becomes darker, and if exposed to darkness, it becomes lighter. Under constant darkness (i.e. "


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"in the subjective night), the lizards' dorsal skin becomes the lightest.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\nP. vitticeps is native to the semiarid woodland, arid woodland, and rocky desert regions of Central Australia. They are skilled climbers and often spend just as much time perching on tree limbs, fence posts, and in bushes as they do on the ground. They spend the morning and early evening sunning themselves on exposed branches or rocks, and retreat to shady areas or burrows during the hottest parts of the afternoon.\nBearded dragons do not vocalize, except to hiss softly when threatened. Instead, they communicate through colour displays, posture, and physical gestures, such as arm waving and head bobbing. Bearded dragons are not social animals, but will sometimes gather in groups, especially in popular feeding or basking areas. At these times, a distinct hierarchy will emerge: the highest-ranking animals will take the best \u2013 usually the highest or sunniest \u2013 basking spots, and all other individuals arrange themselves lower down. "


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"If a low-ranking animal tries to challenge one of the dominant dragons, the dominant animal will demonstrate its superiority by bobbing its head and inflating its beard, at which point the challenger may signal submission by waving one of its arms in a slow or fast circle. If the low-ranking dragon does not submit, it will return the head bob, and a standoff or fight may ensue.\nThe head bob gestures are:\nSlow bowing motion \u2013 often used by adult females to signal submission to a male\nFast bob \u2013 used by males to signal dominance (often accompanied by an inflated and/or blackened beard)\nViolent bob \u2013 used by males just before mating; much more vigorous, and usually sets the animal's whole body in motion\nBoth males and females will occasionally do fast and violent head bobs, which shows they are stressed out and need to be isolated.The male will only wave to show submission to a dominant male, whereas the female will wave, followed by a slow head bob, to show she is ready to mate. Gravid females will often refuse the advances of a male by chasing him and lying on his back.\n"


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"When under direct attack, the central bearded dragon opens its mouth to display its yellow membranes and extend its beard. It darkens the colour of its skin and flattens its body, and will hiss and make small jumps towards the attacker. Bearded dragons are not known to attack humans.Adult male bearded dragons can bite more forcefully than adult females and this difference is associated with greater head dimensions.Bearded dragons have been shown to be able to learn from watching the behaviour of conspecifics. An experiment demonstrated that after one individual was trained to open a door to reach a food item, most other bearded dragons watching this action were able to perform it as well.\n\n== Reproduction ==\n\nThe age of sexual maturity has not been measured, although it is estimated to be about one or two years. Body size and growth rates are more important than age when determining sexual maturity in bearded dragons. Males will become very aggressive towards each other and will assert their dominance by inflating their beards and through fast head bobbing. Breeding typically occurs in the early spring. "


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"Females will lay a clutch of 11\u201330 oblong-shaped eggs in a shallow nest dug in the sand. After being laid, the eggs are buried and are left unattended. The eggs will hatch approximately 60 to 80 days later, depending on the incubation temperature. In captivity, they can be incubated in a styrofoam fish box, but without a male lizard, the female's eggs will not be fertile. However, a female bearded dragon can retain sperm, and thus produce fertile eggs even after being separated from a male.\nCourtship involves the male \"head bobbing\" to display dominance. If the female displays submissive behaviour, the male will use his mouth to grab the back of the female's head and the male will also wrap his front legs around the female's upper torso to keep her from moving. Copulation and insemination are quick. The gestation period averages about a month and a half.\n\n== Thermally induced sex reversal ==\nA 2015 study showed that high-temperature incubation of eggs transforms genetically male individuals into functional females. Normally their sex is determined genetically. Males have ZZ sex chromosomes, females ZW. "


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"However, when their eggs are incubated at temperatures above 32 \u00b0C (90 \u00b0F) some genetic males are born female. These females are fertile, sometimes producing more eggs than the ZW females. As juveniles, the sex reversed ZZ females resemble ZZ males with respect to relative tail length and boldness. However, as adults sex-reversed ZZ females lack the larger head and greater bite force of ZZ males and more closely resemble ZW  females.\n\n== Captive breeding ==\n\nSeveral of the Pogona genus are bred in captivity as pets; the two most popular are this species and the Rankin's dragon (Pogona henrylawsoni). The bulk of captive-bred bearded dragons today are thought to have originated from stock illegally exported from Australia during the 1970s.Captives worldwide are threatened by Agamid adenovirus, a virus that compromises the immune system of the dragon, and leads to death from other diseases. However, the majority of the infections are subclinical. Subclinically infected animals show no symptoms, but are active carriers of the disease and will infect other bearded dragons. "


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"Pet bearded dragons are commonly susceptible to Metabolic Bone Disease due to a lack of calcium in the diet, as well as impactions from ingesting sand or insects that are too large for their mouth.When the female is ready to lay eggs, she will generally stop eating, and spend most of her time trying to dig.\nA morph with underdeveloped dorsal scales is popular as a terrarium pet under the name of \"leatherback bearded dragon\".\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nKis, Anna; Huber, Ludwig; Wilkinson, Anna (January 2015). \"Social learning by imitation in a reptile (Pogona vitticeps)\" (PDF). Animal Cognition. 18 (1): 325\u2013331. doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0803-7. PMID 25199480. S2CID 18161181."


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"The Eurasian brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) is one of the most common subspecies of the brown bear, and is found in much of Eurasia. It is also called the European brown bear, common brown bear, common bear, and colloquially by many other names. The genetic diversity of present-day brown bears (Ursus arctos) has been extensively studied over the years and appears to be geographically structured into five main clades based upon analysis of the mtDNA.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Eurasian brown bear has brown fur, which ranges from yellowish-brown to dark brown, red-brown, and almost black in some cases; albinism has also been recorded. The fur is dense to varying degrees and the hair can grow up to 10 cm (3.9 in) in length. The head normally is quite round in shape and has relatively small rounded ears, a wide skull and a mouth equipped with 42 teeth, including predatory teeth. It has a powerful bone structure and large paws equipped with claws that can grow up to 10 cm (3.9 in) in length. The weight varies depending on habitat and the time of the year. "


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"A full-grown male weighs on average between 250 and 300 kilograms (550 and 660 lb), and reaches a maximum weight of 481 kg (1,060 lb) and length of nearly 2.5 m (8.2 ft). Females typically range between 150 and 250 kg (550 lb). They have a lifespan of 20 to 30 years in the wild.\n\n== History ==\nBrown bears were present in Britain until no later than AD 1000, when they had been exterminated through over-hunting.Eurasian brown bears were used in Ancient Rome for fighting in arenas. The strongest bears apparently came from Caledonia and Dalmatia.In antiquity, the Eurasian brown bear was largely carnivorous, with 80% of its diet consisting of animal matter. However, as its habitat increasingly diminished, the portion of meat in its diet decreased with it until by the late Middle Ages, meat consisted of only 40% of its dietary intake. Today, meat makes up little more than 10\u201315% of its diet. Whenever possible, the brown bear will consume sheep.Unlike in North America, where an average of two people a year are killed by bears, Scandinavia only has records of three fatal bear attacks within the last century. "


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"However, in late 2019, brown bears killed three men in Romania in just over a month.\n\n== Species origin ==\nThe oldest fossils are from the Choukoutien, China, and date back about 500,000 years. It is known from mtDNA studies that during the Pleistocene ice age it was too cold for the brown bear to survive in Europe except in three places: Russia, Spain, and the Balkans.Modern research has made it possible to track the origin of the subspecies. The species to which it belongs developed more than 500,000 years ago, and researchers have found that the Eurasian brown bear separated about 850,000 years ago, with one branch based in Western Europe and the other branch in Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia. Through research of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), researchers have found that the European family has divided into two clades\u2014one in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans, the other in Russia.There is a population in Scandinavia that includes bears of the western and eastern lineages. By analyzing the mtDNA of the southern population, researchers have found that they have probably come from populations in the Pyrenees in Southern France and Spain and the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain). "


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"Bears from these populations spread to southern Scandinavia after the last ice age. The northern bear populations originate in the Finnish/Russian population. Probably their ancestors survived the ice age in the ice-free areas west of the Ural Mountains, and thereafter spread to Northern Europe.\n\n== Distribution ==\nBrown bears could once be found across most of Eurasia, compared to the more limited range today.\nAlthough included as of Least Concern on the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (which refers to the global species, not to the Eurasian brown bear specifically), local populations are becoming increasingly scarce. As the IUCN itself adds: \"Least Concern does not always mean that species are not at risk. There are declining species that are evaluated as Least Concern.\"The brown bear has long been extinct in Ireland, Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium, but still exists in Northern Europe and in Russia.\nGlobally, the largest population is found east of the Ural mountain range, in the large Siberian forests; brown bears are also present in smaller numbers in parts of central Asia (former Soviet states).\n"


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"The largest brown bear population in Europe is in Russia, where it has now recovered from an all-time low caused by intensive hunting. Populations in Baltoscandia are similarly, albeit slowly, increasing. They include almost 3,000 bears in Sweden, 2,000 in Finland, 1,100 in Estonia and around 100 in Norway.\nLarge populations can also be found in Romania (around 6,000), Slovakia (around 1,200), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (1,200), Slovenia (500-700), North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Poland, Turkey, and Georgia.\nSmall but still significant populations can also be found in Albania, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro. In 2005, there were an estimated 200 in Ukraine; these populations are part of two distinct metapopulations: the Carpathian with over 5000 individuals, and the Dinaric-Pindos (Balkans) with around 3000 individuals.There is a small but growing population (at least 70 bears) in the Pyrenees, on the border between Spain and France, which was once on the edge of extinction, as well as two subpopulations in the Cantabrian Mountains in Spain (amounting to around 250 individuals). There are also populations totalling around 100 bears in the Abruzzo, South Tyrol and Trentino regions of Italy. "


id: f01e84e2ba70190b63eb8b47b6fa9efc
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"Bears from the aforementioned Italian regions occasionally cross over to bordering Switzerland, which has not hosted a native population since its last bear was shot and killed in Graub\u00fcnden in 1904.Outside Europe and Russia/the CIS, clades of brown bear persist in small, isolated and for the most part highly threatened populations in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, parts of northwest India and central China, and on the island of Hokkaido in Japan.\n\n== Cultural depictions ==\nThe historic distribution of bears and the impression the Eurasian brown bear has made on people are reflected in the names of a number of localities (some notable examples include Berlin, Bern, Medvednica, Otep\u00e4\u00e4 and Ayu-Dag), as well as personal names\u2014for example, Xiong, Bernard, Arthur, Ursula, Urs, Ursicinus, Orsolya, Bj\u00f6rn, Nedved, Medvedev, and Otso.\nBears of this subspecies appear very frequently in the fairy tales and fables of Europe, in particular tales collected by Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. The European brown bear was once common in Germany and alpine lands like Northern Italy, Eastern France, and most of Switzerland, and thus appears in tales of various dialects of German.\nThe bear is traditionally regarded as the symbol of Russian (military and political) might. "


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"It is also Finland's national animal; and in Croatia, a brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993.These bears are also very common in various stereotypes about Russia.\n\n== See also ==\nBear conservation\nMarsican brown bear\nCantabrian brown bear\nSyrian brown bear\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nDet Skandinaviske Bj\u00f8rneprosjektet\nLarge Carnivore Initiative for Europe"


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"The northern red-bellied turtle (Pseudemys rubriventris) or American red-bellied turtle is a species of turtle in the Pseudemys (cooter) genus of the family Emydidae.\n\n== Description ==\nA fairly large river turtle, it averages about 29 to 30 cm (11 to 12 in) in length and weighs on average around 3 kg (6.6 lb), although large females can measure up to 40 cm (16 in) in length.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nIt is endemic to the United States. The current range of the red-bellied turtle includes a population in Massachusetts, the Plymouth red-bellied turtle, which was previously considered a distinct subspecies (Pseudemys rubriventris bangsi) as well as the coastal areas of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina.\n\nThe red-bellied turtle has appeared on Pennsylvania Fish Commission lists of endangered amphibians and reptiles since 1978 (McCoy 1985). By 1985 the red-bellied turtle was known to exist in Pennsylvania only in isolated colonies in a few counties (McCoy 1985). "


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"Small (less than thirty individuals) colonies were known in Manor and Silver lakes in Bucks county, the Tinicum wetlands in Philadelphia and Delaware counties, the West Branch of Conococheague Creek in Franklin County and possibly Springton Reservoir in Delaware county (McCoy 1985).\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe red-bellied turtle is a threatened species within Pennsylvania. However, it is listed as \"Endangered\" by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as well as the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife (Massachusetts).The potential threats to red-bellied turtle populations are numerous. For example: wetland loss, habitat fragmentation, pollution, collecting of turtles for pets, food or other trophies, competition with the invasive red-eared slider turtle for food, habitat, basking sites or nesting sites, and the potential for hybridization with red-eared slider turtles.\nThe Massachusetts wildlife preserve foundation has started to repopulate the turtles by placing them in many south-eastern Massachusetts ponds. One example is at Long and Little Long Pond in Plymouth, Massachusetts, where the population is starting to regrow.\n\n== References ==\n\nTortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996.  Pseudemys rubriventris.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 29 July 2007.\nhttp://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/wrcf/rbturt.aspx\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070824020806/http://www.dgif.state.va.us/wildlife/species/display.asp?id=030057\nMcCoy, C. J. 1985. "


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"Species of Special Concern in Pennsylvania, in H. H. Genoways and F. J. Brenner, editors. Special Publication of Carnegie Museum of Natural Pennsylvania. Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, PA.\nhttp://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dfg/nhesp/species-and-conservation/nhfacts/pseudemys-rubriventris.pdfBibliographyRhodin, Anders G.J.; van Dijk, Peter Paul; Inverson, John B.; Shaffer, H. Bradley (2010-12-14). \"Turtles of the World 2010 Update: Annotated Checklist of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution and Conservation Status\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17."


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"The long-billed corella or slender-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) is a cockatoo native to Australia, which is similar in appearance to the little corella. This species is mostly white, with a reddish-pink face and forehead, and has a long, pale beak, which is used to dig for roots and seeds. It has reddish-pink feathers on the breast and belly.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe long-billed corella does not have any recognized subspecies. The first formal written description was by German naturalist Heinrich Kuhl in 1820. It is one of several related species of cockatoos called corellas and classified in the subgenus Licmetis within the genus Cacatua, members of which are known as \"white cockatoos\".\n\n== Description ==\nThe adult long-billed corella measures from 38 to 41 cm in length, has a wingspan around 80\u201390 cm, and averages 567 g in weight. It has a long, bone-coloured beak, and a rim of featherless, bluish skin around the eyes. The plumage is predominantly white with reddish feathers around the eyes and lores. The underside of the wings and tail feathers are tinged with yellow.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe long-billed corella can be found in the wild in Victoria and southeastern New South Wales. It has extended its range since the 1970s into Melbourne, Victoria and can now be found in Tasmania, South Australia and southeast Queensland. A feral population resides in Perth, Western Australia as of the mid-1980s, which has conservation implications as this species may hybridize with the endangered western corella.\nThe long-billed corella is found in grassy woodlands and grasslands, including pasture, fields of agricultural crop, and urban parks.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\n\n=== Call ===\nThe call of the long-billed corella is a quick, quavering, falsetto currup!, wulluk-wulluk, or cadillac-cadillac combined with harsh screeches.\n\n=== Breeding ===\nBreeding generally takes place in Austral winter to spring (from July to November). Long-billed corellas form monogamous pairs and both sexes share the task of building the nest, incubating the eggs, and caring for the young. Nests are made in decayed debris, the hollows of large old eucalypts, and occasionally in the cavities of loose gravely cliffs. 2\u20133 dull white, oval eggs are laid on a lining of decayed wood. "


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"The incubation period is around 24 days and chicks spend about 56 days in the nest.\n\n=== Feeding ===\nThe long-billed corella typically digs for roots, seeds, corms, and bulbs, especially from the weed onion grass. Native plants eaten include murnong Microseris lanceolata, but a substantial portion of the bird's diet now includes introduced plants.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\n=== As pets ===\n\nLong-billed corellas are now popular as pets in many parts of Australia, although they were formerly uncommon, and their captive population has stabilised in the last decade. This may be due to their ability to mimic words and whole sentences to near perfection. The long-billed corella has been labeled the best \"talker\" of the Australian cockatoos, and possibly of all native Psittacines.\n\n=== As pests ===\nLong-billed corellas are viewed as agricultural pests, particularly in western Victoria and Western Australia. They can create significant crop damage and are also well known for tearing up pieces of asphalt along roadsides and even damaging power lines. Permits are regularly issued in Western Australia and sometimes issued in Victoria for the culling of this species. "


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"Within NSW, the corellas are the most common pest among sporting fields and golf courses, as they can dig holes in the ground up to 3 in across and 6 in deep.In July 2019, in a scene that was said to resemble a \"horror movie\", about 60 corellas in Adelaide, South Australia, died in a suspected case of poisoning, after \"falling from the sky\", bleeding from their mouths, and wailing. At least 57 of the birds were long-billed corellas, and a few of them were short-billed corellas. It was hoped that whoever poisoned them would get traced after doing a report on toxicology, which could nevertheless take several weeks to complete, because in Australia, people were required to register if they purchase poisons, according to Sarah King, founder of Casper's Bird Rescue, who witnessed the deaths, and also said that the type of poison was a slow one that takes several weeks to work. Additionally, the local Alexandrina council had beforehand called for short-billed corellas to be culled for damaging crops and chewing on streetlights, damaging built infrastructure such as buildings and sporting equipment, and displacing other native species of birds and bees, possums, and other organisms.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Cacatua tenuirostris at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The gray peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron bicalcaratum), also known as Burmese peacock-pheasant, is a large Asian member of the order Galliformes.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nIn 1747 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the grey peacock-pheasant in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name \"The Peacock Pheasant from China\". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a live bird which was given to Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the grey peacock-pheasant with the Indian peafowl in the genus Pavo. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Pavo bicalcaratum and cited Edwards' work. The grey peacock-pheasant is now placed in the genus Polyplectron that was introduced in 1807 by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck. The genus name Polyplectron combines the Ancient Greek polus meaning \"many\" with pl\u0113ktron meaning \"cock's spur\". "


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"The specific epithet bicalcaratum combines the Latin bi meaning \"two\" with calcar, calcaris meaning \"spur\".Although several subspecies have been described, none are currently recognised in the list of world birds maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC).Other subspecies have been described in the past, but these are not now recognised:\nP. b. ghigii Delacour & Jabouille, 1924 \u2013 Ghigi's grey peacock-pheasant\nP. b. bailyi Lowe, 1925 \u2013 Lowe's grey peacock-pheasant (disputed)\nP. b. bakeri Lowe, 1925 \u2013 Northern grey peacock-pheasantOne previous subspecies, the Hainan peacock-pheasant (P. b. katsumatae), is now recognised as a separate species by the IOC.Lowe's grey peacock-pheasant was described from a captive bird of unknown provenance. Similar examples have turned up on occasion, but the validity and \u2013 if distinct \u2013 home range of this taxon remains unknown. It was theorized to inhabit western Assam or the eastern Himalayas, but this is based on conjecture.\nThe phylogeny of this species is fairly enigmatic. "


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"mtDNA cytochrome b and D-loop as well as the nuclear ovomucoid intron G sequence data confirms that it belongs to a largely Continental Asian clade together with Germain's peacock-pheasant (P. germaini), but also the \"brown\" southern species bronze-tailed peacock-pheasant (P. chalcurum) and mountain peacock-pheasant (P. inopinatum).The ovomucin sequence seems to have evolved convergently or with a decreased mutational rate on the grey and the bronze-tailed peacock-pheasant. Though they are quite similar on the molecular level, the distance and interspersed populations of their closest relatives argue against a much more recently shared common ancestry between them versus the other two \"northern\" peacock-pheasants. Also, the cytochrome b and D-loop data does not support a closer relationship between P. bicalcaratus and P. chalcurum; overall, as it seems the four species' ancestors separated during a very short timespan.Note however that in the absence of dedicated phylogeographic studies, the molecular data is only of limited value in this species, the most morphologically diverse and widespread peacock-pheasant: There is no data on the origin and number of specimens, but it is unlikely that more than one or two individuals \u2013 possibly of captive origin and undeterminable subspecific allocation \u2013 were sampled. "


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"All that can be reasonably assumed is that the grey peacock-pheasant evolved on mainland Southeast Asia, probably during the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene 3.6-1 million years ago.\n\n== Description ==\nIt is a large pheasant, up to 76 cm long and greyish brown with finely spotted green eyespots, an elongated bushy crest, bare pink or yellow facial skin, white throat, and grey iris, bill and legs. The sexes are rather similar, but the female is smaller, darker and less ornamented than the male. The young resemble the female.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe grey peacock-pheasant is distributed in lowland and hill forests of Bangladesh, Northeast India and Southeast Asia, but excluding most of Indochina as well as the entire Malayan Peninsula. The diet consists mainly of seeds, termites, fruits and invertebrates. The female usually lays two eggs.\n\n== Status and conservation ==\nWidespread throughout its large range, the grey peacock-pheasant is evaluated as a Species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on CITES Appendix II, restricting trade in wild-caught birds to preserve its stocks.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\nKimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L.; Ligon, J. David; Lucchini, Vittorio & Randi, Ettore (2001): A molecular phylogeny of the peacock-pheasants (Galliformes: Polyplectron spp.)indicates loss and reduction of ornamental traits and display behaviours. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 73(2): 187\u2013198. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2001.tb01356.x PDF fulltext\nLowe, Percy R. (1924): Some notes on the genus Polyplectron. Ibis 67(2): 476\u2013484. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1925.tb02935.x\n\n== External links ==\n\nBirdLife Species Factsheet"


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"The lesser vasa parrot or black parrot (Coracopsis nigra) is a black coloured parrot endemic to most of Madagascar. It is one of four species of vasa parrots, the others being the greater vasa parrot C. vasa, the Seychelles black parrot (C. barklyi), and the Comoros black parrot (C. sibilans). The latter two were formerly considered conspecific with the lesser vasa parrot.Lesser vasa parrots inhabit the mangrove swamps and evergreen forests of Madagascar. They eat seeds, blossoms and fruit - especially berries and mangos.\nThey build their nests in tree hollows and go through courtship in February.  During this time, the female may shed the feathers on her head giving it a yellowish tone.  The male's beak may also turn white during this time.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nIn 1743 the English naturalist George Edwards included a picture and a description of the lesser vasa parrot in his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name \"Black Parrot from Madagascar\". His drawing was made from a live bird owned by the Duke of Richmond. "


id: 8fbb03910608c9a8af95a8068d73d74a
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"When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the lesser vasa parrot with all the other parrots in the genus Psittacus. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Psittacus niger and cited Edwards's work. The specific epithet niger is Latin meaning \"black\".  The lesser vasa parrot is now placed in the genus Coracopsis that was introduced in 1832 by the German ornithologist Johann Georg Wagler.There are two subspecies:\nCoracopsis nigra libs, Bangs 1927\nCoracopsis nigra nigra, (Linnaeus, 1758)The Seychelles black parrot (C. barklyi) and Comoros black parrot (C. sibilans) were formerly considered subspecies, but were later split as distinct species.A 2011 genetic study found the Mascarene parrot from R\u00e9union to be nested among the subspecies of the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands, and therefore not related to the Psittacula parrots. It also found that the Mascarene parrot line diverged 4.6 to 9 million years ago, prior to the formation of R\u00e9union, indicating this must have happened elsewhere. "


id: fbc3e7793ebcaa33cfa3c697d9f058d6
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"The cladogram accompanying the study is shown below:\nAnother group of scientists later acknowledged the finding, but pointed out that the sample might have been damaged, and that further testing was needed before the issue could be fully resolved. They also noted that if Mascarinus was confirmed to be embedded within the genus Coracopsis, the latter would become a junior synonym, since the former name is older. Hume has expressed surprise by these findings, due to the anatomical similarities between the Mascarene parrot and other parrots from the islands that are believed to be psittaculines. However, a later study found that the placement of Mascarinus within Coracopsis was likely a result of cross-contamination of genetic material from the lesser vasa parrot during the study, debunking this placement, and supporting them as being two distinct, unrelated genera within different subfamilies.\n\n== References =="


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"The common eland (Taurotragus oryx), also known as the southern eland or eland antelope, is a savannah and plains antelope found in East and Southern Africa. It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Taurotragus. An adult male is around 1.6 m (5 ft) tall at the shoulder (females are 20 cm (1 ft) shorter) and can weigh up to 942 kg (2,077 lb) with a typical range of 500\u2013600 kg (1,100\u20131,300 lb), 340\u2013445 kg (750\u2013981 lb) for females). It is the second-largest antelope in the world, being slightly smaller on average than the giant eland. It was scientifically described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1766.\nMainly a herbivore, its diet is primarily grasses and leaves. Common elands form herds of up to 500 animals, but are not territorial. The common eland prefers habitats with a wide variety of flowering plants such as savannah, woodlands, and open and montane grasslands; it avoids dense forests. It uses loud barks, visual and postural movements, and the flehmen response to communicate and warn others of danger. The common eland is used by humans for leather, meat, and milk, and has been domesticated in many areas. "


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"Eland milk contains more butterfat than cow's milk, and can keep longer without pasteurising.It is native to Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, but is no longer present in Burundi. While the common eland's population is decreasing, it is classified as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe scientific name of the common eland is Taurotragus oryx, composed of three words: tauros, tragos, and oryx. Tauros is Greek for a bull or bullock, meaning the same as the Latin taurus. Tragos is Greek for a male goat, referring to the tuft of hair that grows in the eland's ear and its resemblance to a goat's beard. Oryx is Latin and Greek (genitive: orygos) for pickaxe, referring to the pointed horns of North African antelopes like the common eland and scimitar-horned oryx.The name \"eland\" is Dutch for \"elk\" or \"moose\". It has a Baltic source similar to the Lithuanian \u00e9lnis, which means \"deer\". It was borrowed earlier as ellan (French) in the 1610s or Elend (German). "


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"When Dutch settlers came to the Cape of Good Hope, creating the Dutch Cape Colony, they named the animal after the large, herbivorous moose. In Dutch, the animal is called \"eland antelope\" to distinguish it from the moose, which is found in the northern boreal forests.\n\n== Physical description ==\n\nCommon elands are spiral-horned antelopes. They are sexually dimorphic, with females being smaller than the males. Females weigh 300\u2013600 kg (660\u20131,320 lb), measure 200\u2013280 cm (79\u2013110 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 125\u2013153 cm (49\u201360 in) at the shoulder. Bulls weigh 400\u2013942 kg (882\u20132,077 lb), are 240\u2013345 cm (94\u2013136 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 150\u2013183 cm (59\u201372 in) at the shoulder. The tail is 50\u201390 cm (20\u201335 in) long. Male elands can weigh up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).\n\nTheir coat differs geographically, with elands in northern part of their range having distinctive markings (torso stripes, markings on legs, dark garters and a spinal crest) that are absent in the south. Apart from a rough mane, the coat is smooth. Females have a tan coat, while the coats of males are darker, with a bluish-grey tinge. "


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"Bulls may also have a series of vertical white stripes on their sides (mainly in parts of the Karoo in South Africa). As males age, their coat becomes more grey. Males also have dense fur on their foreheads and a large dewlap on their throats.Both sexes have horns with a steady spiral ridge (resembling that of the bushbuck). The horns are visible as small buds in newborns and grow rapidly during the first seven months. The horns of males are thicker and shorter than those of females (males' horns are 43\u201366 centimetres (17\u201326 in) long and females' are 51\u201369 centimetres (20\u201327 in) long), and have a tighter spiral. Males use their horns during rutting season to wrestle and butt heads with rivals, while females use their horns to protect their young from predators.The common eland is the slowest antelope, with a peak speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) that tires them quickly. However, they can maintain a 22 km/h (14 mph) trot indefinitely. Elands are capable of jumping up to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) from a standing start when startled (up to 3 m (9.8 ft) for young elands). "


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"The common eland's life expectancy is generally between 15 and 20 years; in captivity, some live up to 25 years.Eland herds are accompanied by a loud clicking sound that has been subject to considerable speculation. The weight of the animal may cause the two halves of its hooves to splay apart, and the clicking is the result of the hoof snapping together when the animal raises its leg. The sound carries some distance from a herd, and may be a form of communication.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe common eland was first described in 1766 by German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas. It belongs to the order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, and subfamily Bovinae. Common elands are sometimes considered part of the genus Tragelaphus on the basis of molecular phylogenetics, but are usually categorized as Taurotragus, along with the giant eland (T. derbianus).\n\n=== Subspecies ===\nThree subspecies of common elands have been recognized, though their validity has been disputed.\nT. o. oryx (Pallas, 1766; Cape eland): also called alces, barbatus, canna and oreas. It is found in Southern and southwestern Africa. The fur is tawny and adults lose their stripes.\n"


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"T. o. livingstonii (Sclater, 1864; Livingstone's eland): also called kaufmanni, niediecki, selousi and triangularis. It is found in the Central Zambezian miombo woodlands. Livingstone's eland has brown fur with up to 12 stripes.\nT. o. pattersonianus (Lydekker, 1906; East African eland or Patterson's eland): also called billingae. It is found in East Africa, hence its common name. Like Livingstone's eland, its fur can also have up to 12 stripes.\n\n== Genetics and evolution ==\nMale elands have 31 diploid chromosomes and females have 32. The male (Y) chromosome has been translocated to the short arm of an autosome. Both the X chromosome and Y chromosome replicate late; they do not match well and are variable. The chromosomes resemble those of the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros).Male elands and female greater kudus can produce a viable male hybrid, though whether it is sterile is unknown. An accidental crossing of an East African common eland (T. o. pattersonianus') with an East African kudu (T. s. bea) occurred in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. This was believed to be due to the absence of male kudus in the herd. The hybrid produced was sterile, which was unexpected before the study. "


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"The study confirmed the chromosome numbers of both the eland and the kudu and the strangeness of their attached Y chromosomes. Reports state that repeated matings of male elands with domestic (Bos primigenius) and zebu cows (Bos indicus) have also produced sterile hybrids. Female elands can also act as surrogates for bongos.The Bovidae family ancestors of the common eland evolved approximately 20 million years ago in Africa; fossils are found throughout Africa and France, but the best record appears in sub-Saharan Africa. The first members of the tribe Tragelaphini appear six million years in the past during the late Miocene. An extinct ancestor of the common eland (Taurotragus arkelli) appears in the Pleistocene in northern Tanzania and the first T. oryx fossil appears in the Holocene in Algeria.In 2010, a genetic study was made basing on the evolutionary history of common elands. Located in the sub-Saharan savanna biome of East and Southern Africa, the study used methods including analysis of mitochondrial DNA control-region fragments from 122 individuals to learn more about various topics, such as the phylogeography, genetic diversity, and demographic history of the species. "


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"The conclusions strongly supported the presence of a longer-standing population in the south and a mosaic of Pleistocene refugia in the east. Today, their extinction from these parts is thought to be due to colonization. The similarity of dates obtained from more studies indicates a significant event around 200 ka, which had brought a great change in the genetic history of the species.\n\n== Habitat and distribution ==\n\nCommon elands live on the open plains of Southern Africa and along the foothills of the great southern African plateau. The species extends north into Ethiopia and most arid zones of South Sudan, west into eastern Angola and Namibia, and south to South Africa. However, a low density of elands exists in Africa due to poaching and human settlement.\nElands prefer to live in semiarid areas that contain many shrub-like bushes, and often inhabit grasslands, woodlands, subdesert, bush, and mountaintops with altitudes of about 15,000 ft (4,600 m). Elands do, however, avoid forests, swamps and deserts. The places inhabited by elands generally contain Acacia, Combretum, Commiphora, Diospyros, Grewia, Rhus, and Ziziphus trees and shrubs; some of these also serve as their food.\n"


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"Eland can be found in many national parks and reserves today, including Nairobi National Park and Tsavo East National Park, Tsavo West National Park, Masai Mara National Reserve, (Kenya); Serengeti National Park, Ruaha National Park and Tarangire National Park, Ngorongoro Crater, (Tanzania); Kagera National Park (Rwanda); Nyika National Park (Malawi); Lake Mburo National Park (Uganda); Kidepo Valley National Park (Uganda); Luangwa Valley and Kafue National Park (Zambia); Hwange National Park, Matobo National Park, Tuli Safari Area and Chimanimani Eland Sanctuary (Zimbabwe); Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Giant's Castle and Suikerbosrand NR (South Africa).They live on home ranges that can be 200\u2013400 km2 for females and juveniles and 50 km2 for males.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\nCommon elands are nomadic and crepuscular. They eat in the morning and evening, rest in shade when hot, and remain in sunlight when cold. They are commonly found in herds numbering up to 500, with individual members remaining in the herd from several hours to several months. Juveniles and mothers tend to form larger herds, while males may separate into smaller groups or wander individually. During estrus, mainly in the rainy season, groups tend to form more regularly. "


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"In Southern Africa, common elands will often associate with herds of zebras, roan antelopes and oryxes.Common elands communicate via gestures, vocalizations, scent cues, and display behaviors. The flehmen response also occurs, primarily in males in response to contact with female urine or genitals. Females urinate to indicate fertility during the appropriate phase of their estrous cycle, as well as to indicate their lack of fertility when harassed by males. If eland bulls find any of their predators nearby, they bark and attempt to attract the attention of others by trotting back and forth until the entire herd is conscious of the danger. Some of their main predators include lions, African wild dogs, cheetahs, and spotted hyenas. Juvenile elands are more vulnerable than adults to their predators.\n\n=== Diet ===\n\nCommon elands are herbivores that browse during drier winter, but have also adapted to grazing during the rainy season when grasses are more common and nutritious. They require a high-protein diet of succulent leaves from flowering plants, but will consume lower-quality plant material if available, including forbs, trees, shrubs, grasses, seeds, and tubers. Grasses that elands eat include Setaria and Themeda and fruits from Securinega and Strychnos. "


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"Large antelope can survive on lower-quality food in times of little rain.\nMost of their water is obtained from their food, though they drink water when available. As they quickly adjust to the surroundings due to seasonal changes and other causes, they change their feeding habits. They also use their horns to break off branches that are hard to reach.\n\n=== Thermoregulation ===\nCommon elands have several thermoregulatory adaptations to help them withstand the extreme temperatures of their environments. Using peripheral thermal receptors on the skin, elands can sense heat and increase or decrease evaporative cooling accordingly. On sunnier days, common elands maintain a cooler skin temperature relative to their inner body temperature. Elands achieve cooler skin temperatures by increasing cutaneous evaporation. This allows them to feel cooler, even though their internal body temperature stays relatively the same throughout the day. The eland can also conserve water by increasing its body temperature. When temperatures rise above a certain threshold, an increase in sweating and panting is also observed. Common elands use their sparse fur coats to dissipate excess heat via reradiation. The dewlap is also believed to play a role in thermoregulation. "


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"Due to its high surface area to volume ratio, it may allow for efficient thermoregulation in larger common elands with larger dewlaps.\n\n=== Sociability and reproduction ===\n\nFemales are sexually mature at 15 to 36 months and males at 4 to 5 years. Mating may occur anytime after reaching sexual maturity, but is mostly seen in the rainy season. In Zambia, young are born in July and August, while elsewhere this is the mating season. Mating begins when elands gather to feed on lush, green plains with plentiful grass, and some males and females start mating with each other in separate pairs. Males chase the females to find out if they are in estrus. They also test the female's urine. Usually, a female chooses the most dominant and fit male to mate with. Sometimes, she runs away from males trying to mate, causing more attraction. This results in fights between males, in which their hard horns are used. A female allows a male to mount after two to four hours. Males usually keep close contact with females in the mating period. The dominant male can mate with more than one female. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"Females have a gestation period of nine months, and give birth to only one calf each time.Males, females, and juveniles each form separate social groups. The male groups are the smallest; the members stay together and search for food or water sources. The female group is much larger and covers greater areas. They travel the grassy plains in wet periods and prefer bushy areas in dry periods. Females have a complex linear hierarchy. The nursery and juvenile group is naturally formed when females give birth to calves. After about 24 hours of the delivery, the mother and calf join this group. The calves start befriending each other and stay back in the nursery group, while the mother returns to the female group. The calves leave the nursery group when they are at least two years old and join a male or female group.\n\n=== Diseases and parasites ===\nCommon elands are resistant to trypanosomiasis, a protozoan infection that has the tsetse fly as a vector, but not to the Rhipicephalus-transmitted disease theileriosis. The disease-causing bacterium Theileria taurotragi has caused many eland deaths. Clostridium chauvoei, another bacterium, can be harmful, as well. Elands are also hosts to several kinds of ticks. "


id: 18ac8a6bef38417a7a2d981203d872ea
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"In one study, an eland was found to be host to the Amblyomma species A. gemma and A. variegatum, and Rhipicephalus species R. decoloratus, R. appendiculatus, R. evertsi, R. pulchellus and R. pravus. Elands produce antibodies for Brucella bacteria, but none for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis or various types of pneumonia like contagious bovine pneumonia and contagious caprine pneumonia, normally infectious in cows or antelopes.\n\n== Interaction with humans ==\n\n=== Conservation ===\n\nCurrently, common elands are not endangered. They are conserved by the United States Endangered Species Act, and regulated in international trade by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Using ground counts and aerial surveys, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) calculates the population density of the common eland to be between 0.05 and 1 per square kilometre with a total population estimate of 136,000. Populations are considered stable or increasing in the countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Malawi, and possibly Tanzania.\nThe population is, however, gradually decreasing due to habitat loss, caused by expanding human settlements and poaching for its superior meat. As they are docile and inactive most of the time, they can easily be killed. "


id: f68371db0e09009d7844cd22df9d5bae
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"The species became extinct in Eswatini and Zimbabwe, but has been reintroduced.\nThe IUCN states that about half of the estimated total population lives in protected areas and 30% on private land. Protected areas that support major populations include Omo (Ethiopia), Serengeti, Katavi, Ruaha, and Selous-Kilombero (Tanzania), Kafue and North Luangwa (Zambia), Nyika (Malawi), Etosha (Namibia), Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa) and Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (South Africa). Most of these populations appear to be stable. Relatively large numbers of common elands now live on private land, particularly in Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, reflecting its value as a trophy animal. Common elands have also been widely domesticated in Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Kenya, as well as in Russia and Ukraine.\n\n=== Uses ===\n\nThe common eland is sometimes farmed and hunted for its meat, and in some cases can be better used than cattle because it is more suited to African climates. This has led to some Southern African farmers switching from cattle to eland. Common elands are also pictured as supporters in the coat of arms of Grootfontein, Namibia.\n\n"


id: cf5eccc4f3421ba9abbc3e4f205425ac
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"=== Husbandry ===\nCommon elands have a mild temperament and have been successfully domesticated for meat and milk production in South Africa and Russia. Their need for water is quite low because they produce urine with a highurea content, but they require a substantial grazing area, along with salt licks and large amounts of supplementary feed such as maize, sorghum, melons, and beans, which can be expensive. A female can produce up to 7 kg (15 lb) of milk per day that is richer in milkfat than cow milk. The pleasant-tasting milk has a butterfat content of 11-17% and can be stored for up to eight months if properly prepared, versus several days for cow milk.Housing common elands is difficult due to their ability to jump over fences as high as 3 m (9.8 ft) or simply break through using their substantial mass. Sometimes, wild elands break through enclosures to mix with domesticated ones. Common elands can reproduce in captivity, but calf survival is low and the young may need to be separated from their mothers to ensure health and adequate feeding. Husbandry requires care because the generally placid animals startle easily and require large amounts of space.\n\n"


id: f8da7e775de137b999bf0ad6f28bf359
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nInformation at ITIS\nData related to Common Eland at Wikispecies\nMedia related to Common Eland at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The green ara\u00e7ari (Pteroglossus viridis), is a toucan, a near-passerine bird. It is found in the lowland forests of northeastern South America (the Guiana Shield), in the northeast Amazon Basin, the Guianas and the eastern Orinoco River drainage of Venezuela.  At 30\u201340 cm. (12\u201316 in) long and weighing 110\u2013160 grams (3.9\u20135.7 oz.), it is the smallest aracari in its range, and among the smallest members of the toucan family.\n\n== Taxonomy and systematics ==\nThe green aracari was originally classified in the genus Ramphastos. Alternate names include Sclater's Ara\u00e7ari. The species is named for the green feathers covering its back.\n\n== Description ==\nMales' crowns are black, while females' are reddish brown.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\n=== Breeding ===\nBreeding occurs from February to June.  It nests in tree cavities, producing 2\u20134 white eggs. The parents cooperate in rearing their young.\n\n=== Food and feeding ===\nIts diet consists mostly of fruit, including the fruits of Cecropia trees and the palm Oenocarpus bacaba. The serrated edges of the green aracari's large bill help the bird to grip and gather fruit. Insects are also an occasional part of the diet, giving the birds protein.\n\n"


id: 7ed7858fdd8969d62b5bb75652887019
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"== Pets ==\nIn captivity it is the most frequently bred member of the toucan family and is the most popular as a tame hand-fed pet. It requires a large cage and toys to prevent boredom due to its active nature, and a high-fruit diet. When all these requirements are met it is an affectionate companion for many years.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Pteroglossus viridis at Wikimedia Commons\nGreen aracari videos on the Internet Bird Collection\nStamps (for Guyana, Suriname) with ~RangeMap\nGreen aracari photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)\nPhoto-Medium Res; Article nashvillezoo\u2014\"Ramphastidae\"\nPhoto-High Res; Article & synopsis w/systematics arthurgrosset"


id: 4fbeb245d8da22c0cf573ea670d70609
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"The okapi (; Okapia johnstoni), also known as the forest giraffe, Congolese giraffe, or zebra giraffe, is an artiodactyl mammal that is endemic to the northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo in central Africa. It is the only species in the genus Okapia. Although the okapi has striped markings reminiscent of zebras, it is most closely related to the giraffe. The okapi and the giraffe are the only living members of the family Giraffidae.\nThe okapi stands about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder and has a typical body length around 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in). Its weight ranges from 200 to 350 kg (440 to 770 lb). It has a long neck, and large, flexible ears. Its coat is a chocolate to reddish brown, much in contrast with the white horizontal stripes and rings on the legs, and white ankles. Male okapis have short, distinct horn-like protuberances on their heads called ossicones, less than 15 cm (5.9 in) in length. Females possess hair whorls, and ossicones are absent.\nOkapis are primarily diurnal, but may be active for a few hours in darkness. They are essentially solitary, coming together only to breed. "


id: f4d85f7d5e4beeda6c5487cbbce8ae57
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:07
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"Okapis are herbivores, feeding on tree leaves and buds, grasses, ferns, fruits, and fungi. Rut in males and estrus in females does not depend on the season. In captivity, estrus cycles recur every 15 days. The gestational period is around 440 to 450 days long, following which usually a single calf is born. The juveniles are kept in hiding, and nursing takes place infrequently. Juveniles start taking solid food from three months, and weaning takes place at six months.\nOkapis inhabit canopy forests at altitudes of 500\u20131,500 m (1,600\u20134,900 ft). The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources classifies the okapi as endangered. Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. Illegal mining and extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin have also led to a decline in populations. The Okapi Conservation Project was established in 1987 to protect okapi populations.\n\n"


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"== Etymology and taxonomy ==\n\nAlthough the okapi was unknown to the Western world until the 20th century, it may have been depicted since the early fifth century BCE on the fa\u00e7ade of the Apadana at Persepolis, a gift from the Ethiopian procession to the Achaemenid kingdom.For years, Europeans in Africa had heard of an animal that they came to call the African unicorn. The animal was brought to prominent European attention by speculation on its existence found in press reports covering Henry Morton Stanley's journeys in 1887. In his travelogue of exploring the Congo, Stanley mentioned a kind of donkey that the natives called the atti, which scholars later identified as the okapi.When the British special commissioner in Uganda, Sir Harry Johnston, discovered some Pygmy inhabitants of the Congo being abducted by a showman for exhibition, he rescued them and promised to return them to their homes. The Pygmies fed Johnston's curiosity about the animal mentioned in Stanley's book. Johnston was puzzled by the okapi tracks the natives showed him; while he had expected to be on the trail of some sort of forest-dwelling horse, the tracks were of a cloven-hoofed beast.\n\n"


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"Though Johnston did not see an okapi himself, he did manage to obtain pieces of striped skin and eventually a skull. From this skull, the okapi was correctly classified as a relative of the giraffe; in 1901, the species was formally recognized as Okapia johnstoni.Okapia johnstoni was first described as Equus johnstoni by English zoologist Philip Lutley Sclater in 1901. The generic name Okapia derives either from the Mbuba name okapi or the related Lese Karo name o'api, while the specific name (johnstoni) is in recognition of Johnston, who first acquired an okapi specimen for science from the Ituri Forest.In 1901, Sclater presented a painting of the okapi before the Zoological Society of London that depicted its physical features with some clarity. Much confusion arose regarding the taxonomical status of this newly discovered animal. Sir Harry Johnston himself called it a Helladotherium, or a relative of other extinct giraffids. Based on the description of the okapi by Pygmies, who referred to it as a \"horse\", Sclater named the species Equus johnstoni. "


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"Subsequently, zoologist Ray Lankester declared that the okapi represented an unknown genus of the Giraffidae, which he placed in its own genus, Okapia, and assigned the name Okapia johnstoni to the species.In 1902, Swiss zoologist Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major suggested the inclusion of O. johnstoni in the extinct giraffid subfamily Palaeotraginae. However, the species was placed in its own subfamily Okapiinae, by Swedish palaeontologist Birger Bohlin in 1926, mainly due to the lack of a cingulum, a major feature of the palaeotragids. In 1986, Okapia was finally established as a sister genus of Giraffa on the basis of cladistic analysis. The two genera together with Palaeotragus constitute the tribe Giraffini.\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nThe earliest members of the Giraffidae first appeared in the early Miocene in Africa, having diverged from the superficially deer-like climacoceratids. Giraffids spread into Europe and Asia by the middle Miocene in a first radiation. Another radiation began in the Pliocene, but was terminated by a decline in diversity in the Pleistocene. Several important primitive giraffids existed more or less contemporaneously in the Miocene (23\u201310 million years ago), including Canthumeryx, Giraffokeryx, Palaeotragus, and Samotherium. "


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"According to palaeontologist and author Kathleen Hunt, Samotherium split into Okapia (18 million years ago) and Giraffa (12 million years ago). However, J. D. Skinner argued that Canthumeryx gave rise to the okapi and giraffe through the latter three genera and that the okapi is the extant form of Palaeotragus. The okapi is sometimes referred to as a living fossil, as it has existed as a species over a long geological time period, and morphologically resembles more primitive forms (e.g. Samotherium).In 2016, a genetic study found that the common ancestor of giraffe and okapi lived about 11.5 million years ago.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe okapi is a medium-sized giraffid, standing 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder. Its average body length is about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) and its weight ranges from 200 to 350 kg (440 to 770 lb). It has a long neck, and large and flexible ears. In sharp contrast to the white horizontal stripes on the legs and white ankles, the okapi's coat is a chocolate to reddish brown.  The distinctive stripes resemble those of a zebra. These features serve as an effective camouflage amidst dense vegetation. "


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"The face, throat, and chest are greyish white. Interdigital glands are present on all four feet, and are slightly larger on the front feet. Male okapis have short, hair-covered horn-like structures called ossicones, less than 15 cm (5.9 in) in length, which are similar in form and function to the ossicones of a giraffe. The okapi exhibits sexual dimorphism, with females 4.2 cm (1.7 in) taller on average, slightly redder, and lacking prominent ossicones, instead possessing hair whorls.The okapi shows several adaptations to its tropical habitat. The large number of rod cells in the retina facilitate night vision, and an efficient olfactory system is present. The large auditory bullae of the temporal bone allow a strong sense of hearing. The dental formula of the okapi is 0.0.3.33.1.3.3. Teeth are low-crowned and finely cusped, and efficiently cut tender foliage. The large cecum and colon help in microbial digestion, and a quick rate of food passage allows for lower cell wall digestion than in other ruminants.\n\nThe okapi is easily distinguished from its nearest extant relative, the giraffe. It is much smaller than the giraffe and shares more external similarities with bovids and cervids. "


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"Ossicones are present only in the male okapi, while both sexes of giraffe possess this feature. The okapi has large palatine sinuses (hollow cavities in the palate), unique among the giraffids. Morphological features shared between the giraffe and the okapi include a similar gait \u2013 both use a pacing gait, stepping simultaneously with the front and the hind leg on the same side of the body, unlike other ungulates that walk by moving alternate legs on either side of the body \u2013 and a long, black tongue (longer in the okapi) useful for plucking buds and leaves, as well as for grooming.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\nOkapis are primarily diurnal, but may be active for a few hours in darkness. They are essentially solitary, coming together only to breed. They have overlapping home ranges and typically occur at densities around 0.6 animals per square kilometre. Male home ranges average 13 km2 (5.0 sq mi), while female home ranges average 3\u20135 km2 (1.2\u20131.9 sq mi). Males migrate continuously, while females are sedentary. Males often mark territories and bushes with their urine, while females use common defecation sites. Grooming is a common practice, focused at the earlobes and the neck. "


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"Okapis often rub their necks against trees, leaving a brown exudate.The male is protective of his territory, but allows females to pass through the domain to forage. Males visit female home ranges at breeding time. Although generally tranquil, the okapi can kick and butt with its head to show aggression. As the vocal cords are poorly developed, vocal communication is mainly restricted to three sounds \u2014 \"chuff\" (contact calls used by both sexes), \"moan\" (by females during courtship) and \"bleat\" (by infants under stress). Individuals may engage in Flehmen response, a visual expression in which the animal curls back its upper lips, displays the teeth, and inhales through the mouth for a few seconds. The leopard is the main natural predator of the okapi.\n\n=== Diet ===\n\nOkapis are herbivores, feeding on tree leaves and buds, grasses, ferns, fruits, and fungi. They are unique in the Ituri Forest as they are the only known mammal that feeds solely on understory vegetation, where they use their 18-inch-long (46 cm) tongues to selectively browse for suitable plants. The tongue is also used to groom their ears and eyes. They prefer to feed in treefall gaps. "


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"The okapi has been known to feed on over 100 species of plants, some of which are known to be poisonous to humans and other animals. Fecal analysis shows that none of those 100 species dominates the diet of the okapi. Staple foods comprise shrubs and lianas. The main constituents of the diet are woody, dicotyledonous species; monocotyledonous plants are not eaten regularly. In the Ituri forest, the okapi feeds mainly upon the plant families Acanthaceae, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Loganiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Violaceae.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nFemale okapis become sexually mature at about one-and-a-half years old, while males reach maturity after two years. Rut in males and estrous in females does not depend on the season. In captivity, estrous cycles recur every 15 days. The male and the female begin courtship by circling, smelling, and licking each other. The male shows his interest by extending his neck, tossing his head, and protruding one leg forward. This is followed by mounting and copulation.The gestational period is around 440 to 450 days long, following which usually a single calf is born, weighing 14\u201330 kg (31\u201366 lb). "


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"The udder of the pregnant female starts swelling 2 months before parturition, and vulval discharges may occur. Parturition takes 3\u20134 hours, and the female stands throughout this period, though she may rest during brief intervals. The mother consumes the afterbirth and extensively grooms the infant. Her milk is very rich in proteins and low in fat.As in other ruminants, the infant can stand within 30 minutes of birth. Although generally similar to adults, newborn calves have long hairs around the eye (resembling false eyelashes), a long dorsal mane, and long white hairs in the stripes. These features gradually disappear and give way to the general appearance within a year. The juveniles are kept in hiding, and nursing takes place infrequently. Calves are known not to defecate for the first month or two of life, which is hypothesized to help avoid predator detection in their most vulnerable phase of life. The growth rate of calves is appreciably high in the first few months of life, after which it gradually declines. Juveniles start taking solid food from 3 months, and weaning takes place at 6 months. Ossicone development in males takes 1 year after birth. The okapi's typical lifespan is 20\u201330 years.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe okapi is endemic to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it occurs north and east of the Congo River. It ranges from the Maiko National Park northward to the Ituri rainforest, then through the river basins of the Rubi, Lake Tele, and Ebola to the west and the Ubangi River further north. Smaller populations exist west and south of the Congo River. It is also common in the Wamba and Epulu areas. It is extinct in Uganda.The okapi inhabits canopy forests at altitudes of 500\u20131,500 m (1,600\u20134,900 ft). It occasionally uses seasonally inundated areas, but does not occur in gallery forests, swamp forests, and habitats disturbed by human settlements. In the wet season, it visits rocky inselbergs that offer forage uncommon elsewhere. Results of research conducted in the late 1980s in a mixed Cynometra forest indicated that the okapi population density averaged 0.53 animals per square kilometre. In 2008, it was recorded in Virunga National Park. There is also evidence that okapis were also observed in the Semuliki Valley in Uganda by Europeans, but later became extinct in the late 1970s. The Semuliki Valley provides a similar habitat to the Congo Basin.\n\n"


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"== Status ==\n\n=== Threats and conservation ===\n\nThe IUCN classifies the okapi as endangered. It is fully protected under Congolese law. The Okapi Wildlife Reserve and Maiko National Park support significant populations of the okapi, though a steady decline in numbers has occurred due to several threats. Other areas of occurrence are the Rubi Tele Hunting Reserve and the Abumombanzi Reserve. Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to population declines. A threat that has emerged quite recently is the presence of illegal armed groups around protected areas, inhibiting conservation and monitoring actions. A small population occurs north of the Virunga National Park, but lacks protection due to the presence of armed groups in the vicinity. In June 2012, a gang of poachers attacked the headquarters of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, killing six guards and other staff as well as all 14 okapis at their breeding center.The Okapi Conservation Project, established in 1987, works towards the conservation of the okapi, as well as the growth of the indigenous Mbuti people. "


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"In November 2011, the White Oak Conservation center and Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens hosted an international meeting of the Okapi Species Survival Plan and the Okapi European Endangered Species Programme at Jacksonville, which was attended by representatives from zoos from the US, Europe, and Japan. The aim was to discuss the management of captive okapis and arrange support for okapi conservation. Many zoos in North America and Europe currently have okapis in captivity.\n\n=== Okapis in zoos ===\n\nAround 100 okapis are in accredited Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) zoos. The okapi population is managed in America by the AZA's Species Survival Plan, a breeding program that works to ensure genetic diversity in the captive population of endangered animals, while the EEP (European studbook) and ISB (Global studbook) are managed by Antwerp Zoo in Belgium, which was the first zoo to have an Okapi on display (in 1919), as well as one of the most successful in breeding them.In 1937, the Bronx Zoo became the first in North America to acquire an okapi. With one of the most successful breeding programs, 13 calves have been born there between 1991 and 2011. "


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"The San Diego Zoo has exhibited okapis since 1956, and their first okapi calf was born in 1962. Since then, there have been more than 60 okapis born at the zoo and the nearby San Diego Zoo Safari Park, the most recent being Mosi, a male calf born on 21 July 2017 at the zoo. The Brookfield Zoo in Chicago has also greatly contributed to the captive population of okapis in accredited zoos. "


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"The zoo has had 28 okapi births since 1959.Other North American zoos that exhibit and breed okapis include: Denver Zoo and Cheyenne Mountain Zoo (Colorado); Houston Zoo, Dallas Zoo, and San Antonio Zoo (Texas); Disney's Animal Kingdom, White Oak Conservation, Zoo Miami, and ZooTampa at Lowry Park (Florida); Los Angeles Zoo, Sacramento Zoo, and San Diego Zoo (California); Saint Louis Zoo (Missouri); Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden and Columbus Zoo and Aquarium (Ohio); Memphis Zoo and Nashville Zoo (Tennessee); The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore (Maryland); Sedgwick County Zoo and Tanganyika Wildlife Park (Kansas); Roosevelt Park Zoo (North Dakota); Henry Doorly Zoo and Aquarium (Nebraska); Philadelphia Zoo (Pennsylvania); Potawatomi Zoo (Indiana); Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden (Oklahoma); and Blank Park Zoo (Iowa).In Europe, zoos that exhibit and breed okapis include: Chester Zoo, London Zoo, Marwell Zoo, The Wild Place, and Yorkshire Wildlife Park (United Kingdom); Dublin Zoo (Ireland); Berlin Zoo, Frankfurt Zoo, Wilhelma Zoo, Wuppertal Zoo, Cologne Zoo, and Leipzig Zoo (Germany); Zoo Basel  (Switzerland); Copenhagen Zoo (Denmark); Rotterdam Zoo and Safaripark Beekse Bergen (Netherlands); Dv\u016fr Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9 Zoo (Czech Republic); Wroc\u0142aw Zoo (Poland); Bioparc Zoo de Dou\u00e9 and ZooParc de Beauval (France); and Lisbon Zoo (Portugal).In Asia, three Japanese zoos exhibit okapis: Ueno Zoo in Tokyo; Kanazawa Zoo and Zoorasia in Yokohama.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nWolfram Bell (Nov. 2009): Okapis: geheimnisvolle Urwaldgiraffen; Entdeckungsgeschichte, Biologie, Haltung und Medizin einer seltenen Tierart. Sch\u00fcling Verlag M\u00fcnster, Germany. ISBN 978-3-86523-144-4.\nZvi Sever, Searching for the okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in Semuliki National Park, Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. Vol. 00: 1\u20137. doi:10.1111/aje.12796\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe okapi management site\nMonograph of the Okapi (1910) by E. Ray Lankester and William George Ridewood\n\"Okapi\" . Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911."


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"The red-lored amazon or red-lored parrot (Amazona autumnalis) is a species of amazon parrot, native to tropical regions of the Americas, from eastern Mexico south to Ecuador where it occurs in humid evergreen to semi-deciduous forests up to 1,100 m altitude. It is absent from the Pacific side of Central America north of Costa Rica. Not originally known from El Salvador, a pair - perhaps escaped from captivity - nested successfully in 1995 and 1996 in the outskirts of San Salvador and the species might expand its range permanently into that country in the future. This species has also established feral populations in several California cities.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe red-lored amazon was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other parrots in the genus Psittacus and coined the binomial name Psittacus autumnalis. Linnaeus based his description on the \"lesser green parrot\" that had been described and illustrated in 1751 by the English naturalist George Edwards in the fourth volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Edwards mistakenly believed his specimen had come from the West Indies. "


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"The type locality was later designated as southern Mexico. The red-lored amazon is now one of around thirty species placed in the genus Amazona that was introduced by the French naturalist Ren\u00e9 Lesson in 1830. The genus name is a Latinized version of the name Amazone used in the 18th century by the Comte de Buffon. The specific epithet autumnalis is Latin for \"autumnal\".Three subspecies are recognised:\nA. a. autumnalis (Linnaeus, 1758) \u2013 east Mexico to north Nicaragua\nA. a. salvini (Salvadori, 1891) \u2013 north Nicaragua to southwest Colombia and northwest Venezuela\nA. a. lilacina (Lesson, R, 1844) \u2013 west Ecuador - the lilacine amazonThe lilacine amazon is considered by some authorities (such as BirdLife International) to be a distinct species, Amazona lilacina.The diademed amazon (Amazona diadema) is sometimes considered conspecific with this species.\n\n== Description ==\nThe red-lored amazon is 32\u201335 centimetres (13\u201314 in) in length, with a weight of 310\u2013480 g. The plumage is primarily green, with a red forehead and, in some subspecies, yellow cheeks (sometimes with red spots).  The crown is blue.  Adult males and females do not differ in plumage.  Juveniles have less yellow on the cheeks, less red on the forehead, and dark irises.\n\n"


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"== Behavior ==\n\n=== Food and feeding ===\nTheir food includes fruits, nuts and seeds. Like all parrots, red-lored amazons need a varied diet consisting of high quality pellets, a quality seed mix, and daily servings of fresh, bird-safe fruits and vegetables.\n\n=== Breeding ===\nThe red-lored amazon nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white and there are usually three or four in a clutch. The female incubates the eggs for about 26 days and the chicks leave the nest about 60 days after hatching.\n\n== Status ==\nIn some areas, notably parts of Mexico and Venezuela, the red-lored amazon has become rare through trapping for the cagebird trade. On the other hand, it seems to be able to adapt to human-altered habitat to a considerable degree.\n\n== Aviculture ==\nRed-lored amazons are fairly common pet parrots in the Americas. They can be devoted pets and some make fairly good talkers. Like most amazon parrots they often have a tendency to vocalize loudly, and sometimes to bite. Their behavior ranges from being quiet and curious to being aggressive, this can all be changed by basic training when the bird is of a young age. "


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"Red-lored amazons can grow up to 13 inches in length. While they largely feast on seeds, fruits and nuts, avocados and eggplants are poisonous to them and can kill them. Their average life span is up to 80 years.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nCollar, Nigel J. (1997): 313. Red-lored Amazon. In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 4 (Sandgrouse to Cuckoos): 469\u2013470, Plate 54. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9\nDonegan, T.; Verhelst, J.C.; Ellery, T.; Cort\u00e9s-Herrera, O.; Salaman, P. (2016). \"Revision of the status of bird species occurring or reported in Colombia 2016 and assessment of BirdLife International's new parrot taxonomy\". Conservaci\u00f3n Colombiana. 24: 12\u201336.\nFoster, Mercedes S. (2007): The potential of fruiting trees to enhance converted habitats for migrating birds in southern Mexico. Bird Conservation International 17(1): 45\u201361. doi:10.1017/S0959270906000554 PDF fulltext\nHerrera, N\u00e9stor; Rivera, Roberto; Ibarra Portillo, Ricardo & Rodr\u00edguez, Wilfredo (2006): Nuevos registros para la avifauna de El Salvador. [\"New records for the avifauna of El Salvador\"]. Bolet\u00edn de la Sociedad Antioque\u00f1a de Ornitolog\u00eda 16(2): 1-19. "


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"[Spanish with English abstract] PDF fulltext\n\n== External links ==\n\nSpecies profile - World Parrot Trust"


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"The Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is a large crocodilian native to freshwater habitats in Africa, where it is present in 26 countries. It is widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, occurring mostly in the central, eastern, and southern regions of the continent, and lives in different types of aquatic environments such as lakes, rivers, swamps, and marshlands. In West Africa, it occurs along with two other crocodilians. Although capable of living in saline environments, this species is rarely found in saltwater, but occasionally inhabits deltas and brackish lakes. The range of this species once stretched northward throughout the Nile, as far north as the Nile Delta. On average, the adult male Nile crocodile is between 2.94 and 4.4 m (9 ft 8 in and 14 ft 5 in) in length and weighs 225 to 414.5 kg (496 to 914 lb) including stomach stones. However, specimens exceeding 6.1 m (20 ft) in length and weighing up to 1,089 kg (2,401 lb) have been recorded. It is the largest freshwater predator in Africa, and may be considered the second-largest extant reptile in the world, after the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Size is sexually dimorphic, with females usually about 30% smaller than males. "


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"The crocodile has thick, scaly, heavily armoured skin.\nNile crocodiles are opportunistic apex predators; a very aggressive crocodile, they are capable of taking almost any animal within their range. They are generalists, taking a variety of prey. Their diet consists mostly of different species of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. They are ambush predators that can wait for hours, days, and even weeks for the suitable moment to attack. They are agile predators and wait for the opportunity for a prey item to come well within attack range. Even swift prey are not immune to attack. Like other crocodiles, Nile crocodiles have a powerful bite that is unique among all animals, and sharp, conical teeth that sink into flesh, allowing a grip that is almost impossible to loosen. They can apply high force for extended periods of time, a great advantage for holding down large prey underwater to drown.Nile crocodiles are relatively social. They share basking spots and large food sources, such as schools of fish and big carcasses. Their strict hierarchy is determined by size. Large, old males are at the top of this hierarchy and have first access to food and the best basking spots. "


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"Crocodiles tend to respect this order; when it is infringed, the results are often violent and sometimes fatal. Like most other reptiles, Nile crocodiles lay eggs; these are guarded by the females. The hatchlings are also protected for a period of time, but hunt by themselves and are not fed by the parents.The Nile crocodile is one of the most dangerous species of crocodile and is responsible for hundreds of human deaths every year. It is common and is not endangered, despite some regional declines or extirpations.\n\n== Etymology and naming ==\nThe binomial name Crocodylus niloticus is derived from the Greek \u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03ba\u03b7, kroke (\"pebble\"), \u03b4\u03c1\u1fd6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, drilos (\"worm\"), referring to its rough skin; and niloticus, meaning \"from the Nile River\". The Nile crocodile is called timsah al-nil in Arabic, mamba in Swahili, garwe in Shona, ngwenya in Ndebele, ngwena in Venda, kwena in Sotho and Tswana, and tanin ha-yeor in Hebrew. It also sometimes referred to as the African crocodile, Ethiopian crocodile, and common crocodile.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nAlthough no subspecies are currently formally recognized, as many as seven have been proposed, mostly due to variations in appearance and size noted in various populations throughout Africa. "


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"These have consisted of C. n. africanus (informally named the East African Nile crocodile), C. n. chamses (the West African Nile crocodile), C. n. cowiei (the South African Nile crocodile), C. n. madagascariensis (the Malagasy or Madagascar Nile crocodile, regionally also known as the croco Mada, which translates to Malagasy crocodile), C. n. niloticus (the Ethiopian Nile crocodile; this would be the nominate subspecies), C. n. pauciscutatus (the Kenyan Nile crocodile) and C. (n.) suchus (now widely considered a separate species).In a study of the morphology of the various populations, including C. (n.) suchus, the appearance of the Nile crocodile sensu lato was found to be more variable than that of any other currently recognized crocodile species, and at least some of these variations were related to locality. For example, a study on Lake Turkana in Kenya (informally this population would be placed in C. n. pauciscutatus) found that the local crocodiles have more osteoderms in their ventral surface than other known populations, and thus are of lesser value in leather trading, accounting for an exceptionally large (possibly overpopulated) local population there in the late 20th century. "


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"The segregation of the West African crocodile (C. suchus) from the Nile crocodile has been supported by morphological characteristics, studies of genetic materials and habitat preferences. The separation of the two is not recognized by the IUCN as their last evaluations of the group was in 2008 and 2009, years before the primary publications supporting the distinctiveness of the West African crocodiles.\n\n== Evolution ==\nAlthough originally thought to be the same species as the West African crocodile, genetic studies using DNA sequencing have revealed that the Nile crocodile is actually more closely related to the crocodiles of the Americas, namely the American (C. acutus), Cuban (C. rhombifer), Morelet's (C. moreletii), and Orinoco crocodiles (C. intermedius). The fossil species C. checchiai from the Miocene in Kenya was about the same size as the modern Nile crocodiles and shared similar physical characteristics to the modern species, and analysis of C. checchiai supports their close relationship and the theory of the Nile crocodile being the base of the evolutionary radiation of the New World crocodiles. "


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"Dispersal across the Atlantic from Africa is thought to have occurred 5 to 6 million years ago.At one time, the fossil species Rimasuchus lloydi was thought to be the ancestor of the Nile crocodile, but more recent research has indicated that Rimasuchus, despite its very large size (about 20\u201330% bigger than a Nile crocodile with a skull length estimated up to 97 cm (38 in)), is more closely related to the dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis) among living species. Two other fossil species from Africa retained in the genus Crocodylus appear to be closely related to the Nile crocodile: C. anthropophagus from Plio-Pleistocene Tanzania and C. thorbjarnarsoni from Plio-Pleistocene Kenya. C. anthropophagus and C. thorbjarnarsoni were both somewhat larger, with projected total lengths up to 7.5\u20137.6 m (24 ft 7 in \u2013 24 ft 11 in). As well as being larger, C. anthropophagus and C. thorbjarnarsoni, as well as Rimasuchus spp., were all relatively broad-snouted, indicating a specialization at hunting sizeable prey, such as large mammals and freshwater turtles, the latter much larger than any in present-day Africa. "


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"Studies have since shown these other African crocodiles to be only more distantly related to the Nile crocodile.Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological, molecular (DNA sequencing), and stratigraphic (fossil age) data, as revised by the 2021 Hekkala et al. paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct Voay.\n\n== Characteristics and physiology ==\n\nAdult Nile crocodiles have a dark bronze colouration above, with faded blackish spots and stripes variably appearing across the back and a dingy off-yellow on the belly, although mud can often obscure the crocodile's actual colour. The flanks, which are yellowish-green in colour, have dark patches arranged in oblique stripes in highly variable patterns. Some variation occurs relative to environment; specimens from swift-flowing waters tend to be lighter in colour than those dwelling in murkier lakes or swamps, which provides camouflage that suits their environment, an example of clinal variation. Nile crocodiles have green eyes. The colouration also helps to camouflage them; juveniles are grey, multicoloured, or brown, with dark cross-bands on the tail and body. The underbelly of young crocodiles is yellowish green. "


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"As they mature, Nile crocodiles become darker and the cross-bands fade, especially those on the upper-body. A similar tendency in coloration change during maturation has been noted in most crocodile species.Most morphological attributes of Nile crocodiles are typical of crocodilians as a whole. Like all crocodilians, for example, the Nile crocodile is a quadruped with four short, splayed legs, a long, powerful tail, a scaly hide with rows of ossified scutes running down its back and tail, and powerful, elongated jaws. Their skin has a number of poorly understood integumentary sense organs that may react to changes in water pressure, presumably allowing them to track prey movements in the water. The Nile crocodile has fewer osteoderms on the belly, which are much more conspicuous on some of the more modestly sized crocodilians. The species, however, also has small, oval osteoderms on the sides of the body, as well as the throat. The Nile crocodile shares with all crocodilians a nictitating membrane to protect the eyes and lachrymal glands to cleanse its eyes with tears. The nostrils, eyes, and ears are situated on the top of the head, so the rest of the body can remain concealed under water. "


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"They have a four-chambered heart, although modified for their ectothermic nature due to an elongated cardiac septum, physiologically similar to the heart of a bird, which is especially efficient at oxygenating their blood. As in all crocodilians, Nile crocodiles have exceptionally high levels of lactic acid in their blood, which allows them to sit motionless in water for up to 2 hours. Levels of lactic acid as high as they are in a crocodile would kill most vertebrates. However, exertion by crocodilians can lead to death due to increasing lactic acid to lethal levels, which in turn leads to failure of the animal's internal organs. This is rarely recorded in wild crocodiles, normally having been observed in cases where humans have mishandled crocodiles and put them through overly extended periods of physical struggling and stress.\n\n=== Skull and head morphology ===\n\nThe mouths of Nile crocodiles are filled with 64 to 68 sharply pointed, cone-shaped teeth (about a dozen less than alligators have). For most of a crocodile's life, broken teeth can be replaced. "


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"On each side of the mouth, five teeth are in the front of the upper jaw (premaxilla), 13 or 14 are in the rest of the upper jaw (maxilla), and 14 or 15 are on either side of the lower jaw (mandible). The enlarged fourth lower tooth fits into the notch on the upper jaw and is visible when the jaws are closed, as is the case with all true crocodiles. Hatchlings quickly lose a hardened piece of skin on the top of their mouths called the egg tooth, which they use to break through their eggshells at hatching. Among crocodilians, the Nile crocodile possesses a relatively long snout, which is about 1.6 to 2.0 times as long as broad at the level of the front corners of the eyes. "


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"As is the saltwater crocodile, the Nile crocodile is considered a species with medium-width snout relative to other extant crocodilian species.In a search for the largest crocodilian skulls in museums, the largest verifiable Nile crocodile skulls found were several housed in Arba Minch, Ethiopia, sourced from nearby Lake Chamo, which apparently included several specimens with a skull length more than 65 cm (26 in), with the largest one being 68.6 cm (27.0 in) in length with a mandibular length of 87 cm (34 in). Nile crocodiles with skulls this size are likely to measure in the range of 5.4 to 5.6 m (17 ft 9 in to 18 ft 4 in), which is also the length of the animals according to the museum where they were found. However, larger skulls may exist, as this study largely focused on crocodilians from Asia. The detached head of an exceptionally large Nile crocodile (killed in 1968 and measuring 5.87 m (19 ft 3 in) in length) was found to have weighed 166 kg (366 lb), including the large tendons used to shut the jaw.\n\n"


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"==== Biting force ====\nThe bite force exerted by an adult Nile crocodile has been shown by Brady Barr to measure 22 kN (5,000 lbf). However, the muscles responsible for opening the mouth are exceptionally weak, allowing a person to easily hold them shut, and even larger crocodiles can be brought under control by the use of duct tape to bind the jaws together. The broadest snouted modern crocodilians are alligators and larger caimans. For example, a 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) was found to have a notably broader and heavier skull than that of a Nile crocodile measuring 4.8 m (15 ft 9 in). However, despite their robust skulls, alligators and caimans appear to be proportionately equal in biting force to true crocodiles, as the muscular tendons used to shut the jaws are similar in proportional size. Only the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) (and perhaps some of the few very thin-snouted crocodilians) is likely to have noticeably diminished bite force compared to other living species due to its exceptionally narrow, fragile snout. "


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"More or less, the size of the tendons used to impart bite force increases with body size and the larger the crocodilian gets, the stronger its bite is likely to be. Therefore, a male saltwater crocodile, which had attained a length around 4.59 m (15 ft 1 in), was found to have the most powerful biting force ever tested in a lab setting for any type of animal.\n\n=== Size ===\n\nThe Nile crocodile is the largest crocodilian in Africa, and is generally considered the second-largest crocodilian after the saltwater crocodile. Typical size has been reported to be as much as 4.5 to 5.5 m (14 ft 9 in to 18 ft 1 in), but this is excessive for actual average size per most studies and represents the upper limit of sizes attained by the largest animals in a majority of populations. Alexander and Marais (2007) give the typical mature size as 2.8 to 3.5 m (9 ft 2 in to 11 ft 6 in); Garrick and Lang (1977) put it at from 3.0 to 4.5 m (9 ft 10 in to 14 ft 9 in). "


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"According to Cott (1961), the average length and weight of Nile crocodiles from Uganda and Zambia in breeding maturity was 3.16 m (10 ft 4 in) and 137.5 kg (303 lb). Per Graham (1968), the average length and weight of a large sample of adult crocodiles from Lake Turkana (formerly known as Lake Rudolf), Kenya was 3.66 m (12 ft 0 in) and body mass of 201.6 kg (444 lb). Similarly, adult crocodiles from Kruger National Park reportedly average 3.65 m (12 ft 0 in) in length. In comparison, the saltwater crocodile and gharial reportedly both average around 4 m (13 ft 1 in), so are about 30 cm (12 in) longer on average, and the false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) may average about 3.75 m (12 ft 4 in), so may be slightly longer, as well. However, compared to the narrow-snouted, streamlined gharial and false gharial, the Nile crocodile is more robust and ranks second to the saltwater crocodile in total average body mass among living crocodilians, and is  considered to be the second-largest extant reptile. The largest accurately measured male, shot near Mwanza, Tanzania, measured 6.45 m (21 ft 2 in) and weighed about 1,043\u20131,089 kg (2,300\u20132,400 lb).\n\n"


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"==== Size and sexual dimorphism ====\n\nLike all crocodiles, they are sexually dimorphic, with the males up to 30% larger than the females, though the difference is considerably less compared to some species, like the saltwater crocodile. Male Nile crocodiles are about 30 to 50 cm (12 to 20 in) longer on average at sexual maturity and grow more so than females after becoming sexually mature, especially expanding in bulk after exceeding 4 m (13 ft 1 in) in length. Adult male Nile crocodiles usually range in length from 3.3 to 5.0 m (10 ft 10 in to 16 ft 5 in) long; at these lengths, an average sized male may weigh from 150 to 750 kg (330 to 1,650 lb). Very old, mature ones can grow to 5.5 m (18 ft 1 in) or more in length (all specimens over 5.5 m (18 ft 1 in) from 1900 onward are cataloged later). "


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"Mature female Nile crocodiles typically measure 2.2 to 3.8 m (7 ft 3 in to 12 ft 6 in), at which lengths the average female specimen would weigh 40 to 250 kg (88 to 551 lb).The bulk and mass of individual crocodiles can be fairly variable, some animals being relatively slender, while others being very robust; females are often bulkier than males of a similar length. As an example of the body mass increase undergone by mature crocodiles, one of the larger crocodiles handled firsthand by Cott (1961) was 4.4 m (14 ft 5 in) and weighed 414.5 kg (914 lb), while the largest specimen measured by Graham and Beard (1973) was 4.8 m (15 ft 9 in) and weighed more than 680 kg (1,500 lb). In attempts to parse the mean male and female lengths across the species, the mean adult length was estimated to be reportedly 4 m (13 ft 1 in) in males, at which males would average about 280 kg (620 lb) in weight, while that of the female is 3.05 m (10 ft 0 in), at which females would average about 116 kg (256 lb). "


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"This gives the Nile crocodile somewhat of a size advantage over the next largest non-marine predator on the African continent, the lion (Panthera leo), which averages 188 kg (414 lb) in males and 124 kg (273 lb) in females, and attains a maximum known weight of 313 kg (690 lb), far less than that of large male crocodiles.Nile crocodiles from cooler climates, like the southern tip of Africa, may be smaller, reaching maximum lengths of only 4 m (13 ft 1 in). A crocodile population from Mali, the Sahara Desert, and elsewhere in West Africa reaches only 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) in length, but it is now largely recognized as a separate species, the West African crocodile.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe Nile crocodile is presently the most common crocodilian in Africa, and is distributed throughout much of the continent. Among crocodilians today, only the saltwater crocodile occurs over a broader geographic area, although other species, especially the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) (due to its small size and extreme adaptability in habitat and flexibility in diet), seem to actually be more abundant. This species\u2019 historic range, however, was even wider. "


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"They were found as far north as the Mediterranean coast in the Nile Delta and across the Red Sea in Israel, Palestine and Syria. The Nile crocodile has historically been recorded in areas where they are now regionally extinct. For example, Herodotus recorded the species inhabiting Lake Moeris in Egypt. They are thought to have become extinct in the Seychelles in the early 19th century (1810\u20131820). Today, Nile crocodiles are widely found in, among others, Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Egypt, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Gabon, Angola, South Africa, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Sudan, South Sudan, Botswana, and Cameroon. The Nile crocodile's current range of distribution extends from the regional tributaries of the Nile in Sudan and Lake Nasser in Egypt to the Cunene of Angola, the Okavango Delta of Botswana, and the Olifants River in South Africa.Isolated populations also exist in Madagascar, which likely colonized the island after the extinction of the endemic crocodile Voay. In Madagascar, crocodiles occur in the western and southern parts from Sambirano to T\u00f4lanaro. "


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"They have been spotted in Zanzibar and the Comoros in modern times, but occur very rarely.The species was previously thought to extend in range into the whole of West and Central Africa, but these populations are now typically recognized as a distinct species, the West African (or desert) crocodile. The distributional boundaries between these species were poorly understood, but following several studies, they are now better known. West African crocodiles are found throughout much of West and Central Africa, ranging east to South Sudan and Uganda where the species may come into contact with the Nile crocodile. Nile crocodiles are absent from most of West and Central Africa, but range into the latter region in eastern and southern Democratic Republic of Congo, and along the Central African coastal Atlantic region (as far north to Cameroon). Likely a level of habitat segregation occurs between the two species, but this remains to be confirmed.Nile crocodiles may be able to tolerate an extremely broad range of habitat types, including small brackish streams, fast-flowing rivers, swamps, dams, and tidal lakes and estuaries. In East Africa, they are found mostly in rivers, lakes, marshes, and dams, favoring open, broad bodies of water over smaller ones. "


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"They are often found in waters adjacent to various open habitats such as savanna or even semi-desert but can also acclimate to well-wooded swamps, extensively wooded riparian zones, waterways of other woodlands and the perimeter of forests. In Madagascar, the remnant population of Nile crocodiles has adapted to living within caves. Nile crocodiles may make use of ephemeral watering holes on occasion. Although not a regular sea-going species as is the American crocodile, and especially the saltwater crocodile, the Nile crocodile possesses salt glands like all true crocodiles (i.e., excluding alligators and caimans), and does on occasion enter coastal and even marine waters. They have been known to enter the sea in some areas, with one specimen having been recorded 11 km (6.8 mi) off St. Lucia Bay in 1917.\n\n=== Invasive potential ===\nNile crocodiles have been recently captured in South Florida, though no signs that the population is reproducing in the wild have been found. Genetic studies of Nile crocodiles captured in the wild in Florida have revealed that the specimens are all closely related to each other, suggesting a single source of the introduction. "


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"This source remains unclear, as their genetics do not match samples collected from captives at various zoos and theme parks in Florida. When compared to Nile crocodiles from their native Africa, the Florida wild specimens are most closely related to South African Nile crocodiles. It is unknown how many Nile crocodiles are currently at large in Florida. The animals likely were either brought there to be released or are escapees.\n\n== Behaviour ==\n\nGenerally, Nile crocodiles are relatively inert creatures, as are most crocodilians and other large, cold-blooded creatures. More than half of the crocodiles observed by Cott (1961), if not disturbed, spent the hours from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. continuously basking with their jaws open if conditions were sunny. If their jaws are bound together in the extreme midday heat, Nile crocodiles may easily die from overheating. Although they can remain practically motionless for hours on end, whether basking or sitting in shallows, Nile crocodiles are said to be constantly aware of their surroundings and aware of the presence of other animals. However, mouth-gaping (while essential to thermoregulation) may also serve as a threat display to other crocodiles. "


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"For example, some specimens have been observed mouth-gaping at night, when overheating is not a risk. In Lake Turkana, crocodiles rarely bask at all through the day, unlike crocodiles from most other areas, for unknown reasons, usually sitting motionless partially exposed at the surface in shallows, with no apparent ill effects from the lack of basking on land.\n\nIn South Africa, Nile crocodiles are more easily observed in winter because of the extensive amount of time they spend basking at this time of year. More time is spent in water on overcast, rainy, or misty days. In the southern reaches of their range, as a response to dry, cool conditions that they cannot survive externally, crocodiles may dig and take refuge in tunnels and engage in aestivation. Pooley found in Royal Natal National Park that during aestivation, young crocodiles of 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) total length would dig tunnels around 1.2 to 1.8 m (3 ft 11 in to 5 ft 11 in) in depth for most, with some tunnels measuring more than 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in), the longest there being 3.65 m (12 ft 0 in). "


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"Crocodiles in aestivation are lethargic, entering a state similar to animals that hibernate. Only the largest individuals engaging in aestivation leave the burrow to sun on the warmest days; otherwise, these crocodiles rarely left their burrows. Aestivation has been recorded from May to August.Nile crocodiles usually dive for only a few minutes at a time, but can swim under water up to 30 minutes if threatened. If they remain fully inactive, they can hold their breath for up to 2 hours (which, as aforementioned, is due to the high levels of lactic acid in their blood). They have a rich vocal range and good hearing. Nile crocodiles normally crawl along on their bellies, but they can also \"high walk\" with their trunks raised above the ground. Smaller specimens can gallop, and even larger individuals are capable of occasional, surprising bursts of speed, briefly reaching up to 14 km/h (8.7 mph). They can swim much faster, moving their bodies and tails in a sinuous fashion, and they can sustain this form of movement much longer than on land, with a maximum known swimming speed of 30 to 35 km/h (19 to 22 mph), more than three times faster than any human.\n\n"


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"Nile crocodiles have been widely known to have gastroliths in their stomachs, which are stones swallowed by animals for various purposes. Although this is clearly a deliberate behaviour for the species, the purpose is not definitively known. Gastroliths are not present in hatchlings, but increase quickly in presence within most crocodiles examined at 2\u20133.1 m (6 ft 7 in \u2013 10 ft 2 in) and yet normally become extremely rare again in very large specimens, meaning that some animals may eventually expel them. However, large specimens can have a large number of gastroliths. One crocodile measuring 3.84 m (12 ft 7 in) and weighing 239 kg (527 lb) had 5.1 kg (11 lb) of stones in its stomach, perhaps a record gastrolith weight for a crocodile. Specimens shot near Mpondwe on the Semliki River had gastroliths in their stomach despite being shot miles away from any sources for the stones; the same holds true for specimens from Kafue Flats, Upper Zambesi and Bangweulu Swamp, all of which often had stones inside them despite being nowhere near stony regions. "


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"Cott (1961) felt that gastroliths were most likely serving as ballast to provide stability and additional weight to sink in water, this bearing great probability over the theories that they assist in digestion and staving off hunger. However, Alderton (1998) stated that a study using radiology found that gastroliths were seen to internally aid the grinding of food during digestion for a small Nile crocodile.Herodotus claimed that Nile crocodiles have a symbiotic relationship with certain birds, such as the Egyptian plover (Pluvianus aegyptius), which enter the crocodile's mouth and pick leeches feeding on the crocodile's blood, but no evidence of this interaction actually occurring in any crocodile species has been found, and it is most likely mythical or allegorical fiction. However, Guggisberg (1972) had seen examples of birds picking scraps of meat from the teeth of basking crocodiles (without entering the mouth) and prey from soil very near basking crocodiles, so felt it was not impossible that a bold, hungry bird may occasionally nearly enter a crocodile's mouth, but not likely as a habitual behaviour.\n\n== Hunting and diet ==\n\nNile crocodiles are apex predators throughout their range. "


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"In the water, this species is an agile and rapid hunter relying on both movement and pressure sensors to catch any prey unfortunate enough to present itself inside or near the waterfront. Out of water, however, the Nile crocodile can only rely on its limbs, as it gallops on solid ground, to chase prey. No matter where they attack prey, this and other crocodilians take practically all of their food by ambush, needing to grab their prey in a matter of seconds to succeed. They have an ectothermic metabolism, so can survive for long periods between meals. However, for such large animals, their stomachs are relatively small, not much larger than a basketball in an average-sized adult, so as a rule, they are anything but voracious eaters. Young crocodiles feed more actively than their elders, according to studies in Uganda and Zambia. In general, at the smallest sizes (0.3\u20131 m (1 ft 0 in \u2013 3 ft 3 in)), Nile crocodiles were most likely to have full stomachs (17.4% full per Cott); adults at 3\u20134 m (9 ft 10 in \u2013 13 ft 1 in) in length were most likely to have empty stomachs (20.2%). "


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"In the largest size range studied by Cott, 4\u20135 m (13 ft 1 in \u2013 16 ft 5 in), they were the second most likely to either have full stomachs (10%) or empty stomachs (20%). Other studies have also shown a large number of adult Nile crocodiles with empty stomachs. For example, in Lake Turkana, Kenya, 48.4% of crocodiles had empty stomachs. The stomachs of brooding females are always empty, meaning that they can survive several months without food.The Nile crocodile mostly hunts within the confines of waterways, attacking aquatic prey or terrestrial animals when they come to the water to drink or to cross. The crocodile mainly hunts land animals by almost fully submerging its body under water. Occasionally, a crocodile quietly surfaces so that only its eyes (to check positioning) and nostrils are visible, and swims quietly and stealthily toward its mark. The attack is sudden and unpredictable. The crocodile lunges its body out of water and grasps its prey. "


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"On other occasions, more of its head and upper body is visible, especially when the terrestrial prey animal is on higher ground, to get a sense of the direction of the prey item at the top of an embankment or on a tree branch. Crocodile teeth are not used for tearing up flesh, but to sink deep into it and hold on to the prey item. The immense bite force, which may be as high as 5,000 lbf (22,000 N) in large adults, ensures that the prey item cannot escape the grip. Prey taken is often much smaller than the crocodile itself, and such prey can be overpowered and swallowed with ease. When it comes to larger prey, success depends on the crocodile's body power and weight to pull the prey item back into the water, where it is either drowned or killed by sudden thrashes of the head or by tearing it into pieces with the help of other crocodiles.\n\nSubadult and smaller adult Nile crocodiles use their bodies and tails to herd groups of fish toward a bank, and eat them with quick sideways jerks of their heads. "


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"Some crocodiles of the species may habitually use their tails to sweep terrestrial prey off balance, sometimes forcing the prey specimen into the water, where it can be more easily drowned. They also cooperate, blocking migrating fish by forming a semicircle across the river. The most dominant crocodile eats first. Their ability to lie concealed with most of their bodies under water, combined with their speed over short distances, makes them effective opportunistic hunters of larger prey. They grab such prey in their powerful jaws, drag it into the water, and hold it underneath until it drowns. They also scavenge or steal kills from other predators, such as lions and leopards (Panthera pardus). Groups of Nile crocodiles may travel hundreds of meters from a waterway to feast on a carcass. They also feed on dead hippopotamuses (Hippopotamus amphibius) as a group (sometimes including three or four dozen crocodiles), tolerating each other. Much of the food from crocodile stomachs may come from scavenging carrion, and the crocodiles could be viewed as performing a similar function at times as do vultures or hyenas on land. Once their prey is dead, they rip off and swallow chunks of flesh. "


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"When groups are sharing a kill, they use each other for leverage, biting down hard and then twisting their bodies to tear off large pieces of meat in a \"death roll\". They may also get the necessary leverage by lodging their prey under branches or stones, before rolling and ripping.The Nile crocodile possesses unique predation behavior characterized by the ability of preying both within water, where it is best adapted, and out of it, which often results in unpredictable attacks on almost any other animal up to twice its size. Most hunting on land is done at night by lying in ambush near forest trails or roadsides, up to 50 m (170 ft) from the water's edge. Since their speed and agility on land is rather outmatched by most terrestrial animals, they must use obscuring vegetation or terrain to have a chance of succeeding during land-based hunts. In one case, an adult crocodile charged from the water up a bank to kill a bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and instead of dragging it into the water, was observed to pull the kill further on land into the cover of the bush. "


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"Two subadult crocodiles were once seen carrying the carcass of a nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) across land in unison. In South Africa, a game warden far from water sources in a savannah-scrub area reported that he saw a crocodile jump up and grab a donkey by the neck and then drag the prey off. Small carnivores are readily taken opportunistically, including African clawless otters (Aonyx capensis)\n\n=== Interspecific predatory relationships ===\nLiving in the rich biosphere of Africa south of the Sahara, the Nile crocodile may come into contact with other large predators. Its place in the ecosystems it inhabits is unique, as it is the only large tetrapod carnivore that spends the majority of its life in water and hunting prey associated with aquatic zones. Large mammalian predators in Africa are often social animals and obligated to feed almost exclusively on land. The Nile crocodile is a strong example of an apex predator. Outside water, crocodiles can meet competition from other dominant savannah predators, notably big cats, which in Africa are represented by lions, cheetahs, and leopards. In general, big cats and crocodiles have a relationship of mutual avoidance. "


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"Occasionally, if regular food becomes scarce, both lions and the crocodile will steal kills on land from each other and, depending on size, will be dominant over one another. Both species may be attracted to carrion, and may occasionally fight over both kills or carrion. Most conflicts over food occur near the water and can literally lead to a tug-of-war over a carcass that can end either way, although seldom is there any serious fighting or bloodshed between the large carnivores. Intimidation displays may also resolve these conflicts. However, when size differences are prominent, the predators may prey on each other.\n\n== Reproduction ==\n\nOn average, sexual maturity is obtained from 12 to 16 years of age. For males, the onset of sexual maturity occurs when they are about 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) long and mass of 155 kg (342 lb), being fairly consistent. On the other hand, that for females is rather more variable, and may be indicative of the health of a regional population based on size at sexual maturity. "


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"On average, according to Cott (1961), female sexual maturity occurs when they reach 2.2 to 3 m (7 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in length. Similarly, a wide range of studies from southern Africa found that the average length for females at the onset of sexual maturity was 2.33 m (7 ft 8 in). However, stunted sexual maturity appears to occur in populations at opposite extremes, both where crocodiles are thought to be overpopulated and where they are overly reduced to heavy hunting, sometimes with females laying eggs when they measure as small as 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) although it is questionable whether such clutches would bear healthy hatchlings.According to Bourquin (2008), the average breeding female in southern Africa is between 3 and 3.6 m (9 ft 10 in and 11 ft 10 in). Earlier studies support that breeding is often inconsistent in females less than 3 m (9 ft 10 in) and clutch size is smaller, a female at 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) reportedly never lays more than 35 eggs, while a female measuring 3.64 m (11 ft 11 in) can expect a clutch of up to 95 eggs. "


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"In \"stunted\" newly mature females from Lake Turkana measuring 1.83 m (6 ft 0 in), the average clutch size was only 15. Graham and Beard (1968) hypothesized that, while females do continue to grow as do males throughout life, that past a certain age and size that females much over 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in) in length in Lake Turkana no longer breed (supported by the physiology of the females examined here); however, subsequent studies in Botswana and South Africa have found evidence of nesting females at least 4.1 m (13 ft 5 in) in length. In the Olifants River in South Africa, rainfall influenced the size of nesting females as only larger females (greater than 3 m (9 ft 10 in)) nested during the driest years. Breeding females along the Olifants were overall larger than those in Zimbabwe. Most females nest only every two to three years while mature males may breed every year.During the mating season, males attract females by bellowing, slapping their snouts in the water, blowing water out of their noses, and making a variety of other noises. "


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"Among the larger males of a population, territorial clashes can lead to physical fighting between males especially if they are near the same size. Such clashes can be brutal affairs and can end in mortality but typically end with victor and loser still alive, the latter withdrawing into deep waters. Once a female has been attracted, the pair warble and rub the undersides of their jaws together. Compared to the tender behaviour of the female accepting the male, copulation is rather rough (even described as \"rape\"-like by Graham & Beard (1968)) in which the male often roars and pins the female underwater. Cott noted little detectable discrepancy in the mating habits of Nile crocodiles and American alligators. In some regions, males have reportedly mated with several females, perhaps any female that enters his claimed territory, though in most regions annual monogamy appears to be most common in this species.\n\nFemales lay their eggs about one to two months after mating. The nesting season can fall in nearly every month of the year. In the northern extremes of the distribution (i.e. Somalia or Egypt), the nesting season is December through February while in the southern limits (i.e. "


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"South Africa or Tanzania) is in August through December. In crocodiles between these distributions egg-laying is in intermediate months, often focused between April and July. The dates correspond to about a month or two into the dry season within that given region. The benefits of this are presumably that nest flooding risk is considerably reduced at this time and the stage at which hatchlings begin their lives out of the egg falls roughly at the beginning of the rainy season, when water levels are still relatively low but insect prey is in recovery. Preferred nesting locations are sandy shores, dry stream beds, or riverbanks. The female digs a hole a few metres from the bank and up to 0.5 m (20 in) deep, and lays on average between 25 and 80 eggs. The number of eggs varies and depends partially on the size of the female. The most significant prerequisites to a nesting site are soil with the depth to permit the female to dig out the nest mound, shading to which mother can retire during the heat of the day and access to water. She finds a spot soft enough to allow her to dig a sideways slanted burrow. "


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"The mother Nile crocodile deposits the eggs in the terminal chamber and packs the sand or earth back over the nest pit. While, like all crocodilians, the Nile crocodile digs out a hole for a nest site, unlike most other modern crocodilians, female Nile crocodiles bury their eggs in sand or soil rather than incubate them in rotting vegetation. The female may urinate sporadically on the soil to keep it moist, which prevents soil from hardening excessively. After burying the eggs, the female then guards them for the three-month incubation period. Nests have been recorded seldom in concealed positions such as under a bush or in grasses, but normally in open spots on the bank. It is thought the Nile crocodile cannot nest under heavy forest cover as can two of the three other African crocodiles because they do not use rotting leaves (a very effective method of producing heat for the eggs) and thus require sunlight on sand or soil the surface of the egg chamber to provide the appropriate warmth for embryo development. "


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"In South Africa, the invasive plant Chromolaena odorata has recently exploded along banks traditionally used by crocodiles as nesting sites and caused nest failures by blocking sunlight over the nest chamber.When Nile crocodiles have been entirely free from disturbance in the past, they may nest gregariously with the nest lying so close together that after hatching time the rims of craters are almost contiguous. These communal nesting sites are not known to exist today, perhaps being most recently recorded at Ntoroko peninsula, Uganda where two such sites remaining until 1952. In one area, 17 craters were found in an area of 25 yd \u00d7 22 yd (75 ft \u00d7 66 ft), in another 24 in an area of 26 yd \u00d7 24 yd (78 ft \u00d7 72 ft). Communal nesting areas also reported from Lake Victoria (up until the 1930s) and also in the 20th century at Rahad River, Lake Turkana and Malawi. The behaviour of the female Nile crocodile is considered unpredictable and may be driven by the regional extent of prior human disturbance and human persecution rather than natural variability. "


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"In some areas, the mother crocodiles will only leave the nest if she needs to cool off (thermoregulation) by taking a quick dip or seeking out a patch of shade. Females will not leave nest site even if rocks are thrown at her back and several authors note her trance-like state while standing near nest, similar to that of crocodiles in aestivation but not like any other stage in their life-cycle. In such a trance, some mother Nile crocodiles may show no discernable reaction even if pelted with stones. At other times, the female will fiercely attack anything approaching their eggs, sometimes joined by another crocodile which may be the sire of the young. In other areas, the nesting female may disappear upon potential disturbance which may allow the presence of both the female and her buried nest to escape unwanted detection by predators. Despite the attentive care of both parents, the nests are often raided by humans and monitor lizards or other animals while she is temporarily absent.At a reported incubation period of about 90 days, the stage is notably shorter than that of the American alligator (110\u2013120 days) but slightly longer than that of the mugger crocodile. "


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"Nile crocodiles have temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), which means the sex of their hatchlings is determined not by genetics as is the case in mammals and birds, but by the average temperature during the middle third of their incubation period. If the temperature inside the nest is below 31.7 \u00b0C (89.1 \u00b0F), or above 34.5 \u00b0C (94.1 \u00b0F), the offspring will be female. Males can only be born if the temperature is within that narrow range. The hatchlings start to make a high-pitched chirping noise before hatching, which is the signal for the mother to rip open the nest. It is thought to be either difficult or impossible for hatchlings to escape the nest burrow without assistance, as the surface may become very heavy and packed above them. The mother crocodile may pick up the eggs in her mouth, and roll them between their tongue and the upper palate to help crack the shell and release her offspring. Once the eggs hatch, the female may lead the hatchlings to water, or even carry them there in her mouth, as female American alligators have been observed doing.\n\n"


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"Hatchling Nile crocodiles are between 280 and 300 mm (11 and 12 in) long at first and weigh around 70 g (2.5 oz). The hatchlings grow approximately that length each year for the first several years. The new mother will protect her offspring for up to two years, and if there are multiple nests in the same area, the mothers may form a cr\u00e8che. During this time, the mothers may pick up their offspring either in their mouths or gular fold (throat pouch) to keep the babies safe. The mother will sometimes carry her young on her back to avoid natural predators of the small crocodiles, which can be surprisingly bold even with the mother around. Nile crocodiles of under two years are much more rarely observed than larger specimens, and more seldom seen than the same age young in several other types of crocodilian. Young crocodiles are shy and evasive due to the formidable array of predators that they must face in sub-Saharan Africa, spending little time sunning and moving about nocturnally whenever possible. "


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"Crocodiles two years old and younger may spend a surprising amount of time on land, as evidenced by the range of terrestrial insects found in their stomachs, and their lifestyle may resemble that of a semi-aquatic mid-sized lizard more so than the very aquatic lives of older crocodiles. At the end of the two years, the hatchlings will be about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) long, and will naturally depart the nest area, avoiding the territories of older and larger crocodiles. After this stage, crocodiles may loosely associate with similarly sized crocodiles and many enter feeding congregations of crocodiles once they attain 2 m (6 ft 7 in), at which size predators and cannibal crocodiles become much less of a concern. Crocodile longevity is not well established, but larger species like the Nile crocodile live longer, and may have a potential average life span of 70 to 100 years, though no crocodilian species commonly exceeds a lifespan of 50 to 60 years in captivity.\n\n=== Natural mortality of young Nile crocodiles ===\nAn estimated 10% of eggs will survive to hatch and a mere 1% of young that hatch will successfully reach adulthood. "


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"The full range of causes for mortality of young Nile crocodiles is not well understood, as very young and small Nile crocodiles or well-concealed nests are only sporadically observed. Unseasonable flooding (during nesting which corresponds with the regional dry season) is not uncommon and has probably destroyed several nests, although statistical likelihood of such an event is not known. The only aspect of mortality in this age range that is well studied is predation and this is most likely the primary cause of death while the saurians are still diminutive. The single most virulent predator of nests is almost certainly the Nile monitor. This predator can destroy about 50% of studied Nile crocodile eggs on its own, often being successful (as are other nest predators) in light of the trance-like state that the mother crocodile enters while brooding or taking advantage of moments where she is distracted or needs to leave the nest. In comparison, perenties (Varanus giganteus) (the Australian ecological equivalent of the Nile monitor) succeeds in depredating about 90% of freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnsoni) eggs and about 25% of saltwater crocodile nests. "


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"Mammalian predators can take nearly as heavy of a toll, especially large mongooses such the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) in the north and the water mongoose in the south of crocodile's range. Opportunistic mammals who attack Nile crocodile nests have included wild pigs, medium-sized wild cats and baboon troops. Like Nile monitors, mammalian predators probably locate crocodile nests by scent as the padded-down mound is easy to miss visually. Marabou storks sometimes follow monitors to pirate crocodile eggs for themselves to consume, although can also dig out nests on their own with their massive, awl-like bills if they can visually discern the nest mound.Predators of Nile crocodiles eggs have ranged from insects such as the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) to predators as large and formidable as spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). Unsurprisingly, once exposed to the elements as hatchlings, the young, small Nile crocodiles are even more vulnerable. Most of the predators of eggs also opportunistically eat young crocodiles, including monitors and marabous, plus almost all co-existing raptorial birds, including vultures, eagles, and large owls and buzzards. "


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"Many \"large waders\" are virulent predators of crocodile hatchlings, from dainty little egrets (Egretta garzetta) and compact hamerkops (Scopus umbretta) to towering saddle-billed storks (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis), goliath herons and shoebills (Balaeniceps rex). Larger corvids and some non-wading water birds (i.e. pelicans) can also take some young Nile crocodiles. Mammalian carnivores take many hatchlings as well as large turtles and snakes, large predatory freshwater fish, such as the African tigerfish, the introduced largemouth bass, and possibly bull sharks, when they enter river systems. When crocodile nests are dug out and the young placed in water by the mother, in areas such as Royal Natal National Park predators can essentially enter a feeding frenzy. It may take a few years before predation is no longer a major cause of mortality for young crocodiles. African fish eagles can take crocodile hatchlings up to a few months of age and honey badgers can prey on yearlings. Once they reach their juvenile stage, large African rock pythons and big cats remain as the only predatory threat to young crocodiles. Perhaps no predator is more deadly to young Nile crocodiles than larger crocodiles of their own species, as, like most crocodilians, they are cannibalistic. "


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"This species may be particularly dangerous to their own kind considering their aggressive dispositions. While the mother crocodile will react aggressively toward potential predators and has been recorded chasing and occasionally catching and killing such interlopers into her range, due to the sheer number of animals who feed on baby crocodiles and the large number of hatchlings, she is more often unsuccessful at deflecting such predators.\n\n== Environmental status ==\nConservation organizations have determined that the main threats to Nile crocodiles, in turn, are loss of habitat, pollution, hunting, and human activities such as accidental entanglement in fishing nets. Though the Nile crocodile has been hunted since ancient times, the advent of the readily available firearm made it much easier to kill these potentially dangerous reptiles. The species began to be hunted on a much larger scale from the 1940s to the 1960s, primarily for high-quality leather, although also for meat with its purported curative properties. The population was severely depleted, and the species faced extinction. National laws, and international trade regulations have resulted in a resurgence in many areas, and the species as a whole is no longer wholly threatened with extinction. "


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"The status of Nile crocodiles was variable based on the regional prosperity and extent of conserved wetlands by the 1970s. However, as is the case for many large animal species whether they are protected or not, persecution and poaching have continued apace and between the 1950s and 1980s, an estimated 3 million Nile crocodiles were slaughtered by humans for the leather trade. In Lake Sibaya, South Africa, it was determined that in the 21st century, persecution continues as the direct cause for the inability of Nile crocodiles to recover after the leather trade last century. Recovery for the species appears quite gradual and few areas have recovered to bear crocodile populations, i.e. largely insufficient to produce sustainable populations of young crocodiles, on par with times prior to the peak of leather trading. Crocodile 'protection programs' are artificial environments where crocodiles exist safely and without the threat of extermination from hunters.\n\nAn estimated 250,000 to 500,000 individuals occur in the wild today. The IUCN Red List assesses the Nile crocodile as \"Least Concern (LR/lc)\". "


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"The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) lists the Nile crocodile under Appendix I (threatened with extinction) in most of its range; and under Appendix II (not threatened, but trade must be controlled) in the remainder, which either allows ranching or sets an annual quota of skins taken from the wild. The Nile crocodile is widely distributed, with strong, documented populations in many countries in eastern and southern Africa, including Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe. This species is farmed for its meat and leather in some parts of Africa. Successful sustainable-yield programs focused on ranching crocodiles for their skins have been successfully implemented in this area, and even countries with quotas are moving toward ranching. In 1993, 80,000 Nile crocodile skins were produced, the majority from ranches in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Crocodile farming is one of the few burgeoning industries in Zimbabwe. Unlike American alligator flesh, Nile crocodile meat is generally considered unappetizing although edible as tribes such as the Turkana may opportunistically feed on them. "


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"According to Graham and Beard (1968), Nile crocodile meat has an \"indescribable\" and unpleasant taste, greasy texture and a \"repellent\" smell.The conservation situation is more grim in Central and West Africa presumably for both the Nile and West African crocodiles. The crocodile population in this area is much more sparse, and has not been adequately surveyed. While the natural population in these areas may be lower due to a less-than-ideal environment and competition with sympatric slender-snouted and dwarf crocodiles, extirpation may be a serious threat in some of these areas. At some point in the 20th century, the Nile crocodile appeared to have been extirpated as a breeding species from Egypt, but has locally re-established in some areas such as the Aswan Dam. Additional factors are a loss of wetland habitats, which is addition to direct dredging, damming and irrigation by humans, has retracted in the east, south and north of the crocodile's range, possibly in correlation with global warming. Retraction of wetlands due both to direct habitat destruction by humans and environmental factor possibly related to global warming is perhaps linked to the extinction of Nile crocodiles in the last few centuries in Syria, Israel and Tunisia. "


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"In Lake St. Lucia, highly saline water has been pumped into the already brackish waters due to irrigation practices. Some deaths of crocodiles appeared to have been caused by this dangerous salinity, and this one-time stronghold for breeding crocodiles has experienced a major population decline. In yet another historic crocodile stronghold, the Olifants River, which flows through Kruger National Park, numerous crocodile deaths have been reported. These are officially due to unknown causes but analysis has indicated that environmental pollutants caused by humans, particularly the burgeoning coal industry, are the primary cause. Much of the contamination of crocodiles occurs when they consume fish themselves killed by pollutants. Additional ecological surveys and establishing management programs are necessary to resolve these questions.\nThe Nile crocodile is the top predator in its environment, and is responsible for checking the population of mesopredator species, such as the barbel catfish and lungfish, that could overeat fish populations on which other species, including birds, rely. One of the fish predators seriously affected by the unchecked mesopredator fish populations (due again to crocodile declines) is humans, particularly with respect to tilapia, an important commercial fish that has declined due to excessive predation. "


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"The Nile crocodile also consumes dead animals that would otherwise pollute the waters.\n\n=== Attacks on humans ===\n\nMuch of the hunting of and general animosity toward Nile crocodiles stems from their reputation as a man-eater, which is not entirely unjustified. Despite most attacks going unreported, the Nile crocodile along with the saltwater crocodile is estimated to kill hundreds (possibly thousands) of people each year, which is more than all other crocodilian species combined. While these species are much more aggressive toward people than other living crocodilians (as is statistically supported by estimated numbers of crocodile attacks), Nile crocodiles are not particularly more likely to behave aggressively to humans or regard humans as potential prey than saltwater crocodiles. However, unlike other \"man-eating\" crocodile species, including the saltwater crocodile, the Nile crocodile lives in close proximity to human populations through most of its range, so contact is more frequent. This combined with the species' large size creates a higher risk of attack. "


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"Crocodiles as small as 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) are capable of overpowering and successfully preying on small apes and hominids, presumably including children and smaller adult humans, but a majority of fatal attacks on humans are by crocodiles reportedly exceeding 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in length.In studies preceding the slaughter of crocodiles for the leather trade, when there were believed to be many more Nile crocodiles, a roughly estimated 1,000 human fatalities per annum by Nile crocodiles were posited, with a roughly equal number of aborted attacks. A more contemporary study claimed the number of attacks by Nile crocodiles per year as 275 to 745, of which 63% are fatal, as opposed to an estimated 30 attacks per year by saltwater crocodiles, of which 50% are fatal. With the Nile crocodile and the saltwater crocodile, the mean size of crocodiles involved in non-fatal attacks was about 3 m (9 ft 10 in) as opposed to a reported range of 2.5\u20135 m (8 ft 2 in \u2013 16 ft 5 in) or larger for crocodiles responsible for fatal attacks. The average estimated size of Nile crocodiles involved in fatal attacks is 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in). "


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"Since a majority of fatal attacks are believed to be predatory in nature, the Nile crocodile can be considered the most prolific predator of humans among wild animals. In comparison, lions, in the years from 1990 to 2006, were responsible for an estimated one-eighth as many fatal attacks on humans in Africa as were Nile crocodiles. Although Nile crocodiles are more than a dozen times more numerous than lions in the wild, probably fewer than a quarter of living Nile crocodiles are old and large enough to pose a danger to humans. Other wild animals responsible for more annual human mortalities either attack humans in self-defense, as do venomous snakes, or are deadly only as vectors of disease or infection, such as snails, rats and mosquitos.Regional reportage from numerous areas with large crocodile populations nearby indicate, per district or large village, that crocodiles often annually claim about a dozen or more lives per year. Miscellaneous examples of areas in the last few decades with a dozen or more fatal crocodile attacks annually include Korogwe District, Tanzania, Niassa Reserve, Mozambique and the area around Lower Zambezi National Park, Zambia. "


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"Despite historic claims that the victims of Nile crocodile attacks are usually women and children, there is no detectable trends in this regard and any human, regardless of age, gender, or size is potentially vulnerable.  Incautious human behavior is the primary drive behind crocodile attacks. Most fatal attacks occur when a person is standing a few feet away from water on a non-steep bank, is wading in shallow waters, is swimming or has limbs dangling over a boat or pier. Many victims are caught while crouching, and people in jobs that might require heavy usage of water, including laundry workers, fisherman, game wardens and regional guides, are more likely to be attacked. Many fisherman and other workers who are not poverty-stricken will go out of their way to avoid waterways known to harbor large crocodile populations.Most biologists who have engaged in months or even years of field work with Nile crocodiles, including Cott (1961), Graham and Beard (1968) and Guggisberg (1972), have found that with sufficient precautions, their own lives and the lives of their local guides were rarely, if ever, at risk in areas with many crocodiles. "


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"However, Guggisberg accumulated several earlier writings that noted the lack of fear of crocodiles among Africans, driven in part perhaps by poverty and superstition, that caused many observed cases of an \"appalling\" lack of caution within view of large crocodiles, as opposed to the presence of bold lions, which engendered an appropriate panic. Per Guggisberg, this disregard (essentially regarding the crocodile as a lowly creature and thus non-threatening to humans) may account for the higher frequency of deadly attacks by crocodiles than by large mammalian carnivores. Most locals are well aware of how to behave in crocodile-occupied areas, and some of the writings quoted by Guggisberg from the 19th and 20th century may need to be taken with a \"grain of salt\".\n\n== See also ==\nPansteatitis\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nMedia related to Crocodylus niloticus at Wikimedia Commons\n\"Nile crocodile\" at the Encyclopedia of Life\nMultimedia information from National Geographic Kids site"


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"The red-crowned amazon (Amazona viridigenalis), also known as the red-crowned parrot, green-cheeked amazon or Mexican red-headed parrot, is an endangered amazon parrot native to northeastern Mexico and possibly southern Texas in the United States. A 1994 study estimated wild populations of between 2,000 and 4,300 mature individuals; the IUCN Red List considers it a globally endangered species with a decreasing population. The main threats to the native bird's survival are the illegal export of trapped birds from Mexico to the United States for the pet trade and the destruction of their natural habitat, the lowland forests of northeastern Mexico.\n\n== Description ==\n\nTheir appearance is generally green with the most notable features being a bright red forehead and crown, dark blue streak behind the eyes, and light green cheeks. It is not uncommon for red-crowned amazons to have splashes of red and blue under their wings and have light yellow-tipped tails. They have a white eye-ring which brings out their eyes. Their iris color can range from a bright yellow to a deep red, although juveniles' eyes are gray until maturity. Red-crowned amazons usually have horn colored beaks and ceres but these can sometimes have black highlights. "


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"Their legs are flesh-colored or gray. They are approximately 11-13 inches in length from the beak to the tip of the tail feathers with a wingspan of 15-16 inches. Amazon parrots are not sexually dimorphic, so the only true way to know a parrot's sex is by genetic testing. Their average weight is 270g.\n\n== Range ==\nTheir natural range is across the lowlands of northeastern Mexico, and possibly the southern tip of Texas. Red-crowned amazons are a resident (non-migratory) species in their native range, but they can wander outside of their breeding range to follow a food source. Feral birds have bred in urban communities of southern California, southern Florida and the island of Oahu in Hawaii.\nOn June 4th, 2019, the Corpus Christi Ecological Services Field Office of the US Fish & Wildlife Service announced to the public that the USFWS considers the red-crowned parrot native to Texas in the Rio Grande Valley. However, because parrots were not mentioned in the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, birds in the Texas portion of their range are not entitled to USFWS protection, and must rely on enacted state and local laws. "


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"It is considered an Imperiled species (S2) in Texas. The USFWS estimated that there are roughly 700 wild red-crowned parrots in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas in 2019, and historical records place parrots in South Texas as early as 1885. The numbers of wild parrots in the United States now rivals populations in Mexico, due to their adaptation to urban life. However, the IUCN and other resources consider the bird to be non-native to all parts of the United States, including southern Texas. NatureServe considers the species to be \"Imperiled\".\n\n=== Feral parrots ===\nPopulations of feral parrots exist in cities such as the Los Angeles metropolitan area in California, USA, especially the San Gabriel Valley. Populations also exist in the San Diego area. Captured birds there escaped and became part of the urban ecosystem, starting in about the 1960s. The California Parrot Project says that red-crowned amazons are among the thirteen species of parrots with naturalized populations in California, including six in genus Amazona. Los Angeles has been called a sanctuary for this endangered species, with a population of around 3,000 that is estimated to meet or exceed the remaining wild population in Mexico. "


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"Area residents say that although the birds annoy with their loud calls, they also inspire local pride and identity.\n\n== Behavior ==\nThey gather in large flocks being noisiest in the morning and evening. The characteristic screeching heard of these birds usually occurs when they travel in a large flock to a new feeding area. Their diet consists of seeds, fruits, flowers and nectar. Red-crowned amazons nest in tree cavities, like most other parrots. Amazons are one of the easiest parrots to read the behavior of, as their eye color shows their pinning exceptionally well. Red-crowned amazons pin their eyes when they are excited, either positively or negatively, about something in their environment. It is easy to make out the dilations of the pupil against the bright iris. This pinning, combined with different behavioral signs, can let a fellow parrot or an owner know how the parrot is feeling. An angry parrot may fan its tail feathers while a content, affectionate parrot may purr, or bend their head down to be scratched.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nRed-crowned amazon parrots reach sexual maturity at about five years old. "


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"It takes the female approximately 28 days to incubate her eggs, at an average of four eggs per clutch. Fledging begins at nine weeks old. In the wild, these parrots mate for life and find tree cavities near other members of their flock, creating a breeding group known as a colony. They will return to the same cavity every year to raise chicks unless that cavity was previously poached or they did not have reproductive success there for a different reason.\n\n== Aviculture ==\nThese parrots are often kept as pets and can be very affectionate and playful when given the attention they need from their owners. Although some are excellent talkers and copy voices, they are best at mimicking sounds that stand out to them, such as the microwave, telephone or other pets. Many owners report a streak of mischief due to their heightened curiosity. "


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"Red-crowned amazons can live 50+ years in captivity, with some extending over 70 years old if properly cared for.Common challenges associated with owning this type of parrot includes being able to provide enough exercise for it and convincing it to eat a varied, healthy diet, close to the diet it would have in the wild. Amazons are known for becoming sedentary if not provided enough stimuli, and this can lead to health issues, such as obesity. These birds are not regarded as overly sensitive and are actually one of the hardier large species to own as a pet because common stressors for other companion parrot species are coped with better and neurotic behaviors due to stress or depression, such as feather plucking, are infrequent when compared to other species. Another challenge some owners face is the hormonal bluffing during the breeding season (spring) for adolescents that causes some parrots, especially males, to be more prone to nipping their owners, biting anyone who is not their favorite person and screaming. These hormonal outbursts decrease with age.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n\"National Geographic\" Field Guide to the Birds of North America ISBN 0-7922-6877-6\nHandbook of the Birds of the World Vol 4, Josep del Hoyo editor, ISBN 84-87334-22-9\n\"National Audubon Society\" The Sibley Guide to Birds, by David Allen Sibley, ISBN 0-679-45122-6"


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"The wreathed hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus) is an Old World tropical bird of the hornbill family Bucerotidae, also called bar-pouched wreathed hornbill due to its distinctive blue-black band on its lower throat sac. It is named after its characteristic long, curved bill that develops ridges, or wreaths, on the casque of the upper mandible in adults. Males are black with a rufous crown, a white upper breast and face, and a yellow featherless throat. Females are uniformly black with a blue throat and are slightly smaller than males.\nThe wreathed hornbill ranges across the foothills and evergreen forests of Northeast India and Bhutan to Bangladesh, Southeast Asia and the Greater Sunda Islands.\nIt is a frugivore and feeds mainly on large fruits, which it swallows whole leaving the seeds intact. This feeding behaviour plays an important ecological role for the long-distance seed dispersal in forest ecosystems.\nThe wreathed hornbill is threatened by hunting, habitat fragmentation and deforestation. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2018, as the global population is estimated to decrease due to these threats.\n\n"


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"== Taxonomy ==\nEnglish ornithologist George Shaw  first described the species in 1811 as Buceros undulatus, based on a zoological specimen collected in Java. It was placed in the genus Rhytidoceros by Daniel Giraud Elliot in 1882; in Rhyticeros by Allan Octavian Hume in 1878; and in Aceros by James L. Peters in 1931.The wreathed hornbill is a monotypic taxon and is widely recognized as a member of Rhyticeros, the genus of hornbills with low wreathed casques.\nAnalysis of the mitochondrial genomes of eight hornbill species revealed that the wreathed hornbill is closely related with Aceros and the Visayan hornbill (Penelopides panini).\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe wreathed hornbill is black with black legs and feet, but has a pale yellow bill, bare reddish skin around the eyes, a black band around the gular skin and a white tail. The female's gular skin is blue, whereas the male's is bright yellow; his neck is white and his nape dark reddish passing into black. "


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"Sexual dimorphism in the colouration of plumage and inflatable gular skin is less pronounced in young wreathed hornbills, but becomes more apparent as both sexes mature.It is a medium-sized bird with a body length of 75 to 90 cm (30 to 35 in); adult males weigh from 1.68 to 3.65 kg (3.7 to 8.0 lb), and females weigh from 1.36 to 2.69 kg (3.0 to 5.9 lb).\n\n=== Bill morphology ===\nAll members of the hornbill family have large, heavy bills with characteristic casques that distinguish them from other avian taxa. Hornbill casques contain foamy air-filled cavities surrounded by multiple layers of keratin tiles that act as an external shell.\nThe extra weight of the casque is supported by the fusion of the first two vertebrae.The bill has distinctive serrated casques near the base of the upper mandible, which are particularly unique because of its ridges. As the birds mature, forward growth causes the foremost ridge to break off. It is hypothesized that specialized casque characteristics evolved due to multiple selection pressures, including its use for vocalization enhancement, physical pounding, mating displays, and as visual cues for age and social status.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe wreathed hornbill inhabits tropical evergreen forests in the region from southern Bhutan, Northeast India, Bangladesh and through mainland Southeast Asia to Indonesia, where it is restricted to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and a few smaller islands. It has been recorded up to an elevation of 2,560 m (8,400 ft).In Bhutan, two individuals were sighted in Sarpang district in spring 1986.In Northeast India, it inhabits unlogged primary forests and selectively logged forests in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas from Nameri National Park in Assam to Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh.\nDuring the breeding season, it lives in lowland areas, but migrates to higher elevations in the non-breeding season.In Myanmar, 62 wreathed hornbills were sighted in the Mali River valley at elevations of 800\u20132,500 m (2,600\u20138,200 ft) in winter 1999.\nA flock of about 50 individuals was sighted in Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary in September 2004.\n\n"


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"== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nThe wreathed hornbill is a social bird and most active in the early mornings when foraging for fruits; 21 individuals studied in Pakke Tiger Reserve during the non-breeding season rested at midday and resumed activity in the early afternoons.It lives in larger flocks than other hornbill species and remains in groups during both breeding and non-breeding seasons.\nFlock size observed in Namdapha National Park ranged from a mean of 4.7 to 6.6 individuals with a density of 1.3 birds/km2 (3.4 birds/sq mi) in March and April to 68 birds/km2 (180 birds/sq mi) in December. In Arunachal Pradesh, the wreathed hornbill density is much lower in habitats where local people hunt, ranging from 2.9 to 9.02 birds/km2 (7.5 to 23.4 birds/sq mi).It travels long distances to forage for fruit, sometimes flying between islands, but it does not migrate.\n"


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"A male wreathed hornbill was fitted with a GPS tracking unit in Pakke Tiger Reserve during the breeding season; it moved a mean minimum daily distance of 24.8 km (15.4 mi) and dispersed seeds for up to 10.8 km (6.7 mi) from its nesting site.Home ranges of the wreathed hornbill and other hornbill species overlap in several range countries.\n\n=== Vocalizations ===\nThe main call of the wreathed hornbill is a loud double yelp that has been described to sound like \u201ccoo-cuk\u201d or \u201cwuff-wurff\u201d. This call is short and typically repeated in a sequence of three or more from a perching position or during flight. The second part of the call is higher pitched and louder than the first and can be heard from farther distances. When calling, the wreathed hornbill displays its brightly coloured throat sac by sharply thrusting its head backwards and upwards. This movement is thought to be a form of communication between individuals. It makes various other low-pitched, bisyllabic barking sounds.\n\n=== Diet and feeding ===\nThe wreathed hornbill mainly feeds on large fruit with figs making up the majority of its diet. It consumes more drupaceous fruits than other hornbill species. "


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"It also occasionally eats small animals like insects, crabs, snails and reptiles, particularly during the breeding season. It forages in the forest canopy across its range, sometimes descending to eat small prey or to retrieve fallen fruit. Tropical fruit abundance can greatly vary by location and season, therefore the wreathed hornbill flies long distances to track areas with high fruit availability. As it moves across its range, it disperses the consumed seeds. The seed dispersal behaviour of the wreathed hornbill plays a critical role in maintaining tropical forest diversity.The feeding technique used by the wreathed hornbill is called ballistic food transport. It holds the large food item at the tip of its bill and throws its head back quickly, swallowing it whole. This behaviour is likely to reduce resource competition by exploiting fruit that is too large for smaller frugivores. Another advantage to ballistic food transport is that the fruit seeds are protected from damage when they are swallowed whole. The entire seed passes through the gastrointestinal tract and is excreted intact, increasing its chances of germination and forming a new plant.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe wreathed hornbill is a monogamous breeder that demonstrates biparental care. "


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"It nests in the cavities of large trees located in coastal forests, illegally logged areas, or among foothills up to an elevation of 2,560 m (8,400 ft). It searches for existing oval-shaped tree cavities for nesting because it cannot excavate its own. The nest height ranges from 18 to 28 m (59 to 92 ft) above ground. Females use droppings or mud to cover the nest hole to protect the clutch and fledglings from predators but leave a gap large enough for males to deliver food. They unload the mud when they need to leave the nest.The average clutch size of the wreathed hornbill is 1\u20133 eggs, which the female incubates and guards alone for 40 days. She raises only one of the chicks and remains with it in the nest until it fledges at the end of the nesting cycle, which lasts 111\u2013137 days. Both parents remain with the juvenile for multiple months after it has left the nest.\n\n== Threats ==\n\nMajor threats to wreathed hornbill populations include hunting, use of pesticides, illegal logging and habitat fragmentation. "


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"In Arunachal Pradesh, the local Mishmi and Adi people shoot 50\u201370 wreathed hornbills during the migratory season; they eat their meat, use their gizzards as medicine to cure stomach problems, their feathers to decorate their homes and their casques to adorn their headgear. Local people also hunt wreathed hornbills for sport and use their fat for medical purposes.The wreathed hornbill has been listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2018, as these threats will likely lead to a decline of the global population in the near future.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe wreathed hornbill is internationally protected under CITES Appendix II and is a Class II national protected species in China.In Pakke Tiger Reserve, a community-based Hornbill Nest Adoption Program was initiated in collaboration with the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department in 2011; local Nyishi people from nine villages worked as nest protectors and one youth as field coordinator; more than 90 urban citizens supported the project financially. In the breeding seasons of 2012 and 2013, the nest protectors located eight wreathed hornbill nests, of which two had fledgings.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nBirdLife International (2021). \"Species factsheet:: Rhyticeros undulatus\".\n\"Rhyticeros undulatus\". iNaturalist.\n"


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"\"Wreathed Hornbill Rhyticeros undulatus\". eBird.\nVocalization.\nMale feeding chicks at nest cavity.\n\"Malayan Wreathed Hornbill\". Oakland Zoo."


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"The Roti Island snake-necked turtle (Chelodina mccordi), also commonly known as McCord's snakeneck turtle, is a critically endangered turtle species from Rote Island in Indonesia.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nChelodina mccordi belongs to the genus Chelodina (Australian snake-necked turtles) within the family Chelidae (Austro-South American side-necked turtles).\nChelodina mccordi was originally described from Rote Island but was later split into three subspecies. Chelodina mccordi rotensis from eastern Rote and Chelodina mccordi timorensis from Timor. In a recent paper the eastern Rote form was found to be identical to the western form and they were synonymised. This leaves the species with two subspecies one on Rote Island and one on Timor.\n\n== History ==\nThe Roti Island snake-necked turtle was split from the New Guinea snake-necked turtle and regarded as distinct species in 1994 after Dr. Anders Rhodin, director of the Chelonian Research Foundation in Lunenburg (Massachusetts), found differences between the two species. The first snake-necked turtles on Rote Island had been discovered in 1891 by George Albert Boulenger.\n\n"


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"== Etymology ==\nBoth the specific name, mccordi, and one of the common names, McCord's snakeneck turtle, are in honor of Dr. William Patrick McCord (born 1950), a veterinarian and turtle expert from Hopewell Junction, New York.\n\n== Description ==\nThe carapace of C. mccordi can reach a straight length of 18\u201324 centimetres (7.1\u20139.4 in). The color of the carapace is a pale grey brown. Occasionally there are also specimens which have a chestnut-coloured hue. The plastron is a pale buff white. The neck, which is nearly as long as the carapace, is dark brown on the upperparts with round tubercles. The underparts are light beige. The iris is black surrounded by a white ring.\n\n== Habitat ==\nThe natural habitat of Chelodina mccordi includes swamps, rice terraces, and small lakes.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nAdults of C. mccordi may have up to three breeding periods in a year. A typical clutch consists of eight to fourteen eggs. The size of an egg is 30 mm \u00d7 20 mm (1.18 in \u00d7 0.79 in) and may weigh 8\u201310 grams (0.28\u20130.35 oz). The first hatchlings emerge after incubating for three months, and the last hatchlings leave after four months. "


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"Upon emerging, a hatchling's shell is about 28 mm \u00d7 20 mm (1.10 in \u00d7 0.79 in) and has yellow spots on the plastron, which become darker in a few weeks until the entire plastron becomes almost black. As the juveniles grow, their coloration progressively becomes paler until they finally achieve the color of the adults.\n\n== Threats ==\nThe Roti Island snake-necked turtle is one of the most desired turtles in the international pet trade. Even before it was scientifically described it was so over-collected that the legal trade was prohibited in 2001 due to its rarity.  The two or three remaining populations live in an area of only 70 km2 (27 square miles) in the central highlands of Rote Island. It is still illegally captured and it is often offered on markets under the label of the New Guinea snake-necked turtle which is also legally protected. In 2004 it was listed in Appendix II of CITES.\nOutside of capture by humans there are few natural threats to this species.  There are some reports of predation by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and loss of habitat, but illegal capture and trade remain the primary threat.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nAsian Turtle Trade Working Group (2000). Chelodina mccordi. In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 27 July 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered\n\"Chelodina mccordi\". Archived from the original on 2008-10-06.\nInclusion of Roti Snake-necked Turtle Chelodina mccordi in Appendix II. Proponents: Indonesia and United States of America (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-14.\nTRAFFIC \u2013 Roti Island Snake-necked Turtles become all but extinct"


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"The Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) is a large Old World vulture in the bird of prey family Accipitridae. It may also be known as the Griffon vulture, though it may be used for the genus as a whole. It is not to be confused with R\u00fcppell's griffon vulture (Gyps rueppellii). It is closely related to the white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus).\n\n== Description ==\nThe griffon vulture is 93\u2013122 cm (37\u201348 in) long with a 2.3\u20132.8 m (7.5\u20139.2 ft) wingspan. In the nominate race the males weigh 6.2 to 10.5 kg (14 to 23 lb) and females typically weigh 6.5 to 10.5 kg (14 to 23 lb), while in the Indian subspecies (G. f. fulvescens), the vultures average 7.1 kg (16 lb). Extreme adult weights have been reported from 4.5 to 15 kg (9.9 to 33.1 lb), the latter likely a weight attained in captivity. Hatched naked, it is a typical Old World vulture in appearance, with a very white head, very broad wings and short tail feathers. It has a white neck ruff and yellow bill. The buff body and wing coverts contrast with the dark flight feathers.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nIn Italy, the species managed to survive only in the island of Sardinia, but a few attempts at reintroducing the griffon in the peninsula have been recently made, too. As a result, several specimens have been spotted again in August 2006 on the Gran Sasso massif (central Italy). Populations in Italy are thought to be undergoing a vigorous increase, thanks to reintroduction schemes in neighbouring countries taking effect, and a ban on hunting the species.\nIn Croatia, a colony of griffon vultures can be found near the town of Beli on the island of Cres. There they breed at lower elevations, with some nests just 10 m (33 ft) above sea level. Therefore, contact with people is common. The population makes frequent incursions in the Slovenian territory, especially in the mountain Stol above Kobarid. The bird is protected in an area called Kuntrep on the Croatian island of Krk\nIn Ireland, the first record of a griffon vulture occurred in 1843 in Cork. "


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"More recently, in 2000 a vulture took up residence on the Channel Island of Guernsey.In Cyprus, there is an unsustainable colony of fewer than 30 birds (2016) at Episkopi, in the south of the island.In Israel and the occupied territories, colonies of griffon vultures can be found in northern Israel and in the Golan Heights, where a large colony breeds in the Carmel Mountains, the Negev desert and especially at Gamla, where reintroduction projects are being carried out at breeding centres in the Carmel and Negev.\nIn Greece, there are nearly 1000 birds. The majority of griffon vulture population in Greece resides in Crete, which hosts the largest insular population of the species in the world. On Crete they can be found in most mountainous areas, sometimes in groups of up to 20.Griffon vultures have been reintroduced successfully into the Massif Central in France; about 500 are now found there. Griffon vultures are regularly spotted over the Millau bridge, and since 2015 also in the Cantal Mountains.\n\nIn Belgium and the Netherlands, around 100 birds were present in the summer of 2007. These were vagrants from the Pyrenees population (see below).\n"


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"In Germany, the species died out in the mid-18th century. Some 200 vagrant birds, probably from the Pyrenees, were sighted in 2006, and several dozen of the vagrants sighted in Belgium the following year crossed into Germany in search for food. There are plans to reintroduce the species in the Alps. In September 2008, pieces of a griffon vulture bone, about 35,000 years old, were excavated from Hohle Fels cave in southern Germany, which are believed to form a flute.In Serbia, there are around 60\u201365 pairs of griffon vultures in the western parts of the country, around Zlatar mountain and also 35 birds in the canyon of the Tre\u0161njica river. They are under legal protection from hunting.\n\nIn Austria, there is a remnant population around Salzburg Zoo, and vagrants from the Balkans are often seen.\nIn Spain and France, in 2008, there were 25,000 birds, from a low of a few thousand around 1980. Spain has the biggest colony of Griffon vultures in all Europe. It is located at Hoces del R\u00edo Durat\u00f3n Natural Park (Province of Segovia).\nIn Portugal a few hundred pairs of griffons nest, but their distribution is strongly asymmetric. "


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"The main areas of reproduction are located in the northeast (Douro International), which is home to more than half of the Portuguese population. Though permanently resident in the interior of the country, the griffon vulture often ventures west when the breeding season is over and can occasionally reach the Tagus Estuary and Cape St. Vincent.\nThe Pyrenees population has apparently been affected by an EC ruling that due to danger of BSE transmission, no carcasses must be left on the fields for the time being. This has critically lowered food availability, and consequently, carrying capacity. Although the griffon vulture does not normally attack larger living prey, there are reports of Spanish griffon vultures killing weak, young or unhealthy living animals as they do not find enough carrion to eat. In May 2013, a 52-year-old woman who was hiking in the Pyrenees and had fallen off a cliff to her death was eaten by griffon vultures before rescue workers were able to recover her body, leaving only her clothes and a few of her bones. "


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"Due to her being the first human to be documented being eaten by griffon vultures, the story brought worldwide attention to the griffon vulture problems in Southern Europe.\nIn Armenia there are 46-54 pairs according to last estimation of population; the trend demonstrates slight increasing.\nIn Russia, nests on the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nLike other vultures, it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals which it finds by soaring over open areas, often moving in flocks. It establishes nesting colonies in cliffs that are undisturbed by humans while coverage of open areas and availability of dead animals within dozens of kilometres of these cliffs is high. It grunts and hisses at roosts or when feeding on carrion.\nThe maximum recorded lifespan of the griffon vulture is 41.4 years for an individual in captivity.It breeds on crags in mountains in southern Europe, north Africa, and Asia, laying one egg. Griffon vultures may form loose colonies. The population is mostly resident. Juveniles and immature individuals may migrate far or embark on long-distance movements. "


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"Density Dependence in this colonial species has been shown to affect annual reproductive success with eyries in protected location (caves, potholes and sheltered ledges) producing more fledglings, and used preferentially, than low-quality eyries (exposed ledges and open crevices), which were only used when the number of breeding individuals increased.\n\n=== Physiology ===\nGriffon vultures have been used as model organisms for the study of soaring and thermoregulation. The energy costs of level flight tend to be high, prompting alternatives to flapping in larger birds. Vultures in particular utilize more efficient flying methods such as soaring. Compared to other birds, which elevate their metabolic rate to upwards of 16 times their basal metabolic rate in flight, soaring griffon vultures expend about 1.43 times their basal metabolic rate in flight. Griffon vultures are also efficient flyers in their ability to return to a resting heart rate after flight within ten minutes.As large scavengers, griffon vultures have not been observed to seek shelter for thermoregulation. Vultures use their bald heads as a means to thermoregulate in both extreme cold and hot temperatures. Changes in posture can increase bare skin exposure from 7% to 32%. "


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"This change allows for the more than doubling of convective heat loss in still air. Griffon vultures have also been found to tolerate increased body temperatures as a response to high ambient temperatures. By allowing their internal body temperature to change independently of their metabolic rate, griffon vultures minimize their loss of water and energy in thermoregulating. One study in particular (Bahat 1995) found that these adaptations have allowed the Griffon vulture to have one of the widest thermal neutral zones of any bird.\n\n=== Intraspecific competition ===\nIn respect to varying age ranges, the griffon vultures evidently show no difference in feeding rates. Inevitably, as resource availability increases, feeding rates tend to follow the same pattern. Upon studying the reintroduction of this species and its impact on the intraspecific competition, old adults are more inclined to display aggressive behavior and signs of dominance in comparison to the other age ranges. In terms of comparing the male and female sexes, there are no observed differences in competitive behaviors. Lastly, the reintroduced individuals of the species and the wild-bred do not differ in dominance or feeding rate despite the differences in upbringing.\n\n"


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"== Threats ==\nThe main cause of the rapid decline in the griffon vulture population is the consumption of poisoned baits set out by people. Wildlife conservation efforts have attempted to increase awareness of the lethal consequences of using illegally poisoned baits through education about the issue.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nVulture Territory Facts and Characteristics: Eurasian Griffon\nUvac Special Nature Reserve, Serbia (in Serbian)\nAgeing and sexing (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Archived 14 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine\nFlicker Handguide\nGrifon Birds of Prey Conservation Centre in Crnika, Croatia\nMas de Bunyol Vulture observatory in Spain\nYatsey the Griffon vulture\nBirdLife species factsheet for Gyps fulvus\n\"Gyps fulvus\". Avibase.\n\"Eurasian Griffon media\". Internet Bird Collection.\nEurasian griffon vulture photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)\nAudio recordings of Griffon vulture on Xeno-canto.\nA Bulgarian vulture's odyssey into Yemeni war zone"


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"The Colombian spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps rufiventris) is a subspecies of the Black-headed spider monkey, a type of New World monkey, found in Colombia and Panama.  Some authorities, such as Froelich (1991), Collins and Dubach (2001) and Nieves (2005), do not recognize the Black-headed spider monkey as a distinct species and so treat the Colombian spider monkey as a subspecies of Geoffroy's spider monkey.The Colombian spider monkey lives in dry forests, humid forests and cloud forests, and can live up to 2,000 to 2,500 metres (6,600 to 8,200 ft) above sea level. It is entirely black with some white on its chin while the Brown-headed spider monkey (A. f. fusciceps) has a black or brown body and a brown head.The spider monkey has a black body and long limbs with thumb-less hands.  It has a prehensile and extremely flexible tail, which acts as an extra limb.  The tail has a hairless patch on the tip that is used for grip.  This hairless patch is unique in its markings, just like the human fingerprint.  Colombian spider monkeys can weigh up to 9.1 kg (20 pounds).  "


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"Fruit makes up eighty percent of the spider monkey's diet, which also includes leaves, nuts, seeds, bark, insects, and flowers. Spider monkeys contribute to the dispersion of undigested seeds from the fruits they eat. This monkey lives approximately 24 years.\nSpider monkeys are found in social groups of up to 30 individuals; however, they are usually broken up into smaller foraging groups of 3-4 individuals.  They move and climb through the forest by hand over hand (brachiation) motion.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nAnimal Bytes"


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"The sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) is an antelope which inhabits wooded savanna in East and Southern Africa, from the south of Kenya to South Africa, with a separate population in Angola.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe sable antelope shares the genus Hippotragus with the extinct bluebuck (H. leucophaeus) and the roan antelope (H. equinus), and is a member of the family Bovidae.In 1996, an analysis of mitochondrial DNA extracted from a mounted specimen of the bluebuck showed that it is outside the clade containing the roan and sable antelopes. The cladogram below shows the position of the sable antelope among its relatives, following the 1996 analysis:\n\n=== Subspecies ===\nHipotragus niger has four subspecies:\n\nThe southern sable antelope (H. n. niger; also known as the common sable antelope, black sable antelope, Matsetsi sable antelope or South Zambian sable antelope) is regarded as the nominate subspecies, as it was the first one to be described and named in 1838. "


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"Often referred to as the black sable antelope because it tends to have the darkest coat, this subspecies occurs south of the Zambezi River, particularly in northern Botswana and in large numbers in the Matsetsi Valley of Zimbabwe, but it is also found in South Africa. In South Africa, most of the commercial sable antelope farmers crossed their Matsetsi sable antelope (indigenous to South Africa) with Zambian sable antelope in the hope to move nearer to the nearly extinct giant sable antelope (that was larger with bigger horns). Currently, only about 15% pure Matsetsi sable antelopes are thought to exist in South Africa. The Matsetsi sable antelope population in Zimbabwe is only 450 (down from 24,000 in 1994). The sable antelope population in South Africa is about 7,000 (commercial and in reserves). Therefore, the Matsetsi sable antelope population apparently is less than 1,500 and declining. However, most of the sable antelope in the reserves are pure Matsetsi sable antelope. Anglo-American recently started a program of breeding pure Matsetsi sable antelope commercially and keeping them pure.\n"


id: d6e8c18fb9360a9f695937f22ad28a8e
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"The giant sable antelope (H. n. variani; also known as the royal sable antelope) is so named because both sexes are larger and their horns are recognizably longer. It is found only in a few remaining localities in central Angola. It is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is listed on Appendix I of CITES.\nThe Zambian sable antelope (H. n. kirkii; also known as the West Zambian sable antelope or West Tanzanian sable antelope) occurs in central Angola, western Zambia and Malawi and has the largest geographic range of the four subspecies, which extends north of the Zambezi River through Zambia, the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Malawi into southwestern Tanzania. It is classified as Vulnerable.\nThe eastern sable antelope (H. n. roosevelti; also known as the Shimba sable antelope) is the smallest of the four subspecies. It occurs in the coastal hinterlands of southern Kenya, particularly in the Shimba Hills National Reserve, and ranges through the region east of Tanzania's eastern escarpment and into northern Mozambique.In English \"great sable antelope\", \"sable\" or the Swahili name mbarapi are sometimes used. "


id: 3d72132bcaba47d56720f5db2ea4aa5c
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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content:
"An archaic term used in accounts of hunting expeditions in South Africa is \"potaquaine\"; the origin and exact application are unclear. Local names include swartwitpens (Afrikaans), kgama or phalafala (Sotho), mBarapi or palahala (Swahili), kukurugu, kwalat or kwalata (Tswana), ngwarati (Shona), iliza (Xhosa),  impalampala (Zulu) and umtshwayeli (Ndebele).\n\n== Description ==\nThe sable antelope is sexually dimorphic, with the male heavier and about one-fifth taller than the female. The head-and-body length is typically between 190 and 255 cm (75 and 100 in). Males reach about 117\u2013140 cm (46\u201355 in) at the shoulder, while females are slightly shorter. Males typically weigh 235 kg (518 lb) and females 220 kg (490 lb). The tail is 40\u201375 cm (16\u201330 in) long, with a tuft at the end.The sable antelope has a compact and robust build, characterized by a thick neck and tough skin. It has a well-developed and often upright mane on its neck, as well as a short mane on the throat. Its general colouration is rich chestnut to black. Females and juveniles are chestnut to dark brown, while males begin darkening and turn black after three years. However, in southern populations, females have a brown to black coat. "


id: e0bf415863dc7d4e8d62b03449a5bb5c
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"Calves less than two months old are a light tan and show faint markings. The underparts, cheek, and chin are all white, creating a great contrast with the dark back and flanks. Long, white hairs are present below the eyes, and a wide, black stripe runs over the nose.Both sexes have ringed horns which arch backwards. In females, these can reach 61\u2013102 cm (24\u201340 in), while in males they are 81\u2013165 cm (32\u201365 in) long. The average lifespan of the sable antelope is 19 years in the wild and 22 years in captivity.\n\n== Behavior ==\nSable antelopes live in savanna woodlands and grasslands during the dry season, where they eat mid-length grasses and leaves. They visit salt licks and have been known to chew bones to collect minerals. They are diurnal, but are less active during the heat of the day. They form herds of 10 to 30 females and calves led by a single male, called a bull. Males fight among themselves; they drop to their knees and use their horns.In each herd, the juvenile males are exiled from the herd around 3 years old. All of the female calves remain, however. "


id: 9f6ca4ba37bee11002ec28ae0fb94972
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"When the herd gets too large, it divides into smaller groups of cows and their young. These groups form new herds, once again with only one adult bull. The young males, which have been separated from the herd, associate in \"bachelor groups\" of up to 12 individuals. Among the bachelors, the most dominant is the first individual to join a new group of females when the position is open. Seldom, during their fights for dominance, they are able to inflict bodily harm to any contenders.When sable antelopes are threatened by predators, including lions, they confront their attackers and fight-back aggressively. Using their scimitar-shaped horns that can reach to its vulnerable rump area (which is generally preferred by predators), they can impale their enemy. There are instances where their predators have died during such fights. In the 1950 to 1970's the antelope's numbers were reduced severely by tsetse fly pest outbreaks.The grassland habitat of the sable antelope is being reduced by habitat destruction for agricultural development. Sable antelope are important to their habitats as grazers and browsers. They are also important as prey for carnivores.\n\n"


id: 1dac52ee30f3d6bff05ecce354923f9e
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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content:
"=== Reproduction ===\nThe giant sable antelope's breeding season is seasonal and births coincide with the rainy season. After a gestation period of around 9 months, the female gives birth to a single young. A newborn calf is born with a sandy coloured coat, which helps it to camouflage. The calf will lie hidden away for at least 10 days while being nursed by its mother.\nYoung sable antelope are weaned at around 8 months and will become sexually mature at between 2 and 3 years. As the calf develops, its coat will darken and it will achieve its status within the herd. The life span of a giant sable antelope is around 17 years.\n\n=== Diet ===\nSable antelopes are herbivores. They are specialized browsing animals that feed upon foliage, mid-length grasses, leaves and herbs, particularly those that grow on termite mounds. Tree leaves make up 90% of their diet. They are diurnal animals, meaning they are most active in the daylight, but less active during the hottest part of the day. Like other bovids, they also have a ruminant digestive system.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nInformation by ITIS\nInformation by African Wildlife Foundation"


id: 30c9aeed6478c22f151de59bd79c5d7a
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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content:
"Panthera pardus tulliana is a leopard subspecies native to the Iranian Plateau and surrounding areas encompassing Turkey, the Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Iraq, Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and possibly Pakistan. Since 2016, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as the wild population is estimated at less than 1000 mature individuals.Common names used for P. p. tulliana include Persian leopard, Caucasian leopard and Anatolian leopard.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nFelis tulliana was the scientific name proposed by Achille Valenciennes in 1856, who described a skin and skull from a leopard killed near Smyrna, in western Turkey.\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, several naturalists described leopard zoological specimens from the Middle East:\n\nFelis pardus tulliana was proposed by Richard Lydekker in 1899 after examining a leopard skin from the Caucasus.\nFelis ciscaucasica was proposed by Konstantin Alekseevich Satunin in 1914, based on a leopard specimen from the Kuban region in the North Caucasus.\nPanthera pardus saxicolor was proposed by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1927, who described leopard skins from different areas of Persia, but recognized their similarity to Caucasian leopard skins. His holotype was a skin and a skull of a male leopard from Asterabad.\n"


id: 8a0602d5839c503c177976c936295a23
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"P. p. sindica was proposed by Pocock in 1930 for a single skin and two skulls from the Kirthar Mountains in Balochistan. He wrote that the skin closely resembled those of P. p. saxicolor, but was distinguishable from the typical Indian leopard (P. p. fusca) in colour. It was subsumed to P. p. saxicolor based on molecular genetic analysis in 1996.In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Anatolian leopard was considered a distinct leopard subspecies that occurred only in western Turkey. The leopard specimens available in zoological museum collections do not differ significantly in the sizes and shapes of skulls. Therefore, the subspecific names tulliana, ciscaucasica and saxicolor are currently considered synonyms.An analysis of leopard samples from Afghanistan revealed that they belong to P. p. saxicolor, but intergrade with the Indian leopard (P. p. fusca) in eastern Afghanistan.In 2017, the Persian leopard population was subsumed to P. p. tulliana, which is the oldest available name for the leopard subspecies in West Asia.\n\n"


id: c31af39071103bec53bc3d7cdad2132a
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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content:
"=== Phylogeny ===\nA phylogenetic analysis indicates that P. p. tulliana matrilineally belongs to a monophyletic group that diverged from the African (P. p. pardus) and the Arabian leopard (P. p. nimr) in the second half of the Pleistocene. DNA analysis indicates that the leopards in Iran belong to a single gene pool and form a distinct subclade.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nP. p. tulliana has a grayish, slightly reddish fur with large rosettes on the flanks and back, smaller ones on the shoulder and upper legs, and spots on the head and neck. It varies in colouration; in Iran both pale and dark individuals occur. Its average body length is 158 cm (62 in), with a 192 mm (7.6 in) long skull and a 94 cm (37 in) long tail. It weighs up to 60 kg (130 lb).Biometric data collected from 25 female and male individuals in various provinces of Iran indicate an average body length of 259 cm (102 in). A young male from northern Iran weighed 64 kg (141 lb).\n\n"


id: 34b9a3764b18e0e82089037eb1873c16
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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content:
"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe habitat of P. p. tulliana in the Greater Caucasus is subalpine meadows, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and rugged ravines from 600 to 3,800 m (2,000 to 12,500 ft) ; and in the Lesser Caucasus and Iran rocky slopes, mountain steppes and sparse juniper forests. It avoids areas with long-duration snow cover and areas near urban development.In northern Anatolia, zoologists found evidence of leopards in the upper forest and alpine zones of the Pontic Mountains during surveys carried out between 1993 and 2002. Its presence in the Pontic Mountains was questioned in 2016 due to a lack of evidence. A camera trap photograph obtained in Trabzon Province in the Black Sea region in September 2013 is said to show a leopard. Its preferred habitat is thought to be sparse forest areas, followed by rocky areas, agriculture and pasture areas, and riparian zones.\nIn southeastern Turkey, its presence was documented in the \u00c7\u0131nar district of Diyarbak\u0131r Province and in Bitlis Province. In 2018 and 2019, it was photographed on the northern slopes of Mount Cudi in \u015e\u0131rnak Province, and this may be a corridor for movement between Turkey and Iraq. "


id: 2bbc7db94b0b490e02639a3a7af117
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"It has also been photographed in the north-eastern province of Artvin, which borders Georgia, but whether the animals are resident is not known.\n\nIn the Caucasus, leopards were sighted around the Tbilisi area and in the Shida Kartli province in Georgia, where they live primarily in dense forests. Several individuals were sighted in the lowland plains of the Kakheti region in 2004.\nLeopard signs were also found at two localities in Tusheti, the headwaters of the Andi Koysu and Assa rivers bordering Dagestan. Leopards are thought to occasionally move through Georgia from Russia, but naturalists hope they might become resident in Georgia in future if well protected in both countries.\nBetween October 2000 and July 2002, tracks of 10 leopards were found in an area of 780 km2 (300 sq mi) in the rugged and cliffy terrain of Khosrov State Reserve on the southwestern slopes of the Gegham mountains.\nDuring surveys in 2013\u20132014, camera traps recorded leopards in 24 locations in southern Armenia, of which 14 are in the Zangezur Mountains. This trans-boundary mountain range provides important breeding habitat for leopards in the Lesser Caucasus.\n"


id: 5419b2dd358e6b929c4c6891b24bdaae
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"In March 2007 and in October 2012, an individual was photographed by a camera trap in Hirkan National Park. This protected area in southeastern Azerbaijan is in the Talysh Mountains, which are contiguous with the Alborz Mountains in Iran. During surveys in 2013\u20132014, camera traps recorded leopards in five locations in Hirkan National Park.\nThe first male leopard crossing from Hirkan National Park into Iran was documented in February 2014. It was killed in the Chubar Highlands in north-western Iran's Gilan Province by a local hunter. This incident indicates that the Talysh Mountains are an important corridor for trans-boundary movement of leopards.\nIn September 2012, the first female leopard was photographed in Zangezur National Park close to the border with Iran.\nDuring surveys in 2013\u20132014, camera traps recorded leopards in seven locations in Zangezur National Park, including two different females and one male. All sites are close to the border with Iran.\nFive cubs were documented in two sites in the Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Mountains. Between July 2014 and June 2018, four leopards were identified in the Talysh Mountains and 11 in the trans-boundary region of Nakhchivan and southern Armenia.Leopards have been sporadically recorded in northern Iraq.\n"


id: adf5530eae07e50e0fd7ee5514007ae3
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:08
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"In October 2011 and January 2012, a leopard was photographed by a camera trap on Jazhna Mountain in the Zagros Mountains forest steppe in the Kurdistan Region.\nBetween 2001 and 2014, at least nine leopards were killed by local people in this region. In 2020, a leopard was recorded in the mountains of the Sulaymaniyah Governorate in the country's northeast.\n\nIran is considered a stronghold of the leopard in the region. It is more abundant in the northern than in the southern part of the country, and in the 2010s was recorded in 74 of 204 protected areas. The Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests along the Alborz Mountains are one of the most important habitats for the leopard in the country. Most leopards were recorded in habitats with temperatures of 13 to 18 \u00b0C (55 to 64 \u00b0F), maximum 20 days of ice cover per year and an annual rainfall of more than 200 mm (7.9 in). The Central Alborz Protected Area covering more than 3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi) is one of the largest reserves in the country where leopards roam. "


