# document

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"The white rhinoceros also has a noticeable hump on the back of its neck. Each of the four stumpy feet has three toes. The color of the body ranges from yellowish-brown to slate grey. Its only hair is the ear fringes and tail bristles. White rhinos have a distinctive broad, straight mouth which is used for grazing. Its ears can move independently to pick up sounds, but it depends most of all on its sense of smell. The olfactory passages that are responsible for smell are larger than their entire brain. The white rhinoceros has the widest set of nostrils of any land-based animal.\n\n== Genome ==\n\nThe genome size of the white rhinoceros is 2581.22 Mb. A diploid cell has 2 x 40 autosomals and 2 sex chromosomes (XX or XY).\n\n== Behavior and ecology ==\nWhite rhinos are found in grassland and savannah habitat. Herbivore grazers that eat grass, preferring the shortest grains, the white rhinoceros is one of the largest pure grazers. It drinks twice a day if water is available, but if conditions are dry it can live four or five days without water. "


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"It spends about half of the day eating, one-third resting, and the rest of the day doing various other things. White rhinos, like all species of rhinoceros, love wallowing in mud holes to cool down. The white rhinoceros is thought to have changed the structure and ecology of the savanna's grasslands. Comparatively, based on studies of the African elephant, scientists believe the white rhino is a driving factor in its ecosystem. The destruction of the megaherbivore could have serious cascading effects on the ecosystem and harm other animals.\n\nWhite rhinos produce sounds which include a panting contact call, grunts and snorts during courtship, squeals of distress, and deep bellows or growls when threatened. Threat displays (in males mostly) include wiping its horn on the ground and a head-low posture with ears back, combined with snarl threats and shrieking if attacked. The vocalizations of the two species differ between each other, and the panting contact calls between individual white rhinos in each species can vary as well. The differences in these calls aid the white rhinos in identifying each other and communicating over long distances. The white rhinoceros is quick and agile and can run 50 km/h (31 mph).\n"


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"White rhinos live in crashes or herds of up to 14 animals (usually mostly female). Sub-adult bulls will congregate, often in association with an adult cow. Most adult bulls are solitary. Dominant bulls mark their territory with excrement and urine. The dung is laid in well defined piles. It may have 20 to 30 of these piles to alert passing white rhinos that it is his territory. Another way of marking their territory is wiping their horns on bushes or the ground and scraping with their feet before urine spraying. They do this around ten times an hour while patrolling territory. The same ritual as urine marking except without spraying is also commonly used. The territorial male will scrape-mark every 30 m (98 ft) or so around its territory boundary. Subordinate males do not mark territory. The most serious fights break out over mating rights with a female. Female territory overlaps extensively, and they do not defend it.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nFemales reach sexual maturity at 6\u20137 years of age while males reach sexual maturity between 10 and 12 years of age. Courtship is often a difficult affair. "


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"The bull stays beyond the point where the cow acts aggressively and will give out a call when approaching her. The bull chases and or blocks the way of the cow while squealing or wailing loudly if the cow tries to leave his territory. When ready to mate the cow curls her tail and gets into a stiff stance during the half-hour copulation. Breeding pairs stay together between 5\u201320 days before they part their separate ways. The gestation period of a white rhino is 16 months. A single calf is born and usually weighs between 40 and 65 kg (88 and 143 lb). Calves are unsteady for their first two to three days of life. When threatened, the baby will run in front of the mother, which is very protective of her calf and will fight for it vigorously. Weaning starts at two months, but the calf may continue suckling for over 12 months. The birth interval for the white rhino is between two and three years. Before giving birth, the mother will chase off her current calf. "


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"White rhinos can live to be up to 40\u201350 years old.Adult white rhinos have no natural predators (other than humans) due to their size, and even young rhinos are rarely attacked or preyed on due to the mother's presence and their tough skin. One exceptional successful attack was perpetrated by a lion pride on a roughly half-grown white rhinoceros, which weighed 1,055 kg (2,326 lb), and occurred in Mala Mala Game Reserve, South Africa.\n\n== Distribution ==\n\nThe southern white rhino lives in Southern Africa. About 98.5% of white rhinos live in just five countries (South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, and Uganda). Almost at the edge of extinction in the early 20th century, the southern subspecies have made a tremendous comeback. In 2001 it was estimated that there were 11,670 white rhinos in the wild with a further 777 in captivity worldwide, making it the most common rhino in the world. By the end of 2007 wild-living southern white rhinos had increased to an estimated 17,480 animals (IUCN 2008).\n"


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"The northern white rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) formerly ranged over parts of northwestern Uganda, southern Chad, southwestern Sudan, the eastern part of Central African Republic, and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The last surviving population of wild northern white rhinos are or were in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) but in August 2005, ground and aerial surveys conducted under the direction of African Parks Foundation and the African Rhino Specialist Group (ARSG) only found four animals: a solitary adult male and a group of one adult male and two adult females. In June 2008 it was reported that the species may have gone extinct in the wild.Like the black rhino, the white rhino is under threat from habitat loss and poaching, most recently by Janjaweed. Although there are no measurable health benefits, the horn is sought after for traditional medicine and jewelry.\n\n== Poaching ==\n\nHistorically the major factor in the decline of white rhinos was uncontrolled hunting in the colonial era, but now poaching for their horn is the primary threat. "


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"The white rhino is particularly vulnerable to hunting because it is a large and relatively unaggressive animal with very poor eyesight and generally lives in herds.\nDespite the lack of scientific evidence, the rhino horn is highly prized in traditional Asian medicine, where it is ground into a fine powder or manufactured into tablets to be used as a treatment for a variety of illnesses such as nosebleeds, strokes, convulsions, and fevers. Due to this demand, several highly organized and very profitable international poaching syndicates came into being and would carry out their poaching missions with advanced technologies ranging from night vision scopes, silenced weapons, darting equipment, and even helicopters. The ongoing civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo and incursions by poachers primarily coming from Sudan have further disrupted efforts to protect the few remaining northern rhinos.In 2013, poaching rates for white rhinos nearly doubled from the previous year. As a result, the white rhino has now received Near Threatened status as its total population tops out at 20,000 members. Poaching of the animal has gone virtually unchecked in most of Africa, and the non-violent nature of the rhinoceros makes it susceptible to poaching. "


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"Mozambique, one of the four main countries the white rhino lives in, is used by poachers as a passageway to South Africa, which holds a fairly large number of white rhinos. Here, rhinos are regularly killed and their horns are smuggled out of the country. As of 2014, Mozambique labels white rhino poaching as a misdemeanor. The white rhino population in South Africa's Kruger National Park fell by 60% between 2013 and 2021, to an estimated 3529 individuals.In March 2017 the Thoiry Zoo, located in France, was broken into by poachers. A Southern white rhinoceros named Vince was found shot dead in his enclosure; the poachers had removed one of his horns and had attempted to remove his second horn. This is believed to be the first time a rhinoceros had been killed in a European zoo.Even with increased anti-poaching efforts in many African countries, many poachers are still willing to risk death or prison time because of the tremendous amount of money that they stand to make. Rhino horn can fetch tens of thousands of dollars per kilogram on the black market in Asia and, depending on the exact price, can be worth more than its weight in gold. "


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"Poachers are also starting to use social media sites for obtaining information on the location of rhino in popular tourist attractions (such as Kruger National Park) by searching for geotagged photographs posted online by unsuspecting tourists. By using GPS coordinates of rhinos in recent photographs, poachers can more easily find and kill their targets.\n\n== Modern conservation tactics ==\n\nThe northern white rhino is critically endangered to the point that only two of these rhinos are known to remain in the world, both in captivity. Several conservation tactics have been taken to prevent this subspecies from disappearing from the planet. Perhaps the most notable type of conservation effort for these rhinos is having moved them from Dvur Kralove Zoo in the Czech Republic to Kenya's Ol Pejeta Conservancy on 20 December 2009, where they have been under constant watch every day, and have been given favorable climate and diet, to which they have adapted well, to boost their chances of reproducing.\nTo save the northern white rhino from extinction, Ol Pejeta Conservancy announced that it would introduce a fertile southern white rhino from Lewa Wildlife Conservancy in February 2014. "


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"They placed the male rhino in an enclosure with both female northern white rhinos in hopes to cross-breed the subspecies. Having the male rhino with two female rhinos was expected to increase competition for the female rhinos and in theory, should result in more mating experiences. Ol Pejeta Conservancy did not announce any news of rhino mating.On 22 August 2019, using (ICSI), eggs from Fatu and Najin \"were successfully inseminated\" using the seminal fluid from Saut and Suni. The male Sudan's sperm was harvested before his death and is still in Kenya. On 11 September 2019, it was announced that \"two embryos\" were generated and will be kept in a frozen state, until placed in a surrogate female. On 15 January 2020, it was announced that \"another embryo\" was created using the same techniques; all three embryos are \"from Fatu\".\n\n== In captivity ==\n\nMost white rhinos in zoos are southern white rhinos; in 2001 it was estimated that there were 777 white rhinos in captivity worldwide.The San Diego Zoo Safari Park in San Diego, California, US had two northern white rhinos, one of which was wild-caught. "


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"On 22 November 2015, a 41-year-old female named Nola (born in 1974), which had been on loan from the Dv\u016fr Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9 Zoo in Dv\u016fr Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9, Czech Republic) since 1989, was euthanized after experiencing a downturn in health. On 14 December 2014, a 44-year-old male named Angalifu died of old age at the San Diego Zoo. The other four captive northern white rhinos were loaned to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya, and only two remain alive. Females Najin and Fatu are still living, while males Suni and Sudan died in 2014 and 2018, respectively. The northern white rhinos had been transferred to Ol Pejeta Conservancy from the Dv\u016fr Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9 Zoo in 2009 in an attempt to protect the taxa in their natural habitat. The only two northern white rhinos left are maintained under 24-hour armed guard in Kenya.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nWhite Rhino Info & White Rhino Pictures on the Rhino Resource Center website.\nWhite Rhino entry on International Rhino Foundation website.\nWhite Rhino entry on World Wide Fund for Nature website.\nWhite Rhinoceros entry on IUCN Red List.\n"


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"Honolulu Zoo\nSan Diego Zoo\nPhiladelphia Zoo\nNarrated video about the White Rhinoceros\nWhite Rhino description\nFirst test tube White Rhinoceros born at Budapest Zoo\nPoachers kill one of last two white rhinos in Zambia\nRhino Webcam at Zoo Budapest\nNew baby rhino from frozen sperm \u2013 Madrid\n\"Rare White Rhino Dies, Leaving Only Four Left on the Planet\". news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 14 December 2017.\nView the cerSim1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.\nPeople Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform"


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"The red-and-green macaw (Ara chloropterus), also known as the green-winged macaw, is a large, mostly-red macaw of the genus  Ara.\nThis is the largest of the genus Ara, widespread in the forests and woodlands of northern and central South America. However, in common with other macaws, in recent years there has been a marked decline in its numbers due to habitat loss and illegal capture for the parrot trade.\n\n== Description ==\nThe green-winged macaw can be readily distinguished from the scarlet macaw. While the breast of both birds are bright red, the upper-wing covert feathers of the green-winged macaw is mostly green (as opposed to mostly yellow, or a strong mix of yellow and green in the scarlet macaw). In addition, the green-winged macaw has characteristic red lines around the eyes formed by rows of tiny feathers on the otherwise bare white skin patch; this is one of the biggest differences from a scarlet macaw to the casual viewer. Iridescent teal feathers are surrounded by red on the tail. If seen together, the green-winged macaw is clearly larger than the scarlet macaw as well.\n"


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"In terms of length, this species is second only in size to the hyacinth macaw, the largest of the macaws. The red-and-green macaw attains a total body length of 90 to 95 cm (35 to 37 in) in adults. Twelve adults were found to average 1,214 g (2.676 lb). A weight range of between 1,050 and 1,708 g (2.315 and 3.765 lb) has been reported. While its weight range is broadly similar to that of the hyacinth, the average weight of the red-and-green macaw is slightly surpassed by both the hyacinth and great green macaws, and amongst all living parrots additionally by the kakapo.\n\n== Behavior ==\nThe green-winged macaw generally mates for life. The female typically lays two or three eggs in a nest made in a hole in a tree. The female incubates the eggs for about 28 days, and the chicks fledge from the nest about 90 days after hatching.\n\n== Population recovery ==\nSince 1999 a population has appeared on Trinidad. "


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"Although these might have escaped from captivity, it is also possible they have a wild origin.The historical range of this species is thought to have stretched southwards to include the Argentine provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Formosa and Misiones. Hunting for meat, the pet trade and changes in land use are thought to have caused the species to be extirpated throughout its Argentine range by the 1960s. The species is listed as critically endangered in Argentina. In the mid-2010s birds were discovered to have colonised Iguaz\u00fa National Park, and as of 2019 the species appears to have spread further into nearby Parque provincial Puerto Pen\u00ednsula.The species is furthermore the subject of a re-introduction programme to Iber\u00e1 Provincial Reserve in the province of Corrientes by the World Parrot Trust, Aves Argentinas and Fundaci\u00f3n CLT (Conservation Land Trust) (and perhaps BirdLife International), which is hoped may promote tourism to the area. Captive birds from Britain were imported in 2015 and the first pair of British birds was released in February 2019. Its wild population is estimated to be currently between 50,000 and 100,000 individuals.\n\n"


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"== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nWorld Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia - Species Profiles\nRed-and-green macaw videos on the Internet Bird Collection\nStamps (9 countries) with RangeMap\nGreen-winged macaw photo gallery VIREO"


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"The vinaceous-breasted amazon (Amazona vinacea) is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is found in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.\nIts natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, and plantations. It is threatened by habitat loss.\nThe species is currently endangered and is also prevented from nesting due to competition with the African Queen Bees (Apis mellifera scutellata), an invasive species spread throughout South and Central America. The invasive species compete with the endangered species for nesting boxes, mostly cavities in trees, occupying them first or invading the other specie nests.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe vinaceous-breasted amazon is a colorful parrot measuring 30 cm (12 in) long. It is mostly green, with a red forehead, bluish nape, blue primaries and a vinous-maroon breast.\n\n== Range ==\nThe vinaceous-breasted amazon has become rare. It inhabits several areas within Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nBirdLife Species Factsheet"


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"The red kite (Milvus milvus) is a medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards, and harriers. The species currently breeds in the Western Palearctic region of Europe and northwest Africa, though it formerly also occurred in northern Iran. It is resident in the milder parts of its range in western Europe and northwest Africa, but birds from northeastern and Central Europe winter further south and west, reaching south to Turkey. Vagrants have reached north to Finland and south to Israel, Libya and Gambia.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe red kite was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco milvus. The word milvus was the Latin name for the bird. "


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"In 1799 the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lac\u00e9p\u00e8de moved the species to the genus Milvus creating the tautonym.Two subspecies are recognised:\nM. m. milvus (Linnaeus, 1758) \u2013 Europe and northwest Africa to the Middle East\nM. m. fasciicauda Hartert, 1914 \u2013 Cape Verde IslandsThe subspecies M. m. fasciicauda is almost certainly extinct.The genus Milvus contains two other species: the black kite (M. migrans) and the yellow-billed kite (M. aegyptius). The red kite has been known to successfully hybridize with the black kite in captivity where both species were kept together, and in the wild on the Cape Verde Islands and infrequently in other places. The red kites on the Cape Verde Islands are (or rather were) quite distinct in morphology, being somewhat intermediate with black kites. The question whether the Cape Verde kite should be considered a distinct species (Milvus fasciicauda) or a red kite subspecies has not been settled. A mitochondrial DNA study on museum specimens suggested that Cape Verde birds did not form a monophyletic lineage among or next to red kites. "


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"This interpretation is problematic: mtDNA analysis is susceptible to hybridization events, the evolutionary history of the Cape Verde population is not known, and the genetic relationship of red kites is confusing, with geographical proximity being no indicator of genetic relatedness and the overall genetic similarity high, perhaps indicating a relict species. Given the morphological distinctness of the Cape Verde birds and that the Cape Verde population was isolated from other populations of red kites, it cannot be conclusively resolved as to whether the Cape Verde population was not a distinct subspecies (as M. migrans fasciicauda) or even species that frequently absorbed stragglers from the migrating European populations into its gene pool. The Cape Verde population became effectively extinct since 2000, all surviving birds being hybrids with black kites.The English word \"kite\" is from the Old English cyta which is of unknown origin. A kite is mentioned by Geoffrey Chaucer's in his Knight's Tale. The early fifteenth century Hengwrt manuscript contains the lines: \"Ther cam a kyte, whil \u00fet they were so wrothe That bar awey the boon bitwix hem bothe.\""


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"The first recorded use of the word \"kite\" for a toy that is attached to a length of string and flown in the air dates from the seventeenth century.\n\n== Description ==\n\nRed kites are 60 to 70 cm (24 to 28 in) long with a 175\u2013179 cm (69\u201370 in) wingspan; males weigh 800\u20131,200 g (28\u201342 oz), and females 1,000\u20131,300 g (35\u201346 oz). It is an elegant bird, soaring on long wings held at a dihedral, and long forked tail, twisting as it changes direction. The body, upper tail and wing coverts are rufous. The white primary flight feathers contrast with the black wing tips and dark secondaries. Apart from the weight difference, the sexes are similar, but juveniles have a buff breast and belly. Its call is a thin piping sound, similar to but less mewling than the common buzzard. There is a rare white leucistic form accounting for approximately 1% of hatchlings in the Welsh population, but this variation confers a disadvantage in the survival stakes.\n\n"


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"=== Differences between adults and juveniles ===\nAdults differ from juveniles in a number of characteristics:\n\nAdults are overall more deeply rufous, compared with the more washed out colour of juveniles;\nAdults have black breast-streaks whereas on juveniles these are pale;\nJuveniles have a less deeply forked tail, with a dark subterminal band;\nJuveniles have pale tips to all of the greater-coverts (secondary and primary) on both the upper- and under-wings, forming a long narrow pale line; adults have pale fringes to upperwing secondary-coverts only.These differences hold throughout most of the first year of a bird's life.\n\n== Behaviour ==\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nUsually red kites first breed when they are two years old, although exceptionally they can successfully breed when they are only one year old. They are monogamous and the pair-bond in resident populations is probably maintained during the winter, particularly when the pair remain on their breeding territory. For migrant populations the fidelity to a particular nesting site means that the pair-bond is likely to be renewed each breeding season. "


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"The nest is normally placed in a fork of a large hardwood tree at a height of between 12 and 15 m (39 and 49 ft) above the ground. A pair will sometimes use a nest from the previous year and can occasionally occupy an old nest of the common buzzard. The nest is built by both sexes. The male brings dead twigs 30\u201350 cm (12\u201320 in) in length which are placed by the female. The nest is lined with grass and sometimes also with sheep's wool. Unlike the black kite, no greenery is added to the nest. Both sexes continue to add material to the nest during the incubation and nestling periods. Nests vary greatly in size and can become large when the same nest is occupied for several seasons.The eggs are laid at three-day intervals. The clutch is usually between one and three eggs but four and even five eggs have occasionally been recorded. The eggs are non-glossy with a white ground and red-brown spots. The average size is 57 mm \u00d7 45 mm (2.2 in \u00d7 1.8 in) with a calculated weight of 63 g (2.2 oz). "


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"In Britain and central Europe, laying begins at the end of March but in the Mediterranean area laying begins in early March. The eggs are mainly incubated by the female, but the male will relieve her for short periods while she feeds. The male will also bring food for the female. Incubation starts as soon as the first egg is laid. Each egg hatches after 31 to 32 days but as they hatch asynchronously a clutch of three eggs requires 38 days of incubation. The chicks are cared for by both parents. The female broods them for the first 14 days while the male brings food to the nest which the female feeds to the chicks. Later both parents bring items of food which are placed in the nest to allow the chicks to feed themselves. The nestlings begin climbing onto branches around their nest from 45 days but they rarely fledge before 48\u201350 days and sometimes not until they are 60\u201370 days of age. The young spend a further 15\u201320 days in the neighbourhood of the nest being fed by their parents. "


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"Only a single brood is raised each year but if the eggs are lost the female will relay.The maximum age recorded is 25 years and 8 months for a ringed bird in Germany. The longevity record for Britain and Ireland is 23 years and 10 months for a bird found dead in Wales in 2012.\n\n=== Food and feeding ===\n\nThe red kite's diet consists mainly of small mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, young hares and rabbits. It feeds on a wide variety of carrion including sheep carcasses and dead game birds. Live birds are also taken and occasionally reptiles and amphibians. Earthworms form an important part of the diet, especially in spring. In some parts of the United Kingdom, red kites are also deliberately fed in domestic gardens, explaining the presence of red kites in urban areas. Here, up to 5% of householders have provided supplementary food for red kites, with chicken the predominant meat provided.As scavengers, red kites are particularly susceptible to poisoning. Illegal poison baits set for foxes or crows are indiscriminate and kill protected birds and other animals. "


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"There have also been a number of incidents of red kites and other raptors being targeted by wildlife criminals.In the United Kingdom, there have been several unusual instances of red kites stealing food from people in a similar manner to gulls. One such occurrence took place in Marlow, Buckinghamshire (a town near a major reintroduction site for the species in the UK in the nearby village of Stokenchurch), in which Red Kites swooped down to steal sandwiches from people in one of the town's parks.\n\n== Distribution and status ==\n\nRed kites inhabit broadleaf woodlands, valleys and wetland edges, to 800 metres (2,600 ft). They are native to the western Palearctic, with the European population of 19,000\u201325,000 pairs encompassing 95% of its global breeding range. It breeds from Spain and Portugal east into central Europe and Ukraine, north to southern Sweden, Latvia and the UK, and south to southern Italy. There is a population in northern Morocco. Northern birds move south in winter, mostly staying in the west of the breeding range, but also to eastern Turkey, northern Tunisia and Algeria. "


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"The three largest populations (in Germany, France and Spain, which together hold more than 75% of the global population) declined between 1990 and 2000, and overall the species declined by almost 20% over the ten years. The main threats to red kites are poisoning, through illegal direct poisoning and indirect poisoning from pesticides, particularly in the wintering ranges in France and Spain, and changes in agricultural practices causing a reduction in food resources. Other threats include electrocution, hunting and trapping, deforestation, egg-collection (on a local scale) and possibly competition with the generally more successful black kite M. migrans.\n\n=== Continental Europe ===\n\nGerman populations declined by 25%\u201330% between 1991 and 1997, but have remained stable since. The populations of the northern foothills of the Harz Mountains (the most densely populated part of its range) suffered an estimated 50% decline from 1991 to 2001. In Spain, the species showed an overall decline in breeding population of up to 43% for the period 1994 to 2001\u201302, and surveys of wintering birds in 2003\u201304 suggest a similarly large decline in core wintering areas. The Balearic Islands population has declined from 41 to 47 breeding pairs in 1993 to just 10 in 2003. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"In France, breeding populations have decreased in the northeast, but seem to be stable in southwest and central France and Corsica. Populations elsewhere are stable or undergoing increases. In Sweden, the species has increased from 30 to 50 pairs in the 1970s to 1,200 breeding pairs in 2003. In Switzerland, populations increased during the 1990s, and have stabilised. Red kites are decreasing in their strongholds of Spain, France and Germany, but are increasing in parts of northern Europe, such as Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\n\n=== United Kingdom ===\n\nIn the United Kingdom, red kites were ubiquitous scavengers that lived on carrion and rubbish. Shakespeare's King Lear describes his daughter Goneril as a detested kite, and he wrote \"when the kite builds, look to your lesser linen\" in reference to them stealing washing hung out to dry in the nesting season. In the mid-15th century, King James II of Scotland decreed that they should be \"killed wherever possible\", but they remained protected in England and Wales for the next 100 years as they kept the streets free of carrion and rotting food. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Under Tudor \"vermin laws\" many creatures were seen as competitors for the produce of the countryside and bounties were paid by the parish for their carcasses.By the 20th century, the breeding population was restricted to a handful of pairs in South Wales, but recently the Welsh population has been supplemented by re-introductions in England and Scotland. In 2004, from 375 occupied territories identified, at least 216 pairs were thought to have hatched eggs and 200 pairs reared at least 286 young. In 1989, six Swedish birds were released at a site in north Scotland and four Swedish and one Welsh bird in Buckinghamshire. Altogether, 93 birds of Swedish and Spanish origin were released at each of the sites. In the second stage of reintroduction in 1995 and 1996, further birds were brought from Germany to populate areas of Dumfries and Galloway. Between 2004 and 2006, 94 birds were brought from the Chilterns and introduced into the Derwent Valley in north East England. In Northern Ireland, 80 birds from wild stock in Wales were released between 2008 and 2010, and the first successful breeding was recorded in 2010. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The reintroductions in the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty have been a success. Between 1989 and 1993, 90 birds were released there and by 2002, 139 pairs were breeding. They can commonly be seen taking advantage of thermals from the M40 motorway. Another successful reintroduction has been in Northamptonshire, which has become a stronghold for the red kite. Thirty Spanish birds were introduced into Rockingham Forest near Corby in 2000, and by 2010, the RSPB estimated that over 200 chicks had been reared from the initial release. So successful has the reintroduction been that 30 chicks have been transported from Rockingham Forest for release in Cumbria. From the Chilterns they have spread as far east as Essex and can be seen over Harlow.  To the west they have recently (2021) spread along the M4 as far as the Cotswold Edge overlooking the Severn near Bristol.\n"


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"A sighting of the first red kite in London for 150 years was reported in The Independent newspaper in January 2006 and in June of that year, the UK-based Northern Kites Project reported that kites had bred in the Derwent Valley in and around Rowlands Gill, Tyne and Wear for the first time since the re-introduction.In 1999, the red kite was named 'Bird of the Century' by the British Trust for Ornithology. According to the Welsh Kite Trust, it has been voted \"Wales's favourite bird\".In June 2010, the Forestry Commission North West England announced a three-year project to release 90 red kites in Grizedale Forest, Cumbria under a special licence issued by Natural England. The Grizedale programme was the ninth reintroduction of red kites into different regions of the UK and the final re-introduction phase in England.The stated aims of the Grizedale project were:\n\nTo establish a viable population of red kites in Grizedale, South Cumbria by 2015.\nTo increase the rate of red kite expansion into North West England and link up with existing populations in Wales, Yorkshire, North East England and South West Scotland and so increase the chances of a continuous geographical range.\n"


id: ae3515af6b43876f819c015bd80a4f97
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"To develop community involvement and create educational opportunities arising from the project.As of July 2011, non-breeding birds are regularly seen in all parts of Britain, and the number of breeding pairs is too large for the RSPB to continue to survey them on an annual basis.\n\n=== Ireland ===\nRed kites were extinct in Ireland by the middle nineteenth century, due to persecution, poisoning and woodland clearance. In May 2007, Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government Dick Roche announced an agreement to bring at least 100 birds from Wales to restock the population as part of a 5-year programme in the Wicklow Mountains, similar to the earlier golden eagle reintroduction programme. On 19 July 2007, the first thirty red kites were released in County Wicklow. On 22 May 2010, 2 newly hatched red kite chicks were discovered in the Wicklow mountains, bringing the number of chicks hatched since reintroduction to 7.\n\n=== Sweden ===\nSweden is one location where the red kite seems to be increasing, with around 2,000 pairs in 2009, some of which are overwintering and some flying south to the Mediterranean for the winter. They return around March\u2013April. "


id: 82b0a7f95ca089963e450a7448806b40
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The red kite is the landscape bird of Scania, and the coat of arms of the municipality of Tomelilla. The kite is often seen along the roadsides and roaming the open colourful wheat and rapeseed fields of Scania.\n\n=== Populations and trends by country ===\n\nThe following figures (mostly estimates) have been collated from various sources. They cover most of the countries in which red kites are believed to have bred.\n\n== Observation ==\n\nOne of the best places to see the red kite in Scandinavia is Scania in southern Sweden. It may be observed in one of its breeding locations such as the Kullaberg Nature Preserve near M\u00f6lle. In Switzerland, they are a common sight in all rural areas, excluding the Alps and its foothills.\nSome of the best places to see them in the United Kingdom are Gigrin Farm near Rhayader, mid Wales, where hundreds are fed by the local farmer as a tourist attraction, a Red Kite Feeding Station at Llanddeusant in the Brecon Beacons, visited daily by over 50 birds, and the Bwlch Nant yr Arian forest visitor centre in Ceredigion where the rare leucistic variant can be seen. "


id: b76b82850b7a2d37db960345fb0863a7
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"In the UK, the Oxfordshire part of the Chilterns has many red kites, especially near Henley-on-Thames and Watlington, where they were introduced on John Paul Getty's estate. Red Kites are also becoming common in Buckinghamshire, often being seen near Stokenchurch, where a population was released in the 1990s, and Flackwell Heath near High Wycombe. They can also be seen around Harewood near Leeds where they were re-introduced in 1999. In Ireland they can be best observed at Redcross, near Avoca, County Wicklow.\n\n== See also ==\nShite-hawk\nBeheading the Kite\n\n== References ==\n\n== Sources ==\nCramp, Stanley;  et al., eds. (1980). \"Milvus milvus Red Kite\". Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume II: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 36\u201344. ISBN 978-0-19-857505-4.\n\n== Further reading ==\nCarter, Ian; Grice, Phil (2000). \"Studies of re-established Red Kites in England\". British Birds. 93: 304\u2013322.\nEvans, Ian M. (1997). \"The re-establishment of Red Kite breeding populations in Scotland and England\". British Birds. 90: 123\u2013138.\nMougeot, Fran\u00e7ois; Bretagnolle, Vincent (2006). \"Breeding biology of the Red Kite Milvus milvus in Corsica\". Ibis. 148 (3): 436\u2013448. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00558.x. S2CID 55220709.\n"


id: ef28f9ad7e7e36bc7502af3ad8f76a8c
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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index: document
vector_id: 2304
content:
"Newton, I.; Davis, P.E.; Davis, J.E. (1989). \"Age of first breeding, dispersal and survival of Red Kites Milvus milvus in Wales\". Ibis. 131 (1): 16\u201321. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1989.tb02738.x.\nTurner, William (1903) [1544]. Turner on birds: a short and succinct history of the principal birds noticed by Pliny and Aristotle first published by Doctor William Turner, 1544 (in Latin and English). Translated by Evans, A.H. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 117.\nVi\u00f1uela, Javier; Bustamante, Javier (1992). \"Effect of growth and hatching asynchrony on the fledging age of black and red kites\" (PDF). Auk. 109 (4): 748\u2013757. doi:10.2307/4088150. JSTOR 4088150.\nWalters Davies, P.; Davis, P.E. (1973). \"The ecology and conservation of the Red Kite in Wales\" (PDF). British Birds. 66: 183\u2013224, 241-270.\nWillughby, Francis (1678). \"The Kite or Glead: Milvus carda forcipata\". The ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the county of Warwick. London: John Martyn. pp. 74\u201375.\n\n"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"== External links ==\n\nFriends of Red Kites - Details about the reintroduced kites in the Derwent Valley, Gateshead\nRed kite media from ARKive\nBBC Wales Nature - Red Kite footage\nBBC Report about this bird's redemption in UK culture from a hated shithawk to a beloved bird\nThe Welsh Kite Trust - includes UK breeding reports\nAbout Red Kites - includes latest figures available in UK\nDetails Red Kites in the Chilterns - about the reintroduced kites in the Chilterns\nRed Kites in Yorkshire\nRed Kites in Berkshire (Berkshire Ornithological Club) - 2006/2007 Survey\nAdult and juvenile Red Kite wing identification images (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze\n\"Red kite media\". Internet Bird Collection.\nRed kite photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)\nInteractive range map of Milvus milvus at IUCN Red List maps"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The Eleonora cockatoo, Cacatua galerita eleonora, also known as medium sulphur-crested cockatoo, is a subspecies of the sulphur-crested cockatoo. It is native to the Aru Islands in the province of Maluku in eastern Indonesia, but has also been introduced to Kai Islands. It is common in aviculture.\nThe Eleonora cockatoo was named by Otto Finsch. He discovered the subspecies in Amsterdam's Artis zoo and named it after Maria Eleonora van der Schroef, the wife of the then director of the zoo. This subspecies was accepted by Gerlof Mees in 1972 and Joseph Forshaw (1989) and recognised by Edward C. Dickinson and James Van Remsen Jr. (2013).\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nIt is the smallest of the four subspecies of Cacatua galerita, at approx. 44 cm (17 in) long and weighing between 404\u2013602 g (14\u201321 oz). Apart from the size difference, the Eleonora differs from the greater sulphur crested in that it doesn't have as prominent white eyerings (they often are a pale blue), the crest of an Eleonora is often less curved and it doesn't have the pointy upper mandible, which is only found in Cacatua galerita galerita. "


id: 17096b8be458ce8fdce2dfc7d7163ec2
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"Although a smaller and lighter bird, in practice it may be difficult to differentiate this subspecies from the Triton cockatoo.The Eleonora cockatoo often has pale yellow ear patches, and yellow diffusion throughout the body, especially under the wings and tail. The Eleonora also has a bald patch behind its crest.\n\n== Diet and habitat ==\nIn the wild, the Eleonora cockatoo is found in open woodlands, forests, and semi-arid forested areas, as well as partially cleared forest areas. It feeds on nuts, berries, flower buds, flowers, seeds and insects.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nThe breeding season of this cockatoo is mainly from September to January. The birds build their nests in a tree hollow or rock crevice. The female lays 2\u20133 white oval eggs, which hatch after a period of 30 days. Both parents incubate the eggs and in turn provide for the chicks. The young fledge after about 75 days.\n\n"


id: ce5a5de54ce55386bb7044da03ad72a9
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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vector_id: 1955
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"== Intelligence and beat perception ==\nOne notable Eleonora cockatoo is Snowball, a bird recently demonstrated to be capable of beat induction \u2013 in other words, that the bird is capable of perceiving a musical beat and dancing to it.Like all cockatoos, the Eleonora cockatoo is widely considered to be very intelligent and emotionally complex.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nITIS Report Page"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The Victoria crowned pigeon (Goura victoria) is a large, bluish-grey pigeon with elegant blue lace-like crests, maroon breast and red irises. It is part of a genus (Goura) of four unique, very large, ground-dwelling pigeons native to the New Guinea region. The bird may be easily recognized by the unique white tips on its crests and by its deep 'whooping' sounds made while calling. Its name commemorates the British monarch Queen Victoria.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Victoria crowned pigeon is a deep blue-grey colour with a small, black mask. Its feather crest (the signature feature of crowned pigeons other than their size) is conspicuously white-tipped. On the wing coverts is a row of feathers that are a paler blue-gray with maroon tips. These form a distinct wing bar. The chest is a deep purple-maroon color. As in all crowned pigeons, melanism has been observed. The other two crowned pigeons are somewhat superficially similar, but only the western crowned pigeon overlaps in range with the Victoria species. The Scheepmaker's crowned pigeon does not. In the western species, the crown is more scraggly and hair-like, the chest is a uniform blue-gray and not maroon, and a less distinct wing-bar is present. "


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"Both sexes are similar.This species is typically 73 to 75 cm (29 to 30 in) long. Some specimens may exceed a length of 80 cm (31 in) and a weight of 3.5 kg (7.7 lb). It is marginally larger than the two other crowned pigeons on average, at an mean of 2.39 kg (5.3 lb) in adult body mass, thus is considered the largest surviving species of pigeon of Earth. The standard measurements among pigeons on mainland New Guinea are: the wing chord is 36\u201339 cm (14\u201315 in), the tail is 27\u201330.1 cm (10.6\u201311.9 in), the bill is 3.2\u20133.5 cm (1.3\u20131.4 in) and the unfeathered tarsus is 8.5\u20139.8 cm (3.3\u20133.9 in).Like other crowned pigeons, this species makes a loud clapping sound when it takes flight. The mating calls of this species are also similar to the other two species of crowned pigeons, consisting of a deep hoota-hoota-hoota-hoota-hoota sound. When defending their territories, these birds make a resounding whup-up, whup-up, whup-up call. "


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"Their contact call is a deep, muffled, and rather human-like ummm or hmmm.The two subspecies of the Victoria crowned pigeon are  G. v. beccarii found on the mainland of New Guinea and G. v. victoria, the nominate race, found on the islands of Yapen, Biak and Supiori. The nominate subspecies is markedly smaller, with a wing chord measurement of 31.6\u201333.2 cm (12.4\u201313.1 in), with less robust legs and feet and darker overall plumage. The nominate has a sparser crest with black on the wing coverts and right above the tail.\n\n== Habitat ==\nThe Victoria crowned pigeon is distributed in the lowland and swamp forests of northern New Guinea and surrounding islands. It usually occurs on areas that were former alluvial plains, including sago forests. Though typically found at or near sea level, occasionally birds of this species may venture up in the hills to an elevation up to about 3,000 feet.\nThey fly from sea to tree every day.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nLike other crowned pigeons, the Victoria crowned pigeon is a gregarious species. They usually travel in pairs or small parties as they search for food. They walk with an unhurried gait along the forest floor. "


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"Their food typically consists of fallen fruit. Birds of this species in captivity are particularly fond of eating figs. Seeds and invertebrates may occasionally supplement the diet. When disturbed, these birds fly straight up into the canopy or a large horizontal branch of a large forest tree. After being disturbed, they may remain on their perch for a considerable time engaging in contact calls and flicking their tails. In the wild, this species tends to be shier than the western crowned pigeon, but can still occasionally be quietly approached. The males regularly engage in aggressive displays to establish dominance. In these interactions, the pigeons puff up their chests and repeatedly raise their wings as if preparing to strike their opponent. They also make short dashes at each other and may actually hit one another, but rarely make contact and can be completely peaceful towards other males outside of the early mating season.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nBreeding peaks late in wet season and in the dry season. When the male displays for the female, he lowers his head down, stretches forward, and then rhythmically swings his head up and down while simultaneously wagging his fanned tail. "


id: f21f5771d642cd91109d79092bd93572
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"Although the female does most direct brooding, both parents help raise the young. The female usually lays a single white egg in a well-built tree nest of stems, sticks, and palm leaves. In the weeks before she lays the egg, the male brings nesting material to the female. The egg is incubated around 30 days. The young leave the nest when they are still much smaller than their parents but are actively tended to for a total of 13 weeks.\n\n== Status ==\nThe Victoria crowned pigeon is now the most rarely occurring of the three crowned pigeon species in the wild, although it is the most widely kept species in captivity. Perhaps the most pressing threat to the species is continuing habitat loss due to logging. It now quite uncommon near human habitations because it is heavily hunted around them, particularly in areas where gun possession is prevalent. It can be quite tame and easily shot, though it now seems to be fearful of humans in the wild. Most hunting is for its plumes and meat. Trapping of pigeons to be kept alive for captive collections is now illegal but is still likely to be occurring. "


id: 703a83aa8f7e124bcf495d70e051a6d4
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"The Victoria crowned pigeon is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed in Appendix II of CITES.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive \u2013 images and movies of the Victoria Crowned Pigeon (Goura victoria)\nBirdLife Species Factsheet\nRed Data Book\nInternationaldovesociety.com"


id: fbac07d941ce576b9f084b01cc844dbc
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"The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia, Portuguese: mico-le\u00e3o-dourado [\u02c8miku le\u02c8\u0250\u0303w\u0303 dow\u02c8\u027eadu], [li\u02c8\u0250\u0303w\u0303 do\u02c8\u027eadu]), also known as the golden marmoset, is a small New World monkey of the family Callitrichidae. Native to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, the golden lion tamarin is an endangered species. The range for wild individuals is spread across four places along southeastern Brazil, with a recent census estimating 3,200 individuals left in the wild and a captive population maintaining about 490 individuals among 150 zoos.\n\n== Physical characteristics ==\n\nThe golden lion tamarin gets its name from its bright reddish orange pelage and the extra long hairs around the face and ears which give it a distinctive mane. Its face is dark and hairless. The bright orange fur of this species does not contain carotenoids, which commonly produce bright orange colors in nature. The golden lion tamarin is the largest of the callitrichines. It is typically around 261 mm (10.3 in) and weighs around 620 g (1.37 lb). There is almost no size difference between males and females. "


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"As with all New World monkeys, the golden lion tamarin has tegulae, which are claw-like nails, instead of ungulae or flat nails found in all other primates, including humans. Tegulae enable tamarins to cling to the sides of tree trunks. It may also move quadrupedally along the small branches, whether through walking, running, leaping or bounding. This gives it a locomotion more similar to squirrels than primates.\n\n== Habitat and distribution ==\nThe Golden Lion Tamarin has a very limited distribution range, as over time they have lost all but 2%\u20135% of their original habitat in Brazil. Today, this tamarin is confined to three small areas of the tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil: Po\u00e7o das Antas Biological Reserve, Fazenda Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve, and private land through the Reintroduction Program. The first population estimate made in 1972 approximated the count at between 400 and 500. By 1981 the population was reduced to less than 200. Surveys from as recently as 1995 suggested that there may only have been at most 400 golden lion tamarins left in the wild; but the population has since recovered to some 3200 in the wild. "


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"Tamarins live along the far southeast border of the country in the municipalities of Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Araruama. However, they have been successfully reintroduced to the municipalities of Rio das Ostras, Rio Bonito, and Casimiro de Abreu. Tamarins live in coastal lowland forests less than 300 m (984 ft) above sea level. They can be found in hilltop forests and swamp forests.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\nThe golden lion tamarin is active for a maximum of 12 hours daily. It uses different sleeping dens each day. By frequently moving their sleeping nests around, groups minimize the scent left behind, reducing the likelihood of predators finding them. The first activities of the day are traveling and feeding on fruits. As the afternoon nears, tamarins focus more on insects. By late afternoon, they move to their night dens. Tamarin groups use hollow tree cavities, dense vines or epiphytes as sleeping sites. Sites that are between 11 and 15 m (36 and 49 ft) off the ground are preferred. The golden lion tamarin tends to be active earlier and retire later in the warmer, wetter times of the years as the days are longer. "


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"During drier times, it forages for insects longer as they become scarcer.Golden lion tamarins are characterized by using manipulative foraging under tree barks and epiphytic bromeliads. Their sites of foraging are usually distributed around their home ranges, which are large territories (averaging 123 hectares) in which multiple foraging sites are located, to find sufficient resources over long periods of time. These areas are sufficient enough in size so that even if there is overlap in between the home range of two different groups, the interactions are minimal due to the distribution of the foraging sites (they spend 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range).\n\nThe golden lion tamarin has a diverse, omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, flowers, nectar, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates. They rely on microhabitats for foraging and other daily activities and tamarins will use bromeliads, palm crowns, palm leaf sheaths, woody crevices, lianas, vine tangles, tree bark, rotten logs, and leaf litters. The golden lion tamarin uses its fingers to extract prey from crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth; a behavior known as micromanipulation. It is made possible by elongated hands and fingers. Insects make up to 10\u201315% of its diet. "


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"Much of the rest is made of small, sweet, pulpy fruits. During the rainy season, the golden lion tamarin mainly eats fruit; however, during drier times, it must eat more of other foods like nectar and gums. Small vertebrates are also consumed more at these times as insects become less abundant.\n\n=== Social structure ===\n\nGolden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2\u20133 males and one female or the reverse. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of either sex.  These individuals are typically the offspring of the adults. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depends on longevity in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. "


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"Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however females may replace their mothers as the breeding adult, if they die, which will lead to the dispersal of the breeding male who is likely her father. This does not happen with males and their fathers. Dispersing males join groups with other males and remain in them until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. The vast majority of recruits to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. Males may also aggressively displace resident males from their group; this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers.  When this happens, only one of the new males will be able to breed and will suppress the reproduction of the other. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries and resources from other groups.Tamarins emit \"whine\" and \"peep\" calls, which are associated with alarm and alliances respectively. "


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"\"Clucks\" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether directed at conspecifics or predators. \"Trills\" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individual's position. \"Rasps\" or \"screeches\" are usually associated with playful behavior. Tamarins communicate through chemicals marked throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females scent mark the most and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to show their social status and may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Reproduction is seasonal and depends on rainfall. Mating is at its highest at the end of the rainy season between late March to mid-June and births peak during the September\u2013February rains. Females are sexually mature between the ages of 15\u201320 months but it isn't until they are 30 months old that they can reproduce. Only dominant females can reproduce and will suppress the reproduction of the other females in the group. "


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"Males may reach puberty by 28 months. Tamarins have a four-month gestation period. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. This is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and, to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping to rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are completely dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infants spend less time on their mother\u2019s back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will socialize other group members. The sub-adult phase is reached at 14 months, when a tamarin first displays adult behaviors.\n\n=== Ecosystem roles ===\n\nThe golden lion tamarin has a mutualistic interaction with 96 species of plants found in the Atlantic Forest. This interaction is based on seed dispersal and food sources for the tamarins. The tamarins show repeat visits to those plants with abundant resources. "


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"They tend to move around their territories, and therefore, seeds are dispersed to areas far from the parent shadow, which is ideal for germination. Their seed distribution is important to forest regeneration, and genetic variability and survival of endangered plant species.\n\n=== Predation ===\nA study has shown that increased predation has caused significant decreases in the population numbers. A survey conducted in 1992 found the number of wild population of golden lion tamarins to be 562 individuals in 109 groups. Currently, the average group size includes 3.6 to 5.7 individuals and densities from 0.39 groups/km to 2.35 groups/km. These predatory attacks occur at the golden lion tamarin sleeping sites. The predators make those sleeping sites, which are mainly tree holes (about 63.6%), larger in order to attack the golden lion tamarins, sometimes wiping out the entire family. The preferred sleeping sites of most golden lion tamarins are tree holes in living trees next to other larger trees with a small percentage of canopy cover. These sleeping sites not only provide a place for sleep, but also offer protection and easy access to foraging sites. "


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"Most of the tree holes are lower to the ground, so they are easier to enter. Tree holes that are located in living trees are drier, warmer, and have a lower number of insects and therefore a decreased percentage of transmitted diseases. A smaller percentage of canopy coverage allows the golden lion tamarins to detect the predators faster, and being surrounded by other large trees allows them access to escape routes. Due to degradation of their habitats, there are fewer trees that can support entire social groups and some have to resort to using bamboo (17.5%), vine tangles (9.6%), and bromeliads (4.7%) as a sleeping site, making them more susceptible to predators. Golden lion tamarins are known to use different den sites, but do not change sites often. They are more likely to reuse secure sites that will offer protection. However, the disadvantage of doing so is that predators are able to learn where these sites are located. Golden lion tamarins also scent mark their den holes, so they can quickly return to them in the afternoon time when predators are most active. "


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"While excessive scent makes it easier for golden lion tamarins to find their sleeping sites, it also helps predators locate their prey. Moreover, increased deforestation has decreased habitat space, providing predators easy access to their prey, causing a decline in the golden lion tamarin population.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nThreats to the golden lion tamarin population include illegal logging, poaching, mining, urbanization, deforestation, pet trading, and infrastructure development and the introduction of alien species. In 1969, the number of individuals in the Atlantic Forest was found to have dropped to a low of 150 individuals. In 1975 the golden lion tamarin was listed under Appendix I of CITES, given to animals threatened with extinction that may be or are being affected by trade. The species was listed as Endangered by the IUCN in 1982, and by 1984 the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C. and the World Wide Fund for Nature, through the Golden Lion Tamarin Association, began a reintroduction programme from 140 zoos worldwide. Despite the success of the project, the IUCN classification rose to Critically Endangered in 1996. "


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"By 2003 the successful establishment of a new population at Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve enabled downgrading the species to endangered, but the IUCN warns that extreme habitat fragmentation from deforestation means the wild population has little potential for any further expansion. In an attempt to curb the golden lion tamarin's precipitous decline, several conservation programs have been undertaken. The intent is to strengthen the wild population and maintain a secure captive population in zoos worldwide. The survival rate of re-introduced animals has been encouraging, but destruction of unprotected habitat continues.\n\n=== Reintroduction ===\nBecause of the extensive habitat loss of the golden lion tamarin, the wild population reached endangered status in the early 1980s. Beginning in 1983, there has been a huge effort on behalf of scientists and conservationists to reintroduce captive-born golden lion tamarins back into the wild. With the help of the Brazilian government, conservationists established the Po\u00e7o das Antas Biological Reserve and the Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve as sites for reintroduction. "


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"The goals of the reintroduction process include increasing the size as well as the genetic diversity of the wild population, increasing the available range to better encompass the historic range of the tamarins in Brazil, and widening the scope of public awareness and education programs.The first step of reintroduction begins with zoo free ranging programs, where tamarins have access to explore the entire zoo. However, they are kept on zoo grounds by the presence of a nest box, an ice box like container where their food is kept.  When the tamarins are reintroduced in Po\u00e7o das Antas Biological Reserve, they require a large amount of post-release training and veterinary care. For the first 6\u201318 months the reintroduced groups are monitored. Additionally, 1-2 tamarins from each group are radio collared to allow careful monitoring, and all reintroduced tamarins are tattooed and dye marked for easy identification.\n\n=== Translocation ===\nSecondly, in an effort to save the golden lion tamarins from extinction, some of the golden lion tamarins have been removed from small, isolated unsafe forests and placed into a larger, protected forest; specifically they were moved to Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve and Po\u00e7o das Antas reserve. "


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"This effort to move the golden lion tamarins into Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve in Brazil began in 1991. The golden lion tamarins faced the potential of getting new diseases that they had not been previously exposed to. Many were exposed to callitrichid hepatitis, and contracted the disease.Despite the challenge of illness, the forty-two translocated golden lion tamarins' population grew to over 200 in Uni\u00e3o Biological Reserve. The number of wild golden lion tamarins is now up in the thousands in all reserves and ranches combined in Brazil. These numbers were once down in the 200s in 1991. By 2025, the number of golden lion tamarins that are protected is projected to be greater than 2000.\n\n=== Effects of habitat loss ===\nGolden lion tamarins are native to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Their original habitat was located from the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro to the southern part of the state of Espirito Santo. However, deforestation of Atlantic Forest for commercial purposes, predation, and capture of the golden lion tamarins for animal trade and sale as pets has limited their population to about five municipalities across Rio de Janeiro. "


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"Most of the population is now found in the Poco des Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro.However, due to the deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest, their home ranges have decreased in size. The decrease in size has been reported in terms of fragmentation, and today the forest consists of thousands of fragments equaling only 8% of its former size. This directly affects their areas of foraging and subsequently, the amount of resources available.\n\n==== Effect on juvenile behavior ====\nThe habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. "


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"Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the \"safe\" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young.\n\n==== Increase in inbreeding ====\nAdditionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding, consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. "


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"Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nImages and movies of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) ARKive\nGolden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program National Zoological Park\nLeontopithecus rosalia Factsheet Primate Info Net\nGolden lion tamarins Smithsonian Networks\nAssocia\u00e7\u00e3o Mico-Le\u00e3o-Dourado (Golden Lion Tamarin Association) A Brazilian NGO working on golden lion tamarin conservation."


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"The Kafue lechwe or Kafue Flats lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) is a subspecies of the southern lechwe. It is endemic to the Kafue Flats, Zambia. It is listed on the IUCN Red List as vulnerable.\n\n== References =="


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"The giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is an insectivorous mammal native to Central and South America. It is one of four living species of anteaters, of which it is the largest member. The only extant member of the genus Myrmecophaga, it is classified with sloths in the order Pilosa. This species is mostly terrestrial, in contrast to other living anteaters and sloths, which are arboreal or semiarboreal. The giant anteater is 182 to 217 cm (5 ft 11+1\u20442 in to 7 ft 1+1\u20442 in) in length, with weights of 33 to 50 kg (73 to 110 lb) for males and 27 to 47 kg (60 to 104 lb) for females. It is recognizable by its elongated snout, bushy tail, long fore claws, and distinctively colored pelage.\nThe giant anteater is found in multiple habitats, including grassland and rainforest. It forages in open areas and rests in more forested habitats. It feeds primarily on ants and termites, using its fore claws to dig them up and its long, sticky tongue to collect them. Though giant anteaters live in overlapping home ranges, they are mostly solitary except during mother-offspring relationships, aggressive interactions between males, and when mating. "


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"Mother anteaters carry their offspring on their backs until weaning them.\nThe giant anteater is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It has been extirpated from many parts of its former range. Threats to its survival include habitat destruction, fire, and poaching for fur and bushmeat, although some anteaters inhabit protected areas.  With its distinctive appearance and habits, the anteater has been featured in pre-Columbian myths and folktales, as well as modern popular culture.\n\n== Taxonomy and phylogeny ==\nThe giant anteater got its binomial name from Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Its generic name, Myrmecophaga, and specific name, tridactyla, are both Greek, meaning \"anteater\" and \"three fingers\", respectively. Myrmecophaga jubata was used as a synonym. Three subspecies have been tentatively proposed: M. t. tridactyla (ranging from Venezuela and the Guianas to northern Argentina), M. t. centralis (native to Central America, northwestern Colombia, and northern Ecuador), and M. t. artata (native to northeastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela). The giant anteater is grouped with the semiarboreal northern and southern tamanduas in the family Myrmecophagidae. Together with the family Cyclopedidae, whose only extant member is the arboreal silky anteater, the two families comprise the suborder Vermilingua.\n"


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"Anteaters and sloths belong to order Pilosa and share superorder Xenarthra with the Cingulata (whose only extant members are armadillos). The two orders of Xenarthra split 66 million years ago (Mya) during the Late Cretaceous epoch. Anteaters and sloths diverged around 55 Mya, between the Paleocene and Eocene epochs. The Cyclopes lineage emerged around 30 Mya in the Oligocene epoch, while the Myrmecophaga and Tamandua lineages split 10 Mya in the Late Miocene subepoch. During most of the Cenozoic era, anteaters were confined to South America, which was formerly an island continent. Following the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3 Mya, anteaters of all three extant genera invaded Central America as part of the Great American Interchange.The fossil record for anteaters is generally sparse. Known fossils include the Pliocene genus Palaeomyrmidon, a close relative to the silky anteater, Protamandua, the sister taxon to the clade that includes the giant anteater and the tamanduas from the Miocene, and Neotamandua, a sister taxon to Myrmecophaga. Protamandua was larger than the silky anteater, but smaller than a tamandua, while Neotamandua was larger, falling somewhere between a tamandua and a giant anteater. "


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"Protamandua did not appear to have feet specialized for terrestrial or arboreal locomotion, but it may have had a prehensile tail. Neotamandua, though, is unlikely to have had a prehensile tail and its feet were intermediate in form between those of the tamanduas and the giant anteater. The species Neotamandua borealis was suggested to be an ancestor of the latter. Another member of the genus Myrmecophaga has been recovered from the Montehermosan Monte Hermoso Formation in Argentina and was described by Kraglievitch in 1934 as Nunezia caroloameghinoi. The species was reclassified as Myrmecophaga caroloameghinoi by S. E. Hirschfeld in 1976.The giant anteater is the most terrestrial of the living anteater species. Its ancestors may originally have been adapted to arboreal life; the transition to life on the ground could have been aided by the expansion of open habitats such as savanna in South America and the availability there of colonial insects, such as termites, that provided a larger potential food source. Both the giant anteater and the southern tamandua are well represented in the fossil record of the late Pleistocene and early Holocene.\n\n"


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"== Characteristics and adaptations ==\n\nThe giant anteater can be identified by its large size, elongated muzzle, and long bushy tail. It has a total body length of 182 to 217 cm (5 ft 11+1\u20442 in to 7 ft 1+1\u20442 in). Males weigh 33 to 50 kg (73 to 110 lb) and females weigh 27 to 47 kg (60 to 104 lb), making the giant anteater the biggest extant species in its suborder. The head of the giant anteater, at 30 cm (12 in) long, is particularly elongated, even when compared to other anteaters. Its tubular snout, which ends in its tiny mouth opening and nostrils, takes up most of its head. Its eyes and ears are relatively small. It has poor eyesight, but its sense of smell is 40 times more sensitive than that of humans.Even for an anteater, the neck is especially thick compared to the back of the head, and a small hump is found at the back of the neck. The coat is mostly greyish, brown or black and salted with white. The forelimbs are white, with black bands around the wrists, while the hindlimbs are dark. "


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"Thick black bands with white outlines stretch from throat to shoulder, ending in triangular points. The body ends in a brown tail. The coat hairs are long, especially on the tail, which makes the tail look larger than it actually is. A stiff mane stretches along the back. The bold pattern was thought to be disruptive camouflage, but a 2009 study suggests it is warning coloration. While adult males are slightly larger and more muscular than females, with wider heads and necks, visual sex determination can be difficult. The penis and testes are located internally between the rectum and urinary bladder in males, and females have a single pair of mammary glands near the armpits.The giant anteater has broad ribs. Despite its specific name, tridactyla, meaning three fingers, it has five toes on each foot. Four toes on the front feet have claws, which are particularly elongated on the second and third digits. It walks on its front knuckles similar to gorillas and chimpanzees. Doing this allows the giant anteater to keep its claws out of the way while walking. "


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"The middle digits, which support most of its weight, are extended at the metacarpophalangeal joints and bent at the interphalangeal joints. Unlike the front feet, the hind feet have short claws on all five toes and walk plantigrade. As a \"hook-and-pull\" digger, the giant anteater's enlarged supraspinous fossa gives the teres major more leverage\u2014increasing the front limbs' pulling power\u2014and the triceps muscle helps power the flexion of the thickened third digit of the front feet.The giant anteater has a low body temperature for a mammal, about 33 \u00b0C (91 \u00b0F), a few degrees lower than a typical mammalian temperature of 36 to 38 \u00b0C (97 to 100 \u00b0F). Xenarthrans in general tend to have lower metabolic rates than most other mammals, a trend thought to correlate with their dietary specializations and low mobility.\n\n=== Feeding anatomy ===\n\nThe giant anteater has no teeth and is capable of only very limited jaw movement. It relies on the rotation of the two halves of its lower jaw, held together by a ligament at the tip, to open and close its mouth. This is accomplished by its chewing muscles, which are relatively underdeveloped. "


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"Jaw depression creates an oral opening large enough for the slender tongue to flick out. It is typically 60 cm (24 in) long and is triangular posteriorly, rounded anteriorly, and ends in a small, rounded tip. The tongue is covered in backward-curving papillae and coated in thick, sticky saliva secreted from its enlarged salivary glands.The tube-like rostrum and small mouth opening restrict the tongue to protrusion-retraction movements. During feeding, the animal relies on the orientation of its head for aim. The tongue can reach up to 45 cm (18 in), longer than the length of the skull, and move in and out around 160 times per minute (nearly three times per second). The anteater's tongue has little to no attachments to the hyoid and this is what allows it to flick its tongue at such distances and speed. The long sternoglossus muscle, which is formed by the fusion of the sternohyoid and the hyoglossus, is directly anchored to the sternum. The hyoid apparatus is large, V-shaped and flexible and supports the tongue as it goes in and out of the mouth. "


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"The buccinators allow it to slide back in without losing attached food and tighten the mouth to prevent food from escaping as it extends. When retracted, the tongue is held in the oropharynx by the secondary palate, preventing it from blocking respiration.Giant anteaters swallow at a much higher rate than most other mammals; when feeding, they swallow almost continuously. Before being swallowed, insects are crushed against the palate. The giant anteater's stomach, similar to a bird's gizzard, has hardened folds and uses strong contractions to grind up the insects. The digestive process is assisted by small amounts of ingested sand and soil. The giant anteater cannot produce stomach acid of its own, but uses the formic acid of its prey for digestion.\n\n== Distribution and status ==\n\nThe giant anteater is native to Central and South America. Its known range stretches from Honduras to the Gran Chaco region, and fossil remains have been found as far north as northwestern Sonora, Mexico. It is largely absent from the Andes and has been fully extirpated in Uruguay, Belize, El Salvador, and Guatemala, as well as in parts of Costa Rica, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. "


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"The species is found in a number of habitats including both tropical rainforest and xeric shrubland, provided enough prey is present to sustain it.The species is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, due to the number of regional extirpations, and under Appendix II by CITES, tightly restricting international trade in specimens of the animal and its parts and derivatives. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population declined by 30%. In 1994, some 340 giant anteaters died due to wildfires at Emas National Park in Brazil. The animal is particularly vulnerable to fires due to its slow movement and flammable coat.Human-induced threats include collision with vehicles, attacks by dogs, and destruction of habitat. One study of anteater mortality along roads found that they are likely to become roadkill on straight roads with native vegetation along the side. "


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"A 2018 study in Brazil found that: (1) fragmentation of habitat could be more detrimental than road mortality, (2) 18\u201321% of suitable anteater habitat was below minimum patch size, (3) 0.1\u20131% of its distribution was maximum road density, (4) 32\u201336% of the anteater's range represented critical areas for its survival and (5) more conservation opportunities existed in the north of the country. A 2020 study in the Brazilian Cerrado found that road morality can decrease the local population growth by half.The giant anteater is commonly hunted in Bolivia, both for sport and sustenance. The animal's thick, leathery hide is used to make equestrian equipment in the Chaco. In Venezuela, it is hunted for its claws. Giant anteaters are killed for safety reasons, due to their reputation as dangerous animals. The giant anteater remains widespread. Some populations are stable and the animal is found in various protected areas in the Amazon, Pantanal and the Cerrado. It is officially protected in some Argentine provinces as a national heritage species.\n\n== Behavior and ecology ==\n\nThe giant anteater may use multiple habitats. "


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"A 2007 study of giant anteaters in the Brazilian Pantanal found the animals generally forage in open areas and rest in forested areas, possibly because forests are warmer than grasslands on cold days and cooler on hot days. Anteater may travel an average of 3,700 m (12,100 ft) per day. Giant anteaters can be either diurnal or nocturnal. A 2006 study in the Pantanal found those anteaters to be mostly nocturnal: they are most active during nighttime and early morning, and retire as the temperature rises. On colder days, they start and end periods of activity earlier, shifting them into daylight hours, and may become diurnal. Diurnal giant anteaters have been observed at Serra da Canastra. Nocturnality in anteaters may be a response to human disturbances.Giant anteaters typically rest in dense brush, but may use tall grass on cooler days. They carve a shallow cavity in the ground for resting. The animal sleeps curled up with its bushy tail folded over its body. The tail serves both to conserve body heat and as camouflage. "


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"One anteater was recorded sleeping with its tail stretched out on a sunny morning with an ambient temperature of 17 \u00b0C (63 \u00b0F); possibly it was positioned this way to allow its body to absorb the sun's rays for warmth.Giant anteaters are good swimmers and are capable of moving through wide rivers. They have been observed to bathe. They are also able to climb and have been recorded ascending both termite mounds and trees while foraging. One individual was observed holding onto a branch with its feet just touching the ground.\n\n=== Spacing ===\n\nGiant anteaters' home ranges vary in size depending on the location, ranging from as small as 2.7 km2 (667 acres) in Serra da Canastra National Park, Brazil, to as large as 32.5 km2 (8,031 acres) in Iber\u00e1 Natural Reserve, Argentina. Individuals mostly live alone, except for females that nurse their young and males courting females. Anteaters communicate their presence, status, and sexual condition with secretions from their anal glands. They also advertise their presence to other individuals though tree markings and urine. "


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"They appear to be able to recognize each other's saliva by scent.Females appear to be more tolerant of females than males are of males, leading to greater overlap in female home ranges. Males are more likely to engage in agonistic behaviors, such as slowly circling each other, chasing, or actual fighting. Circling anteaters may utter a drawn-out \"harrr\" noise. In combat, they slash at each other with their claws and wrestle each other to the ground. Fighting anteaters may emit roars or bellows. Males are possibly territorial.\n\n=== Foraging ===\n\nThis animal is an insectivore, feeding mostly on ants or termites. In areas that experience seasonal flooding, like the grassy plains of the Venezuelan-Colombian Llanos, anteaters mainly feed on ants, because termites are less available. Conversely, anteaters at Emas National Park eat mainly termites, which occur in high density on the grasslands. At Serra da Canastra, anteaters switch between eating mainly ants during the wet season (October to March) and termites during the dry season (May to September).Anteaters track prey by their scent. After finding a nest, the animal tears it open with its long fore claws and inserts its long, sticky tongue to collect its prey. "


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"An anteater spends one minute on average feeding at a nest, visiting up to 200 nests in one day and consuming as many as 30,000 insects. The anteater may be driven away from a nest by the chemical or biting attacks of soldiers. Some termite species rely on their fortified mounds for protection and many individuals escape while the predator digs. These modes of defense prevent the entire colony from being eaten in one anteater attack.Other prey include the larvae of beetles and western honey bees that have located their hives in termite mounds. Anteaters may target termite mounds with bee hives. In captivity, anteaters are fed mixtures made of milk, eggs, mealworms, and ground beef. To drink, an anteater may dig for water when no surface water is available, creating waterholes for other animals.\n\n=== Reproduction and parenting ===\n\nGiant anteaters can mate throughout the year. During courtship, a male consorts with an estrous female, following and sniffing her. Male and female pairs are known to feed at the same insect nest. While mating, the female lies on her side as the male crouches over her. "


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"A couple may stay together for up to three days and mate several times during that period. Gestation lasts around 190 days and ends with the birth of a single pup, which typically weighs around 1.4 kg (3 lb). Females give birth standing upright.Pups are born with eyes closed and begin to open them after six days. The mother carries its dependent pup on its back. The pup's black and white band aligns with its mother's, camouflaging it. The young communicate with their mothers with sharp whistles and use their tongues during nursing. After three months, the pup begins to eat solid food and is fully weaned by ten months. The mother grooms her offspring during rest periods lasting up to an hour. Grooming peaks during the first three months and declines as the young reaches nine months of age, ending by ten months. The decline mirrors that of the weakening bond between mother and offspring; young anteaters usually become independent by nine or ten months. Anteaters are sexually mature in 2.5\u20134 years.\n\n=== Mortality ===\nGiant anteaters can live around 16 years in captivity. "


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"They are primarily prey for jaguars and pumas and typically flee from danger by galloping, but if cornered, will rear up on their hind legs and slash at the attacker. The front claws of the giant anteater are formidable weapons, capable of killing a jaguar. The giant anteater is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasites Gigantorhynchus echinodiscus and Moniliformis monoechinus.\n\n== Interactions with humans ==\n\n=== Attacks ===\nAlthough they are shy and typically attempt to avoid humans, giant anteaters can inflict severe wounds with their front claws and have been known to seriously injure or kill humans who corner and threaten them. Between 2010 and 2012, two hunters were killed by giant anteaters in Brazil; in both cases, the hunters were agitating and wounding cornered animals and the attacks appeared to be defensive behaviors. In April 2007, an anteater at the Florencio Varela Zoo mauled and killed a zookeeper with its front claws. The animal in question, a male named Ramon, had a reputation for aggressiveness.\n\n"


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"=== In culture ===\n\nIn the mythology and folklore of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, the giant anteater is depicted as a trickster foil to the jaguar, as well as a humorous figure due to its long snout. In one Shipib tale, an anteater challenged a jaguar to a breath-holding contest under water, which the jaguar accepted. After the two removed their pelts and submerged, the anteater jumped out of the water and stole the jaguar's pelt, leaving the jaguar with the anteater's pelt. In a Yarabara myth, the evil ogre Ucara is transformed into one by the sun. This myth emphasizes the nearly immobile nature of the anteater's mouth, which was considered a burden. The Kayapo people wear masks of various animals and spirits, including the anteater, during naming and initiation ceremonies. They believe women who touched anteater masks or men who stumbled while wearing them would die or receive some sort of physical disorder.During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the giant anteater was one of many native fauna taken to Europe for display. At first, Europeans believed all anteaters were female and mated with their noses, a misconception corrected by naturalist F\u00e9lix de Azara. "


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"In the 20th century, Salvador Dal\u00ed wrote imaginatively that the giant anteater \"reaches sizes bigger than the horse, possesses enormous ferocity, has exceptional muscle power, is a terrifying animal.\"Dal\u00ed depicted an anteater in the style of The Great Masturbator. It was used as a bookplate for Andr\u00e9 Breton, who compared the temptations a man experiences in life to what \"the tongue of the anteater must offer to the ant.\"The 1940 Max Fleischer cartoon Ants in the Plants features a colony of ants fighting off a villainous anteater. Released during the Phoney War, the film may have alluded to France's Maginot Line. An anteater is also a recurring character in the comic strip B.C. This character was the inspiration for Peter the Anteater, the University of California, Irvine team mascot. In the Stephen King miniseries Kingdom Hospital, the character Antubis appears in the form of an anteater-like creature with razor-sharp teeth.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe Online Anteater: information, images, fun facts, and other stuff about the giant anteater\nARKive \u2013 images and movies of the giant anteater.\nAnteater, Sloth & Armadillo Specialist Group  \u2013  Giant anteater\nAnimal Diversity Web  \u2013  Myrmecophaga tridactyla Giant anteater"


id: 5848686b59250558531ef2ed60a35954
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"Tiliqua scincoides (common blue-tongued skink, blue-tongued lizard, common bluetongue) is a species of skink. It is native to Australia as well as to the Tanimbar and Babar Islands in the Maluku Province of Indonesia.\n\n== Subspecies ==\nThere are three subspecies:\nTiliqua scincoides scincoides \u2013 eastern blue-tongued skink (southern/eastern Australia)\nTiliqua scincoides intermedia \u2013 northern blue-tongued skink (northern Australia)\nTiliqua scincoides chimaera \u2013 Tanimbar blue-tongued skink (Maluku Province, Indonesia)\n\n== Description ==\nThis is a large terrestrial lizard measuring up to 60 centimetres long and 1 kilogram in mass. It has a stout body and short legs. It is variable in color but generally has a banded pattern. The tongue is blue-violet to cobalt blue in color. Due to its characteristic blue tongue and its curious nature, it is a popular companion animal in Western countries.This lizard is diurnal, active during the day. It is omnivorous, feeding on insects, snails, frogs, other reptiles, small birds, small mammals, carrion, some plant material, fruits, and fungi. It is ovoviviparous, the eggs hatching inside the female's body; she then gives birth to 5 to 25 live young per litter. This species is known to live over 30 years. "


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"It is an adaptable animal, often finding habitat in urban and suburban areas, including residential areas of Sydney. The lizard is considered beneficial in these areas, with its appetite for garden pests such as slugs and snails.When threatened it may hiss and reveal its blue tongue, startling potential predators.\nThere are three color-morphs of Tiliqua scincoides: albino, wild-type, and melanistic.  In warm environments, the wild-type T. scincoides and melanistic T. scincoides have skin with lower reflectance compared to the albino T. scincoides, therefore these two lizards can warm their bodies at a faster rate.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References =="


id: f0165a15e4048d2f857c22cddc6c84ab
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"The spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa) is a South-East Asian turtle species. It inhabits lowland and hill rainforest, usually in the vicinity of small streams, mainly in hill areas up to 900 m above sea level.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe origin of its common and specific name is immediately apparent from the sharp, pointed, spiky-edged carapace, and spiny keel, of this unique turtle, also known as the 'cog-wheel turtle'.\n\n== Distribution ==\nThe spiny turtle is known from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nMating behaviour appears to be triggered by rain; in captivity, spraying males with water results in them chasing females and attempting to mount. Nothing is known of nesting behaviour in the wild. One, two, or rarely three eggs are laid per clutch; in captivity, laying usually occurs in the night or early morning. Females produce up to three clutches per year. A plastron hinge develops to ease laying. It has been bred in captivity several times; in three cases the incubation time was 106, 110, and 145 days.\n\n== References ==\n\nBibliographyRhodin, Anders G.J.; van Dijk, Peter Paul; Inverson, John B.; Shaffer, H. Bradley; Roger, Bour (31 December 2011). "


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"\"Turtles of the world, 2011 update: Annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution and conservation status\" (PDF). Chelonian Research Monographs. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2012.\nFritz, Uwe; Hava\u0161, Peter (2007). \"Checklist of Chelonians of the World\" (PDF). Vertebrate Zoology. 57 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2011.\n\n== External links ==\nARKive - images and movies of the spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa)"


id: c07946c5c11784816e368b7487fe7beb
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"The Florida softshell turtle (Apalone ferox) is a species of softshell turtle native to the Southeastern United States.\n\n== Geographic range ==\nThe Florida softshell turtle is found primarily in the state of Florida, but it also ranges to southern sections of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. It is the only species of softshell turtle whose range spans the entire Florida peninsula. They are native to the southeastern United States. Out of the Trionychidae family, the Florida softshell occupies the smallest range.\n\n=== Habitat use ===\nThe Florida softshell turtle is a widespread species and occupies almost every freshwater habitat, even tolerating some brackish environments; however, it is not often found in water with strong currents, preferring habitats with slow-moving or still water. These different habitats include swamps, lakes, marshes, wet prairies, small rivers, creeks, and even ponds formed in man-made ditches or sinkholes.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Florida softshell turtle is a large turtle with a flattened, pancake-like body, a long neck, an elongated head with a long snorkel-like nose, and large webbed feet, each with three claws. While most turtles have hard shells composed of scutes, the Florida softshell has a cartilaginous carapace covered in leathery skin. "


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"Ranging from olive green to dark brown, it has the darkest coloration of all the softshell species that inhabit Florida (other species include Apalone mutica calvata and Apalone spinifera aspera). It is also characterized by a white or cream-colored underside. This color pattern is known as countershading and is a form of camouflage to conceal turtles from potential predators. It is also the largest species of softshell turtle found in Florida and all of North America, ranging from 15 to 76 cm (5.9 to 29.9 in) in length. The Florida softshell also exhibits significant sexual size dimorphism. Adult females are often 3-5x larger than males. Males have a carapace length and body weight averaging about 35 cm (14 in) and 2.68 kg (5.9 lb) respectively. Nesting adult females were found to average 6.65 kg (14.7 lb) in weight and measure 40.1 cm (15.8 in) in carapace length, with the record weight documented at 43.6 kg (96 lb). However, males tend to have longer tails than their female counterparts (3 cm longer than a female of the same size). Hatchlings have a lighter carapace with yellow and orange markings and a carapacial rim. "


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"Stripes in the same color are also found on the face and neck. Their plastron is generally dark in color. As the turtle ages, these colors fade and are lost, resulting in the dark-brown coloration characteristic of adults.\n\n== Behavior ==\nThe Florida softshell turtle is almost entirely aquatic, only emerging from the water to bask or to lay eggs. In the water, it prefers to bury itself in the sandy/muddy substrate. Like all softshells, it is very fast-moving in water and on land. While this species is omnivorous, its diet consists largely of meat, consuming mainly fish, insects, crustaceans, frogs and mollusks. It may also scavenge.\n\n== Reproduction ==\n\n=== Males ===\nThe reproductive cycle of male Florida softshell turtles follows a postnuptial pattern, with a cycle of spring mating followed by spermatogenesis in the fall. The male will produce sperm during the fall and store that sperm in the epididymides through the winter. This stored sperm can then be utilized for copulation during the following spring mating season. Evidence suggests that they undergo spermatogenesis every year. Males of this species reach sexual maturity at small sizes (below 0.7 kg), allowing them to begin reproducing quickly following birth. "


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"This implies that some males may be able to reproduce as young as two years of age.\n\n=== Females ===\nWhile males consistently reach sexual maturity at small sizes, that size is larger and more variable in females. Some may reach maturity at a plastron length of 24 cm, and others may not mature until they reach a length closer to 30 cm. The onset of sexual maturity will occur anywhere from 5 \u2013 8 years of age. The female nesting season can range anywhere from early April to early August, and incubation lasts an average of 60 \u2013 90 days. In a study examining female reproduction, almost 10% of the females examined in a single breeding season showed signs of inactive ovaries, implying that, unlike males, females may not possess the ability to reproduce every year. Florida softshell females have the ability to produce an average of 4 \u2013 5 egg clutches in a single breeding season, potentially producing a new clutch every three weeks. Florida softshell turtles have one of the highest annual egg production rates of any reptile. "


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"The study previously mentioned showed an average of over 20 eggs per clutch, with the largest clutch containing 38 eggs.\n\n== Ecology ==\nWith a primarily carnivorous diet, adult Florida softshell turtles function as major predators in their aquatic ecosystems. Sitting high on the trophic scale, they generally function as secondary or tertiary consumers. However, alligators have been known to prey on the adults of the Florida softshell turtle, and raptors may take juveniles. Nest predators include the fish crow, foxes, raccoons, skunks, and river otters. At various lakes across the state of Florida (Okeechobee, Apopka, Griffin, and Jesup) scientists have observed Florida softshell females, as well as other turtle species (Pseudemys nelsoni, Kinosternon sp., and Sternotherus odoratus) laying their eggs in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) nests during the summer months. While the turtles may utilize vacant nests more often, they have also been known to lay eggs in occupied alligator nests. They use these nests more often in areas with limited nesting habitats and/or during years with heavier precipitation when high water levels and flooding further reduce the number of suitable nesting sites. "


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"Despite the Florida softshell's use of alligator nests, studies have shown the highest abundance of Florida softshell turtles to persist in lakes with little to no alligators as well as high primary productivity, suggesting a combination of top-down and bottom-up influences on softshell populations.\n\n== Anthropogenic threats ==\nThe Florida softshell turtle is common throughout Florida and other parts of its range. However, wild populations are subject to various threats at the hands of humans. Some of these threats include commercial harvesting for meat, harvesting for the pet trade, and roadway mortalities.\n\n== Diet ==\nThe Florida softshells are carnivores with their main diet consisting of small snails and fish. They also eat amphibians, insects, and mollusks and some waterfowl. These turtles will hunt, chase, and scavenge for prey.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nBehler, J.L.; King, F.W. (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North AmericanReptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp. ISBN 0-394-50824-6. (Trionyx ferox, pp. 483\u2013484 + Plates 272, 273).\nBoulenger, G.A. (1889). Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). New Edition. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). "


id: 6489b0788ec4353b1af291a92005fdaf
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"x + 311 pp. + Plates I\u2013III. (Trionyx ferox, p. 259).\nConant, R. (1975). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. xviii + 429 pp. + Plates 1\u201348. ISBN 0-395-19979-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-395-19977-8 (paperback). (Trionyx ferox, p. 81 + Plates 6, 12 + Map 35).\nSchneider, J.G. (1783). Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Schildkr\u00f6ten, nebst einem systematischen Verzeichnisse der einzelnen Arten und zwey Kupfern \". Leipzig: J.G. M\u00fcller. xlviii + 364 pp. + corrigenda. (Testudo ferox, new species, pp. 330\u2013334). (in German and Latin).\nSmith, H.M.; Brodie, E.D., Jr. (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-47009-1 (hardcover), ISBN 0-307-13666-3 (paperback). (Trionyx ferox, pp. 32\u201333).\nStejneger, L.; Barbour, T. (1917). A Checklist of North American Amphibians and Reptiles. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 125 pp. (Amyda ferox, p. 124).\n\n== External links ==\n\nApalone ferox, The Reptile Database."


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"The Ouachita map turtle (Graptemys ouachitensis) is a species of turtle belonging to the family Emydidae.\n\n== Subspecies ==\nSubspecies include:\nGraptemys ouachitensis ouachitensis Cagle, 1953\nGraptemys ouachitensis sabinensis Cagle, 1953In recent years the Sabine map turtle (Graptemys ouachitensis sabinensis) has been recognized by many as a full species Sabine map turtle (Graptemys sabinensis).\n\n== Distribution ==\nThis species is endemic to the United States. It can be found in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Oklahoma, Kansas, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Illinois, Tennessee and Kentucky. G. o. sabinensis exists only in the Sabine River of Louisiana and Texas. Both G. o. ouachitensis and G. o. sabinensis are freshwater riverine turtles. The G. o. ouachitensis is rarely seen on land unless it is nesting season or it is basking.\n\n== Description ==\nThis species' carapace features a row of low vertebral spines, and is serrated on the posterior rim. The carapace is olive, dark brown, or black in coloration with light yellowish markings with dark borders. The plastron color varies from cream to yellow and is patterned with dark lines and swirls. "


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"The body color is grayish brown to blackish and is marked with yellowish stripes.On the head, it has light yellow spots: a rectangular one behind each eye, an oval under each eye, and a round one on each side of the jaw. In some specimens, the spot behind and the spot under the eye can combine to form a single thick \"C\" stain. The eye has a black stripe in the middle.Males are significantly smaller than females. The males can grow to be as large as 5 in (12 cm) in carapace length. The females can grow to be up to 10 in (25 cm) in carapace length.\n\n== Natural History ==\nHatchlings of this species have recently been found to make sounds prior to exiting the nest. These are mostly \"clicking\" noises, but more tonal \"mewing\" sounds are also sometimes present. These sounds are the first documented for any North American hatchling turtle. (Geller, G.A. and G.S. Casper. 2019. Late-term embryos and hatchlings of Ouachita Map Turtles (Graptemys ouachitensis) make sounds within the nest. Herpetological Review 50:449-452)\n\n== Diet ==\nOuachita map turtles feed mainly on small aquatic animals such as shrimp, insects, molluscs, and fish. "


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"They also consume algae and aquatic plants.\n\n== Pet trade ==\nAs they are small, Ouachita map turtles are common among turtle keepers. They can be kept with most other species and can be raised on specialty pellets and dried shrimp. Although they need heat and ultraviolet light (UVB),\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nCagle, F.R. 1953. Two New Subspecies of Graptemys pseudogeographica. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan (546): 1-17. (\"Graptemys pseudogeographica sabinensis, new subspecies\", pp. 2\u201310; and \"Graptemys pseudogeographica ouachitensis, new subspecies\", pp. 10\u201316.)Conant, R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Houghton Mifflin. Boston. xviii + 429 pp. + 48 Plates. ISBN 0-395-19979-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-395-19977-8 (paperback). (Graptemys pseudogeographica ouachitensis and G. p. sabinensis, pp. 57\u201358, Figure 10. + Plate 8 + Map 14.)Lindeman, P.V. 2013. The Map Turtle and Sawback Atlas: Ecology, Evolution, Distribution, and Conservation. University of Oklahoma Press. Norman. 460 pp.\nSmith, H.M., and E.D. Brodie, Jr. 1982. Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. Golden Press. New York. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3 (paperback). (Graptemys ouachitensis ouachitensis and G. o. sabinensis, pp. 50\u201351.)"


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"== External links ==\nOuachita Map Turtle, Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa\nGraptemys ouachitensis, Illinois Natural History Survey\nOuachita Map Turtle, Missouri Department of Conservation\nThe Reptile Database"


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"De Brazza's monkey (Cercopithecus neglectus) is an Old World monkey endemic to the riverine and swamp forests of central Africa. The largest species in the guenon family, it is one of the most widespread arboreal African primates. Aside from size, it can be differentiated from other cercopithecus monkeys by its orange diadem and white beard. Due to its cryptic nature, the species is not well documented in all of its habitats but has shown unique traits such as pair-bonding and aggressive behavior towards other guenons.\n\n== Etymology ==\nLocally known as swamp monkeys, these primates are named after the Italian naturalist and explorer Jacques Savorgnan de Brazza.\nTheir scientific species name, neglectus, which means to pay no attention to, was given to them because of their ability to hide from both humans and predators.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe De Brazza's monkey is the most sexually dimorphic species of guenon; males weigh around 7 kilograms, while females weigh around 4 kilograms. Adults have grey agouti fur with a reddish-brown back, black limbs and tail, and a white rump. Both sexes have cheek pouches they use to carry food while they forage. "


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"Males have a distinct blue scrotum, while females have a red perianal region and visible nipples. Juveniles lack the darker colors on the extremities that is characteristic of adults, but retain the whites stripes and red rump while infants are a uniform brown agouti with only a small beard. The white muzzle and beard, along with an orange crescent on its forehead and white stripes on its thighs distinguish it from other guenons. Due to this distinctive appearance, the monkey is sometimes referred to as the \"Ayatollah Monkey\" after the similarly-bearded Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.\n\n== Ecology ==\n\n=== Distribution and habitat ===\nDe Brazza's monkeys range across the swamps, bamboo and dry mountain forests of Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Kenya, South Sudan, Nigeria and Uganda and possibly Tanzania though reports have not been confirmed. Troops are found almost exclusively near water, rarely venturing farther than 1 km away from a river or tributary. As a result they can sometimes be seen swimming. The monkeys prefer dense forest and vegetation, only venturing into more open forest to feed. "


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"They are mainly arboreal, but descends to the ground to feed on herbaceous plants. Due to its cryptic nature there is no accurate population estimate for the species over its entire range.\n\n=== Diet ===\nThe diet of De Brazza's monkeys consists mostly of herbaceous plants found on the forest floor, and fruits when available. These are supplemented with insects, seeds, and other food sources when primary foods are scarce.\n\n=== Predators ===\nPredators of the De Brazza's monkey include the crowned eagle, leopard, humans, and common chimpanzees. Though rare, dogs and pythons may also predate on juvenile De Brazza's. The typical predator response is to curl up in a tight ball against the side of a tree with the orange crown and white stripes on the thighs hidden and wait silently for the predator to leave. Individuals will only move if the predator approaches their position, and even then they move quietly and slowly to try and escape notice.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nThe lifespan of the De Brazza's monkey is thought to correspond similarly to other members of Cercopithecus which live up to 22 years in the wild and 30 years in captivity. "


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"Its cryptic nature makes the De Brazza's monkey hard to observe in the wild. Troop sizes are small for a guenon, ranging from 2-10 individuals on average. In some areas of Western Africa, such as Gabon and Cameroon, small pair-bonded groups of a male, female, and infants and juveniles have been observed. In Eastern Africa, the DeBrazza's monkeys live in single male, multi-female groups. Solitary males do not create bachelor groups and will occasionally depose an alpha male to take over access to the females.Male De Brazza's monkey communicates with booming sounds. These are usually heard early in the morning when the male calls out to establish his territory, though he will also use this call to bring the group back together if they get separated. When attacked by predators, males will give an alarm call. In the case of crowned eagles, males will emit a short bark before attacking the eagle to scare it off. Females have also been observed to give alarms calls and growl at humans. Otherwise, female vocalizations are limited to quiet croaks given when feeding or resting. Infants and juveniles will give shrill squeals of distress when separated from their mothers or the group. "


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"Given the cryptic nature of this species, hearing their calls is sometimes the only way to know they are present. Unlike other guenons, which often form polyspecific associations to decrease predation and increase foraging, DeBrazza's monkeys will be aggressive towards other species and have only been known to tolerate some colobine species which do not compete with them for resources.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nFemale De Brazza's monkeys reach sexual maturity around 5 years of age, while males do not reach maturity until closer to 6 years of age. Most juveniles males will leave their natal group before they reach maturity. The breeding season lasts from February to March, but females can also go into estrous during times of high food availability. Gestation lasts between 5 to 6 months, and an infant stays close to its mother for the first year of its life at which point it is weaned. Females usually have one infant at a time, though twins have been born on rare occasions, with a year long inter-birth interval.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe De Brazza's monkey is listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List. "


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"The main threats to DeBrazza's monkeys are deforestation due to logging and agriculture, and bushmeat hunting. There are several captive population housed in zoos across Europe and North America. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) manages captive population under a species survival plan. This is unique because the species is not listed as vulnerable or endangered, but has been sponsored by the AZA to proactively prevent need for reactive conservation in the future. More data is needed to fully assess the conservation needs of this species.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nBBC Science and Nature"


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"The Abyssinian ground hornbill or northern ground hornbill (Bucorvus abyssinicus) is an African bird, found north of the equator, and is one of two species of ground hornbill. It is the second largest species of African hornbill, only surpassed by the slightly larger southern ground hornbill.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe Abyssinian ground hornbill was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1780 in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by Fran\u00e7ois-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enlumin\u00e9es D'Histoire Naturelle which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text.  Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Buceros abyssinicus in his catalogue of the Planches Enlumin\u00e9es. The type locality is Ethiopia. The Abyssinian ground hornbill is now placed in the genus Bucorvus that was introduced, originally as a subgenus, by the French naturalist Ren\u00e9 Lesson in 1830. The species is monotypic. "


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"The generic name is derived from the name of the genus Buceros introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the Asian hornbills where corvus is the Latin word for a \"raven\".\n\n== Description ==\nAbyssinian ground hornbill is a large, terrestrial hornbill with black body feathers and white primary feathers which are visible in flight.  The adult male has a patch of bare blue skin around the eye and an inflatable patch of bare skin on the neck and throat which is red, apart from the upper throat which is blue. The bill is long and black except for a reddish patch at the base of the mandible. On top of the bill there is a short open-ended black casque. The female is similar but smaller with any bare skin being wholly dark blue. Juvenile birds are dark sooty-brown with a smaller bill, with an incipient casque. As the juvenile matures, which usually takes 3 years, it gradually develops the plumage, bare skin colour and casque of the adults.  The total length is 90 to 110 cm (35 to 43 in).The Abyssinian ground hornbill has long feathers that look like eyelashes that surround its eyes. "


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"These protect the eyes from injury.It reportedly averages around 90 to 100 cm (35 to 39 in) tall, around 110 cm (43 in) and weighs approximately 4 kg (8.8 lb). Per Stevenson and Fanshawe, the Abyssinian is a larger species on average than the southern ground hornbill, at 102 cm (40 in), but published weights and standard measurements contrarily indicate the southern species is indeed slightly larger.\n\n=== Voice ===\nA deep booming uh-uh, uh-uh-uh which is far carrying and is normally made at dawn from either a perch or from the ground. The male and female sing in duets.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe Abyssinian ground hornbill is found in Northern sub-Saharan Africa from southern Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea east to Eritrea, Ethiopia, north western Somalia, north western Kenya and Uganda.It is found in open habitats such as savanna, sub-desert scrub, and rocky areas, preferring short vegetation which enables its visual foraging technique. The areas inhabited by this species are usually drier areas than the preferred habitat of the Southern ground hornbill. "


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"It will tolerate disturbed areas but does require large trees to be used as nest sites.The Abyssinian ground hornbill has escaped or been deliberately released in to Florida, USA, but there is no evidence that the population is breeding and may only persist due to continuing releases or escapes.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nThe Abyssinian ground hornbill lives in open grassland, in pairs or small family parties. They patrol their territory by walking and are reluctant fliers, usually only taking to the air when alarmed. In captivity, they can live 35\u201340 years. Diet in the wild consists of a wide variety of small vertebrates and invertebrates, including tortoises, lizards, snakes, birds, spiders, beetles, and caterpillars; they also take carrion, some fruits, seeds, and groundnuts. Groups of ground hornbills have territories of 2\u2013100 square miles (5.2\u2013259.0 km2). They are diurnal.\n\n=== Breeding ===\nThe breeding season of the Abyssinian ground hornbill varies across its range: the West African populations breed in June through to August, Nigerian and Ugandan populations breed in January, and Kenyan birds breed as late as November. They prefer to nest in large trees, with baobabs and palm stumps being preferred; the nest is constructed in a cavity. "


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"They have also been recorded nesting in other types of cavities including holes in rocks and man-made cavities such as bee-hive logs or baskets. In the ground hornbills the females are partially sealed in using a mixture of mud and vegetation. In other hornbills the nesting female moult their all flight feathers at once but this is not the case in the ground hornbills. The male prepares the nest by lining the cavity with dry leaves before the female enters and lays a clutch of one or two eggs over around five days. She starts to incubate as soon as the first egg is laid so that the chick which hatches first has a head start in development over its sibling. Incubation of each egg takes between 37 and 41 days, during which time there is no effort to keep the cavity clean and the male is responsible for providing food to the incubating female. "


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"The weight of the newly hatched chick is around 70 g (2.5 oz) and the first-hatched grows rapidly at the expense of the second, which will normally die of starvation before it is four days old by which time its sibling can weigh as much as 350 g (12 oz). When the surviving chick is 21 to 33 days old the mother leaves the nest and starts to help in food provision, then after 80 to 90 days the chick leaves the nest.Abyssinian ground hornbills invest a lot in their offspring and the fledged juveniles will remain with their parents for up to three years. They have a slow breeding rate and an average of one chick is raised to adulthood every 9 years so the adults' investment in each young bird raised is exceptionally high.\n\n=== Feeding ===\nAbyssinian ground hornbills are opportunist feeders, following ungulate herds and forest fires so that they can prey on small animals disturbed by the larger animals or flames. An individual hornbill can walk up to 11 km (6.8 mi) in a day, pouncing on and eating animals they come across. "


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"They have also been recorded digging for arthropods in the soil and attacking bee hives for honeycomb; they very rarely consume any plant matter. The strong bill is used to capture and overcome the prey before it is eaten.\n\n== Predators, parasites and diseases ==\nAbyssinian ground hornbills are preyed on by large carnivores, such as leopards. Human predation for food occurs in some countries, including northern Cameroon and Burkina Faso. The nests may be preyed upon by smaller terrestrial predators.\nThe Abyssinian ground hornbill is a known host for the bird lice Bucorvellus docophorus, Bucerophagus productus and Bucerophagus africanus; it is also a host for the nematode Histiocephalus bucorvi and the tapeworms Chapmania unilateralis, Idiogenes bucorvi, Ophryocotyloides pinguis, and Paruterina daouensis. An individual held in captivity but which had been caught in the wild died from an infection of the bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila, a common pathogen in fish but not previously recorded in wild Abyssinian ground hornbills. In North America captive Abyssinian ground hornbills have also been known to die because of West Nile virus.\n\n== Cultural importance ==\nAbyssinian ground hornbills are not a normal quarry for commercial hunters, although they are not uncommon in captivity in zoos. "


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"In some areas the species has cultural significance and hunters may tie the severed head and neck of these birds around their necks in the belief that it helps them stalk their wild ungulate quarry. In some villages the call is often imitated and there are even entire songs based on the male and female duets of Abyssinian ground hornbills.\n\n== Status and conservation ==\nThe Abyssinian ground hornbill is subject to the loss and degradation of its habitat and it is a quarry of hunters, in a similar way to its congener, the Southern ground hornbill, and, as a result, it is thought that the population may have started a rapid decline. As a result of this perceived decline the IUCN give its status as Vulnerable.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Relevant literature ==\nAsefa, Addisu. \"Exploration of human-bird relationships: Oromo proverbs associated with the Northern Ground-hornbill in Ethiopia.\"Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4, no. 1 (2021): 100-162."


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"The Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and females can grow to a total length of 75 cm (30 in), with a wingspan of 188 cm (6 ft 2 in), with males being slightly smaller. This bird has distinctive ear tufts, with upper parts that are mottled with darker blackish colouring and tawny. The wings and tail are barred. The underparts are a variably hued buff, streaked with darker colouring. The facial disc is not very defined and the orange eyes are distinctive.Eurasian eagle-owls are found in many habitats, but are mostly birds of mountainous regions or other rocky areas, often those near varied woodland edge and shrubby areas with openings or wetlands to hunt a majority of their prey. Additionally, they inhabit coniferous forests, steppes, and other areas at varied elevations that are typically relatively remote. Eurasian eagle-owls are occasionally found amongst farmland and in park-like settings within European cities, even rarely within busier urban areas. "


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"The eagle-owl is mostly a nocturnal predator, hunting for a range of different prey species. Predominantly, their diet is composed of small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, but they also prey on larger mammals and birds of varying sizes. Other secondary prey can include reptiles, amphibians, fish, large insects and other assorted invertebrates. The species typically breeds on cliff ledges, in gullies, among rocks, or in other concealed locations. The nest is a scrape containing a clutch of two eggs typically, which are laid at intervals and hatch at different times. The female incubates the eggs and broods the young, and the male provides food for her, and when they hatch, for the nestlings, as well. Continuing parental care for the young is provided by both adults for about five months. At least 12 subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl are described.In addition to being one of the largest living species of owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl is also one of the most widely distributed. "


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"With a total range in Europe and Asia of about 32 million km2 (12 million sq mi) and a total population estimated to be between 250,000 and 2.5 million, the IUCN lists the bird's conservation status as being of least concern.  The vast majority of eagle-owls live in Continental Europe, Scandinavia, Russia (which is almost certainly where the peak numbers and diversity of race occurs), and Central Asia. Additional minor populations exist in Anatolia, the northern Middle East, the montane upper part of South Asia and in China; in addition, an estimated 12 to 40 pairs are thought to reside in the United Kingdom as of 2016 (where they are arguably non-native), a number which may be on the rise. Tame eagle-owls have occasionally been used in pest control because of their size to deter large birds such as gulls from nesting.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl is among the larger birds of prey, smaller than the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), but larger than the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus), despite some overlap in size with both of those species. "


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"It is sometimes referred to as the world's largest owl, although Blakiston's fish owl (B. blakistoni) is slightly heavier on average and the much lighter weight great grey owl (Strix nebulosa) is slightly longer on average. Heimo Mikkola reported the largest specimens of eagle-owl as having the same upper body mass, 4.6 kg (10 lb), as the largest Blakiston\u2019s fish owl and attained a length around 3 cm (1.2 in) longer. In terms of average weight and wing size, the Blakiston\u2019s is the slightly larger species seemingly, even averaging a bit larger in these aspects than the biggest eagle-owl races from Russia. Also, although 9 cm (3.5 in) shorter than the largest of the latter species, the Eurasian eagle-owl can weigh well more than twice as much as the largest great grey owl. The Eurasian eagle-owl typically has a wingspan of 131\u2013188 cm (4 ft 4 in \u2013 6 ft 2 in), with the largest specimens possibly attaining 200 cm (6 ft 7 in). The total length of the species can vary from 56 to 75 cm (22 to 30 in). "


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"Females can weigh from 1.75 to 4.6 kg (3.9 to 10.1 lb), and males can weigh from 1.2 to 3.2 kg (2.6 to 7.1 lb). In comparison, the barn owl (Tyto alba), the world's most widely distributed owl species, weighs about 500 g (1.1 lb) and the great horned owl (B. virginianus), which fills the eagle-owl's ecological niche in North America, weighs around 1.4 kg (3.1 lb).\n\nBesides the female being larger,  little external sexual dimorphism is seen in the Eurasian eagle-owl, although the ear tufts of males reportedly tend to be more upright than those of females. When an eagle-owl is seen on its own in the field, distinguishing the individual\u2019s sex is generally not possible. Gender determination by size is possible by in-hand measurements. In some populations, the female typically may be slightly darker than the male. The plumage coloration across at least 13 accepted subspecies can be highly variable. The upper parts may be brown-black to tawny-buff to pale creamy gray, typically showing dense freckling on the forehead and crown, stripes on the nape, sides, and back of the neck, and dark splotches on the pale ground colour of the back, mantle, and scapulars. "


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"A narrow buff band, freckled with brown or buff, often runs up from the base of the bill, above the inner part of the eye, and along the inner edge of the black-brown ear tufts. The rump and upper tail-coverts are delicately patterned with dark vermiculations and fine, wavy barring, the extent of which varies with subspecies. The underwing coverts and undertail coverts are similar, but tend to be more strongly barred in brownish-black.The primaries and secondaries are brown with broad, dark brown bars and dark brown tips, and grey or buff irregular lines. A complete moult takes place each year between July and December. The facial disc is tawny-buff, speckled with black-brown, so densely on the outer edge of the disc as to form a \"frame\" around the face. The chin and throat are white with a brownish central streak. The feathers of the upper breast generally have brownish-black centres and reddish-brown edges except for the central ones, which have white edges. The chin and throat may appear white continuing down the center of the upper breast. "


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"The lower breast and belly feathers are creamy-brown to tawny buff to off-white with a variable amount of fine dark wavy barring, on a tawny-buff ground colour. The legs and feet (which are feathered almost to the talons) are likewise marked on a buff ground colour but more faintly. The tail is tawny-buff, mottled dark grey-brown with about six black-brown bars. The bill and feet are black. The iris is most often orange but is fairly variable. In some European birds, the iris is a bright reddish, blood-orange colour but then in subspecies found in arid, desert-like habitats, the iris can range into an orange-yellow colour (most closely related species generally have yellowish irises, excluding the Indian eagle-owl).\n\n=== Standard measurements and physiology ===\n\nAmong standard measurements for the Eurasian eagle-owl, the wing chord measures 378 to 518 mm (14.9 to 20.4 in), the tail measures 229\u2013310 mm (9.0\u201312.2 in) long, the tarsus measures 64.5\u2013112 mm (2.54\u20134.41 in), and the total length of the bill is 38.9\u201359 mm (1.53\u20132.32 in). "


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"The wings are reportedly the smallest in proportion to the body weight of any European owl, when measured by the weight per area of wing size, was found to be 0.72 g/cm2. Thus, they have quite high wing loading. The great horned owl has even smaller wings (0.8 g/cm2) relative to its body size. The golden eagle has slightly lower wing loading proportionately (0.65 g/cm2), so the aerial abilities of the two species (beyond the eagle\u2019s spectacular ability to stoop) may not be as disparate as expected. Some other owls, such as barn owls, short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), and even the related snowy owls have lower wing loading relative to their size, so are presumably able to fly faster, with more agility, and for more extended periods than the Eurasian eagle-owl. In the relatively small race B. b. hispanus, the middle claw, the largest talon, (as opposed to rear hallux-claw, which is the largest in accipitrids) was found to measure from 21.6 to 40.1 mm (0.85 to 1.58 in) in length. "


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"A 3.82 kg (8.4 lb) female examined in Britain (origins unspecified) had a middle claw measuring 57.9 mm (2.28 in), on par in length with a large female golden eagle hallux-claw. Generally, owls do not have talons as proportionately large as those of accipitrids, but have stronger, more robust feet relative to their size. Accipitrids use their talons to inflict organ damage and blood loss, whereas typical owls use their feet to constrict their prey to death, the talons serving only to hold the prey in place or provide incidental damage. The talons of the Eurasian eagle-owl are very large and not often exceeded in size by diurnal raptors. Unlike the great horned owls, the overall foot size and strength of the Eurasian eagle-owl is not known to have been tested, but the considerably smaller horned owl has one of the strongest grips ever measured in a bird.The feathers of the ear tufts in Spanish birds (when not damaged) were found to measure from 63.3 to 86.6 mm (2.49 to 3.41 in). "


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"The ear openings (covered in feathers as in all birds) are relatively uncomplicated for an owl, but are also large, being larger on the right than on the left as in most owls, and proportionately larger than those of the great horned owl. In the female, the ear opening averages 31.7 mm (1.25 in) on the right and 27.4 mm (1.08 in) on the left, and in males, averages 26.8 mm (1.06 in) on the right and 24.4 mm (0.96 in) on the left. The depth of the facial disc and the size and complexity of the ear opening are directly correlated to the importance of sound in an owl\u2019s hunting behaviour. Examples of owls with more complicated ear structures and deeper facial disc are barn owls, long-eared owls (Asio otus), and boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Given the uncomplicated structure of their ear openings and relatively shallow, undefined facial discs, hunting by ear is secondary to hunting by sight in  eagle-owls; this seems to be true for Bubo in general. More sound-based hunters such as the aforementioned species likely focus their hunting activity in more complete darkness. "


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"Also, owls with white throat patches such as the Eurasian eagle-owl are more likely to be active in low-light conditions in the hours before and after sunrise and sunset rather than the darkest times in the middle of the night. The boreal and barn owls, to extend these examples, lack obvious visual cues such as white throat patches (puffed up in displaying eagle-owls), again indicative of primary activity being in darker periods.\n\n=== Distinguishing from other species ===\nThe great size, bulky, barrel-shaped build, erect ear tufts, and orange eyes render this as a distinctive species. Other than general morphology, the above features differ markedly from those of two of the next largest subarctic owl species in Europe and western Asia, which are the great grey owl and the greyish to chocolate-brown Ural owl (Strix uralensis), both of which have no ear tufts and have a distinctly rounded head, rather than the blocky shape of the eagle-owl\u2019s head. The snowy owl is obviously distinctive from most eagle-owls, but during winter the palest Eurasian eagle-owl race (B. b. sibiricus) can appear off-white. "


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"Nevertheless, the latter is still distinctively an ear-tufted Eurasian eagle-owl and lacks the pure white background colour and variable blackish spotting of the slightly smaller species (which has relatively tiny, vestigial ear tufts that have only been observed to have flared on rare occasions).\n\nThe long-eared owl has a somewhat similar plumage to the eagle-owl, but is considerably smaller (an average female eagle-owl may be twice as long and 10 times heavier than an average long-eared owl). Long-eared owls in Eurasia have vertical striping like that of the Eurasian eagle-owl, while long-eared owls in North America show a more horizontal striping like that of great horned owls. Whether these are examples of mimicry either way is unclear but it is known that both Bubo owls are serious predators of long-eared owls. The same discrepancy in underside streaking has also been noted in the Eurasian and American representations of the grey owl. A few other related species overlap minimally in range in Asia, mainly in East Asia and the southern reaches of the Eurasian eagle-owl\u2019s range. "


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"Three fish owls appear to overlap in range, the brown (Ketupa zeylonensis) in at least northern Pakistan, probably Kashmir, and discontinuously in southern Turkey, the tawny (K. flavipes) through much of eastern China, and Blakiston's fish owl in the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and Hokkaido. Fish owls are distinctively different looking, possessing more scraggy ear tufts that hang to the side rather than sit erect on top of the head, and generally have more uniform, brownish plumages without the contrasting darker streaking of an eagle-owl. The brown fish owl has no feathering on the tarsus or feet, and the tawny has feathering only on the upper portion of the tarsi, but the Blakiston\u2019s is nearly as extensively feathered on the tarsi and feet as the eagle-owl. Tawny and brown fish owls are both slightly smaller than co-occurring Eurasian eagle-owls, and Blakiston\u2019s fish owls are similar or slightly larger than co-occurring large northern eagle-owls. "


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"Fish owls, being tied to the edges of fresh water, where they hunt mainly fish and crabs, also have slightly differing, and more narrow, habitat preferences.In the lower Himalayas of northern Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, along with the brown fish owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl at the limit of its distribution may co-exist with at least two to three other eagle-owls. One of these, the dusky eagle-owl (B. coromandus) is smaller, with more uniform tan-brownish plumage, untidy uniform light streaking rather than the Eurasian\u2019s dark streaking below and an even less well-defined facial disc. The dusky is usually found in slightly more enclosed woodland areas than Eurasian eagle-owls. Another is possibly the spot-bellied eagle-owl (B. nipalensis), which is strikingly different looking, with stark brown plumage, rather than the warm hues typical of the Eurasian, bold spotting on a whitish background on the belly, and somewhat askew ear tufts that are bold white with light brown crossbars on the front. Both species may occur in some parts of the Himalayan foothills, but they are not currently verified to occur in the same area, in part because of the spot-bellied\u2019s preference for dense, primary forest. "


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"Most similar, with basically the same habitat preferences and the only one verified to co-occur with the Eurasian eagle-owls of the race B. b. turcomanus in Kashmir is the Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis). The Indian species is smaller, with a bolder, blackish facial disc border, more rounded and relatively smaller wings, and partially unfeathered toes. Far to the west, the pharaoh eagle-owl (B. ascalaphus) also seemingly overlaps in range with the Eurasian, at least in Jordan. Although also relatively similar to the Eurasian eagle-owl, the pharaoh eagle-owl is distinguished by its smaller size, paler, more washed-out plumage, and the diminished size of its ear tufts.\n\n=== Moulting ===\nThe Eurasian eagle-owls\u2019 feathers are lightweight and robust, but nevertheless need to be replaced periodically as they become worn. In the Eurasian eagle-owl, this happens in stages, and the first moult starts the year after hatching with some body feathers and wing coverts being replaced. The next year, the three central secondaries on each wing and three middle tail feathers are shed and regrow, and the following year, two or three primaries and their coverts are lost. "


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"In the final year of this postjuvenile moult, the remaining primaries are moulted and all the juvenile feathers will have been replaced. Another moult takes place during years 6-12 of the bird's life. This happens between June and October after the conclusion of the breeding season, and again it is a staged process with six to nine main flight feathers being replaced each year. Such a moulting pattern lasting several years is repeated throughout the bird's life.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Strix bulbo. Although Linnaeus specified the \"habitat\" as \"Europa\" the type locality is restricted to Sweden. The Eurasian eagle-owl  is now placed in the genus Bubo that was introduced by Andr\u00e9 Dum\u00e9ril in 1805.The genus Bubo with 20 extant species includes most of the larger owl species in the world today. Based on an extensive fossil record and a central distribution of extant species on that continent,  Bubo appears to have evolved into existence in Africa, although early radiations seem to branch from southern Asia, as well. "


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"Two genera belonging to the scops owls complex, the giant scops owls (Otus gurneyi) found in Asia and the Ptilopsis or the white-faced scops owl found in Africa, although firmly ensconced in the scops owl group, appear to share some characteristics with the eagle-owls. The Strix genus is also related to Bubo, and is considered a \"sister complex\", with Pulsatrix possibly being intermediate between the two. The Eurasian eagle-owl appears to represent an expansion of the genus Bubo into the Eurasian continent. A few of the other species of Bubo seem to have been derived from the Eurasian eagle-owl, making it a \"paraspecies\", or they at least share a relatively recent common ancestor.The pharaoh eagle-owl, distributed in the Arabian Peninsula and sections of the Sahara Desert through North Africa where rocky outcrops are found, was until recently considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl. The pharaoh eagle-owl apparently differs about 3.8% in mitochondrial DNA from the Eurasian eagle-owl, well past the minimum genetic difference to differentiate species of 1.5%. "


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"Smaller and paler than Eurasian eagle-owls, the pharaoh eagle-owl can also be considered a distinct species largely due to its higher-pitched and more descending call, and the observation that Eurasian eagle-owls formerly found in Morocco (B. b. hispanus) apparently did not breed with the co-existing pharaoh eagle-owls. On the contrary, the race still found together with the pharaoh eagle-owl in the wild (B. b. interpositus) in the central Middle East has been found to interbreed in the wild with the pharaoh eagle-owl, although genetical materials have indicated B. b. interpositus may itself be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl, as it differs from the nominate subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl by 2.8% in mitochondrial DNA. For three Asian Eurasian eagle-owl subspecies (B. b. ussuriensis, B. b. kiautschensis and B. b. hemachlana, respectively), it was found that they met the criterion for subspecies well, with a high haplotype diversity and in spite of a relatively recent common ancestor and low genetic diversity.  "


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"The Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis) was also considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl until recently, but its smaller size, distinct voice (more clipped and high-pitched than the Eurasian), and the fact that it is largely allopatric in distribution (filling out the Indian subcontinent) with other Eurasian eagle-owl races has led to it being considered a distinct species. The mitochondrial DNA of the Indian species also appears considerably distinct from the Eurasian species. The Cape eagle-owl (B. capensis) appears to represent a return of this genetic line back into the African continent, where it leads a lifestyle similar to Eurasian eagle-owls, albeit far to the south. Another offshoot of the northern Bubo group is the snowy owl. It appears to have separated from other Bubo species at least 4 million years ago.The fourth and most famous derivation of the evolutionary line that includes the Eurasian eagle-owl is the great horned owl, which appears to have been the result of primitive eagle-owls spreading into North America. "


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"According to some authorities, the great horned owls and Eurasian eagle-owls are barely distinct as species, with a similar level of divergence in their plumages as the Eurasian and North American representations of the great grey owl or the long-eared owl. More outward physical differences exist between the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl than in those two examples, including a great size difference favoring the Eurasian species, the great horned owl\u2019s horizontal rather than vertical underside barring, yellow rather than orange eyes, and a much stronger black bracket to the facial disc, not to mention a number of differences in their reproductive behaviour and distinctive voices. Furthermore, genetic research has revealed that the snowy owl is more closely related to the great horned owl than are Eurasian eagle-owls. The most closely related species beyond the pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls to the Eurasian eagle-owl is the smaller, less powerful and African spotted eagle-owl (B. africanus), which was likely to have divided from the line before they radiated away from Africa. "


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"Somehow, genetic materials indicate the spotted eagle-owl appears to share a more recent ancestor with the Indian eagle-owl than with the Eurasian eagle-owl or even the sympatric Cape eagle-owl. Eurasian eagle-owls in captivity have produced apparently healthy hybrids with both the Indian eagle-owl and the great horned owl. The pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls and the great horned owl are all broadly similar in size to each other, but all are considerably smaller than the Eurasian eagle-owl, which averages at least 15\u201330% larger in linear dimensions and 30\u201350% larger in body mass than these other related species, possibly as the eagle-owls adapted to warmer climates and smaller prey. Fossils from southern France have indicated that during the Middle Pleistocene, Eurasian eagle-owls (this paleosubspecies is given the name B. b. davidi) were larger than they are today, even larger were those found in Azerbaijan and in the Caucasus (either B. b. bignadensis or B. bignadensis), which were deemed to date to the Late Pleistocene. About 12 subspecies are recognized today.\n\n"


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"=== Subspecies ===\n\nB. b. bubo (Linnaeus, 1758) \u2013 Also known as the European eagle-owl, the nominate subspecies inhabits continental Europe from near the Arctic Circle in Norway, Sweden, Finland, the southern Kola Peninsula, and Arkhangelsk where it ranges north to about latitude 64\u00b0 30' N., southward to the Baltic Sea, central Germany, to southeastern Belgium, eastern, central, and southern France to Italy and Sicily, and through Central and Southeastern Europe to Greece. It intergrades with B. b. ruthenus in northern Russia around the basin of the upper Mezen River and in the eastern vicinity of Gorki Leninskiye, Tambov and Voronezh, and intergrades with B. b. interpositus in northern Ukraine. This is a medium-sized race, measuring in wing chord length 435\u2013480 mm (17.1\u201318.9 in) in males and 455\u2013500 mm (17.9\u201319.7 in). In captive owls of this subspecies, the mean wingspan were 157 cm (5 ft 2 in) for males and 167.5 cm (5 ft 6 in) for females. The total bill length is 45 to 56 mm (1.8 to 2.2 in). "


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"Adult male European eagle-owls from Norway weigh 1.63 to 2.81 kg (3.6 to 6.2 lb), averaging 2.38 kg (5.2 lb), while females there weigh from 2.28 to 4.2 kg (5.0 to 9.3 lb), averaging 2.95 kg (6.5 lb). Unsurprisingly, adult owls from western Finland were about the same size, averaging 2.65 kg (5.8 lb). Another set of Finnish eagle-owls averaged somewhat larger still, with males averaging 2.64 kg (5.8 lb) and females averaging 3.16 kg (7.0 lb). The subspecies seems to follow Bergmann\u2019s rule in regards to body size decreasing closer to the Equator, as specimens from central Europe average 2.14 or 2.3 kg (4.7 or 5.1 lb) in body mass and those from Italy average about 2.01 kg (4.4 lb). The weight range for eagle-owls in Italy is 1.5 to 3 kg (3.3 to 6.6 lb). The nominate subspecies is perhaps the darkest and most richly coloured of eagle-owl subspecies. Many nominate birds are heavily overlaid with broad black streaking over the upper-parts, head and chest. While generally a brownish base-colour, many nominate owls can appear rich rufous, especially about the head, upper-back and wing primaries. "


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"The lower belly is usually a buff brown, as opposed to whitish or yellowish in several other subspecies. Birds seen from southern Italy and Sicily may show a tendency to be smaller than more northern birds and reportedly are duller, possessing paler ground coloration, and more narrow streaks, but museum specimens are often not hugely distinct from north Italian eagle-owls. In Scandinavia, some birds are so darkly plumaged as to give a blackish-brown impression with almost no paler colour showing.\nB. b. hispanus (Rothschild and Hartert, 1910) \u2013 Also known as the Spanish eagle-owl or the Iberian eagle-owl. This subspecies mainly occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, where it occupies a majority of Spain and scattered spots in Portugal. B. b. hispanus at least historically occurred in wooded areas of the Atlas Mountains in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, making it the only subspecies of Eurasian eagle-owl known to breed in Africa, but this population is thought to be extinct. This is a fairly small-bodied subspecies. In males, wing chord length can range from 40 to 45 cm (16 to 18 in) and in females from 445 to 485 mm (17.5 to 19.1 in). "


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"Wingspans in this subspecies can vary from 131 to 168 cm (4 ft 4 in to 5 ft 6 in), averaging about 154.1 cm (5 ft 1 in). Among standard measurements of B. b. hispanus, the tail is 23 to 31 cm (9.1 to 12.2 in), the total bill length is 38.9 to 54.3 mm (1.53 to 2.14 in) and the tarsus is 64.5 to 81 mm (2.54 to 3.19 in). Adult male B. b. hispanus from Spain weigh 1.22 to 1.9 kg (2.7 to 4.2 lb), averaging 1.63 kg (3.6 lb), while females weigh from 1.75 to 2.49 kg (3.9 to 5.5 lb), averaging 2.11 kg (4.7 lb). In terms of its life history, this may be the most extensively studied subspecies of eagle-owl. The Spanish eagle-owl is the most similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies amongst other subspecies, but tends to be a somewhat lighter, more greyish colour, with generally lighter streaking and a paler belly.\nB. b. ruthenus (Buturlin and Zhitkov, 1906) \u2013 May be also known as the eastern eagle-owl. "


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"This subspecies replaces the nominate in eastern Russia from about latitude 660 N. in the Timan-Pechora Basin south to the western Ural Mountains and the upper Don and lower Volga Rivers. This is a fairly large subspecies going on wing chord length, which is 430\u2013468 mm (16.9\u201318.4 in) in males and 470\u2013515 mm (18.5\u201320.3 in) in females. The subspecies is intermediate in coloration between the nominate subspecies and B. b. sibiricus. B. b. ruthenus may be confused with B. b. interpositus, even by authoritative ornithologists. B. b. interpositus is darker than B. b. ruthenus, distinctly more yellowish, less gray, and its brown pattern is darker, heavier, and more regular. The entire colour pattern of B. b. interpositus is brighter, richer, and more contrasting than that of B. b. ruthenus, but B. b. interpositus, though very well characterized, is an intermediate subspecies.\nB. b. interpositus (Rothschild and Hartert, 1910) \u2013 May be also known as Aharoni\u2019s eagle-owl or the Byzantine eagle-owl. "


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"B. b. interpositus ranges from southern Russia, south of the nominate, with which it intergrades in northern Ukraine, from Bessarabia and the steppes of the Ukraine north to Kyiv and Kharkiv then eastward to the Crimea, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia to northwestern and northern Iran (Elburz, region of Tehran, and probably the southern Caspian districts), and through Asia Minor south to Syria and Iraq but not to the Syrian desert where it is replaced by the pharaoh eagle-owl. The latter and B. b. interpositus reportedly hybridize from western Syria south to southern Palestine. B. b. interpositus may be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl based on genetic studies. This medium-sized subspecies is about the same size as the nominate subspecies B. b. bubo, with male wing chord lengths 425 to 475 mm (16.7 to 18.7 in) and female lengths of 440 to 503 mm (17.3 to 19.8 in). It differs from the nominate subspecies by being paler and more yellow, less ferruginous, and by having a sharper brown pattern; from B. b. turcomanus by being very much darker and less yellow, and also by being much more sharply and heavily patterned with brown. "


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"Aharoni\u2019s eagle-owl is darker and more rusty than B. b. ruthenus.\nB. b. sibiricus (Gloger, 1833) \u2013 Also known as the western Siberian eagle-owl. This subspecies is distributed from the Ural Mountains of western Siberia and Bashkiria to the mid Ob River and the western Altai Mountains, north to limits of the taiga, the most northerly distribution known in the species overall. B. b. sibiricus is a large subspecies, wherein the males measure 435\u2013480 mm (17.1\u201318.9 in) in wing chord length, while the females are 472\u2013515 mm (18.6\u201320.3 in). Captive males were found to measure 155 to 170 cm (5 ft 1 in to 5 ft 7 in) in wingspan and weigh 1.62 to 3.2 kg (3.6 to 7.1 lb); whereas the females measure 165 to 190 cm (5 ft 5 in to 6 ft 3 in) in wingspan and weigh 2.28 to 4.5 kg (5.0 to 9.9 lb). Males were cited with a mean body mass of approximately 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). This subspecies is physically the most distinctive of all the Eurasian eagle-owls, and is sometimes considered the most \"beautiful and striking\". "


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"It is the most pale of the eagle-owl subspecies; the general coloration is a buffy off-white overlaid with dark markings. The crown, hindneck and underparts are streaked blackish but somewhat sparingly, with the lower breast and belly indistinctly barred, the primary coverts dark, contrasting with rest of the wing. The head, back and shoulders are only somewhat dark unlike in most other subspecies. In the eastern limits of its range, B. b. sibiricus may intergrade with B. b. yenisseensis.\nB. b. yenisseensis (Buturlin, 1911) \u2013 Also known as the eastern Siberian eagle-owl. This subspecies is found in central Siberia from about the Ob eastward to Lake Baikal, north to about latitudes 580 to 590 N on the Yenisei River, south to the Altai, Tarbagatai and the Saur Mountain ranges and in Tannu Tuva and Khangai Mountains in northwestern Mongolia, grading into B. b. sibiricus near Tomsk in the west and into B. b. ussuriensis in the east of northern Mongolia. The zone of intergradations with the latter in Mongolia seems to be quite extensive, with intermediate eagle-owls being especially prevalent around the Tuul River Valley, resulting in owls intermediate in coloration between B. b. yenisseensis and B. b. ussuriensis. "


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"B. b. yenisseensis is a large subspecies, with wing chord lengths of 435\u2013470 mm (17.1\u201318.5 in) in males and 473\u2013518 mm (18.6\u201320.4 in) in females. B. b. yenisseensis is typically much darker with more yellowish ground colour than B. b. sibiricus. It does have a similar amount of dazzling white on its underwing as does sibiricus. It is buffy-greyish overall with well-expressed dark patterning on the upper-parts and around the head. The underside is overall pale greyish with black streaking.\nB. b. jakutensis (Buturlin, 1908) \u2013 May be also known as the Yakutian eagle-owl. This subspecies inhabits northeastern Siberia, from southern Yakutia north to about latitude 640 N., west in the basin of the Vilyuy River to the upper Nizhnyaya Tunguska River, and east to the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk from Magadan south to the Khabarovsk Krai. It has been reported farther north, from the regions of the upper Kolyma River and the upper Anadyr. Eurasian eagle-owls are absent in Kamchatka and north of the Verkhoyansk Range. "


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"This is a large subspecies, rivaling the proceeding two subspecies as the largest of all eagle-owls, going on wing chord length, which subspecies is largest is unclear considering the extensive size overlap in wing size. The wing chord is 455 to 490 mm (17.9 to 19.3 in) in males and 480 to 503 mm (18.9 to 19.8 in) in females. B. b. jakutensis is much darker and browner above than both B. b. sibiricus and B. b. yenisseensis, though its coloration is more diffused, less sharp than the latter. It is more distinctly streaked and barred below than B. b. sibiricus while being whiter and more heavily vermiculated below than B. b. yenisseensis. This subspecies evidences an almost disheveled, wild appearance suggesting more than other races the fish owl group. B. b. jakutensis has more muted brown and conspicuously elongated feathers, somewhat looser hanging ear tufts and a bulky, large-headed and almost neckless look even for an eagle-owl.\nB. b. ussuriensis (Poljakov, 1915) \u2013 Would presumably be also known as the Ussuri eagle-owl. "


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"This subspecies ranges from southeastern Siberia, to the south of the range of B. b. jakutensis, southward through eastern Transbaikal, Amurland, Sakhalin, Ussuriland and the Manchurian portion of the Chinese provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hebei. This subspecies is also reportedly found in the southern Kuril Islands ranging down to as far as northern Hokkaido, the only Japanese representation in the Eurasian eagle-owl species, although this is apparently not a stable, viable population. Going on wing chord length, B. b. ussuriensis is slightly smaller than the various subspecies from further north in Siberia. Males have a wing chord length of 430\u2013475 mm (16.9\u201318.7 in) and females are 460\u2013502 mm (18.1\u201319.8 in). This subspecies differs from B. b. jakutensis by being much darker throughout. It is also darker than B. b. yenisseensis. The brown markings on the upper parts of B. b. ussuriensis are much more extensive and diffused than in B. b. jakutensis or B. b. yenisseensis, with the result that the white markings are much less conspicuous in B. b. ussuriensis than in the other two subspecies. "


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"The under parts are also more buffy, much less white, and more heavily streaked and vermiculated in B. b. ussuriensis than in the two more northerly, larger subspecies. It overlaps considerably with jakutensis and some birds are of an intermediate appearance.\nB. b. turcomanus (Eversmann, 1835) \u2013 Also known as the steppe eagle-owl. It is distributed from Kazakhstan between the Volga and upper Ural Rivers, the Caspian Sea coast and the former Aral Sea, but replaced in that country by B. b. omissus in the mountainous south and in the coastal region of the Mangyshlak Peninsula by B. b. gladkovi. Out of Kazakhstan, the range of B. b. turcomanus continues through the Transbaikal and the Tarim Basin to western Mongolia. This subspecies appears to be variable in size, but is generally medium-sized. Males can range in wing chord length from 418\u2013468 mm (16.5\u201318.4 in) and females from 440 to 512 mm (17.3 to 20.2 in). In standard measurements, the tail is 260\u2013310 mm (10\u201312 in), the tarsus is 77\u201381 mm (3.0\u20133.2 in) and the bill is 45\u201347 mm (1.8\u20131.9 in). This subspecies can reportedly weigh from 1.5 to 3.8 kg (3.3 to 8.4 lb). "


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"The plumage background colour is pale, yellowish-buff. The dark patterns on the upper- and underparts is paler, less well-defined and more shattered than in B. b. interpositus. Dark longitudinal patterning on the under-parts discontinue above the belly. B. b. turcomanus is greyer than B. b. hemalachanus but is otherwise somewhat similar-looking. This subspecies is unique in that it seems to shun mountainous and obvious rocky habitats in favor of low hills, plateaus, lowlands, steppes, and semideserts at or near sea-level.B. b. omissus (Dementiev, 1932) \u2013 May be also known as the Turkoman eagle-owl or the Turkmenian eagle-owl. B. b. omissus is native to Turkmenistan and adjacent regions of northeastern Iran and western Xinjiang. This is a small subspecies (only nikolskii averages smaller among currently accepted races), with males possessing a wing chord length of 404\u2013450 mm (15.9\u201317.7 in) and females of 425 to 460 mm (16.7 to 18.1 in). B. b. omissus may be considered a typical sub-desert form. The general coloration is an ochre to buffy off-yellow; with the dark pattern on the upper- and under-parts being relatively undefined. "


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"The dark shaft-streaks on nape are very narrow, while the dark longitudinal patterning on the underparts does not cover the belly. A dark cross-pattern on the belly and flanks is thinner and paler than in B. b. turcomanus and some individuals may appear almost all pale below. Compared to B. b. nikolskii, which may occupy the more southern reaches of the same upland ranges, it is somewhat larger as well as darker, less distinctly yellowish and more heavily streaked.\nB. b. nikolskii (Zarudny, 1905) \u2013 May be also known in English as either the Afghan eagle-owl or the Iranian eagle-owl. The range of B. b. nikolskii appears to extend from the Balkan Mountains and Kopet Dagh in southern Transcaspia eastward to southeastern Uzbekistan or to perhaps southwestern Tadzhikistan, then southward 290 N. It may range north to Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan south to the region of Kalat, or at about latitude of Hindu Kush. In Iran, B. b. nikolskii is replaced by B. b. interpositus in the north, and probably also in the northwest, and probably by B. b. hemalachana in Badakhshan, part of northeastern Afghanistan. "


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"The birds of southern Tadzhikistan found west of the Pamirs are more or less intermediate between B. b. omissus and B. b. hemachalana. This is the smallest known subspecies of eagle-owl, though the only known measurements have been of wing chord length. Males can measure 378 to 430 mm (14.9 to 16.9 in) and females can measure 410 to 465 mm (16.1 to 18.3 in) in wing chord. Other than its smaller size, B. b. nikolskii is distinguished from the somewhat similar B. b. omissus by its rusty wash and being less dark above.\nB. b. hemachalana (Hume, 1873) \u2013 Also known as the Himalayan eagle-owl. The range of B. b. hemachalana extends from the Himalayas, from Pakistan through Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to at least Bhutan, also living in Tibet. Its range continues also westward to the Tian Shan system in Russian Turkestan, west to the Karatau, north to the Dzungarian Alatau, east to at least the Tekkes Valley in Xinjiang, and south to the regions of Kashgar, Yarkant and probably the western Kunlun Mountains. This bird is partly migratory, descending to the plains of Turkmenistan with colder winter weather, and apparently reaches northern Balochistan. "


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"This is a medium-sized subspecies, though it is larger than other potentially abutting arid Asian eagle-owl subspecies, which share a somewhat similar yellowish ground colour. The male attains a wing chord length of 420\u2013485 mm (16.5\u201319.1 in), while the female\u2019s wing chord is 450\u2013505 mm (17.7\u201319.9 in). The bill measures 4.2\u20134.5 cm (1.7\u20131.8 in) in length. 11 adult eagle-owls of the subspecies from the Tibetan Plateau averaged 301 mm (11.9 in) in tail length, 78 mm (3.1 in) in tarsus length and scaled an average of 2.16 kg (4.8 lb) in mass. This subspecies is physically similar to B. b. turcomanus but the background colour is more light yellowish-brown and less buff. The dark patterns on the upperparts and underparts are more expressed and less regular than in B. b. turcomanus and B. b. omissus and the general colour from the mantle to the ear tufts is a more consistent brownish colour than most other abutting races. "


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"B. b. hemachalana differs from B. b. yenisseensis by being much more yellow on the rump, under tail coverts, and outer tail feathers, rather than grayish or whitish, and the ground coloration of its body is more yellowish above, and is less whitish below. Dark longitudinal pattern on the under-parts cover the forebelly.\nB. b. kiautschensis (Reichenow, 1903) \u2013 This subspecies could be also known as the North Chinese eagle-owl. It ranges from South Korea and China, south of the range of B. b. ussuriensis, southward to Kwangtung and Yunnan, and inland to Szechwan and southern Kansu. This is a smallish subspecies, with the male\u2019s wing chord measuring 410\u2013448 mm (16.1\u201317.6 in) and the female\u2019s being 440\u2013485 mm (17.3\u201319.1 in). In Korea, this subspecies was found to average 2.26 kg (5.0 lb) in mass, with a range of 1.8 to 2.9 kg (4.0 to 6.4 lb). B. b. kiautschensis is much darker, more tawny and rufous, and slightly smaller than B. b. ussuriensis. "


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"According to museum accounts, it resembles the nominate subspecies from Europe (though obviously considerably disparate in distribution) rather closely in coloration but differs from it by being paler, more mottled, and less heavily marked with brown on the upper parts, by having narrower dark shaft streaks on the under parts, which average also duller and more ocher, and by averaging smaller. Images from South Korea of captive and wild owls show, on the contrary, that this race may be easily as darkly marked as most nominate eagle-owls with a more rufous base colour altogether suggesting a richer and more dusky-colored eagle-owl than from almost any other population.\nB. b. swinhoei (Hartert, 1913) \u2013 This subspecies could be also known as the South Chinese eagle-owl. It is endemic to southeastern China. A quite rufescent form, it is somewhat similar to B. b. kiautschensis. In this smallish subspecies, the wing chord measures 41\u201346.5 cm (16.1\u201318.3 in) in both sexes. This is a rather poorly known and described subspecies and is considered invalid by some authorities.\n\n== Habitat ==\n\nEagle-owls are distributed somewhat sparsely, but can potentially inhabit a wide range of habitats, with a partiality for irregular topography. "


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"They have been found in habitats as diverse as northern coniferous forests to the edge of vast deserts. Essentially, Eurasian eagle-owls have been found living in almost every climatic and environmental condition on the Eurasian continent, excluding the greatest extremities, i.e. they are absent from humid rainforest in Southeast Asia, and the high Arctic tundra, both of which they are more or less replaced by other species of Bubo owls. They are often found in the largest numbers in areas where cliffs and ravines are surrounded by a scattering of trees and bushes. Grassland areas such as alpine meadows or desert-like steppe can also host them so long as they have the cover and protection of rocky areas. The preference of eagle-owls for places with irregular topography has been reported in most known studies. The obvious benefit of such nesting locations is that both nests and daytime roosts located in rocky areas and/or steep slopes would be less accessible to predators, including man. "


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"Also, they may be attracted to the vicinity of riparian or wetlands areas, because the soft soil of wet areas is conducive to burrowing by the small, terrestrial mammals normally preferred in the diet, such as voles and rabbits.Due to their preference for rocky areas, the species is often found in mountainous areas, and can be found up to elevations of 2,100 m (6,900 ft) in the Alps, 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in the Himalayas, and 4,700 m (15,400 ft) in the adjacent Tibetan Plateau. They can also be found living at sea level and may nest amongst rocky sea cliffs. Despite their success in areas such as subarctic zones and mountains that are frigid for much of the year, warmer conditions seem to result in more successful breeding attempts per studies in the Eifel region of Germany. In a study from Spain, areas primarily consisting of woodlands (52% of study area being forested) were preferred with pine trees predominating the oaks in habitats used, as opposed to truly mixed pine-oak woodland. Pine and other coniferous stands are often preferred in great horned owls, as well, due to the constant density, which make  overlooking the large birds more likely. "


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"In mountainous forest, they are not generally found in enclosed wooded areas, as is the tawny owl (Strix alucco), instead usually near forest edge. Only 2.7% of the habitat included in the territorial ranges for eagle-owls per the habitat study in Spain consisted of cultivated or agricultural land. Compared to golden eagles, though, they can visit cultivated land more regularly in hunting forays due to their nocturnal habits, which allow them to largely evade human activity. Other accounts make clear that farmland is only frequented where its less intensively farmed, holds more extensive treed and bushy areas, and often has limited to no irrigation; farmland areas with fallow or abandoned fields are more likely to hold\nmore prey, so are prone to less frequent human disturbance. In the Italian Alps, almost no pristine habitat remained, and eagle-owls nested locally in the vicinity of towns, villages, and ski resorts.\n\nAlthough found in the largest numbers in areas sparsely populated by humans, farmland is sometimes inhabited, and they even have been observed living in park-like or other quiet settings within European cities. Since 2005, at least five pairs have nested in Helsinki. "


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"This is due in part to feral European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) having recently populated the Helsinki area, originally from pet rabbits released to the wild. The number is expected to increase due to the growth of the European rabbit population in Helsinki. European hares (Lepus europaeus), the often preferred prey species by biomass of the eagle-owls in their natural habitat, live only in rural areas of Finland, not in the city centre. In June 2007, an eagle-owl nicknamed 'Bubi' landed in the crowded Helsinki Olympic Stadium during the European Football Championship qualification match between Finland and Belgium. The match was interrupted for six minutes. After tiring of the match, following Jonathan Johansson's opening goal for Finland, the bird left the scene. Finland's national football team have had the nickname Huuhkajat (Finnish for \"Eurasian eagle-owls\") ever since. The owl was named \"Helsinki Citizen of the Year\" in December 2007. In 2020, a brood of three eagle-owl chicks was raised by their mother on a large, well-foliaged planter on an apartment window in the city centre of Geel, Belgium.\n\n"


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"== Distribution ==\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the most widely distributed of all owl species, although it is far less wide-ranging than the barn owl, the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) and long-eared owl and lacks the circumpolar range of boreal species such as great grey owl, boreal owl and northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula). This eagle-owl reaches its westernmost range in the Iberian peninsula, both almost throughout Spain and more spottily in Portugal. From there, the Eurasian eagle-owl ranges widely in the south of France from Toulouse to Monaco and as far north into the central part of the country as in Allier. Farther north, they are found sporadically and discontinuously in Luxembourg, southern and western Belgium and scarcely into the Netherlands. It is infrequently found in southern and central United Kingdom. In Germany, the eagle-owl can be found in large but highly discontinuous areas, mostly in the south and central areas but is almost entirely absent in areas such as Brandenburg. Across from its south German range, this species range is nearly continuous into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, northern and eastern Hungary and very spottily into Poland. "


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"In the fairly montane countries of Switzerland and Austria, the eagle-owl can be found fairly broadly. In Italy, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found where the habitat is favorable in much of the northern, western and central portions down to as far south Melito di Porto Salvo. From Italy, this species sweeps quite broadly along the Mediterranean coast in Southeastern Europe from Slovenia mostly continuously to most of Greece and Bulgaria. In eastern Europe, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found essentially throughout from central Romania to Estonia. The species also occupies a majority of Scandinavia, most broadly  in Norway and subarctic Finland (more spottily in Sweden) and much of Denmark.The Eurasian eagle-owl's range in Russia is truly massive, with the species apparently nearly unbound by habitat, with their distribution only excluding them from the true Arctic zone, i.e. their range stops around the tree line. If not the most densely populated species, they almost certainly stand as Russia's most widely distributed owl species. From Russia, they are found throughout Central Asia, residing continuously in each nation from Kazakhstan down to Afghanistan. "


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"In Asia Minor, they are found broadly in Georgia, Azerbaijan and somewhat so in western and southern Turkey but is quite sporadic in distribution overall in Turkey. A spotty range also exists in the Middle East in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and western Iran, the species being found broadly only in north and western Iran. In South Asia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found mostly often in northern Pakistan, northern Nepal and Bhutan and more marginally into far northern India. This species resides throughout Mongolia, almost the entirety of China (mainly absent only from southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi). From China and eastern Russia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found throughout Korea, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and rarely into Japan in northern Hokkaido. Besides the Kurils, the farthest eastern part of the range for this species is in Magadan in the Russian Far East.\n\n== Behaviour ==\n\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl is largely nocturnal in activity, as are most owl species, with its activity focused in the first few hours after sunset and the last few hours before sunrise. In the northern stretches of its range, partial diurnal behaviour has been recorded, including active hunting in broad daylight during the late afternoon. "


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"In such areas, full nightfall is essentially non-existent at the peak of summer, so eagle-owls must presumably hunt and actively brood at the nest during daylight. The Eurasian eagle-owl has a number of vocalizations that are used at different times. It will usually select obvious topographic features such as rocky pinnacles, stark ridges and mountain peaks to use as regular song posts. These are dotted along the outer edges of the eagle-owl's territory and they are visited often but only for a few minutes at a time.Vocal activity is almost entirely confined to the colder months from late fall through winter, with vocal activity in October through December mainly having territorial purposes and from January to February being primarily oriented towards courtship and mating purposes. Vocalizations in a Spanish study begin no sooner than 29 minutes after sunset and end no later than 55 minutes before sunrise. The territorial song, which can be heard at great distance, is a deep resonant ooh-hu with emphasis on the first syllable for the male, and a more high-pitched and slightly more drawn-out uh-hu for the female. It is not uncommon for a pair to perform an antiphonal duet. "


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"The widely used name in Germany as well as some other sections of Europe for this species is uhu due to its song. At 250\u2013350 Hz, the Eurasian eagle-owls territorial song or call is deeper, farther-carrying and is often considering \"more impressive\" than the territorial songs of the great horned owl or even that of the slightly larger Blakiston's fish owl, although the horned owl\u2019s call averages slightly longer in duration. Other calls include a rather faint, laughter-like OO-OO-oo and a harsh kveck-kveck. Intruding eagle-owls and other potential dangers may be met with a \"terrifying\", extremely loud hooo. Raucous barks not unlike those of ural owls or long-eared owls have been recorded but are deeper and more powerful than those species\u2019 barks. Annoyance at close quarters is expressed by bill-clicking and cat-like spitting, and a defensive posture involves lowering the head, ruffling the back feathers, fanning the tail and spreading the wings.\n\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl rarely assumes the so-called \"tall-thin position\", which is when an owl adopts an upright stance with plumage closely compressed and may stand tightly beside a tree trunk. Among others, the long-eared owl is among the most often reported to sit with this pose. "


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"The great horned owl has been more regularly recorded using the tall-thin, if not as consistently as some Strix and Asio owls, and it is commonly thought to aid camouflage if encountering a threatening or novel animal or sound. The Eurasian eagle-owl is a broad-winged species and engages in a strong, direct flight, usually consisting of shallow wing beats and long, surprisingly fast glides. It has, unusually for an owl, also been known to soar on updrafts on rare occasions. The latter method of flight has led them to be mistaken for Buteos, which are smaller and quite differently proportioned. Usually when seen flying during the day, it is due to being disturbed or displaced from its roost by humans or mobbing animals, such as crows. Eurasian eagle-owls are highly sedentary, normally maintaining a single territory throughout their adult lives.\nEurasian eagle-owl are considered a completely non-migratory bird, as are all members of the Bubo genus excluding the snowy owl. Even those near the northern limits of their range, where winters are harsh and likely to bear little in food, the eagle-owl does not leave its native range. "


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"In 2020, a study presented evidence of a short distance distribution by adult eagle-owls in the fall subsequent to breeding, with 5 adults found to move over 20 km (12 mi) away from their nests. There are additionally claimed cases from Russia of Eurasian eagle-owls moving south for the winter, as the icebound, infamously harsh climate there may be too severe even for these hardy birds and their prey. Similarly, Eurasian eagle-owls living in the Tibetan highlands and Himalayas may in some ancedotal cases vacate their normal territories when winter hits and move south. In both of those examples, these are old, unverified reports and there is no evidence whatsoever of consistent, annual migration by Eurasian eagle-owls and the birds may eke out a living on their normal territories even in the sparsest times.\n\n== Dietary biology ==\n\n== Breeding ==\n\n=== Territoriality ===\nEurasian eagle-owls are strictly territorial and will defend their territories from interloping eagle-owls year around, but territorial calling appears to peak around October to early January. Territory size is similar or occasionally slightly greater than great horned owl: averaging 15 to 80 km2 (5.8 to 30.9 sq mi). "


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"Territories are established by the male eagle-owl, who selected the highest points in the territory from which to sing. The high prominence of singing perches allows their song to be heard at greater distances and lessens the need for potentially dangerous physical confrontations in the areas where territories may meet. Nearly as important in territorial behaviour as vocalization is the white throat patch. When taxidermied specimens with flared white throats were placed around the perimeter of eagle-owl territories, male eagle-owls reacted quite strongly and often attacked the stuffed owl, reacting more mildly to a stuffed eagle-owl with a non-flared white throat. Females were less likely to be aggressive to mounted specimens and did not seem to vary in their response whether exposed to the specimens with or without the puffed up white patch. In January and February, the primary function for vocalization becomes for the purpose of courtship. More often than not, eagle-owls will pair for life but usually engage in courtship rituals annually, most likely to re-affirm pair bonds. When calling for the purposes of courtship, males tend to bow and hoot loudly but do so in a less contorted manner than the male great horned owl. "


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"Courtship in the Eurasian eagle-owl may involve bouts of \"duetting\", with the male sitting upright and the female bowing as she calls. There may be mutual bowing, billing and fondling before the female flies to a perch where coitus occurs, usually taking place several times over the course of a few minutes.\n\n=== Nests ===\n\nThe male selects breeding sites and advertises their potential to the female by flying to them and kneading out a small depression (if soil is present) and making staccato notes and clucking noises. Several potential sites may be presented, with the female selecting one. In Baden-Wurttenberg, Germany, the amount of male nest site visits were found to increase in time spent over the pre-laying breeding season from a mean of 29 minutes to 3 hours with frequent incubation like sitting by the male. Like all owls, Eurasian eagle-owls do not build nests or add material but nest on the surface or material already present. Eurasian eagle-owls normally nest on rocks or boulders, most often utilizing cliff ledges and steep slopes, as well as crevices, gullies, holes or caves. "


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"Rocky areas that also prove concealing woodlots as well as, for hunting purposes, that border river valleys and grassy scrubland may be especially attractive. If only low rubble is present, they will nest on the ground between rocks. Often, in more densely forested areas, they've been recorded nesting on the ground, often among roots of trees, under large bushes and under fallen tree trunks. Steep slopes with dense vegetation are preferred if nesting on the ground, although some ground nests are surprisingly exposed or in flat spots such as in open spots of the taiga, steppe, ledges of river banks and between wide tree trunks. All Eurasian eagle-owl nests in the largely forested Altai Krai region of Russia were found to be on the ground, usually at the base of pines. This species does not often use other bird\u2019s nests as does the great horned owl, which often prefers nests built by other animals over any other nesting site. The Eurasian eagle-owl has been recorded in singular cases using nests built by common buzzards (Buteo buteo), golden eagle, greater spotted (Clanga clanga) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), common ravens (Corvus corax) and black storks (Ciconia nigra). "


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"Among the eagle-owls of the fairly heavily wooded wildlands of Belarus, they more commonly utilize nests built by other birds than most eagle-owls, i.e. stork or accipitrid nests, but a majority of nests are still located on the ground. This is contrary to the indication that ground nests are selected only if rocky areas or other bird nests are unavailable, as many will utilize ground nests even where large bird nests seem to be accessible. Tree holes being used for nesting sites are even more rarely recorded than nests constructed by other birds. While it may be assumed that the eagle-owl is too large to utilize tree hollows, when other large species like the great grey owl have never been recorded nesting in one, the even more robust Blakiston's fish owl nests exclusively in cavernous hollows. The Eurasian eagle-owl often uses the same nest site year after year.\n\n=== Parental behaviour ===\n\nIn Engadin, Switzerland, the male eagle-owl hunts until the young are 4 to 5 weeks old and the female spends all her time brooding at the nest. "


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"After this point, the female gradually resumes hunting from both herself and the young and thus provides a greater range of food for the young. While it may seem contrary to the species\u2019 highly territorial nature, there is one verified cases of polygamy in Germany, with a male apparently mating with two females, and cooperative brooding in Spain, with a third adult of undetermined sex helping a breeding pair care for the chicks. The response of Eurasian eagle-owls to humans approaching at the nest is quite variable. The species is often rather less aggressive than some other owls, including related species like the spot-bellied eagle-, great horned and snowy owls, many of the northern Strix species and even some rather smaller owl species, which often fearlessly attack any person found to be nearing their nests. Occasionally, if a person climbs to an active nest, the adult female eagle-owl will do a distraction display, in which they feign an injury. This is an uncommon behaviour in most owls and most often associated with small birds trying to falsely drawl the attention of potential predators away from their offspring. "


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"More commonly, the female flies off and abandons her nest temporarily, leaving the eggs or small nestlings exposed, when a human approaches it. Occasionally, if cornered both adults and nestlings will do an elaborate threat display, also rare in owls in general, in which the eagle-owls raise their wings into a semi-circle and puff up their feathers, followed by a snapping of their bills. Apparently eagle-owls of uncertain and probably exotic origin in Britain are likely to react aggressively to humans approaching the nest. Also, aggressive encounters involving eagle-owls around their nest, despite being historically rare, apparently have increased in recent decades in Scandinavia. The discrepancy of aggressiveness at the nest between the Eurasian eagle-owl and its Nearctic counterpart may be correlated to variation in the extent of nest predation that the species endured during the evolutionary process.\n\n=== Eggs and offspring development ===\n\nThe eggs are normally laid at intervals of three days and are incubated only by the female. Laying generally begins in late winter but may be later in the year in colder habitats. During the incubation period, the female is brought food at the nest by her mate. "


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"A single clutch of white eggs is laid; each egg can measure from 56 to 73 mm (2.2 to 2.9 in) long by 44.2 to 53 mm (1.74 to 2.09 in) in width, and will usually weigh about 75 to 80 g (2.6 to 2.8 oz). In Central Europe, eggs average 59.8 mm \u00d7 49.5 mm (2.35 in \u00d7 1.95 in), and in Siberia, eggs average 59.4 mm \u00d7 50.1 mm (2.34 in \u00d7 1.97 in). Their eggs are only slightly larger than those of snowy owls and the nominate subspecies of great horned owl, while similar in size to those of spot-bellied eagle-owls and Blakiston's fish owls. The Eurasian eagle-owl\u2019s eggs are noticeably larger than those of Indian eagle-owl and pharaoh eagle-owls. Usually clutch size is one or two, rarely three or four, and exceptionally to six. The average number of eggs laid varies with latitude in Europe. Clutch size ranges from 2.02 to 2.14 in Spain and the massifs of France, and 1.82 to 1.89 in central Europe and the eastern Alps; in Sweden and Finland, the mean clutch size is 1.56 and 1.87, respectively. "


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"While variation based on climate is not unusual for different wide-ranging palearctic species, the higher clutch size of western Mediterranean eagle-owls is also probably driven by the presence of lagomorphs in the diet, which provide high nutritional value than most other regular prey. The average clutch size, attributed as 2.7, was the lowest of any European owl per one study. One species was attributed with an even lower clutch size in North America, the great grey owl with a mean of 2.6, but the mean clutch size was much higher for the same species in Europe, at 4.05.In Spain, incubation is from mid-January to mid-March, hatching and early nestling period is from late March to early April, fledging and postfledging dependence can range from mid-April to August, and territorial/courtship is anytime hereafter; i.e. the period between the beginning of juvenile dispersal to egg laying; from September to early January. The same general date parameters were followed in southern France. "


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"In the Italian Alps, the mean egg-laying date was similarly February 27, but the young were more likely to be dependent later, as all fledglings were still being cared for by the end of August, and some even lingered under parental care until October. In northern climes, the breeding season shifts somewhat later by as much as a month so that egg laying may be as late as late March or early April. Nonetheless, the Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the earliest nesting bird species in Europe or northern, temperate Asia.The first egg hatches after 31 to 36 days of incubation. The eggs hatch successively; although the average interval between egg-laying is 3 days, the young tend to hatch no more than a day or two apart. Like all owls that nest in the open, the downy young are often a mottled grey with some white and buff, which provides camouflage. They open their eyes at 4 days of age. The chicks grow rapidly, being able to consume small prey whole after roughly 3 weeks. "


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"In Andalusia, the most noticeable development of the young before they leave the nest was the increase of body size, which was the highest growth rate of any studied owl and faster than either snowy or great horned owls. Body mass increased fourteen times over from 5 days old to 60 days old in this study. The male continues to bring prey, leaving it on or around the nest, and the female feeds the nestlings, tearing up the food into suitably sized pieces. The female resumes hunting after about 3 weeks, which increases the food supply to the chicks. Siblicide has been recorded widely in Eurasian eagle-owls, and according to some authorities, is almost a rule in the species. Many nesting attempts produce two fledglings, indicating that siblicide is not as common as in other birds of prey, especially some eagles. "


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"In Spain, males are thought to be the first egg laid to reduce the likelihood of sibling aggression due to the size difference, thus the younger female hatchling is less likely to be killed, since it is similar in size to its older sibling.Apparently, the point at which the chicks venture out of the nest is driven by the location of the nest. In elevated nest sites, chicks usually wander out of the nest at 5 to as late as 7 weeks of age, but have been recorded leaving the nest if the nest is on the ground as early as 22 to 25 days old. The chicks can walk well at 5 weeks of age and by 7 weeks are taking short flights. Hunting and flying skills are not tested prior to the young eagle-owls leaving the nest. Young Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest by 5\u20136 weeks of age and typically can be flying weakly (a few metres) by about 7\u20138 weeks of age. Normally, they are cared for at least another month. By the end of the month, the young eagle-owls are quite assured fliers. "


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"A few cases have been confirmed of adult eagle-owls in Spain feeding and caring for postfledgling juvenile eagle-owls that were not their own.\n\nA study from southern France found the mean number of fledglings per nest was 1.67. In central Europe, the mean number of fledglings per nest was between 1.8 and 1.9. The mean fledgling rate in the Italian Alps was 1.89, thus being similar. In the Italian Alps, heavier rainfall during breeding decreased fledgling success because it inhibited the ability of the parents to hunt and potentially exposed nestlings to hypothermia. In the reintroduced population of eagle-owls in Eifel, Germany, occupied territories produced an average of 1.17 fledglings, but not all occupying pairs attempted to breed, with about 23% of those attempting to breed being unsuccessful. In slightly earlier studies, possibly due to higher persecution rates, the mean number of young leaving the nest was often lower, such as 1.77 in Bavaria, Germany, 1.1 in lower Austria, and 0.6 in southern Sweden. "


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"An experimental supplemental feeding program to young eagle-owls on two small Norwegian islands were found to increase mean numbers of fledglings from a mean of about 1.2 to 1.7 despite evidence that increased human activity near the nest decreased owlet survivability. While sibling owls are close in the stage between leaving the nest and fully fledged, about 20 days after leaving the nest, the family unit seems to dissolve and the young disperse quickly and directly. All told, the dependence of young eagle-owls on their parents lasts for 20 to 24 weeks. Independence in central Europe is from September to November. The young leave their parents' care normally on their own, but are also sometimes chased away by their parents. The young Eurasian eagle-owls reach sexual maturity by the following year, but do not normally breed until they can establish a territory at around 2\u20133 years old. Until they are able to establish their own territories, young eagle-owls spend their lives as nomadic \"floaters\", and while they also call, select inconspicuous perch sites unlike breeding birds. Male floaters are especially wary about intrusion into an established territory to avoid potential conspecific aggression.\n\n"


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"== Status ==\n\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl has a very wide range across much of Europe and Asia, estimated to be about 32,000,000 km2 (12,000,000 sq mi). In Europe, the population is estimated at 19,000 to 38,000 breeding pairs, and in the whole world around 250,000 to 2,500,000 individual birds. The population trend is thought to be decreasing because of human activities, but with such a large range and large total population, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the bird as being of least concern. Although roughly equal in adaptability and wideness of distribution, the great horned owl, with a total estimated population up to 5.3 million individuals, apparently has a total population that is roughly twice that of the Eurasian eagle-owl. Numerous factors, including a shorter history of systematic persecution, lesser sensitivity to human disturbance while nesting, somewhat greater ability to adapt to marginal habitats and widespread urbanization, and slightly smaller territories may play into the horned owls greater numbers in modern times. Eurasian eagle-owls are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.\n\n"


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"=== Longevity ===\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl surely is one of the longest-living owls on average. The eagle-owl can live for up to 20 years in the wild. At one time, the oldest ringed eagle-owl was considered a 19-year-old specimen. Some studies posited that in protected areas, lifespans ranging up to 15\u201320 years may not be uncommon. A record-breaking specimen banded in the wild was subsequently found to survive to be 27 years and 9 months old. Like many other bird species in captivity, they can live much longer without having to endure difficult natural conditions, and have possibly survived up to 68 years in zoo collections. Healthy adults normally have no natural predators, thus are considered apex predators. The leading causes of death for this species are man-made; electrocution, traffic accidents, and shooting frequently claim the lives of eagle-owls.\n\n=== Anthropogenic mortality ===\nElectrocution was the greatest cause of mortality in 68% of 25 published studies, and accounted, on average, for 38.2% of the reported eagle-owl deaths. This was particularly true in the Italian Alps, where the number of dangerous, uninsulated pylons near nests was extremely high, but is highly problematic almost throughout the species\u2019 European distribution. "


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"In one telemetry study, 55% of 27 dispersing young were electrocuted within 1 year of their release from captivity, while electrocution rates of wild-born young are even higher. Mortality in the Swiss Rhine Valley was variable, in radio-tagged, released individuals, most died as a result of starvation (48%) rather than human-based causes, but 93% of the wild, untagged individuals found dead were due to human activities, 46% due to electrocution, and 43% due to collision with vehicles or trains. Insulation of pylons is thought to result in a stabilisation of the local population due to floaters taking up residence in unoccupied territories that formerly held deceased eagle-owls. Eurasian eagle-owls from Finland were found mainly to die due to electrocution (39%) and collisions with vehicles (22%). Wind turbine collisions can also be a serious cause of mortality locally.Eagle-owls have been singled out historically as a threat to game species, thus to the economic well-being of landowners, game-keepers, and even governmental agencies, and as such, have been singled out for widespread persecution. Local extinctions of Eurasian eagle-owls have been primarily due to persecution. "


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"Examples of this include northern Germany in 1830, the Netherlands sometimes in the late 19th century, Luxembourg in 1903, Belgium in 1943, and central and western Germany in the 1960s. In trying to determine causes of death for 1476 eagle-owls from Spain, most were unknown and undetermined types of trauma. The largest group that could be determined, 411 birds, was due to collisions, more than half of which were from electrocution, while 313 were due to persecution, and merely 85 were directly attributable to natural causes. Clearly, while pylon safety is perhaps the most serious factor to be addressed in Spain, persecution continues to be a massive problem for Spanish eagle-owls. Of seven European nations where modern Eurasian eagle-owl mortality is well-studied, continual persecution is by far the largest problem in Spain, although also continues to be serious (often comprising at least half of studied mortality) in France. From France and Spain, nearly equal numbers of eagle-owls are poisoned (for which raptors might not be the main target), or shot intentionally.\n\n"


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"=== Conservation and reintroductions ===\n\nWhile the eagle-owl remains reasonably numerous in some parts of its habitat where nature is still relatively little disturbed by human activity, such as the sparsely populated regions of Russia and Scandinavia, concern has been expressed about the future of the Eurasian eagle-owl in Western and Central Europe. There, very few areas are not heavily modified by human civilisation, thus exposing the birds to the risk of collisions with deadly man-made objects (e.g. pylons) and a depletion of native prey numbers due to ongoing habitat degradation and urbanisation.In Spain, long-term governmental protection of the Eurasian eagle-owl seems to have no positive effect on reducing the persecution of eagle-owls. Therefore, Spanish conservationists have recommended to boost education and stewardship programs to protect eagle-owls from direct killing by local residents. Unanimously, biologists studying eagle-owl mortality and conservation factors have recommended to proceed with the proper insulation of electric wires and pylons in areas where the species is present. As this measure is labour-intensive and therefore rather expensive, few efforts have actually been made to insulate pylons in areas with few fiscal resources devoted to conservation such as rural Spain. "


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"In Sweden, a mitigation project was launched to insulate transformers that are frequently damaged by eagle-owl electrocution.Large reintroduction programs were instituted in Germany after the eagle-owl was deemed extinct in the country as a breeding species by the 1960s, as a result of a long period of heavy persecution. The largest reintroduction there occurred from the 1970s to the 1990s in the Eifel region, near the border with Belgium and Luxembourg. The success of this measure, consisting in more than a thousand eagle-owls being reintroduced at an average cost of US$1,500 per bird, is a subject of controversy. Those eagle-owls reintroduced in the Eifel region appear to be able to breed successfully, and enjoy nesting success comparable with wild eagle-owls from elsewhere in Europe. Mortality levels in the Eifel region, though, appear to remain quite high due to anthropogenic factors. Also, concerns exist about a lack of genetic diversity of the species in this part of Germany. Apparently, the German reintroductions have allowed eagle-owls to repopulate neighbouring parts of Europe, as the breeding populations now occurring in the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) are believed to be the result of influx from regions further to the east. "


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"Smaller reintroductions have been done elsewhere, and the current breeding population in Sweden is believed to be primarily the result of a series of reintroductions. Conversely to numerous threats and declines incurred by Eurasian eagle-owls, areas where human-dependent, non-native prey species such as brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and rock pigeons (Columba livia) have flourished, have given the eagle-owls a primary food source and allowed them occupy regions where they were once marginalized or absent.\n\n=== Occurrence in Great Britain ===\nThe Eurasian eagle-owl at one time occurred naturally in Great Britain. Some, including the RSPB, have claimed that it had disappeared about 10,000\u20139,000 years ago, after the last ice age, but fossil remains found in Meare Lake Village indicate the eagle-owl occurring as recently as roughly 2,000 years ago in the fossil record. The lack of presence of the Eurasian eagle-owl in British folklore or writings in recent millennium may indicate the lack of occurrence by this species there. The flooding of the land bridge between Britain and continental Europe may have been responsible for their extirpation as they only disperse over limited distances, although early human persecution presumably played a role as well. "


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"Some reportages of eagle-owls in Britain have been revealed to actually be great horned owls or Indian eagle-owls, the latter a particularly popular owl in falconry circuits. Some breeding pairs do still occur in Britain, though the exact number of pairs and individuals is not definitely known. The World Owl Trust stated that they believe some eagle-owls occurring in North England and Scotland are naturally occurring, making the flight of roughly 350 to 400 km (220 to 250 mi) from the west coast of Norway to Shetland and the east coast of Scotland, as well as possibly from the coasts of the Netherlands and Belgium to the south. Although not migratory, eagle-owls can disperse some notable distances in young birds seeking a territory.Prior studies of eagle-owl distribution have indicated a strong reluctance to cross large bodies of water in the species. Many authorities state that the Eurasian eagle-owls occurring in Britain are individuals that have escaped from captivity. While, until the 19th century, wealthy collectors may have released unwanted eagle-owls, despite press to the contrary,  no evidence of any organization or individual intentionally releasing eagle-owls recently with the intent to establish a breeding population has been found. "


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"Many feel that the eagle-owl would be classified as an \"alien\" species. Due to its predatory abilities, many, especially those in the press, have expressed alarm of their effect on \"native\" species. From 1994 to 2007, 73 escaped eagle-owls were not registered as returned, while 50 escapees were recaptured. Several recorded breeding attempts have been studied, and most were unsuccessful, due in large part to incidental disturbance by humans and some due to direct persecution, with eggs having been smashed.\n\n=== Effect on conservation-dependent species ===\nAs highly opportunistic predators,  Eurasian eagle-owls hunt almost any appropriately sized prey they encounter. Most often, they take whatever prey is locally common and can take a large number of species considered harmful to human financial interests, such as rats, mice, and pigeons. Eurasian eagle-owls do take rare or endangered species, as well. "


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"Among the species considered at least vulnerable (up to critically endangered as in the mink and eel, both heavily overexploited by humans) to extinction known to be hunted by Eurasian eagle-owls are Russian desman (Desmana moschata) Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus), barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), southwestern water vole (Arvicola sapidus), European mink (Mustela lutreola), marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythrops), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), saker falcon (Falco cherrug), houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata), great bustard (Otis tarda), spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus).\n\n== See also ==\nEurasian eagle-owl in Great Britain\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nEurasian eagle owl and other owl pictures\nEurasian eagle-owl Description, photos and calls"


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"The crested partridge (Rollulus rouloul) also known as the crested wood partridge, roul-roul, red-crowned wood partridge, green wood quail or green wood partridge is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. It is the only member of the genus Rollulus.\nThis small partridge is a resident breeder in lowland rainforests in south Burma, south Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Its nest is a ground scrape lined with leaves, which is concealed under a heap of leaf litter. Five or six white eggs are incubated for 18 days.\nUnusually for a galliform species, the young are fed bill-to-bill by both parents instead of pecking from the ground, and although precocial, they roost in the nest while small.\nThe crested partridge is a rotund short-tailed bird, 25 cm (9.8 in) in length, with the male marginally larger than the female. Both sexes have a scarlet patch of bare skin around the eye and red legs without a spur or hind toe.\nThe male is metallic green above with glossy dark blue underparts and a brownish wing panel. The head is adorned with a tall red crest, a white forehead spot and black frontal bristles. "


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"The female has pea-green body plumage apart from the brown wing coverts. She has a slate-grey head with the bristles but no spot or crest. The bill is all-dark. Young birds are duller versions of the adult of the same sex. The song is a mournful whistled si-ul.\nThe crested partridge is usually seen singly or in pairs as it uses its feet to probe the forest floor for fruit, seeds and invertebrates. When disturbed, it prefers to run but if necessary it flies a short distance on its rounded wings.\nThere is some concern about the effect of habitat destruction on this bird, especially with regard to logging. However, it seems to be somewhat more adaptable than other southeast Asian pheasants. The crested wood partridge is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix III of CITES.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\nPheasants, Partridges and Grouse by Madge and McGowan, ISBN 0-7136-3966-0\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive - images and movies of the Crested Wood Partridge (Rollulus rouloul)\nBirdLife Species Factsheet Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine\nRed Data Book\nAvicultural Data and Images"


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"Mauremys reevesii, commonly known as the Chinese pond turtle, the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle, or Reeves' turtle, is a species of turtle in the family Geoemydidae, a family which was formerly called Bataguridae. The species is native to East Asia.\nIt is one of the two most commonly found species used for divination that have been recovered from Shang dynasty sites.\n\n== Geographic range ==\nMauremys reevesii is native to China and Korea, and is thought to have been introduced to Japan and Taiwan in historic times; it was previously thought to be native to both these regions. The species is thought to have been introduced to Japan from the Korean Peninsula near the end of the 18th century. Introduced populations of M. reevesii may serve as a threat to the native turtles of these regions due to its propensity for hybridization.\n\n== Habitat and behaviour ==\nM. reevesii is semiaquatic, and basks in the sun on rocks or logs and can often be found leaving water to do so. They can usually be found in marshes, relatively shallow ponds, streams, and canals with muddy or sandy bottoms.\n\n"


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"== Conservation status ==\nThe Chinese three-keeled pond turtle (M. reevesii) is threatened by competition with released pet red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans), overhunting (its plastron is used in traditional Chinese medicine), capturing for the pet trade, and wild habitat destruction. The IUCN considers M. reevesii an endangered species. This species, fortunately, breeds well in captivity.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe specific name, reevesii, is in honor of English naturalist John Reeves.\n\n== Hybridization ==\nThis species, Mauremys reevesii, is notorious for its ability to produce hybrids with other Geoemydidae, even species that are only distantly related. The supposed new species \"Mauremys pritchardi \" was based on a hybrid of unknown origin between a male of this species and a female yellow pond turtle (Mauremys mutica). Furthermore, it has hybridized with the Chinese stripe-necked turtle (Ocadia sinensis), female Malayan box turtles (Cuora amboinensis), a male four-eyed turtle (Sacalia quadriocellata), and the Japanese pond turtle (Mauremys japonica) in captivity. "


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"This hybridization may pose a threat to the populations of native M. mutica and Chinese stripe-necked turtle (M. sinensis) in Taiwan, and the endemic M. japonica in Japan.Any individuals that are available as pets therefore need to be kept separate from other members of the family.\n\n== Farming ==\nHigh demand for turtle plastrons for Shang divination rites and archaeological findings of large caches of turtle shells has led some scholars to speculate that Mauremys reevesii may have been farmed for this purpose in antiquity.M. reevesii is one of the species raised on China's modern-day turtle farms. According to a 1998 survey, 548 farms raised this turtle species in four provinces in China.\nThe statistical data from different provinces were in different formats; however, two provinces reported 20,650 turtles living on 26 farms, with 5,000 animals reproduced annually; the other two provinces reported the total weight of their turtles, namely some 260 tons of these animals on 522 farms. "


id: 1712a24ac9d82a365be8ea48faed9e78
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"Over the five-year period, 1990\u20131995, 13 traditional Chinese medicine factories consumed 430 tons of C. reevesii plastrons.Based on a more recent (2002) survey of 684 Chinese turtle farms (less than half of all 1,499 turtle farms that were registered at the time), researchers found that 2.8 million of turtles of this species (reported there as Chinemys reevesii) lived on these farms, with some 566,000 specimens sold by farmers every year. The total weight of the annual product was 320 tons, with the estimated value of over US$6 million, which makes the market value of a Chinese pond turtle equal to around $12\u2014about twice as much that of the most common farmed species, Pelodiscus sinensis. Taking into account the registered farms that did not respond to the survey, as well as the unregistered producers, the total amounts must be considerably higher.\n\n=== Pet trade ===\nChinese pond turtles are also farmed for the pet trade. In captivity, they require similar care to red-eared sliders (T. s. elegans).\n\n=== East Timor ===\nDuring surveys in East Timor (Timor-Leste), a small but well-established population of M. reevesii was found living in marshes near the city of Dili. "


id: 2d506ebee0a710566585f2f445e6bc27
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"The species is not native to the island and was possibly introduced by locals of Chinese origin. East Timor is home to the Roti Island snake-necked turtle (Chelodina mccordi), more specifically the subspecies C. m. timorensis (sometimes considered a species of its own). Although the introduced population of M. reevesii is not known to present a risk to the native turtles per se, they could indirectly present a threat to the natives if confused. M. reevesii from the introduced population are sometimes captured to be sold to people of Chinese origin and this may cause problems if extended to the native turtles. A potential solution is to remove the introduced M. reevesii (thereby restricting the trade to captive farmed M. reevesii).\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nGray JE (1831). Synopsis Reptilium; or Short Descriptions of the Species of Reptiles. Part I.\u2014Cataphracta. Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Enaliosaurians. London: Treuttel, Wertz, and Co. viii + 85 pp. (Emys reevesii, new species, pp. 73\u201374). (in English and Latin).\n\n== External links ==\n\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081024163050/http://chinesische-dreikiel.npage.de/\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110320235607/http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/turtles.php?menuentry=soorten\nARKive\nChinemys reevesii, The Reptile\nhttp://www.biosch.hku.hk/ecology/hkreptiles/turtle/Mauremys_reevesii.html"


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"The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), also called the Indian rhino, greater one-horned rhinoceros or great Indian rhinoceros, is a rhinoceros species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, as populations are fragmented and restricted to less than 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi). Moreover, the extent and quality of the rhino's most important habitat, the alluvial Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands and riverine forest, is considered to be in decline due to human and livestock encroachment. As of August 2018, the global population was estimated to comprise 3,588 individuals, including 2,939 individuals in India and 649 in Nepal. Kaziranga National Park alone had an estimated population of 2,048 rhinos in 2009. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam has the highest density of Indian rhinos in the world with 84 individuals in an area of 38.80 km2 (14.98 sq mi) in 2009.Indian rhinos once ranged throughout the entire stretch of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but excessive hunting and agricultural development reduced its range drastically to 11 sites in northern India and southern Nepal. In the early 1990s, between 1,870 and 1,895 Indian rhinos were estimated to have been alive. "


id: ff61e87d34cd4d4f2040bc9c8b705240
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"Since then, numbers have increased due to conservation measures taken by the government. However, poaching remains a continuous threat, as more than 150 Indian rhinos were killed in Assam by poachers between 2000 and 2006.Nearly 85% of the global Indian rhinoceros population is concentrated in Assam, where Kaziranga National Park contains 70% of rhino population.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe generic name Rhinoceros is a combination of the ancient Greek words \u1fe5\u03af\u03c2 (ris) meaning \"nose\" and \u03ba\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 (keras) meaning \"horn of an animal\". The Latin word \u016bnicornis means \"one-horned\".\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nRhinoceros unicornis was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 who described a rhinoceros with one horn. As type locality, he indicated Africa and India.The Indian rhinoceros is monotypic. Several specimens were described since the end of the 18th century under different scientific names, which are all considered synonyms of Rhinoceros unicornis today:\nR. indicus by Cuvier, 1817\nR. asiaticus by Blumenbach, 1830\nR. stenocephalus by Gray, 1867\nR. jamrachi by Sclater, 1876\nR. bengalensis by Kourist, 1970\n\n== Evolution ==\n\nAncestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other perissodactyls in the Early Eocene. "


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"Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of Equidae around 50 million years ago. The extant family, the Rhinocerotidae, first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia, and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the Miocene.Fossils of R. unicornis appear in the Middle Pleistocene. In the Pleistocene, the genus Rhinoceros ranged throughout South and Southeast Asia, with specimens located on Sri Lanka. Into the Holocene, some rhinoceros lived as far west as Gujarat and Pakistan until as recently as 3,200 years ago.The Indian and Javan rhinoceroses, the only members of the genus Rhinoceros, first appear in the fossil record in Asia during the Early Pleistocene. The Indian rhinoceros is known from Early Pleistocene localities in Java, South China, India and Pakistan. Molecular estimates suggest the species may have diverged much earlier, around 11.7 million years ago. Although belonging to the type genus, the Indian and Javan rhinoceroses are not believed to be closely related to other rhino species. Different studies have hypothesised that they may be closely related to the extinct Gaindatherium or Punjabitherium. "


id: 3a0516ea2e497b5ff94aded6e9df9d6
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"A detailed cladistic analysis of the Rhinocerotidae placed Rhinoceros and the extinct Punjabitherium in a clade with Dicerorhinus, the Sumatran rhinoceros. Other studies have suggested the Sumatran rhinoceros is more closely related to the two African species. The Sumatran rhino may have diverged from the other Asian rhinos as long as 15 million years ago.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nIndian rhinos have a thick grey-brown skin with pinkish skin folds and one horn on their snout. Their upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps. They have very little body hair, aside from eyelashes, ear fringes and tail brush. Bulls have huge neck folds. The skull is heavy with a basal length above 60 cm (24 in) and an occiput above 19 cm (7.5 in). The nasal horn is slightly back-curved with a base of about 18.5 cm (7.3 in) by 12 cm (4.7 in) that rapidly narrows until a smooth, even stem part begins about 55 mm (2.2 in) above base. In captive animals, the horn is frequently worn down to a thick knob.The Indian rhino's single horn is present in both bulls and cows, but not on newborn calves. "


id: 4c7ed6c7db9511f75c7305f9a94fe759
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"The horn is pure keratin, like human fingernails, and starts to show after about six years. In most adults, the horn reaches a length of about 25 cm (9.8 in), but has been recorded up to 36 cm (14 in) in length and 3.051 kg (6.73 lb) in weight.Among terrestrial land mammals native to Asia, Indian rhinos are second in size only to the Asian elephant. They are also the second-largest living rhinoceros, behind only the white rhinoceros. Bulls have a head and body length of 368\u2013380 cm (12.07\u201312.47 ft) with a shoulder height of 170\u2013186 cm (5.58\u20136.10 ft), while cows have a head and body length of 310\u2013340 cm (10.2\u201311.2 ft) and a shoulder height of 148\u2013173 cm (4.86\u20135.68 ft). The bull, averaging about 2,200 kg (4,850 lb) is heavier than the cow, at an average of about 1,600 kg (3,530 lb).The rich presence of blood vessels underneath the tissues in folds gives them the pinkish colour. The folds in the skin increase the surface area and help in regulating the body temperature. The thick skin does not protect against bloodsucking Tabanus flies, leeches and ticks.The largest individuals reportedly weighed up to 4,000 kg (8,820 lb).\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nIndian rhinos once ranged across the entire northern part of the Indian Subcontinent, along the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra River basins, from Pakistan to the Indian-Myanmar border, including Bangladesh and the southern parts of Nepal and Bhutan. They may have also occurred in Myanmar, southern China and Indochina. They inhabit the alluvial grasslands of the Terai and the Brahmaputra basin. As a result of habitat destruction and climatic changes its range has gradually been reduced so that by the 19th century, it only survived in the Terai grasslands of southern Nepal, northern Uttar Pradesh, northern Bihar, northern West Bengal, and in the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam.The species was present in northern Bihar and Oudh at least until 1770 as indicated in maps produced by Colonel Gentil. On the former abundance of the species, Thomas C. Jerdon wrote in 1867:\nThis huge rhinoceros is found in the Terai at the foot of the Himalayas, from Bhutan to Nepal. It is more common in the eastern portion of the Terai than the west, and is most abundant in Assam and the Bhutan Dooars. "


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"I have heard from sportsmen of its occurrence as far west as Rohilcund, but it is certainly rare there now, and indeed along the greater part of the Nepal Terai; ... Jelpigoree, a small military station near the Teesta River, was a favourite locality whence to hunt the Rhinoceros and it was from that station Captain Fortescue ... got his skulls, which were ... the first that Mr. Blyth had seen of this species, ...\nToday, its range has further shrunk to a few pockets in southern Nepal, northern West Bengal, and the Brahmaputra Valley. Its habitat is surrounded by human-dominated landscapes, so that in many areas, it occurs in cultivated areas, pastures, and secondary forests. In the 1980s, Indian rhinos were frequently seen in the narrow plain area of Manas River and Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.\n\n"


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"=== Populations ===\n\nIn 2006, the total Indian rhinoceros population was estimated to comprise 2,577 individuals, of which 2,165 lived in India:\n23 individuals in Uttar Pradesh, including 21 in Dudhwa National Park and 2 in Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary\n135 individuals in West Bengal, including 108 in Jaldapara National Park and 27 in Gorumara National Park\n2,007 individuals in Assam, including 1,855 in Kaziranga National Park, 81 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, 68 in Orang National Park and 3 in Manas National Park.By 2014, the population in Assam increased to 2,544 Indian rhinos, an increase of 27% since 2006, although more than 150 individuals were killed by poachers during these years.\nThe population in Kaziranga National Park was estimated at 2,048 individuals in 2009. By 2009, the population in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary had increased to 84 individuals in an area of 38.80 km2 (14.98 sq mi).In 2015, Nepal had 645 Indian rhinos living in Parsa National Park, Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park, Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and respective buffer zones in the Terai Arc Landscape as recorded in a survey conducted from 11 April to 2 May 2015. "


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"The survey showed that the population of rhinos in Nepal from 2011 to 2015 increased 21% or 111 individuals.The Indian rhino population, which once numbered as low as 100 individuals in the early 1900s, has increased to more than 3,700 in year 2021 as per The International Rhino Foundation (IRF) signature 2021 report, State of the Rhino.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\n\nBulls are usually solitary. Groups consist of cows with calves, or of up to six subadults. Such groups congregate at wallows and grazing areas. They are foremost active in early mornings, late afternoons and at night, but rest during hot days.They bathe regularly. The folds in their skin trap water and hold it even when they exit wallows.They are excellent swimmers and can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h (34 mph) for short periods. They have excellent senses of hearing and smell, but relatively poor eyesight. Over 10 distinct vocalisations have been recorded. Males have home ranges of around 2 to 8 km2 (0.77 to 3.09 sq mi) that overlap each other. Dominant males tolerate other males passing through their territories except when they are in mating season, when dangerous fights break out.\n"


id: 7deec11a66ac69f22521e20b5dfc898
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"Indian rhinos have few natural enemies, except for tigers, which sometimes kill unguarded calves, but adult rhinos are less vulnerable due to their size. Mynahs and egrets both eat invertebrates from the rhino's skin and around its feet. Tabanus flies, a type of horse-fly, are known to bite rhinos. The rhinos are also vulnerable to diseases spread by parasites such as leeches, ticks, and nematodes. Anthrax and the blood-disease sepsis are known to occur.\nIn March 2017, a group of four tigers consisting of an adult male, tigress and two cubs killed a 20-year-old male Indian rhinoceros in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve.\n\n=== Diet ===\nIndian rhinos are grazers. Their diet consists almost entirely of grasses, but they also eat leaves, branches of shrubs and trees, fruits, and submerged and floating aquatic plants.\nThey feed in the mornings and evenings. They use their semi-prehensile lips to grasp grass stems, bend the stem down, bite off the top, and then eat the grass. They tackle very tall grasses or saplings by walking over the plant, with legs on both sides and using the weight of their bodies to push the end of the plant down to the level of the mouth. "


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"Mothers also use this technique to make food edible for their calves. They drink for a minute or two at a time, often imbibing water filled with rhinoceros urine.\n\n=== Social life ===\n\nIndian rhinos form a variety of social groupings. Bulls are generally solitary, except for mating and fighting. Cows are largely solitary when they are without calves. Mothers will stay close to their calves for up to four years after their birth, sometimes allowing an older calf to continue to accompany her once a newborn calf arrives. Subadult bulls and cows form consistent groupings, as well. Groups of two or three young bulls will often form on the edge of the home ranges of dominant bulls, presumably for protection in numbers. Young cows are slightly less social than the bulls. Indian rhinos also form short-term groupings, particularly at forest wallows during the monsoon season and in grasslands during March and April. Groups of up to 10 rhinos may gather in wallows\u2014typically a dominant male with females and calves, but no subadult males.Indian rhinos make a wide variety of vocalisations. At least ten distinct vocalisations have been identified: snorting, honking, bleating, roaring, squeak-panting, moo-grunting, shrieking, groaning, rumbling and humphing. "


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"In addition to noises, the Indian rhino uses olfactory communication. Adult bulls urinate backwards, as far as 3\u20134 metres (9.8\u201313.1 ft) behind them, often in response to being disturbed by observers. Like all rhinos, the Indian rhinoceros often defecates near other large dung piles. The Indian rhino has pedal scent glands which are used to mark their presence at these rhino latrines. Bulls have been observed walking with their heads to the ground as if sniffing, presumably following the scent of cows.In aggregations, Indian rhinos are often friendly. They will often greet each other by waving or bobbing their heads, mounting flanks, nuzzling noses, or licking. Indian rhinos will playfully spar, run around, and play with twigs in their mouths. Adult bulls are the primary instigators in fights. Fights between dominant bulls are the most common cause of rhino mortality, and bulls are also very aggressive toward cows during courtship. Bulls will chase cows over long distances and even attack them face-to-face. Unlike African rhinos, Indian rhinos fight with their incisors, rather than their horn.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nCaptive bulls breed at five years of age, but wild bulls attain dominance much later when they are larger. "


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"In one five-year field study, only one Indian rhino estimated to be younger than 15 years mated successfully. Captive cows breed as young as four years of age, but in the wild, they usually start breeding only when six years old, which likely indicates they need to be large enough to avoid being killed by aggressive bulls. Their gestation period is around 15.7 months, and birth interval ranges from 34 to 51 months.In captivity, four Indian rhinos are known to have lived over 40 years, the oldest living to be 47.\n\n== Threats ==\n\n=== Habitat degradation and floods ===\nHabitat degradation caused by human activities and climate change as well as the resulting increase in the floods has caused large death of Indian rhinos and has limited their ranging areas which is shrinking.\nSerious declines in quality of habitat have occurred in some areas, due to:\n\nsevere invasion by alien plants into grasslands affecting some populations;\ndemonstrated reductions in the extent of grasslands and wetland habitats due to woodland encroachment and silting up of beels (swampy wetlands);\ngrazing by domestic livestock.\n\n"


id: a40ec7bb12c044859e6e1813e707a150
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"=== Lack of site diversity ===\nThe Indian rhino species is inherently at risk because over 70% of its population occurs at a single site, Kaziranga National Park. Any catastrophic event such as disease, civil disorder, poaching, or habitat loss would have a devastating impact on the Indian rhino's status. However, small population of rhinos may be prone to inbreeding depression. Expansion of other protective areas and introduction of rhinos in more areas is needed.\n\n=== Poaching ===\n\nSport hunting became common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was the main cause for the decline of Indian rhinoceros populations. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the mid-19th century claim that some British military officers shot more than 200 rhinos in Assam alone. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga National Park had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the Indian rhinoceros was almost extinct. At present, poaching for the use of horn in traditional Chinese Medicine is one of the main threats that has led to decreases in several important populations. "


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"Poaching for the Indian rhino's horn became the single most important reason for the decline of the Indian rhinoceros after conservation measures were put in place from the beginning of the 20th century, when legal hunting ended. From 1980 to 1993, 692 rhinos were poached in India, including 41 rhinos in India's Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983, almost the entire population of the sanctuary. By the mid-1990s, the Indian rhinoceros had been extirpated in this sanctuary. Between 2000 and 2006, more than 150 rhinos were poached in Assam. Almost 100 rhinos were poached in India between 2013 and 2018.\n\nIn 1950, in Nepal the Chitwan\u2019s forest and grasslands extended over more than 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi) and were home to about 800 rhinos. When poor farmers from the mid-hills moved to the Chitwan Valley in search of arable land, the area was subsequently opened for settlement, and poaching of wildlife became rampant. "


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"The Chitwan population has repeatedly been jeopardised by poaching; in 2002 alone, poachers killed 37 animals to saw off and sell their valuable horns.Six methods of killing Indian rhinos have been recorded:\nShooting is by far the most common method used; rhino horn traders hire sharpshooters and often supply them with rifles and ammunition.\nTrapping in a pit depends largely on the terrain and availability of grass to cover it; pits are dug out in such a way that a fallen animal has little room to manoeuvre with its head slightly above the pit, so that it is easy to saw off the horn.\nElectrocution is used where high voltage powerlines pass through or near a protected area, to which poachers hook a long, insulated rod connected to a wire, which is suspended above a rhino path.\nPoisoning by smearing zinc phosphide rat poison or pesticides on salt licks frequented by rhinos is sometimes used.\nSpearing has only been recorded in Chitwan National Park.\nA noose, which cuts through the rhino's skin, kills it by strangulation.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nGlobally, Rhinoceros unicornis has been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1975. "


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"The Indian and Nepalese governments have taken major steps towards Indian rhinoceros conservation, especially with the help of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and other non-governmental organisations. In 1910, all rhino hunting in India became prohibited.In 1957, the country's first conservation law ensured the protection of rhinos and their habitat. In 1959, Edward Pritchard Gee undertook a survey of the Chitwan Valley, and recommended the creation of a protected area north of the Rapti River and of a wildlife sanctuary south of the river for a trial period of 10 years. After his subsequent survey of Chitwan in 1963, he recommended extension of the sanctuary to the south. By the end of the 1960s, only 95 rhinos remained in the Chitwan Valley. The dramatic decline of the rhino population and the extent of poaching prompted the government to institute the Gaida Gasti \u2013 a rhino reconnaissance patrol of 130 armed men and a network of guard posts all over Chitwan. To prevent the extinction of rhinos, the Chitwan National Park was gazetted in December 1970, with borders delineated the following year and established in 1973, initially encompassing an area of 544 km2 (210 sq mi). "


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"To ensure the survival of rhinos in case of epidemics, animals were translocated annually from Chitwan to Bardia National Park and Shuklaphanta National Park since 1986.\nThe Indian rhinoceros population living in Chitwan and Parsa National Parks was estimated at 608 mature individuals in 2015.\n\n=== Reintroduction to new areas ===\nIndian rhinos have been reintroduced to the following new areas where they had previously inhabited but became extinct. These efforts have produced mixed results, mainly Due to lack of proper planning and management, sustained effort, adequate security of the introduced animals.\nIn 1984, five Indian rhinos were relocated to Dudhwa National Park \u2014 four from the fields outside the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and one from Goalpara. This has born results and the population has increased to 21 rhinos by 2006.In early 1980s, Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam had more than 70 Indian rhinos which were all killed by poachers. "


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"In 2016, two Indian rhinos, a mother and her daughter, were reintroduced to the sanctuary from Kaziranga National Park as part of the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020) program, but both animals died within months due to natural causes.Indian rhinos were once found as far west as the Peshawar Valley during the reign of Mughal Emperor Babur, but are now extinct in Pakistan. After rhinos became \"regionally extinct\" in Pakistan, two rhinos from Nepal were introduced in 1983 to Lal Suhanra National Park, which have not bred so far.\n\n=== In captivity ===\n\nIndian rhinos were initially difficult to breed in captivity. In the second half of the 20th century, zoos became adept at breeding Indian rhinoceros. By 1983, nearly 40 babies had been born in captivity. As of 2012, 33 Indian rhinos were born at Switzerland's Zoo Basel alone, meaning that most captive animals are related to the Basel population. Due to the success of Zoo Basel's breeding program, the International Studbook for the species has been kept there since 1972. "


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"Since 1990, the Indian rhino European Endangered Species Programme is also being coordinated there, with the goal of maintaining genetic diversity in the global captive Indian rhinoceros population.The first recorded captive birth of an Indian rhinoceros was in Kathmandu in 1826, but another successful birth did not occur for nearly 100 years. In 1925, a rhino was born in Kolkata. No rhinoceros was successfully bred in Europe until 1956 when first European breeding took place when baby rhino Rudra was born in Zoo Basel on 14 September 1956.In June 2009, an Indian rhino was artificially inseminated using sperm collected four years previously and cryopreserved at the Cincinnati Zoo\u2019s CryoBioBank before being thawed and used. She gave birth to a male calf in October 2010.In June 2014, the first \"successful\" live-birth from an artificially inseminated rhino took place at the Buffalo Zoo in New York. As in Cincinnati, cryopreserved sperm was used to produce the female calf, Monica.\n\n== Cultural significance ==\nThe Indian rhinoceros is one of the motifs on the Pashupati seal and many terracotta figurines that were excavated at archaeological sites of the Indus Valley civilisation. A rhinoceros is the vahana of the Hindu goddess Dhavdi. "


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"There is a temple dedicated to Maa (Mother) Dhavdi in Dhrangadhra, Gujarat.The Rhinoceros Sutra is an early text in the Buddhist tradition, found in the Gandh\u0101ran Buddhist texts and the Pali Canon, as well as a version incorporated into the Sanskrit Mahavastu. It praises the solitary lifestyle and stoicism of the Indian rhinoceros and is associated with the eremitic lifestyle symbolized by the Pratyekabuddha.\n\n=== Europe ===\n\nIn the 3rd century, Philip the Arab exhibited an Indian rhinoceros in Rome. In 1515, Manuel I of Portugal obtained an Indian rhinoceros as a gift, which he passed on to Pope Leo X, but which died on the way from Lisbon to Rome. Three artistic representations were prepared of this rhinoceros: D\u00fcrer's Rhinoceros, a woodcut by Hans Burgkmair dated to 1515, a drawing and a woodcut by Albrecht D\u00fcrer, also dated 1515. D\u00fcrer's Rhinoceros was sent as a present from the King of Portugal, Manuel I, to Pope Leo X in 1515, and this rhino died in a shipwreck off the coast of Italy in early 1516, and it was immortalised as D\u00fcrer's Rhinoceros in the woodcut. "


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"In 1577\u20131588, Abada was a female Indian rhinoceros kept by the Portuguese kings Sebastian I and Henry I from 1577 to 1580 and by Philip II of Spain from about 1580 to 1588. She was the first rhinoceros seen in Europe after D\u00fcrer's Rhinoceros. In about 1684, the first presumably Indian rhinoceros arrived in England. George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys spread the rumour that his chief rival Francis North, 1st Baron Guilford had been seen riding on it.In 1741\u20131758, Clara the rhinoceros (c. 1738 \u2013 14 April 1758) was a female Indian rhinoceros who became famous during 17 years of touring Europe in the mid-18th century. She arrived in Europe in Rotterdam in 1741, becoming the fifth living rhinoceros to be seen in Europe in modern times since D\u00fcrer's Rhinoceros in 1515. After tours through towns in the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth, France, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, Bohemia and Denmark, she died in Lambeth, England. In 1739, she was drawn and engraved by two English artists. It was then brought to Amsterdam, where Jan Wandelaar made two engravings that were published in 1747. "


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"In the subsequent years, the rhinoceros was exhibited in several European cities. In 1748, Johann Elias Ridinger made an etching of it in Augsburg, and Petrus Camper modelled it in clay in Leiden. In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon drew it in Paris. In 1751, Pietro Longhi painted it in Venice.\n\n== See also ==\n\nUnicorn, mythological character\nThe Soul of the Rhino\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nMartin, E. B. (2010). From the jungle to Kathmandu : horn and tusk trade. Kathmandu: Wildlife Watch Group. ISBN 978-99946-820-9-6.\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Rhino Resource Center\". Rhino Resource Center.\n\"Greater One-Horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis)\". International Rhino Foundation.\n\"Great Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)\". ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System.\nNepal Rhino Conservation\nTheBigZoo.com: Greater Indian Rhinoceros\nIndian Rhino page at AnimalInfo.org\nIndian Rhinoceros page at nature.ca\nIndian Rhinoceros page at UltimateUngulate.com\n\"Rhino census in India's Kaziranga park counts 12 more\". BBC News. 2018.\n\"Indian Rhinoceros\". Arkive. Archived from the original on 2007-12-17."


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"The Sumatran short-tailed python (Python curtus) is a species of the family Pythonidae, a nonvenomous snake native to Sumatra.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nPython curtus was the scientific name proposed by Hermann Schlegel in 1872 for a python with a short tail from Sumatra. The type locality is Sumatra.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe Sumatran short-tailed python has narrow subocular scales between the bottom of the eye and the top of the labial scales. The parietal scales do not join each other. P. curtus and P. breitensteini can be distinguished by the frontal and parietal scales on the tops of their heads. In both P. brongersmai and P. breitensteini, the parietal scales join.\nAdults grow to 1.5\u20131.8 m (4.9\u20135.9 ft) in length and are heavily built. The tail is extremely short relative to the overall length. The color pattern consists of a beige, tan, or grayish-brown ground color overlaid with blotches that are brick- to blood-red in color.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe Sumatran short-tailed python occurs in Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Lingga Islands, Bangka Islands, Mentawai Islands and Kalimantan.\nIt inhabits rainforests, marshes, swamps, and the vicinity of river banks and streams.\n\n"


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"== Diet ==\nThey feed on a variety of mammals and birds.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nOviparous, females seldom lay more than a dozen large eggs (however, much larger clutches have been reported). The female remains coiled around the eggs during the incubation period, and may shiver to produce heat. However, this action requires energy and the female will only do so if surrounding temperatures drop below 90 \u00b0F. The hatchlings emerge after 2.5 to 3.0 months and are about 30 cm (12 in) in length.\n\n== Uses ==\nThe species is kept as an exotic pet. They are often regarded as unpredictable and aggressive, but captive-bred individuals tend to be more docile than wild-caught specimens.\nThe Sumatran short-tailed python has been extensively harvested for leather; an estimated 100,000 individuals are taken for this purpose each year. The commercial trade regards the various populations of P. curtus and P. brongersmai as a single species. Authors who elevate particular island populations to species status note that the skins are readily distinguished.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nPython curtus at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 11 September 2007."


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"Acrantophis dumerili, commonly known as Dumeril's boa, is a species of non-venomous snake in the family Boidae. The species is endemic to  Madagascar. There are no subspecies that are recognized as being valid.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe specific name, dumerili, is in honor of French herpetologist Andr\u00e9 Marie Constant Dum\u00e9ril.\n\n== Description ==\nAdults of A. dumerili usually grow to 6.5 feet (2 m) in total length (including tail) with the maximum reported to be 8 foot, 6 inches (259 cm). Males usually have longer skinnier tails, while females tend to be larger overall.The color pattern consists of a gray-brown ground color with darker patches, forming an effective camouflage against the leaf litter of the forest floor of their native habitat.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nA. dumerili is found on Madagascar. The type locality given in the original description is \"Am\u00e9rique m\u00e9rid. ?\", which is later given as \"?\"by Jan (1863).Along the western coast and southwestern regions of Madagascar, it is found in a semi-arid habitat that gets fairly low amounts of precipitation.\n\n"


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"== Conservation status ==\nThe species A. dumerili is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List for the following criteria: A1cd (v2.3, 1994). This means that a population reduction of at least 20% has been observed, estimated, inferred or suspected over the last 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer, based on a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat, and based on actual or potential levels of exploitation. The species was last assessed in 2011.A. dumerili is also listed as CITES Appendix I, which means that it is threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for example for scientific research.It is threatened by deforestation and human persecution. In some areas it is feared and often killed on sight. Although some native lore would relate stories of the souls of the tribes ancestors being in the snake skins, because patterns of faces on the sides of the snakes are interpreted, making them religiously sacred and therefore not dangerous to some cultures.\n\n"


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"== Feeding ==\nThe diet of A. dumerili consists of small animals, such as birds, lizards, and small mammals, including juvenile lemurs. It is also known to prey on other snakes.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nIn A. dumerili sexual maturity is reached within 3 to 5 years of age. Males have anal spurs, which are used in courtship.\nThe mating season is March through May, and the young are born some 6 to 8 months later. Ovoviviparous, females give birth to a litters of 6-28. Neonates are 12-18 inches (30\u201346 cm) long.\n\n== Captivity ==\nOnce exported from Madagascar in great numbers, trade in A. dumerili has since been heavily restricted. The species is, however, quite prolific in captivity, and captive bred individuals are easy to find in the Exotic pet trade. Though its size makes it more suited to someone experienced with large constrictors, it has a typically docile nature, and readily feeds on rats. The main concern is that it is prone to stress, which can sometimes cause it to stop eating or can contribute to other health issues.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nAcrantophis dumerili at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. "


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"The collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) is a species of artiodactyl (even-toed) mammal in the family Tayassuidae found in North, Central, and South America. It is the only member of the genus Dicotyles. They are commonly referred to as javelina, sa\u00edno, or b\u00e1quiro, although these terms are also used to describe other species in the family. The species is also known as the musk hog. In Trinidad, it is colloquially known as quenk.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nAlthough somewhat related to true Old World pigs, and frequently referred to as a pig, this species and the other peccaries are no longer classified in the pig family, Suidae. Although formerly classified in the genus Pecari, studies in 2020 placed them in the genus Dicotyles, based on an unequivocal type-species selection; these studies have been accepted by the American Society of Mammalogists. Currently, the IUCN still places them in the genus Pecari.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe collared peccary stands around 510\u2013610 mm (20\u201324 in) tall at the shoulder and is about 1.0\u20131.5 m (3 ft 3 in \u2013 4 ft 11 in) long. It weighs between 16 and 27 kg (35 and 60 lb). The dental formula is: 2/3,1/1,3/3,3/3. "


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"The collared peccary has small tusks that point toward the ground when the animal is upright. It has slender legs with a robust or stocky body. The tail is often hidden in the coarse fur of the peccary.\n\n== Range and habitat ==\nThe collared peccary is widespread throughout much of the tropical and subtropical Americas, ranging from the Southwestern United States to northern Argentina. They were reintroduced to Uruguay in 2017, after 100 years of extirpation there. The only Caribbean island where it is native, however, is Trinidad. Until fairly recently, it was also present on the nearby island of Tobago, but is now exceedingly rare (if not extirpated) due to overhunting by humans. An adaptable species, it inhabits deserts, xeric shrublands, tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, shrublands, flooded grasslands and savannas, tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, and several other habitats; it is also present in habitats shared by humans, merely requiring sufficient cover. Peccaries can be found in cities and agricultural land throughout their range, where they consume garden plants. "


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"Notable populations are known to exist in the suburbs of Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona.Due to the lack of fossil material or even specimens from archeological sites, it was assumed that javelinas only recently crossed into the US by way of Mexico. However, a fossil jaw of this species was discovered in Florida (\"Collared peccary (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Tayassuidae, Pecari) from the late Pleistocene of Florida\", Richard C. Hulbert, Gary S. Morgan & Andreas Kerner), proving that at some point in the late Pleistocene the species had already inhabited part of the Southern US.\n\n== Diet ==\nCollared peccaries are often classified as herbivores. They normally feed on cactus, mesquite beans, fruits, berries, seeds, roots, tubers, bulbs, palm nuts, grasses, other green vegetation, fungi, and insects. However, they will also eat eggs, snakes, fish, frogs, lizards, dead birds, and rodents if the opportunity presents itself. Despite all this supplementary diet, the main dietary components of this species are agaves and prickly pears. In areas inhabited by humans, they also consume cultivated crops and ornamental plants, such as tulip bulbs.\n\n"


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"== Predators ==\nThe main predators of the collared peccary are cougars (Puma concolor), Mexican wolves (Canis lupus baileyi), coyotes (Canis latrans), jaguars (Panthera onca), and bobcats (Lynx rufus).\n\n== Behavior ==\nCollared peccaries are diurnal creatures that live in groups of up to 50 individuals, averaging between six and nine animals. They sleep in burrows (often under bushes or larger systems of tree roots), but sometimes can be found in caves, abandoned mines, old desert tunnels, or among logs, felled trees and abandoned  timber.  However, collared peccaries are not completely diurnal. In central Arizona, they are often more active at night, and less so in the heat of the daytime.\nAlthough they usually ignore humans, they will react if they feel threatened. They defend themselves with their tusks. A collared peccary can release a strong musk or give a sharp bark if it is alarmed. Amazonian peoples (including the Shipibos) sometimes raise and tame juvenile collared peccaries, if they are encountered.\nPeccary will also rub their scent onto rocks and tree stumps to mark their territory, and rub the scent on each other to help with identification.\n\n"


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"== The \"giant peccary\" ==\nThe giant peccary (described as Pecari maximus) was a purported fourth species of peccary, first reported to have been seen in Brazil in 2000 by Dutch naturalist Marc van Roosmalen. In 2003 German natural history filmmaker Lothar Frenz filmed a group and gathered a skull which later served as the type (INPA4272). It had been known locally as caitet\u00fa-mund\u00e8, which Roosmalen et al. state the locals claimed was Tup\u00ed and meant \"the collared peccary that is bigger and goes in pairs\", as opposed to caitet\u00fa-de-bando, \"the collared peccary that goes in herds\". It was formally described in 2007, but the scientific evidence for its species status was quickly questioned, which also was one of the reasons for its initial evaluation as data deficient by IUCN in 2008. A review in 2011 moved the giant peccary into synonymy with the collared peccary (P. tajacu), which was followed by the IUCN the same year.The reported range of the giant peccary encompasses the south-central Amazon between the Madeira and the Tapaj\u00f3s Rivers and northern Bolivia. It is restricted to terra firme forest, which is forest that does not flood annually. "


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"Unlike other peccaries in its range, the giant peccary was reported to mainly occur in pairs or small family groups.According to its original description, the giant peccary is larger, longer-legged, and proportionally smaller-headed than the only other member of the genus, the collared peccary. Compared to most individuals of the sympatric populations of the collared peccary, the giant peccary also had thinner fur that is grizzled in brown and white, blacker legs, and a relatively faint collar. Five skins of the giant peccary had a total length of 120\u2013137 cm (47\u201354 in), while local hunters have estimated a weight of 40\u201350 kg (88\u2013110 lb). Based on a mtDNA study, the collared and the giant peccaries were estimated to have diverged 1.0\u20131.2 million years ago, but these results were later questioned due to the small sample size, low bootstrap support, and the absence of nDNA and cytogenetic results.In 2011, a review noted that the measurements provided in the initial description were within those generally recognized for the collared peccary, and the behaviors supposedly unique to the giant peccary are also known from the collared peccary. "


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"They also provided new genetic evidence showing that collared peccaries from South America form a monophyletic clade that includes the giant peccary (without it the clade is paraphyletic). The major genetic split within the collared peccary is between a clade comprising North and Central American specimens, and a clade comprising South American specimens (the presumed contact zone is in Colombia, which has both clades). Furthermore, extensive infraspecific variations (both individual and locality-based) are known in the morphology of the collared peccary.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nSmithsonian Institution - North American Mammals: Pecari tajacu\nSmithsonian Wild: Pecari tajacu\nArizona Game and Fish Department \u2013 Living With Javelina"


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"The Jamaican boa or yellow snake (Chilabothrus  subflavus; Jamaican Patois: nanka) is a boa species endemic to Jamaica. No subspecies are currently recognized. Like all other boas, it is not venomous.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Jamaican boa is golden-green around the head and along the anterior section of the body, with black zigzag crossbars, becoming black toward the posterior end of its body. The snake's body is quite long, up to 2 metres (6 feet 7 inches) in total length.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nFound in Jamaica cockpit country, including Goat Island. The type locality given is \"Jamaica\". Moist limestone forests.\n\n== Conservation status ==\nThe Jamaican boa's natural populations greatly and constantly declined since the late 19th century, mainly because of predation by introduced species (such as mongooses), human persecution, and habitat destruction. In-situ conservation of the Jamaican boa is seriously hindered by the lack of information on demographic and ecological parameters as well as by a poor understanding of the population structure and species distribution in the wild. This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species with the following criteria: A2ce (v2.3, 1994). "


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"A species is listed as such when the best available evidence indicates that a population decline of 20% is expected within the next ten years or three generations, whichever is the longer, due to a decline in the quality and area of occupancy. It is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Year assessed: 1996.Their natural habitat is being destroyed, which is forcing them into inhabited areas, where they are captured and killed. Some measures have been taken to afford these animals some protection:\n\nListed as a Protected species under the Wild Life protection Act (1945).\nListed on Appendix I of CITES.\nHunting in Forest reserves is also prohibited under the Forest Act (1996).\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nStejneger, L. 1901. A New Systematic Name for the Yellow Boa of Jamaica. Proc. U.S. National Museum 23: 469\u2013470.\n\n== External links ==\n\nVideo - Yellow Boa at Windsor Cave (2014) - Jamaican Caves Organisation - 408 MB mp4.\nEpicrates subflavus at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 7 July 2008."


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"The golden-bellied capuchin (Sapajus xanthosternos), also known as the yellow-breasted or buff-headed capuchin, is a species of New World or neotropical monkey. It lives mainly in trees and are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of both plant and animals as food. Golden-bellied capuchin normal home range is in the Atlantic forest of Brazil and it is critically endangered due to forest fragmentation and habitat loss mainly due to agriculture, there are currently efforts to protect them by the local government.\n\n== Characteristics ==\nAlthough there are differences between individuals as well as between the sexes and across age groups, S. xanthosternos is described as having a distinctive yellow to golden red chest, belly and upper arms. Its face is a light brown and its cap for which the capuchins were first named is a dark brown/black or light brown. Formerly thought to be a subspecies of tufted capuchin (S. apella), it was elevated to the status of species. Despite this previous classification, S. xanthosternos does not have very evident tufts, as they are oriented towards the rear of the skull and are hardly noticeable. "


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"A band of short hair around the upper part of the face with speckled colouring contrasts with the darker surrounding areas. The limbs and tail are also darkly coloured.\n\n=== Size ===\nCapuchins males stand around 40 cm (16 in) tall weighing an average of 4 kg (8.8 lb). Females are 37 cm (15 in) tall at round 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Their prehensile tails are about the same length as their bodies and is helpful for swinging and climbing through the canopy. Capuchins have opposable big toes and long fingers assisting with climbing as well.\n\n=== Life Span ===\nCapuchins life span is around 15\u201325 years when living in the wild. They can live much longer in captivity to about 50 years.\n\n=== Origins ===\nCapuchins falling under the genus of Sapajus and Cebus are believed to have a common ancestor originating in the Atlantic forest. Primates under the genus Sapajus then continued to live and occupy the Atlantic forest evolving into the species we know today such as Sapajus xanthosternos.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nPopulations of S. xanthosternos are restricted to the Atlantic forest of south-eastern Bahia, Brazil, due possibly to high degrees of interference from humans. "


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"Historically they probably would have inhabited the entire area east of, and north to, the Rio S\u00e3o Francisco.The largest continuous area of forest in its known range, the Una Biological Reserve in Bahia, is estimated to contain a population of 185 individuals. As of 2004, there were 85 individuals in zoos and breeding facilities in Europe and Brazil.\n\n=== Habitat Fragmentation ===\nThe native biome of S. xanthosternos, the Atlantic forest of Brazil, is heavily fragmented with the majority of remaining forest fragment smaller than 50 hectares. Some of the remaining forests are maintained due to the presence of agroforests called cabrucas. The presence of these agroforests provide a habitat for local flora and fauna including S. xanthosternos.  The remaining forest fragments tend to be surrounded by human activity such as farms, this is both beneficial and detrimental to the capuchins since they are able to raid crops to supplement their diet. "


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"This behavior, however, may lead to more confrontation and hunting by humans.The ideal size of a forest fragment in order to properly sustain a population of S. xanthosternos is deemed to be larger than a range of approximately 400 to 700 hectares depending on local conditions, with currently approximately 2% of forest fragments being over 400 hectares this poses an issue for conservation.\n\n== Behavior ==\nCapuchins are arboreal, living mainly in trees.\n\n=== Social ===\nCapuchins live in groups consisting of about 3-30 individuals with a hierarchy determining their social status. There is usually an equal number of males to females living together with a male and female alpha. The rest of the individuals are lower in rank. The alpha male will defend his territory if approached by another group. Capuchins spend much of their time grooming each other as a means of socialization with the alpha getting the most attention. They often participate in \u201curine washing\u201d by covering themselves in their own urine to mark their territory. This scent will travel with them.\n\n=== Communication ===\nCapuchins communicate making short and frequent yipping whines similar to a newborn pup. When in danger, they emit a two-toned clunking noise. "


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"Many of the noises Capuchins make are similar to bird sounds. They also communicate through chemical signals to express territory boundaries as well as during mating rituals.\n\n=== Space Use ===\nS. xanthosternos will use forest areas with more cover and protection from predators, even if it means avoiding areas of high food availability. There are also behavioral differences when the capuchins are within different types of forest, such as being more spread out in the capruca while staying lower in the canopy and closer together in secondary forests. Capuchins will change strategies in order to reduce the risk that they perceive within their habitats.\n\n=== Predation ===\nTheir coloration makes them camouflage into their habitat making them more difficult to spot by a predator. When capuchins are on the ground or near water, they can fall prey to predators such as snakes, large raptors, crocodiles, or large carnivorous mammals. The larger the group, the less chance they have of becoming prey due to a higher number of vigilant individuals. If a predator is spotted, the Capuchin will alert the others using their alarm call. "


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"Capuchins have acute olfactory senses helping them to distinguish scent marks left behind by other groups.\n\n==== Hunting ====\nHunting is a major threat to S. xanthosternos and its ability to have populations survive long-term in forest fragments. Hunting is especially problematic in areas close to human activity such as agroforests (cabrucas) and farmland. There is an elevated perceived risk of predation in the capuchins behavior when it is in an area of forest that give a greater advantage to predators, such as reduced canopy coverage in cabruca and in areas that transition from other forest types to a cabruca.\n\n=== Diet ===\nGolden-bellied capuchins feed on both plant and animal origins making them omnivores. They mostly feed on plants such as fruits, seeds, flowers, nuts, leaves and stems, and nectar. They also eat insects, bird eggs, frogs, small reptiles, birds, bats, or other small mammals. Capuchins residing near marine areas will feed on oysters, crabs or other shellfish. Sapajus xanthosternos has been known to hunt and eat various small lizards, sometimes ripping limbs off of the lizards before consuming them.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nCapuchins can mate year-round but females will give birth every two years. "


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"A female's gestation period is 150\u2013180 days and give birth to one infant. Newborns are 100% reliant on their mothers for their first year of life and become independent around 6\u201312 months. Female Capuchins reach maturity around 4\u20135 years old and start mating and giving birth at 7\u20138 years old. Males reach maturity and are fertile around 6\u20138 years.\n\n=== Mating ===\nCapuchins mate with more than one partner making them polygynandrous. The alpha-male of the group always has first choice of which female will be his mate. The other males of the group are also sexually active but the alpha has the most reproductive success. The alpha-male is most desired by the females as he will provide the most protection to his young. Unique mating rituals occur in order for the female to attract a male. She will first raise her eyebrows and move her head back and forth. She will touch him and runaway while murmuring noises. The male will make eye contact with her and also make noises. They perform a dance just before mating by jumping and spinning in the air. Just after mating, they will continue the dance for several seconds.\n\n"


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"== Conservation ==\n\n=== Status ===\nThe Capuchin is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as critically endangered. The population of the Capuchin within the last 50 years has declined over 50%. Any remaining habitats are protected including the largest place called Una Biological Reserve in Bahia, Brazil, home to about 185 Capuchin.\n\n=== Threats ===\nCapuchins are endemic to Brazil's rainforests which are in danger of deforestation for agriculture and logging. This is causing fragmentation of the forests threatening their habitat. Groups of Capuchins are being separated from one another causing interbreeding which results in biodiversity loss ultimately causing an extinction vortex. Capuchins are also in danger of being hunted.\n\n==== Pet Trade ====\nCapuchins are regularly captured in order to be sold in the illegal pet trade. In relation to species conservation it has been noted that the capture of a female creates a negative impact on a group's ability to survive than if a male is captured. Infants may also be sold into the pet trade, however this can be seen as a byproduct of hunting the mothers.\n\n"


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"=== Current Efforts ===\nThere is an effort in place by the Brazilian National Action Plan for the Conservation of the Northeastern Primates to protect a number of endangered primate species including S. xanthosternos.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive - images and movies of the yellow-breasted capuchin (Cebus xanthosternos)"


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"The lilacine amazon (Amazona autumnalis lilacina) or Ecuadorian red-lored amazon is an amazon parrot native to Ecuador in South America. According to the IOC World Bird List, it is still considered to be a subspecies of the red-lored amazon, although Birdlife International considers it to be a separate species, as Amazona lilacina - as does the International Union for Conservation of Nature for the purposes of the IUCN Red List, rating the lilacine amazon as critically endangered.The lilacine amazon is generally smaller than its related subspecies, with a black beak and more subdued coloring. Lilacine amazons are said to make favorable companion parrots because of their gentle, affectionate nature and agreeable temperament.\n\n== Description ==\nThe lilacine amazon is a small parrot, approximately 34 cm long when mature, with primarily green plumage. Like the red-lored amazon, it has red lores and yellow cheeks; its distinguishing features include a fully black beak, and lilac-tipped feathers on its crown.\n\n== Behavior ==\nThe lilacine amazon is known for its gentle and timid nature. In the wild it avoids confrontation with intruders, opting to seek cover in nearby foliage until danger has passed. "


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"It usually spends time in small- to medium-sized groups, with which it roosts at night; many birds pair off monogamously within the larger group, and they are most frequently seen flying in pairs.\n\n=== Diet ===\nThe diet of the lilacine amazon consists primarily of fruits, nuts, berries, and seeds. Like most parrots, it possesses a powerful beak; its dexterous tongue also helps to break down and consume a diverse suite of foodstuffs.\n\n=== Breeding ===\nSexual maturity is reached at three or four years of age. Like most parrots, the lilacine amazon is a monogamous breeder and a cavity nester. The hen will lay two to four eggs in a tree cavity and incubate them for a period of three weeks; the young fledge about two months after hatching.As with many other parrots, the male will keep the female and chicks nourished during their time in the nest by consuming additional food and regurgitating it for them.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe lilacine amazon is native to the tropical dry forests of western Ecuador north of the Gulf of Guayaquil, extending to Nari\u00f1o in extreme south-western Colombia adjacent to the Ecuadorian border, where it intersects with the subspecies A. a. salvini.\n\n== Aviculture ==\nLilacine amazons have become well regarded as companion parrots, intelligent with a personality often described as gentle, affectionate, and loyal. In captivity, they enjoy the company of people, and will often form a strong bond with their owner. They are not known as exceptional talkers, but most individuals are able to learn to mimic at least a few phrases. The World Parrot Trust recommends that the lilacine amazon be housed in an enclosure with a minimum length of 3 metres.The lilacine amazon has only recently become popular and common in the pet trade, formerly being quite rare. At least one captive breeding program has been established in Europe to increase the bird's numbers.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nAmazona lilacina - Ecuador Amazon"


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"The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), also known as the snow monkey, is a terrestrial Old World monkey species that is native to Japan. Colloquially, they are referred to as \"snow monkeys\" because some live in areas where snow covers the ground for months each year \u2013 no other non-human primate lives further north, nor in a colder climate. Individuals have brownish grey fur, pinkish-red faces, and short tails. Two subspecies are known.In Japan, the species is known as Nihonzaru (\u30cb\u30db\u30f3\u30b6\u30eb, a combination of Nihon \u65e5\u672c \"Japan\" + saru \u733f \"monkey\") to distinguish it from other primates, but the Japanese macaque is very familiar in Japan \u2014 as it is the only species of monkey in Japan \u2014 so when Japanese people simply say saru, they usually have the Japanese macaque in mind.\n\n== Physical characteristics ==\n\nThe Japanese macaque is sexually dimorphic. Males weigh on average 11.3 kg (25 lb), while females average 8.4 kg (19 lb). Macaques from colder areas tend to weigh more than ones from warmer areas. The average height for males is 57.0 cm (22.4 in), while the average female height is 52.3 cm (20.6 in). "


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"The size of their brain is approximately 95 g (3.4 oz). Japanese macaques have short stumps for tails that average 92.5 mm (3.64 in) in males and 79.1 mm (3.11 in) in females. The macaque has a pinkish face and posterior. The rest of its body is covered in brown or greyish hair. The coat of the macaque is well-adapted to the cold and its thickness increases as temperatures decrease. The macaque can cope with temperatures as low as \u221220 \u00b0C (\u22124 \u00b0F).Macaques mostly move on all fours. They are semiterrestrial, with females spending more time in the trees and males spending more time on the ground. Macaques are known to leap. They are very good swimmers and have been reported to swim a distance of more than half a kilometer. The lifespan of Japanese macaques is up to 32 years for females and up to 28 years for males, which is high when compared to what typically is seen in other macaque species.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\n=== Group structure ===\n\nJapanese macaques live in matrilineal societies, and females stay in their natal groups for life, while males move out before they are sexually mature. "


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"Macaque groups tend to contain several adults of both genders. In addition, a Japanese macaque troop contains several matrilines. These matrilines may exist in a dominance hierarchy with all members of a specific group ranking over members of a lower-ranking group. Temporary all-male groups also exist, composed of those who have recently left their natal groups and are about to transfer to another group. However, many males spend ample time away from any group, and may leave and join several groups.\n\nFemales of the troop exist in a stable dominance hierarchy and a female's rank depends on that of her mother. Younger females tend to rank higher than their older siblings. Higher-ranking matrilines have greater social cohesion. Strong relationships with dominant females can allow dominant males to retain their rank when they otherwise would not. Males within a group normally have a dominance hierarchy, with one male having alpha status. The dominance status of male macaques usually changes when a former alpha male leaves or dies. Other ways in which status of male hierarchy changes, is when an alpha male loses his rank or when a troop splits, leaving a new alpha male position open. "


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"The longer a male is in a troop, the higher his status is likely to be.Females typically maintain both social relationships and hygiene through grooming. Grooming occurs regardless of climate or season. Females who are matrilineally related groom each other more often than unrelated individuals. Females will groom unrelated females to maintain group cohesion and social relationships between different kinships in a troop. Nevertheless, a female will only groom a limited number of other females, even if the group expands. Females will groom males, usually for hygienic purposes, but that behavior also may serve to attract dominant males to the group. Mothers pass their grooming techniques to their offspring, most probably through social rather than genetic means, as a cultural characteristic.\n\n==== Documented female troop leadership ====\nYakei is a female who rose to leadership of her troop at Takasakiyama Natural Zoological Garden in 2021. Her troop consists of 677 Japanese macaque monkeys who live in a sanctuary that was established in 1952 at the zoological garden. At age nine, she overthrew the dominant males in her troop and displaced her high-ranking mother as well. "


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"She became the first female leader of the troop during its recorded history of seventy years. Yakei has retained her leadership position through her first breeding season that had been thought to be a time when she might have been challenged successfully. Both scientific and popular interest is leading to extensive coverage of Yakei's behavior.\n\n=== Mating and parenting ===\n\nA male and female macaque form a pair bond and mate, feed, rest, and travel together during the mating season, and on average, this relationship typically lasts 16 days. Females enter into consortships with an average of four males a season. Higher-ranking males have longer consortships than their subordinates. In addition, higher-ranking males try to disrupt consortships of lower-ranking males. Females may choose to mate with males of any rank. However, dominant males mate more frequently than others, as they are more successful in mate guarding. The female decides whether mating takes place. In addition, a dominant position does not mean a male will successfully mate with a female. "


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"Males may join other troops temporarily during the mating season and mate with those females.During the mating season, the face and genitalia of males redden and their tails stand erect, and the faces and anogenital regions of females turn scarlet. Macaques copulate both on the ground and in the trees. Roughly one in three copulations leads to ejaculation. Macaques signal when they are ready to mate by looking backward over a shoulder, staying still, or walking backward toward their potential partner. A female emits a \"squawk\", a \"squeak\", or produces an atonal \"cackle\" during copulation. Males have no copulatory vocalizations.\nFemales engage in same-sex mounting unrelated to the mating season and therefore, are mounted more often by other females than by males. This behavior has led to proposals in literature that female Japanese macaques are generally bisexual, rather than preferentially homo- or heterosexual.\n\nA macaque mother moves to the periphery of her troop to give birth in a secluded spot, unless the group is moving, when the female must stay with it. Macaques usually give birth on the ground. Infants are born with dark-brown hair. A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members. "


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"The infants consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and by seven weeks, can forage independently from their mothers. A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year. The mother may socialize again very slowly. However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females who have not had infants of their own. Male care of infants occurs in some groups, but not in others; when they do, usually, older males protect, groom, and carry an infant as a female would.Infants have fully developed their locomotive abilities within three to four months. When an infant is seven months old, its mother discourages suckling; full weaning happens by its eighteenth month.\nIn some populations, male infants tend to play in larger groups more often than females. However, female infants have more social interaction than their male counterparts, and female infants will associate with individuals of all ages and genders. When males are two years old, they prefer to associate with other males around the same age.\n\n"


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"=== Communication ===\nDuring feeding or moving, Japanese macaques often emit sounds that are called \"coos\". These vocalizations most likely serve to keep the troop together and strengthen social relations among females. Macaques usually respond to coos with coos of their own. Coos also are uttered before grooming along with vocalizations identified as \"girney\" calls. Variants of the \"girney\" calls are made in different contexts. This call also serves as appeasement between individuals in aggressive encounters. Macaques have alarm calls for alerting to danger and other calls to signal estrus that sound similar to danger alerts. Threat calls are heard during aggressive encounters and are often uttered by supporters of those involved in antagonistic interactions. The individual being supported supports those callers in the future.\n\n=== Intelligence and culture ===\n\nThe Japanese macaque is an intelligent species. Researchers studying this species at Koshima Island in Japan left sweet potatoes out on the beach for them to eat, then witnessed one female, named Imo (Japanese for yam or potato), washing the food off with river water rather than brushing it off as the others were doing, and later even dipping her clean food into salty seawater. "


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"After a while, other members of her troop started to copy her behavior. This trait was then passed on from generation to generation, until eventually all except the oldest members of the troop were washing their food and even seasoning it in the sea. Similarly, she was the first observed balling up wheat with air pockets and soil, throwing it all into the water, and waiting for the wheat to float back up free from the soil to consume it. An altered misaccount of this incident is the basis for the \"hundredth monkey\" effect. That behavior also spread among her troop members.\nThe macaque has other unusual behaviours, including bathing together in hot springs and rolling snowballs for fun. Also, in recent studies, the Japanese macaque has been found to develop different accents, similar to human cultures. Macaques in areas separated by only a few hundred miles may have very different pitches in their calls, their form of communication. The Japanese macaque has been involved in many studies concerning neuroscience and also is used in drug testing.\n\n== Ecology ==\nThe Japanese macaque is diurnal. In colder areas, from autumn to early winter, macaques feed in between different activities. "


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"In the winter, macaques have two to four feeding bouts each day, with fewer daily activities. In the spring and summer, they have two or three bouts of feeding daily. In warmer areas such as Yakushima, daily activities are more varied. The typical day for a macaque is 20.9% inactive, 22.8% traveling, 23.5% feeding, 27.9% social grooming, 1.2% self-grooming, and 3.7% other activities. Macaques usually sleep in trees, but they also sleep on the ground, as well as on or near rocks and fallen trees. During the winter, macaques huddle together for warmth on sleeping grounds. Macaques at Jigokudani Monkey Park are notable for visiting the hot springs in the winter to warm up.\n\n=== Diet ===\n\nThe Japanese macaque is omnivorous and eats a variety of foods. More than 213 species of plants are included in the macaque's diet. They also eat insects, bark, and soil. On Yakushima Island, fruit, mature leaves, and fallen seeds are primarily eaten. The macaque also eats fungi, ferns, invertebrates, and other parts of plants. In addition, in Yakushima, their diets vary seasonally with fruits being eaten in the summer and herbs being eaten in the winter. "


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"Farther north, macaques mostly eat seasonal foods such as fruit and nuts to store fat for the winter, when food is scarce. On the northern island of Kinkasan, macaques mostly eat fallen seeds, herbs, young leaves, and fruits. When preferred food items are not available, macaques dig up underground plant parts (roots or rhizomes) or eat soil and fish.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe Japanese macaque is the northernmost-living non-human primate. It is found on three of the four main Japanese islands: Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The northernmost populations live on the Shimokita Peninsula, the northernmost point of Honshu. Several of Japan's smaller islands are inhabited by macaques as well. The southernmost population living on Yakushima Island is a subspecies of the mainland macaques, M. fuscata yakui. A study in 1989 estimated the total population of wild Japanese macaques to be 114,431 individuals.The Japanese macaque lives in a variety of habitats. It inhabits subtropical forests in the southern part of its range and subarctic forests in mountainous areas in the northern part of its range. "


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"It can be found in both warm and cool forests, such as the deciduous forests of central and northern Japan and the broadleaf evergreen forests in the southwest of the islands. Warm temperate evergreen and broadleaf forests and cool temperate deciduous broadleaf forests are the most important habitats for macaques.In 1972, a troop of approximately 150 Japanese macaques was relocated from Kyoto to a primate observatory in southwest Texas, United States. The observatory is an enclosed ranch-style environment and the macaques have been allowed to roam with minimal human interference. At first, many perished in the unfamiliar habitat, which consists of arid brushland. The macaques eventually adapted to the environment, learned to avoid predators (such as eagles, coyotes, and rattlesnakes), and they learned to forage for mesquite beans, cactus fruits, and other foods. The surviving macaques flourished, and by 1995, the troop consisted of 500 to 600 individuals. In 1996, hunters maimed or killed four escaped macaques; as a result, legal restrictions were publicly clarified and funds were raised to establish a new 186-acre (75 ha) sanctuary near Dilley, Texas. In 1999, the Animal Protection Institute took over management of the sanctuary and began to rescue other species of primates. "


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"As of 2017, the troop cohabitated with six other species of macaque.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\nTraditional human behaviors that are threats to macaques have been slash-and-burn agriculture, use of forest woods for construction and fuel, and hunting. Since World War II, these threats have declined due to social and economic changes in Japan, but other threats have emerged. The replacement of natural forests with lumber plantations is the most serious threat. As human prosperity has grown, macaques have lost their fear of humans and have increased their presence in both rural and urban areas, with one macaque recorded living in central Tokyo for several months. In 2022 the city of Yamaguchi experienced aggression from the monkeys with at least 50 people attacked.\n\n=== Cultural depictions ===\n\nThe Japanese macaque (snow monkey) has featured prominently in the religion, folklore, and art of Japan, as well as in proverbs and idiomatic expressions in the Japanese language.\nIn Shinto belief, mythical beasts known as raij\u016b sometimes appeared as monkeys and kept Raijin, the god of lightning, company. "


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"The \"three wise monkeys\", who warn people to \"see no evil, hear no evil and speak no evil\", are carved in relief over the door of the famous T\u014dsh\u014d-g\u016b shrine in Nikk\u014d.\nThe Japanese macaque is a feature of several fairy tales, such as the tale of Momotar\u014d and the fable about The Crab and the Monkey.The monkey is part of the Chinese zodiac. That zodiac has been used for centuries in Japan and led to many representations of the macaque for that figure.\nThe creature was sometimes portrayed in paintings of the rich cultural epoch, the Edo period that flourished from 1603 to 1867, as a tangible metaphor for a particular year. The early nineteenth-century artist and samurai, Watanabe Kazan (1793-1841), created a painting of a macaque. The last great master of the ukiyo-e genre of woodblock printing and painting, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, also featured the macaques in his prints. Also during the Edo period, numerous clasps for kimono or tobacco pouches (collectively called netsuke) were carved in the shape of macaques.Spoken references to macaques abound in the history of Japan. "


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"Originating from before his rise to power, the famed samurai, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was compared to a monkey in appearance and nicknamed Kozaru (\"Little Monkey\"). In modern Japanese culture, because monkeys are considered to indulge their libido openly and frequently (much the same way as rabbits are thought to in some Western cultures), a man who is preoccupied with sex might be compared to or metaphorically referred to as a monkey, as might a romantically involved couple who are exceptionally amorous.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nFooden, Jack (1967). \"Macaca fuscata (Blyth, 1875): proposed conservation as the name for the Japanese macaque (Mammalia)\". The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 24 (4): 250\u2013251. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.15410.\n\n== External links ==\n\nSnow Monkey Resorts official site\nJigokudani Yaen-Koen info page\nAcaPixus images of Japanese macaque\nPrimate info net Macaca fuscata factsheet\nHuman factors and activities around Jigokudani-Shigakogen Forest Park"


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"The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), also called the mainland clouded leopard, is a wild cat inhabiting dense forests from the foothills of the Himalayas through mainland Southeast Asia into South China. In the early 19th century, a clouded leopard was brought to London from China and described in 1821. It has large dusky-grey blotches and irregular spots and stripes reminiscent of clouds. Its head-and-body length ranges from 68.6 to 108 cm (27.0 to 42.5 in) with a 61 to 91 cm (24 to 36 in) long tail. It uses its tail for balancing when moving in trees and is able to climb down vertical tree trunks head first. It rests in trees during the day and hunts by night on the forest floor.\nThe clouded leopard is the first cat that genetically diverged 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago from the common ancestor of the pantherine cats. Today, the clouded leopard is locally extinct in Singapore, Taiwan, and possibly Hainan Island and Vietnam. Its total population is suspected to be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend, and no single population numbering more than 1,000 adults. "


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"It has therefore been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2008. The population is threatened by large\u2013scale deforestation and commercial poaching for the wildlife trade. Its body parts are offered for decoration and clothing, though it is legally protected in most range countries.\nThe clouded leopard has been kept in zoological gardens since the early 20th century. Captive breeding programs were initiated in the 1980s. In captivity, the clouded leopard has an average lifespan of 11 years.\n\n== Taxonomy and phylogeny ==\nFelis nebulosa was proposed by Edward Griffith in 1821 who first described a skin of a clouded leopard that was brought alive from Canton Province in China to the menagerie at Exeter Exchange in London.Felis macrosceloides proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1841 was a clouded leopard specimen from Nepal.Felis brachyura proposed by Robert Swinhoe in 1862 was a clouded leopard skin from Taiwan.\nThe generic name Neofelis was proposed by John Edward Gray in 1867 who subordinated all three to this genus.\nAt present, N. nebulosa is considered a monotypic species due to lack of evidence for subspeciation.Felis diardi proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1823 was based on a clouded leopard skin from Java.\n"


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"It was considered a clouded leopard subspecies by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1917. In 2006, it was identified as a distinct Neofelis species, the Sunda clouded leopard. Populations in Taiwan and Hainan Island are considered to belong to the mainland clouded leopard.\n\n=== Phylogeny ===\nSkulls of clouded leopard and Panthera species were analysed morphologically in the 1960s. Results indicate that the clouded leopard forms an evolutionary link between the Pantherinae and the Felinae.Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that the evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in the Miocene around 14.45 to 8.38 million years ago in Asia. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at 16.76 to 6.46 million years ago.\nThe clouded leopard is estimated to have been the first cat that genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago, based on analysis of their nuclear DNA.\nThe clouded leopard from mainland Asia reached Borneo and Sumatra via a now submerged land bridge probably during the Pleistocene, when populations became isolated during periods of global cooling and warming. "


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"Genetic analysis of hair samples of the clouded leopard and its sister species the Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi) indicates that they diverged 2.0\u20130.93 million years ago.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe clouded leopard's fur is of a dark grey or ochreous ground-color, often largely obliterated by black and dark dusky-grey blotched pattern. There are black spots on the head, and the ears are black. Partly fused or broken-up stripes run from the corner of the eyes over the cheek, from the corner of the mouth to the neck, and along the nape to the shoulders. Elongated blotches continue down the spine and form a single median stripe on the loins. Two large blotches of dark dusky-grey hair on the side of the shoulders are each emphasized posteriorly by a dark stripe, which passes on to the foreleg and breaks up into irregular spots. The flanks are marked by dark dusky-grey irregular blotches bordered behind by long, oblique, irregularly curved or looped stripes. These blotches yielding the clouded pattern suggest the English name of the cat. The underparts and legs are spotted, and the tail is marked by large, irregular, paired spots. Its legs are short and stout, and paws broad. "


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"Females are slightly smaller than males.Its hyoid bone is ossified, making it possible to purr. Its pupils contract into vertical slits. Irises are brownish yellow to grayish green. Melanistic clouded leopards are uncommon. It has rather short limbs compared to the other big cats. Its hind limbs are longer than its front limbs to allow for increased jumping and leaping capabilities. Its ulnae and radii are not fused, which also contributes to a greater range of motion when climbing trees and stalking prey. Clouded leopards weigh between 11.5 and 23 kg (25 and 51 lb). Females vary in head-to-body length from 68.6 to 94 cm (27.0 to 37.0 in), with a tail 61 to 82 cm (24 to 32 in) long. Males are larger at 81 to 108 cm (32 to 43 in) with a tail 74 to 91 cm (29 to 36 in) long.\nIts shoulder height varies from 50 to 55 cm (20 to 22 in).Its skull is long and low with strong occipital and sagittal crests. The canine teeth are exceptionally long, the upper being about three times as long as the basal width of the socket. The first premolar is usually absent. "


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"The upper pair of canines measure 4 cm (1.6 in) or longer.\nIt has a bite force at the canine tip of 544.3 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 122.4.\nThe clouded leopard is often referred to as a \"modern-day sabre-tooth\" because it has the largest canines in proportion to its body size.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe clouded leopard occurs from the Himalayan foothills in Nepal, Bhutan and India to Myanmar, southeastern Bangladesh, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, to south of the Yangtze River in China. It is regionally extinct in Singapore and Taiwan.In Nepal, the clouded leopard was thought to be extinct since the late 1860s. But in 1987 and 1988, four individuals were found in the central part of the country, close to Chitwan National Park and in Pokhara Valley. These findings extended the known range westward, suggesting it is able to survive and breed in degraded woodlands that previously harboured moist subtropical semideciduous forest. Since then, the clouded leopard has been recorded in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park and in Annapurna Conservation Area. "


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"Between 2014 and 2015, it was also recorded in Langtang National Park at an elevation range of 1,823\u20133,498 m (5,981\u201311,476 ft).In India, it occurs in Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Meghalaya subtropical forests, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. In Pakke Tiger Reserve, a clouded leopard was photographed in semi-evergreen forest at an elevation of 144 m (472 ft). In Sikkim, clouded leopards were photographed by camera traps at elevations of 2,500\u20133,720 m (8,200\u201312,200 ft) between April 2008 and May 2010 in the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve. In Manas National Park, 16 individuals were recorded during a survey in November 2010 to February 2011. Between January 2013 and March 2018, clouded leopards were also recorded in Dampa Tiger Reserve, Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Singchung-Bugun Village Community Reserve, in Meghalaya's Nongkhyllem National Park and Balpakram-Baghmara landscape.In Bhutan, it was recorded in Royal Manas National Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Jigme Dorji National Park, Phrumsengla National Park, Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary and several non-protected areas. In Bangladesh, it was recorded in Sangu Matamuhari in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in 2016. "


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"In Myanmar, it was recorded by camera traps for the first time in the hill forests of Karen State in 2015.In Thailand, it inhabits relatively open, dry tropical forest in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and closed-forest habitats in Khao Yai National Park. In Laos, it was recorded in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area in dry evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. In Cambodia, it was recorded in deciduous dipterocarp forest in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary between 2008 and 2009, and in Central Cardamom Mountains National Park, Southern Cardamom National Park, Botum Sakor National Park and Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary between 2012 and 2016. In Peninsular Malaysia, it was recorded in Taman Negara National Park, Ulu Muda Forest, Pasoh Forest Reserve, Royal Belum State Park, Temengor Forest Reserve and in a few linkages between 2009 and 2015.The last confirmed record of a Formosan clouded leopard dates to 1989, when the skin of a young individual was found in the Taroko area. It was not recorded during an extensive camera trapping survey conducted from 1997 to 2012 in more than 1,450 sites inside and outside Taiwanese protected areas.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nThe clouded leopard is a solitary cat. "


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"Early accounts depict it as a rare, secretive, arboreal, and nocturnal inhabitant of dense primary forest.It is one of the most talented climbers among the cats. Captive clouded leopards have been observed to climb down vertical tree trunks head first, and hang on to branches with their hind paws bent around branchings of tree limbs. They are capable of supination and can even hang down from branches only by bending their hind paws and their tail around them. When jumping down, they keep hanging on to a branch this way until the last moment. They can climb on horizontal branches with their back to the ground, and in this position make short jumps forward. When balancing on thin branches, they use their long tails to steer. They can easily jump up to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) high.\nThey use trees as daytime rest sites, but also spend time on the ground when hunting at night. Captive clouded leopards have been observed to scent mark by spraying urine and rubbing their heads on prominent objects.\n"


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"Their vocalisations include a short high-pitched meow call, a loud crying call, both emitted when a cat is trying to locate another one over a long or short distance; they prusten and raise their muzzle when meeting each other in a friendly manner; when aggressive, they growl with a low-pitched sound and hiss with exposed teeth and wrinkled nose.Radio-collared clouded leopards were foremost active by night but also showed crepuscular activity peaks.\nClouded leopards recorded in northeast India were most active in the late evening after sunset.Home ranges have only been estimated in Thailand:\n\nFour individuals were radio-collared in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary from April 2000 to February 2003. Home ranges of two females were 25.7 km2 (9.9 sq mi) and 22.9 km2 (8.8 sq mi), and of two males 29.7 km2 (11.5 sq mi) and 49.1 km2 (19.0 sq mi).\nTwo individuals were radio-collared during a study from 1997 to 1999 in the Khao Yai National Park. The home range of one female was 39.4 km2 (15.2 sq mi), of the one male 42 km2 (16 sq mi). "


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"Both individuals had a core area of 2.9 km2 (1.1 sq mi).In 2016, clouded leopards were detected in the forest complex of Khlong Saeng Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Sok National Park during camera trapping surveys; 15 individuals were identified in a core zone of 200 km2 (77 sq mi) with population density estimated at 5.06 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi); but only 12 individuals were identified in an edge zone of 297 km2 (115 sq mi), which is more disturbed by humans, with density estimated at 3.13 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi).\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\nWhen hunting, the clouded leopard stalks its prey or waits for the prey to approach. After making and feeding on a kill, it usually retreats into trees to digest and rest. Its prey includes both arboreal and terrestrial vertebrates.\nPocock presumed that it is adapted for preying upon herbivorous mammals of considerable bulk because of its powerful build, long canines and the deep penetration of its bites. "


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"In Thailand, clouded leopards have been observed preying on southern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina), Indian hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus), Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis), Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus macrourus), Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) and Berdmore's ground squirrel (Menetes berdmorei). Known prey species in China include barking deer (Muntiacus) and pheasants.\nIn northern Peninsular Malaysia, a male clouded leopard was photographed while carrying a binturong (Arctictis binturong) in its jaws.\n\n=== Reproduction and life cycle ===\n\nBoth males and females average 26 months at first reproduction. The female is in estrus for about six days, with her estrous cycle lasting about 30 days. In the wild, mating usually occurs between December and March. The pair mates multiple times over the course of several days. The male grasps the female by the neck who responds with vocalization. Occasionally, he also bites her during courtship and is very aggressive during sexual encounters. Females can bear one litter each year. The male is not involved in raising the cubs.The female gives birth to a litter of one to five, mostly three cubs, after a gestation period of 93 \u00b1 6 days. "


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"Cubs are born with closed eyes and weigh from 140 to 280 g (4.9 to 9.9 oz). Their spots are solid dark, rather than dark rings. Their eyes open after about 10 days. They are active within five weeks and fully weaned at around three months of age. They attain the adult coat pattern at around six months and become independent after around 10 months.Captive clouded leopards have an average lifespan of 11 years.\nOne individual has lived to be almost 17 years old.Generation length of the clouded leopard is about seven years.\n\n== Threats ==\n\nMany of the remaining forest areas are too small to ensure the long-term persistence of clouded leopard populations. They are threatened by habitat loss following large\u2013scale deforestation and commercial poaching for the wildlife trade. Skins, claws and teeth are offered for decoration and clothing, bones and meat as substitute for body parts of the tiger in traditional Asian medicine and tonics, and live animals for the pet trade.\nIn Myanmar, 301 body parts of at least 279 clouded leopards, mostly skins and skeletons, were observed in four markets surveyed between 1991 and 2006. "


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"Three of the surveyed markets are situated on international borders with China and Thailand, and cater to international buyers. Implementation and enforcement of CITES is considered inadequate.In Nepal, 27 cases of clouded leopard body parts were discovered between November 1988 and March 2020 in nine districts of the country, comprising at least 51 individual clouded leopards. In 17 of these cases, the poachers and traders were arrested.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nThe clouded leopard is listed in CITES Appendix I and protected over most of its range. Hunting is banned in Bangladesh, China, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. It is not legally protected outside Bhutan's protected areas. Hunting is regulated in Laos. No information about its protection status is available from Cambodia. These bans, however, are poorly enforced in India, Malaysia and Thailand.In the United States, the clouded leopard is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, prohibiting trade in live animals or body parts.International Clouded Leopard Day is celebrated each year on 4 August since 2018 in zoos and conservation organizations all over the world.\n\n=== In captivity ===\n\nClouded leopards have been kept in zoos since the early 20th century. "


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"The international studbook was initiated in the 1970s. Coordinated breeding programs were started in the 1980s and encompass the European Endangered Species Programme, the Species Survival Plan, and the Indian Conservation Breeding Programme. As of 2014, 64 institutions keep clouded leopards, including six zoos in India:\nThe zoo in Sipahijola Wildlife Sanctuary since 1996\nDarjeeling Zoo since 1996\nAizawl Zoo since 2006\nItanagar Zoo since 2009\nGangtok Zoo since 2010\nShillong Zoo since 2012Early captive-breeding programs involving clouded leopards were not successful, largely due to ignorance of their courtship behaviour. Males have the reputation of being aggressive towards females. For breeding success, it has been deemed extremely important that male and female clouded leopards are compatible. Introducing pairs at a young age gives them opportunities to bond and breed successfully. Facilities breeding clouded leopards need to provide the female with a secluded, off-exhibit area. "


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"There has been some recent captive breeding success using artificial insemination with cubs successfully born in 1992, 2015 and 2017.A study on morbidity and mortality rate of 271 captive clouded leopards across 44 zoos in Europe, Asia and Australia showed that 17% of them died because of respiratory disease, 12% due to maternal neglect and starvation, 10% from generalized infectious disease, 10% from digestive diseases, and 10% from trauma.In March 2011, two breeding females at the Nashville Zoo at Grassmere gave birth to three cubs, which were raised by zookeepers. Each cub weighed 0.23 kg (0.5 lb). In June 2011, two cubs were born at the Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium. The breeding pair was brought from the Khao Kheow Open Zoo in Thailand in an ongoing education and research exchange program. Four cubs were born at Nashville Zoo in 2012. In May 2015, four cubs were born in Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium.\n\n== In culture ==\nThe Rukai people of Taiwan considered the hunting of clouded leopards a taboo. It is the state animal of the Indian state of Meghalaya. In the 1970s, the print of Rama Samaraweera's painting Clouded leopard was a best-seller in the USA.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\nList of largest cats\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Mainland clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa\". IUCN Species Survival Commission Cat Specialist Group.\n\"Welcome to the Clouded Leopard Project\". Clouded Leopard Project. 2011.\n\"Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa\". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012.\n\"Taiwan's clouded leopard extinct: zoologists\". Focus Taiwan. 2013.\n\"Clouded Leopard: Facing Dark Clouds of Extinction\". About Animals."


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"The Southeast African cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) is the nominate cheetah subspecies native to East and Southern Africa. The Southern African cheetah lives mainly in the lowland areas and deserts of the Kalahari, the savannahs of Okavango Delta, and the grasslands of the Transvaal region in South Africa. In Namibia, cheetahs are mostly found in farmlands.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nThe Southern African cheetah was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in his book Die S\u00e4ugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur mit Beschreibungen (The Mammals illustrated as in Nature with Descriptions), published in 1775. Schreber described the species on basis of a specimen from the Cape of Good Hope. It is therefore the nominate subspecies. Subpopulations have been called \"South African cheetah\" and \"Namibian cheetah."


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"\"Following Schreber's description, other naturalists and zoologists also described cheetah specimens from many parts of Southern and East Africa that today are all considered synonyms of A. j. jubatus:\nFelis guttata proposed in 1804 by Johann Hermann;\nFelis fearonii proposed in 1834 by Andrew Smith;\nFelis lanea proposed in 1877 by Philip Sclater;\nAcinonyx jubatus obergi proposed in 1913 by Max Hilzheimer;\nAcinonyx jubatus ngorongorensis proposed in 1913 by Hilzheimer on basis of a specimen from Ngorongoro, German East Africa;\nAcinonyx jubatus velox proposed in 1913 by Edmund Heller on basis of a cheetah that was shot by Kermit Roosevelt in June 1909 in the Kenyan highlands.\n"


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"Acinonyx rex proposed in 1927 by Reginald Innes Pocock on basis of a specimen from the Umvukwe Range in Rhodesia.In 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World grouped A. j. guttata, A. j. lanea, A. j. obergi, and A. j. rex under A j. jubatus, whilst recognizing A. j. raineyi and A. j. velox as valid taxa and considering P. l. ngorongorensis as synonymous with raineyi.In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group subsumed all cheetah populations from most parts of Eastern and Southern Africa to A. j. jubatus, thus making it the most widespread subspecies in the continent.\n\n== Evolutionary history ==\nFrom the early Pleistocene, the earliest African cheetah fossils have been found in the lower beds of the Olduvai Gorge site in northern Tanzania, although cheetah fossils in Southern Africa were found to be 3.5 to 3.0 million years old. The Southeast African cheetah is the second-oldest subspecies.Cheetahs from Africa and Asia were previously considered as genetically identical with each other. "


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"DNA research and analysis started in the early 1990s and showed that the Southern and East African cheetahs are indeed separate subspecies.Until September 2009, the Asiatic cheetah was thought to be identical to African cheetahs. Stephen J. O'Brien from the Laboratory of Genomic Diversity of the National Cancer Institute was of the opinion that they have been separated from each other for only 5,000 years, which is not enough time to be classified as distinct subspecies.In early 2011, results of phylogeographic analysis of 94 cheetah samples from museum collections, wild and captive specimens, revealed that Southeast African and Asiatic cheetahs are genetically distinct, and probably diverged between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago. The mitochondrial DNA data indicate that the cheetah samples from East Africa had no common haplotype with samples from Southern Africa, although one haplotype present in cheetah samples from Tanzania and Kenya clustered with samples from South Africa. The population in East Africa might have derived from a relatively recent recolonization event. The divergence between the cheetah populations in Southern, East and Northern Africa occurred between 6,700 and 32,400 years ago.\n\n== Genetics ==\n\nHistorically, cheetahs were thought to be genetically homogeneous. "


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"In 2011, results of a phylogeographic study revealed that the Asiatic cheetah and cheetah populations in Africa are genetically distinct and separated between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago.The woolly cheetah was discovered in the late 19th century by English zoologist Philip Sclater. It was considered as a separate species of cheetah that had a thicker body, and longer and denser fur. Several specimens were obtained. These creatures may be the same species as the present-day cheetah, but with a genetic disposition to long fur. In 1877, Sclater, of the Zoological Society of London, wrote of a recent acquisition by the zoo. In 1878, a second woolly cheetah was reported as a preserved specimen in the South African Museum. Both the London and South African specimens had come from Beaufort West. In 1884, a third skin was obtained from the same area, though this had more distinct spots and was a little smaller. "


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"By the late 1880s, the trophy hunters had eliminated the woolly cheetahs; from the number and locality of specimens, this variant seems to have evolved very recently (generations rather than millennia); perhaps all those animals (it seems only a handful are known at best) were the offspring of a single couple born around 1875, or maybe one more generation. The woolly cheetah has, in any case, vanished.The king cheetah was considered a different species in 1927 by naturalist Reginald Innes Pocock. It was found to be a mutation caused by a recessive gene. The king cheetah is a rare variant of the Southern cheetah, first discovered in southern Rhodesia in 1925. A king cheetah was first found in South Africa in 1940 and in Botswana in 1942. However, in 1981, king cheetahs were shown to have never been a different species, as king cheetahs were born from regular parents at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre in South Africa, and another king cheetah were born from two female cheetahs having mated with a wild-caught male cheetah from the Transvaal Province, and more king cheetahs were born later at the De Wildt Cheetah Centre. "


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"The king cheetahs are found in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. In 2012, the cause of this alternative coat pattern was found to be a mutation in the gene for transmembrane aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep), the same gene responsible for the striped \"mackerel\" versus blotched \"classic\" patterning seen in tabby cats.The cheetah also has melanism as one of its rare color morphs. A melanistic cheetah in Zambia was seen by Vesey Fitzgerald in the company of a spotted cheetah.\n\n== Physical characteristics ==\n\nThe cheetah is a medium-sized cat. An adult male cheetah's total size can measure from 168 to 200 cm (66 to 79 in) and 162 to 213 cm (64 to 84 in) for females. Adult cheetahs are 70 to 90 cm (28 to 35 in) tall at the shoulder. "


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"Males are slightly taller than females and have slightly bigger heads with wider incisors and longer mandibles.Measurements taken of wild cheetahs in Namibia indicate that the females range in head-and-body length from 113 to 140 cm (44 to 55 in) with 59.5-to-73.0 cm (23.4-to-28.7 in) long tails, and weigh between 21.0 and 63.0 kg (46.3 and 138.9 lb); males range in head-and-body length from 113 to 136 cm (44 to 54 in) with 60-to-84 cm (24-to-33 in) long tails, and weigh between 28.5 and 65.0 kg (62.8 and 143.3 lb).The cheetah has a bright yellow or sometimes a golden coat, and its fur is slightly thicker than that of other subspecies. The white underside is very distinct, especially on the neck and breast, and it has less spotting on its belly. The spots on the face are more pronounced, and as a whole its spots seem more dense than those of most other subspecies. The tear marks are notably thicker at the corners of the mouth, and almost all of them have distinct brown mustache markings. "


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"Like the Asiatic cheetah, it is known to have fur behind its tail and have both white and black tips at the end of its tail. However, the cheetah may also have only a black tip at the end of its tail.\nIn desert areas, such as the Kalahari, cheetahs are somewhat smaller and lighter in weight, with thinner, bright-colored fur, a trait the Northwest African cheetah also has.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe Southeast African cheetah usually lives on grasslands, savannahs, scrub forests, and arid environments such as  deserts and semidesert steppes. These cheetahs can be found in open fields, where they chase and hunt herbivorous mammals such as antelopes at a very high speed. In South Africa, the cheetah also prefers woodlands (in Kruger National Park), shrublands, high mountains, mountainous grasslands, and montane areas where favorable prey are mostly available.\nThe Southeast African cheetah is currently the most common subspecies and was widespread everywhere in southern to central Africa, ranging from South Africa to the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo (Katanga Province) and southern Tanzania. "


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"Its range is now greatly reduced, where it occurs in an area of 1,223,388 km2 (472,353 sq mi), 22% of its original range.In the past, less than 10,000 cheetahs were hunted in Namibian farmlands. Previously estimated at mere 2,000 individuals since the 1990s, as of 2015, over 3,500 cheetahs live in Namibia today. The country maintains the largest population of wild cheetahs worldwide. About 90-95% of the cheetahs live on Namibian farmlands; others live in the Kalahari Basin, the coastal deserts of Namib and Kaokoveld, and the central to northeastern region of the country. Although Namibian cheetahs are mostly found outside of protected areas, they also live in Naankuse Wildlife Sanctuary, Namib-Naukluft National Park, and Bwabwata National Park. The cheetahs are rather uncommon in Etosha National Park and in Palmwag.\nWith an approximate population of 2,000 cheetahs as of 2016, Botswana has the second-largest population of cheetahs. "


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"They are mostly found in arid habitats of the Central Kalahari, Mokolodi Nature Reserve, and Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (known as Gemsbok National Park in Botswana) in the south, and in the southwest and also in the northern region of the country that holds the largest prey base, such as in Okavango Delta, Chobe National Park, and Moremi Game Reserve. Khutse Game Reserve is also known to contain high abundance of suitable prey base for cheetahs, such as springboks, gemsboks, and wildebeests. Cheetahs are rarely found in the eastern Botswana and at the Zimbabwean border.\nIn South Africa, cheetahs live in the Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North West, and Northern Cape Provinces. After conservation efforts throughout the years, cheetahs have been reintroduced in the eastern, western, and southern parts, and recently in the Free State province of the country. Over 90% of the cheetah population is found outside protected areas such as game reserves and in farmlands. More than 412 cheetahs are in Kruger National Park, subpopulations of 300 to 350 in parks and reserves, and 400 to 500 free-roaming on farmlands in the Limpopo and North West Province, although the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is the stronghold for cheetahs.  "


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"Kruger and Kalahari Gemsbok National Parks hold the largest populations; they are home to roughly 42% of South Africa's cheetahs. Cheetahs had not always been common in South Africa. As of now, the country contains the third-largest population of cheetahs after years of conservation actions and reintroductions into the wild. In 2016, it is estimated about 1,500 adult cheetahs live in the wild.\nThe population of cheetahs has been dramatically decreased in Zimbabwe, from about a thousand to 400, as of 2007. Currently, the Zimbabwean population is estimated at 165 individuals. Prior the population decline, cheetahs were more widespread in Zimbabwe, and its population had excellent growth rate, in which over 1,500 individuals thrived. Back in 1973, an estimated 400 cheetahs lived in Zimbabwe and had increased to 470 in 1987. Afterwards in 1991, a total population of 1,391 cheetahs was found by the Zimbabwe Department of Parks and Wildlife Management, whilst in 1996, a population of 728 cheetahs lived on commercial farmlands alone. In 1999, a minimum total population of 1,520 was estimated, in which over 1,200 of these cheetahs lived on commercial farmlands, while 320 were found in national parks. "


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"A year later, several reports questioned whether the Zimbabwean cheetahs were stable or decreasing, but it was increasing at the time. However, cheetahs are known to be highly threatened in farmlands in which between 1999 and 2007, 80% of the population of Zimbabwean cheetahs living in private farmlands fell into massive decline due to human-cheetah conflict, reduced from over a thousand to less than 400 as of 2007. About 100 cheetahs were killed by livestock farmers in Zimbabwe's lowveld per year. Following years later, about 150 to 170 adult cheetahs are found there, and the human-cheetah conflict is no longer a major threat to the species. Most of the Zimbabwean cheetahs live in protected areas today. Cheetahs are mainly found in the southern to central regions. Isolated populations are found in northwestern Zimbabwe, such as Victoria Falls, Matetsi, and Kazuma Pan, also near the Mozambican border. Hwange National Park, the largest reserve with an area of 14,650 km2 (5,660 sq mi), is the main stronghold for the Zimbabwean cheetahs. Cheetahs also live in Matobo National Park. "


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"The cheetahs of the Zambezi Valley are nearly extinct, as only three individuals remain in Matusadona National Park and 9 in the Mana Pools National Park. Twenty-nine remain in the Zimbabwean lowveld, most of which live in Gonarezhou National Park, private reserves (Bubye, Save, Malilangwe, Nuanetsi), and at the Chilojo Cliffs.In Zambia, cheetahs are mostly spotted at Matamene Camp of Liuwa Plain National Park from the Western Province. The national park is part of the Kavango\u2013Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area. They are also present at the 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) Kafue National Park, near the Kafue River and at the 22,400 km2 (8,600 sq mi) Sioma Ngwezi National Park (the second-largest park in Africa) in the southwest corner of Zambia. About 100 cheetahs live in the country.\nIn 2007, between 50 and 90 cheetahs were estimated to survive in Mozambique, where the species inhabits grasslands, savannahs, and mixed Acacia and mopane woodlands. Most habitats consist of wetlands and rivers. Historically, it was widespread in the country, but by 1975, the population had declined to about 200 individuals due to intense poaching during the Mozambican Civil War. "


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"Camera traps set up in 2004 and 2011 revealed constant presence of cheetahs, other predators and herbivores in Mozambique's conservation areas in Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park. Around 35 cheetahs live in Limpopo National Park. Cheetahs are also present in Zinave National Park and Banhine National Park, which are part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park.Apart from the central and northern regions, the now-rare cheetah lived in southern Tanzania. It ranged close to the Zambia/Malawi borders in the southwest to the southeasternmost part of the country. These cheetahs are found at Mpanga-Kipengere Game Reserve and the Uwanda Game Reserve. Whether or not they are extinct in Selous Game Reserve is unknown.\nThe indigenous population of cheetahs was extinct in Eswatini. In 1997, three cheetahs have been reintroduced into the Hlane Royal National Park, the largest (30,000 ha (300 km2)) protected area of Eswatini.The cheetah was once thought to be extinct in Angola, but in 2010 two adult male cheetahs were spotted in the 16,000 km2 (6,200 sq mi) Iona National Park. It was the first time cheetahs have been sighted in the wild of Angola in 30 years. "


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"This protected area provides suitable habitat for the cheetah, as it has a large, open savannah where springbok and oryx occur.In the 1980s, cheetahs occurred in three protected areas, namely Kasungu National Park, Nyika National Park and Vwaza Marsh Game Reserve, also at the Zambian border in the west. In 2007, the small cheetah population was considered locally extinct due to loss of suitable habitat and lack of prey.\n\n=== Former range ===\nIn early 20th century, African cheetahs were widespread everywhere in the continent, until they lost most of their ranges and disappeared from 23 countries. Cheetahs are locally extinct from Lesotho and the southern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. They used to live in the Katanga, southern Bandundu, southern Kasai-Occidental, and Bas-Congo. They probably extended to Kinshasa. It was previously estimated that about 100 to 500 cheetahs lived in the Congo between 1950-70s. Kundelungu National Park was one of the remaining stronghold for the cheetahs after recent extinction of cheetahs from Virunga National Park and Sudan cheetahs from Garamba National Park during the 1960s. "


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"Rumored sightings have been reported occasionally in the southern regions of the Congo, such as near the Angolan border, around the Sandoa Territory and on the Kibara Plateau of Upemba National Park. To this day, Upemba is still considered as the only national park of the country to contain cheetah populations.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\n=== Reproduction and lifecycle ===\nMale cheetahs are sociable and may live in a group with other males. Males establish their territories by marking their territories by urinating on trees or termite mounds.\nThe females, though, are not sociable and do not establish a territory. They are solitary and avoid each other. However, they may live with their mothers, daughters, or sisters on their home ranges. The female's home range's size can depend on the prey base. Cheetahs in southern African woodlands have ranges as small as 34 km2 (13 sq mi), while in some parts of Namibia, they can reach 1,500 km2 (580 sq mi).\nFemale cheetahs can reproduce at 13 to 16 months of age and with a typical age of sexual maturity between 20 and 23 months. The gestation can last for 90 to 95 days. "


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"Cub births mostly occur at November to January in Namibia and November to March in Zambia. Females hunt solo, except the cheetah cubs accompany their mothers to learn how to hunt on their own after the age of 5\u20136 weeks. After the cubs reach 18 months of age, the mother leaves her cubs, and the siblings remain as a group for a few months until the sisters leave the group and the brothers stay together. The male cubs may form alliances with other males after separating from their mother.\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\n\nThe cheetah is a carnivorous mammal. It preys on medium-sized and large antelopes, and fast, small animals such as Cape hares and rodents. It prefers Thomson's gazelles, impala, kudu, puku, oribi, springbok, gemsbok, steenbok, wildebeest, warthog, red hartebeest, and other ungulates. The cheetah's preferred prey species is the oryx and the nyala\n\n=== Enemies and competitors ===\nLike other cheetahs, they are threatened and outranked by larger predators in their area. They are threatened by lions and spotted hyenas as they can steal their carcasses. The cheetahs would surrender their meals to spotted hyenas. "


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"However, coalitions of male adult cheetahs can chase predators away, and a single cheetah can chase jackals and a lone wild dog away.\n\n== Threats ==\nThe Southern cheetah is a vulnerable subspecies, due to poaching, habitat loss, and lack of prey. Indiscriminate capture and removal of wild cheetahs in southern Africa continue to threaten the survival of this species, as it may reduce the genetic diversity in the wild and they breed poorly in captivity. Its survival is also threatened by inbreeding. In Botswana, the cheetahs are mostly threatened by habitat changes.\nThe cheetah was also highly threatened by hunting and range loss. In early 1930s, the cheetahs were hunted down and almost went extinct in South Africa. Therefore, it has lost most of its range, mostly in South Africa and Mozambique. Only a few dozen of them live in the southern part of Mozambique. It also disappeared from many regions of South Africa, only living in the northern and northeastern parts of the country.\nDuring the 1970s, 9,500 cheetahs were killed in Namibian farmlands. As a protected species in Namibia, people are allowed to remove Namibian cheetahs only if they pose a threat to livestock or human life. "


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"Unfortunately, farmers might capture Namibian cheetahs, often removing or killing those that have not taken any livestock. About 90% of the Namibian cheetah population live on farmlands.\nIn Botswana, the cheetah is protected under the Conserved Animal legislation since 1968, which strictly limits hunting and capture. Before then, the decline of suitable prey caused the cheetahs to feed on livestock. About 50 cheetah were previously hunted down by tribesmen each year to protect livestock.\nLimited international trade in live animals and skins is permitted from Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana.\n\n== Conservation status ==\n\nPreviously estimated at a population of 4,190 individuals in Southern Africa since 2007, the total population of the Southern cheetah has likely reached over 6,000 individuals, with Namibia having the largest cheetah population worldwide. Since 1990, the population was estimated to be about 2,500 individuals in Namibia; until 2015, the cheetah population has  increased to more than 3,500 in the country. Botswana contains the second-largest population of cheetahs - in 2007, an estimated population of 1,800. However, in 2016, about 2,000 cheetahs were in Botswana, which is about 20% of the world's cheetahs. Around 550 to 850 cheetahs were left in South Africa in 2007. "


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"After many conservation efforts, the cheetah population has boosted to more than 1,000. In 2013, the estimated population was between 1,200 and 1,300 cheetahs in South Africa. Whilst an estimated that 1,500 adult cheetahs live in South Africa since 2016, the Endangered Wildlife Trust stated that the total population ranges between 1,166 and 1,742 cheetahs in South Africa alone in 2017. In Zimbabwe, on the contrary, the cheetahs' population has severely declined, from more than 1,500 cheetahs since 1999 to 400 cheetahs in 2007, to between 150 and 170 cheetahs as of 2015. In 2007, around 100 individuals remained in Zambia and between 50 and 90 were left in Mozambique.Several conservation projects for the cheetah species exist in African countries and Iran. Like the Asiatic cheetah, the Southern cheetah got more attention from people than other subspecies.\nThree cheetah subspecies are included on the IUCN list of vulnerable species (three African subspecies threatened, Northwest African and Asiatic subspecies in critical condition), as well as on the US Endangered Species Act: threatened species - Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species).\n"


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"Founded in Namibia in 1990, the Cheetah Conservation Fund's mission is to be the world's resource charged with protecting the cheetah and to ensure its future. The organization works with all stakeholders within the cheetah's ecosystem to develop best practices in research, education, and ecology, and create a sustainable model from which all other species, including people, will benefit. Around 12,400 cheetahs were estimated to remain in the wild in 25 African countries. Recently, 6,674 mature individuals were found by the IUCN; Namibia has the most, with more than 3,500, of which 90% of them are living outside of protected areas. Breeding programs have been successful, including the use of in vitro fertilization, in zoos around the world.\nThe cheetahs are known to be poor breeders in captivity, though several organizations, such as the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre, have succeeded in breeding high numbers of cheetah cubs. In 2009, the centre has bred more than 800 cubs.\n\n== Reintroduction projects ==\n\n=== In Africa ===\n\n==== South Africa ====\nThe cheetah once occurred in several areas of Southern Africa, but not commonly in South Africa.\nThe species lives mostly on the eastern and northern locations of South Africa. "


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"Since the 1960s, the cheetah had been imported from Namibia, which used to contain healthy populations of cheetahs at the time, and has been reintroduced to their former ranges and in small reserves. About 29% of the cheetah population was indigenously from South Africa whilst 71% was those imported from Namibia. The first known reintroductions were in KwaZulu Natal, Gauteng, Lowveld, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and Southern Kalahari. There are currently 1,500 mature cheetahs within the country.In December 2003, after the cheetahs were heavily hunted in the Great Karoo and Eastern Cape areas to extinction 125 years ago, cheetahs have returned to the Karoo, starting with a severely injured female wild-born cheetah named Sibella (circa 2001 \u2013 11 September 2015) that went through surgery at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Trust and was later reintroduced to Samara Private Game Reserve. The reintroduction process was a success. Sibella was a capable hunter and successfully raised 18 cubs. About 2% of the wild population of cheetahs in South Africa occurs in that region. The cheetahs living in Samara are also in better condition,  threats from apex predators such as lions and hyenas no longer exist. "


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"Sibella's youngest daughter Chilli has given birth to the first third-generation cheetah cubs of the Samara Private Game Reserve in January 2017.A National Cheetah Metapopulation Project was launched in 2011 by the Endangered Wildlife Trust. Its purpose is to develop and co-ordinate a national metapopulation management plan for cheetahs in smaller fenced reserves in South Africa. For instance, the cheetahs have been reintroduced in around 50 of these South African reserves. Fragmented subpopulations of cheetahs are currently increasing in a few hundreds. As of July 2014, further plans exist to reintroduce the cheetahs in six more small fenced reserves over the next few years.\nFor the first time after 100 years of extinction since the colonial period, the cheetah has recently been reintroduced into the Free State in 2013, with two male wild cheetahs that have been relocated from the Eastern Cape's Amakhala Game Reserve to the Free State's Laohu Valley Reserve, where the critically endangered South China tiger from Save China's Tigers (SCT) are part of a rewilding project in South Africa. A female cheetah has yet to be reintroduced to Laohu Valley. In early 2016, an adult female has been reintroduced to the reserve. "


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"Three wild cheetah cubs have been born for the first time in Laohu Valley Reserve in February 2017, making them the first cheetahs born in the wild since their disappearance from the Free State province in over a century. With three mature individuals and three cubs, six cheetahs are in Laohu Valley Reserve.In 2016, a reintroduction and rewilding project known as Rewilding iSimangaliso for cheetahs is going on in iSimangaliso situated in KwaZulu-Natal province, including lions and Cape wild dogs, which were first introduced in late 2013. The 15 collared resident cheetahs in uMkhuze Game Reserve are seen by visitors during game drives.\n\n==== Malawi ====\nIn May 2017, two male and two female cheetahs were imported from South Africa and reintroduced to Liwonde National Park.\n\n==== Zambia ====\nSince 1989, only a few cheetahs had been recorded at the Lower Zambezi National Park, despite the area being apparently suitable habitat for cheetahs. Chiawa Camp, in association with National Parks and Wildlife and Japan Aid, approached the Cheetah Conservation Fund for a study group to assess the suitability of Lower Zambezi. In October 1994, reintroduction attempts were made with three cheetahs to the Lower Zambezi. "


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"However, the reintroduction project had been unsuccessful, as two of them were killed by traps; one survivor remained for three years alone. Further plans exist to reintroduce the cheetah to the Lower Zambezi.\n\n=== Outside Africa ===\n\nAsiatic cheetahs had existed in India for thousands of years, but as a result of hunting and other disastrous causes, they have disappeared there, with the last known Indian cheetah having been spotted in 1951. The critically endangered species currently lives in Iran, as the country itself is unwilling to give their cheetahs to India. A captive propagation project has been proposed. Minister of Environment and Forests Jairam Ramesh told the Rajya Sabha on 7 July 2009, \"The cheetah is the only animal that has been described extinct in India in the last 100 years. We have to get them from abroad to repopulate the species.\"He was responding to a call for attention from Rajiv Pratap Rudy of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). \"The plan to bring back the cheetah, which fell to indiscriminate hunting and complex factors like a fragile breeding pattern is audacious given the problems besetting tiger conservation.\""


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"Two naturalists, Divya Bhanusinh and MK Ranjit Singh, suggested importing cheetahs from Namibia, after which they will be bred in captivity and, in time, released in the wild.Multiple suitable potential sites from the Indian states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan which consisted of forests, grasslands, savannahs, and deserts were chosen for the cheetah reintroduction project in India, such as Banni Grasslands Reserve, Desert National Park, Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Gajner Wildlife Sanctuary. They are also known to be where the Asiatic cheetahs and other mystical animals coexisted for several years until they had recently gone extinct from the region. Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary was chosen as the most suitable site for reintroduced Namibian cheetahs.However, the plan to introduce this subspecies to India has been suspended in 2012, after discovering the distinctness between the cheetahs from Asia and Africa, having been separated between 32,000 and 67,000 years ago.\n\n== In captivity ==\n\nCheetahs are known to be difficult to breed in captivity because of their social behaviors and breeding problems. The cub mortality in captivity and in the wild is high at about 50%. "


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"On average, 30% of all captive-bred cubs born in captivity may die within a month.The Southern cheetah is the most widespread subspecies breeding in captivity around the world, while  Sudanese cheetahs are found only in a few European and Middle Eastern zoos and wildlife centers. The subspecies is found in various zoos worldwide in America, Africa, Eurasia, and Australia.\nSeveral zoos, facilities, breeding centers, and wildlife parks part of the American (Species Survival Plan, Association of Zoos and Aquariums) and Eurasian (European Endangered Species Programme, European Association of Zoos and Aquaria) captive-breeding programs have been successfully increasing populations of cheetahs, such as White Oak Conservation from Yulee, Florida, the Wildlife Safari from Winston, Oregon, that bred more than 178 cheetahs and the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre from South Africa where hundreds of cheetah cubs have been born. The Fota Wildlife Park from Ireland is also known for successfully breeding cheetahs in captivity right before starting a captive-breeding project with the Northeast African cheetah.\n\n"


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"== Gallery ==\n\n== In popular culture ==\nThe book How It Was with Dooms tells the true story of a family raising an orphaned East African cheetah cub named Duma (the Swahili word for cheetah) in Kenya. The films Cheetah (1989) and Duma (2005) were both loosely based on this book. However, Duma takes place in South Africa instead of Kenya. The cheetahs that starred in the film were South African cheetahs from the Kragga Kamma Game Park of the Eastern Cape province. In November 2011, one of the five adult cheetahs that starred in the film had died from an unusual kidney failure.\nThe Toyota Free State Cheetahs, founded in 1895, is a South African rugby union team that participates in the annual Currie Cup tournament. They have a cheetah running at high speed as their emblem.\nThe Cheetahs are another South African rugby union team from Bloemfontein founded in 2005 that have a running cheetah as their emblem.\n\n== See also ==\nAsiatic cheetah\nNorthwest African cheetah\nNortheast African cheetah\nBig cat\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nSpecies portrait Acinonyx jubatus; IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group\nCheetah Conservation Fund\nSouthern cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus)"


