# document

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"Grooming is one of the most important social interactions among family members. Grooming takes place between adults earlier in the day; the adults groom the juveniles later in the day. Adult males are the most involved in grooming.\n\nIn the dry season, the size of the siamang's daily range is larger than in the rainy season. The siamang in southern Sumatra spends less time foraging than siamangs in other places, as it eats a diet higher in fruit. It thus  consumes more nutrients, which results in less time needed for food acquisition. A siamang may spend an entire day in a single fruiting tree, moving out when it wants to rest and returning to feed.Siamangs are a very social species of primates and exhibit a variety of tactile and visual gestures, along with actions and facial expressions to communicate and increase social bonds within their family group. They are also territorial, and interact with other family groups by making loud calls to let other groups know where their territory is. The calls may be asynchronous, where they are not directed at a particular neighbouring group, or simultaneous group calls may take place across the territory boundary. "


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"Males are known to chase one another across the boundary.\nGrooming frequency between males and females has been found to correlate to copulation frequency, as well as bouts of aggression. Pairs copulate over four to five months at intervals of two to three years. The peak of their reproductive activity is often during the time when fruit is most abundant. Dorsoventral copulation is the most common type in siamangs, where the female is squatting and the male hangs by his arms and grips the female with his legs, whereas ventroventral copulation, where both primates are suspended, occurs only one in 60 times on average.\n\n=== Role of calling ===\n\nThe siamang starts its day by calling in the early morning; it calls less after midday, with the peak of the calls around 9:00 to 10:00 am. Most of the siamang's calls are directed to its neighbours rather than to those inside its home range. This means the siamang's calling is in response to disturbances and to defend its territory. Calls in the late morning typically happen when it meets or sees another siamang group. "


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"The edge of the siamang's home range, which may overlap another, is often the place where calling is made. Counter (co-response) calling occasionally happens near the border or in the overlap area. Calls are numerous when fruit is more abundant rather than when it is less available. Branch shaking, swinging, and moving around the tree crowns accompany the calling. This movement might be to show the other groups where they are.\nThe siamang prefers calling in the living, tall, and big trees, possibly where another group is easy to see. Besides that, such trees can support siamang movement. Calling trees are usually near feeding trees, but sometimes they call in the feeding trees.Mated pairs produce loud, well-patterned calling bouts, which are referred to as duetting. These calls advertise the presence and status of a mated pair. Newly formed pairs spend more time singing than an established pair. Advertising the presence of a strong bond is advantageous in territorial defense. Siamang duetting differs from other species because it has a particularly complex vocal structure. Four distinct classes of vocalizations have been documented: booms, barks, ululating screams, and bitonal screams. "


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"Females typically produce long barks and males generally produce bitonal screams, but both sexes have been known to produce all four classes of vocalizations.\n\n=== Seeding ===\nAs a frugivorous animal, the siamang disperses seeds through defecation as it travels across its territory. The siamang can carry seed while digesting, and defecate between 81.9 and 365.9 m (269 and 1,200 ft) from the seed resource, which supports the forest's regeneration and succession.\n\n== Threats and conservation ==\nAs an arboreal primate whose survival absolutely depends on the forest, the siamang faces population pressure due to habitat loss, poaching, and hunting.\n\n=== Habitat loss ===\n\nA major threat to the siamang is habitat fragmentation due to plantations, forest fire, illegal logging, encroachment, and human development. Firstly, palm-oil plantations have removed large areas of the siamang's habitat in recent decades. Since 2002, 107,000 km2 of oil palm have been planted, which has replaced much rainforest in Indonesia and Malaysia, where the siamang originally lived. Secondly, in the second decade of the 21st century, forests in the Malay peninsula have been destroyed due to illegal logging. "


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"Sixteen out of the 37 permanent forest reserves in Kelantan, in the Malay peninsula, where most of the siamangs live, have been encroached upon by illegal loggers. Thirdly, forest encroachments change forest cover into cultivated land; for example, the rising price of coffee in 1998 encouraged people in Sumatra to replace the forest with coffee plantations. Fourthly, development in many areas requires infrastructure, such as roads, which now divide conservation areas and have caused forest fragmentation and edge effects.\n\n=== Poaching and hunting ===\nUnlike other parts of Asia, primates are not hunted for their meat in Indonesia. They are hunted for the illegal pet trade, with hunters preferring infant siamangs. Poachers often kill the mothers first, since siamang females are highly protective of their infants, and removing the infant without first killing the mother requires more effort. Most siamangs on the market are infants, which often die during transportation.\n\n"


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"=== Conservation ===\nSiamang can be found in at least 11 protected areas:\n\nIndonesiaBukit Barisan Selatan National Park\nGunung Leuser National Park\nKerinci Seblat National Park\nLangkat Barat Wildlife Reserve\nWay Kambas National ParkMalaysiaFraser's Hill Reserve\nGunong Besout Forest Reserve\nKrau Wildlife Reserve\nUlu Gombak Wildlife ReserveThailandHala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nSiamang photos\nSiamang songs\nGibbon Conservation Center\nPrimate Info Net Symphalangus syndactylus Factsheet\nhttp://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-siamang.html"


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"The marginated tortoise (Testudo marginata) is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is endemic to Greece, Italy, and the Balkans in Southern Europe. It is the largest European tortoise. The marginated tortoise is herbivorous, and brumates for the winter.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nThe marginated tortoise was formally described by German naturalist Johann David Schoepff in 1789; its specific epithet marginata is a straightforward derivation from the Latin term for 'marginated'.\nThe nominate subspecies is the Greek marginated tortoise, Testudo marginata marginata. Three additional subspecies of marginated tortoises have been named:\nThe Sardinian marginated tortoise (T. m. sarda) is the name usually used to separate the population on the island of Sardinia. These tortoises have less strongly bent tiles in the posterior of their carapaces, and the posterior of the carapace is almost smooth compared with the saw-like T. m. marginata. Clearly distinct according to morphology and entirely allopatric, it cannot be distinguished by mtDNA cytochrome b and nDNA ISSR sequence analysis. Lineage sorting has not occurred to a considerable degree; consequently, the more geographically isolated Sardinian population is presumably of quite recent origin.\nIndeed, it appears to derive from a deliberate introduction by humans. "


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"Though it is not clear whether this occurred in prehistoric times or more recently, this might be resolved by dating subfossil remains. Sequence evolution at least in mtDNA is known to proceed much more slowly in some turtles and tortoises than in others; the rate of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene in Testudo is probably a rather low 1.0\u20131.6% per million years (as this fits best the paleobiogeographical situation), limiting the resolution provided by molecular systematics.An extinct subspecies described as T. m. cretensis persisted on Crete before the end of the last ice age, presumably larger than mainland tortoises. However, numerous additional fossils have since refuted the validity of this subspecies.A population of small and light-colored marginated tortoises exists on the southwestern coast of the Peloponnesus, between Kalamata and south of Stoupa. The so-called \"dwarf marginated tortoise\" was described as a new species Testudo weissingeri, but it is not recognizably distinct phylogenetically. Unlike the Sardinian population, it occupies an extremely restricted range with very arid habitat, and its apomorphies seem related to this. "


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"Considering ice age-associated climate and sea level changes, this population is probably not older than a few thousand years; as it is not geographically isolated, it should be considered a local form, and not even a subspecies T. m. weissingeri. Notably, a similar situation is found in Hermann's tortoises living in the same region.Testudo marginata is also closely related to the Greek or common tortoise (Testudo graeca). Both have very similar bodily characteristics\u2014oblong carapaces, large scales on the front legs, large coverings for the head and cone-like scales on the upper thighs, undivided tail coverings, moveable stomach plates, and lack of tail spikes. Presumably, Testudo marginata diverged from ancestral Testudo graeca as a population more suited for life in the mountainous regions. Evidence in favor of this is the wide geographical region and the extremely large number of subspecies of Testudo graeca, including a subspecies in Turkey with strongly bent carapace tiles, like the marginated tortoise. Testudo marginata on the other hand, despite the two subspecies, presents a much more unified appearance, which points toward an earlier appearance in evolutionary history. In captivity, the two species often cross-breed, but this should be avoided.\n"


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"According to the 2005 DNA sequence data, these species do not seem to hybridize to a notable extent in the wild, though they are obviously very close relatives, and as evidenced by morphology, some allele flow still occurs, but slowly. The Egyptian tortoise appears to represent a lineage that diverged from the same ancestral stock southwards into northeastern Africa around the same time as the marginated tortoise's ancestors diverged in Greece. These two are actually more similar to each other than to T. graeca regarding DNA sequence data, but considering biogeography, this is either due to (rather unlikely) dispersal across the Mediterranean, or the supposed \"clade\" is invalid and the similarity due to convergent evolution.\n\n== Description ==\nThe marginated tortoise is the largest European tortoise, reaching a weight of up to 5 kg (11 lb) and a length of 35 cm (14 in). Its shell is oblong and has a notable thickness around the middle of the body. The posterior end of the shell has a saw-like formation, flanged outward like a bell. The carapace of an adult specimen is almost completely black, with yellow highlights.  "


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"The ventral shell is lighter-coloured and has pairs of triangular markings with the points facing the rear of the animal. The front sides of the limbs are covered with large scales. In an old female specimen, the rear flaps of the underside of her plastron is somewhat moveable. The tail is notable for a lengthwise marking and for an undivided carapace over the tail. The male has a longer tail, which is thicker at the base than the female's. The underside is more strongly indented. Males are also often larger than the females. The females lay their hard-shelled spherical eggs in the soil in May and June.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe natural range of the marginated tortoise is southern Greece, from the Peloponnesus to Mount Olympus. They are also found in isolated zones of the Balkans and Italy, and northeastern Sardinia.\nThe marginated tortoise lives in more mountainous regions than Hermann's tortoise. It can be found in elevations as high as 1,600 m (5,200 ft). "


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"The black color of the carapace is helpful for survival in this environment, as it allows the tortoise to absorb a great deal of heat in a short time, helping it maintain its body temperature. Early in the morning, marginated tortoises bask in the sun to raise their body temperature, and then search for food. After feeding, the tortoises return to their shelters in the hot midday hours, leaving them again in the late afternoon.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nMarginated tortoises are fairly calm and relaxed, although they can be somewhat territorial in the wild. They have a controlled temper and are generally slow to anger. If they are not given the proper diet in captivity, however, they will become rather aggressive and might mistakenly attack if they feel threatened.\n\n=== Diet ===\nMarginated tortoises are herbivorous, their diets consisting primarily of plants from their native Mediterranean region.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nImmediately after waking from brumation, the mating instinct starts up. The males follow the females with great interest, encircling them, biting them on the limbs, ramming them, and trying to mount them. During copulation, the male opens his mouth, showing his red tongue and making loud cries. "


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"The tone of the copulation cry is almost sobbing with long, deep tones, in contrast to T. hermanni, which uses a much higher-toned, peeping noise.\nDuring mating, the female stands still and holds her head to the side, looking up to see the opened mouth of the male. The red tongue apparently serves a signalling function. The female moves her head from left to right in the same rhythm as the male's cries.\nAfterwards, the female seeks out an adequate location to lay her eggs. Once such a place is found, the female stands still, propping both front legs firmly against the ground. Then she digs out a hole with her hind legs, alternating between left and right, beginning with simply scratching the ground but eventually moving large quantities of soil which are piled up beside the hole. The depth of the hole is determined by the length of her hind legs. If the ground is too hard to dig, the female releases water from her anal gland to soften it.\nOnce the hole is dug, egg-laying begins. Each egg is gently rolled back into the hole. "


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"After the last egg, the female immediately begins refilling the hole, again using her hind legs. Finally, she stamps the opening closed with her feet so that the ground regains its natural hardness. Larger animals may lay eggs as many as three times per summer, with about 15 eggs per clutch.\n\nThe incubation period averages about 100 days under natural conditions, which is relatively short among tortoises. Many tropical tortoises have incubation periods of up to 200 days. The relatively short time is an adaptation to the subtropical Mediterranean climate, where the summers are not as long. In an incubator, this time is notably shorter: with an incubation temperature of 31.5 \u00b0C (88.7 \u00b0F) the eggs will begin hatching after 60 days.\nUnlike bird eggs, the yolk and albumen of reptile eggs are not separated by a membrane. After a few days, the heavy yolk components sink to the bottom of the egg. On top of this floats the embryonal disk, surrounded by albumen, so the tortoise eggs cannot be turned after the yolk settles without damaging or killing the embryo.\nIt is possible to see with the naked eye if the eggs are developing healthily. "


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"Freshly laid eggs have a gray-white color. Shortly thereafter, a bright white spot forms on the uppermost point of the egg. This spot gradually grows until the entire egg is bright white.\nAfter the embryo has developed fully in the egg, the young animal breaks the shell with its egg tooth from inside, creates a small opening, and for the first time fills its lungs with air. Afterwards, it pulls back into the egg and works on the shell with its beak until it opens completely. In nature, the animal remains below ground for the first two weeks, where it is safe from predators, yet is still able to grow, as it is nourished by the yolk sac. The young animals lead cautious and secretive lives, normally remaining in the shade. They avoid full sunlight because of the great danger of overheating.\nMarginated tortoises grow very rapidly. In an ideal biotope, or with good handling, they gain 100\u2013500 g (3.5\u201317.6 oz) yearly. This quick rate of growth lasts throughout their youth. After the 20th year of life, further growth is minimal. They may live between 100 and 140 years, according to the best estimates of scientists.\n\n"


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"== In captivity ==\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== See also ==\nList of reptiles of Italy\n\n== References ==\n\n== Bibliography ==\nAvise John C., Bowen Brian W., Lamb Trip, Meylan Anne B., Bermingham Eldredge (1992). \"Mitochondrial DNA evolution at a turtle's pace: evidence for low genetic variability and reduced microevolutionary rate in the Testudines\". Mol. Biol. Evol. 9 (3): 457\u2013473. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040735. PMID 1584014.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\nBartlett, Richard; Bartlett, Patricia (1996). Turtles and Tortoises: Everything About Selection, Care, Nutrition, Breeding, and Behavior (Complete Pet Owner's Manual). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-8120-9712-2.\nDe Vosjoli, Phillipe (1997). General Care and Maintenance of Popular Tortoises (The Herpetocultural Library Series). Advanced Vivarium Systems. ISBN 1-882770-37-4.\nFritz Uwe, Kirok\u00fd Pavel, Kami Hajigholi, Wink Michael (2005). \"Environmentally caused dwarfism or a valid species \u2013 Is Testudo weissingeri Bour, 1996 a distinct evolutionary lineage? New evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear genomic markers\" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 37 (2): 389\u2013401. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.007. PMID 16223676.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\nFritz Uwe, Auer Markus, Bertolero Albert, Cheylan Marc, Fattizzo Tiziano, Hundsd\u00f6rfer Anna K., Sampayo Marcos Mart\u00edn, Pretus Joan L., \u0160irok\u00fd Pavel, Wink Michael (2006). "


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"\"A rangewide phylogeography of Hermann's tortoise, Testudo hermanni (Reptilia: Testudines: Testudinidae): implications for taxonomy\" (PDF). Zoologica Scripta. 35 (5): 531\u2013548. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2006.00242.x. S2CID 86110728.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\nGeorgialis Georgios L., Kear Benjamin P. (2013). \"The fossil turtles of Greece: An overview of taxonomy and distribution\" (PDF). Geobios. 46 (4): 299\u2013311. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2013.05.001.\nMayer, Richard (1992). Europ\u00e4ische Landschildkr\u00f6ten: Leben - Haltung - Zucht. AVA Agrar Verlag. ISBN 3-924809-10-0. (in German).\nvan Dijk, P.P.; Lymberakis, P.; B\u00f6hme, W. (2004). \"Testudo marginata\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T21653A201295229. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T21653A201295229.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021. Listed as Species of Less Concern (LR/lc v2.3).\nvan der Kuyl Antoinette C., Ballasina Donato L. Ph., Dekker John T., Maas Jolanda, Willemsen Ronald E., Goudsmit Jaap (2002). \"Phylogenetic Relationships among the Species of the Genus Testudo (Testudines: Testudinidae) Inferred from Mitochondrial 12S rRNA Gene Sequences\". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 22 (2): 174\u2013183. doi:10.1006/mpev.2001.1052. PMID 11820839.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\n\n== External links ==\n\nCharacteristics of European tortoises (in German).\n\"Testudo marginata sarda\"."


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"The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is a large strepsirrhine primate and the most recognized lemur due to its long, black and white ringed tail. It belongs to Lemuridae, one of five lemur families, and is the only member of the Lemur genus. Like all lemurs it is endemic to the island of Madagascar and endangered. Known locally in Malagasy as maky ([mak\u02b2] (listen), spelled maki in French) or hira, it inhabits gallery forests to spiny scrub in the southern regions of the island. It is omnivorous and the most terrestrial of extant lemurs. The animal is diurnal, being active exclusively in daylight hours.\nThe ring-tailed lemur is highly social, living in groups of up to 30 individuals.  It is also female dominant, a trait common among lemurs. To keep warm and reaffirm social bonds, groups will huddle together. The ring-tailed lemur will also sunbathe, sitting upright facing its underside, with its thinner white fur towards the sun. Like other lemurs, this species relies strongly on its sense of smell and marks its territory with scent glands.  "


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"The males perform a unique scent marking behavior called spur marking and will participate in stink fights by marking their tail with their scent and wafting it at opponents.\nAs one of the most vocal primates, the ring-tailed lemur uses numerous vocalizations including group cohesion and alarm calls.  Experiments have shown that the ring-tailed lemur, despite the lack of a large brain (relative to simiiform primates), can organize sequences, understand basic arithmetic operations and preferentially select tools based on functional qualities.\nDespite reproducing readily in captivity and being the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, numbering more than 2,000 individuals, the ring-tailed lemur is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. As of early 2017, the population in the wild is believed to have crashed as low as 2,000 individuals due to habitat loss, poaching and hunting, making them far more critically endangered.\n\n== Etymology ==\nAlthough the term \"lemur\" was first intended for slender lorises, it was soon limited to the endemic Malagasy primates, which have been known as \"lemurs\" ever since. "


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"The name derives from the Latin term lemures, which refers to specters or ghosts that were exorcised during the Lemuria festival of ancient Rome. According to Carl Linnaeus's own explanation, the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris. Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme, Linnaeus adapted the term \"lemur\" for these nocturnal primates. However, it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost-like appearance, reflective eyes, and ghostly cries of lemurs. It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors, but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India. The species name, catta, refers to the ring-tailed lemur's cat-like appearance.  Its purring vocalization is similar to that of the domestic cat.Following Linnaeus's species description, the common name \"ring-tailed maucauco\" was first penned in 1771 by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant, who made note of its characteristic long, banded tail. (The term \"maucauco\" was a very common term for lemurs at this time.)"


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"The now universal English name \"ring-tailed lemur\" was first used by George Shaw in his illustrated scientific publication covering the Leverian collection, which was published between 1792 and 1796.\n\n== Evolutionary history ==\nAll mammalian fossils from Madagascar come from recent times. Thus, little is known about the evolution of the ring-tailed lemur, let alone the rest of the lemur clade, which comprises the entire endemic primate population of the island.  However, chromosomal and molecular evidence suggest that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates.  For this to have happened, it is thought that a very small ancestral population came to Madagascar via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 million years ago. Subsequent evolutionary radiation and speciation has created the diversity of Malagasy lemurs seen today.\n\nAccording to analysis of amino acid sequences, the branching of the family Lemuridae has been dated to 26.1 \u00b13.3 mya while rRNA sequences of mtDNA place the split at 24.9 \u00b13.6 mya.  The ruffed lemurs are the first genus to split away (most basal) in the family, a view that is further supported by analysis of DNA sequences and karyotypes.  "


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"Additionally, Molecular data suggests a deep genetic divergence and sister group relationship between the true lemurs (Eulemur) and the other two genera: Lemur and Hapalemur.The ring-tailed lemur is thought to share closer affinities to the bamboo lemurs of the genus Hapalemur than to the other two genera in its family. This has been supported by comparisons in communication, chromosomes, genetics, and several morphological traits, such as scent gland similarities.  However, other data concerning immunology and other morphological traits fail to support this close relationship. For example, Hapalemur species have short snouts, while the ring-tailed lemur and the rest of Lemuridae have long snouts. However, differences in the relationship between the orbit (eye socket) and the muzzle suggest that the ring-tailed lemur and the true lemurs evolved their elongated faces independently.The relationship between the ring-tailed lemur and bamboo lemurs is the least understood. "


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"Molecular analysis suggests that either the bamboo lemurs diverged from the ring-tailed lemur, making the group monophyletic and supporting the current two-genera taxonomy, or that the ring-tailed lemur is nested in with the bamboo lemurs, requiring Hapalemur simus to be split off into its own genus, Prolemur.The karyotype of the ring-tailed lemur has 56 chromosomes, of which four are metacentric (arms of nearly equal length), four are submetacentric (arms of unequal length), and 46 are acrocentric (the short arm is hardly observable).  The X chromosome is metacentric and the Y chromosome is acrocentric.\n\n=== Taxonomic classification ===\nLinnaeus first used the genus name Lemur to describe \"Lemur tardigradus\" (the red slender loris, now known as Loris tardigradus) in his 1754 catalog of the Museum of King Adolf Frederick.  In 1758, his 10th edition of Systema Naturae listed the genus Lemur with three included species, only one of which is still considered to be a lemur while another is no longer considered to be a primate. These species include: Lemur tardigradus, Lemur catta (the ring-tailed lemur), and Lemur volans (the Philippine colugo, now known as Cynocephalus volans).  "


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"In 1911, Oldfield Thomas made Lemur catta the type species for the genus, despite the term initially being used to describe lorises.  On January 10, 1929, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) formalized this decision in its publication of Opinion 122.The ring-tailed lemur shares many similarities with ruffed lemurs (genus Varecia) and true lemurs (genus Eulemur), and its skeleton is nearly indistinguishable from that of the true lemurs. Consequently, the three genera were once grouped together in the genus Lemur and more recently are sometimes referred to as subfamily Lemurinae (within family Lemuridae).  However, ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia in 1962, and due to similarities between the ring-tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs, particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent glands similarities, the true lemurs were moved to the genus Eulemur by Yves Rumpler and Elwyn L. Simons (1988) as well as Colin Groves and Robert H. Eaglen (1988).  In 1991, Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz reviewed the evidence and came to a different conclusion, instead favoring to return the members of Eulemur and Varecia to the genus Lemur.  "


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"However, this view was not widely accepted and the genus Lemur remained monotypic, containing only the ring-tailed lemur.  Because the differences in molecular data are so minute between the ring-tailed lemur and both genera of bamboo lemurs, it has been suggested that all three genera be merged.Because of the difficulty in discerning the relationships within family Lemuridae, not all authorities agree on the taxonomy, although the majority of the primatological community favors the current classification.\nIn 1996, researchers Steven Goodman and Olivier Langrand suggested that the ring-tailed lemur may demonstrate regional variations, particularly a high mountain population at Andringitra Massif that has a thicker coat, lighter coloration, and variations in its tail rings. In 2001, primatologist Colin Groves concluded that this does not represent a locally occurring subspecies.  This decision was later supported by further fieldwork that showed that the differences fell within the normal range of variation for the species.  The thicker coat was considered a local adaptation to extreme low temperatures in the region, and the fading of the fur was attributed to increased exposure to solar radiation.  "


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"Additional genetic studies in 2000 further supported the conclusion that population did not vary significantly from the other ring-tailed lemur populations on the island.\n\n== Anatomy and physiology ==\n\nThe ring-tailed lemur is a relatively large lemur.  Its average weight is 2.2 kilograms (4.9 lb). Its head\u2013body length ranges between 39 and 46 cm (15 and 18 in), its tail length is 56 and 63 cm (22 and 25 in), and its total length is 95 and 110 cm (37 and 43 in).  Other measurements include a hind foot length of 102 and 113 mm (4.0 and 4.4 in), ear length of 40 and 48 mm (1.6 and 1.9 in), and cranium length of 78 and 88 mm (3.1 and 3.5 in).The species has a slender frame and narrow face, fox-like muzzle.  The ring-tailed lemur's trademark\u2014a long, bushy tail\u2014is ringed in alternating black and white transverse bands, numbering 12 or 13 white rings and 13 or 14 black rings, and always ending in a black tip.  The total number of rings nearly matches the approximate number of caudal vertebrae (~25). Its tail is longer than its body and is not prehensile.  "


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"Instead, it is only used for balance, communication, and group cohesion.The pelage (fur) is so dense that it can clog electric clippers. The ventral (chest) coat and throat are white or cream. The dorsal (back) coat varies from gray to rosy-brown, sometimes with a brown pygal patch around the tail region, where the fur grades to pale gray or grayish brown. The dorsal coloration is slightly darker around the neck and crown. The hair on the throat, cheeks, and ears is white or off-white and also less dense, allowing the dark skin underneath to show through. The muzzle is dark grayish and the nose is black, and the eyes are encompassed by black triangular patches.  Facial vibrissae (whiskers) are developed and found above the lips (mystacal), on the cheeks (genal), and on the eyebrow (superciliary).  Vibrissae are also found slightly above the wrist on the underside of the forearm.  The ears are relatively large compared to other lemurs and are covered in hair, which has only small tufts if any.  "


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"Although slight pattern variations in the facial region may be seen between individuals, there are no obvious differences between the sexes.Unlike most diurnal primates, but like all strepsirrhine primates, the ring-tailed lemur has a tapetum lucidum, or reflective layer behind the retina of the eye, that enhances night vision.  The tapetum is highly visible in this species because the pigmentation of the ocular fundus (back surface of the eye), which is present in\u2014but varies between\u2014all lemurs, is very spotty.  The ring-tailed lemur also has a rudimentary foveal depression on the retina.  Another shared characteristic with the other strepsirrhine primates is the rhinarium, a moist, naked, glandular nose supported by the upper jaw and protruding beyond the chin.  The rhinarium continues down where it divides the upper lip.  The upper lip is attached to the premaxilla, preventing the lip from protruding and thus requiring the lemur to lap water rather than using suction.\n\nThe skin of the ring-tailed lemur is dark gray or black in color, even in places where the fur is white.  It is exposed on the nose, palms, soles, eyelids, lips, and genitalia.  "


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"The skin is smooth, but the leathery texture of the hands and feet facilitate terrestrial movement.  The anus, located at the joint of the tail, is covered when the tail is lowered.  The area around the anus (circumanal area) and the perineum are covered in fur.  In males, the scrotum lacks fur, is covered in small, horny spines, and the two sacs of the scrotum are divided.  The penis is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines, as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides.  Males have a relatively small baculum (penis bone) compared to their size.  The scrotum, penis, and prepuce are usually coated with a foul-smelling secretion.  Females have a thick, elongated clitoris that protrudes from the labia of the vulva.  The opening of the urethra is closer to the clitoris than the vagina, forming a \"drip tip\".Females have two pairs of mammary glands (four nipples), but only one pair is functional.  The anterior pair (closest to the head) are very close to the axillae (armpit).  Furless scent glands are present on both males and females.  "


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"Both sexes have small, dark antebrachial (forearm) glands measuring 1 cm long and located on the inner surface of the forearm nearly 25 cm (9.8 in) above the wrist joint.  (This trait is shared between the Lemur and Hapalemur genera.)The gland is soft and compressible, bears fine dermal ridges (like fingerprints), and is connected to the palm by a fine, 2 mm\u2013high, hairless strip.  However, only the male has a horny spur that overlays this scent gland.  The spur develops with age through the accumulation of secretions from an underlying gland that may connect through the skin through as many as a thousand minuscule  ducts. The males also have brachial (arm) glands on the axillary surface of their shoulders (near the armpit). The brachial gland is larger than the antebrachial gland, covered in short hair around the periphery, and has a naked crescent-shaped orifice near the center.  The gland secretes a foul-smelling, brown, sticky substance. The brachial gland is barely developed if present at all in females.  Both genders also have apocrine and sebaceous glands in their genital or perianal regions, which are covered in fur.Its fingers are slender, padded, mostly lacking webbing, and semi-dexterous with flat, human-like nails.  "


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"The thumb is both short and widely separated from the other fingers.  Despite being set at a right angle to the palm, the thumb is not opposable since the ball of the joint is fixed in place.  As with all strepsirrhines, the hand is ectaxonic (the axis passes through the fourth digit) rather than mesaxonic (the axis passing through the third digit) as seen in monkeys and apes.  The fourth digit is the longest, and only slightly longer than the second digit.  Likewise, the fifth digit is only slightly longer than the second.  The palms are long and leathery, and like other primates, they have dermal ridges to improve grip.  The feet are semi-digitigrade and more specialized than the hands.  The big toe is opposable and is smaller than the big toe of other lemurs, which are more arboreal.  The second toe is short, has a small terminal pad, and has a toilet-claw (sometimes referred to as a grooming claw) specialized for personal grooming, specifically to rake through fur that is unreachable by the mouth.  The toilet-claw is a trait shared among nearly all living strepsirrhine primates.  Unlike other lemurs, the ring-tailed lemur's heel is not covered by fur.\n\n"


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"=== Dentition ===\n\nThe ring-tailed lemur has a dentition of 2.1.3.32.1.3.3\u2009\u00d7\u20092 = 36, meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors, one canine tooth, three premolars, and three molar teeth.  Its deciduous dentition is 2.1.32.1.3\u2009\u00d7\u20092 = 24.  The permanent teeth erupt in the following order: m 1/1 (first molars), i 2/2 (first incisors), i 3/3 (second incisors), C1 (upper canines), m 2/2 (second molars), c1 (lower canines), m 3/3 (third molars), p 4/4 (third premolars), p 3/3 (second premolars), p 2/2 (first premolars).Its lower incisors (i1 and i2) are long, narrow, and finely spaced while pointing almost straight forward in the mouth (procumbent).  Together with the incisor-shaped (incisiform) lower canines (c1), which are slightly larger and also procumbent, form a structure called a toothcomb, a trait unique to nearly all strepsirrhine primates.  The toothcomb is used during oral grooming, which involves licking and tooth-scraping.  It may also be used for grasping small fruits, removing leaves from the stem when eating, and possibly scraping sap and gum from tree bark.  "


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"The toothcomb is kept clean using a sublingual organ\u2014a thin, flat, fibrous plate that covers a large part of the base of the tongue.  The first lower premolar (p2) following the toothcomb is shaped like a canine (caniniform) and occludes the upper canine, essentially filling the role of the incisiform lower canine.  There is also a diastema (gap) between the second and third premolars (p2 and p3).The upper incisors are small, with the first incisors (I1) space widely from each other, yet closely to the second incisors (I2).  Both are compressed buccolingually (between the cheek and the tongue).  The upper canines (C1) are long, have a broad base, and curve down and back (recurved).  The upper canines exhibit slight sexual dimorphism, with males exhibiting slightly larger canines than females.  Both sexes use them in combat by slashing with them.  There is a small diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar (P2), which is smaller and more caniniform than the other premolars.  Unlike other lemurs, the first two upper molars (M1 and M2) have prominent lingual cingulae, yet do not have a protostyle.\n\n== Ecology ==\nThe ring-tailed lemur is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. "


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"It is the most terrestrial of lemur species, spending as much as 33% of its time on the ground. However it is still considerably arboreal, spending 23% of its time in the mid-level canopy, 25% in the upper-level canopy, 6% in the emergent layer and 13% in small bushes. Troop travel is 70% terrestrial.Troop size, home range, and population density vary by region and food availability. Troops typically range in size from 6 to 25, although troops with over 30 individuals have been recorded. The average troop contains 13 to 15 individuals. Home range size varies between 6 and 35 hectares (15 and 86 acres). Troops of the ring-tailed lemur will maintain a territory, but overlap is often high. When encounters occur, they are agonistic, or hostile in nature. A troop will usually occupy the same part of its range for three or four days before moving. When it does move, the average traveling distance is 1 km (0.62 mi). Population density ranges from 100 individuals per 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi) in dry forests to 250\u2013600 individuals per km2 in gallery and secondary forests.The ring-tailed lemur has both native and introduced predators. "


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"Native predators include the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), the Madagascar harrier-hawk (Polyboroides radiatus), the Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus) and the Madagascar ground boa (Acrantophis madagascariensis). Introduced predators include the small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), the domestic cat and the domestic dog.\n\n=== Geographic range and habitat ===\nEndemic to southern and southwestern Madagascar, the ring-tailed lemur ranges further into highland areas than other lemurs.  It inhabits deciduous forests, dry scrub, montane humid forests, and gallery forests (forests along riverbanks). It strongly favors gallery forests, but such forests have now been cleared from much of Madagascar in order to create pasture for livestock. Depending on location, temperatures within its geographic range can vary from \u221212 \u00b0C (10 \u00b0F) at Andringitra Massif to 48 \u00b0C (118 \u00b0F) in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve.This species is found as far east as T\u00f4lanaro, inland towards the mountains of Andringitra on the southeastern plateau, among the spiny forests of the southern part of the island, and north along the west coast to the town of Belo sur Mer.  Historically, the northern limits of its range in the west extended to the Morondava River near Morondava.  "


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"It can still be found in Kirindy Mitea National Park, just south of Morondava, though at very low densities.  It does not occur in Kirindy Forest Reserve, north of Morondava.  Its distribution throughout the rest of its range is very spotty, with population densities varying widely.The ring-tailed lemur can be easily seen in five national parks in Madagascar: Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Isalo National Park, Tsimanampetsotse National Park, and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park.  It can also be found in Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve, Kalambatritra Special Reserve, Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Amboasary Sud, Berenty Private Reserve, Anja Community Reserve, and marginally at Kirindy Mitea National Park.  Unprotected forests that the species has been reported in include Ankoba, Ankodida, Anjatsikolo, Anbatotsilongolongo, Mahazoarivo, Masiabiby, and Mikea.Within the protected regions it is known to inhabit, the ring-tailed lemur is sympatric (shares its range) with as many as 24 species of lemur, covering every living genus except Allocebus, Indri, and Varecia.  Historically, the species used to be sympatric with the critically endangered southern black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata editorum), which was once found at Andringitra National Park; however, no sightings of the ruffed lemur have been reported in recent years.\n"


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"In western Madagascar, sympatric ring-tailed lemurs and red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons) have been studied together. Little interaction takes place between the two species. While the diets of the two species overlap, they eat in different proportions since the ring-tailed lemur has a more varied diet and spends more time on the ground.\n\n=== Diet ===\nThe ring-tailed lemur is an opportunistic omnivore primarily eating fruits and leaves, particularly those of the tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica), known natively as kily. When available, tamarind makes up as much as 50% of the diet, especially during the dry, winter season. The ring-tailed lemur eats from as many as three dozen different plant species, and its diet includes flowers, herbs, bark and sap. It has been observed eating decayed wood, earth, spider webs, insect cocoons, arthropods (spiders, caterpillars, cicadas and grasshoppers) and small vertebrates (birds and chameleons). During the dry season it becomes increasingly opportunistic.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\n=== Social systems ===\nTroops are classified as multi-male groups, with a matriline as the core group. As with most lemurs, females socially dominate males in all circumstances, including feeding priority. Dominance is enforced by lunging, chasing, cuffing, grabbing and biting. "


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"Young females do not always inherit their mother's rank and young males leave the troop between three and five years of age. Both sexes have separate dominance hierarchies; females have a distinct hierarchy while male rank is correlated with age. Each troop has one to three central, high-ranking adult males who interact with females more than other group males and lead the troop procession with high-ranking females. Recently transferred males, old males or young adult males that have not yet left their natal group are often lower ranking. Staying at the periphery of the group they tend to be marginalized from group activity.\n\nFor males, social structure changes can be seasonal. During the six-month period between December and May a few males immigrate between groups. Established males transfer on average every 3.5 years, although young males may transfer approximately every 1.4 years. Group fission occurs when groups get too large and resources become scarce.In the mornings the ring-tailed lemur sunbathes to warm itself. It faces the sun sitting in what is frequently described as a \"sun-worshipping\" posture or lotus position. However, it sits with its legs extended outward, not cross-legged, and will often support itself on nearby branches. "


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"Sunning is often a group activity, particularly during the cold mornings. At night, troops will split into sleeping parties huddling closely together to keep warm.Despite being quadrupedal the ring-tailed lemur can rear up and balance on its hind legs, usually for aggressive displays. When threatened the ring-tailed lemur may jump in the air and strike out with its short nails and sharp upper canine teeth in a behaviour termed jump fighting. This is extremely rare outside of the breeding season when tensions are high and competition for mates is intense. Other aggressive behaviours include a threat-stare, used to intimidate or start a fight, and a submissive gesture known as pulled-back lips.Border disputes with rival troops occur occasionally and it is the dominant female's responsibility to defend the troop's home range. Agonistic encounters include staring, lunging approaches and occasional physical aggression, and conclude with troop members retreating toward the center of the home range.\n\n==== Olfactory communication ====\n\nOlfactory communication is critically important for strepsirrhines like the ring-tailed lemur. Males and females scent mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands. "


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"The ring-tailed lemur will perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces, grasping the highest point with its feet while it applies its scent. Use of scent marking varies by age, sex and social status. Male lemurs use their antebrachial and brachial glands to demarcate territories and maintain intragroup dominance hierarchies. The thorny spur that overlays the antebrachial gland on each wrist is scraped against tree trunks to create grooves anointed with their scent. This is known as spur-marking.In displays of aggression, males engage in a social display behaviour called stink fighting, which involves impregnating their tails with secretions from the antebrachial and brachial glands and waving the scented tail at male rivals.Ring-tailed lemurs have also been shown to mark using urine.  Behaviorally, there is a difference between regular urination, where the tail is slightly raised and a stream of urine is produced, and the urine marking behavior, where the tail is held up in display and only a few drops of urine are used.  The urine-marking behavior is typically used by females to mark territory, and has been observed primarily at the edges of the troop's territory and in areas where other troops may frequent.  "


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"The urine marking behavior also is most frequent during the mating season, and may play a role in reproductive communication between groups.\n\n==== Auditory communication ====\n\nThe ring-tailed lemur is one of the most vocal primates and has a complex array of distinct vocalizations used to maintain group cohesion during foraging and alert group members to the presence of a predator.  Calls range from simple to complex.  An example of a simple call is the purr (listen ), which expresses contentment.  A complex call is the sequence of clicks, close-mouth click series (CMCS), open-mouth click series (OMCS) and yaps (listen ) used during predator mobbing. Some calls have variants and undergo transitions between variants, such as an infant \"whit\" (distress call) transitioning from one variant to another (listen ).The most commonly heard vocalizations are the moan (listen ) (low-to-moderate arousal, group cohesion), early-high wail (listen ) (moderate-to-high arousal, group cohesion), and clicks (listen ) (\"location marker\" to draw attention).\n\n=== Breeding and reproduction ===\n\nThe ring-tailed lemur is polygynandrous, although the dominant male in the troop typically breeds with more females than other males. Fighting is most common during the breeding season. "


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"A receptive female may initiate mating by presenting her backside, lifting her tail and looking at the desired male over her shoulder. Males may inspect the female's genitals to determine receptiveness. Females typically mate within their troop, but may seek outside males.The breeding season runs from mid-April to mid-May. Estrus lasts 4 to 6 hours, and females mate with multiple males during this period.  Within a troop, females stagger their receptivity so that each female comes into season on a different day during the breeding season, reducing competition for male attention. Females lactate during the wet season, from December through April, when resources are readily available. Females gestate during the dry season, from May through September, when resources are low. Females give birth during seasons where resources, such as flowers, are in peak. Gestation lasts for about 135 days, and parturition occurs in September or occasionally October.  In the wild, one offspring is the norm, although twins may occur. "


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"Ring-tailed lemur infants have a birth weight of 70 g (2.5 oz) and are carried ventrally (on the chest) for the first 1 to 2 weeks, then dorsally (on the back).The young lemurs begin to eat solid food after two months and are fully weaned after five months. Sexual maturity is reached between 2.5 and 3 years. Male involvement in infant rearing is limited, although the entire troop, regardless of age or sex, can be seen caring for the young. Alloparenting between troop females has been reported. Kidnapping by females and infanticide by males also occur occasionally. Due to harsh environmental conditions, predation and accidents such as falls, infant mortality can be as high as 50% within the first year and as few as 30% may reach adulthood.  The longest-lived ring-tailed lemur in the wild was a female at the Berenty Reserve who lived for 20 years. In the wild, females rarely live past the age of 16, whereas the life expectancy of males is not known due to their social structure.  The longest-lived male was reported to be 15 years old.  The maximum lifespan reported in captivity was 27 years.\n\n"


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"=== Cognitive abilities and tool use ===\nHistorically, the studies of learning and cognition in non-human primates have focused on simians (monkeys and apes), while strepsirrhine primates, such as the ring-tailed lemur and its allies, have been overlooked and popularly dismissed as unintelligent. A couple of factors stemming from early experiments have played a role in the development of this assumption. First, the experimental design of older tests may have favored the natural behavior and ecology of simians over that of strepsirrhines, making the experimental tasks inappropriate for lemurs. For example, simians are known for their manipulative play with non-food objects, whereas lemurs are only known to manipulate non-food objects in captivity. This behaviour is usually connected with food association. Also, lemurs are known to displace objects with their nose or mouth more so than with their hands.  Therefore, an experiment requiring a lemur to manipulate an object without prior training would favor simians over strepsirrhines. Second, individual ring-tailed lemurs accustomed to living in a troop may not respond well to isolation for laboratory testing. "


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"Past studies have reported hysterical behaviour in such scenarios.The notion that lemurs are unintelligent has been perpetuated by the view that the neocortex ratio (as a measure of brain size) indicates intelligence. In fact, primatologist Alison Jolly noted early in her academic career that some lemur species, such as the ring-tailed lemur, have evolved a social complexity similar to that of cercopithecine monkeys, but not the corresponding intelligence. After years of observations of wild ring-tailed lemur populations at the Berenty Reserve in Madagascar and as well as baboons in Africa, she more recently concluded that this highly social lemur species does not demonstrate the equivalent social complexity of cercopithecine monkeys, despite general appearances.Regardless, research has continued to illuminate the complexity of the lemur mind, with emphasis on the cognitive abilities of the ring-tailed lemur. As early as the mid-1970s, studies had demonstrated that they could be trained through operant conditioning using standard schedules of reinforcement. The species has been shown to be capable of learning pattern, brightness, and object discrimination, skills common among vertebrates. "


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"The ring-tailed lemur has also been shown to learn a variety of complex tasks often equaling, if not exceeding, the performance of simians.More recently, research at the Duke Lemur Center has shown that the ring-tailed lemur can organize sequences in memory and retrieve ordered sequences without language. The experimental design demonstrated that the lemurs were using internal representation of the sequence to guide their responses and not simply following a trained sequence, where one item in the sequence cues the selection of the next. But this is not the limit of the ring-tailed lemur's reasoning skills. Another study, performed at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve, suggests that this species along with several other closely related lemur species understand simple arithmetic operations.Since tool use is considered to be a key feature of primate intelligence, the apparent lack of this behavior in wild lemurs, as well as the lack of non-food object play, has helped reinforce the perception that lemurs are less intelligent than their simian cousins. "


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"However, another study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve examined the representation of tool functionality in both the ring-tailed lemur and the common brown lemur and discovered that, like monkeys, they used tools with functional properties (e.g., tool orientation or ease of use) instead of tools with nonfunctional features (e.g., color or texture). Although the ring-tailed lemur may not use tools in the wild, it can not only be trained to use a tool, but will preferentially select tools based on their functional qualities. Therefore, the conceptual competence to use a tool may have been present in the common primate ancestor, even though the use of tools may not have appeared until much later.\n\n== Conservation status ==\nIn addition to being listed as endangered in 2014 by the IUCN, the ring-tailed lemur has been listed since 1977 by CITES under Appendix I, which makes trade of wild-caught specimens illegal. Although there are more endangered species of lemur, the ring-tailed lemur is considered a flagship species due to its recognizability. "


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"As of 2017, only about 2,000 ring-tailed lemurs are estimated to be left in the wild, making the threat of extinction far more serious for them than previously believed.\n\nThree factors threaten ring-tailed lemurs. First and foremost is habitat destruction.  Starting nearly 2,000 years ago with the introduction of humans to the island, forests have been cleared to produce pasture and agricultural land. Extraction of hardwoods for fuel and lumber, as well mining and overgrazing, have also taken their toll.  Today, it is estimated that 90% of Madagascar's original forest cover has been lost. Rising populations have created even greater demand in the southwest portion of the island for fuel wood, charcoal, and lumber. Fires from the clearing of grasslands, as well as slash-and-burn agriculture destroy forests.  Another threat to the species is harvesting either for food (bushmeat), fur clothing or pets. Finally, periodic drought common to southern Madagascar can impact populations already in decline.  In 1991 and 1992, for example, a severe drought caused an abnormally high mortality rate among infants and females at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve.  "


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"Two years later, the population had declined by 31% and took nearly four years to start to recover.The ring-tailed lemur resides in several protected areas within its range, each offering varying levels of protection. At the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, a holistic approach to in-situ conservation has been taken.  Not only does field research and resource management involve international students and local people (including school children), livestock management is used at the peripheral zones of the reserve and ecotourism benefits the local people.Outside of its diminishing habitat and other threats, the ring-tailed lemur reproduces readily and has fared well in captivity.  For this reason, along with its popularity, it has become the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, with more than 2500 in captivity as of 2009.  It is also the most common of all captive primates.  Ex situ facilities actively involved in the conservation of the ring-tailed lemur include the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina, the Lemur Conservation Foundation in Myakka City, Florida, and the Madagascar Fauna Group headquartered at the Saint Louis Zoo.  Due to the high success of captive breeding, reintroduction is a possibility if wild populations were to crash.  "


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"Although experimental releases have met success on St. Catherines Island in Georgia, demonstrating that captive lemurs can readily adapt to their environment and exhibit a full range of natural behaviors, captive release is not currently being considered.Ring-tailed lemur populations can also benefit from drought intervention, due to the availability of watering troughs and introduced fruit trees, as seen at the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar.  However, these interventions are not always seen favorably, since natural population fluctuations are not permitted.  The species is thought to have evolved its high fecundity due to its harsh environment.\n\n== Cultural references ==\nThe ring-tailed lemur is known locally in Malagasy as maky (pronounced [\u02c8mak\u02b2i\u0325], and spelled maki in French) or hira (pronounced [\u02c8hir\u0259] or colloquially [\u02c8ir]).  Being the most widely recognized endemic primate on the island, it has been selected as the symbol for Madagascar National Parks (formerly known as ANGAP).  "


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"The Maki brand, which started by selling T-shirts in Madagascar and now sells clothing across the Indian Ocean islands, is named after this lemur due to its popularity, despite the fact that the company's logo portrays the face of a sifaka and its name uses the French spelling.The first mention of the ring-tailed lemur in Western literature came in 1625 when English traveler and writer Samuel Purchas described them as being comparable in size to a monkey and having a fox-like long tail with black and white rings. Charles Catton included the species in his 1788 book Animals Drawn from Nature and Engraved in Aqua-tinta, calling it the \"Maucauco\" and regarding it as a type of monkey.It has been popularized in Western culture by the Animal Planet television series Lemur Street, as well as by the character King Julien in the animated Madagascar film and TV franchise. The ring-tailed lemur was also the focus of the 1996 Nature documentary A Lemur's Tale, which was filmed at the Berenty Reserve and followed a troop of lemurs.  "


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"The troop included a special infant named Sapphire, who was nearly albino, with white fur, bright blue eyes, and the characteristic ringed tail.This species also played a role in the 1997 comedy film Fierce Creatures, starring John Cleese, who has a passion for lemurs. Cleese later hosted the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese, which tracked the progress of a reintroduction of black-and-white ruffed lemurs back into the Betampona Reserve in Madagascar.  The project had been partly funded by Cleese's donation of the proceeds from the London premier of Fierce Creatures.\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n=== Literature cited ===\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial ring-tailed lemur species survival plan\nRing-tailed Lemur: Lemur catta \u2013 Tree of Life Project\nARKive \u2013 images and movies of the ring-tailed lemur\nPrimate Info Net Lemur catta Factsheet\nLemur Conservation Foundation: ring-tailed lemurs\nNature: A Lemur's Tale\nPBS: In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese"


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"The grey crowned crane (Balearica regulorum), also known as the African crowned crane, golden crested crane, golden crowned crane, East African crane, East African crowned crane, African crane, Eastern crowned crane, Kavirondo crane, South African crane and crested crane, is a bird in the crane family, Gruidae. It is found in eastern and southern Africa, and is the national bird of Uganda.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe grey crowned crane is closely related to the black crowned crane, and the two species have sometimes been treated as the same species. The two are separable on the basis of genetic evidence, calls, plumage and bare parts, and all authorities treat them as different species today.There are two subspecies. The East African B. r. gibbericeps (crested crane) occurs in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in Uganda, of which it is the national bird represented in its national flag, and Kenya to eastern South Africa. It has a larger area of bare red facial skin above the white patch than the smaller nominate species, B. r. regulorum (South African crowned crane), which breeds from Angola south to South Africa.\n\n"


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"== Description ==\n\nThe grey crowned crane is about 1 m (3.3 ft) tall, weighs 3.5 kg (7.7 lbs), and has a wingspan of 2 m (6.5 ft). Its body plumage is mainly grey. The wings are predominantly white, but contain feathers with a range of colours, with a distinctive black patch at the very top. The head has a crown of stiff golden feathers. The sides of the face are white, and there is a bright red inflatable throat pouch. The bill is relatively short and grey, and the legs are black. They have long legs for wading through the grasses. The feet are large, yet slender, adapted for balance rather than defence or grasping. The sexes are similar, although males tend to be slightly larger. Young birds are greyer than adults, with a feathered buff face.\nThis species and the black crowned crane are the only cranes that can roost in trees, because of a long hind toe that can grasp branches. This trait is assumed to be an ancestral trait among the cranes, which has been lost in the other subfamily. Crowned cranes also lack a coiled trachea and have loose plumage compared to the other cranes.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe grey crowned crane occurs in dry savannah in Sub-Saharan Africa, although it nests in somewhat wetter habitats. They can also be found in marshes, cultivated lands and grassy flatlands near rivers and lakes in Uganda and Kenya and as far south as South Africa. This animal does not have set migration patterns, and birds nearer the tropics are typically sedentary. Birds in more arid areas, particularly Namibia, make localised seasonal movements during drier periods.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nThe grey crowned crane has a breeding display involving dancing, bowing, and jumping. It has a booming call which involves inflation of the red gular sac. It also makes a honking sound quite different from the trumpeting of other crane species. Both sexes dance, and immature birds join the adults. Dancing is an integral part of courtship, but also may be done at any time of the year.\nFlocks of 30\u2013150 birds are not uncommon.\n\n=== Diet and feeding ===\nThese cranes are omnivores, eating plants, seeds, grain, insects, frogs, worms, snakes, small fish and the eggs of aquatic animals. Stamping their feet as they walk, they flush out insects which are quickly caught and eaten. "


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"The birds also associate with grazing herbivores, benefiting from the ability to grab prey items disturbed by antelopes and gazelles. They spend their entire day looking for food. At night, the crowned crane spends its time in the trees sleeping and resting.\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nGrey crowned cranes time their breeding season around the rains, although the effect varies geographically. In East Africa the species breeds year-round, but most frequently during the drier periods, whereas in Southern Africa the breeding season is timed to coincide with the rains. During the breeding season, pairs of cranes construct a large nest; a platform of grass and other plants in tall wetland vegetation.\n\nThe grey crowned crane lays a clutch of 2-5 glossy, dirty-white eggs, which are incubated by both sexes for 28\u201331 days. Chicks are precocial, can run as soon as they hatch, and fledge in 56\u2013100 days. Once they are fully grown and independent, chicks of different sexes will separate from their parents to start their own family. Grey crowned cranes have been seen to congregate in large numbers in a ceremony akin to a wedding when two chicks are being married off. "


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"The new couple dance for a while before flying off together to start a new family.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\n=== Status and conservation ===\nAlthough the grey crowned crane remains common over some of its range, it faces threats to its habitat due to drainage, overgrazing, and pesticide pollution. Their global population is estimated to be between 58,000 and 77,000 individuals. In 2012 it was uplisted from vulnerable to endangered by the IUCN.\n\n=== Symbolism ===\nThe grey crowned crane is the national bird of Uganda and features in the country's flag and coat of arms.  The bird also appears as an antagonist in Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2, Mr. Bean, and Debbie Does Dallas.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nSpecies text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds\nGrey crowned crane (International Crane Foundation)"


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"Morelia spilota cheynei, or the jungle carpet python, is a python subspecies found in the rainforests of Queensland, Australia.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe specific name, cheynei, is in honor of Cheyne Wellington.\n\n== Geographic range ==\nThe type locality given is \"Ravenshoe, on the Atherton Tableland, north Queensland, in Lat. 17\u00b0 36' S, Long 145\u00b0 29' E\" (Australia).\n\n== Size ==\nAdults of these medium-sized pythons typically measure 5\u20137 ft (1.5\u20132.1 m) in total length. However, wild caught females are known to grow to over 8.5 ft (2.6 m). As with most species of snakes, females are typically larger than males. This is not, however, always the case.\n\n== Diet ==\nLike all snakes these semiarboreal snakes are strictly carnivorous. They feed on medium-sized rodents such as rats, mice, and baby rabbits in captivity.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nWells, R.W.; Wellington, C.R. (1984). \"A Synopsis of the Class Reptilia in Australia\". Australian Journal of Herpetology. 1 (3\u20134): 73\u2013129. (\"Morelia cheynei sp. nov.\", pp. 106\u2013107.)== External links ==\n\nMorelia spilota at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 17 September 2007."


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"A well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, or drilling to access liquid resources, usually water. The oldest and most common kind of well is a water well, to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn up by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets or large water bags that are raised mechanically or by hand. Water can also be injected back into the aquifer through the well. Wells were first constructed at least eight thousand years ago and historically vary in construction from a simple scoop in the sediment of a dry watercourse to the qanats of Iran, and the stepwells and sakiehs of India. Placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability, and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age.\nWells have traditionally been sunk by hand digging, as is still the case in rural areas of the developing world. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, and the structure can be lined with brick or stone as the excavation proceeds. "


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"A more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Driven wells can be created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure, which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen of perforated pipe, after which a pump is installed to collect the water. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole. Drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at much greater depths than dug wells.\nTwo broad classes of well are shallow or unconfined wells completed within the uppermost saturated aquifer at that location, and deep or confined wells, sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer beneath. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a freshwater lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, or groundwater surveyor. Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided. "


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"Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water table falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water.\n\n== History ==\n\nVery early neolithic wells are known from the Eastern Mediterranean: The oldest reliably dated well is from the pre-pottery neolithic (PPN) site of Kissonerga-Mylouthkia on Cyprus. At around 8400 BC a shaft (well 116) of circular diameter was driven through limestone to reach an aquifer at a depth of 8 metres (26 ft). Well 2070 from Kissonerga-Mylouthkia, dating to the late PPN, reaches a depth of 13 metres (43 ft). Other slightly younger wells are known from this site and from neighbouring Parekklisha-Shillourokambos. A first stone lined well of 5.5 metres (18 ft) depth is documented from a drowned final PPN (c. 7000 BC) site at \u2018Atlit-Yam off the coast near modern Haifa in Israel.\n"


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"Wood-lined wells are known from the early Neolithic Linear Pottery culture, for example in Ostrov, Czech Republic, dated 5265 BC, K\u00fcckhoven (an outlying centre of Erkelenz), dated 5090 BC, and Eythra in Schletz (an outlying centre of Asparn an der Zaya) in Austria, dated 5200 BC.Some of the earliest evidence of water wells is located in China. The neolithic Chinese discovered and made extensive use of deep drilled groundwater for drinking. The Chinese text The Book of Changes, originally a divination text of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -771 BC), contains an entry describing how the ancient Chinese maintained their wells and protected their sources of water. A well excavated at the Hemedu excavation site was believed to have been built during the neolithic era. The well was cased by four rows of logs with a square frame attached to them at the top of the well. 60 additional tile wells southwest of Beijing are also believed to have been built around 600 BC for drinking and irrigation.\n\nIn Egypt, shadoofs and sakias are used. The sakia is much more efficient, as it can bring up water from a depth of 10 metres (versus the 3 metres of the shadoof). "


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"The sakia is the Egyptian version of the noria. Some of the world's oldest known wells, located in Cyprus, date to 7000\u20138,500 BC. Two wells from the Neolithic period, around 6500 BC, have been discovered in Israel. One is in Atlit, on the northern coast of Israel, and the other is the Jezreel Valley.Wells for other purposes came along much later, historically. The first recorded salt well was dug in the Sichuan province of China around 2,250 years ago. This was the first time that ancient water well technology was applied successfully for the exploitation of salt, and marked the beginning of Sichuan's salt drilling industry. The earliest known oil wells were also drilled in China, in 347 CE. These wells had depths of up to about 240 metres (790 ft) and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century.\n\n"


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"== Types ==\n\n=== Dug wells ===\n\nUntil recent centuries, all artificial wells were pumpless hand-dug wells of varying degrees of sophistication, and they remain a very important source of potable water in some rural developing areas, where they are routinely dug and used today. Their indispensability has produced a number of literary references, literal and figurative, including the reference to the incident of Jesus meeting a woman at Jacob's well (John 4:6) in the Bible and the \"Ding Dong Bell\" nursery rhyme about a cat in a well.\nHand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging. They can be lined with stone or brick; extending this lining upwards above the ground surface to form a wall around the well serves to reduce both contamination and accidental falls into the well.\nA more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. "


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"A well-digging team digs under a cutting ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer, whilst protecting the team from collapse of the well bore.\nHand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech (compared to drilling) and they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations of developing countries.  They may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been successfully excavated to 60 metres (200 ft). They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand, without a pump. The water often comes from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened, which may be necessary if the ground water level drops, by telescoping the lining further down into the aquifer. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes.\nDrawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous. It can be impractical to hand dig wells in areas where hard rock is present, and they can be time-consuming to dig and line even in favourable areas. "


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"Because they exploit shallow aquifers, the well may be susceptible to yield fluctuations and possible contamination from surface water, including sewage. Hand dug well construction generally requires the use of a well trained construction team, and the capital investment for equipment such as concrete ring moulds, heavy lifting equipment, well shaft formwork, motorized de-watering pumps, and fuel can be large for people in developing countries. Construction of hand dug wells can be dangerous due to collapse of the well bore, falling objects and asphyxiation, including from dewatering pump exhaust fumes.\nThe Woodingdean Water Well, hand-dug between 1858 and 1862, is the deepest hand-dug well at 392 metres (1,285 ft). The Big Well in Greensburg, Kansas is billed as the world's largest hand-dug well, at 109 feet (33 m) deep and 32 feet (9.8 m) in diameter. However, the Well of Joseph in the Cairo Citadel at 280 feet (85 m) deep and the Pozzo di S. Patrizio (St. Patrick's Well) built in 1527 in Orvieto, Italy, at 61 metres (200 ft) deep by 13 metres (43 ft) wide are both larger by volume.\n\n"


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"=== Driven wells ===\nDriven wells may be very simply created in unconsolidated material with a well hole structure, which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen (perforated pipe). The point is simply hammered into the ground, usually with a tripod and driver, with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When groundwater is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a pump installed.\n\n=== Drilled wells ===\n\nDrilled wells are typically created using either top-head rotary style, table rotary, or cable tool drilling machines, all of which use drilling stems that are turned to create a cutting action in the formation, hence the term drilling.\nDrilled wells can be excavated by simple hand drilling methods (augering, sludging, jetting, driving, hand percussion) or machine drilling (rotary, percussion, down the hole hammer). Deeprock rotary drilling method is most common. Rotary can be used in 90% of formation types.\n"


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"Drilled wells can get water from a much deeper level than dug wells can\u2014often down to several hundred metres.Drilled wells with electric pumps are used throughout the world, typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are supplied partly by municipal wells. Most shallow well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle carriages. Water wells typically range from 3 to 18 metres (10\u201360 ft) deep, but in some areas can go deeper than 900 metres (3,000 ft).\n\nRotary drilling machines use a segmented steel drilling string, typically made up of 6 m (20 ft) sections of galvanized steel tubing that are threaded together, with a bit or other drilling device at the bottom end.  Some rotary drilling machines are designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as a circulation fluid to displace cuttings and cool bits during the drilling. "


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"Another form of rotary-style drilling, termed mud rotary, makes use of a specially made mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically, boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after the drilling process is completed, regardless of the machinery used.\nThe oldest form of drilling machinery is the cable tool, still used today. Specifically designed to raise and lower a bit into the bore hole, the spudding of the drill causes the bit to be raised and dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately 1\u20444 revolution per drop, thereby creating a drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or emptied of drilled cuttings.\nDrilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe, typically steel (in air rotary or cable tool drilling) or plastic/PVC (in mud rotary wells, also present in wells drilled into solid rock). "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The casing is constructed by welding, either chemically or thermally, segments of casing together. If the casing is installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the casing to be rotated and drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit advancing just below.  PVC or plastic is typically welded and then lowered into the drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested and either glued or splined together. The sections of casing are usually 6 metres (20 ft) or more in length, and 6 to 12 in (15 to 30 cm) in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well and local groundwater conditions.\nSurface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a surface seal. A large hole is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller hole for the well is completed from that point forward. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The well is typically cased from the surface down into the smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole and the smaller casing is filled with bentonite clay, concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal from the surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the casing or borehole and into the aquifer. In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized persons from accessing the well.\nAt the bottom of wells, based on formation, a screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels, etc.), allowing water and a percentage of the formation to pass through the screen. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Allowing some material to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass into the well slowly decreases and is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing and screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly. Some wells utilize a filter pack method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well and a filter medium is packed around the screen, between the screen and the borehole or casing. This allows the water to be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well and pumping zone.\n\n== Classification ==\n\nThere are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of aquifer the well is in:\n\nShallow or unconfined wells are completed in the uppermost saturated aquifer at that location (the upper unconfined aquifer).\nDeep or confined wells are sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable strata (aquitards or aquicludes).  "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The majority of deep aquifers are classified as artesian because the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the level of the top of the aquifer. If the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land surface it is a \"flowing\" artesian well (named after Artois in France).\nA special type of water well may be constructed adjacent to freshwater lakes or streams. Commonly called a collector well but sometimes referred to by the trade name Ranney well or Ranney collector, this type of well involves sinking a caisson vertically below the top of the aquifer and then advancing lateral collectors out of the caisson and beneath the surface water body. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Pumping from within the caisson induces infiltration of water from the surface water body into the aquifer, where it is collected by the collector well laterals and conveyed into the caisson where it can be pumped to the ground surface.Two additional broad classes of well types may be distinguished, based on the use of the well:\n\nproduction or pumping wells, are large diameter (greater than 15 cm in diameter) cased (metal, plastic, or concrete) water wells,  constructed for extracting water from the aquifer by a pump (if the well is not artesian).\nmonitoring wells or piezometers, are often smaller diameter wells used to monitor the hydraulic head or sample the groundwater for chemical constituents. Piezometers are monitoring wells completed over a very short section of aquifer. Monitoring wells can also be completed at multiple levels, allowing discrete samples or measurements to be made at different vertical elevations at the same map location.A well constructed for pumping groundwater can be used passively as a monitoring well and a small diameter well can be pumped, but this distinction by use is common.\n\n"


id: 19c00c7ba1a9b611ed68408e7a8f520d
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"== Siting ==\nBefore excavation, information about the geology, water table depth, seasonal fluctuations, recharge area and rate must be found. This work is typically done by a hydrogeologist, or a groundwater surveyor using a variety of tools including electro-seismic surveying, any available information from nearby wells, geologic maps, and sometimes geophysical imaging.\n\n== Contamination ==\n\nShallow pumping wells can often supply drinking water at a very low cost. However, impurities from the surface easily reach shallow sources, which leads to a greater risk of contamination for these wells compared to deeper wells. Contaminated wells can lead to the spread of various waterborne diseases. Dug and driven wells are relatively easy to contaminate; for instance, most dug wells are unreliable in the majority of the United States.\n\n=== Pathogens ===\nMost of the bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from humans and other animals, for example from on-site sanitation systems (such as pit latrines and septic tanks). Common bacterial contaminants include E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter jejuni. Common viral contaminants include norovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enteroviruses, and hepatitis A and E. Parasites include Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and microsporidia.\n\n"


id: dd3f5b609d0f9467de3494766bbbe20f
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
updated_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"=== Chemical contamination ===\nChemical contamination is a common problem with groundwater. Nitrates from sewage, sewage sludge or fertilizer are a particular problem for babies and young children. Pollutant chemicals include pesticides and volatile organic compounds from gasoline, dry-cleaning, the fuel additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), and perchlorate from rocket fuel, airbag inflators, and other artificial and natural sources.Several minerals are also contaminants, including lead leached from brass fittings or old lead pipes, chromium VI from electroplating and other sources, naturally occurring arsenic, radon, and uranium\u2014all of which can cause cancer\u2014and naturally occurring fluoride, which is desirable in low quantities to prevent tooth decay, but can cause dental fluorosis in higher concentrations.Some chemicals are commonly present in water wells at levels that are not toxic, but can cause other problems. Calcium and magnesium cause what is known as hard water, which can precipitate and clog pipes or burn out water heaters. Iron and manganese can appear as dark flecks that stain clothing and plumbing, and can promote the growth of iron and manganese bacteria that can form slimy black colonies that clog pipes.\n\n"


id: f23094819870d4ebf3413f0dbae54683
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"=== Prevention ===\n\nThe quality of the well water can be significantly increased by lining the well, sealing the well head, fitting a self-priming hand pump, constructing an apron, ensuring the area is kept clean and free from stagnant water and animals, moving sources of contamination (pit latrines, garbage pits, on-site sewer systems) and carrying out hygiene education. The well should be cleaned with 1% chlorine solution after construction and periodically every 6 months.Well holes should be covered to prevent loose debris, animals, animal excrement, and wind-blown foreign matter from falling into the hole and decomposing. The cover should be able to be in place at all times, including when drawing water from the well. A suspended roof over an open hole helps to some degree, but ideally the cover should be tight fitting and fully enclosing, with only a screened air vent.Minimum distances and soil percolation requirements between sewage disposal sites and water wells need to be observed. Rules regarding the design and installation of private and municipal septic systems take all these factors into account so that nearby drinking water sources are protected.\n"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Education of the general population in society also plays an important role in protecting drinking water.\n\n=== Mitigation ===\nCleanup of contaminated groundwater tends to be very costly. Effective remediation of groundwater is generally very difficult. Contamination of groundwater from surface and subsurface sources can usually be dramatically reduced by correctly centering the casing during construction and filling the casing annulus with an appropriate sealing material. The sealing material (grout) should be placed from immediately above the production zone back to surface, because, in the absence of a correctly constructed casing seal, contaminated fluid can travel into the well through the casing annulus. Centering devices are important (usually one per length of casing or at maximum intervals of 9 m) to ensure that the grouted annular space is of even thickness.Upon the construction of a new test well, it is considered best practice to invest in a complete battery of chemical and biological tests on the well water in question.  Point-of-use treatment is available for individual properties and treatment plants are often constructed for municipal water supplies that suffer from contamination.  "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Most of these treatment methods involve the filtration of the contaminants of concern, and additional protection may be garnered by installing well-casing screens only at depths where contamination is not present.Wellwater for personal use is often filtered with reverse osmosis water processors; this process can remove very small particles.  A simple, effective way of killing microorganisms is to bring the water to a full boil for one to three minutes, depending on location. A household well contaminated by microorganisms can initially be treated by shock chlorination using bleach, generating concentrations hundreds of times greater than found in community water systems; however, this will not fix any structural problems that led to the contamination and generally requires some expertise and testing for effective application.After the filtration process, it is common to implement an ultraviolet (UV) system to kill pathogens in the water. UV light affects the DNA of the pathogen by UV-C photons breaking through the cell wall. UV disinfection has been gaining popularity in the past decades as it is a chemical-free method of water treatment.\n\n"


id: bdf9f6832a07dc89192f3bed8d5f3ccd
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"== Environmental problems ==\nA risk with the placement of water wells is soil salination which occurs when the water table of the soil begins to drop and salt begins to accumulate as the soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem that is very prevalent in water well drilling is the potential for methane to seep through.\n\n=== Soil salination ===\nThe potential for soil salination is a large risk when choosing the placement of water wells. Soil salination is caused when the water table of the soil drops over time and salt begins to accumulate. In turn, the increased amount of salt begins to dry the soil out. The increased level of salt in the soil can result in the degradation of soil and can be very harmful to vegetation.\n\n=== Methane ===\nMethane, an asphyxiant, is a chemical compound that is the main component of natural gas. When methane is introduced into a confined space, it displaces oxygen, reducing oxygen concentration to a level low enough to pose a threat to humans and other aerobic organisms but still high enough for a risk of spontaneous or externally caused explosion.  "


id: e4f0f3790cb4dc28b5809d6258b64d5a
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"This potential for explosion is what poses such a danger in regards to the drilling and placement of water wells.Low levels of methane in drinking water are not considered toxic. When methane seeps into a water supply, it is commonly referred to as \"methane migration\". This can be caused by old natural gas wells near water well systems becoming abandoned and no longer monitored.Lately, however, the described wells/pumps are no longer very efficient and can be replaced by either handpumps or treadle pumps. Another alternative is the use of self-dug wells, electrical deep-well pumps (for higher depths). Appropriate technology organizations as Practical Action are now supplying information on how to build/set-up (DIY) handpumps and treadle pumps in practice.\n\n== Water security ==\nA study concluded that of ~39 million groundwater wells 6-20% are at high risk of running dry if local groundwater levels decline by less than five meters, or \u2013 as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers \u2013 continue to decline.\n\n== Society and culture ==\n\nSprings and wells have had cultural significance since prehistoric times, leading to the foundation of towns such as Wells and Bath in Somerset.  "


id: 94aaa07f1b0fc67f4951e99c25fa1b17
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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content:
"Interest in health benefits led to the growth of spa towns including many with wells in their name, examples being Llandrindod Wells and Royal Tunbridge Wells.Eratosthenes is sometimes claimed to have used a well in his calculation of the Earth's circumference; however, this is just a simplification used in a shorter explanation of Cleomedes, since Eratosthenes had used a more elaborate and precise method.Many incidents in the Bible take place around wells, such as the finding of a wife for Isaac in Genesis and Jesus's talk with the Samaritan woman in the Gospels.\n\n== A simple model for water well recovery ==\n\nFor a well with impermeable walls, the water in the well is resupplied from the bottom of the well. The rate at which water flows into the well will depend on the pressure difference between the ground water at the well bottom and the well water at the well bottom. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The pressure of a column of water of height z will be equal to the weight of the water in the column divided by the cross-sectional area of the column, so the pressure of the ground water a distance zT below the top of the water table will be:\n\nP\n\ng\n\n=\n\u03c1\n\ng\n\nz\n\nT\n\n{\\displaystyle P_{g}=\\rho \\,g\\,z_{T}}\nwhere \u03c1 is the mass density of the water and g is the acceleration due to gravity. When the water in the well is below the water table level, the pressure at the bottom of the well due to the water in the well will be less than Pg and water will be forced into the well. "


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"Referring to the diagram, if z is the distance from the bottom of the well to the well water level and zT is the distance from the bottom of the well to the top of the water table, the pressure difference will be:\n\n\u0394\nP\n=\n\u03c1\n\ng\n\n(\n\nz\n\nT\n\n\u2212\nz\n)\n\n{\\displaystyle \\Delta P=\\rho \\,g\\,(z_{T}-z)}\nApplying Darcy's Law, the volume rate (F) at which water is forced into the well will be proportional to this pressure difference:\n\n\u0394\nP\n=\nR\n\nF\n\n{\\displaystyle \\Delta P=R\\,F}\nwhere R is the resistance to the flow, which depends on the well cross section, the pressure gradient at the bottom of the well, and the characteristics of the substrate at the well bottom. (e.g., porosity). "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The volume flow rate into the well can be written as a function of the rate of change of the well water level:\n\nF\n=\nA\n\nd\nz\n\nd\nt\n\n{\\displaystyle F=A{\\frac {dz}{dt}}}\nCombining the above three equations yields a simple differential equation in z:\n\nR\nA\n\nd\nz\n\nd\nt\n\n=\n\u03c1\ng\n(\n\nz\n\nT\n\n\u2212\nz\n)\n\n{\\displaystyle RA{\\frac {dz}{dt}}=\\rho g(z_{T}-z)}\nwhich may be solved:\n\nz\n=\n\nz\n\nT\n\n\u2212\n(\n\nz\n\nT\n\n\u2212\n\nz\n\n0\n\n)\n\ne\n\n\u2212\nt\n\n/\n\n\u03c4\n\n{\\displaystyle z=z_{T}-(z_{T}-z_{0})e^{-t/\\tau }}\nwhere z0 is the well water level at time t=0 and \u03c4 is the well time constant:\n\n\u03c4\n=\n\nR\nA\n\n\u03c1\ng\n\n{\\displaystyle \\tau ={\\frac {RA}{\\rho g}}}\nNote that if dz/dt for a depleted well can be measured, it will be equal to\n\nz\n\nT\n\n/\n\n\u03c4\n\n{\\displaystyle z_{T}/\\tau }\nand the time constant \u03c4 can be calculated. "


id: 81ec03a555bae298b9e9f4e3ee3025ed
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"According to the above model, it will take an infinite amount of time for a well to fully recover, but if we consider a well that is 99% recovered to be \"practically\" recovered, the time for a well to practically recover from a level at z will be:\n\nT\n\nr\n\n=\n\u03c4\nln\n\u2061\n\n(\n\n1\n\u2212\nz\n\n/\n\nz\n\nT\n\n1\n\u2212\n0.99\n\n)\n\n{\\displaystyle T_{r}=\\tau \\ln \\left({\\frac {1-z/z_{T}}{1-0.99}}\\right)}\nFor a well that is fully depleted (z=0) it would take a time of about 4.6 \u03c4 to practically recover.\nThe above model does not take into account the depletion of the aquifer due to the pumping which lowered the well water level (See aquifer test and groundwater flow equation). Also, practical wells may have impermeable walls only up to, but not including the bedrock, which will give a larger surface area for water to enter the well.\n\n== See also ==\n\n== References ==\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nDriscoll, F. (1986). Groundwater and Wells. St. Paul: Johnson Filtration Systems. ISBN 978-0-9616456-0-1.\nRaymond Rowles (1995). Drilling for Water (2nd ed.). Avebury, Cranfield University. ISBN 1-85628-984-2.\n\n"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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content:
"== External links ==\n\nSustainable Groundwater Development theme of the Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN)\nWater Portal \u2013 Akvopedia\nSustainable Sanitation and Water Management Toolbox\nU.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water \u2013 Water Wells Site covering well basics, guidelines for proper siting and location of wells to avoid contamination, well testing, diseases related to wells, emergency well treatment and other topics.\nUS Geological Survey \u2013 Ground water: Wells\nUS Geological Survey \u2013 Water Science Pictures Flowing Artesian Well\nDrilling wells 18 extremely useful questions and answers\nAmerican Ground Water Trust\nLifewater International Technical Library\nWell Construction Technical Resources for NGOs"


id: a198a0c155038b6018e11bf8755a7033
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"The pheasant pigeon (Otidiphaps nobilis) is a species of large terrestrial pigeon. It is the only species of the monotypic genus Otidiphaps. The pheasant pigeon is found in the primary rainforests of New Guinea and nearby islands. It ranges primarily over hilly and lower mountain areas, but can also be found in lowlands.\n\n== Taxonomy and systematics ==\nThe genus name makes reference to its similarities to the bustard family (Otidae). Its common name reflects its adaptation to living on the forest floor in the fashion of a South East Asian pheasant.\n\n=== Subspecies ===\nCommonly, there are four subspecies recognized that differ primarily in the presence or absence of a small crest and in the colour of the nape:\nWhite-naped pheasant pigeon (O. n. aruensis) \u2013 Rothschild, 1928: Found on the Aru Islands, Vulnerable\nGreen-naped pheasant pigeon (O. n. nobilis) \u2013 Gould, 1870: Found on western New Guinea, Batanta and Waigeo Islands, Least concern.\nGrey-naped pheasant pigeon (O. n. cervicalis) \u2013 Ramsay, EP, 1880: Found on eastern and south-eastern New Guinea, Least concern.\n"


id: edf87ef91dde84a35bce112cd0b6d4f5
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Black-naped pheasant pigeon (O. n. insularis) \u2013 Salvin & Godman, 1883: Found on Fergusson Island, Critically Endangered.Some authors however recognize the four subspecies as four different species, a classification scheme followed by the IUCN.\n\n== Description ==\nThe pheasant pigeon resembles a pheasant in external morphology, particularly in its laterally compressed tail and rounded wings. They have glossy black heads, undersides, rears and lower backs, and short rounded brown wings, and a white, green, grey, or black nape depending on the subspecies. No galliform birds occur in New Guinea, and the pheasant pigeon has filled the ecological niche of a partridge or small pheasant (while the larger Goura crowned pigeons have a lifestyle similar to larger pheasants, grouse or turkeys). It is a highly secretive species, feeding on seeds and fallen fruits. It nests on the ground below trees and bushes, laying one egg that it incubates for around four weeks. Both adults incubate and look after the young, feeding regurgitated crop milk to their young (a common practice for most pigeons).\n"


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"They have a range of calls including a drilling-like sound, a typical pigeon cooing call and a loud \"wu-huwoooooa\" call that rises and falls in pitch before trailing off at the end.\nThey are found in rainforest habitats, eating fallen fruits and seeds, in the Aru Islands. As they avoid human settlements, the little that is known about their behavior comes from observation at zoos.\n\n== Status and conservation ==\nIt is believed that the species is slowly declining due to deforestation of their habitats from pressure for logging and agricultural space. Because it is tied to primary forests, and is unique within the pigeon family, it is considered a genus that requires further investigation and monitoring. The green-naped pheasant pigeon (nominate subspecies) and the grey-naped pheasant pigeon are not considered threatened, but the black-naped pheasant pigeon is considered critically endangered and the white-naped pheasant pigeon is vulnerable. The black-naped pheasant pigeon was for a long time known to science only from the type specimen collected in 1882, but was found on Fergusson Island in late 2022.\n\n== References ==\n\ndel Hoyo, Elliott and Sargatal (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol 4. "


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"ISBN 84-87334-22-9,\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Otidiphaps nobilis at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica, Car: ma-k\u016b\u00f6-k\u00f6) is a bird found on small islands and in coastal regions from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, east through the Malay Archipelago, to the Solomons and Palau. It is the only living member of the genus Caloenas alongside the extinct spotted green pigeon, and is the closest living relative of the extinct dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nIn 1738, the English naturalist Eleazar Albin included a description and two illustrations of the Nicobar pigeon in his A Natural History of Birds. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the Nicobar pigeon with all the other pigeons in the genus Columba. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Columba nicobarica and cited Albin's work. "


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"The species is now placed in the genus Caloenas erected by English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1840 with the Nicobar pigeon as the type species.Two subspecies are recognised:\nC. n. nicobarica (Linnaeus, 1758) \u2013 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Malay Archipelago to New Guinea, Philippines and Solomon Islands\nC. n. pelewensis Finsch, 1875 \u2013 Palau IslandBased on cladistic analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences, the Nicobar pigeon is sometimes called the closest living relative of the extinct didines (Raphinae), which include the famous dodo (Raphus cucullatus). However, the study's results showed this as one weak possibility from a limited sample of taxa.  In any case, nDNA \u03b2-fibrinogen intron 7 sequence data agrees with the idea of the Raphinae as a subfamily of pigeons (and not an independent family, as was previously believed due to their bizarre apomorphies) that was part of a diverse Indopacific radiation, to which the Nicobar pigeon also belongs.The following cladogram, from Shapiro and colleagues (2002), shows the Nicobar pigeon's closest relationships within Columbidae, a clade consisting of generally ground-dwelling island endemics.\n\n"


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"A similar cladogram was published in 2007, differing only in the inverted placement of Goura and Didunculus, as well as in the inclusion of the pheasant pigeon and the thick-billed ground pigeon at the base of the clade.C. nicobarica is a quite singular columbiform (though less autapomorphic than the flightless Raphinae), as are for example the tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) and the crowned pigeons (Goura), which are typically considered distinct subfamilies. Hence, the Nicobar pigeon may well constitute another now-monotypic subfamily. And while any of the semi-terrestrial pigeons of Southeast Asia and the Wallacea cannot be excluded as possible closest living relative of the Raphinae, the Nicobar pigeon makes a more plausible candidate than for example the group of imperial-pigeons and fruit-doves, which seems to be part of the same radiation.Whether it is possible to clarify such deep-time phylogenies without a comprehensive study of all major lineages of living Columbidae remains to be seen. The primitive molecular clock used to infer the date the ancestors of the Nicobar pigeon and the didines diverged has since turned out to be both unreliable and miscalibrated. "


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"But what little evidence is available still suggests that the Nicobar pigeon is distinct from all other living lifeforms since the Paleogene \u2013 most likely some time between 56-34 million years ago during the Eocene, which makes up the bulk of the Paleogene period.From subfossil bones found on New Caledonia and Tonga, an extinct species of Caloenas, the Kanaka pigeon (C. canacorum) was described. It was about one-quarter larger than the Nicobar pigeon. Considering that it must have been a good source of food, it was most likely hunted to extinction by the first human settlers of its home islands. It probably was extinct by 500 BC. The Spotted green pigeon (C. maculata) is a more recently extinct species from an unknown Pacific locality; it probably disappeared in the 19th century and most likely succumbed to introduced European rats. It is placed in Caloenas as the least awkward possibility; its true affinities are presently indeterminate and it is perhaps more likely to represent a distinct genus of the Indopacific radiation of Columbidae.\n\n== Description ==\n\nIt is a large pigeon, measuring 40 cm (16 in) in length. "


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"The head is grey, like the upper neck plumage, which turns into green and copper hackles. The tail is very short and pure white. The rest of its plumage is metallic green. The cere of the dark bill forms a small blackish knob; the strong legs and feet are dull red. The irises are dark.Females are slightly smaller than males; they have a smaller bill knob, shorter hackles and browner underparts. Immature birds have a black tail and lack almost all iridescence. There is hardly any variation across the birds' wide range. Even the Palau subspecies C. n. pelewensis has merely shorter neck hackles, but is otherwise almost identical.It is a very vocal species, giving a low-pitched repetitive call.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nOn the Nicobar Islands (which are referred to in its common and scientific names), the most significant colony of Nicobar pigeons in modern times was found on Batti Malv, a remote wildlife sanctuary between Car Nicobar and Teressa. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused massive damage on the Nicobar Islands, and to what extent Batti Malv was affected is still not clear. "


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"But while everything on some islets in the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve was destroyed, Batti Malv lighthouse \u2013 a skeletal tower a dozen metres high, standing a few metres ASL at the highest point of the low-lying island \u2013 was little-damaged and put back in operation by the survey ship INS Sandhayak less than one month after the disaster. An April 2007 survey by the Indian Coast Guard vessel ICGS Vikram found the lighthouse tower \"totally covered\" in vines, indicating rampant regeneration of vegetation \u2013 but perhaps also that damage to the island's forest was severe, as a cover of creeping plants is typical of early succession stages, while a photo of the lighthouse taken before the tsunami shows rather mature forest.\n\n=== Found in Australia ===\nA Nicobar pigeon was found by the Bardi Jawi Indigenous rangers on the Dampier Peninsula in the western Kimberley, Australia in May 2017. As part of biosecurity measures, it was reported to quarantine services and was removed by Australian Department of Agriculture officials.\n\n"


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"== Behaviour and ecology ==\nThe Nicobar pigeon's breeding range encompasses the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, the Mergui Archipelago of Myanmar, offshore islands of south-western Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, southern Cambodia and Vietnam, and many of the small islands between Sumatra, the Philippines and the Solomon Islands. On Palau, the only distinct subspecies C. n. pelewensis is found.\n\nThe Nicobar pigeon roams in flocks from island to island, usually sleeping on offshore islets where no predators occur and spends the day in areas with better food availability, not shying away from areas inhabited by humans. Its food consists of seeds, fruit and buds, and it is attracted to areas where grain is available. A gizzard stone helps to grind up hard food items. Its flight is quick, with regular beats and an occasional sharp flick of the wings, as is characteristic of pigeons in general. Unlike other pigeons, groups tend to fly in columns or single file, not in a loose flock. The white tail is prominent in flight when seen from behind and may serve as a sort of \"taillight\", keeping flocks together when crossing the sea at dawn or dusk. "


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"The young birds' lack of a white tail is a signal of their immaturity clearly visible to conspecifics \u2013 to an adult Nicobar pigeon, it is obvious at a glance which flockmembers are neither potential mates, nor potential competitors for mates, nor old enough to safely guide a flock from one island to another.This species nests in dense forest on offshore islets, often in large colonies. It builds a loose stick nest in a tree. It lays one elliptical faintly blue-tinged white egg.In 2017, several individual Caloenas nicobarica were sighted in the Kimberley region of Western Australia with a juvenile captured at Ardyaloon (One Arm Point), near Broome - the first time the bird has been sighted on the Australian mainland.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nNicobar pigeons are hunted in considerable numbers for food, and also for their gizzard stone which is used in jewellery. The species is also trapped for the local pet market, but as it is on CITES Appendix I, commercial international trade is prohibited. Internationally, captive breeding is able to supply the birds demanded by zoos, where this attractive and unusual bird is often seen. "


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"Direct exploitation of the species, even including the illegal trade, might be sustainable on its own; however, its available nesting habitat is decreasing. The offshore islets which it requires are often logged for plantations, destroyed by construction activity, or polluted by nearby industry or harbours. Also, increased travel introduces predators to more and more of the breeding sites, and colonies of the Nicobar pigeon may be driven to desert such locations or be destroyed outright. Though the bird is widely distributed and in some locations very common --even on small Palau it is still reasonably plentiful, with an estimated 1,000 adult birds remaining\u2014its long-term future is increasingly jeopardized. For these reasons, the IUCN considers C. nicobarica a near threatened species.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Sources ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nNicobar Pigeon media at the Internet Bird Collection\nNicobar Pigeon Breed Guide from Pigeonpedia.com"


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"The lowland nyala or simply nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) is a spiral-horned antelope native to southern Africa. It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Tragelaphus, previously placed in genus Nyala. It was first described in 1849 by George French Angas. The body length is 135\u2013195 cm (53\u201377 in), and it weighs 55\u2013140 kg (121\u2013309 lb). The coat is maroon or rufous brown in females and juveniles, but grows a dark brown or slate grey, often tinged with blue, in adult males. Females and young males have ten or more white stripes on their sides. Only males have horns, 60\u201383 cm (24\u201333 in) long and yellow-tipped. It exhibits the highest sexual dimorphism among the spiral-horned antelopes. It is not to be confused with the endangered mountain nyala living in the Bale region of Ethiopia).\nThe nyala is mainly active in the early morning and the late afternoon. It generally browses during the day if temperatures are 20\u201330 \u00b0C (68\u201386 \u00b0F) and during the night in the rainy season. As a herbivore, the nyala feeds upon foliage, fruits and grasses, and requires sufficient fresh water. A shy animal, it prefers water holes rather than open spaces. "


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"The nyala does not show signs of territoriality, and individuals' areas can overlap. They are very cautious creatures. They live in single-sex or mixed family groups of up to 10 individuals, but old males live alone. They inhabit thickets within dense and dry savanna woodlands. The main predators of the nyala are lion, leopard and African wild dog, while baboons and raptorial birds prey on juveniles. Mating peaks during spring and autumn. Males and females are sexually mature at 18 and 11\u201312 months of age respectively, though they are socially immature until five years old. After a gestational period of seven months, a single calf is born.\nThe nyala's range includes Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Eswatini, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It has been introduced to Botswana and Namibia, and reintroduced to Eswatini, where it had been extinct since the 1950s. Its population is stable, and it has been listed as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The principal threats to the species are poaching and habitat loss resulting from human settlement. The males are highly prized as game animals in Africa.\n\n"


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"== Taxonomy and naming ==\nThe nyala was first described by George French Angas, an English naturalist, in 1849. The scientific name of nyala is Tragelaphus angasii. The name angasii is attributed to Angas, who said that John Edward Gray had named this species after Angas' father, George Fife Angas of South Australia. According to Article 50.1.1 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, though, this is insufficient to state Gray as the author. The name \"nyala\" is the Tsonga name for this antelope, which is likely the source of the English, along with Zulu inyala. Its first known use was in 1899. The word has a Bantu origin, similar to the Venda word dz\u00ec-ny\u00e1l\u00e0 (nyala buck).The nyala is the second taxon to branch off from the tragelaphine family tree just after the lesser kudu. As the nyala line has remained separate for a considerable time (over 5 million years), some authorities have placed it in its own monotypic genus Nyala. Nyala was proposed in 1912 by American zoologist Edmund Heller, who also proposed Ammelaphus for the lesser kudu, but it was not widely recognized. "


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"It was re-erected as a valid genus in 2011 under the classification of Peter Grubb and Colin Groves, but has not been embraced by taxonomic authorities such as the Mammal Diversity Database.\n\nIn 2005, Sandi Willows-Munro (of the University of KwaZulu-Natal) and colleagues carried out a mitochondrial DNA analysis of the nine Tragelaphus species. Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA data were compared. The results showed the tribe Tragelaphini to be monophyletic, with the lesser kudu (T. imberbis) basal in the phylogeny, followed by the nyala. On the basis of mitochondrial data, studies have estimated that the lesser kudu separated from its sister clade around 13.7 million years ago. However, nuclear DNA data shows lesser kudu and nyala forming a clade, which collectively separated from the sister clade 13.8 million years ago.\n\n=== Genetics and evolution ===\nThe nyala has 55 male chromosomes and 56 female chromosomes. The Y chromosome has been translocated onto the 14th chromosome, as in other tragelaphids, but no inversion of the Y chromosome occurs. "


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"Cranial studies have shown that the mountain nyala and nyala, though sharing a common name, are actually distant relatives.Fossil evidence suggests that the nyala has been a separate species since the end of the Miocene (5.8 million years ago). Genetic evidence suggests that the proto-nyala had some early hybridization with the proto-lesser kudu, but the two have remained separate long after this crossing.\n\n== Physical description ==\n\nThe nyala is a spiral-horned and middle-sized antelope, between a bushbuck and a kudu. It is considered the most sexually dimorphic antelope. The nyala is typically between 135\u2013195 cm (53\u201377 in) in head-and-body length. The male stands up to 110 cm (43 in), the female is up to 90 cm (3.0 ft) tall. Males weigh 98\u2013125 kg (216\u2013276 lb), while females weigh 55\u201368 kg (121\u2013150 lb). Life expectancy of the nyala is about 19 years.The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles. It grows a dark brown or slate grey in adult males, often with a bluish tinge. Females and young males have ten or more white vertical stripes on their sides. Other markings are visible on the face, throat, flanks and thighs. "


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"Stripes are very reduced or absent in older males. Both males and females have a white chevron between their eyes, and a 40\u201355 cm (16\u201322 in) long bushy tail white underside. Both sexes have a dorsal crest of hair running right from the back of the head to the end of the tail. Males have another line of hair along the midline of their chest and belly.Only the males have horns. Horns are 60\u201383 cm (24\u201333 in) long and yellow-tipped. There are one or two twists. The spoor is similar to that of the bushbuck, but larger. It is 5\u20136 cm (2.0\u20132.4 in) long. The feces resemble round to spherical pellets. The nyala has hairy glands on its feet, which leave their scent wherever it walks.The condition of the nyala often varies between the sexes. According to a study, this can be attributed to the differences in their body sizes. It was noted that during nutritional stress, old adults died in more numbers, of which most were males. During an attempt of blood sampling in the nyala, it was found that Vitamin E levels varied during stress.\n\n"


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"== Parasites ==\nA study of the helminths from 77 nyalas from four game reserves in Natal revealed the presence of ten nematode species and four nematode genera, a trematode species and paramphistomes (members of superfamily Paramphistomoidea), and two cestode genera. The research discovered new parasites that the nyala was host of - namely a Cooperia rotundispiculum race, Gaigeria pachyscelis, a Gongylonema species, Haemonchus vegliai, Impalaia tuberculata, an Oesophagostomum species, a Setaria species, Trichostrongylus deflexus, Trichostrongylus falculatus, the larval stage of a Taenia species, a Thysaniezia species and Schistosoma mattheei. Ostertagia harrisi and C. rotundispiculum were the most dominant nematodes in the antelope.Another study of 97 blood samples of South African nyalas revealed the presence of tick-borne hemoparasites (blood parasites). The methods used were polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization. The dominant parasites were Theileria species, T. buffeli, T. bicornis, Ehrlichia species, Anaplasma marginale and A. bovis. Ten tick species, two louse species and a louse fly species were recovered in a study of 73 nyalas at Umfolozi, Mkuzi and Ndumu Game Reserves in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal in 1983 and 1984 and an additional six individuals in 1994. "


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"It was found that nyalas were hosts to all stages of development in Boophilus decoloratus, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. muehlensi and the immature stages of Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus maculatus. Adult males served hosts to more number of ticks and lice than adult females did. Also, a trypanosome was isolated from a nyala, wild-caught in Mozambique, which was diagnosed and found as akin to Trypanosoma vivax, based on biological, morphological and molecular data.\n\n== Diseases ==\n\nThe nyala can also suffer from myopathy. In between January 1973 and June 1981, 21 nyalas succumbed to the disease. The main symptoms were stiffness, inability to rise, and failure to suckle in newborns. Necrosis (that is, the premature death of cells in a living tissue) and mineralization were found in the skeletal muscle after a histological analysis. In the juveniles there was acute necrosis of the cardiac muscle. In adults, there was interstitial fibrosis of the cardiac muscle, along with arteriosclerosis.In a report published in 1994 entitled \"Epidemiological observations on spongiform encephalopathies in captive wild animals in the British Isles\", it was noted that spongiform encephalopathy had been diagnosed in one nyala captive in a zoo. "


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"The nyala was formerly affected by the disease rinderpest, although the viral disease is considered eradicated now.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\nThe nyala is active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon. It browses during the day if temperatures are 20\u201330 \u00b0C (68\u201386 \u00b0F) and during the night in rainy season. These antelopes rest in thick bushes during the hot hours of the day. The nyala is very shy and cautious in nature, and often remains hidden rather than coming out in the open. Most sightings of the nyala in the wild are at water holes. But in protected areas they become less shy and often come out in view of tourists.Nyala groups are according to sex or mixed. Herds usually browse and drink water together. Each group consists of two to ten individuals. A study in Zinave National Park at Mozambique showed that 67% of the observations were of groups of one to three nyalas, and the rest of the herds consisted of up to 30 nyalas. Herds often broke up and re-formed. Generally adult males remain alone. "


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"Females often remain near their mothers when they have their offspring, so the relationships in female herds may be closer than those of males.Alert and wary in nature, the nyala use a sharp, high, dog-like bark to warn others in a group of danger. This feature is mainly used by females. They also react to the alarm calls of impala, baboon and kudu. The impala has been found to react to the calls of the nyala as well. The main predators of nyala are lion, leopard, cheetah, spotted hyena, African wild dog and nile crocodile while baboons and raptorial birds are predators of juveniles.\n\n=== Diet ===\nAs a herbivore, the nyala's diet consists of foliage, fruits, flowers and twigs. During the rainy season they feed upon the fresh grass. They need a regular intake of water, and thus choose places with a water source nearby. However, they are adapted to live in areas with only a seasonal availability of water. A study in Zululand showed that the nyala fed mainly in the early morning and the late afternoon. "


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"They feed at night during the rainy season.A study in Mkhuze Game Reserve and Ndumu Game Reserve in Natal focused on the dietary habits of the impala and the nyala showed that the amount of dicotyledons in their diets varied seasonally. In the dry season, the nyala's dicotyledon diet content was 83.2% and the impala's 52%. In this season, the diet grew richer in fiber and dietary proteins were less. The reverse occurred in the rainy season. As the rainy season arrived, both species took to a diet of mainly monocotyledons, and the impala consumed more of them. The diet contained more proteins than fiber.Another study was done to find whether the sexual dimorphism in the nyala influenced its foraging habits. Vegetation surveys were conducted with the end of each feeding bout. It was found that females spent equal periods of time foraging in all the three habitats, but males preferred sand forest more. More differences were noted, as males ate woody species at a greater average height whereas females fed from the low herbaceous layer. It was concluded that the differences resulted from varying nutritional and energetic demands according to their diverse body sizes and differing reproductive strategies.\n\n"


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"=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe nyala breeds throughout the year, but mating peaks in spring and autumn. The reason for this is still unknown, but attributed to the photoperiod and the feeding habits of the animal. Females reach sexual maturity at 11 to 12 months of age and males at 18 months (though they are socially immature until five years old), though they begin to show active spermatogenesis at 14 months.Before ovulation, the Graafian follicles reach a length of at least 6.7 cm (2.6 in). A female's estrous cycle is about 19 days long. Males will attempt to mate with the female for two days of the cycle, but she allows it for only six hours per cycle. When the male enters a females' herd during mating, he makes a display by raising his white dorsal crest, lowering his horns and moving stiffly. As in many other animals, the males fight over dominance during mating.The kidney fat indices (KFIs) of impalas and nyalas have been studied to understand the influence of social class and reproduction on them. To determine the KFI, the kidney is removed and weighed with the fat and once again excluding the fat. "


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"The resultant difference is the amount of fat on the kidney. The more the fat, the healthier the animal. In rut, male nyalas had lower KFIs, which did not vary much with the season. Pregnant females of both nyala and impala had higher KFIs than non-pregnant ones.There is a significant increase in corpus luteum in the last third of gestation. Gestation is of seven months. A single calf is born, weighing 5 kg (11 lb). Birth takes place generally away from the sight of predators, in places such as a thicket. The calf remains hidden for up to 18 days, and the mother nurses it at regular intervals. The calf remains with its mother until the birth of the next calf, during which males in rut drive it away from the mother.\n\n== Habitat and distribution ==\n\nThe nyala inhabits dense lowland woodlands and thickets, mainly in southern Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and eastern South Africa. It chooses places with good quality grasslands as well as provision of fresh water. It also inhabits lush green river country. "


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"The nyala's natural range stretches across southeast Africa from the Lower Shire Valley in Malawi through Mozambique and Zimbabwe to eastern South Africa and Eswatini.The geographic distribution of the nyala may be based on the genetic variation. According to a study of nyala in South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe, there was a marked difference in the gene frequencies at three microsatellite loci. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed the presence of a unique haplotype in individuals from each location. Thus, the geographic variation in the nyala may be due to a distribution pattern based on habitat specificity.Today nyala are found in South African protected areas in the Ndumo Game Reserve, uMkuze Game Reserve and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve, all in KwaZulu-Natal, as well as in Kruger National Park. As of 1999, 10\u201315% of nyala occurred on private land. Efforts are being made to retain the populations of nyala in Gorongosa National Park and Banhine National Park in Mozambique. Nyala also thrive in Lengwe National Park in Malawi.\nNyala have never been observed showing territoriality. Territories of either sex overlap extensively. The home ranges of males are approximately equal to that of females, about 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) in area.\n\n"


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"== Threats and conservation ==\nThe major threats to the population of the nyala are poaching, habitat loss, agriculture and cattle grazing. Rinderpest outbreaks have also contributed in population loss. This species is currently of Least Concern, and the population is considered stable by both the IUCN and CITES. As of 1999, the total population of the nyala was around 32,000 individuals. More recent estimates show that South Africa has at least 30,000 nyalas, with 25,000 in KwaZulu-Natal. There are now more than 1,000 on protected areas and ranches in Eswatini. In Mozambique there are not more than 3,000, in Zimbabwe over 1,000, and numbers in Malawi have fallen from 3,000 to about 1,500. Namibia has the smallest population, at about 250.Today over 80% of the total population is protected in national parks and sanctuaries, mostly in South African protected areas. In South Africa there is a high demand for adult males as game trophies.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nInformation at ITIS\nMedia related to Tragelaphus angasii at Wikimedia Commons\nData related to Tragelaphus angasii at Wikispecies"


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"The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) is one of two extant African elephant species and one of three extant elephant species. It is the largest living terrestrial animal, with bulls reaching a shoulder height of up to 3.96 m (13 ft 0 in) and a body mass of up to 10.4 t (11.5 short tons).\nIt is distributed across 37 African countries and inhabits forests, grasslands and woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. Since 2021, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened foremost by habitat destruction, and in parts of its range also by poaching for meat and ivory.\nIt is a social mammal, travelling in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. It is a herbivore, feeding on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves, and bark.\nThe menstrual cycle lasts three to four months, and females are pregnant for 22 months, the longest gestation period of any mammal.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nElephas africanus was the scientific name proposed by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1797.Loxodonte was proposed as generic name for African elephants by Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Cuvier in 1825. "


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"This name refers to the lozenge-shaped enamel of the molar teeth, which differs significantly from the shape of the Asian elephant's molar enamel.In the 19th and 20th centuries, several zoological specimens were described by naturalists and curators of natural history museums from various parts of Africa, including:\n\nElephas (Loxodonta) oxyotis and Elephas (Loxodonta) knochenhaueri by Paul Matschie in 1900. The first was a specimen from the upper Atbara River in northern Ethiopia, and the second a specimen from the Kilwa area in Tanzania.\nElephas africanus toxotis, selousi, peeli,  cavendishi, orleansi and rothschildi by Richard Lydekker in 1907 who assumed that ear size is a distinguishing character for a race. These specimens were shot in South Africa, Mashonaland in Zimbabwe, Aberdare Mountains and Lake Turkana area in Kenya, Somaliland, and western Sudan, respectively.\nNorth African elephant (L. a. pharaohensis) by Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1948 was a specimen from Fayum in Egypt.Today, these names are all considered synonyms.\n\n"


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"=== Phylogeny ===\n\nA genetic study based on mitogenomic analysis revealed that the African and Asian elephant genetically diverged about 7.6 million years ago.Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear DNA of African bush and forest elephants, Asian elephant, woolly mammoth, and American mastodon revealed that the African bush elephant and the African forest elephant form a sister group that genetically diverged at least 1.9 million years ago. They are therefore considered distinct species. Gene flow between the two species, however, might have occurred after the split.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\n=== Skin and ears ===\n\nThe African bush elephant has grey skin with scanty hairs. Its large ears cover the whole shoulder, and can grow as large as 2 m \u00d7 1.5 m (6 ft 7 in \u00d7 4 ft 11 in).\nLarge ears help to reduce body heat; flapping them creates air currents and exposes large blood vessels on the inner sides to increase heat loss during hot weather. The African bush elephant's ears are pointed and triangular shaped. Its occipital plane slopes forward. Its back is shaped markedly concave. Its sturdy tusks are curved out and point forward.\n\n"


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"=== Size ===\n\nThe African bush elephant is the largest and heaviest land animal on Earth, with a maximum recorded shoulder height of an adult bull of 3.96 m (13.0 ft) and an estimated weight of up to 10.4 t (11.5 short tons). On average, males are about 3.20 m (10.5 ft) tall at the shoulder and weigh 6.0 t (6.6 short tons), while females are smaller at about 2.60 m (8 ft 6 in) tall at the shoulder and 3.0 t (3.3 short tons) in weight. Elephants attain their maximum stature when they complete the fusion of long-bone epiphyses, occurring in males around the age of 40 and females around the age of 25.\n\n=== Trunk ===\nThe trunk is a prehensile elongation of the upper lip and nose. Short tactile hair grows on the trunk, which has two finger-like processes on the tip.\nThis highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve, and is thought to be manipulated by about 40,000\u201360,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight. "


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"They use it for smelling, touching, feeding, drinking, dusting, sound production, loading, defending, and attacking.\nFunctional loss of the trunk due to floppy trunk syndrome sometimes forces elephants to carry their trunks over their tusks and walk into deep water to drink. A 2021 study found that African elephants can also use their trunks to suction up food and are capable of inhaling \"at speeds exceeding 490 feet per second, or almost 30 times as fast as humans can sneeze.\"=== Tusks ===\n\nBoth sexes have tusks, which erupt when they are 1\u20133 years old and grow throughout life. Tusks grow from deciduous teeth known as tushes that develop in the upper jaw and consist of a crown, root and pulpal cavity, which are completely formed soon after birth. Tushes reach a length of 5 cm (2.0 in).\nThey are composed of dentin and coated with a thin layer of cementum. Their tips bear a conical layer of enamel that is usually worn off when the elephant is five years old.\nTusks of bulls grow faster than tusks of cows. "


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"Mean weight of tusks at the age of 60 years is 109 kg (240 lb) in bulls and 17.7 kg (39 lb) in cows.\nThe longest known tusk of an African bush elephant measured 3.51 m (11.5 ft) and weighed 117 kg (258 lb).\n\n=== Molars ===\n\nThe dental formula of the African bush elephant is 1.0.3.30.0.3.3\u2009\u00d7\u20092 = 26. It develops six molars in each jaw quadrant that erupt at different ages and differ in size. The first molars grow to a size of 2 cm (0.79 in) wide by 4 cm (1.6 in) long, are worn by the age of one year and lost by the age of about 2.5 years. The second molars start protruding at the age of about six months, and grow to a size of 4 cm (1.6 in) wide by 7 cm (2.8 in) long and are lost by the age of 6\u20137 years. The third molars protrude at the age of about one year, grow to a size of 5.2 cm (2.0 in) wide by 14 cm (5.5 in) long, and are lost by the age of 8\u201310 years. "


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"The fourth molars show by the age of 6\u20137 years, grow to a size of 6.8 cm (2.7 in) wide by 17.5 cm (6.9 in) long and are lost by the age of 22\u201323 years. The dental alveoli of the fifth molars are visible by the age of 10\u201311 years. They grow to a size of 8.5 cm (3.3 in) wide by 22 cm (8.7 in) long and are worn by the age of 45\u201348 years. The dental alveoli of the last molars are visible by the age of 26\u201328 years. They grow to a size of 9.4 cm (3.7 in) wide by 31 cm (12 in) long and are well worn by the age of 65 years.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe African bush elephant occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa including Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Zambia, and Angola. It moves between a variety of habitats, including subtropical and temperate forests, dry and seasonally flooded grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and agricultural land from sea level to mountain slopes. In Mali and Namibia, it also inhabits desert and semi-desert areas.In Ethiopia, the African bush elephant has historically been recorded up to an elevation of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). "


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"By the late 1970s, the population had declined to a herd in the Dawa River valley and one close to the Kenyan border.\n\n== Behavior and ecology ==\n\n=== Social behavior ===\n\nThe core of elephant society is the family unit, which comprises several adult cows, their daughters, and their prepubertal sons. Iain Douglas-Hamilton, who observed African bush elephants for 4.5 years in Lake Manyara National Park, coined the term 'kinship group' for two or more family units that have close ties. The family unit is led by a matriarch who at times also leads the kinship group. Groups cooperate in locating food and water, in self-defense, and in caring for offspring (termed allomothering). Group size varies seasonally and between locations. In Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks, groups are bigger in the rainy season and areas with open vegetation.\nAerial surveys in the late 1960s to early 1970s revealed an average group size of 6.3 individuals in Uganda's Rwenzori National Park and 28.8 individuals in Chambura Game Reserve. In both sites, elephants aggregated during the wet season, whereas groups were smaller in the dry season.\n\n"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Young bulls gradually separate from the family unit when they are between 10 and 19 years old. They range alone for some time or form all-male groups. A 2020 study highlighted the importance of old bulls for the navigation and survival of herds and raised concerns over the removal of old bulls as \"currently occur[ring] in both legal trophy hunting and illegal poaching\".\n\n=== Temperature Regulation ===\nIt was first hypothesized that African bush elephants sustain the intense savanna heat by performing heterothermy or matching their internal temperature with the environment. Instead, African bush elephants have curved skin that generates bending cracks which support thermoregulation by water retention. These bending cracks also contribute to an evaporative cooling process which causes elephants to maintain their body temperature regardless of air temperature via homeothermy.\n\n=== Diet ===\nThe African bush elephant is herbivorous. Its diet consists mainly of grasses, creepers, and herbs. Adults can consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) per day. During the dry season, the diet also includes leaves and bark. Tree bark in particular contains high levels of calcium. "


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"Elephants in captivity may consume leaves and fruit of cherimoya, papaya, banana, guava and leaves, stems and seeds of maize, sorghum and sugarcane.\nTo supplement their diet with minerals, they congregate at mineral-rich water holes, termite mounds, and mineral licks. Salt licks visited by elephants in the Kalahari contain high concentrations of water-soluble sodium. Elephants drink 180\u2013230 litres (50\u201360 US gal) of water daily, and seem to prefer sites where water and soil contain sodium. In Kruger National Park and on the shore of Lake Kariba, elephants were observed to ingest wood ash, which also contains sodium.\n\n=== Communication ===\nAfrica bush elephants use their trunks for tactile communication. When greeting, a lower ranking individual will insert the tip of its trunk into its superior's mouth. Elephants will also stretch out their trunk toward an approaching individual they intend to greet. Mother elephants reassure their young with touches, embraces, and rubbings with the foot while slapping disciplines them. During courtship, a couple will caress and intertwine with their trunks while playing and fighting individuals wrestle with them.Elephant vocals are variations of rumbles, trumpets, squeals, and screams. "


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"Rumbles are mainly produced for long-distance communication and cover a broad range of frequencies which are mostly below what a human can hear. Infrasonic rumbles can travel vast distances and are important for attracting mates and scaring off rivals.\n\nAt Amboseli National Park several different infrasonic calls have been identified:\nGreeting rumble \u2013 is emitted by adult female members of a family group that have united after having been separated for several hours.\nContact call \u2013 soft, unmodulated sounds made by an individual that has been separated from the group.\nContact answer \u2013 made in response to the contact call; starts out loud, but softens toward the end.\n\"Let's go\" rumble \u2013 a soft rumble emitted by the matriarch to signal to the other herd members that it is time to move to another spot.\nMusth rumble \u2013 distinctive, low-frequency pulsated rumble emitted by musth males (nicknamed the \"motorcycle\").\nFemale chorus \u2013 a low-frequency, modulated chorus produced by several cows in response to a musth rumble.\nPostcopulatory call \u2013 made by an oestrous cow after mating.\nMating pandemonium \u2013 calls of excitement made by a cow's family after she has mated.Growls are audible rumbles and happen during greetings. "


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"When in pain or fear, an elephant makes an open-mouthed growl known as a bellow while a drawn-out growl is a moan. Growling can escalate into a roaring when the elephant is issuing a threat. Trumpeting is made by blowing through the trunk and signals excitement, distress, or aggression. Juvenile elephants squeal in distress while screaming is made by adults for intimidation.\n\n=== Musth ===\nBulls in musth experience swelling of the temporal glands and secretion of fluid, the musth fluid, which flows down their cheeks. They begin to dribble urine, initially as discrete drops and later in a regular stream. These manifestations of musth last from a few days to months, depending on the age and condition of the bull. When a bull has been urinating for a long time, the proximal part of the penis and the distal end of the sheath show a greenish coloration, termed the 'green penis syndrome' by Joyce Poole and Cynthia Moss. Males in musth become more aggressive. They guard and mate with females in estrus, who stay closer to bulls in musth than to non-musth bulls. Urinary testosterone increases during musth. Bulls begin to experience musth by the age of 24 years. "


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"Periods of musth are short and sporadic in young bulls up to 35 years old, lasting a few days to weeks. Older bulls are in musth for 2\u20135 months every year. Musth occurs mainly during and following the rainy season when females are in estrus. Bulls in musth often chase each other and are aggressive towards other bulls in musth. When old and high-ranking bulls in musth threaten and chase young musth bulls, either the latter leave the group or their musth ceases.\n\nYoung bulls in musth killed about 50 white rhinoceros in Pilanesberg National Park between 1992 and 1997. This unusual behavior was attributed to their young age and inadequate socialisation; they were 17\u201325-year-old orphans from culled families that grew up without the guidance of dominant bulls. When six adult bulls were introduced into the park, the young bulls did not attack rhinos anymore, indicating older bulls suppress the musth and aggressiveness of younger bulls. Similar incidents were recorded in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, where young bulls killed five black and 58 white rhinoceros between 1991 and 2001. After the introduction of ten bulls, each up to 45 years old, the number of rhinos killed by elephants decreased considerably.\n\n"


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"=== Reproduction ===\n\nSpermatogenesis starts when bulls are about 15 years old.\nCows ovulate for the first time at the age of 11 years. They are in estrus for 2\u20136 days.\nIn captivity, cows have an oestrous cycle lasting 14\u201315 weeks. Foetal gonads enlarge during the second half of pregnancy.African bush elephants mate during the rainy season. Bulls in musth cover long distances in search of cows and associate with large family units. They listen for the cows' loud, very low frequency calls and attract cows by calling and by leaving trails of strong-smelling urine. Cows search for bulls in musth, listen for their calls, and follow their urine trails.\nBulls in musth are more successful at obtaining mating opportunities than those who are not. A cow may move away from bulls that attempt to test her estrous condition. If pursued by several bulls, she will run away. Once she chooses a mating partner, she will stay away from other bulls, which are threatened and chased away by the favoured bull. Competition between bulls overrides their choice sometimes.Gestation lasts 22 months. The interval between births was estimated at 3.9 to 4.7 years in Hwange National Park. "


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"Where hunting pressure on adult elephants was high in the 1970s, cows gave birth once in 2.9 to 3.8 years. Cows in Amboseli National Park gave birth once in 5 years on average.The birth of a calf was observed in Tsavo East National Park in October 1990. A group of 80 elephants including eight bulls had gathered in the morning in a 150 m (490 ft) radius around the birth site. A small group of calves and cows stood near the pregnant cow, rumbling and flapping their ears. One cow seemed to assist her. While she was in labour, fluid streamed from her temporal and ear canals. She remained standing while giving birth. The newborn calf struggled to its feet within 30 minutes and walked 20 minutes later. The mother expelled the placenta about 100 minutes after birth and covered it with soil immediately.Captive-born calves weigh between 100 and 120 kg (220 and 260 lb) at birth and gain about 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) weight per day.\nCows lactate for about 4.8 years.\nCalves exclusively suckle their mother's milk during the first three months. "


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"Thereafter, they start feeding independently and slowly increase the time spent feeding until they are two years old. During the first three years, male calves spend more time suckling and grow faster than female calves. After this period, cows reject male calves more frequently from nursing than female calves.The maximum lifespan of the African bush elephant is between 70 and 75 years. Its generation length is 25 years.\n\n=== Predators ===\nAdult elephants are considered invulnerable to predation. Calves, usually under two years, are sometimes preyed on by lions and spotted hyenas. Adult elephants often chase off predators, especially lions, by mobbing behavior. Juveniles are usually well defended by protective adults though serious drought makes them vulnerable to lion predation.In Botswana's Chobe National Park, lions attacked and fed on juvenile and subadult elephants during the drought when smaller prey species were scarce. Between 1993 and 1996, lions successfully attacked 74 elephants; 26 were older than nine, and one was a bull of over 15 years. Most were killed at night, and hunts occurred more often during waning moon nights than during bright moon nights. "


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"In the same park, lions killed eight elephants in October 2005 that were aged between 1 and 11 years, two of them older than 8 years. Successful hunts took place after dark when prides exceeded 27 lions and herds were smaller than 5 elephants.\n\n== Threats ==\nThe African bush elephant is threatened primarily by habitat loss and fragmentation following conversion of natural habitat for livestock farming, plantations of non-timber crops, and building of urban and industrial areas. As a result, the human-elephant conflict has increased.\n\n=== Poaching ===\nPoachers target foremost elephant bulls for their tusks, which leads to a skewed sex ratio and affects the survival chances of a population. Access of poachers to unregulated black markets is facilitated by corruption and periods of civil war in some elephant range countries.During the 20th century, the African bush elephant population was decimated. Poaching of the elephant has dated back to the years 1970 and 1980, which were considered the largest killings in history. Unfortunately, the species is placed in harm's way due to the limited conservation areas provided in Africa. "


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"In most cases, the killings of the African bush elephant have occurred near the outskirts of the protected areas.Between 2003 and 2015, the illegal killing of 14,606 African bush elephants was reported by rangers across 29 range countries. Chad is a major transit country for smuggling of ivory in West Africa. This trend was curtailed by raising penalties for poaching and improving law enforcement.In June 2002, a container packed with more than 6.5 t (6.4 long tons; 7.2 short tons) ivory was confiscated in Singapore. It contained 42,120 hanko stamps and 532 tusks of African bush elephants that originated in Southern Africa, centered in Zambia and neighboring countries. Between 2005 and 2006, a total of 23.461 t (23.090 long tons; 25.861 short tons) ivory plus 91 unweighed tusks of African bush elephants were confiscated in 12 major consignments being shipped to Asia.When the international ivory trade reopened in 2006, the demand and price for ivory increased in Asia. The African bush elephant population in Chad's Zakouma National Park numbered 3,900 individuals in 2005. Within five years, more than 3,200 elephants were killed. The park did not have sufficient guards to combat poaching, and their weapons were outdated. "


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"Well-organized networks facilitated smuggling the ivory through Sudan.\nPoaching also increased in Kenya in those years.\nIn Samburu National Reserve, 41 bulls were illegally killed between 2008 and 2012, equivalent to 31% of the reserve's elephant population.These killings were linked to confiscations of ivory and increased prices for ivory on the local black market.\nAbout 10,370 tusks were confiscated in Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Kenya and Uganda between 2007 and 2013. Genetic analysis of tusk samples showed that they originated from African bush elephants killed in Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, Kenya, and Uganda. Most of the ivory was smuggled through East African countries.In addition, to elephants being poached, their carcasses may be poisoned by the poachers to avoid detection by vultures, which help rangers detect poaching activity by circling dead animals. This poses a threat to those vultures or birds that scavenge the carcasses. "


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"On 20 June 2019, the carcasses of two tawny eagles and 537 endangered Old World vultures including 468 white-backed vultures, 17 white-headed vultures, 28 hooded vultures, 14 lappet-faced vultures and 10 Cape vultures found dead in northern Botswana were suspected to have died after eating the poisoned carcasses of three elephants.Intensive poaching leads to strong selection on tusk attributes; African elephants in areas with heavy poaching often have smaller tusks and a higher frequency of congenitally tuskless females, whereas congenital tusklessness is rarely if ever observed in males. A study in Mozambique's Gorongosa National Park revealed that poaching during the Mozambican Civil War lead to the increasing birth of tuskless females when the population recovered.\n\n=== Habitat changes ===\nVast areas in Sub-Saharan Africa were transformed for agricultural use and the building of infrastructure. This disturbance leaves the elephants without a stable habitat and limits their ability to roam freely. Large corporations associated with commercial logging and mining have fragmented the land, giving poachers easy access to the African bush elephant. As human development grows, the human population faces the trouble of contact with the elephants more frequently, due to the species need for food and water. "


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"Farmers residing in nearby areas come into conflict with the African bush elephants rummaging through their crops. In many cases, they kill the elephants as soon as they disturb a village or forage upon its crops. Deaths caused by browsing on rubber vine, an invasive alien plant, have also been reported.\n\n=== Pathogens ===\nObservations at Etosha National Park indicate that African bush elephants die due to anthrax foremost in November at the end of the dry season. Anthrax spores spread through the intestinal tracts of vultures, jackals and hyaenas that feed on the carcasses. Anthrax killed over 100 elephants in Botswana in 2019.It is thought that wild bush elephants can contract fatal tuberculosis from humans. Infection of the vital organs by Citrobacter freundii bacteria caused the death of an otherwise healthy bush elephant after capture and translocation.From April to June 2020, over 400 bush elephants died in Botswana's Okavango Delta region after drinking from desiccating waterholes that were infested with cyanobacteria. Neurotoxins produced by the cyanobacteria caused calves and adult elephants to wander around confused, emaciated and in distress. The elephants collapsed when the toxin impaired their motor functions and their legs became paralysed. "


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"Poaching, intentional poisoning, and anthrax were excluded as potential causes.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nBoth African elephant species have been listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora since 1989. In 1997, populations of Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe were placed on CITES Appendix II, as were populations of South Africa in 2000. Community-based conservation programmes have been initiated in several range countries, which contributed to reducing human-elephant conflict and increasing local people's tolerance towards elephants.In 1986, the African Elephant Database was initiated to collate and update information on the distribution and status of elephant populations in Africa. The database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people, and data on poaching.Researchers discovered that playing back the recorded sounds of African bees is an effective method to drive elephants away from settlements.\n\n=== Status ===\nIn 1996, IUCN Red List assessors for the African bush elephant considered the species Endangered. Since 2021, it has been assessed Endangered, after the global population was found to have decreased by more than 50% over 3 generations. "


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"About 70% of its range is located outside protected areas.In 2016, the global population was estimated at 415,428 \u00b1 20,111 individuals distributed in a total area of 20,731,202 km2 (8,004,362 sq mi), of which 30% is protected. 42% of the total population lives in nine southern African countries comprising 293,447 \u00b1 16,682 individuals; Africa's largest population lives in Botswana with 131,626 \u00b1 12,508 individuals.\n\n=== In captivity ===\nThe social behavior of elephants in captivity mimics that of those in the wild. Cows are kept with other cows, in groups, while bulls tend to be separated from their mothers at a young age and are kept apart. According to Schulte, in the 1990s, in North America, a few facilities allowed bull interaction. Elsewhere, bulls were only allowed to smell each other. Bulls and cows were allowed to interact for specific purposes such as breeding. In that event, cows were more often moved to the bull than the bull to the cow. Cows are more often kept in captivity because they are easier and less expensive to house.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\n\n2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter\nDwarf elephant\nElephant cognition\nKnysna elephants\nList of individual elephants\nPygmy elephant\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nCaitlin O'Connell (2015). Elephant Don: The Politics of a Pachyderm Posse. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226106113.\n\n== External links ==\n\nElephant Information Repository \u2013 An in-depth resource on elephants\n\"African Bush Elephant Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797)\" at the Encyclopedia of Life\nARKive \u2013 images and movies of the African Bush Elephant (Loxodonta africana)\nBBC Wildlife Finder \u2013 Clips from the BBC archive, news stories and sound files of the African Bush Elephant\nView the elephant genome on Ensembl\nPeople Not Poaching: The Communities and IWT Learning Platform\nHandwerk, B. (2006). \"African Elephants Slaughtered in Herds Near Chad Wildlife Park\". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 1 September 2006. Retrieved 1 September 2006."


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"The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a medium-sized wild cat widely distributed from Northern, Central and Eastern Europe to Central Asia and Siberia, the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. It inhabits temperate and boreal forests up to an elevation of 5,500 m (18,000 ft). Despite its wide distribution, it is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching and depletion of prey.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nFelis lynx was the scientific name used in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in his work Systema Naturae. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following Eurasian lynx subspecies were proposed:\nThe following were also proposed, but are not considered valid taxa:\nAltai lynx (L. l. wardi) Lydekker, 1904\nBaikal lynx (L. l. kozlovi) Fetisov, 1950\nAmur lynx (L. l. stroganovi) Heptner, 1969\nSardinian lynx (L. l. sardiniae) Mola, 1908\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat that is marked with black spots; their number and pattern are highly variable. The underparts, neck and chin are whitish. The fur is more brightly coloured with more numerous spots in animals living at the southern end of its range. In winter, it is much thicker and varies from silver-grey to greyish brown. "


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"Some animals have dark brown stripes on the forehead and back. It has powerful, relatively long legs, with large webbed and furred paws that act like snowshoes. It also has a short \"bobbed\" tail with an all-black tip, black tufts of hair on its ears, and a long grey-and-white ruff.It is the largest of the four lynx species, ranging in body length from 76\u2013106 cm (30\u201342 in) in males; 73\u201399 cm (29\u201339 in) in females; and standing 55\u201375 cm (22\u201330 in) at the shoulder. The tail is 11\u201324.5 cm (4.3\u20139.6 in) long, constituting a total length of up to 130 cm (51 in) in the largest males. Weights of both sexes in Russia range from 12 to 32 kg (26 to 71 lb), but more than 30 kg (66 lb) is attained very rarely and is possibly exaggerated. A Eurasian lynx from the Altai Mountains weighed 35 kg (77 lb). Those inhabiting Fennoscandia and westwards are considerably smaller, with a range of just 7\u201326 kg (15\u201357 lb), though individuals in the Carpathian Mountains may rival those in the Altai in size.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe Eurasian lynx inhabits rugged country providing plenty of hideouts and stalking opportunities. "


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"Depending on the locality, this may include rocky-steppe, mixed forest-steppe, boreal forest, and montane forest ecosystems. In the more mountainous parts of its range, Eurasian lynx descends to the lowlands in winter, following prey species and avoiding deep snow. Despite its adaptations for moving in snow, it finds loose, deep snow difficult to deal with and cannot survive in areas with snow depths exceeding 100 cm (39 in). It tends to be less common where the grey wolf (Canis lupus) is abundant, and wolves have been reported to attack and even eat lynx.\n\n=== Europe ===\nThe Eurasian lynx was once widespread throughout most of continental Europe. By the early 19th century, it was persecuted to local extinction in western and southern European lowlands, but survived only in mountainous areas and Scandinavian forests. By the 1950s, it had become extinct in most of Western and Central Europe, where only scattered and isolated populations exist today.\n\n==== Fennoscandia ====\nThe Eurasian lynx was close to extinction in Scandinavia in the 1930s. Since the 1950s, the population slowly recovered and forms three subpopulations in northern, central and southern Scandinavia.\n"


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"In Norway, the Eurasian lynx was subjected to an official bounty between 1846 and 1980 and could be hunted without license. In 1994, a compensation scheme for livestock killed by lynx was introduced. By 1996, the lynx population was estimated to comprise 410 Individuals, decreased to less than 260 individuals in 2004 and increased since 2005 to about 452 mature individuals by 2008.In Sweden, the lynx population was estimated at about 1,400 individuals in 2006 and 1,250 in 2011. Hunting is controlled by government agencies.\nIn Finland, about 2,200\u20132,300 individuals were present according to a 2009 estimate. The lynx population in Finland has been increasing every year since 1991, and is estimated to be nowadays larger than ever before. Limited hunting is permitted. In 2009 the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry gave a permit for hunting of 340 lynx individuals.\n\n==== Western Europe ====\nIn Great Britain, subfossil remains of Eurasian lynx have been dated to the early Middle Ages, though a breeding population in the Southern Uplands of Scotland was noted as late as 1760. "


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"Thus, it is possible that some Medieval and Early Modern references to \"wild cats\" and \"cats of the mountain\" actually refer to Eurasian lynx and not the Scottish wildcat as commonly assumed. It has been proposed to reintroduce the lynx to the Scottish Highlands and Kielder Forest in Northumberland.A large lynx that hunted deer and livestock, sometimes called \"tiger\" and \"deer's wolf\" (llobu/lobo cerval), was also reported in Green Spain until the 19th century. These accounts were traditionally regarded as references to Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), a smaller endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula. However, genetic testing of remains showed that the Eurasian and Iberian lynx coexisted into recent times in the Iberian Peninsula with little overlap, the Eurasian lynx being present in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and the Iberian lynx in Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. The Eurasian lynx of Spain was a unique, extinct lineage more related to the Carpathian and Baltic subspecies. It was genetically impoverished already in pre-Roman times, possibly because of founder effect, which made it even more vulnerable to human persecution. The government of Asturias studied the feasibility of Eurasian lynx reintroduction in 2019. "


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"In the Catalonian Pyrenees, the last Eurasian lynx was killed in the 1930s, though unconfirmed sightings continued until the 1990s. The S\u00edndic d'Aran planned a reintroduction in 2016 but canceled it due to the opposition of hunters and livestock farmers.In Germany, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in 1850. It was reintroduced to the Bavarian Forest and the Harz in the 1990s; other areas were populated by lynxes migrating from France and the Czech Republic. In 2002, the first birth of wild lynx on German territory was announced, following a litter from a pair of lynx in the Harz National Park. Small populations exist also in Saxon Switzerland, Palatinate Forest, and Fichtelgebirge. Eurasian lynx also migrated to Austria, where they had also been exterminated. An episode of the PBS television series Nature featured the return of the lynx to Austria's Kalkalpen National Park after a 150-year absence. A higher proportion is killed by humans than by infectious diseases.The Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the French Alps in the early 20th century. Following reintroduction of lynx in the Swiss Jura Mountains in the 1970s, lynxes were recorded again in the French Alps and Jura from the late 1970s onwards. "


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"It recolonised the Italian Alps since the 1980s, also from reintroduced populations in Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. By 2010, the Alpine lynx population comprised about 120\u2013150 individuals ranging over 27,800 km2 (10,700 sq mi) in six sub-areas.In the Netherlands, lynxes have been sighted sporadically since 1985 in the country's southern part. Since 2020, the presence of lynxes has been confirmed by camera trapping in the Ardennes region in southern Belgium, proving the presence of the species following more than 25 years of unconfirmed sightings in the region.\n\n==== Central and Eastern Europe ====\n\nCarpathian Mountains: About 2,800 Eurasian lynx live in the mountain range, split between the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary. It is the largest contiguous Eurasian lynx population west of the Russian border.\nCzech Republic: In Bohemia, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the 19th century (1830\u20131890) and in Moravia probably at the turn of the 20th century. After 1945, migration from Slovakia created a small and unstable population in Moravia. In the 1980s, almost 20 specimens were imported from Slovakia and reintroduced in the \u0160umava area. In early 2006, the population of lynx in the Czech Republic was estimated at 65\u2013105 individuals. "


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"Hunting is prohibited, but the lynx is often threatened by poachers.\nPoland: In its Environment and Environmental Protection Section, the 2011 Central Statistical Office Report puts the number of Eurasian lynxes observed in the wild in Poland as of 2010 at approximately 285. There are two major populations of lynxes in Poland, one in the northeastern part of the country (most notably in the Bia\u0142owie\u017ca Forest) and the other in the southeastern part in the Carpathian Mountains. Since the 1980s, lynxes have also been spotted in the region of Roztocze, Solska Forest, Polesie Lubelskie, and Karkonosze Mountains, though they still remain rare in those areas. A successfully reintroduced population of lynxes has also been living in the Kampinos National Park since the 1990s.\nSlovakia: the Eurasian lynx inhabits deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests at elevations of 180\u20131,592 m (591\u20135,223 ft), mostly in national parks and other protected areas; its presence has been positively confirmed in more than half of Slovak territory (2012). "


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"In terms of absolute numbers though in \u0160tiavnica Mountains and Ve\u013ek\u00e1 Fatra National Park, surveys during 2011 to 2014 revealed that less than 30 individuals were present in these protected areas, with anthropic disturbances, poaching and insufficient counting methods used by forestry cited as the main causes of the unreliable population figures.\nEstonia: There are 900 individuals in Estonia according to a 2001 estimate. Although 180 lynx were legally hunted in Estonia in 2010, the country still has the highest known density of the species in Europe.\nLatvia: According to a 2005 estimate, about 700 animals inhabit areas in Courland and Vidzeme.\nLithuania: The population is estimated at 80\u2013100 animals.\nBelarus: the most recent data from the national parks, reserves, and hunting grounds demonstrate the number of lynxes in Belarus to be in the range of 550 to 600 animals.\nRussia: As of 2013, the Russian lynx population is estimated as comprising 22,510 individuals and is considered abundant and stable in some regions.\nBalkan peninsula: The Balkan lynx subspecies is found in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Bulgaria and possibly Greece. "


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"They can be found in remote mountainous regions of the Balkans, with the largest numbers in remote hills of western North Macedonia, eastern Albania and northern Albania. The Balkan lynx is considered a national symbol of North Macedonia, and it is depicted on the reverse of the North Macedonian 5 denars coin, issued in 1993. The name of Lynkestis, a Macedonian tribe, is translated as \"Land of the Lynx\". It has been on the brink of extinction for nearly 100 years. Numbers are estimated to be around 100, and the decline is due to illegal poaching.\nDinaric Alps and Julian Alps: Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina are home to approx. 130\u2013200 lynx. The Eurasian lynx had been considered extinct in these countries since the beginning of the 20th century. However, a successful reintroduction project was carried out in Slovenia in 1973, when three female and three male lynx from Slovakia were released in the Ko\u010devski Rog forest. Today, lynx are present in the Dinaric forests of the south and southeastern part of Slovenia and in the Croatian regions of Gorski kotar and Velebit, spanning the Dinaric Alps and over the Dinara Mountains into western Bosnia and Herzegovina. "


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"The lynx has been also spotted in the Julian Alps and elsewhere in western Slovenia, but the A1 motorway presents a significant hindrance to the development of the population there. Croatia's Plitvice Lakes National Park is home to several pairs of the lynx. In the three countries, the Eurasian lynx is listed as an endangered species and protected by law. Realistic population estimates are 40 lynx in Slovenia, 40\u201360 in Croatia, and more than 50 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croatian massif Risnjak in Risnjak National Park probably got its name from the Croatian word for the lynx, ris.\nHungary: The population is estimated at 10-12 animals, in the northern mountain ranges of the country close to Slovakia.\nRomania: over 2,000 Eurasian lynx live in Romania, including most of the Carpathian population. However, some experts consider these official population numbers to be overestimated. Limited hunting is permitted but the population is stable.\nBulgaria: the animal was declared extinct in Bulgaria in 1985, but sightings continued well into the 1990s. In 2006 an audio recording of a lynx mating call was made in the Strandzha mountain range in the southeast. "


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"Two years later an ear-marked individual was accidentally shot near Belogradchik in the northwest, and a few months later a mounted trap camera caught a glimpse of another individual. Further camera records followed in Osogovo and Strandzha, confirming that the species has returned to the country. A thorough examination on the subject is yet to be made available.\nUkraine: The Eurasian lynx is native to forested areas of the country. Before the 19th century it was common also in the forest steppe zone. Nowadays, the most significant populations remain in the Carpathian mountains and across the forests of Polesia. The population is estimated as 80\u201390 animals for the Polesia region and 350\u2013400 for the forests of the Carpathians.\n\n=== Asia ===\n\n==== Anatolia and Caucasus ====\nIn the Anatolian part of Turkey, the Eurasian lynx is present in the Lesser Caucasus, Ka\u00e7kar Mountains and Artvin Province. In Ciglikara Nature Reserve located in the Taurus Mountains, 15 individuals were identified. More than 50 individuals were identified and monitored at a forest-steppe mixed ecosystem in northwestern Anatolia by camera traps, genetic material and radiotelemetry between 2009 and 2019. In Kars Province, a breeding population occurs in Sar\u0131kam\u0131\u015f-Allahuekber Mountains National Park.\n"


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"The Eurasian lynx and grey wolf can occur sympatrically, as they occupy different trophic niches.\n\n==== Central Asia ====\nIn Central Asia, it is native to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and to the northern slopes of Iran's Alborz Mountains and Mongolia.In northern Pakistan, the Eurasian lynx was recorded at elevations of 1,067\u20135,000 m (3,501\u201316,404 ft) in Chitral District.\nIn India: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and most other Himalayan states.\nIn Nepal, a Eurasian lynx was sighted in the western Dhaulagiri massif in 1975. It is also present above elevations of 3,800 m (12,500 ft) in Humla, Mustang and Dolpa Districts.\n\n==== East Asia ====\nFossils of the Eurasian or a closely related Lynx species from the Late Pleistocene era and onward were excavated at various locations in the Japanese archipelago. Since no archaeological evidence after the Yayoi period was found, it was probably eradicated during the J\u014dmon period.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nAlthough they may hunt during the day when food is scarce, the Eurasian lynx is mainly nocturnal or crepuscular, and spends the day sleeping in dense thickets or other places of concealment. "


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"It lives solitarily as an adult. The hunting area of Eurasian lynx can be anything from 20 to 450 km2 (7.7 to 173.7 sq mi), depending on the local availability of prey. Males tend to hunt over much larger areas than females, which tend to occupy exclusive, rather than overlapping, hunting ranges. The Eurasian lynx can travel up to 20 km (12 mi) during one night, although about half this distance is more typical. They patrol regularly throughout all parts of their hunting range, using scent marks to indicate their presence to other individuals. As with other cats, its scent marks may consist of faeces, urine, or scrape marks, with the former often being left in prominent locations along the boundary of the hunting territory. Eurasian lynx makes a range of vocalizations, but is generally silent outside of the breeding season. They have been observed to mew, hiss, growl, and purr, and, like domestic cats, will \"chatter\" at prey that is just out of reach. Mating calls are much louder, consisting of deep growls in the male, and loud \"meow-like\" sounds in the female. "


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"Eurasian lynx are secretive, and because the sounds they make are very quiet and seldom heard, their presence in an area may go unnoticed for years. Remnants of prey or tracks on snow are usually observed long before the animal is seen.\n\n=== Diet and hunting ===\n\n==== Diet in Europe ====\nEurasian lynx in Europe prey largely on small to fairly large sized mammals and birds. Among the recorded prey items for the species are hares, rabbits, marmots, squirrels, dormice, other rodents, mustelids (such as martens), grouse, red foxes, wild boar, chamois, young moose, roe deer, red deer, reindeer and other ungulates. In keeping with its larger size, the Eurasian lynx is the only lynx species to preferentially take ungulates (the Iberian lynx and Canada lynx being specialists on lagomorph prey, while the bobcat is an opportunistic generalist). Although taking on larger prey presents a risk to the animal, the bounty provided by killing them can outweigh the risks. The Eurasian lynx thus prefers fairly large ungulate prey, especially during winter, when small prey is less abundant. "


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"Where common, roe deer appear to be the preferred prey species for the lynx.In Estonia, a typical adult lynx kills about 60 roe deer a year; in the years when the roe deer population plummets, the lynx switch to beavers, hares, foxes, raccoon dogs, and birds. Even where roe deer are quite uncommon, the deer are still quantitatively the favored prey species, though in summer smaller prey and occasional domestic sheep are eaten more regularly. In parts of Finland, introduced white-tailed deer are eaten regularly. In some areas in Poland and Austria, red deer is the preferred prey, and in Switzerland, chamois is locally favored. Eurasian lynx also feeds on carrion when available. Adult lynx require 1.1 to 2 kilograms (2.4 to 4.4 lb) of meat per day, and may take several days to fully consume some of their larger prey.\n\n==== Diet in Asia ====\nIn the Mediterranean mixed forest-steppe and subalpine ecosystems of Anatolia the main and most preferred prey of the Eurasian lynx is European hare, forming 79% to 99% of prey biomass eaten. "


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"Although the lynx is in sympatry with wild ungulates, such as wild goat, chamois, red deer and wild boar in these ecosystems, ungulate biomass in lynx diet does not exceed 10%. In ten other study sites in the Black Sea region of northern Anatolia where roe deer can occur in high densities, lynx occurrence is positively correlated with European hare occurrence rather than roe deer. Lynx in Anatolia also has physiological requirements and morphological adjustments similar to other lagomorph specialists, with a daily prey intake of about 900 g (32 oz). It is therefore classified as lagomorph specialist. Diet studies in central and northern Asia also indicate a diet mainly composed of lagomorphs and ungulate prey contributes in low amounts to lynx diet.\nEurasian lynx scat found in Dolpa District in the Nepal Himalayas contained remains of woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus), pika (Ochotona sp.), mountain voles (Alticola sp.), Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) and domestic goat (Capra hircus).\n\n==== Hunting ====\nThe main method of hunting is stalking, sneaking and jumping on prey, although they are also ambush predators when conditions are suitable. "


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"In winter certain snow conditions make this harder and the animal may be forced to switch to larger prey in Europe. Eurasian lynx hunt using both vision and hearing, and often climb onto high rocks or fallen trees to scan the surrounding area. A very powerful predator, these lynxes have successfully killed adult deer weighing to at least 150 kg (330 lb).\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe mating season of the Eurasian lynx lasts from January to April. The female typically comes into oestrus only once during this period, lasting from four to seven days. If the first litter is lost, a second period of oestrus is common. It does not appear to be able to control its reproductive behaviour based on prey availability. Gestation lasts from 67 to 74 days. Pregnant females construct dens in secluded locations, often protected by overhanging branches or tree roots. The den is lined with feathers, deer hair, and dry grass to provide bedding for the young. At birth, Eurasian lynx kittens weigh 240 to 430 g (8.5 to 15.2 oz) and open their eyes after ten to twelve days. "


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"They initially have plain, greyish-brown fur, attaining the full adult colouration around eleven weeks of age. They begin to take solid food at six to seven weeks, when they begin to leave the den, but are not fully weaned for five or six months. The den is abandoned two to three months after the kittens are born, but the young typically remain with their mother until they are around ten months of age. Eurasian lynx reach sexual maturity at two or three years, and have lived for twenty one years in captivity.Females usually have two kittens; litters with more than three kittens are rare.\n\n== Predators and interspecies predatory relationships ==\nThe primary predators of the lynx are the gray wolf and the wolverine. In Russian forests, gray wolves kill and eat lynx that fail to escape into trees, as evidenced by examination of wolf and lynx trackways in the Central Forest Nature Reserve, and of lynx hair and bones found in wolf stomach contents in the Belovezh Forest. "


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"The lynx saves itself from its enemies by quickly climbing a tree or a cliff; it usually lives near a 'stronghold' place and eats its food in a high tree or cliff. Lynx populations decrease when wolves appear in a region such as observed in the Pritelsk region of the Altai Mountains, and lynx are likely to take smaller prey where wolves are active. In eastern Slovakia, after an increase of wolves after World War II, lynx  were observed to move out.However, there is also a reported instance of a male lynx having expelled an adult and apparently healthy male wolf in Belarus in a fight. After the incident the wolf vanished from the record, suggesting that it might have succumbed to the wounds sustained during the fight. Moreover, recent population dynamics and a high mortality rate among wolf cubs in the Naliboki forest might be connected to an increasing lynx population. All in all this suggests that at least locally lynx may dominate wolves, since no signs for predation of wolves on lynx was found. "


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"In the Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in Russia wolverine predation and consumption of a lynx has been documented, and in the Altai Mountains, the lynx avoids wolverines.The gray wolf, wolverine, as well as the red fox and the eagle owl, are also competitors of the Eurasian lynx for food in the taiga regions of Russia. In years of low hare populations, the competition becomes especially strong, and the lynx is at a disadvantage because its competitors are able to secure other prey more efficiently. This competition may be especially severe in the northern parts of the lynx's range where lynx populations are vastly outnumbered by red fox and even by wolverines. The presence of other large carnivores is one factor limiting their population.In two ecosystems of Anatolia, cannibalism was common and lynx were found to form 5% to 8% of prey biomass in diet. Claws and bones analysed showed that sub-adult lynx were the victims of cannibalism during the mating and spring seasons. Lynx were not found in the sympatrically occurring wolves' diet, however, lynxes themselves were the predator of red foxes, martens, domestic cats and dogs, and golden jackal remains have been found in lynx fecal samples. "


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"Sometimes, Siberian tigers have also preyed on lynxes, as evidenced by examination of tiger stomach contents.\nIn Sweden, out of 33 deaths of lynx of a population being observed, one was probably killed by a wolverine. Lynx compete for food with the predators described above, and also with the red fox, eagle owls, golden eagles, wild boar (which scavenge from lynx kills), and in the southern part of its range, the snow leopard and leopard as well. Brown bears, although not (so far as is known) a predator of Eurasian lynx, are in some areas a semi-habitual usurpers of ungulate kills by lynxes, not infrequently before the cat has had a chance to consume its kill itself.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nThe Eurasian lynx is included on CITES Appendix II and listed as a protected species in the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III. Hunting lynx is illegal in many range countries, with the exception of Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Armenia and Iraq. Since 2005, the Norwegian government sets national population goals, while a committee of representatives from county assemblies decide on hunting quotas.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\nIberian lynx\nServal\nCaracal\nList of largest cats\n\n== References ==\n\n=== Further reading ===\nDeksne, G.; Laakkonen, J.; N\u00e4reaho, A.; Jokelainen, P.; Holmala, K.; Kojola, I.; Sukura, A. (2013). \"Endoparasites of the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx) in Finland\". Journal of Parasitology. 99 (2): 229\u2013234. doi:10.1645/GE-3161.1. PMID 23016871. S2CID 4761342.\nJokelainen, Pikka; Deksne, Gunita; Holmala, Katja; Na\u00e4reaho, Anu; Laakkonen, Juha; Kojola, Ilpo; Sukura, Antti (2013). \"Free-ranging Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) as host of Toxoplasma gondii in Finland\". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 49 (3): 527\u2013534. doi:10.7589/2011-12-352. PMID 23778601. S2CID 21910854.\nLavikainen, A.; Haukisalmi, V.; Deksne, G.; Holmala, K.; Lejeune, M.; Isomursu, M.; Jokelainen, P.; N\u00e4reaho, A.; Laakkonen, J.; Hoberg, E. P.; Sukura, A. (2013). \"Molecular identification of Taenia spp. in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) from Finland\". Parasitology. 140 (5): 653\u2013662. doi:10.1017/S0031182012002120. PMID 23347590. S2CID 43152474.\nZlatanova, D.; Racheva, V.; Peshev, D.; Gavrilov, G. (2009). \"First Hard Evidence of Lynx (Lynx Lynx L.) Presence in Bulgaria\". Biotechnology and Biotechnological Equipment. 23: 184\u2013187. doi:10.1080/13102818.2009.10818396. S2CID 83537184.\n\n== External links ==\n\nMueenuddin, N. (2020). Himalayan Lynx Filmed Hunting Markhor in Pakistan for First Time (Motion picture). WWF Pakistan. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021.\n"


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"IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. \"Eurasian lynx\".\n\"The Balkan Lynx Compendium\".\n\"Eurasian Lynx Online Information System\". Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 9 August 2020.\n\"Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe\".\n\"Lynx UK Trust\".\n\"Lynx in Craven, North Yorkshire\". Lower Winskill."


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"The common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) is a species of large freshwater turtle in the family Chelydridae. Its natural range extends from southeastern Canada, southwest to the edge of the Rocky Mountains, as far east as Nova Scotia and Florida. The three species of Chelydra and the larger alligator snapping turtles (genus Macrochelys) are the only extant chelydrids, a family now restricted to the Americas. The common snapping turtle, as its name implies, is the most widespread.The common snapping turtle is noted for its combative disposition when out of the water with its powerful beak-like jaws, and highly mobile head and neck (hence the specific epithet serpentina, meaning \"snake-like\"). In water, it is likely to flee and hide underwater in sediment. The common snapping turtle has a life-history strategy characterized by high and variable mortality of embryos and hatchlings, delayed sexual maturity, extended adult longevity, and iteroparity (repeated reproductive events) with low reproductive success per reproductive event.Females, and presumably also males, in more northern populations mature later (at 15\u201320 years) and at a larger size than in more southern populations (about 12 years). "


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"Lifespan in the wild is poorly known, but long-term mark-recapture data from Algonquin Park in Ontario, Canada, suggest a maximum age over 100 years.\n\n== Anatomy and morphology ==\n\nC. serpentina has a rugged, muscular build with a ridged carapace (upper shell), although ridges tend to be more pronounced in younger individuals. The carapace length in adulthood may be nearly 50 cm (20 in), though 25\u201347 cm (9.8\u201318.5 in) is more common. C. serpentina usually weighs 4.5\u201316 kg (9.9\u201335.3 lb). Per one study, breeding common snapping turtles were found to average 28.5 cm (11.2 in) in carapace length, 22.5 cm (8.9 in) in plastron length and weigh about 6 kg (13 lb).Males are larger than females, with almost all  weighing in excess of 10 kg (22 lb) being male and quite old, as the species continues to grow throughout life. Any specimen above the aforementioned weights is exceptional, but the heaviest wild specimen caught reportedly weighed 34 kg (75 lb). Snapping turtles kept in captivity can be quite overweight due to overfeeding and have weighed as much as 39 kg (86 lb). In the northern part of its range, the common snapping turtle is often the heaviest native freshwater turtle.\n\n"


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"== Ecology and life history ==\nCommon habitats are shallow ponds or streams. Some may inhabit brackish environments, such as estuaries. These sources of water tend to have an abundance of aquatic vegetation due to the shallow pools. Common snapping turtles sometimes bask\u2014though rarely observed\u2014by floating on the surface with only their carapaces exposed, though in the northern parts of their range, they also readily bask on fallen logs in early spring. In shallow waters, common snapping turtles may lie beneath a muddy bottom with only their heads exposed, stretching their long necks to the surface for an occasional breath. Their nostrils are positioned on the very tip of the snout, effectively functioning as snorkels.Snapping turtles are omnivorous.  Important aquatic scavengers, they are also active hunters that use ambush tactics to prey on anything they can swallow, including many invertebrates, fish, frogs, reptiles (including snakes and smaller turtles), unwary birds, and small mammals. In some areas adult snapping turtles can occasionally be incidentally detrimental to breeding waterfowl, but their effect on such prey as ducklings and goslings is frequently exaggerated. As omnivorous scavengers though, they will also feed on carrion and a surprisingly large amount of aquatic vegetation.\n\n"


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"Common snapping turtles have few predators when older, but eggs are subject to predation by crows, American mink, skunks, foxes, and raccoons. As hatchlings and juveniles, most of the same predators will attack them as well as herons (mostly great blue herons), bitterns, hawks, owls, fishers, American bullfrogs, large fish, and snakes. There are records during winter in Canada of hibernating adult common snapping turtles being ambushed and preyed on by northern river otters. Other natural predators which have reportedly preyed on adults include coyotes, American black bears, American alligators and their larger cousins, alligator snapping turtles. Large, old male snapping turtles have very few natural threats due to their formidable size and defenses, and tend to have a very low annual mortality rate.These turtles travel extensively over land to reach new habitats or to lay eggs. Pollution, habitat destruction, food scarcity, overcrowding, and other factors drive snappers to move; it is quite common to find them traveling far from the nearest water source. "


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"Experimental data supports the idea that snapping turtles can sense the Earth's magnetic field, which could also be used for such movements (together with a variety of other possible orientation cues).This species mates from April through November, with their peak laying season in June and July. The female can hold sperm for several seasons, using it as necessary. Females travel over land to find sandy soil in which to lay their eggs, often some distance from the water. After digging a hole, the female typically deposits 25 to 80 eggs each year, guiding them into the nest with her hind feet and covering them with sand for incubation and protection.Incubation time is temperature-dependent, ranging from 9 to 18 weeks. One study on the incubation period of the common snapping turtle incubated the eggs at two temperatures: 20 \u00b0C (68 \u00b0F) and 30 \u00b0C (86 \u00b0F). The research found that the incubation period at the higher temperature was significantly shorter at approximately 63 days, while at the lower temperature the time was approximately 140 days. In cooler climates, hatchlings overwinter in the nest. "


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"The common snapping turtle is remarkably cold-tolerant; radiotelemetry studies have shown some individuals do not hibernate, but remain active under the ice during the winter.Common snapping turtle hatchlings have recently been found to make sounds before nest exit onto the surface, a phenomenon also known from species in the South American genus Podocnemis and the Ouachita map turtle. These sounds are mostly \"clicking\" noises, but other sounds, including those that sound somewhat like a \u201ccreak\u201d or rubbing a finger along a fine-toothed comb, are also sometimes produced.In the northern part of their range snapping turtles do not breathe for more than six months because ice covers their hibernating site. These turtles can get oxygen by pushing their head out of the mud and allowing gas exchange to take place through the membranes of their mouth and throat. This is known as extrapulmonary respiration.If they cannot get enough oxygen through this method they start to utilize anaerobic pathways, burning sugars and fats without the use of oxygen. The metabolic by-products from this process are acidic and create very undesirable side effects by spring, which are known as oxygen debt. "


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"Although designated as \"least concern\" on the IUCN redlist, the species has been designated in the Canadian part of its range as \"Special Concern\" due to its life history being sensitive to disruption by anthropogenic activity.\n\n== Systematics and taxonomy ==\nCurrently, no subspecies of the common snapping turtle are recognized. The former Florida subspecies osceola is currently considered a synonym of serpentina, while the other former subspecies Chelydra rossignonii and Chelydra acutirostris are both recognized as full species.\n\n== Behavior ==\nIn their environment, they are at the top of the food chain, causing them to feel less fear or aggression in some cases. When they encounter a species unfamiliar to them such as humans, in rare instances, they will become curious and survey the situation and even more rarely may bump their nose on a leg of the person standing in the water. Although snapping turtles have fierce dispositions, when they are encountered in the water or a swimmer approaches, they will slip quietly away from any disturbance or may seek shelter under mud or grass nearby.\n\n"


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"== Relationship with humans ==\n\n=== As food ===\nThe common snapping turtle is a traditional ingredient in turtle soup; consumption in large quantities, however, can become a health concern due to potential concentration of toxic environmental pollutants in the turtle's flesh.\n\n=== Captivity ===\nThe common snapping turtle is not an ideal pet. Its neck is very flexible, and a wild turtle can bite its handler even if picked up by the sides of its shell. The claws are as sharp as those of bears and cannot be trimmed as can dog claws. The turtle uses its paws like a bear for hunting and slicing food, while biting it. Despite this, a snapping turtle cannot use its claws for either attacking (its legs have no speed or strength in \"swiping\" motions) or eating (no opposable thumbs), but only as aids for digging and gripping. Veterinary care is best left to a reptile specialist. "


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"A wild common snapping turtle will make a hissing sound when it is threatened or encountered, but they prefer not to provoke confrontations.It is a common misconception that common snapping turtles may be safely picked up by the tail with no harm to the animal; in fact, this has a high chance of injuring the turtle, especially the tail itself and the vertebral column. Lifting the turtle with the hands is difficult and dangerous. Snappers can stretch their necks back across their own carapace and to their hind feet on either side to bite. When they feel stressed, they release a musky odor from behind their legs.\nIt may be tempting to rescue a snapping turtle found on a road by getting it to bite a stick and then dragging it out of immediate danger. This action can, however, severely scrape the legs and underside of the turtle and lead to deadly infections in the wounds. The safest way to pick up a common snapping turtle is by grasping the carapace behind the back legs, being careful to not grasp the tail. "


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"There is a large gap behind the back legs that allows for easy grasping of the carapace and keeps hands safe from both the beak and claws of the turtle. It can also be picked up with a shovel, from the back, making sure the shovel is square across the bottom of the shell. The easiest way, though, is with a blanket or tarp, picking up the corners with the turtle in the middle.Snapping turtles are raised on some turtle farms in Mainland China.\n\n=== In politics ===\n\nThe common snapping turtle was the central feature of a famous American political cartoon. Published in 1808 in protest at the Jeffersonian Embargo Act of 1807, the cartoon depicted a snapping turtle, jaws locked fiercely to an American trader who was attempting to carry a barrel of goods onto a British ship. The trader was seen whimsically uttering the words \"Oh! this cursed Ograbme\" (\"embargo\" spelled backwards, and also \"O, grab me\" as the turtle is doing). "


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"This piece is widely considered a pioneering work within the genre of the modern political cartoon.In 2006, the common snapping turtle was declared the state reptile of New York by vote of the New York Legislature after being chosen by the state's public elementary school children.\n\n=== Reputation ===\n\nWhile it is widely rumored that common snapping turtles can bite off human fingers or toes, and their powerful jaws are more than capable of doing so, no proven cases have ever been presented for this species, as they use their overall size and strength to deter would-be predators. Common snapping turtles are \"quite docile\" animals underwater that prefer to avoid confrontations rather than provoke them.In 2002, a study done in the Journal of Evolutionary Biology found that the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) registered between 208 and 226 Newtons of force when it came to jaw strength. In comparison, the average bite force of a human (molars area) is between 300 and 700 Newtons. Another non-closely related species known as the alligator snapping turtle has been known to bite off fingers, and at least three documented cases are known.\n\n"


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"== Invasive species ==\nIn recent years in Italy, large mature adult C. serpentina turtles have been taken from bodies of water throughout the country. They were most probably introduced by the release of unwanted pets. In March 2011, an individual weighing 20 kg (44 lb) was captured in a canal near Rome; another individual was captured near Rome in September 2012.In Japan, the species was introduced as an exotic pet in the 1960s; it has been recorded as the source of serious bite injuries. In 2004 and 2005, some 1,000 individuals were found in Chiba Prefecture, making up the majority of individuals believed to have been introduced.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe species is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, but has declined sufficiently due to pressure from collection for the pet trade and habitat degradation that Canada and several U.S. states have enacted or are proposing stricter conservation measures. In Canada, it is listed as \"Special Concern\" in the Species at Risk Act in 2011 and is a target species for projects that include surveys, identification of major habitats, investigation and mitigation of threats, and education of the public including landowners. "


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"Involved bodies include governmental departments, universities, museums, and citizen science projects.Although Common snapping turtles are listed as a species of least concern, anthropogenic factors still may have major effects on populations. Decades of road mortality may cause severe population decline in common snapping turtle populations present in urbanized wetlands. A study in southwestern Ontario monitored a population near a busy roadway and found a loss of 764 individuals in only 17 years. The population decreased from 941 individuals in 1985 to 177 individuals in 2002. Road mortality may put common snapping turtle populations at risk of extirpation. Exclusion fencing could aid in decreasing population loss.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nThe Snapping Turtle Page - www.chelydra.org\nVideo: How to Help a Snapping Turtle Cross a Road, Toronto Zoo\nSnapping Turtle, Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa\n\n== Further reading ==\nBehler JL, King FW (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp. ISBN 0-394-50824-6. (Chelydra serpentina, pp. 435\u2013436 + Plates 322\u2013324).\nConant R (1975). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. xviii + 429 pp. "


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"+ Plates 1-48. ISBN 0-395-19979-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-395-19977-8 (paperback). (Chelydra serpentina, pp. 37\u201338 + Plates 5, 11 + Map3).\nGoin CJ, Goin OB, Zug GR (1978). Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. ISBN 0-7167-0020-4. (Chelydra serpentina, pp. 122, 142, 258).\nLinnaeus C (1758). Systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Testudo serpentina, new species, p. 199). (in Latin).\nSmith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3. (Chelydra serpentina, pp. 38\u201339).\nZim HS, Smith HM (1956). Reptiles and Amphibians: A Guide to Familiar American Species: A Golden Nature Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster. 160 pp. (Chelydra serpentina, pp. 19, 24, 155).\nAmtyaz Safi, Hashmi MUA and Smith JP. 2020. A review of distribution, threats, conservation and status of freshwater turtles of Ontario, Canada. Journal of Environmental sciences. 2(1) (2020): 36\u201341."


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"The northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), also known as three-horned giraffe, is the type species of giraffe, G. camelopardalis, and is native to North Africa, although alternative taxonomic hypotheses have proposed the northern giraffe as a separate species.Once abundant throughout Africa since the 19th century, Northern giraffes ranged from Senegal, Mali and Nigeria from West Africa to up north in Egypt.  The similar West African giraffes lived in Algeria and Morocco in ancient periods until their extinctions due to the Saharan dry climate.Giraffes collectively are considered Vulnerable to extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), with around 97,000 wild individuals alive in 2016,  of which 5,195 are Northern giraffes.\n\n== Taxonomy and evolution ==\nThe current IUCN taxonomic scheme lists one species of giraffe with the name G. camelopardalis and nine subspecies. A 2021 whole genome sequencing study suggests the northern giraffe as a separate species, and postulates the existence of three distinct subspecies.\n\n== Description ==\n\nOften mistaken with the Southern Giraffes, Northern giraffes can be differentiated by the shape and size of the two distinctive horn-like protuberances known as ossicones on their foreheads; they are longer and larger than those of southern giraffes. "


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"Bull Northern giraffes have a third cylindrical ossicone in the center of the head just above the eyes, which is from 3 to 5 inches long.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nNorthern giraffes live in savannahs, shrublands, and woodlands. After numerous local extinctions, Northern giraffes are the least numerous giraffe species, and the most endangered. In East Africa, they are mostly found in Kenya and southwestern Ethiopia, and rarely in northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan. In Central Africa, there are about 2,000 in the Central African Republic, Chad and Cameroon. Once widespread in West Africa, a few hundred Northern giraffes are confined in the Dosso Reserve of Kour\u00e9, Niger. They are isolated in South Sudan, Kenya, Chad and Niger. They commonly live both in and outside of protected areas.The earliest ranges of the Northern giraffes were in Chad during the late Pliocene. Once abundant in North Africa, they lived in Algeria from the early Pleistocene during the Quaternary period. They lived in Morocco, Libya and Egypt until their extinction there around AD 600, as the drying climate of the Sahara made conditions impossible for giraffes. Giraffe bones and fossils have been found across these countries.\n\n"


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"== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive \u2013 images and movies of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).\nGiraffe, African Wildlife Foundation\nGiraffe"


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"The red-eared slider or red-eared terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans) is a subspecies of the pond slider (Trachemys scripta), a semiaquatic turtle belonging to the family Emydidae. It is the most popular pet turtle in the United States, is also popular as a pet across the rest of the world, and is the most invasive turtle. It is the most commonly traded turtle in the world.The red-eared slider is native from the Midwestern United States to northern Mexico, but has become established in other places because of pet releases, and has become invasive in many areas where it outcompetes native species. The red-eared slider is included in the list of the world's 100 most invasive species.\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe red-eared slider gets its name from the small, red stripe around its ears, or where its ears would be, and from its ability to slide quickly off rocks and logs into the water. This species was previously known as Troost's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist Gerard Troost. Trachemys scripta troostii is now the scientific name for another subspecies, the Cumberland slider.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe red-eared slider belongs to the order Testudines, which contains about 250 turtle species. "


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"It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta. It was previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans. Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies: T. s. elegans (red-eared slider), T. s. scripta (yellow-bellied slider), and T. s. troostii (Cumberland slider).\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm (16 in) in length, but the typical length ranges from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in). The females of the species are usually larger than the males. They typically live between 20\u201330 years, although some individuals have lived for more than 40 years. Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity. The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being.\nThese turtles are poikilotherms, meaning they are unable to regulate their body temperatures independently; they are completely dependent on the temperature of their environment. For this reason, they need to sunbathe frequently to warm themselves and maintain their body temperatures.\nThe shell is divided into the upper or dorsal carapace, and the lower, ventral carapace or plastron. "


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"The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes, which form the central, elevated portion; pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes; and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace. The rear marginal scutes are notched. The scutes are bony keratinous elements. The carapace is oval and flattened (especially in the male) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young. The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle. It usually has a dark green background with light and dark, highly variable markings. In young or recently hatched turtles, it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older, until it is a very dark green, and then turns a shade between brown and olive green. The plastron is always a light yellow with dark, paired, irregular markings in the centre of most scutes. The plastron is highly variable in pattern. The head, legs, and tail are green with fine, irregular, yellow lines. The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual.\n\n"


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"These turtles also have a complete skeletal system, with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail. The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red-eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name, as the stripe is located behind the eyes, where their (external) ears would be. These stripes may lose their color over time. Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads. The red-eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal; instead, it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc.\n\n=== Sexual dimorphism ===\n\nSome dimorphism exists between males and females.Red-eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex, making distinguishing them difficult. One useful method, however, is to inspect the markings under their carapace, which fade as the turtles age. Distinguishing the sex of adults is much easier, as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females. "


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"Male red-eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces' diameters measure 10 cm (3.9 in) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure about 15 cm. Both males and females reach sexual maturity at 5\u20136 years old. Males are normally smaller than females, although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply, as individuals being compared could be of different ages.\nMales have longer claws on their front feet than the females; this helps them to hold onto a female during mating, and is used during courtship displays. The males' tails are thicker and longer. Typically, the cloacal opening of a female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace, while the male's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace. The male's plastron is slightly concave, while that of the female is completely flat. The male's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female's carapace during mating. Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish-olive green melanistic coloration, with very subdued markings. The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent. The female's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe red-eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, in warm climates in the Southeastern United States. Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida. In nature, they inhabit areas with a source of still, warm water, such as ponds, lakes, swamps, creeks, streams, or slow-flowing rivers.\nThey live in areas of calm water, where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun. Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other. They also require abundant aquatic plants, as these are the adults' main food, although they are omnivores. Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs.\n\n"


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"=== Invasive species ===\nInvasive red-eared sliders cause negative impacts in the ecosystems they occupy because they have certain advantages over the native populations, such as a lower age at maturity, higher fecundity rates, and larger body size, which gives them a competitive advantage at basking and nesting sites, as well as when exploiting food resources. They also transmit diseases and displace the other turtle species with which they compete for food and breeding space.Owing to their popularity as pets, red-eared sliders have been released or escaped into the wild in many parts of the world. This turtle is considered one of the world's worst invasive species. Feral populations are now found in Bermuda, Canada, Australia, Europe, Great Britain, South Africa, the Caribbean Islands, Israel, Bahrain, the Mariana Islands, Guam, and south- and far-east Asia. Within Great Britain, red-eared sliders have a wide distribution throughout England, Scotland, and Wales.In Australia, it is illegal for members of the public to import, keep, trade, or release red-eared sliders, as they are regarded as an invasive species \u2013 see below. Their import has been banned by the European Union as well as specific EU member countries. "


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"In 2015, Japan announced it was planning to ban the import of red-eared sliders, but it would probably not take effect until 2020.\n\n== Behavior ==\nRed-eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic, but as they are cold-blooded, they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature.\n\n=== Hibernation ===\nRed-eared sliders do not hibernate, but actually brumate; while they become less active, they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air. Brumation can occur to varying degrees. In the wild, red-eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes. They generally become inactive in October, when temperatures fall below 10 \u00b0C (50 \u00b0F). During this time, the turtles enter a state of sopor, during which they do not eat or defecate, they remain nearly motionless, and the frequency of their breathing falls. Individuals usually brumate under water, but they have also been found under banks and rocks, and in hollow stumps. In warmer winter climates, they can become active and come to the surface for basking. When the temperature begins to drop again, however, they quickly return to a brumation state. "


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"Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April.\n\nDuring brumation, T. s. elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks, producing ATP from glycolysis. The turtle's metabolic rate drops dramatically, with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80% to minimize energy requirements.\nThe lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell, preventing acidosis.\nRed-eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nCourtship and mating activities for red-eared sliders usually occur between March and July, and take place under water. During courtship, the male swims around the female and flutters or vibrates the back side of his long claws on and around her face and head, possibly to direct pheromones towards her. The female swims toward the male, and if she is receptive, sinks to the bottom for mating. If the female is not receptive, she may become aggressive towards the male. Courtship can last 45 minutes, but mating takes only 10 minutes.\nOn occasion, a male may appear to be courting another male, and when kept in captivity may also show this behaviour towards other household pets. "


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"Between male turtles, it could be a sign of dominance and may preclude a fight. Young turtles may carry out the courtship dance before they reach sexual maturity at 5 years of age, but they are unable to mate.After mating, the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm. She may also have a change of diet, eating only certain foods, or not eating as much as she normally would. A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors. One female can lay up to 5 clutches in the same year, and clutches are usually spaced 12\u201336 days apart. The time between mating and egg-laying can be days or weeks. The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg-laying. This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season, as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female's body in the absence of mating. During the last weeks of gestation, the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground, indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs. "


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"The female excavates a hole, using her hind legs, and lays her eggs in it.\nIncubation takes 59\u2013112 days. Late-season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring. Just prior to hatching, the egg contains 50% turtle and 50% egg sac. A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth, which falls out about an hour after hatching. This egg tooth never grows back. Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two. If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready, they will return if possible. When a hatchling decides to leave the shell, it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron. The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible, and several days later, it will have been absorbed into the turtle's belly. The sac must be absorbed, and does not fall off. The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim. The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days.\n\n"


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"Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk \u2013 enough to allow air into the turtle's body \u2013 results in death. This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason. An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo's growth by the sac smothering the embryo. If it manages to reach term, the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac, which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death. The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely, and while the opening has not completely healed yet.\nThe sex of red-eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos' development. Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22\u201327 \u00b0C (72\u201381 \u00b0F), whereas females develop at warmer temperatures. Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos.\n\n== As pets, invasive species, and human infection risk ==\n\nRed-eared slider turtles are the world's most commonly traded reptile, due to their relatively low price, and usually low food price, small size, and easy maintenance. "


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"As with other turtles, tortoises, and box turtles, individuals that survive their first year or two can be expected to live generally around 30 years. They present an infection risk; particularly of Salmonella.\n\n=== Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution ===\n\nReptiles are asymptomatic (meaning they suffer no adverse side effects) carriers of bacteria of the genus Salmonella. This has given rise to justifiable concerns given the many instances of infection of humans caused by the handling of turtles, which has led to restrictions in the sale of red-eared sliders in the USA. A 1975 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation bans the sale (for general commercial and public use) of both turtle eggs and turtles with a carapace length less than 4 in (10 cm). This regulation comes under the Public Health Service Act, and is enforced by the FDA in cooperation with state and local health jurisdictions. The ban was enacted because of the public-health impact of turtle-associated salmonellosis. Turtles and turtle eggs found to be offered for sale in violation of this provision are subject to destruction in accordance with FDA procedures. "


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"A fine up to $1,001 and / or imprisonment for up to one year is the penalty for those who refuse to comply with a valid final demand for destruction of such turtles or their eggs. Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to an exception in the FDA regulation that allows turtles under 4 in (10 cm) to be sold \"for bona fide scientific, educational, or exhibition purposes, other than use as pets.\"As with many other animals and inanimate objects, the risk of Salmonella exposure can be reduced by following basic rules of cleanliness. Small children must be taught to wash their hands immediately after they finish playing with the turtle, feeding it, or changing its water.\n\n=== US state laws ===\nSome states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red-eared sliders because they can be an invasive species where they are not native and have been introduced through the pet trade. Now, it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild-type red-eared slider, as they interbreed with the local yellow-bellied slider population, T. s. scripta, which is another subspecies of pond sliders, and hybrids typically combine the markings of the two subspecies. "


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"However, unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red-eared sliders, which are derived from captive breeding, are still allowed for sale.\n\n=== Invasive status in Australia ===\nIn Australia, breeding populations have been found in New South Wales and Queensland, and individual turtles have been found in the wild in Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, and Western Australia.Red-eared slider turtles are considered a significant threat to native turtle species; they mature more quickly, grow larger, produce more offspring, and are more aggressive. Numerous studies indicate that red-eared slider turtles can out-compete native turtles for food and nesting and basking sites. Unlike the general diet of pet red-eared sliders, wild red-eared sliders are usually omnivorous.  Because red-eared slider turtles eat plants as well as animals, they could also have a negative impact on a range of native aquatic species, including rare frogs. Also, a significant risk exists that red-eared slider turtles can transfer diseases and parasites to native reptile species. A malaria-like parasite was spread to two wild turtle populations in Lane Cove River, Sydney.Social and economic costs are also likely to be substantial. The Queensland government has invested close to AU$1 million in eradication programs to date. "


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"The turtle may also cause significant public-health costs due to the impacts of turtle-associated salmonella on human health. Outbreaks in multiple states and fatalities in children, associated with handling salmonella-infected turtles, have been recorded in the USA. Salmonella can also spread to humans when turtles contaminate drinking water.The actions by state governments have varied considerably to date, ranging from ongoing eradication efforts by the Queensland government to very little action by the government of New South Wales. Experts have ranked the species as high priority for management in Australia, and are calling for a national prevention and eradication strategy, including a concerted education and compliance program to stop the illegal trade, possession, and release of slider turtles.\n\n=== Invasive status in India ===\nRed-eared slider turtles are threatening to invade the natural water bodies across northeast India, which are home to 21 out of 29 vulnerable native Indian species of freshwater turtle. Between August 2018 and June 2019, a team of herpetologists from the NGO \"Help Earth\" found red-eared sliders in the Deepor Beel wildlife sanctuary and Ugratara Devalaya temple pond. "


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"Further reports have been made from an unnamed stream, feeding into the Tlawng river, on a farm in the Mizoram capital, Aizawl.\n\n== In popular culture ==\nWithin the second volume of the Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the popular comic-book heroes were revealed as specimens of the red-eared slider. The popularity of the Ninja Turtles led to a craze for keeping them as pets in United Kingdom, with subsequent ecological havoc, as turtles were accidentally or deliberately released into the wild.\n\n== See also ==\nRed-eared slider \u00d7 yellow-bellied slider, an intergradation of a red-eared slider and yellow-bellied slider subspecies.\nYellow-bellied slider\nCumberland slider\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Red-eared slider\". Guides. Animal Planet. Discovery Channel.\n\"Exotic pets\". \u2014 information on aquatic turtles & tortoises including a few articles specific to red-eared sliders\n\"Red-eared slider\". Natural History. Gulf Coast Turtle & Tortoise Society.\n\"Red-eared slider\". RedEarSider.com (main page). \u2014 a site about caring for turtles in captivity\n\"Red-Eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans)\". Species Profile. National Invasive Species Information Center. United States National Agricultural Library.\n\"Red-eared slider turtle\". Business Department. Government of Queensland. 1 July 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2021."


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"The impala or rooibok (Aepyceros melampus) is a medium-sized antelope found in eastern and southern Africa. The only extant member of the genus Aepyceros and tribe Aepycerotini, it was first described to European audiences by German zoologist Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1812. Two subspecies are recognised\u2014the common impala, and the larger and darker black-faced impala. The impala reaches 70\u201392 cm (28\u201336 in) at the shoulder and weighs 40\u201376 kg (88\u2013168 lb). It features a glossy, reddish brown coat. The male's slender, lyre-shaped horns are 45\u201392 cm (18\u201336 in) long.\nActive mainly during the day, the impala may be gregarious or territorial depending upon the climate and geography. Three distinct social groups can be observed: the territorial males, bachelor herds and female herds. The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti-predator strategy. Browsers as well as grazers, impala feed on monocots, dicots, forbs, fruits and acacia pods (whenever available). An annual, three-week-long rut takes place toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Rutting males fight over dominance, and the victorious male courts female in oestrus. Gestation lasts six to seven months, following which a single calf is born and immediately concealed in cover. "


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"Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males\u2014forced out of the all-female groups\u2014join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.\nThe impala is found in woodlands and sometimes on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs; it inhabits places near water. While the black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia, the common impala is widespread across its range and has been reintroduced in Gabon and southern Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the impala as a species of least concern; the black-faced subspecies has been classified as a vulnerable species, with fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining in the wild as of 2008.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe first attested English name, in 1802, was palla or pallah, from the Tswana phala 'red antelope'; the name impala, also spelled impalla or mpala, is first attested in 1875. Its Afrikaans name, rooibok 'red buck', is also sometimes used in English.The scientific generic name Aepyceros (lit. \u2018high-horned\u2019) comes from Ancient Greek \u03b1\u1f30\u03c0\u03cd\u03c2 (aipus, 'high, steep') + \u03ba\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 (keras, 'horn'); the specific name melampus (lit. \u2018black-foot\u2019) from \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03c2 (melas, 'black') + \u03c0\u03bf\u03cd\u03c2 (pous, 'foot').\n\n"


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"== Taxonomy and evolution ==\n\nThe impala is the sole member of the genus Aepyceros and belongs to the family Bovidae. It was first described by German zoologist Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein in 1812. In 1984, palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba opined that the impala is a sister taxon to the alcelaphines, given its resemblance to the hartebeest. A 1999 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of the National Centre for Scientific Research, Paris) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, showed that the impala forms a clade with the suni (Neotragus moschatus). This clade is sister to another formed by the bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis) and the klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus). An rRNA and \u03b2-spectrin nuclear sequence analysis in 2003 also supported an association between Aepyceros and Neotragus. The following cladogram is based on the 1999 study:\nUp to six subspecies have been described, although only two are generally recognised on the basis of mitochondrial data. Though morphologically similar, the subspecies show a significant genetic distance between them, and no hybrids between them have been reported.\nA. m. melampus Lichtenstein, 1812: Known as the common impala, it occurs across eastern and southern Africa. "


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"The range extends from central Kenya to South Africa and westward into southeastern Angola.\nA. m. petersi Bocage, 1879: Known as the black-faced impala, it is restricted to southwestern Africa, occurring in northwestern Namibia and southwestern Angola.According to Vrba, the impala evolved from an alcelaphine ancestor. She noted that while this ancestor has diverged at least 18 times into various morphologically different forms, the impala has continued in its basic form for at least five million years. Several fossil species have been discovered, including A. datoadeni from the Pliocene of Ethiopia. The oldest fossil discovered suggests its ancient ancestors were slightly smaller than the modern form, but otherwise very similar in all aspects to the latter. This implies that the impala has efficiently adapted to its environment since prehistoric times. Its gregarious nature, variety in diet, positive population trend, defence against ticks and symbiotic relationship with the tick-feeding oxpeckers could have played a role in preventing major changes in morphology and behaviour.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe impala is a medium-sized, slender antelope similar to the kob or Grant's gazelle in build. The head-and-body length is around 130 centimetres (51 in). "


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"Males reach approximately 75\u201392 centimetres (30\u201336 in) at the shoulder, while females are 70\u201385 centimetres (28\u201333 in) tall. Males typically weigh 53\u201376 kilograms (117\u2013168 lb) and females 40\u201353 kilograms (88\u2013117 lb). Sexually dimorphic, females are hornless and smaller than males. Males grow slender, lyre-shaped horns 45\u201392 centimetres (18\u201336 in) long. The horns, strongly ridged and divergent, are circular in section and hollow at the base. Their arch-like structure allows interlocking of horns, which helps a male throw off his opponent during fights; horns also protect the skull from damage.The glossy coat of the impala shows two-tone colouration \u2013 the reddish brown back and the tan flanks; these are in sharp contrast to the white underbelly. Facial features include white rings around the eyes and a light chin and snout. The ears, 17 centimetres (6.7 in) long, are tipped with black. Black streaks run from the buttocks to the upper hindlegs. The bushy white tail, 30 centimetres (12 in) long, features a solid black stripe along the midline. The impala's colouration bears a strong resemblance to the gerenuk, which has shorter horns and lacks the black thigh stripes of the impala. "


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"The impala has scent glands covered by a black tuft of hair on the hindlegs. Sebaceous glands concentrated on the forehead and dispersed on the torso of dominant males are most active during the mating season, while those of females are only partially developed and do not undergo seasonal changes. There are four nipples.Of the subspecies, the black-faced impala is significantly larger and darker than the common impala; melanism is responsible for the black colouration. Distinctive of the black-faced impala is a dark stripe, on either side of the nose, that runs upward to the eyes and thins as it reaches the forehead. Other differences include the larger black tip on the ear, and a bushier and nearly 30% longer tail in the black-faced impala.The impala has a special dental arrangement on the front lower jaw similar to the toothcomb seen in strepsirrhine primates, which is used during allogrooming to comb the fur on the head and the neck and remove ectoparasites.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\n\nThe impala is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though activity tends to cease during the hot midday hours; they feed and rest at night. "


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"Three distinct social groups can be observed \u2013 the territorial males, bachelor herds and female herds. The territorial males hold territories where they may form harems of females; territories are demarcated with urine and faeces and defended against juvenile or male intruders. Bachelor herds tend to be small, with less than 30 members. Individuals maintain distances of 2.5\u20133 metres (8.2\u20139.8 ft) from one another; while young and old males may interact, middle-aged males generally avoid one another except to spar. Female herds vary in size from 6 to 100; herds occupy home ranges of 80\u2013180 hectares (200\u2013440 acres; 0.31\u20130.69 sq mi). The mother\u2013calf bond is weak, and breaks soon after weaning; juveniles leave the herds of their mothers to join other herds. Female herds tend to be loose and have no obvious leadership. Allogrooming is an important means of social interaction in bachelor and female herds; in fact, the impala appears to be the only ungulate to display self-grooming as well as allogrooming. In allogrooming, females typically groom related impalas, while males associate with unrelated ones. Each partner grooms the other six to twelve times.\n\n"


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"Social behaviour is influenced by the climate and geography; as such, the impala are territorial at certain times of the year and gregarious at other times, and the length of these periods can vary broadly among populations. For instance, populations in southern Africa display territorial behaviour only during the few months of the rut, whereas in eastern African populations, territoriality is relatively minimal despite a protracted mating season. Moreover, territorial males often tolerate bachelors, and may even alternate between bachelorhood and territoriality at different times of the year. A study of impala in the Serengeti National Park showed that in 94% of the males, territoriality was observed for less than four months.The impala is an important prey species for several carnivores, such as cheetahs, leopards, wild dogs and lions. The antelope displays two characteristic leaps \u2013 it can jump up to 3 metres (9.8 ft), over vegetation and even other impala, covering distances of up to 10 metres (33 ft); the other type of leap involves a series of jumps in which the animal lands on its forelegs, moves its hindlegs mid-air in a kicking fashion, lands on all fours (stotting) and then rebounds. "


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"It leaps in either manner in different directions, probably to confuse predators. At times, the impala may also conceal itself in vegetation to escape the eye of the predator. The most prominent vocalisation is the loud roar, delivered through one to three loud snorts with the mouth closed, followed by two to ten deep grunts with the mouth open and the chin and tail raised; a typical roar can be heard up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away. Scent gland secretions identify a territorial male. Impalas are sedentary; adult and middle-aged males, in particular, can hold their territories for years.\n\n=== Parasites ===\n\nCommon ixodid ticks collected from impala include Amblyomma hebraeum, Boophilus decoloratus, Hyalomma marginatum, Ixodes cavipalpus, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. evertsi. In Zimbabwe, heavy infestation by ticks such as R. appendiculatus has proved to be a major cause behind the high mortality of ungulates, as they can lead to tick paralysis. "


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"Impala have special adaptations for grooming, such as their characteristic dental arrangement, to manage ticks before they engorge; however, the extensive grooming needed to keep the tick load under control involves the risk of dehydration during summer, lower vigilance against predators and gradual wearing out of the teeth. A study showed that impala adjust the time devoted to grooming and the number of grooming bouts according to the seasonal prevalence of ticks.Impala are symbiotically related to oxpeckers, which feed on ticks from those parts of the antelope's body which the animal cannot access by itself (such as the ears, neck, eyelids, forehead and underbelly). The impala is the smallest ungulate with which oxpeckers are associated. In a study it was observed that oxpeckers selectively attended to impala despite the presence of other animals such as Coke's hartebeest, Grant's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle and topi. A possible explanation for this could be that because the impala inhabits woodlands (which can have a high density of ticks), the impala could have greater mass of ticks per unit area of the body surface. "


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"Another study showed that the oxpeckers prefer the ears over other parts of the body, probably because these parts show maximum tick infestation. The bird has also been observed to perch on the udders of a female and pilfer its milk.Lice recorded from impala include Damalinia aepycerus, D. elongata, Linognathus aepycerus and L. nevilli; in a study, ivermectin (a medication against parasites) was found to have an effect on Boophilus decoloratus and Linognathus species, though not on Damalinia species. In a study of impala in South Africa, the number of worms in juveniles showed an increase with age, reaching a peak when impala turned a year old. This study recorded worms of genera such as Cooperia, Cooperoides, Fasciola, Gongylonema. Haemonchus, Impalaia, Longistrongylus and Trichostrongylus; some of these showed seasonal variations in density.Impala show high frequency of defensive behaviours towards flying insects. This is probably the reason for Vale 1977 and Clausen et al 1998 only finding trace levels of feeding by Glossina (tsetse fly) upon impala.Theileria of impala in Kenya are not cross infectious to cattle: Grootenhuis et al 1975 were not able to induce cattle infection and Fawcett et al 1987 did not find it naturally occurring.\n\n"


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"=== Diet ===\n\nImpala browse as well as graze; either may predominate, depending upon the availability of resources. The diet comprises monocots, dicots, forbs, fruits and acacia pods (whenever available). Impala prefer places close to water sources, and resort to succulent vegetation if water is scarce. An analysis showed that the diet of impala is composed of 45% monocots, 45% dicots and 10% fruits; the proportion of grasses in the diet increases significantly (to as high as 90%) after the first rains, but declines in the dry season. Browsing predominates in the late wet and dry season, and diets are nutritionally poor in the mid-dry season, when impala feed mostly on woody dicots. Another study showed that the dicot proportion in the diet is much higher in bachelors and females than in territorial males.Impala feed on soft and nutritious grasses such as Digitaria macroblephara; tough, tall grasses, such as Heteropogon contortus and Themeda triandra, are typically avoided. Impala on the periphery of the herds are generally more vigilant against predators than those feeding in the centre; a foraging individual will try to defend the patch it is feeding on by lowering its head. "


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"A study revealed that time spent in foraging reaches a maximum of 75.5% of the day in the late dry season, decreases through the rainy season, and is minimal in the early dry season (57.8%).\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nMales are sexually mature by the time they are a year old, though successful mating generally occurs only after four years. Mature males start establishing territories and try to gain access to females. Females can conceive after they are a year and a half old; oestrus lasts for 24 to 48 hours, and occurs every 12\u201329 days in non-pregnant females. The annual three-week-long rut (breeding season) begins toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Gonadal growth and hormone production in males begin a few months before the breeding season, resulting in greater aggressiveness and territoriality. The bulbourethral glands are heavier, testosterone levels are nearly twice as high in territorial males as in bachelors, and the neck of a territorial male tends to be thicker than that of a bachelor during the rut. Mating tends to take place between full moons.\n\n"


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"Rutting males fight over dominance, often giving out noisy roars and chasing one another; they walk stiffly and display their neck and horns. Males desist from feeding and allogrooming during the rut, probably to devote more time to garnering females in oestrus; the male checks the female's urine to ensure that she is in oestrus. On coming across such a female, the excited male begins the courtship by pursuing her, keeping a distance of 3\u20135 metres (9.8\u201316.4 ft) from her. The male flicks his tongue and may nod vigorously; the female allows him to lick her vulva, and holds her tail to one side. The male tries mounting the female, holding his head high and clasping her sides with his forelegs. Mounting attempts may be repeated every few seconds to every minute or two. The male loses interest in the female after the first copulation, though she is still active and can mate with other males.Gestation lasts six to seven months. Births generally occur in the midday; the female will isolate herself from the herd when labour pain begins. The perception that females can delay giving birth for an additional month if conditions are harsh may however not be realistic. "


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"A single calf is born, and is immediately concealed in cover for the first few weeks of its birth. The fawn then joins a nursery group within its mother's herd. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males, forced out of the group, join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe impala inhabits woodlands due to its preference for shade; it can also be found on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs. Places near water sources are preferred. In southern Africa, populations tend to be associated with Colophospermum mopane and Acacia woodlands. Habitat choices differ seasonally \u2013 Acacia senegal woodlands are preferred in the wet season, and A. drepanolobium savannahs in the dry season. Another factor that could influence habitat choice is vulnerability to predators; impala tend to keep away from areas with tall grasses as predators could be concealed there. A study found that the reduction of woodland cover and creation of shrublands by the African bush elephants has favoured impala population by increasing the availability of more dry season browse. Earlier, the Baikiaea woodland, which has now declined due to elephants, provided minimum browsing for impala. "


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"The newly formed Capparis shrubland, on the other hand, could be a key browsing habitat. Impala are generally not associated with montane habitats; however, in KwaZulu-Natal, impala have been recorded at altitudes of up to 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level.The historical range of the impala \u2013 spanning across southern and eastern Africa \u2013 has remained intact to a great extent, although it has disappeared from a few places, such as Burundi. The range extends from central and southern Kenya and northeastern Uganda in the east to northern KwaZulu-Natal in the south, and westward up to Namibia and southern Angola. The black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and Kaokoland in northwestern Namibia; the status of this subspecies has not been monitored since the 2000s. The common impala has a wider distribution, and has been introduced in protected areas in Gabon and across southern Africa.\n\n== Threats and conservation ==\n\nThe International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the impala as a species of least concern overall. The black-faced impala, however, is classified as a vulnerable species; as of 2008, fewer than 1,000 were estimated in the wild. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:09
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"Though there are no major threats to the survival of the common impala, poaching and natural calamities have significantly contributed to the decline of the black-faced impala. As of 2008, the population of the common impala has been estimated at around two million. According to some studies, translocation of the black-faced impala can be highly beneficial in its conservation.Around a quarter of the common impala populations occur in protected areas, such as the Okavango Delta (Botswana); Masai Mara and Kajiado (Kenya); Kruger National Park (South Africa); the Ruaha and Serengeti National Parks and Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania); Luangwa Valley (Zambia); Hwange, Sebungwe and Zambezi Valley (Zimbabwe). The rare black-faced impala has been introduced into private farms in Namibia and the Etosha National Park. Population densities vary largely from place to place; from less than one impala per square kilometre in Mkomazi National Park (Tanzania) to as high as 135 per square kilometre near Lake Kariba (Zimbabwe).\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nImpala: Summary from the African Wildlife Foundation\nITIS Standard Report Page"


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"Iguana (, Spanish: [i\u02c8\u0263wana]) is a genus of herbivorous lizards that are native to tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The genus was first described in 1768 by Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in his book Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena. Two species are placed in the genus, the green iguana, which is widespread throughout its range and a popular pet, and the Lesser Antillean iguana, which is native to the Lesser Antilles. Genetic analysis indicates that the green iguana may comprise a complex of multiple species, some of which have been recently described, but the Reptile Database considers all of these as subspecies of the green iguana.The word \"iguana\" is derived from the original Taino name for the species, iwana.\nIn addition to the two species in the genus Iguana, several other related genera in the same family have common names of the species including the word \"iguana\".The species is a popular quarry for pets, and has been widely introduced beyond its native area, into Ishigaki Island, Florida Peninsula, Hawaii, numerous islands in the Lesser Antilles, Singapore, Thailand, and Taiwan.\n\n"


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"== Anatomy and physiology ==\nIguanas can range from 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) in length, including their tails. These lizards possess a dewlap and a row of elongated scales running from the midline of their necks down to their tails. Iguanas have varying types of scales covering different areas of their body, for example,  some large, round tuberculate scales are scattered around the lateral region of the neck among smaller, overlapping scales. The scales on the dorsal trunk of their bodies are also thicker and more tightly packed than those on the ventral sides. These scales may be a variety of colors and are not always visible from close distances. They have a large, round scale on their cheeks known as a subtympanic shield.Iguanas have keen vision and can see shapes, shadows, colors, and movement at long distances. Their visual acuity enables them to navigate through crowded forests and to locate food. They employ visual signals to communicate with other members of the same species.The tympanum, the iguana's eardrum, is located above the subtympanic shield (or \"ear shield\") behind each eye.\n"


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"Iguanas are often hard to spot, as they tend to blend into their surroundings, and their coloration enables them to hide from larger predators.Like most reptiles, an iguana has a three-chambered heart with two atria, one ventricle, and two aortae with a systemic circulation.\nThe muscles of an iguana are very light in color due to the high proportion of fast-twitch, glycolytic muscle fibers (type A). These A fibers are not very vascularized and are low in myoglobin, giving them their pale look. This high density of A fibers allows iguanas to move very quickly for a short period of time, which facilitates short bursts of movement, but is inefficient for long duration movement, since cellular respiration in A fibers is anaerobic.\n\n=== Parietal eye ===\nSeveral species of lizards, including the iguanas, have a pale scale towards the back of their heads marking the parietal eye. This organ is sensitive to changes in illumination and sends signals to the pineal gland noting the change between day and night. A photopigment commonly found in the lamprey, known as parapinopsin, is also found in the iguana, and is sensitive to ultraviolet light and aids in the signaling between day and night.\n\n"


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"=== Skull morphology and diet ===\n\nIguanas have developed an herbivorous lifestyle, foraging exclusively on vegetation and foliage. To acquire, process, and digest plant matter, herbivorous lizards must have a higher bite force relative to their size in comparison to carnivorous or omnivorous reptiles. The skull of the iguana has undergone modifications resulting in a strong bite force and efficient processing of vegetation, according to one study.  To accomplish this biomechanically, herbivorous lizards  have taller and wider skulls, shorter snouts, and larger bodies relative to carnivorous and omnivorous reptiles.  Increasing the strength of the skull allows for increased muscle presence and increases the ability of the skull to withstand stronger forces.\n\nFurthermore, the teeth of the iguana are acrodontal, meaning that their teeth sit on top of the surface of the jaw bone and project upwards. The teeth themselves are small and serrated - designed to grasp and shear food.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nMale iguanas, like other male examples of Squamata, have two hemipenes. During copulation, one hemipenis is inserted into the female's cloacal vent. "


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"A female can store sperm from previous mates for several years to continue to fertilize her eggs in case she finds no male within her territory when she is ready to lay again.\n\n=== Mating/courtship ===\nIguanas tend to follow a promiscuous or polygynadrous mating style during the dry season. Mating during the dry season ensures that their offspring will hatch during the wet or rainy season when food will be more plentiful. Females control large territories, where they make several nests. Males compete for the females in an area and mark their won territory with a pheromone secreted from the femoral pores on the dorsal side of their hind limbs. Male behavior during sexual competition involves head bobbing, extending and retracting their dewlap, nuzzling and biting the necks of females, and on occasion, changing color. Once a female chooses a male, he straddles the female and holds her in place by biting onto her shoulder, which sometimes leaves scars on females. After copulation, eggs are laid within several nests and allowed to incubate. This low level of parental intervention with their offspring makes iguanas an example of r-strategy reproduction.\n\n"


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"== Phylogeny ==\nA phylogeny based on nuclear protein-coding genes, reviewed by Vidal and Hedges (2009), suggested that the subclade Iguania is in a group with snakes and anguimorphs (lizards). These groups share an oral gland capable of secreting toxins (a derived trait). The phylogeny based on whole mitochondrial genomes, though, as proposed by Rest et al. (2003), places the green iguana as the closest relative of the mole skink (Plestiodon egregius). Lepidosaurs are reptiles with overlapping scales, and within this group both iguanians and tuataras (Sphenodon) project their tongues to seize prey items instead of using their jaws, which is called tongue prehension. Iguanians are the only lineage within the Squamata that display this trait, meaning that it was gained independently in both iguanians and tuataras. Iguanians are also the only squamates that primarily use their sight to identify and track prey rather than chemoreception or scent, and employ an ambush technique of catching prey instead of active searching.A study by Breuil et al. (2020) found the taxonomy of the genus Iguana as follows, with I. delicatissima being the most basal member of the group. The species are classified as subspecies based on the ReptileDatabase definitions.\n\n"


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"The Reptile Database synonymizes I. rhinolopha with I. iguana, only considering it a distinctive population, and recognizes I. insularis and I. melanoderma as subspecies of I. iguana. Four subspecies of green iguana are recognized under this treatment: I. i. insularis (Saint Vincent & the Grenadines and Grenada), I. i. sanctaluciae (Saint Lucia), I. i. melanoderma (parts of the northern Lesser Antilles, and potentially coastal Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico), and I. i. iguana (mainland South America).\n\n=== Extant species ===\nTwo extant species in the genus Iguana are widely recognized.\n\n==== Subspecies ====\nThree Caribbean subspecies of the green iguana are also recognized:\n\nThe Central American iguana (I. rhinolopha or I. i. rhinolopha), sometimes considered a distinct species, is largely considered synonymous with I. iguana, as the presence of horns does not necessarily indicate a new species or subspecies. The two described subspecies of I. insularis (the Saint Lucia horned iguana, I. i. sanctaluciae, and the Grenadines horned iguana, I. i. insularis) were originally described as subspecies of I. iguana, although they are genetically very similar and may not be separate subspecies from one another. "


id: 45524e6db47ebc54c7a79e52fcab8cb0
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"Recent studies have recovered I. rhinolopha and I. insularis as distinct species based on genetics, but the Reptile  Database disagrees with these conclusions, and classifies I. rhinolopha as synonymous with I. iguana, and I. insularis as a subspecies of I. iguana. The Cura\u00e7ao population of green iguanas shows major genetic divergence and may also represent an as-of-yet undescribed species or subspecies.\n\n== As food ==\n\nIguanas have historically featured in the culinary traditions of Mexico and Central America. Iguana meat is also consumed in parts of the United States and Puerto Rico.\nAlso, the eggs of iguana are consumed in some parts of Latin America, such as Nicaragua and Colombia.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nFrost, D. R. (1989). \"A phylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of iguanian lizards\". Pub Univ Kansas. 81: 1\u201365.\nFrost, D. R.; Etheridge, R.; Janies, D.; Titus, T. A. (2001). \"Total evidence, sequence alignment, evolution of polychrotid lizards, and a reclassification of the Iguania (Squamata: Iguania)\". American Museum Novitates (3343): 1\u201339. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2001)343<0001:TESAEO>2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/2896. S2CID 55299129.\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Iguana at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The pied imperial pigeon (Ducula bicolor) is a relatively large, pied species of pigeon. It is found in forest, woodland, mangrove, plantations and scrub in Southeast Asia, ranging from Myanmar and Thailand, throughout Indonesia and east to the Philippines (where it is locally called as camasu and balud-puti) and the Bird's Head Peninsula in New Guinea. It is mainly found on small islands and in coastal regions. It remains locally common, and is therefore considered to be of least concern by BirdLife International and IUCN.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nIts taxonomy is confusing and remains unsettled. It has sometimes included the Torresian, yellowish and silver-tipped imperial pigeons as subspecies. The widespread nominate subspecies of the pied imperial pigeon differs from all these by its plain white thighs and undertail coverts (though often with a dark spot at the very tip), and its narrowly dark-tipped bluish bill. For comparison, the other species' have black-spotted undertail coverts and thighs (spotting mainly near thighs in silver-tipped imperial pigeon), the bill of the Torresian imperial pigeon is greenish-yellow, and the bills of the yellowish and silver-tipped imperial pigeons are bluish at the base and yellowish at the tip. "


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"Furthermore, the yellowish imperial pigeon has a distinctive yellowish tinge to its plumage (some pied imperial pigeons may also appear yellowish, but infrequently to the same extent), and the silver-tipped imperial pigeon has silvery-grey remiges. However, the taxon melanura of the Moluccas, which usually is considered a subspecies of the pied imperial pigeon, resembles the Torresian imperial pigeon in bill, thighs and undertail coverts, but has a significantly broader black tail-tip. Consequently, some have suggested it should be placed under the Torresian imperial pigeon, while others have suggested it should be considered an entirely separate species, D. melanura (for which the name black imperial pigeon has been used \u2013 an unfortunate choice, as only the tail has significantly more black than the other members of this group, and the name black imperial pigeon usually has been used for D. melanochroa). Yet others have considered melanura to be invalid, instead believing it only is a morph of D. b. bicolor, as both types can be found on some islands.\n\n== References ==\n\nGrimmett, Birds of India, Inskipp and Inskipp, ISBN 0-691-04910-6\n\n== External links ==\nPied Imperial Pigeon Breed Guide - Pigeonpedia.com"


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"The grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), also known as the Congo grey parrot, Congo African grey parrot or African grey parrot, is an Old World parrot in the family  Psittacidae. The Timneh parrot (Psittacus timneh) once was identified as a subspecies of the grey parrot, but has since been elevated to a full species.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe grey parrot was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other parrots in the genus Psittacus and coined the binomial name Psittacus erithacus. Linnaeus erroneously specified the type locality as \"Guinea\": the locality was later designated as Ghana in West Africa.  The genus name is Latin for \"parrot\". The specific epithet erithacus is Latin and is derived from the Ancient Greek  \u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 (erithakos) for an unknown bird that was said to mimic human sounds, perhaps the black redstart. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.The Timneh parrot was formerly treated as a subspecies of the grey parrot but is now considered to be a separate species based mainly on the results from a genetic and morphological study published in 2007. "


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"Although Linnaeus placed all the parrots known to him in the genus Psittacus, only the grey parrot and the Timneh parrot are now assigned to this genus.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe grey parrot is a medium-sized, predominantly grey, black-billed parrot. Its typical weight is 400 g (14 oz), with an approximate length of 33 cm (13 in), and a wingspan of 46\u201352 cm (18\u201320+1\u20442 in). The grey colour on the head and wings is generally darker than its body. The head and body feathers have slight white edges. The tail feathers are red.\nDue to selection by parrot breeders, some grey parrots are partly or completely red. Both sexes appear similar. The colouration of juveniles is similar to that of adults, but typically their eyes are dark grey to black, in comparison to the yellow irises around dark pupils of the adult birds, and their undertail coverts are tinged with grey. Adults weigh 418\u2013526 g (14+3\u20444\u201318+1\u20442 oz).Grey parrots may live for 40\u201360 years in captivity, although their mean lifespan in the wild appears to be shorter\u2014approximately 23 years. They start breeding at an age of 3\u20135 years and lay 3-5 eggs per brood.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe grey parrot is native to equatorial Africa, including Angola, Cameroon, the Congo, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Kenya, and Uganda. The species is found inside a range from Kenya to the eastern part of the Ivory Coast. Current estimates for the global population are uncertain and range from 630,000 to 13 million birds. Populations are decreasing worldwide. The species seems to favor dense forests, but can also be found at forest edges and in more open vegetation types, such as gallery and savanna forests.A population study published in 2015 found that the species had been \"virtually eliminated\" from Ghana with numbers declining 90 to 99% since 1992. They were found in only 10 of 42 forested areas, and three roosts that once held 700\u20131200 birds each, now had only 18 in total. Local people mainly blamed the pet trade and the felling of timber for the decline. Populations are thought to be stable in Cameroon. "


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"In the Congo, an estimated 15,000 are taken every year for the pet trade, from the eastern part of the country, although the annual quota is stated to be 5,000.Grey parrots have escaped or been deliberately released into Florida, U.S., but no evidence indicates that the population is breeding naturally.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\n=== Wild bird behaviours ===\nLittle is known about the behaviours and activities of these birds in the wild. In addition to a lack of research funding, it can be particularly difficult to study these birds in wild situations due to their status as prey animals, which leads them to have rather secretive personalities. It has been shown that wild greys may also imitate a wide variety of sounds they hear, much like their captive relatives. Two greys were recorded while roosting in Zaire and researchers reported that they had a repertoire of over 200 different sounds, including nine imitations of other wild bird songs and one of a bat.\n\n=== Diet ===\n\nThey are mostly frugivorous as most of their diet consists of fruit, nuts, and seeds. "


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"The species prefers oil palm fruit and they eat flowers and tree bark, as well as insects and snails. In the wild, the grey parrot is partly a ground feeder. In captivity, they may be fed bird pellets, a variety of fruits such as pear, orange, pomegranate, apple, and banana, and vegetables such as carrot, cooked sweet potato, celery, fresh kale, peas, and green beans. They also need a source of calcium.\n\n=== Breeding ===\nGrey parrots are monogamous breeders who nest in tree cavities. Each mated pair of parrots needs their own tree for their nest. The hen lays three to five eggs, which she incubates for 30 days while being fed by her mate. The adults defend their nesting sites.Grey parrot chicks require feeding and care from their parents in the nest. The parents take care of them until 4\u20135 weeks after they are fledged. Young leave the nest at the age of 12 weeks. Little is known about the courtship behavior of this species in the wild. They weigh 12\u201314 g (7\u204416\u20131\u20442 oz) at hatching and 372\u2013526 g (13+1\u20448\u201318+1\u20442 oz) when they leave their parents.\n\n"


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"== Diseases ==\nYoung grey parrots are more commonly infected by psittacine beak and feather disease than adults. Infected birds may show symptoms such as loss of appetite, fluffy feathers, sluggishness, and reduced walking abilities due to brittle bones.\n\n== Conservation ==\nNatural predators for this species include palm-nut vultures and several raptors. Monkeys target eggs and the young for food. Grey parrots in captivity have been observed to be susceptible to fungal infections, bacterial infections, nutritional insufficiency, malignant tumors, psittacine beak and feather disease, tapeworms, and blood-worms.Humans are by far the largest threat to wild grey populations. Between 1994 and 2003, more than 359,000 grey parrots were traded on the international market. Approximately 21% of the wild population was being harvested every year. Mortality rates are extremely high between the time they are captured and they reach the market, ranging from 60 to 66%. This species also is hunted for its meat and for its body parts, which are used in traditional medicines. "


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"As a result of the extensive harvest of wild birds, in addition to habitat loss, this species is believed to be undergoing a rapid decline in the wild and therefore, has been rated as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.In October 2016, the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Fauna and Flora (CITES) extended the highest level of protection to grey parrots by listing the species under Appendix 1, which regulates international trade in the species.In 2021, the Kenyan government held a short amnesty, during which grey parrot owners could pay a fee to obtain a permit for their birds and facilitate legal ownership. Following the expiry of this time period, it is now illegal to own this species without a permit.\n\n== Relationship to humans ==\nThe species is common in captivity and regularly kept by humans as a companion parrot, prized for its ability to mimic human speech, which makes it one of the most popular avian pets. An escaped pet in Japan was returned to his owner after repeating the owner's name and address.\n\nGrey parrots are notorious for mimicking noises heard in their environment and using them tirelessly. "


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"They are highly intelligent birds, needing extensive behavioral and social enrichment as well as extensive attention in captivity or else they may become distressed. Feather plucking is a common symptom seen among such distressed grey parrots, affecting up to 40% of captive individuals. They may also be prone to behavioural problems due to their sensitive nature. Social isolation hastens stress and aging.The grey parrot is a highly social species which relies on a flock-type structure, even when raised in captivity. Because they are so dependent on the other birds within their flock, much of their speech and vocal ability is acquired through interaction with the humans with whom they reside. Both wild and captive parrots have been shown to use contact calls, which allow them to interact with their flock mates and communicate information about their location, detection of predators, availability of food, and safety status. In addition, contact calls are used to form strong social bonds with their flock mates, or in the case of captive greys, with their human housemates. "


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"In captivity, they have been shown to display communicative competence, meaning they not only use human language correctly, but also in such a way that is appropriate for the social situation which they are in.\n\n== Intelligence and cognition ==\nGrey parrots are highly intelligent and are considered by many to be one of the most intelligent species of psittacines. Many individuals have been shown to perform at the cognitive level of a four- to six-year-old human child in some tasks. Several studies have been conducted, indicating a suite of higher-level cognitive abilities. Experiments have shown that grey parrots can learn number sequences and can learn to associate human voices with the faces of the humans who create them. It has been reported that grey parrots are capable of using existing known English words to create new labels for objects which the bird does not know the name. For example \"banerry\" (\"banana\" + \"cherry\") for \"apple\", \"banana crackers\" for \"dried banana chips\" or \"yummy bread\" for \"cake\".The American scientist Irene Pepperberg's research with Alex the parrot showed his ability to learn more than 100 words, differentiating between objects, colours, materials and shapes. "


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"Pepperberg spent several decades working with Alex, and wrote numerous scientific papers on experiments performed, indicating his advanced cognitive abilities. One such study found that Alex had the ability to add numbers as well as having a zero-like concept, similar to that of young children and apes.In addition to their striking cognitive abilities, grey parrots have displayed altruistic behavior and concern for others. Researchers found that while blue-headed macaws were unlikely to share a nut with other members of their own species, grey parrots would actively give their conspecific partner a nut, even if it meant that they would not be able to get one themselves. When the roles were reversed, their partners were overwhelmingly likely to return the favor, foregoing their own nut to their partner's benefits. This indicates not only a display of selflessness but also an act of reciprocity.\nA 2012 study demonstrated that captive grey parrots have individual musical preferences. When presented with the opportunity to choose between two different pieces of music via a touch screen monitor located in their cage, the two birds in the test consistently chose different songs, to which they then danced and sang along. "


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"Some pet grey parrots have also been observed using the music feature of smart speakers (such as Alexa or Amazon Echo) to verbally request playback of specific favored songs.Some research has shown that foot preference can be linked to the number of words a particular parrot may know and use. Researchers found that grey parrots who prefer to use their right foot showed a marked increase in the number of words within their lexicon as compared to parrots who were left-footed. Scientists postulate that parrots may have lateralization of brain function, much like mammals do.\n\n== Mutations ==\nGrey mutations occur naturally in the wild, such as the Blue Ino (albino), the Incomplete Ino, and the Blue varietals. The Blue Ino is all white. The Incomplete Ino has light pigmentation. The Blue has a white tail.\nBreeders from South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia have bred greys intensively since the 1800s. These bred varieties include the Red Pied, F2 Pied, Grizzles, Ino, Incomplete, Parino, Lutino, Cinnamon, and Red Factor. South African bird breeder Von van Antwerpen and New Zealand partner Jaco Bosman selected F2 Pieds and created the first Red Factor Greys. "


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"They are rare, may be predominantly red-pigmented, and vary in price depending upon the extent of the red plumage displayed.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Psittacus erithacus at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The speckled pigeon (Columba guinea), or (African) rock pigeon, is a pigeon that is a resident breeding bird in much of Africa south of the Sahara. It is a common and widespread species in open habitats over much of its range, although there are sizable gaps in its distribution.  It is sometimes referred to as the Guinea pigeon due to its similar coloring to some species of guineafowl.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nIn 1747 the English naturalist George Edwards included a description and an illustration of the speckled pigeon in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. His hand-coloured etching was made from two live birds at the home of the Duke of Richmond in London. Edwards was told that the pigeons had been brought from the inland region of Guinea in West Africa. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the speckled pigeon with all the other pigeons in the genus Columba. "


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"Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Columba guinea and cited Edwards' work.There are two recognised subspecies:\nC. g. guinea Linnaeus, 1758 \u2013 Mauritania to Ethiopia south to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Malawi\nC. g. phaeonota Gray, G.R., 1856 \u2013 southwestern Angola to Zimbabwe and South Africa\n\n== Description ==\nThis is a large pigeon at 41 cm in length. Its back and wings are rufous, the latter heavily speckled with white spots. The rest of the upperparts and underparts are blue-grey, and the head is grey with red patches around the eye. The neck is brownish, streaked with white, and the legs are red. Sexes are similar, but immatures are browner than adults and lack the red eye patches. The call is a loud  doo-doo-doo.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\nThe speckled pigeon is frequently seen around human habitation and cultivation. Most of its food is vegetable, and it gathers in large numbers where grain or groundnuts are available. This species builds a large stick nest on protected rocky outcrops and in urban areas often atop covered pergola pillars and on flat roofs under deep eaves and lays two white eggs. "


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"Its flight is quick, with regular beats and an occasional sharp flick of the wings that are characteristic of pigeons in general.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\n(Rock Pigeon = ) Speckled Pigeon - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.\nSpeckled Pigeon: Breed Guide - Pigeonpedia"


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"The American (North and South America) horned owls and the Old World eagle-owls make up the genus Bubo, at least as traditionally described. The genus name Bubo is Latin for the Eurasian eagle-owl.\nThis genus contains 19 species that are found in many parts of the world. Some of the largest living Strigiformes are in Bubo. Traditionally, only owls with ear-tufts were included in this genus, but that is no longer the case.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nThe genus Bubo was introduced in 1805 by Andr\u00e9 Dum\u00e9ril for the horned owls. The type species is the Eurasian eagle-owl. The word bubo is Latin for the Eurasian eagle owl and was used as the specific epithet for the species by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2019 found that species in the genera Scotopelia and Ketupa were embedded within the clade containing members of the genus Bubo. Thus, the genus Bubo as currently defined is paraphyletic.Systematics of which species to include among the horned owls is in an upheaval at present. "


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"While Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b sequence data favors the decision by some to regard the snowy owl as an eagle-owl adapted to Arctic conditions, moving it into Bubo, this is not accepted by all authorities, many still preferring Nyctea.Likewise disagreement exists over the decision by some to move the four fish-owls previously in the genus Ketupa provisionally into Bubo as well, which introduces a good bit of confusion. While the mtDNA cytochrome b data suggests that in this case, to make Bubo monophyletic the Scotopelia fishing owls would also need to be included there. On the other hand, the genus then becomes quite large and ill-defined, and Bubo in the expanded sense seems to consist of two distinct clades. Thus, the fish and fishing owls can alternatively be united in Ketupa if some aberrant eagle-owls \u2013 at least the barred, spot-bellied and Usambara eagle-owls, perhaps also Fraser's eagle-owl and maybe others \u2013 are moved into that genus too. As some enigmatic eagle-owls remain essentially unstudied and others \u2013 e.g. Verreaux's eagle-owl \u2013 are of unresolved relationships, more research is needed.\n\n"


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"=== Species ===\nThe genus contains 19 extant species:\nSnowy owl, Bubo scandiacus\nGreat horned owl, Bubo virginianus\nLesser horned owl, Bubo magellanicus\nEurasian eagle-owl, Bubo bubo\nIndian eagle-owl, Bubo bengalensis\nPharaoh eagle-owl, Bubo ascalaphus\nCape eagle-owl, Bubo capensis\nArabian eagle-owl, Bubo milesi\nGreyish eagle-owl, Bubo cinerascens\nSpotted eagle-owl, Bubo africanus\nFraser's eagle-owl, Bubo poensis\nUsambara eagle-owl, Bubo poensis vosseleri\nVerreaux's eagle-owl, Bubo lacteus\nShelley's eagle-owl, Bubo shelleyi\nBarred eagle-owl, Bubo sumatranus\nSpot-bellied eagle-owl, Bubo nipalensis\nDusky eagle-owl, Bubo coromandus\nAkun eagle-owl, Bubo leucostictus\nPhilippine eagle-owl, Bubo philippensis\nBlakiston's fish owl, Bubo blakistoni\nSometimes included in this genus:\n\nBrown fish owl, Ketupa zeylonensis\nTawny fish owl, Ketupa flavipes\nBuffy fish owl, Ketupa ketupu\nPel's fishing owl, Scotopelia peli\nRufous fishing owl, Scotopelia ussheri\nVermiculated fishing owl, Scotopelia bouvieri\n\n=== Fossil record ===\nNamed and distinct Bubo species are:\n\nBubo florianae (Late Miocene of Cs\u00e1kv\u00e1r, Hungary, tentatively placed here)\nBubo leakeyae (Early Pleistocene of Tanzania)\nBubo binagadensis (Late Pleistocene of Binagady, Azerbaijan)\nBubo osvaldoi (Pleistocene of Cuba)\nBubo insularis (Pleistocene of Sardinia)Some notable undescribed fossils of prehistoric horned owls, usually quite fragmentary remains, have also been recorded:\n\nBubo sp. (Late Pliocene of Sen\u00e8ze, France)\nBubo sp. "


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"(Late Pliocene of R\u0119bielice Kr\u00f3lewskie, Poland; tentatively placed here)\nBubo sp. (Late Pleistocene of San Josecito Cavern, Mexico)Specimen UMMP V31030, a Late Pliocene coracoid from the Rexroad Formation of Kansas (USA), cannot be conclusively assigned to either Bubo or Strix. This fossil is from a taxon similar in size to the great horned owl (B. virginianus) or the great grey owl (S. nebulosa).The Sinclair owl (Bubo sinclairi) from Late Pleistocene California may have been a paleosubspecies of the great horned owl, while the roughly contemporary Bubo insularis of the central and eastern Mediterranean has been considered a junior synonym of a brown fish owl paleosubspecies. Additional paleosubspecies are discussed on the appropriate species page.\nSeveral presumed Bubo fossils have turned out to be from different birds. The Late Eocene/Early Oligocene eared owls \"Bubo\" incertus and \"Bubo\" arvernensis are now placed in the fossil barn-owl genera Nocturnavis and Necrobyas, respectively. \"Bubo\" leptosteus is now recognized as primitive owl in the genus Minerva (formerly Protostrix). \"Bubo\" poirreiri from the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene of Saint-G\u00e9rard-le-Puy in France, is now placed in Mioglaux.\n"


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"On the other hand, the supposed fossil heron \"Ardea\" lignitum from the Late Pliocene of Plaue-Rippersroda (Germany) was apparently an owl and close to Bubo or more probably actually belongs here. Given its age \u2013 about 2 million years ago or so \u2013 it is usually included in the Eurasian eagle-owl today.\n\n== Interactions with humans ==\nBecause of their nocturnal habits, most owls do not directly interact with humans. However, in 2015, an eagle owl in Purmerend, Netherlands, attacked some fifty humans before it was caught by a hired falconer.\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n== References ==\nFeduccia, J. Alan; Ford, Norman L. (1970). \"Some birds of prey from the Upper Pliocene of Kansas\" (PDF). Auk. 87 (4): 795\u2013797. doi:10.2307/4083714. JSTOR 4083714.\nHoward, Hildegarde (1947). \"A preliminary survey of trends in avian evolution from Pleistocene to recent time\" (PDF). Condor. 49 (1): 10\u201313. doi:10.2307/1364422. JSTOR 1364422.\nK\u00f6nig, Claus; Weick, Friedhelm & Becking, Jan-Hendrik (1999): Owls: A guide to the owls of the world. Yale University Press, New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-07920-3\nLambrecht, K\u00e1lm\u00e1n (1933): Handbuch der Palaeornithologie [Handbook of Paleornithology]. Gebr\u00fcder Borntr\u00e4ger, Berlin. [in German]\nMl\u00edkovsk\u00fd, Ji\u0159\u00ed (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague.\n"


id: 51561fb93812899f72eb3fa4c35f788e
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"Ml\u00edkovsk\u00fd, Ji\u0159\u00ed (2003). \"Brown Fish Owl (Bubo zeylonensis) in Europe: past distribution and taxonomic status\" (PDF). Buteo. 13: 61\u201365. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-09-19.\nOlsen, Jery; Wink, Michael; Sauer-G\u00fcrth, Heidi; Trost, Susan (2002). \"A new Ninox owl from Sumba, Indonesia\" (PDF). Emu. 102 (3): 223\u2013231. doi:10.1071/MU02006. S2CID 86526031. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-30. Retrieved 2006-12-23.\nOlson, Storrs L. (1985): The fossil record of birds. In: Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): Avian Biology 8: 79\u2013238. Academic Press, New York.\nPavia, Marco (1999). \"Un cranio di Bubo insularis Mourer-Chauvir\u00e9 & Weesie, 1986 (Aves, Strigidae) nelle brecce ossifere del Pleistocene di Capo Figari (Sardegna, Italia)\" [A cranium of B. insularis from the Pleistocene ossiferous breccia of Cape Figari (Sardinia, Italy)] (PDF). Atti della Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali (in Italian and English). 133: 1\u201310.\nSteadman, David William; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Johnson, Eileen; Guzman, A. Fabiola (1994). \"New Information on the Late Pleistocene Birds from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Le\u00f3n, Mexico\" (PDF). Condor. 96 (3): 577\u2013589. doi:10.2307/1369460. JSTOR 1369460.\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Bubo at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The genus Pauxi consists of the three species of helmeted curassows, terrestrial black fowl with ornamental casque on their heads. All are found in South America.\nThis genus contains 3 species\n\nAs indicated by analysis of mt and nDNA sequences and calibrated with geological data, this genus' ancestors probably diverged from those of Mitu, their closest living relatives, in the Tortonian (early Late Miocene), some 8\u20137.4 mya. How the present distribution in 4 small areas quite distant from each other came to be is not known. Given that helmeted curassows are birds of the foothills and uplands, it might be that the ancestral Pauxi population became fragmented by the uplift of the Andes, which in their area of distribution took place during the Late Miocene, around the Pauxi-Mitu divergence and some time after.(Pereira & Baker 2002, Pereira et al. 2002).\nPereira & Baker (2002) reported an interesting find: in the mtDNA phylogeny, Pauxi was paraphyletic, with P. unicornis being resolved as the sister species of Mitu tuberosa. This, of course, does not automatically imply that they are closely related or that the genera are invalid. "


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"Rather, the authors point out, given the distinct and peculiar morphology of the two genera, incomplete lineage sorting or hybridization between ancestral individuals of the two species is a more likely explanation. According to their data, there must have been some extent of gene flow between Mitu tuberosa and P. unicornis around 2 mya. Unfortunately, the authors do not provide subspecific identification of their single P. unicornis specimen. In any case, they took care to exclude captive hybridization in their choice of samples, as it is frequently known to occur in curassows and would have confounded the analysis. Altogether, what can be said with certainty is that there seems to have been some extent of hybridization between at least one population of the southern helmeted curassow and female razor-billed curassows at the end of the Pliocene.\n\n== References ==\nPereira, S\u00e9rgio Luiz & Baker, Allan J. (2004): Vicariant speciation of curassows (Aves, Cracidae): a hypothesis based on mitochondrial DNA phylogeny. Auk 121(3): 682\u2013694. [English with Spanish abstract] DOI:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0682:VSOCAC]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract HTML fulltext without images\nPereira, S\u00e9rgio Luiz; Baker, Allan J.& Wajntal, Anita (2002): Combined nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences resolve generic relationships within the Cracidae (Galliformes, Aves). "


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"The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger is a population of the tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris native to the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, but currently inhabits mainly the Sikhote-Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331\u2013393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade because of intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480\u2013540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.The Siberian tiger is genetically close to the now-extinct Caspian tiger. "


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"Results of a phylogeographic study comparing mitochondrial DNA from Caspian tigers and living tiger populations indicate that the common ancestor of the Siberian and Caspian tigers colonized Central Asia from eastern China, via the Gansu\u2212Silk Road corridor, and then subsequently traversed Siberia eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East. The Caspian and Siberian tiger populations were the northernmost in mainland Asia.The Siberian tiger was also called \"Amur tiger\", \"Manchurian tiger\", \"Korean tiger\", and \"Ussurian tiger\", depending on the region where individuals were observed.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nFelis tigris was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for the tiger. In the 19th century, several tiger specimens were collected in East Asia and described:\n\nFelis tigris altaicus proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1844 were tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats sold in Japan, which originated in Korea, most likely from animals killed in the Altai and Pisihan Mountains.\nTigris longipilis proposed by Leopold Fitzinger in 1868 was based on a long-haired tiger skin in the Natural History Museum, Vienna.\nFelis tigris var. amurensis proposed by Charles Dode in 1871 was based on tiger skins from the Amur region.\n"


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"Felis tigris coreensis by Emil Brass in 1904 was a tiger skin from Korea.The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size \u2013 characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely Panthera tigris tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland.\nIn 2015, morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups: continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies: namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South China, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations; and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations.In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P. t. tigris.\n\n"


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"=== Phylogeny ===\n\nSeveral reports have been published since the 1990s on the genetic makeup of the Siberian tiger and its relationship to other populations. One of the most important outcomes has been the discovery of low genetic variability in the wild population, especially when it comes to maternal or mitochondrial DNA lineages. It seems that a single mtDNA haplotype almost completely dominates the maternal lineages of wild Siberian tigers. On the other hand, captive tigers appear to show higher mtDNA diversity. This may suggest that the subspecies has experienced a very recent genetic bottleneck caused by human pressure, with the founders of the captive population having been captured when genetic variability was higher in the wild.At the start of the 21st century, researchers from the University of Oxford, U.S. National Cancer Institute and Hebrew University of Jerusalem collected tissue samples from 20 of 23 Caspian tiger specimens kept in museums across Eurasia. They sequenced at least one segment of five mitochondrial genes and found a low amount of variability of the mitochondrial DNA in Caspian tigers as compared to other tiger subspecies. "


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"They re-assessed the phylogenetic relationships of tiger subspecies and observed a remarkable similarity between Caspian and Siberian tigers, indicating that the Siberian tiger is the genetically closest living relative of the Caspian tiger, which strongly implies a very recent common ancestry. Based on phylogeographic analysis, they suggested that the ancestor of Caspian and Siberian tigers colonized Central Asia less than 10,000 years ago via the Gansu\u2212Silk Road region from eastern China, and subsequently traversed eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East. The events of the Industrial Revolution may have been the critical factor in the reciprocal isolation of Caspian and Siberian tigers from what was likely a single contiguous population.Samples of 95 wild Amur tigers were collected throughout their native range to investigate questions relative to population genetic structure and demographic history. Additionally, targeted individuals from the North American ex situ population were sampled to assess the genetic representation found in captivity. Population genetic and Bayesian structure analyses clearly identified two populations separated by a development corridor in Russia. Despite their well-documented 20th century decline, the researchers failed to find evidence of a recent population bottleneck, although genetic signatures of a historical contraction were detected. "


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"This disparity in signal may be due to several reasons, including historical paucity in population genetic variation associated with postglacial colonisation and potential gene flow from an extirpated Chinese population. The extent and distribution of genetic variation in captive and wild populations were similar, yet gene variants persisted ex situ that were lost in situ. Overall, their results indicate the need to secure ecological connectivity between the two Russian populations to minimize loss of genetic diversity and overall susceptibility to stochastic events, and support a previous study suggesting that the captive population may be a reservoir of gene variants lost in situ.In 2013, the whole genome of the Siberian tiger was sequenced and published. Tigers in mainland Asia fall into two clades: the northern clade comprises the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and the southern clade all remaining continental tiger populations. A study published in 2018 was based on 32 tiger specimens using a whole-genome sequencing for analysis. Results support six monophyletic tiger clades and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110,000 years ago.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe tiger is reddish-rusty, or rusty-yellow in colour, with narrow black transverse stripes. "


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"The body length is not less than 150 cm (59 in), condylobasal length of skull 250 mm (9.8 in), zygomatic width 180 mm (7.1 in), and length of upper carnassial tooth over 26 mm (1.0 in) long. It has an extended supple body standing on rather short legs with a fairly long tail.\n\n=== Body size ===\nIn the 1980s, the typical weight range of wild Siberian tigers was indicated as 180 to 306 kg (397 to 675 lb) for males and 100 to 167 kg (220 to 368 lb) for females. Exceptionally large individuals were targeted and shot by hunters.In 2005, a group of Russian, American and Indian zoologists published an analysis of historical and contemporary data on body weights of wild and captive tigers, both female and male across all subspecies. The data used include weights of tigers that were older than 35 months and measured in the presence of authors. Their comparison with historical data indicates that up to the first half of the 20th century both male and female Siberian tigers were on average heavier than post-1970 ones. "


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"The average historical wild male Siberian tiger weighed 215.3 kg (475 lb) and the female 137.5 kg (303 lb); the contemporary wild male Siberian tiger weighs 176.4 kg (389 lb) on average with an asymptotic limit being 222.3 kg (490 lb); a wild female weighs 117.9 kg (260 lb) on average. Historical Siberian tigers and Bengal tigers were the largest ones, whereas contemporary Siberian tigers are on average lighter than Bengal tigers. The reduction of the body weight of today's Siberian tigers may be explained by concurrent causes, namely the reduced abundance of prey because of illegal hunting and that the individuals were usually sick or injured and captured in a conflict situation with people.Measurements taken by scientists of the Siberian Tiger Project in the Sikhote-Alin range from 178 to 208 cm (70 to 82 in) in head and body length measured in straight line, with an average of 195 cm (77 in) for males; and for females ranging from 167 to 182 cm (66 to 72 in) with an average of 174 cm (69 in). The average tail measures 99 cm (39 in) in males and 91 cm (36 in) in females. "


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"The longest male measured 309 cm (122 in) in total length including a tail of 101 cm (40 in) and with a chest girth of 127 cm (50 in). The longest female measured 270 cm (110 in) in total length including tail of 88 cm (35 in) and with a chest girth of 108 cm (43 in).\nA male captured by members of the Siberian Tiger Project weighed 206 kg (454 lb), and the largest radio-collared male weighed 212 kg (467 lb).The Siberian tiger is often considered to be the largest tiger.\nA wild male, killed in Manchuria by the Sungari River in 1943, reportedly measured 350 cm (140 in) \"over the curves\", with a tail length of about 1 m (3 ft 3 in). It weighed about 300 kg (660 lb). Dubious sources mention weights of 318 and 384 kg (701 and 847 lb) and even 408 kg (899 lb).\n\n=== Skull ===\nThe skull of the Siberian tiger is characterized by its large size. The facial region is very powerful and very broad in the region of the canines. "


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"The skull prominences, especially in the sagittal crest and crista occipitalis, are very high and strong in old males, and often much more massive than usually observed in the biggest skulls of Bengal tigers. The size variation in skulls of Siberian tigers ranges from 331 to 383 mm (13.0 to 15.1 in) in nine individuals measured. A female skull is always smaller and never as heavily built and robust as that of a male. The height of the sagittal crest in its middle part reaches as much as 27 mm (1.1 in), and in its posterior part up to 46 mm (1.8 in).Female skulls range from 279.7 to 310.2 mm (11.01 to 12.21 in). The skulls of male Caspian tigers from Turkestan had a maximum length of 297.0 to 365.8 mm (11.69 to 14.40 in), while that of females measured 195.7 to 255.5 mm (7.70 to 10.06 in). A tiger killed on the Sumbar River in Kopet Dag in January 1954 had a greatest skull length of 385 mm (15.2 in), which is considerably more than the known maximum for this population and slightly exceeds that of most Siberian tigers. "


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"However, its condylobasal length was only 305 mm (12.0 in), smaller than those of the Siberian tigers, with a maximum recorded condylobasal length of 342 mm (13.5 in). The biggest skull of a Siberian tiger from northeast China measured 406 mm (16.0 in) in length, which is about 20\u201330 mm (0.79\u20131.18 in) more than the maximum skull lengths of tigers from the Amur region and northern India, with the exception of a skull of a northern Indian tiger from the vicinity of Nagina, which measured 413 mm (16.25 in) \"over the bone\".\n\n=== Fur and coat ===\n\nThe ground colour of Siberian tigers' pelage is often very pale, especially in winter coat. However, variations within populations may be considerable. Individual variation is also found in form, length, and partly in colour, of the dark stripes, which have been described as being dark brown rather than black.The fur of the Siberian tiger is moderately thick, coarse and sparse compared to that of other felids living in the former Soviet Union. Compared to the extinct westernmost populations, the Siberian tiger's summer and winter coats contrast sharply with other subspecies. "


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"Generally, the coat of western populations was brighter and more uniform than that of the Far Eastern populations. The summer coat is coarse, while the winter coat is denser, longer, softer, and silkier. The winter fur often appears quite shaggy on the trunk and is markedly longer on the head, almost covering the ears. Siberian and Caspian tigers had the thickest fur amongst tigers.The whiskers and hair on the back of the head and the top of the neck are also greatly elongated. The background colour of the winter coat is generally less bright and rusty compared to that of the summer coat. Because of the winter fur's greater length, the stripes appear broader with less defined outlines. The summer fur on the back is 15\u201317 mm (0.59\u20130.67 in) long, 30\u201350 mm (1.2\u20132.0 in) along the top of the neck, 25\u201335 mm (0.98\u20131.38 in) on the abdomen, and 14\u201316 mm (0.55\u20130.63 in) on the tail. The winter fur on the back is 40\u201350 mm (1.6\u20132.0 in), 70\u2013110 mm (2.8\u20134.3 in) on the top of the neck, 70\u201395 mm (2.8\u20133.7 in) on the throat, 60\u2013100 mm (2.4\u20133.9 in) on the chest and 65\u2013105 mm (2.6\u20134.1 in) on the abdomen. "


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"The whiskers are 90\u2013115 mm (3.5\u20134.5 in).\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe Siberian tiger once inhabited much of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria and other parts of north-eastern China, the eastern part of Siberia and the Russian Far East, perhaps as far west as Mongolia and the area of Lake Baikal, where the Caspian tiger also reportedly occurred.\nDuring the late Pleistocene and Holocene, it was likely connected to the South China tiger population through corridors in the Yellow River basin, before humans interrupted gene flow.Today, its range stretches south to north for almost 1,000 km (620 mi) the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. It also occurs within the Greater Xing'an Range, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. This region represents a merger zone of the East Asian temperate broadleaf and mixed forest and the taiga, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary in elevation and topography. Key habitats of the Siberian tiger are Korean pine forests with a complex composition and structure.The faunal complex of the region is represented by a mixture of Asian and boreal life forms. "


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"The ungulate complex is represented by seven species, with Manchurian wapiti, Siberian roe deer, and wild boar being the most common throughout the Sikhote-Alin mountains but rare in higher altitude spruce-fir forests. Sika deer are restricted to the southern half of the Sikhote-Alin mountains. Siberian musk deer and Amur moose are associated with the conifer forests and are near the southern limits of their distribution in the central Sikhote-Alin mountains.In 2005, the number of Amur tigers in China was estimated at 18\u201322, and 331\u2013393 in the Russian Far East, comprising a breeding adult population of about 250, fewer than 100 likely to be sub-adults, more than 20 likely to be less than 3 years of age. More than 90% of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region. An unknown number of tigers survive in the reserve areas around Baekdu Mountain, on the border between China and North Korea, based on tracks and sightings.In August 2012, a Siberian tiger with four cubs was recorded for the first time in northeastern China's Hunchun National Nature Reserve located in the vicinity of the international borders with Russia and North Korea. "


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"Camera-trap surveys carried out in the spring seasons of 2013 and 2014 revealed between 27 and 34 tigers along the China-Russian border.\nIn April 2014, World Wide Fund for Nature personnel captured a video of a tigress with cubs in inland China.\nThe tiger population in the Changbai Mountains dispersed westwards between 2003 and 2016.\nCamera trap surveys between 2013 and 2018 revealed about 55 Siberian tigers in four forested landscapes in northeastern China: Laoyeling, Zhangguangcai Range, Wandashan and Lesser Khingan Mountains. Feces, urine and hair was used to genetically identify 30 tigers in this region. However, only Laoyeling is thought to support a breeding population.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\nSiberian tigers are known to travel up to 1,000 km (620 mi) over ecologically unbroken country. In 1992 and 1993, the maximum total population density of the Sikhote-Alin tiger population was estimated at 0.62 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi). The maximum adult population estimated in 1993 reached 0.3 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi), with a sex ratio of averaging 2.4 females per male. These density values were much lower than what had been reported for other subspecies at the time.\n"


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"In 2004, dramatic changes in land tenure, population density, and reproductive output in the core area of the Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik Siberian Tiger Project were detected, suggesting that when tigers are well protected from human-induced mortality for long periods, the adult female population density increases significantly. When more adult females survived, the mothers shared their home ranges with their daughters once the daughters reached maturity. By 2007, population density of tigers was estimated at 0.8\u00b10.4 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in the southern part of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik, and 0.6\u00b10.3 tigers in 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in the central part of the protected area.Siberian tigers share habitat with Amur leopards (P. pardus orientalis), but in the Changbai Mountains have been recorded more often in lower elevations than leopards.\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\n\nPrey species of the tiger include ungulates such as Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus), Siberian musk deer  (Moschus moschiferus), long-tailed goral (Naemorhedus caudatus), moose (Alces alces), Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and even sometimes small size Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos). "


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"Siberian tigers also take smaller prey like hares, rabbits, pikas and even salmon. Scat was collected along the international border between Russia and China between November 2014 and April 2015; 115 scat samples of nine tigers contained foremost remains of wild boar, sika deer and roe deer.Between January 1992 and November 1994, 11 tigers were captured, fitted with radio-collars and monitored for more than 15 months in the eastern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range. Results of this study indicate that their distribution is closely associated with distribution of Manchurian wapiti, while distribution of wild boar was not such a strong predictor for tiger distribution. Although they prey on both Siberian roe deer and sika deer, overlap of these ungulates with tigers was low. Distribution of moose was poorly associated with tiger distribution. "


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"The distribution of preferred habitat of key prey species was an accurate predictor of tiger distribution.Results of a three-year study on Siberian tigers indicate that the mean interval between their kills and estimated prey consumption varied across seasons: during 2009 to 2012, three adult tigers killed prey every 7.4 days in summer and consumed a daily average of 7.89 kg (17.4 lb); in winter they killed more large-bodied prey, made kills every 5.7 days and consumed a daily average of 10.3 kg (23 lb).\n\n=== Interspecific predatory relationships ===\n\nFollowing a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959, more than 32 cases of Amur tigers attacking both Ussuri brown (Ursus arctos lasiotus) and Ussuri black bears (U. thibetanus ussuricus) were recorded in the Russian Far East, and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples. Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears, as the latter live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees. In the same time period, four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. "


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"Tigers can tackle bears larger than themselves, using an ambushing tactic and jumping onto the bear from an overhead position, grabbing it by the chin with one forepaw and by the throat with the other, and then killing it with a bite in the spinal column. Tigers mainly feed on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin.When Amur tigers prey on brown bears, they usually target young and sub-adult bears, besides small female adults. Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002. Ussuri brown bears, along with the smaller black bears constitute 2.1% of the Siberian tiger's annual diet, of which 1.4% are brown bears.The effect the presence of tigers has on brown bear behavior seems to vary. In the winters of 1970\u20131973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks. Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers. "


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"Despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves. Brown bears generally prefer to contest the much smaller female tigers. During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve, 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed, in which bears in general were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases. There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey. In the Sikhote-Alin reserve, 35% of tiger kills were stolen by bears, with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear. Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger. A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers, including adult males; in all cases the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears.The relationship between the Amur tiger and the Himalayan bear is not specifically studied. "


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"Numerous publications on these species there are mainly episodic and survey data on this issue are collected by different authors in selected areas which do not give a complete picture of the nature.Tigers depress wolf (Canis lupus) numbers, either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem. Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human pressure decreases tiger numbers. In areas where wolves and tigers share ranges, the two species typically display a great deal of dietary overlap, resulting in intense competition. Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote-Alin, where until the beginning of the 20th century, very few wolves were sighted. Wolf numbers may have increased in the region after tigers were largely eliminated during the Russian colonisation in the late 19th century and early 20th century. This is corroborated by native inhabitants of the region claiming that they had no memory of wolves inhabiting Sikhote-Alin until the 1930s, when tiger numbers decreased. Today, wolves are considered scarce in tiger habitat, being found in scattered pockets, and usually seen travelling as loners or in small groups. "


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"First hand accounts on interactions between the two species indicate that tigers occasionally chase wolves from their kills, while wolves will scavenge from tiger kills. Tigers are not known to prey on wolves, though there are four records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them. Tigers recently released are also said to hunt wolves.This competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters in the Far East to tolerate the big cats, as they limit ungulate populations less than wolves, and are effective in controlling wolf numbers.Siberian tigers also compete with the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and occasionally kill and eat them. Eurasian lynx remains have been found in the stomach contents of Siberian tigers in Russia. In March 2014, a dead lynx discovered in Bastak Nature Reserve bore evidence of predation by a Siberian tiger. The tiger apparently ambushed, pursued, and killed the lynx but only consumed it partially. This incident marks one of the first documented cases of a tiger preying on a lynx, and indicates that the tiger might have been more intent on eliminating a competitor than on catching prey.\n\n"


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"=== Reproduction and life cycle ===\n\nSiberian tigers mate at any time of the year. A female signals her receptiveness by leaving urine deposits and scratch marks on trees. She will spend 5 or 6 days with the male, during which she is receptive for three days. Gestation lasts from 3 to 3\u00bd months. Litter size is normally two or four cubs but there can be as many as six. The cubs are born blind in a sheltered den and are left alone when the female leaves to hunt for food. Cubs are divided equally between sexes at birth. However, by adulthood there are usually two to four females for every male. The female cubs remain with their mothers longer, and later they establish territories close to their original ranges. Males, on the other hand, travel unaccompanied and range farther earlier in their lives, making them more vulnerable to poachers and other tigers.\nA Siberian tiger family comprising an adult male, a female and three cubs were recorded in 2015.At 35 months of age, tigers are sub-adults. Males reach sexual maturity at the age of 48 to 60 months.The average lifespan for Siberian tigers ranges from 16\u201318 years. "


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"Wild individuals tend to live between 10\u201315 years, while in captivity individuals may live up to 25 years.\n\n== Threats ==\nResults of genetic analysis of 95 wild Siberian tiger samples from Russia revealed that genetic diversity is low, only 27\u201335 individuals contributed to their genes. Further exacerbating the problem is that more than 90% of the population occurred in the Sikhote Alin mountain region. Tigers rarely move across the development corridor, which separates this sub-population from the much smaller sub-population in southwest Primorye province.The winter of 2006\u20132007 was marked by heavy poaching. Poaching of tigers and their wild prey species is considered to be driving the decline, although heavy snows in the winter of 2009 could have biased the data. In northern China\u2019s Huang Ni He National Nature Reserve, poachers set up foremost snare traps, but there is not sufficient personnel to patrol this 75 km2 (29 sq mi) area throughout the year. In Hunchun National Nature Reserve, poaching of ungulate species impedes recovery of the tiger population.\n\n=== In the past ===\nAfter the dissolution of the Soviet Union, illegal deforestation and bribery of park rangers facilitated poaching of Siberian tigers. "


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"Local hunters had access to a formerly sealed off lucrative Chinese market, and this once again put the region's tiger population at risk of extinction. While improvement in the local economy has led to greater resources being invested in conservation efforts, an increase in economic activity has led to an increased rate of development and deforestation. The major obstacle in preserving the tiger is the enormous territory individual tigers require; up to 450 km2 (170 sq mi) is needed by a single female and more for a single male.The Siberian tiger was once common in the Korean Peninsula. It was eradicated during the period of Korea under Japanese rule between 1910 and 1945.\n\n== Conservation ==\nTigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade. All tiger range states and countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well. "


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"At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES in 2007, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to tiger farming.In 1992, the Siberian Tiger Project was founded, with the aim of providing a comprehensive picture of the ecology of the Amur tiger and the role of tigers in the Russian Far East through scientific studies. By capturing and outfitting tigers with radio collars, their social structure, land use patterns, food habits, reproduction, mortality patterns and their relation with other inhabitants of the ecosystem, including humans is studied. These data compilations will hopefully contribute toward minimizing poaching threats because of traditional hunting. The Siberian Tiger Project has been productive in increasing local capacity to address human-tiger conflict with a Tiger Response Team, part of the Russian government's Inspection Tiger, which responds to all tiger-human conflicts; by continuing to enhance the large database on tiger ecology and conservation with the goal of creating a comprehensive Siberian tiger conservation plan; and training the next generation of Russian conservation biologists.\nIn August 2010, China and Russia agreed to enhance conservation and cooperation in protected areas in a transboundary area for Amur tigers. "


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"China has undertaken a series of public awareness campaigns including celebration of the first Global Tiger Day in July 2010, and International Forum on Tiger Conservation and Tiger Culture and China 2010 Hunchun Amur Tiger Culture Festival in August 2010.\n\n=== Reintroduction ===\n\nInspired by findings that the Amur tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, there has been discussion whether the Amur tiger could be an appropriate subspecies for reintroduction into a safe place in Central Asia. The Amu-Darya Delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not presently available in the delta and so cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage of development.\n\nA second possible introduction site in Kazakhstan is the Ili River delta at the southern edge of Lake Balkhash. "


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"The delta is situated between the Saryesik-Atyrau Desert and the Taukum Desert and forms a large wetland of about 8,000 km2 (3,100 sq mi). Until 1948, the delta was a refuge of the extinct Caspian tiger. Reintroduction of the Siberian tiger to the delta has been proposed. Large populations of wild boar inhabit the swamps of the delta. The reintroduction of the Bukhara deer, which was once an important prey, is under consideration. The Ili delta is therefore considered as a suitable site for introduction.In 2010, Russia exchanged two captive Siberian tigers for Persian leopards with the Iranian government, as conservation groups of both countries agreed on reintroducing these animals into the wild within the next five years. This issue is controversial since only 30% of such releases have been successful. In addition, the Siberian tiger is not genetically identical to the Caspian tiger. Another difference is the climatic, with temperatures higher in Iran than in Siberia. Introducing exotic species into a new habitat could inflict irreversible and unknown damage. In December 2010, one of the tigers exchanged died in Eram Zoo in Tehran. "


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"Nevertheless, the project has its defenders, and Iran has successfully reintroduced the Persian onager and Caspian red deer.In 2005, re-introduction was planned as part of the rewilding project at Pleistocene Park in the Kolyma River basin in northern Yakutia, Russia, provided the herbivore population has reached a size warranting the introduction of large predators.\n\n=== In captivity ===\n\nIn recent years, captive breeding of tigers in China has accelerated to the point where the captive population of several tiger subspecies exceeds 4,000 animals. Three thousand specimens are reportedly held by 10\u201320 \"significant\" facilities, with the remainder scattered among some 200 facilities. This makes China home to the second largest captive tiger population in the world, after the U.S., which in 2005 had an estimated 4,692 captive tigers. In a census conducted by the U.S.-based Feline Conservation Federation, 2,884 tigers were documented as residing in 468 American facilities.In 1986, the Chinese government established the world's largest Siberian tiger breeding base, the Harbin Siberian Tiger Park, and was meant to build a Siberian tiger gene pool to ensure the genetic diversity of the tiger. "


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"The Park and its existing tiger population would be further divided into two parts, one as the protective species for genetic management and the other as the ornamental species. It was discovered that when the Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park was founded it had only 8 tigers, but according to the current breeding rate of tigers at the park, the worldwide number of wild Siberian tigers will break through 1,000 in late 2010. South Korea expected to receive three tigers pledged for donation in 2009 by Russia in 2011.\n\n== Attacks on humans ==\n\nThe Siberian tiger very rarely becomes a man-eater. Numerous cases of attacks on humans were recorded in the 19th century, occurring usually in central Asia excluding Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and the Far East. Tigers were historically rarely considered dangerous unless provoked, though in the lower reaches of the Syr-Darya, a tiger reportedly killed a woman collecting firewood and an unarmed military officer whilst passing through reed thickets. Attacks on shepherds were recorded in the lower reaches of Ili. In the Far East, during the middle and late 19th century, attacks on people were recorded. "


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"In 1867 on the Tsymukha River, tigers killed 21 men and injured 6 others. In China's Jilin Province, tigers reportedly attacked woodsmen and coachmen, and occasionally entered cabins and dragged out both adults and children.\n\nAccording to the Japanese Police Bureau in Korea, in 1928 a tiger killed one human, whereas leopards killed three, wild boars four and wolves killed 48. Six cases were recorded in 20th century Russia of unprovoked attacks leading to man-eating behaviour. Provoked attacks are however more common, usually the result of botched attempts at capturing them. In December 1997, an injured Amur tiger attacked, killed and consumed two people. Both attacks occurred in the Bikin River valley. The anti-poaching task force Inspection Tiger investigated both deaths, tracked down and killed the tiger.In January 2002, a man was attacked by a tiger on a remote mountain road near Hunchun in Jilin province, China, near the borders of Russia and North Korea. He suffered compound fractures but managed to survive. When he sought medical attention, his story raised suspicions as Siberian tigers seldom attack humans. An investigation of the attack scene revealed that raw venison carried by the man was left untouched by the tiger. "


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"Officials suspected the man to be a poacher who provoked the attack. The following morning, tiger sightings were reported by locals along the same road, and a local TV station did an on-site coverage. The group found tiger tracks and blood spoor in the snow at the attack scene and followed them for approximately 2,500 meters, hoping to catch a glimpse of the animal. Soon, the tiger was seen ambling slowly ahead of them. As the team tried to get closer for a better camera view, the tiger suddenly turned and charged, causing the four to flee in panic. About an hour after that encounter, the tiger attacked and killed a 26-year-old woman on the same road. Authorities retrieved the body with the help of a bulldozer. By then, the tiger was found lying 20 meters away, weak and barely alive. It was successfully tranquilized and taken for examination, which revealed that the tiger was anemic and gravely injured by a poacher's snare around its neck, with the steel wire cutting deeply down to the vertebrae, severing both trachea and esophagus. Despite extensive surgery by a team of veterinarians, the tiger died of wound infection. "


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"Subsequent investigation revealed that the first victim was a poacher who set multiple snares that caught both the tiger and a deer. The man was later charged for poaching and harming endangered species. He served two years in prison. After being released from prison, he worked in clearing the forest of old snares.In an incident at the San Francisco Zoo in December 2007, a tiger escaped and killed a visitor, and injured two others. The animal was shot by the police. The zoo was widely criticized for maintaining only a 12.5 ft (3.8 m) fence around the tiger enclosure, while the international standard is 16 ft (4.9 m). The zoo subsequently erected a taller barrier topped by an electric fence. One of the victims admitted to taunting the animal.Zookeepers in Anhui province and the cities of Shanghai and Shenzhen were attacked and killed in 2010. In January 2011, a tiger attacked and killed a tour bus driver at a breeding park in Heilongjiang province. Park officials reported that the bus driver violated safety guidelines by leaving the vehicle to check on the condition of the bus. "


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"In September 2013, a tiger mauled a zookeeper to death at a zoo in western Germany after the worker forgot to lock a cage door during feeding time. In July 2020, a female tiger attacked and killed a 55-year-old zookeeper at the Z\u00fcrich Zoo in Switzerland.\n\n== In culture ==\n\nThe English name 'Siberian tiger' was coined by James Cowles Prichard in the 1830s. The name 'Amur tiger' was used in 1933 for Siberian tigers killed by the Amur River for an exhibition in the American Museum of Natural History.The Tungusic peoples considered the tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as \"Grandfather\" or \"Old man\". The Udege and Nani people call it \"Amba\". The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin, the king. Since the tiger has a mark on its foreheads that looks like a Chinese character for 'King' (Chinese: \u738b; pinyin: W\u00e1ng), or a similar character meaning \"Great Emperor\", it is revered by the Udege and Chinese people.The Siberian tiger is used in heraldic symbols throughout the area where it is indigenous.\nA drawn Siberian tiger was the mascot of the 1981 Bandy World Championship, which was played in Khabarovsk in southeast Siberia.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\n\nAmur leopard\nBergmann's rule\nHolocene extinction\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nIUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Tiger (Panthera tigris)\nIUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group : Amur (P. t. altaica)\n21st Century Tiger\nAmur Leopard and Tiger Alliance (ALTA) \u2013 Conserving Amur leopards and tigers in the Russian Far East and China\nWorld Wide Fund for Nature: Amur tiger\nNational Geographic Animals: Siberian Tiger Panthera tigris altaica\nWildlife Conservation Society's Siberian Tiger Project\nAmur.org.uk: Preserving leopards and tigers in the wild\nUSDA Information Resources on Tigers, Panthera tigris\nThe Amur Tiger Programme : Two Adult Tigers Tagged in the Ussuri Nature Reserve\nWalker, M. (2009). \"Amur tigers on 'genetic brink'\". BBC Earth News."


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"The scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) is a species of ibis in the bird family Threskiornithidae. It inhabits tropical South America and part of the Caribbean. In form, it resembles most of the other twenty-seven extant species of ibis, but its remarkably brilliant scarlet coloration makes it unmistakable. It is one of the two national birds of Trinidad and Tobago, and its Tupi\u2013Guarani name, guar\u00e1, is part of the name of several municipalities along the coast of Brazil.This medium-sized wader is a hardy, numerous, and prolific bird, and it has protected status around the world.  Its IUCN status is Least Concern. The legitimacy of Eudocimus ruber as a biological classification, however, is in dispute. Traditional Linnaean taxonomy classifies it as a unique species, but some scientists have moved to reclassify it as a subspecies of a more general American ibis species, along with its close relative, the American white ibis (Eudocimus albus).\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. "


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"Initially given the binomial nomenclature of  Scolopax rubra (the name incorporates the Latin adjective ruber, \"red\"), the species was later designated Guara rubra and ultimately Eudocimus ruber.Biologically the scarlet ibis is very closely related to the American white ibis (Eudocimus albus) and is sometimes considered conspecific with it, leaving modern science divided over their taxonomy. The two birds each have exactly the same bones, claws, beaks, feather arrangements and other features \u2013 their one marked difference lies in their pigmentation. Traditional taxonomy has regarded the two as separate and distinct.Early ornithological field research revealed no natural crossbreeding among the red and white, lending support to the two-species viewpoint. More recent observation, however, has documented significant crossbreeding and hybridization in the wild. Researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the Llanos in Colombia and Venezuela. They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing, as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage, or white plumage with occasional orange feathers, and have proposed that these birds be classified as a single species. "


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"Hybridization has been known to occur frequently in captivity. However, the two color forms persist in the wild despite overlapping ranges and hybrid offspring having a distinctive color type, so according to the cohesion species concept they would be functionally different species.Some biologists now wish to pair them with Eudocimus albus as two subspecies of the same American ibis. Others simply define both of them as one and the same species, with ruber being a color variation of albus.\n\n== Description ==\n\nAdult plumage is virtually all scarlet. The feathers may show various tints and shades, but only the tips of their wings deviate from their namesake color. A small but reliable marking, these wingtips are a rich inky black (or occasionally dark blue) and are found only on the longest primaries \u2013 otherwise the birds' coloration is \"a vivid orange-red, almost luminous in quality.\"Scarlet ibises have red bills and feet however the bill is sometimes blackish, especially toward the end. They have a long, narrow, decurved bill. Their legs and neck are long and extended in flight.A juvenile scarlet ibis is a mix of grey, brown, and white. "


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"As it grows, a heavy diet of red crustaceans produces the scarlet coloration. The color change begins with the juvenile's second moult, around the time it begins to fly: the change starts on the back and spreads gradually across the body while increasing in intensity over a period of about two years. The scarlet ibis is the only shorebird with red coloration in the world.\nAdults are 55\u201363 centimetres (22\u201325 in) long, and the males, slightly larger than females, typically weigh about 1.4 kilograms (3.1 lb). Their bills are also on average around 22% longer than those of females. The life span of the scarlet ibis is approximately sixteen years in the wild and twenty years in captivity. An adult scarlet ibis has a wingspan of around 54 centimetres (21 in). Though it spends most of its time on foot or wading through water, the bird is a very strong flyer: they are highly migratory and easily capable of long-distance flight. They move as flocks in a classic V formation.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe range of the scarlet ibis is very large, and colonies are found throughout vast areas of South America and the Caribbean islands. "


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"Native flocks exist in Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; and Venezuela, as well as the islands of the Netherlands Antilles, and Trinidad and Tobago. Flocks gather in wetlands and other marshy habitats, including mud flats, shoreline and rainforest. Outlying colonies have been identified in the coastal areas of the states of Esp\u00edrito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S\u00e3o Paulo (for example in the Santos-Cubat\u00e3o mangroves of the Baixada Santista district), Paran\u00e1 and  Santa Catarina. In recent years, bird colonies can be seen as far south as in the coastal areas of Joinville and the island of S\u00e3o Francisco do Sul.The highest concentrations are found in the Llanos region of western Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The fertile and remote tropical grassland plain of the Llanos provides a safe haven far from human encroachment. Together with its relative the bare-faced ibis, the scarlet ibis is remarkably prolific and conspicuous in the region.Scarlet ibis vagrants have been identified in Belize, Ecuador, and Panama; Aruba, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, and Jamaica; sightings have even been made in the United States. "


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"The species may well have been a natural vagrant to the Gulf Coast in the 19th century or earlier \u2013 in The Birds of America, John James Audubon made brief remarks regarding three rubra specimens he encountered in Louisiana. However, virtually all modern occurrences of the species in North America have been introduced or escaped birds. In one notable example from 1962, scarlet ibis eggs were placed in white ibis nests in Florida's Greynolds Park, and the resulting population hybridised easily, producing \"pink ibises\" that are still occasionally seen.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nMating pairs build nests in a simple style, typically \"loose platforms of sticks\" of a quality sometimes described as \"artless\". They roost in leaf canopies, mostly preferring the convenient shelter of young waterside mangrove trees. Scarlet ibises like wet, muddy areas such as swamps, but for safety they build their nests in trees well above the water. If they can, they nest on islands, where their eggs and chicks are less likely to be in danger from predators.To attract a female, the male will perform a variety of mating rituals such as \"preening, shaking, bill popping, head rubbing, and high flights. "


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"As with most birds, mating does not involve any coupling or insertion: instead, a transfer of seminal fluids occurs during external contact between the cloacal openings. After a gestation period of five to six days, the female lays a clutch of three to five smooth, matte eggs which typically incubate for 19\u201323 days. After a successful courtship, pairs remain faithful and cohabitant, sharing parental responsibilities for the young.In southeastern Brazil, the ibises gather in colonies in mid-September and build nests at the beginning of November. Egg laying within the colony was synchronous, with female birds laying eggs in three waves in early November, late December and late January.\n\n=== Feeding ===\nTheir distinctive long, thin bills are used to probe for food in soft mud or under plants. Popularly imagined to be eating only shrimp, a recent study in the Llanos has found that much of their diet consists of insects, of which the majority were scarabs and ground beetles. One species in particular, a scarab beetle Dyscinetus dubius, formed a large part of the diet. Other insect prey include water beetles and water bugs. "


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"In contrast, the diet of the co-occurring American white ibis there differed, the latter consuming more bugs, fish and crustaceans.\n\nThey do, however, eat much shrimp and other similar fare like small crabs, mollusks and other crustaceans, such as crayfish. The large quantity of shrimp and other red shellfish produces a surfeit of astaxanthin, a carotenoid which is the key component of the birds' red pigmentation. Frogs, small snakes, small fish, fruits and seeds are also occasional prey items for scarlet ibises. When kept in zoos, the birds' diet often contains beetroot and carrot supplement to maintain color vibrancy in their plumage.The Llanos are notable in that these wetland plains support seven species of ibis in the one region. Here, scarlet ibis are the most aggressive, and attack other species to steal their food. They have also been observed trailing white-faced whistling ducks (Dendrocygna viduata) and domestic livestock, and catching insects disturbed by them.\n\n=== Social behavior ===\nThe scarlet ibis is a sociable and gregarious bird, and very communally-minded regarding the search for food and the protection of the young. They live in flocks of thirty or more. "


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"Members stay close, and mating pairs arrange their nests in close proximity to other pairs in the same tree.For protection, flocks often congregate in large colonies of several thousand individuals. They also regularly participate in mixed flocks, gaining additional safety through numbers: storks, spoonbills, egrets, herons and ducks are all common companions during feedings and flights.\n\n== Status ==\nThe species has protected status throughout the world, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified the scarlet ibis as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Though several local populations appear to be in decline, global totals remain relatively large and the current rate of losses is not considered a threat to the species' survival. Nonetheless, recent losses by established populations in French Guiana have become a concern for conservationists, and in Brazil the bird has been included on a national list of endangered species.\n\n=== Relationship with humans ===\nThe scarlet ibis and the cocrico are the national birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Both birds are featured on the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago. The cocrico is found on Tobago, Venezuela and Colombia. "


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"The scarlet ibis is associated with Trinidad; there are not documented records of the scarlet ibis on Tobago for the last fifteen years.An important local habitat for the scarlet ibis is the wildlife sanctuary of Caroni Swamp of Trinidad, a 199 hectares (490 acres) wetland reserve first designated in 1953 specifically to provide a habitat for the scarlet ibis.Using the bird as a literary symbol, American author James Hurst composed a popular short story, \"The Scarlet Ibis\" (1960). A more recent short story, \"Scarlet Ibis\" by Margaret Atwood, is included in Bluebeard's Egg (1983). The name also belongs to a book of verse by American poet Susan Hahn.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nJourney to Red Birds by Jan Lindblad (New York: Hill and Wang; 1969).\n\n== External links ==\n\nData related to Eudocimus ruber at Wikispecies\nScarlet ibis photo gallery"


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"The long-tailed glossy starling (Lamprotornis caudatus) is a member of the starling family of birds. It is a resident breeder in tropical Africa from Senegal east to Sudan.\nThis common passerine is typically found in open woodland and cultivation. The long-tailed glossy starling builds a nest in a hole. The normal clutch is two to four eggs.\nThis ubiquitous bird is gregarious and noisy, with a harsh grating call.\nThe adults of these 54 cm (21 in) long birds have metallic green upperparts, violet underparts and a 34 cm (13 in) long purple tail. The face is black with a yellow eye. The sexes are similar, but juveniles are duller, with a brownish tone to the plumage.\n\nLike most starlings, the long-tailed glossy starling is an omnivore, eating fruit and insects.\n\n== References ==\n\nBarlow, Clive; Wacher, Tim (1997). Birds of The Gambia and Senegal. Illustrated by Tony Disley. Pica. ISBN 9781873403327."


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"The koala or, inaccurately, koala bear (Phascolarctos cinereus), is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, spoon-shaped nose. The koala has a body length of 60\u201385 cm (24\u201333 in) and weighs 4\u201315 kg (9\u201333 lb). Fur colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.\nKoalas typically inhabit open Eucalyptus woodland, as the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content, koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to twenty hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. "


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"Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and the koala retrovirus.\nBecause of its distinctive appearance, the koala along with the kangaroos are recognised worldwide as symbols of Australia. They were hunted by Indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia. The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798, and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry. Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814, although his work remained unpublished for 180 years. Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala, introducing the species to the general British public. Further details about the animal's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists. "


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"Koalas are listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Among the many threats to their existence are habitat destruction caused by agriculture, urbanisation, droughts, and associated bushfires, some related to climate change.  In February of 2022, the koala was officially listed as endangered in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, and Queensland.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe word koala comes from the Dharug gula, meaning no water.  Although the vowel 'u' was originally written in the English orthography as \"oo\" (in spellings such as coola or koolah \u2014 two syllables), later became \"oa\" and is now pronounced in three syllables, possibly in error.Adopted by white settlers, \"koala\" became one of several hundred Aboriginal loan words in Australian English, where it was also commonly referred to as \"native bear\", later \"koala bear\", for its supposed resemblance to a bear. It is also one of several Aboriginal words that made it into International English, alongside e.g. \"didgeridoo\" and \"kangaroo.\"The generic name, Phascolarctos, is derived from the Greek words phaskolos \"pouch\" and arktos \"bear\". The specific name, cinereus, is Latin for \"ash coloured\".\n\n"


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"== Taxonomy and evolution ==\nThe koala was given its generic name Phascolarctos in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, who would not give it a specific name until further review. In 1819, German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial Lipurus cinereus. Because Phascolarctos was published first, according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, it has priority as the official name of the genus.:\u200a58\u201359\u200a French naturalist Anselme Ga\u00ebtan Desmarest proposed the name Phascolarctos fuscus in 1820, suggesting that the brown-coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones. Other names suggested by European authors included Marodactylus cinereus by Goldfuss in 1820, P. flindersii by Ren\u00e9 Primev\u00e8re Lesson in 1827, and P. koala by John Edward Gray in 1827.:\u200a45\u200aThe koala is classified with wombats (family Vombatidae) and several extinct families (including marsupial tapirs, marsupial lions and giant wombats) in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia. The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods (kangaroos and wallabies) and possums. The ancestors of vombatiforms were likely arboreal, and the koala's lineage was possibly the first to branch off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene.\n\n"


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"The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae, a family that once included several genera and species. During the Oligocene and Miocene, koalas lived in rainforests and had less specialised diets. Some species, such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala (Nimiokoala greystanesi) and some species of Perikoala, were around the same size as the modern koala, while others, such as species of Litokoala, were one-half to two-thirds its size. Like the modern species, prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that long-distance vocalising and sedentism developed early. During the Miocene, the Australian continent began drying out, leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open Eucalyptus woodlands. The genus Phascolarctos split from Litokoala in the late Miocene and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet: a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull; larger molars and premolars; smaller pterygoid fossa; and a larger gap between the molar and the incisor teeth.:\u200a226\u200aP. cinereus may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala (P. stirtoni). "


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"The reduction in the size of large mammals has been seen as a common phenomenon worldwide during the late Pleistocene, and several Australian mammals, such as the agile wallaby, are traditionally believed to have resulted from this dwarfing. A 2008 study questions this hypothesis, noting that P. cinereus and P. stirtoni were sympatric during the middle to late Pleistocene, and possibly as early as the Pliocene. The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene.\n\n=== Genetics and variations ===\nThree subspecies are recognised: the Queensland koala (Phascolarctos cinereus adustus, Thomas 1923), the New South Wales koala (Phascolarctos cinereus cinereus, Goldfuss 1817), and the Victorian koala (Phascolarctos cinereus victor, Troughton 1935). These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness, body size, and skull shape. The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three, with shorter, silver fur and a shorter skull. The Victorian koala is the largest, with shaggier, brown fur and a wider skull.:\u200a7\u200a The boundaries of these variations are based on state borders, and their status as subspecies is disputed. "


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"A 1999 genetic study suggests that the variations represent differentiated populations with limited gene flow between them and that the three subspecies comprise a single evolutionarily significant unit. Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation. Such low genetic diversity may have been a characteristic of koala populations since the late Pleistocene. Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the genetic differentiation of southeast Queensland populations. In April 2013, scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome.\n\n== Characteristics and adaptations ==\n\nThe koala is a stocky animal with a large head and vestigial or non-existent tail.:\u200a1\u200a It has a body length of 60\u201385 cm (24\u201333 in) and a weight of 4\u201315 kg (9\u201333 lb), making it among the largest arboreal marsupials. Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland.:\u200a7\u200a The species is sexually dimorphic, with males 50% larger than females. Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands, which are visible as hairless patches."


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":\u200a55\u200a As in most marsupials, the male koala has a bifurcated penis, and the female has two lateral vaginas and two separate uteri.:\u200a3\u200a  The male's penile sheath contains naturally occurring bacteria that play an important role in fertilisation. The female's pouch opening is tightened by a sphincter that keeps the young from falling out.The pelage of the koala is thicker and longer on the back, and shorter on the belly. The ears have thick fur on both the inside and outside. The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown.:\u200a1\u20132\u200a  The belly fur is whitish; on the rump it is dappled whitish, and darker at the back. The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain, while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation. The koala's curved, sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees. The large forepaws have two opposable digits (the first and second, which are opposable to the other three) that allow them to grasp small branches. "


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"On the hind paws, the second and third digits are fused, a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia, and the attached claws (which are still separate) are used for grooming.:\u200a5\u200a As in humans and other primates, koalas have friction ridges on their paws. The animal has a sturdy skeleton and a short, muscular upper body with proportionately long upper limbs that contribute to its climbing and grasping abilities. Additional climbing strength is achieved with thigh muscles that attach to the shinbone lower than other animals.:\u200a183\u200a The koala has a cartilaginous pad at the end of the spine that may make it more comfortable when it perches in the fork of a tree.\n\nThe koala has one of the smallest brains in proportion to body weight of any mammal,:\u200a81\u200a being 60% smaller than that of a typical diprotodont, weighing only 19.2 g (0.68 oz) on average. The brain's surface is fairly smooth, typical for a \"primitive\" animal.:\u200a52\u200a It occupies only 61% of the cranial cavity:\u200a81\u200a and is pressed against the inside surface by cerebrospinal fluid. "


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"The function of this relatively large amount of fluid is not known, although one possibility is that it acts as a shock absorber, cushioning the brain if the animal falls from a tree.:\u200a52\u200a The koala's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet, which is insufficient to sustain a larger brain.:\u200a81\u200a Because of its small brain, the koala has a limited ability to perform complex, unfamiliar behaviours. For example, when presented with plucked leaves on a flat surface, the animal cannot adapt to the change in its normal feeding routine and will not eat the leaves.:\u200a234\u200a The koala's olfactory senses are normal, and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility.:\u200a81\u200a Its nose is fairly large and covered in leathery skin. Its round ears provide it with good hearing, and it has a well-developed middle ear. A koala's vision is not well developed, and its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits. Koalas make use of a novel vocal organ to produce low-pitched sounds (see social spacing, below). "


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"Unlike typical mammalian vocal cords, which are folds in the larynx, these organs are placed in the velum (soft palate) and are called velar vocal cords.\n\nThe koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet, which is of low nutritive value, high toxicity, and high in dietary fibre.:\u200a76\u200a The animal's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw), which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The incisors are used for grasping leaves, which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the petiole before being passed to the highly cusped molars, where they are shredded into small pieces.:\u200a46\u200a Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of middle-aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine,:\u200a231\u200a which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal's energy."


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":\u200a47\u200a A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time.Unlike kangaroos and eucalyptus-eating possums, koalas are hindgut fermenters, and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild or up to 200 hours in captivity.:\u200a48\u200a This is made possible by the extraordinary length of their caecum\u2014200 cm (80 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) in diameter\u2014the largest proportionally of any animal.:\u200a188\u200a Koalas can select which food particles to retain for longer fermentation and which to pass through. Large particles typically pass through more quickly, as they would take more time to digest.:\u200a48\u200a While the hindgut is proportionally larger in the koala than in other herbivores, only 10% of the animal's energy is obtained from fermentation. Since the koala gains a low amount of energy from its diet, its metabolic rate is half that of a typical mammal,:\u200a76\u200a although this can vary between seasons and sexes.:\u200a49\u200a They can digest the toxins present in eucalyptus leaves due to their production of cytochrome P450, which breaks down these poisons in the liver. "


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"The koala conserves water by passing relatively dry faecal pellets high in undigested fibre, and by storing water in the caecum.:\u200a231\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe koala's geographic range covers roughly 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi), and 30 ecoregions. It extends throughout eastern and southeastern Australia, encompassing northeastern, central and southeastern Queensland, eastern New South Wales, Victoria, and southeastern South Australia. The koala was reintroduced near Adelaide and on several islands, including Kangaroo Island and French Island. The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range. Fossil evidence shows that the koala's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene. Koalas were introduced to Western Australia at Yanchep. They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by Indigenous Australians.:\u200a12\u201313\u200a In South Australia, koalas were only known to exist in recent times in the lower South East,:\u200a32\u200a with a remnant population in the Bangham Forest between Bordertown and Naracoorte, until introduced to the Mount Lofty Ranges in the 20th-century. "


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"Doubts have been cast on Eyre's identification as koala pelt a girdle being worn by an Aboriginal man, the only evidence of their existence elsewhere in the State.\nKoalas can be found in habitats ranging from relatively open forests to woodlands, and in climates ranging from tropical to cool temperate. In semi-arid climates, they prefer riparian habitats, where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat.\n\n== Ecology and behaviour ==\n\n=== Foraging and activities ===\n\nKoalas are herbivorous, and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves, they can be found in trees of other genera, such as Acacia, Allocasuarina, Callitris, Leptospermum, and Melaleuca.:\u200a73\u200a Though the foliage of over 600 species of Eucalyptus is available, the koala shows a strong preference for around 30. They tend to choose species that have a high protein content and low proportions of fibre and lignin.:\u200a231\u200a The most favoured species are Eucalyptus microcorys, E. tereticornis, and E. camaldulensis, which, on average, make up more than 20% of their diet. They will also consume other species in the genus such as E. ovata, E. punctata, and E. viminalis. "


