# document

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"When in an aggressive mode, a chimpanzee swaggers bipedally, hunched over and arms waving, in an attempt to exaggerate its size. While travelling, chimpanzees keep in contact by beating their hands and feet against the trunks of large trees, an act that is known as \"drumming\". They also do this when encountering individuals from other communities.Vocalisations are also important in chimpanzee communication. The most common call in adults is the \"pant-hoot\", which may signal social rank and bond along with keeping groups together. Pant-hoots are made of four parts, starting with soft \"hoos\", the introduction; that gets louder and louder, the build-up; and climax into screams and sometimes barks; these die down back to soft \"hoos\" during the letdown phase as the call ends. Grunting is made in situations like feeding and greeting. Submissive individuals make \"pant-grunts\" towards their superiors. Whimpering is made by young chimpanzees as a form of begging or when lost from the group. Chimpanzees use distance calls to draw attention to danger, food sources, or other community members. \"Barks\" may be made as \"short barks\" when hunting and \"tonal barks\" when sighting large snakes.\n\n"


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"=== Hunting ===\nWhen hunting small monkeys such as the red colobus, chimpanzees hunt where the forest canopy is interrupted or irregular. This allows them to easily corner the monkeys when chasing them in the appropriate direction. Chimpanzees may also hunt as a coordinated team, so that they can corner their prey even in a continuous canopy. During an arboreal hunt, each chimpanzee in the hunting groups has a role. \"Drivers\" serve to keep the prey running in a certain direction and follow them without attempting to make a catch. \"Blockers\" are stationed at the bottom of the trees and climb up to block prey that takes off in a different direction. \"Chasers\" move quickly and try to make a catch. Finally, \"ambushers\" hide and rush out when a monkey nears. While both adults and infants are taken, adult male colobus monkeys will attack the hunting chimps. Male chimpanzees hunt more than females. When caught and killed, the meal is distributed to all hunting party members and even bystanders.\n\n== Intelligence and cognition ==\n\nChimpanzees display numerous signs of intelligence, from the ability to remember symbols to cooperation, tool use, and perhaps language. "


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"They are among species that have passed the mirror test, suggesting self-awareness. In one study, two young chimpanzees showed retention of mirror self-recognition after one year without access to mirrors. Chimpanzees have been observed to use insects to treat their own wounds and those of others. They catch them and apply them directly to the injury. Chimpanzees also display signs of culture among groups, with the learning and transmission of variations in grooming, tool use and foraging techniques leading to localized traditions.A 30-year study at Kyoto University's Primate Research Institute has shown that chimpanzees are able to learn to recognise the numbers 1 to 9 and their values. The chimpanzees further show an aptitude for eidetic memory, demonstrated in experiments in which the jumbled digits are flashed onto a computer screen for less than a quarter of a second. One chimpanzee, Ayumu, was able to correctly and quickly point to the positions where they appeared in ascending order. Ayumu performed better than human adults who were given the same test.In controlled experiments on cooperation, chimpanzees show a basic understanding of cooperation, and recruit the best collaborators. "


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"In a group setting with a device that delivered food rewards only to cooperating chimpanzees, cooperation first increased, then, due to competitive behaviour, decreased, before finally increasing to the highest level through punishment and other arbitrage behaviours.Great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognisable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. Instances in which nonhuman primates have expressed joy have been reported. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body, such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age.Chimpanzees have displayed different behaviours in response to a dying or dead group member. When witnessing a sudden death, the other group members act in frenzy, with vocalisations, aggressive displays, and touching of the corpse. In one case chimpanzees cared for a dying elder, then attended and cleaned the corpse. Afterward, they avoided the spot where the elder died and behaved in a more subdued manner. "


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"Mothers have been reported to carry around and groom their dead infants for several days.Experimenters now and then witness behaviour that cannot be readily reconciled with chimpanzee intelligence or theory of mind. Wolfgang K\u00f6hler, for instance, reported insightful behaviour in chimpanzees, but he likewise often observed that they experienced \"special difficulty\" in solving simple problems. Researchers also reported that, when faced with a choice between two persons, chimpanzees were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that chimpanzees lack theory of mind.\n\n=== Tool use ===\n\nNearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools. They modify sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them when foraging for termites and ants, nuts, honey, algae or water. Despite the lack of complexity, forethought and skill are apparent in making these tools. Chimpanzees have used stone tools since at least 4,300 years ago.A chimpanzee from the Kasakela chimpanzee community was the first nonhuman animal reported making a tool, by modifying a twig to use as an instrument for extracting termites from their mound. At Ta\u00ef, chimpanzees simply use their hands to extract termites. "


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"When foraging for honey, chimpanzees use modified short sticks to scoop the honey out of the hive if the bees are stingless. For hives of the dangerous African honeybees, chimpanzees use longer and thinner sticks to extract the honey.Chimpanzees also fish for ants using the same tactic. Ant dipping is difficult and some chimpanzees never master it. West African chimpanzees crack open hard nuts with stones or branches. Some forethought in this activity is apparent, as these tools are not found together or where the nuts are collected. Nut cracking is also difficult and must be learned. Chimpanzees also use leaves as sponges or spoons to drink water.West African chimpanzees in Senegal were found to sharpen sticks with their teeth, which were then used to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. "


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"An eastern chimpanzee has been observed using a modified branch as a tool to capture a squirrel.Whilst experimental studies on captive chimpanzees have found that many of their species-typical tool-use behaviours can be individually learnt by each chimpanzees, a 2021 study on their abilities to make and use stone flakes, in a similar way as hypothesised for early hominins, did not find this behaviour across two populations of chimpanzees - suggesting that this behaviour is outside the chimpanzee species-typical range.\n\n=== Language ===\n\nScientists have attempted to teach human language to several species of great ape. One early attempt by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in the 1960s involved spending 51 months teaching American Sign Language to a chimpanzee named Washoe. The Gardners reported that Washoe learned 151 signs, and had spontaneously taught them to other chimpanzees, including her adopted son, Loulis. Over a longer period of time, Washoe was reported to have learned over 350 signs.Debate is ongoing among scientists such as David Premack about chimpanzees' ability to learn language. Since the early reports on Washoe, numerous other studies have been conducted, with varying levels of success. "


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"One involved a chimpanzee jokingly named Nim Chimpsky (in allusion to the theorist of language Noam Chomsky), trained by Herbert Terrace of Columbia University. Although his initial reports were quite positive, in November 1979, Terrace and his team, including psycholinguist Thomas Bever, re-evaluated the videotapes of Nim with his trainers, analyzing them frame by frame for signs, as well as for exact context (what was happening both before and after Nim's signs). In the reanalysis, Terrace and Bever concluded that Nim's utterances could be explained merely as prompting on the part of the experimenters, as well as mistakes in reporting the data. \"Much of the apes' behaviour is pure drill\", he said. \"Language still stands as an important definition of the human species.\"In this reversal, Terrace now argued Nim's use of ASL was not like human language acquisition. Nim never initiated conversations himself, rarely introduced new words, and mostly imitated what the humans did. More importantly, Nim's word strings varied in their ordering, suggesting that he was incapable of syntax. Nim's sentences also did not grow in length, unlike human children whose vocabulary and sentence length show a strong positive correlation.\n\n"


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"== Relations with humans ==\n\n=== In culture ===\n\nChimpanzees are rarely represented in African culture, as people find their resemblance to humans discomforting. The Gio people of Liberia and the Hemba people of the Congo have created masks of the animals. Gio masks are crude and blocky, and worn when teaching young people how not to behave. The Hemba masks have a smile that suggests drunken anger, insanity or horror and are worn during rituals at funerals, representing the \"awful reality of death\". The masks may also serve to guard households and protect both human and plant fertility. Stories have been told of chimpanzees kidnapping and raping women.In Western popular culture, chimpanzees have occasionally been stereotyped as childlike companions, sidekicks or clowns. They are especially suited for the latter role on account of their prominent facial features, long limbs and fast movements, which humans often find amusing. Accordingly, entertainment acts featuring chimpanzees dressed up as humans with lip-synchronised human voices have been traditional staples of circuses, stage shows and TV shows like Lancelot Link, Secret Chimp (1970-1972) and The Chimp Channel (1999). "


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"From 1926 until 1972, London Zoo, followed by several other zoos around the world, held a chimpanzees' tea party daily, inspiring a long-running series of advertisements for PG Tips tea featuring such a party. Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive.\n\nChimpanzees in media include Judy on the television series Daktari in the 1960s and Darwin on The Wild Thornberrys in the 1990s. In contrast to the fictional depictions of other animals, such as dogs (as in Lassie), dolphins (Flipper), horses (The Black Stallion) or even other great apes (King Kong), chimpanzee characters and actions are rarely relevant to the plot. Depictions of chimpanzees as individuals rather than stock characters, and as central rather than incidental to the plot can be found in science fiction. Robert A. Heinlein's 1947 short story \"Jerry Was a Man\" concerns a genetically enhanced chimpanzee suing for better treatment. The 1972 film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, the third sequel of the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, portrays a futuristic revolt of enslaved apes led by the only talking chimpanzee, Caesar, against their human masters.\n\n"


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"=== As pets ===\nChimpanzees have traditionally been kept as pets in a few African villages, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Virunga National Park in the east of the country, the park authorities regularly confiscate chimpanzees from people keeping them as pets. Outside their range, chimpanzees are popular as exotic pets despite their strength and aggression. Even where keeping non-human primates as pets is illegal, the exotic pet trade continues to prosper, leading to injuries from attacks.\n\n=== Use in research ===\n\nHundreds of chimpanzees have been kept in laboratories for research. Most such laboratories either conduct or make the animals available for invasive research, defined as \"inoculation with an infectious agent, surgery or biopsy conducted for the sake of research and not for the sake of the chimpanzee, and/or drug testing\". Research chimpanzees tend to be used repeatedly over decades for up to 40 years, unlike the pattern of use of most laboratory animals. Two federally funded American laboratories use chimpanzees: the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Southwest National Primate Center in San Antonio, Texas. "


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"Five hundred chimpanzees have been retired from laboratory use in the U.S. and live in animal sanctuaries in the U.S. or Canada.A five-year moratorium was imposed by the US National Institutes of Health in 1996, because too many chimpanzees had been bred for HIV research, and it has been extended annually since 2001. With the publication of the chimpanzee genome, plans to increase the use of chimpanzees in America were reportedly increasing in 2006, some scientists arguing that the federal moratorium on breeding chimpanzees for research should be lifted. However, in 2007, the NIH made the moratorium permanent.\n\nOther researchers argue that chimpanzees either should not be used in research, or should be treated differently, for instance with legal status as persons. Pascal Gagneux, an evolutionary biologist and primate expert at the University of California, San Diego, argues, given chimpanzees' sense of self, tool use, and genetic similarity to human beings, studies using chimpanzees should follow the ethical guidelines used for human subjects unable to give consent. A recent study suggests chimpanzees which are retired from labs exhibit a form of posttraumatic stress disorder. Stuart Zola, director of the Yerkes laboratory, disagrees. "


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"He told National Geographic: \"I don't think we should make a distinction between our obligation to treat humanely any species, whether it's a rat or a monkey or a chimpanzee. No matter how much we may wish it, chimps are not human.\"Only one European laboratory, the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, the Netherlands, used chimpanzees in research. It formerly held 108 chimpanzees among 1,300 non-human primates. The Dutch ministry of science decided to phase out research at the centre from 2001. Trials already under way were however allowed to run their course. Chimpanzees including the female Ai have been studied at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan, formerly directed by Tetsuro Matsuzawa, since 1978. Some 12 chimpanzees are currently held at the facility.Two chimpanzees have been sent into outer space as NASA research subjects. Ham, the first great ape in space, was launched in the Mercury-Redstone 2 capsule on 31 January 1961, and survived the suborbital flight. Enos, the third primate to orbit Earth after Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov, flew on Mercury-Atlas 5 on 29 November of the same year.\n\n"


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"=== Field study ===\n\nJane Goodall undertook the first long-term field study of the chimpanzee, begun in Tanzania at Gombe Stream National Park in 1960. Other long-term studies begun in the 1960s include A. Kortlandt's in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Toshisada Nishida's in Mahale Mountains National Park in Tanzania. Current understanding of the species' typical behaviours and social organisation has been formed largely from Goodall's ongoing 60-year Gombe research study.\n\n=== Attacks ===\nChimpanzees have attacked humans. In Uganda, several attacks on children have happened, some of them fatal. Some of these attacks may have been due to the chimpanzees being intoxicated (from alcohol obtained from rural brewing operations) and becoming aggressive towards humans. Human interactions with chimpanzees may be especially dangerous if the chimpanzees perceive humans as potential rivals. At least six cases of chimpanzees snatching and eating human babies are documented.A chimpanzee's strength and sharp teeth mean that attacks, even on adult humans, can cause severe injuries. This was evident after the attack and near death of former NASCAR driver St. James Davis, who was mauled by two escaped chimpanzees while he and his wife were celebrating the birthday of their former pet chimpanzee. "


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"Another example of chimpanzees being aggressive toward humans occurred in 2009 in Stamford, Connecticut, when a 90-kilogram (200 lb), 13-year-old pet chimpanzee named Travis attacked his owner's friend, who lost her hands, eyes, nose, and part of her maxilla from the attack.\n\n=== Human immunodeficiency virus ===\nTwo primary classes of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa. Both types originated in west and central Africa, jumping from other primates to humans. HIV-1 has evolved from a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpz) found in the subspecies P. t. troglodytes of southern Cameroon. Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has the greatest genetic diversity of HIV-1 so far discovered, suggesting the virus has been there longer than anywhere else. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of HIV, found in the sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau.\n\n=== Status and conservation ===\n\nThe chimpanzee is on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Chimpanzees are legally protected in most of their range and are found both in and outside national parks. "


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"Between 172,700 and 299,700 individuals are thought to be living in the wild, a decrease from about a million chimpanzees in the early 1900s. Chimpanzees are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited and all other international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzee habitats have been limited by deforestation in both West and Central Africa. Road building has caused habitat degradation and fragmentation of chimpanzee populations and may allow poachers more access to areas that had not been seriously affected by humans. Although deforestation rates are low in western Central Africa, selective logging may take place outside national parks.Chimpanzees are a common target for poachers. In Ivory Coast, chimpanzees make up 1\u20133% of bushmeat sold in urban markets. They are also taken, often illegally, for the pet trade and are hunted for medicinal purposes in some areas. "


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"Farmers sometimes kill chimpanzees that threaten their crops; others are unintentionally maimed or killed by snares meant for other animals.Infectious diseases are a main cause of death for chimpanzees. They succumb to many diseases that afflict humans because the two species are so similar. As human populations grow, so does the risk of disease transmission between humans and chimpanzees.\n\n== See also ==\n\nAnthropopithecus \u2013 Obsolete primate taxon\nBili ape \u2013 Chimpanzees in the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo\nList of individual apes \u2013 List of notable non-human apes\nProstitution among animals \u2013 Limited evidence for prostitution among non-human animals\nOne Small Step: The Story of the Space Chimps, 2008 documentary\nChimpanzee, 2012 documentary\nGreat Ape Project\nInternational Primate Day\n\n== Notes ==\n\n== References ==\n\n=== Literature cited ===\nGoodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-11649-8.\n\n== External links ==\n\nDiscoverChimpanzees.org\nChimpanzee Genome resources\nPrimate Info Net Pan troglodytes Factsheets Archived 13 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine\nU.S. "


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"Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile\nView the Pan troglodytes genome in Ensembl\nGenome of Pan troglodytes (version Clint_PTRv2/panTro6), via UCSC Genome Browser\nData of the genome of Pan troglodytes, via NCBI\nData of the genome assembly of Pan troglodytes Clint_PTRv2/panTro6, via NCBI\nHuman Timeline (Interactive) \u2013 Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)."


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"The black-tufted marmoset (Callithrix penicillata), also known as Mico-estrela in Portuguese, is a species of New World monkey that lives primarily in the Neo-tropical gallery forests of the Brazilian Central Plateau. It ranges from Bahia to Paran\u00e1, and as far inland as Goi\u00e1s, between 14 and 25 degrees south of the equator, and can commonly be seen in the City of Rio de Janeiro where it was introduced. This marmoset typically resides in rainforests, living an arboreal life high in the trees, but below the canopy. They are only rarely spotted near the ground.\n\n== Physical description ==\nThe black-tufted marmoset is characterized by black tufts of hair around their ears. It typically has some sparse white hairs on its face. It usually has a brown or black head and its limbs and upper body are gray, as well as its abdomen, while its rump and underside are usually black. Its tail is ringed with black and white and is not prehensile, but is used for balance. It does not have an opposable thumb and its nails tend to have a claw-like appearance. "


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"The black-tufted marmoset reaches a size of 7.48 to 8.7 inches (19.0 to 22.1 centimetres) and weighs up to 12.35 oz (350 g).\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nDiurnal and arboreal, the black-tufted marmoset has a lifestyle very similar to other marmosets. It typically lives in family groups of 2 to 14. The groups usually consist of a reproductive couple and their offspring. Twins are very common among this species and the males, as well as juvenile offspring, often assist the female in the raising of the young.\nThough the black-tufted marmoset lives in small family groups, it is believed that they share their food source, sap trees, with other marmoset groups. Scent marking does occur within these groups, but it is believed that the marking is to deter other species rather than other black-tufted marmoset groups, because other groups typically ignore these markings. They also appear to be migratory, often moving in relation to the wet or dry seasons, however, the extent of their migration is unknown.\nThough communication between black-tufted marmosets has not been studied thoroughly, it is believed that it communicates through vocalizations. It has known predator-specific cries and appears to vocalize frequently outside of predator cries.\n\n"


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"== Food and predation ==\nThe black-tufted marmoset diet consists primarily of tree sap which it gets by nibbling the bark with its long lower incisors. In periods of drought, it will also include fruit and insects in its diet. In periods of serious drought it has also been known to eat small arthropods, molluscs, bird eggs, baby birds and small vertebrates.\nLarge birds of prey are the greatest threat to the black-tufted marmoset, however, snakes and wild cats also pose a danger to them. Predator-specific vocalizations and visual scanning are its only anti-predation techniques.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nThe black-tufted marmoset is monogamous and lives in family groups. It reproduces twice a year, producing 1 to 4 offspring, though most often just twins. Its gestation period is 150 days and offspring are weaned after 8 weeks. There is considerable parental investment by this species, with both parents, as well as older juveniles, helping to raise the young. The offspring are extremely dependent on their parents and though they are sexually mature at 18 months, they typically do not mate until much later, staying with their family group until they do.\n\n"


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"== Ecosystem roles and conservation status ==\nThe black-tufted marmoset is a mutualist with many species of fruit trees because it distributes the seeds from the fruit it consumes throughout the forests. However, it is a parasite on other species of trees because it creates sores in trees in order to extract sap, while offering no apparent benefit to the trees. Though this marmoset is not a main food source to any specific species, it is a food source to a number of different species, specifically large birds of prey, wild cats, and snakes.\nThe black-tufted marmoset is listed as having no special status on the IUCN Red List or the United States Endangered Species Act List. It is listed in Appendix II of CITES and is not currently considered an endangered or threatened species. In Rio de Janeiro State, where it was introduced alongside the common marmoset, it is considered as an invasive species posing a danger to the survival of the endangered golden lion tamarin through competition. Management of the species in its invaded habitat has included proposals for sterilization of reproductive-age individuals, relocation, and public awareness campaign for prevention of further releases.\n\n"


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"== References and notes ==\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n=== References ===\nBarros, M.; Alencar, C.; Tomaz, C. (2004). \"Differences in Aerial and Terrestrial Visual Scanning in Captive Black Tufted-ear Marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) Exposed to a Novel Environment\". Folia Primatologica. 75 (2): 85\u201391. doi:10.1159/000076266. PMID 15010580. S2CID 28771129.\nBoudet, C. (2004). \"Mammal's Planet\". Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2004.\nde Figueiredo, R.; Longatti, C. (1997). \"Ecological Aspects of the Dispersal of a Melastomatacae by Marmosets and Howler Monkeys in a Semideciduous Forest in Southeastern Brazil\". Revue d'\u00c9cologie (La Terre et la Vie). 52 (1): 4\u20135.\nElliot, D. (1913). A Review of The Primates. New York: American Museum of Natural History.\nGuerra, R.; Takase, E.; Santos, C. (1998). \"Cross-fostering between two species of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus and Callithrix penicillata)\" (PDF). Revista Brasileira de Biologia. 58 (4): 665\u2013669. doi:10.1590/S0034-71081998000400014. PMID 10049101.\nLacher, T.; Bouchardet da Fonseca, G.; Alves, C.; Magalhaes-Castro, B. (1981). \"Exudate-Eating, Scent-Marking, and Territoriality in Wild Populations of Marmosets\". Animal Behaviour. 29 (1): 306\u2013307. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80185-6. S2CID 53150826.\nMiranda, G.; Faria, D. (2001). \"Ecological Aspects of Black-Pincelled Marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) in the Cerradao and Dense Cerradao of the Brazilian Central Plateau\". Brazilian Journal of Biology. "


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"61 (3): 397\u2013404. doi:10.1590/S1519-69842001000300008. PMID 11706566.\nMittermeier, R. (1986). \"Primate Conservation Priorities in the Neotropical Region\".  In Benirschke, K. (ed.). Primates: The Road to Self-Sustaining Populations. West Hanover, Massachusetts: Springer-Verlag. pp. 221\u2013240. ISBN 0-387-96270-0.\nRosenberg, S. (2004). \"Penicillata Marmoset: (Callithrix Penicillata)\". Archived from the original on April 15, 2004. Retrieved March 31, 2004.\nRylands, A. B.; Mittermeier, R. A. (2009). \"The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini)\".  In Garber PA; Estrada A; Bicca-Marques JC; Heymann EW; Strier KB (eds.). South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Springer. pp. 23\u201354. ISBN 978-0-387-78704-6.\n\n== External links ==\n\nAnimal Diversity Web Callithix pencillata\nMammal Image Library Catalog"


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"The Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron napoleonis) is a medium-sized (up to 50 cm long) bird in the family Phasianidae.\nIt is featured prominently in the culture of the indigenous people of Palawan. The bird is also depicted in the official seal of the city of Puerto Princesa.\n\n== Description ==\nThe adult male is the most peacock-like member of the genus Polyplectron in appearance. It has an erectile crest and highly iridescent electric blue-violet, metallic green-turquoise dorsal plumage.  Its breast and ventral regions are dark black. The rectrices are wide, flat, and rigid. Their terminal edges are squared. Each tail plume and upper-tail covert is marked with highly iridescent, light reflective, ocelli. The tail is erected and expanded laterally together with the bodies of the birds. The males also raise one wing and lower the other, laterally compressing the body during pair-bonding, courtship displays as well and may also be antipredator adaptation.\nThe female is slightly smaller than the male. Its contour plumage is cloudy silt in colouration. The mantle and breast are a dark sepia in coloration. The rectrices are essentially similar to those of the male, exhibiting marked adumbrations and stunning ocelli. "


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"Throughout, their plumage is earthen and difficult to distinguish from the substrate and branches. While it has similar proportions of the tail to the male, its markings are not as visually arresting. Like the male, the female has a short crest and is whitish on the throat, cheeks and eyebrows.\nChicks are vivid ginger and cinnamon hued with prominent yellow markings. Juveniles of both sexes in the first year closely resemble their mothers. Subadult males in their second year more closely resemble their fathers but the mantle and wing coverts are marked with adumbrations analogous with the ocelli in the contour plumage of other peacock-pheasant species.\nLike other peacock-pheasants, Palawan males and some females exhibit multiple spurs on the metatarsus. These are used in anti-predator defense, foraging in leaf litter and contests with other males. The male Palawan excavates slight depressions in which it orients its body during postural display behaviors. The bird vibrates loudly via stridulation of rectrice quills. This communicative signal is both audible and as a form of seismic communication.\nPalawan peacock-pheasants are strong fliers. Their flight is swift, direct and sustained.\n\n"


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"== Distribution and habitat ==\nEndemic to the Philippines, the Palawan peacock-pheasant is found in the humid forests of Palawan Island in the southern part of the Philippine archipelago.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe Palawan peacock-pheasant, with its unique male plumage and distant range, represents a basal (Early? Pliocene, c.5-4 mya) offshoot of the genus Polyplectron (Kimball et al. 2001). The species is widely accepted to be monotypic, but while some males have white supercillia, giving a \"double-barred\" or masked appearance, others lack this trait, exhibiting dark faces, taller, denser crests and prominent white cheek spots. The birds with white supercillia are sometimes classified as a distinct subspecies, nehrkornae. The white-cheeked form may inhabit deep forest habitat with low ambient light in rolling terrain whilst the masked form appears to inhabit taller, more open forest on flatter terrain with higher ambient light. This masked form exhibits an abbreviated, more tightly compacted and highly iridescent crest.  Females of the two respective forms exhibit analogous differentiation. The female of the masked form is more prominently patterned and densely crested with paler contour plumage.\n"


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"It was long known as Polyplectron emphanum, but the name Polyplectron napoleonis was given one year before and takes priority over the newer name (Dickinson 2001).\n\n== Behavior and ecology ==\nPeacock-pheasants are highly invertivorous, taking isopods, earwigs, insect larvae, mollusks, centipedes and termites as well as small frogs, drupes, seeds and berries.\nThey are strictly monogamous, renesting yearly. The female usually lays up to two eggs. Both parents rearing chicks for up to two years. Males act as sentinels of nest sites and are highly pugnacious during the reproductive cycle.\n\n== Status and conservation ==\nDue to ongoing habitat loss, small population size and limited range as well as hunting and capture for trade, the Palawan peacock-pheasant is classified as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n=== Works cited ===\nDickinson, E. C. (2001): The correct scientific name of the Palawan Peacock-Pheasant is Polyplectron napoleonis (Lesson, 1831). Bull. B. O. C. 121(4): 266\u2013272.\nKimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L.; Ligon, J. David; Lucchini, Vittorio & Randi, Ettore (2001): A molecular phylogeny of the peacock-pheasants (Galliformes: Polyplectron spp.)"


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"indicates loss and reduction of ornamental traits and display behaviour. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 73(2): 187\u2013198. HTML abstract\nLesson, Ren\u00e9-Primev\u00e8re (1831): Traite d'Ornithologie 7:487; 8: 650.\nTemminck, Coenraad Jacob (1832): Nouveau Recueil de Planches colori\u00e9es d'Oiseaux 88 plate 540.\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive - images and movies of the Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron napoleonis)\nBirdLife Species Factsheet\nRed Data Book"


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"Reeves's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi; Chinese: \u5c71\u7f8c), also known as the Chinese muntjac, is a muntjac species found widely in southeastern China (from Gansu to Yunnan) and Taiwan. It has also been introduced in Europe, western United States and Japan. It takes its name from John Reeves, a naturalist employed by the British East India Company in the 19th century.\n\n== Description ==\nReeves's muntjac grows to 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) high at the shoulder and 0.95 m (3 ft 1 in) in length, plus a short tail up to 4 in (10 cm) long. It weighs between 10 and 18 kg (22 and 40 lb) when fully grown. It is reddish-brown in appearance with striped markings on its face. The belly is creamy-white, with lighter fur extending to the neck, chin, and the underside of the tail. The males have short antlers, usually 4 in (10 cm) or less, and long upper canines (tusks), usually about 2 in (5.1 cm) long. Females have bony lumps on their foreheads and localized black spots. The Taiwanese subspecies (M. r. micrurus), commonly known as the Formosan Reeves's muntjac, is darker than other subspecies.\n\n"


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"== Behavior ==\nReeves's muntjac feeds on herbs, blossoms, succulent shoots, fungi, berries, grasses, and nuts, and has also been reported to eat tree bark. Eggs and carrion are eaten opportunistically. It is also called the barking deer due to its distinctive barking sound, though this name is also used for other species of muntjacs. The barking sound is common during mating or when provoked. Its preferred habitats are forest and shrubland. It is a solitary and crepuscular animal. Both males and females defend small territories that they mark with preorbital gland secretions that are thought to be pheromonal in nature. When fighting, males first use their antlers to push enemies off balance so they can wound them with their 2 in (5.1 cm)  upper canine teeth.\n\n== Reproduction ==\n\nFemale muntjacs (known as \"does\") become sexually mature within the first year of life. Mating occurs throughout the year. Their gestation period lasts from 209 to 220 days. Females limit the number of mating bouts, though time between successive bouts is determined by males (known as \"bucks\").\n\n== Distribution ==\nIt is found widely in southeastern China (from Gansu to Yunnan) and Taiwan. "


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"It has also been introduced in several other regions.\n\n=== Continental Europe ===\nIt has been introduced in Belgium and the Netherlands.In Europe, this species is included since 2016 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.\n\n=== Great Britain ===\nReeves's muntjacs were first introduced to the UK in the early 19th century.In the late 19th century, the then Duke of Bedford brought some to Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire, then in 1901 released them into the surrounding woods.:\u200a96\u200a A few more probably escaped from the nearby Whipsnade Zoo. During the mid-20th century, Woburn conducted several deliberate releases in distant locations throughout England.:\u200a97\u200a It is suspected that there were also other unrecorded releases or escapes from private collections. These releases later caused misperception that muntjacs spread very rapidly."


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":\u200a98\u200a The estimated population of Reeves's muntjacs in England was 52,000 in 1995, and 104,000 in 2008.:\u200a100\u200aUnder the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 it was illegal to release the species except where already established, and the Invasive Alien Species (Enforcement and Permitting) Order 2019 has subsequently prohibited the capture and re-release of muntjac in all cases. As of 2017, colonies exist throughout England south of Derbyshire, and the population continues to grow.\n\n=== Ireland ===\nIt has been introduced in the Republic of Ireland.Sightings in 2008 caused the government, concerned at the risk of the species becoming established, to quickly introduce a year-round hunting season.\n\n=== Japanese archipelago ===\nIn the 1960s, several specimens escaped from an exhibition zoo in the B\u014ds\u014d Peninsula in eastern Japan. By 2017, their numbers had reached at least 60,000. It is considered a harmful invasive species and has inflicted severe damage to ashitaba plantations. Also, Reeves's muntjac escaped a zoo on Izu \u014cshima in 1970 when a fence fell due to a typhoon. "


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"A muntjac eradication effort on Izu \u014cshima was undertaken in 2007\u20132014 but failed, and as of 2014, at least 11,000 individuals exist and have a yearly population growth rate of 15%. This failure has been blamed on inadequate survey methods.\n\n== Conservation ==\nIn Hong Kong, Reeve's muntjac is a protected species under the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance Cap 170. It is listed as least concern by the IUCN due to being generally common and widespread.\n\n== Economic significance ==\nThe tanned skin of Reeves's muntjac is notable for its softness and is occasionally used in beauty-care products, musical instruments, lenses, and antique items packaging. Low-fat muntjac meat is also noted for its culinary qualities.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Muntiacus reevesi at Wikimedia Commons"


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"The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own.\nThe tiger was first scientifically described in 1758. It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east, and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands. Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia, the islands of Java and Bali, and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China. "


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"What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented, stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and a single Indonesian island, Sumatra.\nThe tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. As of 2015, the global wild tiger population was estimated to number between 3,062 and 3,948 mature individuals, with most populations living in small isolated pockets. India currently hosts the largest tiger population. Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching. Tigers are also victims of human\u2013wildlife conflict, due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density.\nThe tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature, appearing on many flags, coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris.\n"


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"This was a borrowing of Classical Greek \u03c4\u03af\u03b3\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 'tigris', a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning 'tiger' and the river Tigris.\nThe origin may have been the Persian word tigra ('pointed or sharp') and the Avestan word tigrhi ('arrow'), perhaps referring to the speed of the tiger's leap, although these words are not known to have any meanings associated with tigers.The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1 ('panther').\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nIn 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris. In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.\n\n=== Subspecies ===\n\nFollowing Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several tiger specimens were described and proposed as subspecies. The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. "


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"Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands.Results of craniological analysis of 111 tiger skulls from Southeast Asian range countries indicate that Sumatran tiger skulls differ from Indochinese and Javan tiger skulls, whereas Bali tiger skulls are similar in size to Javan tiger skulls. The authors proposed to classify the Sumatran and Javan tigers as distinct species, P. sumatrae and P. sondaica, with the Bali tiger as subspecies P. sondaica balica.In 2015, morphological, ecological, and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations. The authors also noted that this reclassification will affect tiger conservation management. "


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"The nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades:\na northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations\na southern clade composed of all other mainland populations.One conservation specialist welcomed this proposal as it would make captive breeding programmes and future rewilding of zoo-born tigers easier. One geneticist was sceptical of this study and maintained that the currently recognised nine subspecies can be distinguished genetically.In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica. This two-subspecies view has been largely rejected by researchers. Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 specimens support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the living subspecies and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110,000 years ago.\nThe following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World. It also reflects the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017:\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nThe tiger's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion, leopard and jaguar. "


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"Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species, and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion, leopard and jaguar.\nThe geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The tiger\u2013snow leopard lineage dispersed in Southeast Asia during the Miocene.Panthera zdanskyi is considered to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger. It lived at the beginning of the Pleistocene about two million years ago, its fossil remains were excavated in Gansu of northwestern China. It was smaller and more \"primitive\", but functionally and ecologically similar to the modern tiger. It is disputed as to whether it had the striping pattern. Northwestern China is thought to be the origin of the tiger lineage. Tigers grew in size, possibly in response to adaptive radiations of prey species like deer and bovids, which may have occurred in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene.Panthera tigris trinilensis lived about 1.2 million years ago and is known from fossils excavated near Trinil in Java. The Wanhsien, Ngandong, Trinil, and Japanese tigers became extinct in prehistoric times. "


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"Tigers reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene, reaching eastern Beringia, Japan, and Sakhalin. Some fossil skulls are morphologically distinct from lion skulls, which could indicate tiger presence in Alaska during the last glacial period, about 100,000 years ago.Fossil teeth and bones found in Borneo were attributed to the Bornean tiger and date to about 13,745 to 3,000 years ago. It may have accessed Borneo, when the sea level was low during a glaciation period, and may have survived until about 200 years ago.\nIn the Ille Cave on the island of Palawan, two articulated phalanx bones were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and stone tools. They were smaller than mainland tiger fossils, possibly due to insular dwarfism. It has been speculated that the tiger parts were either imported from elsewhere, or that the tiger colonised Palawan from Borneo before the Holocene. Fossil remains of tigers were also excavated in Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Sarawak dating to the Late Pliocene, Pleistocene and Early Holocene.Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000 to 72,000 years ago. "


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"The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The Caspian tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Hindu Kush. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods.The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have similar repeat composition to other cat genomes and an appreciably conserved synteny.\n\n=== Hybrids ===\n\nCaptive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species. Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation.\nThe liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Ligers are typically between 10 and 12 ft (3.0 and 3.7 m) in length, and weigh between 800 and 1,000 lb (360 and 450 kg) or more. "


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"Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species.The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger. Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are around the same size as their parents. Some females are fertile and have occasionally given birth to litigons when mated to a male Asiatic lion.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe tiger has a muscular body with strong forelimbs, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of its body. Its pelage colouration varies between shades of orange with a white underside and distinctive vertical black stripes; the patterns of which are unique in each individual. Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass with strong vertical patterns of light and shade. The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids. "


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"The orange colour may also aid in camouflage as the tiger's prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation.A tiger's coat pattern is still visible when it is shaved. This is not due to skin pigmentation, but to the stubble and hair follicles embedded in the skin. It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males. The pupils are circular with yellow irises. The small, rounded ears have a prominent white spot on the back, surrounded by black. These spots are thought to play an important role in intraspecific communication.The tiger's skull is similar to a lion's skull, with the frontal region usually less depressed or flattened, and a slightly longer postorbital region. The lion skull shows broader nasal openings. Due to the variation in skull sizes of the two species, the structure of the lower jaw is a reliable indicator for their identification. The tiger has fairly stout teeth; its somewhat curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown height of up to 90 mm (3.5 in).\n\n"


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"=== Size ===\nThere is notable sexual dimorphism between male and female tigers, with the latter being consistently smaller. The size difference between them is proportionally greater in the large tiger subspecies, with males weighing up to 1.7 times more than females. Males also have wider forepaw pads, enabling sex to be identified from tracks. It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's rule, or by distribution and size of available prey species.Generally, males vary in total length from 250 to 390 cm (98 to 154 in) and weigh between 90 and 300 kg (200 and 660 lb) with skull length ranging from 316 to 383 mm (12.4 to 15.1 in). Females vary in total length from 200 to 275 cm (79 to 108 in), weigh 65 to 167 kg (143 to 368 lb) with skull length ranging from 268 to 318 mm (10.6 to 12.5 in). In either sex, the tail represents about 0.6 to 1.1 m (2 ft 0 in to 3 ft 7 in) of the total length. The Bengal and Siberian tigers are amongst the tallest cats in shoulder height. "


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"They are also ranked among the biggest cats that have ever existed reaching weights of more than 300 kg (660 lb). The tigers of the Sunda islands are smaller and less heavy than tigers in mainland Asia, rarely exceeding 142 kg (313 lb) in weight.\n\n=== Colour variations ===\n\nThere are three other colour variants \u2013 white, golden and nearly stripeless snow white \u2013 that are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations, but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has white fur and sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger has a pale golden pelage with a blond tone and reddish-brown stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail.  Both snow white and golden tigers are homozygous for CORIN gene mutations.The white tiger lacks pheomelanin (which creates the orange colour), and has dark sepia-brown stripes and blue eyes. This altered pigmentation is caused by a mutant gene that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, which is determined by a white locus. It is not an albino, as the dark pigments are scarcely affected. "


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"The mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter protein SLC45A2. Both parents need to have the allele for whiteness to have white cubs.\nBetween the early and mid 20th century, white tigers were recorded and shot in the Indian states of Odisha, Bihar, Assam and in the area of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. The local maharaja started breeding tigers in the early 1950s and kept a white male tiger together with its normal-coloured daughter; they had white cubs.\nTo preserve this recessive trait, only a few white individuals were used in captive breeding, which led to a high degree of inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is the main reason for many health problems of captive white tigers, including strabismus, stillbirth, deformities and premature death.\nOther physical defects include cleft palate and scoliosis.The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers, alleging they are of mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage. The genes responsible for white colouration are represented by 0.001% of the population. The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals. "


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"This would lead to inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability.There are also records of pseudomelanic or black tigers which have thick stripes that merge. In Simlipal National Park, 37% of the tiger population has this condition, which has been linked to isolation and inbreeding.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and Transcaucasia to the coast of the Sea of Japan, and from South Asia across Southeast Asia to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Since the end of the last glacial period, it was probably restricted by periods of deep snow lasting longer than six months. Currently, it occurs in less than 6% of its historical range, as it has been extirpated from Southwest and Central Asia, large parts of Southeast and East Asia. It now mainly occurs in the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra and the Russian Far East. In China and Myanmar, breeding populations appear to rely on immigration from neighbouring countries while its status in the Korean Peninsula is unknown.The tiger is essentially associated with forest habitats. Tiger populations thrive where populations of wild cervids, bovids and suids are stable.\n"


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"Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests along the Atrek, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Hari, Chu and Ili Rivers and their tributaries. In the Caucasus, it inhabited hilly and lowland forests.\nHistorical records in Iran are known only from the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and adjacent Alborz Mountains. In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, where riparian forests provide food and water, and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates.\nOn the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans. In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan and of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills. In Myanmar, tigers are distributed across the country and among every province. The country is home to two tiger populations, Bengal and Indochinese tigers. In 1996, the composition of the two populations was 60% Bengal tigers and 40% Indochinese tigers. "


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"The natural ecological divide for these two populations is assumed to be the Irrawaddy River, but there is no scientific evidence for that hypothesis. DNA studies are needed to confirm it. Today, the presence of tigers was confirmed in the Hukawng Valley, Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary, and in two small areas in the Tanintharyi Region. The Tenasserim Hills is an important area, but forests are harvested there. In 2015, tigers were recorded by camera traps for the first time in the hill forests of Kayin State. In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests. In Laos, 14 tigers were documented in semi-evergreen and evergreen forest interspersed with grassland in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area during surveys from 2013 to 2017. In Sumatra, tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\n=== Social and daily activities ===\nWhen not subject to human disturbance, the tiger is mainly diurnal. It does not often climb trees but cases have been recorded. It is a strong swimmer and often bathes in ponds, lakes and rivers, thus keeping cool in the heat of the day. "


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"Individuals can cross rivers up to 7 km (4.3 mi) wide and can swim up to 29 km (18 mi) in a day. During the 1980s, a tiger was observed frequently hunting prey through deep lake water in Ranthambhore National Park.The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas. Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan National Park started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months. Four females dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi), and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi). None of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than 10 km (6.2 mi) wide, but moved through forested habitat.Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam. Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges, within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs. Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other's movements and activities. "


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"The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. In India, home ranges appear to be 50 to 1,000 km2 (19 to 386 sq mi) while in Manchuria, they range from 500 to 4,000 km2 (190 to 1,540 sq mi). In Nepal, defended territories are recorded to be 19 to 151 km2 (7.3 to 58.3 sq mi) for males and 10 to 51 km2 (3.9 to 19.7 sq mi) for females.Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother's. The overlap between the female and her mother's territory reduces with time. Males, however, migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area. A young male acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers, or by living as a transient in another male's territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest mortality rate (30\u201335% per year) amongst adult tigers.\n\n"


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"To identify his territory, the male marks trees by spraying urine, anal gland secretions, marking trails with feces and marking trees or the ground with their claws. Females also use these \"scrapes\", urine and fecal markings. Scent markings of this type allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity, sex and reproductive status. Females in oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing their vocalisations.Although for the most part avoiding each other, tigers are not always territorial and relationships between individuals can be complex. An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with others, even with unrelated tigers. George Schaller observed a male share a kill with two females and four cubs. Unlike male lions, male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on the kill before the male is finished with it; all involved generally seem to behave amicably, in contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride. Stephen Mills described a social feeding event in Ranthambore National Park:\n\nA dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250 kg (550 lb) male nilgai \u2013 a very large antelope. "


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"They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14-month-old cubs, and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours. During this period the family was joined by two adult females and one adult male, all offspring from Padmini's previous litters, and by two unrelated tigers, one female the other unidentified. By three o'clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill.\nMale tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females. Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence. Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger yielded by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not live in too close quarters. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus, sometimes fighting to the death.\n\nFacial expressions include the \"defense threat\", where an individual bares its teeth, flattens its ears and its pupils enlarge. "


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"Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace, when sniffing urine markings, but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalization is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They may roar three or four times in a row, and other tigers may respond in kind. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away. For aggressive encounters, tigers growl, snarl and hiss. During an attack, an explosive \"coughing roar\" or \"coughing snarl\" is emitted though an open mouth and exposed teeth. Chuffing\u2014soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats\u2014is heard in more friendly situations. Other vocalizations include grunts, woofs and miaows.\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\n\nIn the wild, tigers mostly feed on large and medium-sized mammals, particularly ungulates weighing 60\u2013250 kg (130\u2013550 lb). Range-wide the most selected prey are sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha and wild boar. "


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"Tigers are capable of taking down larger prey like adult gaur and wild water buffalo but will also opportunistically eat much smaller prey, such as monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, hares, porcupines, and fish. They also prey on other predators, including dogs, leopards, pythons, bears, and crocodiles. Tigers generally do not prey on fully grown adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros but incidents have been reported. More often, it is the more vulnerable small calves that are taken. When in close proximity to humans, tigers will also sometimes prey on such domestic livestock as cattle, horses, and donkeys. Although almost exclusively carnivorous, tigers will occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow match tree.Tigers are thought to be mainly nocturnal predators, but in areas where humans are absent, remote-controlled, hidden camera traps recorded them hunting in daylight. They generally hunt alone and ambush their prey as most other cats do, overpowering them from any angle, using their body size and strength to knock the prey off balance. Successful hunts usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its quarry, knock it over, and grab the throat or nape with its teeth. "


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"Despite their large size, tigers can reach speeds of about 49\u201365 km/h (30\u201340 mph) but only in short bursts; consequently, tigers must be close to their prey before they break cover. If the prey senses the tiger's presence before this, the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than give chase or battle pre-alerted prey. Horizontal leaps of up to 10 m (33 ft) have been reported, although leaps of around half this distance are more typical. One in 2 to 20 hunts, including stalking near potential prey, ends in a successful kill.\n\nWhen hunting larger animals, tigers prefer to bite the throat and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey, often simultaneously wrestling it to the ground. The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation. By this method, gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton have been killed by tigers weighing about a sixth as much. Although they can kill healthy adults, tigers often select the calves or infirm of very large species. Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to tackle, as long, strong horns, legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger. "


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"No other extant land predator routinely takes on prey this large on its own.With small prey such as monkeys and hares, the tiger bites the nape, often breaking the spinal cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery. Rarely, tigers have been observed to kill prey by swiping with their paws, which are powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle, and break the backs of sloth bears.After killing their prey, tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetation, grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite. This, too, can require great physical strength. In one case, after it had killed an adult gaur, a tiger was observed to drag the massive carcass over a distance of 12 m (39 ft). When 13 men simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later, they were unable to move it. An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks without eating, then gorge on 34 kg (75 lb) of flesh at one time. In captivity, adult tigers are fed 3 to 6 kg (6.6 to 13.2 lb) of meat a day.\n\n"


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"=== Enemies and competitors ===\n\nTigers usually prefer to eat self-killed prey, but eat carrion in times of scarcity and also steal prey from other large carnivores. Although predators typically avoid one another, if a prize is under dispute or a serious competitor is encountered, displays of aggression are common. If these fail, the conflicts may turn violent; tigers may kill or even prey on competitors such as leopards, dholes, striped hyenas, wolves, bears, pythons, and mugger crocodiles on occasion. Crocodiles, bears, and large packs of dholes may win conflicts with tigers, and crocodiles and bears can even kill them.The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting different prey. In India's Nagarhole National Park, most prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg (66 to 386 lb) against a preference for heavier prey by tigers. The average prey weight in the two respective big cats in India was 37.6 kg (83 lb) against 91.5 kg (202 lb). "


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"With relatively abundant prey, tigers and leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the African savanna, where the leopard lives beside the lion. Golden jackals may scavenge on tiger kills. Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while smaller predators like leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes.\n\n=== Reproduction and life cycle ===\n\nThe tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with a second peak in September. Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days. A female is only receptive for three to six days. Mating is frequent and noisy during that time. The female gives birth in a sheltered location such as in tall grass, in a dense thicket, cave or rocky crevice. The father generally takes no part in rearing. Litters consist of two or three cubs, rarely as many as six. Cubs weigh from 780 to 1,600 g (28 to 56 oz) each at birth, and are born with eyes closed. They open their eyes when they are six to 14 days old. "


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"Their milk teeth break through at the age of about two weeks. They start to eat meat at the age of eight weeks. At around this time, females usually shift them to a new den. They make short ventures with their mother, although they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they are older.  Females lactate for five to six months. Around the time they are weaned, they start to accompany their mother on territorial walks and are taught how to hunt.A dominant cub emerges in most litters, usually a male. The dominant cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in their play, eventually leaving its mother and becoming independent earlier. The cubs start hunting on their own earliest at the age of 11 months, and become independent around 18 to 20 months of age. They separate from their mother at the age of two to two and a half years, but continue to grow until the age of five years. Young females reach sexual maturity at three to four years, whereas males at four to five years. "


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"Unrelated wandering male tigers often kill cubs to make the female receptive, since the tigress may give birth to another litter within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost. The mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50% in the first two years. Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and ferocity of the mother. Apart from humans and other tigers, common causes of cub mortality are starvation, freezing, and accidents. Generation length of the tiger is about eight years.\nThe oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years.Occasionally, male tigers participate in raising cubs, usually their own, but this is extremely rare and not always well understood. In May 2015, Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve. The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by, followed by a female and three cubs within the span of about two minutes.\nIn Ranthambore, a male Bengal tiger raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness. The cubs remained under his care, he supplied them with food, protected them from his rival and sister, and apparently also trained them.\n\n"


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"== Conservation ==\n\nIn the 1990s, a new approach to tiger conservation was developed: Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions. Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat, poaching pressure and population status. They range in size from 33 to 155,829 km2 (13 to 60,166 sq mi).In 2016, an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3,890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation. The WWF subsequently declared that the world's count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century.Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts, which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild. In India, only 11% of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation. Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations. "


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"Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2,500 mature breeding individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals.India is home to the world's largest population of wild tigers. A 2014 census estimated a population of 2,226, a 30% increase since 2011. On International Tiger Day 2019, the 'Tiger Estimation Report 2018' was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25% increase since 2014. Modi said \"India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019\".\nAs of 2022, India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population.In 1973, India's Project Tiger, started by Indira Gandhi, established numerous tiger reserves. The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s, but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1,400 tigers because of poaching. "


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"Following the report, the Indian government pledged $153 million to the initiative, set up measures to combat poaching, promised funds to relocate up to 200,000 villagers in order to reduce human-tiger interactions, and set up eight new tiger reserves. India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park.In the 1940s, the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia. As a result, anti-poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones (zapovedniks) were instituted, leading to a rise in the population to several hundred. Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s, when the economy of Russia collapsed. The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require, up to 450 km (280 mi) needed by a single female and more for a single male. Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO's in concert with international organisations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society. "


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"The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats. Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves, and are effective in controlling the latter's numbers. In 2005, there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia, though these exhibited little genetic diversity. However, in a decade later, the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals.In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001. Having earlier rejected the Western-led environmentalist movement, China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty. By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts, and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine. The Tibetan people's trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers. The pelts were used in clothing, tiger-skin chuba being worn as fashion. "


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"In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue. Since then there has been a change of attitude, with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas.\n\nIn 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra. The Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations. By August 1999, the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers. In the framework of the STP a community-based conservation programme was initiated to document the tiger-human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions.The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever, with field sites including the world's largest tiger reserve, the 21,756 km2 (8,400 sq mi) Hukaung Valley in Myanmar. "


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"Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, the Russian Far East covering in total about 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi).Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques. Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks, although this method was criticized as being inaccurate. More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat, while radio-collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild. Tiger spray has been found to be just as good, or better, as a source of DNA than scat.\n\n== Relation with humans ==\n\n=== Tiger hunting ===\n\nThe tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia. Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries, being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India, the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre-independence India. A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career. Over 80,000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British-ruled India. "


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"Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot; others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait; yet others on elephant-back. King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum.Historically, tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected. The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s, just before international conservation efforts took effect. By 1977, a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US$4,250.\n\n=== Body part use ===\nTiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools. This, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones, and the use of fire, suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones, and the condition of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. "


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"The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been exposed to light and air. Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan, Mindanao.\n\nMany people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties, including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs. There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs. The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned, and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death. Furthermore, all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993.However, the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date. Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within in their own country or into Taiwan, South Korea or Japan. "


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"The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s. Contributing to the illegal trade, there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 captive-bred, semi-tame animals live in these farms today. However, many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger's remaining range (from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra). In the Asian black market, a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around $300 U.S. dollars. In the years of 1990 through 1992, 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found. In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China.\n\n=== Man-eating tigers ===\n\nWild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them. However, tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal. "


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"Attacks are occasionally provoked, as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted. Attacks can be provoked accidentally, as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young, or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger, used to seeing him on foot, by riding a bicycle. Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey. Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth, logging, and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey. Most man-eating tigers are old, missing teeth, and unable to capture their preferred prey. For example, the Champawat Tiger, a tigress found in Nepal and then India, had two broken canines. She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths, the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal, by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett. According to Corbett, tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime, when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch. "


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"Early writings tend to describe man-eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics.Man-eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh, especially in Kumaon, Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers have hunted humans. Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change, tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans. The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971. In the 10 years prior to that period, about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans, with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s. Unusually, in some years in the Sundarbans, more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa. In 1972, India's production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50% when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured. In 1986 in the Sundarbans, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head, on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey. This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily. "


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"All other means to prevent attacks, such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies, did not work as well.\n\n=== In captivity ===\n\nIn Ancient Roman times, tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited, trained and paraded, and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts. Since the 17th century, tigers, being rare and ferocious, were sought after to keep at European castles as symbols of their owners' power. Tigers became central zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century: a tiger could cost up to 4,000 francs in France (for comparison, a professor of the Beaux-Arts at Lyons earned only 3,000 francs a year), or up to $3,500 in the United States, where a lion cost no more than $1,000.In 2007, over 4,000 captive tigers lived in China, of which 3,000 were held by about 20 larger facilities, with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities. In 2011, 468 facilities in the USA kept 2,884 tigers. Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers, fifteen require a license, and sixteen states have no regulation. "


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"Genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty-nine animals belonged distinctly to five subspecies; fifty-two animals had mixed subspecies origins. Many Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers.\n\n== Cultural depictions ==\n\nTigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient times, and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs. They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna, and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide. In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.\n\n=== Mythology and legend ===\n\nIn Chinese mythology and culture, the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Chinese art, the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon \u2013 the two representing matter and spirit respectively. The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane. "


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"In Imperial China, a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army general (or present day defense secretary), while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix, respectively. The White Tiger (Chinese: \u767d\u864e; pinyin: B\u00e1i H\u01d4) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (Chinese: \u897f\u65b9\u767d\u864e), and it represents the west and the autumn season.The tiger's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea, it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail. In Korean myth and culture, the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck \u2013 the symbol of courage and absolute power. For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea, the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals. So, Koreans also called the tigers \"San Gun\" (\uc0b0\uad70) means Mountain Lord.In Buddhism, the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolising anger, with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness. "


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"The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as \"Grandfather\" or \"Old man\". The Udege and Nanai called it \"Amba\". The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as \"Hu Lin,\" the king. In Hinduism, the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin. The ten-armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress (or lioness) Damon into battle. In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger. Dingu-Aneni is the god in North-East India is also associated with tiger. The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia; in India they were evil sorcerers, while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign. In Greco-Roman tradition, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus.\n\n=== Literature and media ===\n\nIn the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion. William Blake's poem in his Songs of Experience (1794), titled \"The Tyger\", portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal. In Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book, the tiger Shere Khan is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli. "


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"Yann Martel's 2001 Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi, features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten. The story was adapted in Ang Lee's 2012 feature film of the same name.Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, both represented as stuffed animals come to life. Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes, known for his catchphrase \"They're Gr-r-reat!\".\n\n=== Heraldry and emblems ===\n\nThe tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation. The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins, seals and banners. The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks. "


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"The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh. The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia. The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea. The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals IPL team.\nIn European heraldry, the tyger, a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists, is among the creatures used in charges and supporters. This creature has several notable differences from real tigers, lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large, pointed jaws. A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire's expansion into Asia, and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart. The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry, but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\nSiegfried & Roy, two famous tamers of tigers\nList of largest cats\nTiger King, a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet trade\nTiger versus lion\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nMarshall, A. (2010). \"Tale of the Cat\". Time. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010.\nMillward, A. (2020). \"Indian tiger study earns its stripes as one of the world's largest wildlife surveys\". Guinness World Records Limited.\nMohan, V. (2015). \"India's tiger population increases by 30% in past three years; country now has 2,226 tigers\". The Times of India.\nPorter, J. H. (1894). \"The Tiger\". Wild beasts: a study of the characters and habits of the elephant, lion, leopard, panther, jaguar, tiger, puma, wolf, and grizzly bear. New York: C. Scribner's sons. pp. 196\u2013256.\nSankhala, K. (1997). Indian Tiger. New Delhi: Roli Books Pvt Limited. ISBN 978-81-7437-088-4.\nSchnitzler, A.; Hermann, L. (2019). \"Chronological distribution of the tiger Panthera tigris and the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica in their common range in Asia\". Mammal Review. 49 (4): 340\u2013353. doi:10.1111/mam.12166. S2CID 202040786.\nYonzon, P. (2010). \"Is this the last chance to save the tiger?\". The Kathmandu Post. "


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"Archived from the original on 9 November 2012.\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Panthera tigris (category) at Wikimedia Commons\nData related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies\nQuotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote\nTigers travel guide from Wikivoyage\n\"Tiger Panthera tigris\". IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group."


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"The common bottlenose dolphin or Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is a wide-ranging marine mammal of the family Delphinidae. The common bottlenose dolphin is a very familiar dolphin due to the wide exposure it gets in captivity in marine parks and dolphinariums, and in movies and television programs. It is the largest species of the beaked dolphins. It inhabits temperate and tropical oceans throughout the world, and is absent only from polar waters. While formerly known simply as the bottlenose dolphin, this term is now applied to the genus Tursiops as a whole. As considerable genetic variation has been described within this species, even between neighboring populations, many experts think additional species may be recognized.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nUntil 1998, all bottlenose dolphins were considered one species T. truncatus. That year, the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (T. aduncus) was recognized as a separate species. "


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"The two species are thought to have split during the mid-Pleistocene, about 1 million years ago.Currently, three common bottlenose dolphin subspecies are recognized:\nT. t. truncatus, the nominate subspecies\nT. t. ponticus, or the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin\nT. t. gephyreus, or Lahille\u2019s bottlenose dolphinBottlenose dolphins along the southern California and Baja California coasts were previously recognized as the Pacific bottlenose dolphin, T. t. gillii. The name has since been reclassified as a junior synonym of Tursiops truncatus.A 2020 study identified four distinct lineages within T. truncatus, each of which could be a distinct subspecies: a lineage native to the coastal regions of the western North Atlantic (off the coast of North America), an offshore lineage found worldwide in pelagic ecosystems, a lineage native to the Mediterranean, and a lineage restricted to the Black Sea (previously described as T. truncatus ponticus). The study noted only weak differentiation between the Black Sea and Mediterranean lineages, and found them to form a sister group to the offshore lineage, indicating that they likely descended from offshore bottlenoses that colonized the Mediterranean and Black Seas. "


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"The clade containing the offshore, Mediterranean, and Black Sea populations was sister to the western North Atlantic lineage, indicating deep divergence between the two.\n\n== Description ==\nCommon bottlenose dolphins are grey, and between 2 and 4 m (6.6 and 13.1 ft) long, and weigh between 150 and 650 kg (330 and 1,430 lb). Males are generally larger and heavier than females. In most parts of the world, adult length is between 2.5 and 3.5 m (8.2 and 11.5 ft); weight ranges between 200 and 500 kg (440 and 1,100 lb). Dolphins have a short and well-defined snout that looks like an old-fashioned gin bottle, which is the source for their common name.\n\nLike all whales and dolphins, though, the snout is not a true nose; the nose instead evolved into the blowhole on the top of their heads. Their necks are more flexible than other dolphins' due to five of their seven vertebrae not being fused together like in other dolphins.\n\n=== Intelligence ===\n\nThe common bottlenose dolphin has a larger brain than humans. Many investigations of bottlenose intelligence include tests of mimicry, use of artificial language, object categorization, and self-recognition. This intelligence has driven considerable interaction with humans. "


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"The common bottlenose dolphin is popular in aquarium shows and television programs such as Flipper. It has also been trained for military uses such as locating sea mines or detecting and marking enemy divers, as for example in the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. In some areas, they cooperate with local fishermen by driving fish toward the fishermen and eating the fish that escape the fishermen's nets.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\nAs a very social species, the common bottlenose dolphin lives in groups called pods that typically number about 15 individuals, but group size varies from pairs of dolphins to over 100 or even occasionally over 1,000 animals for short periods of time. The types of groups include: nursery groups, juvenile groups, and groups of adult males.\n\n=== Diet ===\nIts diet consists mainly of eels, squid, shrimp and a wide variety of fishes. It does not chew its food, instead swallowing it whole. Dolphin pods often work as a team to harvest schools of fish, though they also hunt individually. Dolphins search for prey primarily using echolocation, which is a form of sonar.\nThe diet of common bottlenose dolphin pods varies depending on area. "


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"Along the U.S. Atlantic coast, the main prey includes Atlantic croakers (Micropogonias undulatus), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) and American silver perch (Bairdiella chrysoura), while in South Africa, African massbankers (Trachurus delagoa), olive grunters (Pomadasys olivaceus), and pandora (Pagellus bellottii) are common bottlenose dolphin's typical prey.According to combined stomach content and stable isotope analyses in the Gulf of C\u00e1diz, although European conger (Conger conger) and European hake (Merluccius merluccius) are most important prey of common bottlenose dolphins, mass-balance isotopic mixing model (MixSIAR), using \u03b413C and \u03b415N showns that Sparidae species; seabreams (Diplodus annularis and D. bellottii), rubberlip grunt (Plectorhinchus mediterraneus), and common pandora, (Pagellus erythrinus)) and a mixture of other species including European hake, mackerels (Scomber colias, S. japonicus and S. scombrus), European conger, red bandfish (Cepola macrophthalma) and European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) are the assimilated diet.Research indicates that the type and range of fish in a dolphin's diet can have a significant impact on its health and metabolism.\n\n=== Communication ===\nDolphins also use sound for communication, including squeaks emitted from the blowhole, whistles emitted from nasal sacs below the blowhole, and sounds emitted through body language, such as leaping from the water and slapping their tails on the water. "


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"The dolphins address each other individually through matched whistling, where individuals respond to whistles of other dolphins by using the same whistle.Their heads contain an oily substance that both acts as an acoustic lens and protects the brain case. They emit clicking sounds and listen for the return echoes to determine the location and shape of nearby items, including potential prey.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nMating behavior of bottlenose dolphin is polygamous. Although they can breed throughout the year, it mostly occurs in spring. Males form alliances to seek an estrous female. For a chance to mate with the female, males separate the female from her home range. Females bear a calf every three to six years. After a year-long gestation period, females bear a single calf. Newborn calves are between 0.8 and 1.4 m (2 ft 7 in and 4 ft 7 in) long and weigh between 15 and 30 kg (33 and 66 lb). They can live as long as 40\u201350 years. The calf suckling lasts between 18 and 20 months. "


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"Sexual maturity varies by population, and ranges from 5\u201314 years of age; sexual maturity occurs between 8 and 13 years for males and 5 to 10 years for females.\n\n=== Life expectancy ===\nThe average life expectancy of common bottlenose dolphins is about 17 years old, but in captivity they have been known to live to up to 51 years old.\n\n== Distribution ==\nThe common bottlenose dolphin can be found in temperate, subtropical, and tropical oceans around the world. The global population has been estimated at 600,000. Some bottlenose populations live closer to the shore (inshore populations) and others live further out to sea (offshore populations). Generally, offshore populations are larger, darker, and have proportionally shorter fins and beaks. Offshore populations can migrate up to 4,200 km (2,600 mi) in a season, but inshore populations tend to move less. However, some inshore populations make long migrations in response to El Ni\u00f1o events. The species has occurred as far as 50\u00b0 north in eastern Pacific waters, possibly as a result of warm water events. The coastal dolphins appear to adapt to warm, shallow waters. It has a smaller body and larger flippers, for maneuverability and heat dispersal. "


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"They can be found in harbors, bays, lagoons and estuaries. Offshore dolphins, however, are adapted to cooler, deeper waters. Certain qualities in their blood suggest they are more suited to deep diving. Their considerably larger body protects them against predators and helps them retain heat.\n\n== Other human interactions ==\n\nSome interactions with humans are harmful to the dolphins. Dolphin hunting industry exists in multiple countries including Japan, where common bottlenose dolphins are hunted for food annually in the town of Taiji, and the Faroe Islands. Also, dolphins are sometimes killed inadvertently as a bycatch of tuna fishing.Ti\u00e3o was a well-known solitary male bottlenose dolphin that was first spotted in the town of S\u00e3o Sebasti\u00e3o in Brazil around 1994 and frequently allowed humans to interact with him. The dolphin later became infamous for killing a swimmer and injuring many others, which earned it the nickname of killer dolphin.\nFungie is another solitary male bottlenose, living in close contact with humans in Dingle Harbour, Ireland, since 1983. He has become a symbol of the town, although some doubt exists over whether he is a single dolphin.\n\n"


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"== Conservation ==\nThe North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea populations of the common bottlenose dolphin are listed in Appendix II to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) of the Bonn Convention, since they have an unfavorable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international cooperation organized by tailored agreements.The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning international trade (including in parts/derivatives) is regulated.Estimated population of a few specific areas are including:\nThe species is covered by the Agreement on Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS), the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region, and the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia.\n\n"


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"=== Marine pollution ===\n\nCommon bottlenose dolphins are the most common apex predators found in coastal and estuarine ecosystems along the southern coast of the US, thus serve as an important indicator species of bioaccumulation and health of the ecosystem.\nIt is believed that some diseases commonly found in dolphins are related to human behaviors, such as water pollution. Water pollution is linked to point and non-point source pollution. Point source pollution comes from a single source such as an oil spill and/or chemical discharge from a specific facility. The environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused a direct impact and still serves as a long-term impact of future populations. Common bottlenose dolphins use these important habitats for calving, foraging, and feeding. Environmental impacts or changes from chemicals or marine pollution can alter and disrupt endocrine systems, affecting future populations. For example, oil spills have been related to lung and reproductive diseases in female dolphins. A recent studysuggested signs of lung disease and impaired stress in 32 dolphins that were captured and assessed in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, US. "


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"Out of these 32 dolphins, 10 were found pregnant and, upon a 47-month check up, only 20% produced feasible calves, compared to a previous success rate of 83%, in the same area. It is believed that a recent oil spill in this area is partially to blame for these severely low numbers.\nDense human development along the eastern coast of Florida and intense agricultural activity have resulted in increased freshwater inputs, changes in drainage patterns, and altered water quality (i.e. chemical contamination, high nutrient input, decreased salinity, decreased sea grass habitat, and eutrophication. High nutrient input from agriculture chemicals and fertilizers causes eutrophication and hypoxia, causing a severe reduction in water quality. Excess of phosphorus and nitrogen from these non-point sources deplete the natural cycle of oxygen by overconsumption of algae. Harmful algal blooms are responsible for dead zones and unusual mortality events of common bottlenose dolphins consuming these toxic fish from the brevetoxin produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Brevetoxins are neurotoxins that can cause acute respiratory and neurological symptoms, including death, in marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, and fishes.\n\n"


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"== See also ==\n\nList of cetaceans\nUnihemispheric slow-wave sleep\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Common bottlenose dolphin at Wikimedia Commons\nView the dolphin genome on Ensembl\nView the turTru2 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.\nPhotos of Common bottlenose dolphin on Sealife Collection"


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) is a perching duck species native to the East Palearctic. It is medium-sized, at 41\u201349 cm (16\u201319 in) long with a 65\u201375 cm (26\u201330 in) wingspan. It is closely related to the North American wood duck, the only other member of the genus Aix. 'Aix' is an Ancient Greek word which was used by Aristotle to refer to an unknown diving bird, and 'galericulata' is the Latin for a wig, derived from galerum, a cap or bonnet. Outside of its native range, the mandarin duck has a large introduced population in the British Isles and Western Europe, with additional smaller introductions in North America.\n\n== Description ==\nThe adult male has a red bill, large white crescent above the eye and reddish face and \"whiskers\". The male's breast is purple with two vertical white bars, the flanks ruddy, and he has two orange feathers at the back (large feathers that stick up similar to boat sails). "


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"The female is similar to the female wood duck, with a white eye-ring and stripe running back from the eye, but is paler below, has a small white flank stripe, and a pale tip to its bill.Both the males and females have crests, but the purple crest is more pronounced on the male.\nLike many other species of ducks, the male undergoes a moult after the mating season into eclipse plumage. When in eclipse plumage, the male looks similar to the female, but can be told apart by its bright yellow-orange or red beak, lack of any crest, and a less-pronounced eye-stripe.\nMandarin ducklings are almost identical in appearance to wood ducklings, and very similar to mallard ducklings. The ducklings can be distinguished from mallard ducklings because the eye-stripe of mandarin ducklings (and wood ducklings) stops at the eye, while in mallard ducklings it reaches all the way to the bill.\n\n=== Mutations ===\nVarious mutations of the mandarin duck are found in captivity. The most common is the white mandarin duck. "


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"Although the origin of this mutation is unknown, the constant pairing of related birds and selective breeding is presumed to have led to recessive gene combinations, leading in turn to genetic conditions including leucism.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe species was once widespread in East Asia, but large-scale exports and the destruction of its forest habitat have reduced populations in eastern Russia and in China to below 1,000 pairs in each country; Japan, however, is thought to still hold some 5,000 pairs. The Asian populations are migratory, overwintering in lowland eastern China and southern Japan.Specimens frequently escape from collections, and in the 20th century, a large, feral population was established in Great Britain; more recently, small numbers have bred in Ireland, concentrated in the parks of Dublin. Now, about 7,000 are in Britain with other populations on the European continent, the largest of which is in the region of Berlin. Isolated populations exist in the United States. The town of Black Mountain, North Carolina, has a limited population, and a free-flying feral population of several hundred mandarins exist in Sonoma County, California. This population is the result of several ducks escaping from captivity, then reproducing in the wild. "


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"In 2018, a single bird, dubbed Mandarin Patinkin, was seen in New York City's Central Park.The habitats it prefers in its breeding range are the dense, shrubby forested edges of rivers and lakes. It mostly occurs in low-lying areas, but it may breed in valleys at altitudes of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). In winter, it additionally occurs in marshes, flooded fields, and open rivers. While it prefers fresh water, it may also be seen wintering in coastal lagoons and estuaries. In its introduced European range, it lives in more open habitat than in its native range, around the edges of lakes, water meadows, and cultivated areas with woods nearby.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nCompared to other ducks, mandarins are shy birds, preferring to seek cover under trees such as overhanging willows, and form smaller flocks, but may become bolder as a result of becoming tame from frequent interaction with humans.\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nIn the wild, mandarin ducks breed in densely wooded areas near shallow lakes, marshes or ponds. They nest in cavities in trees close to water and during the spring. A single clutch of nine to twelve eggs is laid in April or May. "


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"Although the male may defend the brooding female and his eggs during incubation, he himself does not incubate the eggs and leaves before they hatch. Shortly after the ducklings hatch, their mother flies to the ground and coaxes the ducklings to leap from the nest. After all of the ducklings are out of the tree, they will follow their mother to a nearby body of water.\n\n=== Food and feeding ===\n\nMandarins feed by dabbling or walking on land. They mainly eat plants and seeds, especially beech mast. The species will also add snails, insects and small fish to its diet. The diet of mandarin ducks changes seasonally; in the fall and winter, they mostly eat acorns and grains. In the spring, they mostly eat insects, snails, fish and aquatic plants. In the summer, they eat dew worms, small fish, frogs, mollusks, and small snakes. They feed mainly near dawn or dusk, perching in trees or on the ground during the day.\n\n== Threats ==\nPredation of the mandarin duck varies between different parts of its range. Mink, raccoon dogs, otters, polecats, Eurasian eagle-owls, and grass snakes are all predators of the mandarin duck. "


id: 5a7a388abe933fccc8724550c7727ec0
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"The greatest threat to the mandarin duck is habitat loss due to loggers. Hunters are also a threat to the mandarin duck, because often they are unable to recognize the mandarin in flight and as a result, many are shot by accident. Mandarin ducks are not hunted for food, but are still poached because their extreme beauty is prized.\n\n== In culture ==\n\n=== Chinese culture ===\n\nThe Chinese refer to Mandarin ducks as yuanyang (simplified Chinese: \u9e33\u9e2f; traditional Chinese: \u9d1b\u9d26; pinyin: yu\u0101ny\u0101ng), where 'yuan' (\u9d1b) and 'yang' (\u9d26) respectively stand for male and female mandarin ducks. In traditional Chinese culture, mandarin ducks are believed to be lifelong couples, unlike other species of ducks. Hence they are regarded as a symbol of conjugal affection and fidelity, and are frequently featured in Chinese art.\nA Chinese proverb for loving couples uses the mandarin duck as a metaphor: \"Two mandarin ducks playing in water\" (simplified Chinese: \u9e33\u9e2f\u620f\u6c34; traditional Chinese: \u9d1b\u9d26\u6232\u6c34; pinyin: yu\u0101ny\u0101ng x\u00ec shu\u01d0). A mandarin duck symbol is also used in Chinese weddings because in traditional Chinese lore, they symbolize wedded bliss and fidelity. "


id: f0a0cf5a07289701b864b148398627a9
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Because the male and female plumages of the mandarin duck are so unalike, 'yuan-yang' is frequently used colloquially in Cantonese to mean an \"odd couple\" or \"unlikely pair\" \u2013 a mixture of two different types of same category. For example, the drink yuanyang and yuan-yang fried rice. Mandarin ducks featured on the flag of Weihaiwei during British rule.\n\n=== Korean culture ===\n\nFor Koreans, mandarin ducks represent peace, fidelity, and plentiful offspring. Similar to the Chinese, they believe that these ducks mate for life. For these reasons, pairs of wooden-carved mandarin ducks called wedding ducks are often given as wedding gifts and play a significant role in Korean marriage.\n\n=== Japanese culture ===\nSimilarly, in Japanese the ducks are called oshidori (\u304a\u3057\u3069\u308a/\u30aa\u30b7\u30c9\u30ea/\u9d1b\u9d26) and are used in the phrase oshidori f\u016bfu (\u304a\u3057\u3069\u308a\u592b\u5a66, \"a couple of lovebirds/happily married couple\").\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nSimko-Bednarski, Evan (2 November 2018). \"A rare Mandarin duck is hanging out in NYC's Central Park and nobody knows how it got there\". CNN. Retrieved 2 November 2018.\n\n"


id: 555f51b705539f3996dc8fb7dee003b4
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"== External links ==\n\nRSPB Birds by Name \u2014 Mandarin Duck\nMandarin Duck Research Pages - Birkbeck, University of London\nMandarin Duck Research\n\"Mandarin duck media\". Internet Bird Collection."


id: b0d1cfe3ec891786a0d4d88e72bb773
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"The pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor), sometimes referred to as the Brazilian bare-faced tamarin, is a Critically Endangered primate species found in a restricted area of the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest. It was named the mascot of Manaus, Brazil in 2005. The species is endangered due to the increasing size of the city of Manaus which is encroaching on their native habitat.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nA New World monkey, it is found at the city limits of Manaus, the capital of the Amazonas state of Brazil and up to 35 km to the north and 100 km to the east. The main distribution is in the rio Cuieiras and rio Preto da Eva interfluvium. Pied tamarins are also found in the adjacent rio Preto da Eva and rio Urubu interfluvium, but are comparatively rare. There appears to be interspecific competition between the pied tamarin and the red-handed tamarin with the red-handed tamarin gradually displacing the pied tamarin from areas of its historical distribution. Therefore there are multiple threats to the long-term survival of the pied tamarin that stem from habitat destruction and from interspecific competition.\nThe pied tamarin is found in old-growth forests, sand forest and smaller secondary forest fragments. "


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"Their density is higher in secondary forest fragments than in primary forest.\n\n== Description ==\nThe pied tamarin's body measures 20.8\u201328.3 cm.; including the tail it measures 33.5\u201342.0 cm. The tamarin has a brown lower body and a fluffy white upper body. Their face is black and hairless, the reason for its nickname: the Brazilian bare-faced tamarin.\nThe pied tamarin does not have nails, but instead has claws that they adapted in order to quickly scale trees in order to retrieve food or escape predators. These nails also allow the tamarin to dig into tree bark and extract sap which they then eat.Males weigh 428 grams (n = 4). Its life expectancy is approximately 10 years in the wild.\n\n== Behavior and reproduction ==\n\n=== Group Life ===\nIndividuals live in groups of 2 to 15 members with little intra-group competition. Average group size in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke is 4.8 individuals per group (n = 41), and other areas around Manaus reported mean group sizes of 6.19 \u00b1 2.62 (n = 46). A tamarin group has a home range of 10-100 ha.\n"


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"Tamarins are unlike most other mammals in the sense that the females are considered to be the dominant gender. In each group of individuals only one female is selected to breed and reproduce children. This individual is called the \"Alpha Female\" and reproduction by other females of the group is behaviorally suppressed. The gestation lasts 140\u2013170 days and mothers typically give birth to twins. Although they generally give birth to twins the fact that only one female per group can produce offspring is a major cause in their reduced population size. Young tamarins are cared for primarily by the father and turned over to the mother only to nurse; however, the entire group helps with the care of the younglings that the alpha female birthed.\n\n=== Diet ===\nTamarins are omnivorous, their diet consisting of fruit, flowers, nectar, insects, spiders, small vertebrates and bird eggs. Its natural predators are small cats, birds of prey, and snakes. In urban settings like Manaus, the main predators are domestic and feral cats and dogs. "


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"Because of the destruction of its natural habitat, the species is at risk which is why the species has landed on the IUCN red list for endangered species as well as the top 25 most endangered primates list in Brazil.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\n=== Classification ===\nAs of 2015, the pied tamarin is rated critically endangered by the IUCN Red List. The pied tamarin's population is expected to decline 80% by 2033 due to anthropogenic threats, competition with golden-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas) and disease. Within the Manaus area, pied tamarins are threatened by domestic and feral cats and dogs, electrocution from power lines, and the pet trade. Additionally, rural settlement and increasing livestock agriculture continue to encroach upon and degrade the pied tamarin's remaining habitat.\n\n=== Protection ===\nThe pied tamarin is protected in some parts of its range, such as in Suma\u00fama State Park (52 ha), Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (18,240 ha) and less than half of Puranga Conquista Sustainable Development Reserve (157,807 ha). "


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"The Centro de Instru\u00e7\u00e3o de Guerra na Selva (CIGS)(115,000 ha) is an important protected area for the species, however it is not a conservation area but a military jungle training facility and so the area's status is uncertain. This organism is endangered due to its severe threat of species encroaching on its habitat and this will cause various issues to the ecosystem and environment.\nBoth European and American zoos and conservation services have pitched in financially to help out in saving the pied tamarin species. While there are only two areas in the world that are protected for the tamarins, and both are under 50 hectares, the conservation efforts have allowed for the reforestation of these places and the slow and uncertain return of the tamarins native habitat.There is an established captive breeding program for the pied tamarin and an official studbook. As of 2009, there are 172 pied tamarins in captivity and all are registered property of the Brazilian government. Unfortunately for the tamarins, their captive breeding success rate is limited and thus it is difficult to ressurect the population artificially.\n\n"


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"== Endangerment ==\n\n=== Causes ===\nThe tamarins live nearby the rapidly growing city of Manaus, and as the city's area increases in size, the tamarins habitat disappears. When they can avoid the busy automobile traffic and the electric power lines, the pied tamarin reside in the small sections of forest that still remain in Manaus.\n\n=== Environmental Impact ===\nBeing an omnivore, the pied tamarins diet consists highly of plants. They pick up plant seeds when they eat and disperse them around their environment, thus bolstering their ecosystem. They also dine on small animals, which keeps the insect and amphibian populations in check. With the declining tamarin population, the issue becomes bigger than just the primates, but now turns into an ecosystem issue. There is no way to know for certain how the loss of the pied tamarin population will affect the Amazonian ecosystem, but there almost undoubtedly will be effects.\n\n== References =="


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"The red-browed amazon (Amazona rhodocorytha) is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is endemic to Atlantic Forest in eastern Brazil. It has been considered a subspecies of the blue-cheeked amazon (Amazona dufresniana), but today all major authorities consider them separate species. It is threatened both by habitat loss and by being captured for the trade in wild parrots.\n\n== Description ==\nThe red-browed amazon has a bright red crown fading to purplish-brown at the back. The cheeks and throat are blue and the wing and body plumage is green with dark markings on the back of the neck. Black and red patches can be seen on the wings when they are spread and the tail feathers have red markings and are tipped with yellow. The beak and legs are grey and the iris of the eye is orange-brown.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe red-browed amazon is endemic to tropical forests in eastern Brazil. It used to be widespread across the region but is now restricted to some of the larger remaining forest blocks. "


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"The largest of these is in the state of Esp\u00edrito Santo and the bird is also present in three forest areas in south east Bahia and five in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. Another location is in the north of the state of S\u00e3o Paulo and a further one in S\u00e3o Miguel dos Campos in the east of the state of Alagoas. The rest of this state seems to be suitable habitat but it has not been observed to be present there recently.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nThe red-browed amazon feeds in small groups on fruit, berries, seeds and buds which it finds in the rainforest canopy. Breeding takes place between September and November. A pair of red-browed amazons maintain a territory and the nest is usually made in a cavity in a tree, the same site being used year after year. In captivity, a clutch of four eggs are usually laid, incubation takes 24 days and the young are fledged 34 days after hatching.\n\n== Status ==\nThe red-browed amazon used to be abundant in its rainforest habitat but its numbers appear to have decreased significantly. "


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"About 2,300 individuals were counted in Esp\u00edrito Santo during a survey undertaken between 2004 and 2006 and it remains common at a few sites in the state such as on the island of Ilha Grande, at Sooretama and nearby Linhares. The major threat faced by this parrot is habitat degradation with less than ten percent of the original forest cover remaining in Esp\u00edrito Santo. Most of the land has been cleared of timber and converted to pasture and plantations. Another threat is the illegal collection of young birds for the international pet trade. This bird is present in several wildlife reserves but is not effectively protected against poaching even there. For all these reasons, the IUCN, in its Red List of Endangered Species, has assessed the Red-browed amazon as \"Vulnerable\".\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nBirdLife species factsheet for Amazona rhodocorytha\n\"Amazona rhodocorytha\". Avibase.\n\"Red-browed amazon media\". Internet Bird Collection.\nRed-browed amazon photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)\nRed-browed parrot species account at Neotropical Birds (Cornell Lab of Ornithology)\nInteractive range map of Amazona rhodocorytha at IUCN Red List maps\nAudio recordings of Red-browed amazon on Xeno-canto."


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"The emu () (Dromaius novaehollandiae) is the second-tallest living bird after its ratite relative the ostrich. It is endemic to Australia where it is the largest native bird and the only extant member of the genus Dromaius. The emu's range covers most of mainland Australia, but the Tasmanian, Kangaroo Island and King Island subspecies became extinct after the European settlement of Australia in 1788.\nEmus are soft-feathered, brown, flightless birds with long necks and legs, and can reach up to 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in height. Emus can travel great distances, and when necessary can sprint at 48 km/h (30 mph); they forage for a variety of plants and insects, but have been known to go for weeks without eating. They drink infrequently, but take in copious amounts of water when the opportunity arises.\nBreeding takes place in May and June, and fighting among females for a mate is common. Females can mate several times and lay several clutches of eggs in one season. The male does the incubation; during this process he hardly eats or drinks and loses a significant amount of weight. The eggs hatch after around eight weeks, and the young are nurtured by their fathers. "


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"They reach full size after around six months, but can remain as a family unit until the next breeding season. The emu is an important cultural icon of Australia, appearing on the coat of arms and various coins. The bird features prominently in Indigenous Australian mythology.\nThe bird is sufficiently common for it to be rated as a least-concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Despite this, some local populations are listed as endangered, with subspecies such as the Tasmanian emu going extinct by the 1800s. Threats to their survival include predation of their eggs, roadkills, and fragmentation of their habitats.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe etymology of the common name \"emu\" is uncertain, but is thought to have come from an Arabic word for large bird that was later used by Portuguese explorers to describe the related cassowary in Australia and New Guinea. Another theory is that it comes from the word \"ema\", which is used in Portuguese to denote a large bird akin to an ostrich or crane. In Victoria, some terms for the emu were Barrimal in the Dja Dja Wurrung language, myoure in Gunai, and courn in Jardwadjali. "


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"The birds were known as murawung or birabayin to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\n=== History ===\nEmus were first reported as having been seen by Europeans when explorers visited the western coast of Australia in 1696. This was during an expedition led by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh who was searching for survivors of a ship that had gone missing two years earlier. The birds were known on the eastern coast before 1788, when the first Europeans settled there. The birds were first mentioned under the name of the \"New Holland cassowary\" in Arthur Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, published in 1789 with the following description:\nThis is a species differing in many particulars from that generally known, and is a much larger bird, standing higher on its legs and having the neck longer than in the common one. Total length seven feet two inches. "


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"The bill is not greatly different from that of the common Cassowary; but the horny appendage, or helmet on top of the head, in this species is totally wanting: the whole of the head and neck is also covered with feathers, except the throat and fore part of the neck about half way, which are not so well feathered as the rest; whereas in the common Cassowary the head and neck are bare and carunculated as in the turkey.\nThe plumage in general consists of a mixture of brown and grey, and the feathers are somewhat curled or bent at the ends in the natural state: the wings are so very short as to be totally useless for flight, and indeed, are scarcely to be distinguished from the rest of the plumage, were it not for their standing out a little. The long spines which are seen in the wings of the common sort, are in this not observable,\u2014nor is there any appearance of a tail. The legs are stout, formed much as in the Galeated Cassowary, with the addition of their being jagged or sawed the whole of their length at the back part.\n\n"


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"The species was named by ornithologist John Latham in 1790 based on a specimen from the Sydney area of Australia, a country which was known as New Holland at the time. He collaborated on Phillip's book and provided the first descriptions of, and names for, many Australian bird species; Dromaius comes from a Greek word meaning \"racer\" and novaehollandiae is the Latin term for New Holland, so the name can be rendered as \"fast-footed New Hollander\". In his original 1816 description of the emu, the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot used two generic names, first Dromiceius and later Dromaius. It has been a point of contention ever since as to which name should be used; the latter is more correctly formed, but the convention in taxonomy is that the first name given to an organism stands, unless it is clearly a typographical error. Most modern publications, including those of the Australian government, use Dromaius, with Dromiceius mentioned as an alternative spelling.\n\n=== Systematics ===\nThe emu was long classified, with its closest relatives the cassowaries, in the family Casuariidae, part of the ratite order Struthioniformes. An alternate classification was proposed in 2014 by Mitchell et al."


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", based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA. This splits off the Casuariidae into their own order, the Casuariformes, and includes only the cassowaries in the family Casuariidae, placing the emus in their own family, Dromaiidae. The cladogram shown below is from their study.\nTwo different Dromaius species were present in Australia at the time of European settlement, and one additional species is known from fossil remains. The insular dwarf emus, D. n. baudinianus and D. n. minor, originally present on Kangaroo Island and King Island respectively, both became extinct shortly after the arrival of Europeans. D. n. diemenensis, another insular dwarf emu from Tasmania, became extinct around 1865. The mainland subspecies, D. n. novaehollandiae, remains common. The population of these birds varies from decade to decade, largely being dependent on rainfall; in 2009, it was estimated that there were between 630,000 and 725,000 birds. Emus were introduced to Maria Island off Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island off the coast of South Australia, during the 20th century. The Maria Island population died out in the mid-1990s. "


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"The Kangaroo Island birds have successfully established a breeding population.In 1912, the Australian ornithologist Gregory M. Mathews recognised three living subspecies of emu, D. n. novaehollandiae (Latham, 1790), D. n. woodwardi Mathews, 1912 and D. n. rothschildi Mathews, 1912. The Handbook of the Birds of the World, however, argues that the last two of these subspecies are invalid; natural variations in plumage colour and the nomadic nature of the species make it likely that there is a single race in mainland Australia. Examination of the DNA of the King Island emu shows this bird to be closely related to the mainland emu and hence best treated as a subspecies.\n\n== Description ==\nThe emu is the second tallest bird in the world, only being exceeded in height by the ostrich; the largest individuals can reach up to 150 to 190 cm (59 to 75 in) in height. Measured from the bill to the tail, emus range in length from 139 to 164 cm (55 to 65 in), with males averaging 148.5 cm (58.5 in) and females averaging 156.8 cm (61.7 in). "


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"Emus are the fourth or fifth heaviest living bird after the two species of ostrich and two larger species of cassowary, weighing slightly more on average than an emperor penguin. Adult emus weigh between 18 and 60 kg (40 and 132 lb), with an average of 31.5 and 37 kg (69 and 82 lb) in males and females, respectively. Females are usually slightly larger than males and are substantially wider across the rump.\n\nAlthough flightless, emus have vestigial wings, the wing chord measuring around 20 cm (8 in), and each wing having a small claw at the tip. Emus flap their wings when running, perhaps as a means of stabilising themselves when moving fast. They have long necks and legs, and can run at speeds of 48 km/h (30 mph) due to their highly specialised pelvic limb musculature. Their feet have only three toes and a similarly reduced number of bones and associated foot muscles; emus are unique among birds in that their gastrocnemius muscles in the back of the lower legs have four bellies instead of the usual three. "


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"The pelvic limb muscles of emus contribute a similar proportion of the total body mass as do the flight muscles of flying birds. When walking, the emu takes strides of about 100 cm (3.3 ft), but at full gallop, a stride can be as long as 275 cm (9 ft). Its legs are devoid of feathers and underneath its feet are thick, cushioned pads. Like the cassowary, the emu has sharp claws on its toes which are its major defensive attribute, and are used in combat to inflict wounds on opponents by kicking. The toe and claw total 15 cm (6 in) in length. The bill is quite small, measuring 5.6 to 6.7 cm (2.2 to 2.6 in), and is soft, being adapted for grazing. Emus have good eyesight and hearing, which allows them to detect threats at some distance.The neck of the emu is pale blue and shows through its sparse feathers. They have grey-brown plumage of shaggy appearance; the shafts and the tips of the feathers are black. Solar radiation is absorbed by the tips, and the inner plumage insulates the skin. "


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"This prevents the birds from overheating, allowing them to be active during the heat of the day. A unique feature of the emu feather is the double rachis emerging from a single shaft. Both of the rachis have the same length, and the texture is variable; the area near the skin is rather furry, but the more distant ends resemble grass. The sexes are similar in appearance, although the male's penis can become visible when he urinates and defecates. The plumage varies in colour due to environmental factors, giving the bird a natural camouflage. Feathers of emus in more arid areas with red soils have a rufous tint while birds residing in damp conditions are generally darker in hue. The juvenile plumage develops at about three months and is blackish finely barred with brown, with the head and neck being especially dark. The facial feathers gradually thin to expose the bluish skin. The adult plumage has developed by about fifteen months.The eyes of an emu are protected by nictitating membranes. These are translucent, secondary eyelids that move horizontally from the inside edge of the eye to the outside edge. "


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"They function as visors to protect the eyes from the dust that is prevalent in windy arid regions. Emus have a tracheal pouch, which becomes more prominent during the mating season. At more than 30 cm (12 in) in length, it is quite spacious; it has a thin wall, and an opening 8 centimetres (3 in) long.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nOnce common on the east coast of Australia, emus are now uncommon there; by contrast, the development of agriculture and the provision of water for stock in the interior of the continent have increased the range of the emu in arid regions. Emus live in various habitats across Australia both inland and near the coast. They are most common in areas of savannah woodland and sclerophyll forest, and least common in heavily populated districts and arid areas with annual precipitation of less than 600 millimetres (24 in). Emus predominantly travel in pairs, and while they can form large flocks, this is an atypical social behaviour that arises from the common need to move towards a new food source. Emus have been shown to travel long distances to reach abundant feeding areas. "


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"In Western Australia, emu movements follow a distinct seasonal pattern \u2013 north in summer and south in winter. On the east coast their wanderings seem to be more random and do not appear to follow a set pattern.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\nEmus are diurnal birds and spend their day foraging, preening their plumage with their beak, dust bathing and resting. They are generally gregarious birds apart from the breeding season, and while some forage, others remain vigilant to their mutual benefit. They are able to swim when necessary, although they rarely do so unless the area is flooded or they need to cross a river.\n\nEmus begin to settle down at sunset and sleep during the night. They do not sleep continuously but rouse themselves several times during the night. When falling asleep, emus first squat on their tarsi and enter a drowsy state during which they are alert enough to react to stimuli and quickly return to a fully awakened state if disturbed. As they fall into deeper sleep, their neck droops closer to the body and the eyelids begin to close. If there are no disturbances, they fall into a deeper sleep after about twenty minutes. "


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"During this phase, the body is gradually lowered until it is touching the ground with the legs folded underneath. The beak is turned down so that the whole neck becomes S-shaped and folded onto itself. The feathers direct any rain downwards onto the ground. It has been suggested that the sleeping position is a type of camouflage, mimicking a small mound. Emus typically awake from deep sleep once every ninety minutes or so and stand upright to feed briefly or defecate. This period of wakefulness lasts for ten to twenty minutes, after which they return to slumber. Overall, an emu sleeps for around seven hours in each twenty-four-hour period. Young emus usually sleep with their neck flat and stretched forward along the ground surface.\n\nThe vocalisations of emus mostly consist of various booming and grunting sounds. The booming is created by the inflatable throat pouch; the pitch can be regulated by the bird and depends on the size of the aperture. Most of the booming is done by females; it is part of the courtship ritual, is used to announce the holding of territory and is issued as a threat to rivals. "


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"A high-intensity boom is audible 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away, while a low, more resonant call, produced during the breeding season, may at first attract mates and peaks while the male is incubating the eggs. Most of the grunting is done by males. It is used principally during the breeding season in territorial defence, as a threat to other males, during courtship and while the female is laying. Both sexes sometimes boom or grunt during threat displays or on encountering strange objects.On very hot days, emus pant to maintain their body temperature. Their lungs work as evaporative coolers and, unlike some other species, the resulting low levels of carbon dioxide in the blood do not appear to cause alkalosis. For normal breathing in cooler weather, they have large, multifolded nasal passages. Cool air warms as it passes through into the lungs, extracting heat from the nasal region. On exhalation, the emu's cold nasal turbinates condense moisture back out of the air and absorb it for reuse. As with other ratites, the emu has great homeothermic ability, and can maintain this status from \u22125 to 45 \u00b0C (23 to 113 \u00b0F). "


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"The thermoneutral zone of emus lies between 10 and 30 \u00b0C (50 and 86 \u00b0F).\n\nAs with other ratites, emus have a relatively low basal metabolic rate compared to other types of birds. At \u22125 \u00b0C (23 \u00b0F), the metabolic rate of an emu sitting down is about 60% of that when standing, partly because the lack of feathers under the stomach leads to a higher rate of heat loss when standing from the exposed underbelly.\n\n=== Diet ===\n\nEmus forage in a diurnal pattern and eat a variety of native and introduced plant species. The diet depends on seasonal availability with such plants as Acacia, Casuarina and grasses being favoured. They also eat insects and other arthropods, including grasshoppers and crickets, beetles, cockroaches, ladybirds, bogong and cotton-boll moth larvae, ants, spiders and millipedes. This provides a large part of their protein requirements. "


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"In Western Australia, food preferences have been observed in travelling emus; they eat seeds from Acacia aneura until the rains arrive, after which they move on to fresh grass shoots and caterpillars; in winter they feed on the leaves and pods of Cassia and in spring, they consume grasshoppers and the fruit of Santalum acuminatum, a sort of quandong. They are also known to feed on wheat, and any fruit or other crops that they can access, easily climbing over high fences if necessary. Emus serve as an important agent for the dispersal of large viable seeds, which contributes to floral biodiversity. One undesirable effect of this occurred in Queensland in the early twentieth century when emus fed on the fruit of prickly pears in the outback. They defecated the seeds in various places as they moved around, and this led to a series of campaigns to hunt emus and prevent the seeds of the invasive cactus being spread. The cacti were eventually controlled by an introduced moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) whose larvae fed on the plant, one of the earliest examples of biological control. "


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"The \u03b413C of the emu's diet is reflected in the \u03b413C of the calcite of its egg shell.Small stones are swallowed to assist in the grinding up and digestion of the plant material. Individual stones may weigh 45 g (1.6 oz) and the birds may have as much as 745 g (1.642 lb) in their gizzards at one time. They also eat charcoal, although the reason for this is unclear. Captive emus have been known to eat shards of glass, marbles, car keys, jewellery and nuts and bolts.Emus drink infrequently but ingest large amounts when the opportunity arises. They typically drink once a day, first inspecting the water body and surrounding area in groups before kneeling down at the edge to drink. They prefer being on firm ground while drinking, rather than on rocks or mud, but if they sense danger, they often stand rather than kneel. If not disturbed, they may drink continuously for ten minutes. Due to the scarcity of water sources, emus are sometimes forced to go without water for several days. "


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"In the wild, they often share water holes with kangaroos, other birds and animals; they are wary and tend to wait for the other animals to leave before drinking.\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nEmus form breeding pairs during the summer months of December and January and may remain together for about five months. During this time, they stay in an area a few kilometres in diameter and it is believed they find and defend territory within this area. Both males and females put on weight during the breeding season, with the female becoming slightly heavier at between 45 and 58 kg (99 and 128 lb). Mating usually takes place between April and June; the exact timing is determined by the climate as the birds nest during the coolest part of the year. During the breeding season, males experience hormonal changes, including an increase in luteinising hormone and testosterone levels, and their testicles double in size.Males construct a rough nest in a semi-sheltered hollow on the ground, using bark, grass, sticks and leaves to line it. "


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"The nest is almost always a flat surface rather than a segment of a sphere, although in cold conditions the nest is taller, up to 7 cm (2.8 in) tall, and more spherical to provide some extra heat retention. When other material is lacking, the bird sometimes uses a spinifex tussock a metre or so across, despite the prickly nature of the foliage. The nest can be placed on open ground or near a shrub or rock. The nest is usually placed in an area where the emu has a clear view of its surroundings and can detect approaching predators.Female emus court the males; the female's plumage darkens slightly and the small patches of bare, featherless skin just below the eyes and near the beak turn turquoise-blue. The colour of the male's plumage remains unchanged, although the bare patches of skin also turn light blue.  When courting, females stride around, pulling their neck back while puffing out their feathers and emitting low, monosyllabic calls that have been compared to drum beats. This calling can occur when males are out of sight or more than 50 metres (160 ft) away.  "


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"Once the male's attention has been gained, the female circles her prospective mate at a distance of 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 ft). As she does this, she looks at him by turning her neck, while at the same time keeping her rump facing towards him. If the male shows interest in the parading female, he will move closer; the female continues the courtship by shuffling further away but continuing to circle him.If a male is interested, he will stretch his neck and erect his feathers, then bend over and peck at the ground. He will circle around and sidle up to the female, swaying his body and neck from side to side, and rubbing his breast against his partner's rump. Often the female will reject his advances with aggression, but if amenable, she signals acceptance by squatting down and raising her rump.\n\nFemales are more aggressive than males during the courtship period, often fighting for access to mates, with fights among females accounting for more than half the aggressive interactions during this period.  If females court a male that already has a partner, the incumbent female will try to repel the competitor, usually by chasing and kicking.  "


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"These interactions can be prolonged, lasting up to five hours, especially when the male being fought over is single and neither female has the advantage of incumbency. In these cases, the females typically intensify their calls and displays.The sperm from a mating is stored by the female and can suffice to fertilise about six eggs. The pair mate every day or two, and every second or third day the female lays one of a clutch of five to fifteen very large, thick-shelled, green eggs. The shell is around 1 mm (0.04 in) thick, but rather thinner in northern regions according to indigenous Australians. The shell is substantially composed of calcite, and its \u03b413C is a function of the emu's diet. The eggs are on average 13 cm \u00d7 9 cm (5.1 in \u00d7 3.5 in) and weigh between 450 and 650 g (1.0 and 1.4 lb). The maternal investment in the egg is considerable, and the proportion of yolk to albumen, at about 50%, is greater than would be predicted for a precocial egg of this size. This probably relates to the long incubation period which means the developing chick must consume greater resources before hatching. "


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"The first verified occurrence of genetically identical avian twins was demonstrated in the emu. The egg surface is granulated and pale green. During the incubation period, the egg turns dark green, although if the egg never hatches, it will turn white from the bleaching effect of the sun.The male becomes broody after his mate starts laying, and may begin to incubate the eggs before the clutch is complete. From this time on, he does not eat, drink, or defecate, and stands only to turn the eggs, which he does about ten times a day. He develops a brood patch, a bare area of wrinkled skin which is in intimate contact with the eggs. Over the course of the eight-week incubation period, he will lose a third of his weight and will survive on stored body fat and on any morning dew that he can reach from the nest. "


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"As with many other Australian birds, such as the superb fairywren, infidelity is the norm for emus, despite the initial pair bond: once the male starts brooding, the female usually wanders off, and may mate with other males and lay in multiple nests; thus, as many as half the chicks in a brood may not be fathered by the incubating male, or even by either parent, as emus also exhibit brood parasitism.\n\nSome females stay and defend the nest until the chicks start hatching, but most leave the nesting area completely to nest again; in a good season, a female emu may nest three times. If the parents stay together during the incubation period, they will take turns standing guard over the eggs while the other drinks and feeds within earshot. If it perceives a threat during this period, it will lie down on top of the nest and try to blend in with the similar-looking surrounds, and suddenly stand up to confront and scare the other party if it comes close.Incubation takes 56 days, and the male stops incubating the eggs shortly before they hatch. The temperature of the nest rises slightly during the eight-week period. "


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"Although the eggs are laid sequentially, they tend to hatch within two days of one another, as the eggs that were laid later experienced higher temperatures and developed more rapidly. During the process, the precocial emu chicks need to develop a capacity for thermoregulation. During incubation, the embryos are kept at a constant temperature but the chicks will need to be able to cope with varying external temperatures by the time they hatch.Newly hatched chicks are active and can leave the nest within a few days of hatching. They stand about 12 cm (5 in) tall at first, weigh 0.5 kg (17.6 oz), and have distinctive brown and cream stripes for camouflage, which fade after three months or so. The male guards the growing chicks for up to seven months, teaching them how to find food. Chicks grow very quickly and are fully grown in five to six months; they may remain with their family group for another six months or so before they split up to breed in their second season. During their early life, the young emus are defended by their father, who adopts a belligerent stance towards other emus, including the mother. "


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"He does this by ruffling his feathers, emitting sharp grunts, and kicking his legs to drive off other animals. He can also bend his knees to crouch over smaller chicks to protect them. At night, he envelops his young with his feathers. As the young emus cannot travel far, the parents must choose an area with plentiful food in which to breed. In captivity, emus can live for upwards of ten years.\n\n=== Predation ===\n\nThere are few native natural predators of emus still extant. Early in its species history it may have faced numerous terrestrial predators now extinct, including the giant lizard Megalania, the thylacine, and possibly other carnivorous marsupials, which may explain their seemingly well-developed ability to defend themselves from terrestrial predators. The main predator of emus today is the dingo, which was originally introduced by Aboriginals thousands of years ago from a stock of semi-domesticated wolves. Dingoes try to kill the emu by attacking the head. The emu typically tries to repel the dingo by jumping into the air and kicking or stamping the dingo on its way down. "


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"The emu jumps as the dingo barely has the capacity to jump high enough to threaten its neck, so a correctly timed leap to coincide with the dingo's lunge can keep its head and neck out of danger.Despite the potential prey-predator relationship, the presence of predaceous dingoes does not appear to heavily influence emu numbers, with other natural conditions just as likely to cause mortality. Wedge-tailed eagles are the only avian predator capable of attacking fully-grown emus, though are perhaps most likely to take small or young specimens. The eagles attack emus by swooping downwards rapidly and at high speed and aiming for the head and neck. In this case, the emu's jumping technique as employed against the dingo is not useful. The birds try to target the emu in open ground so that it cannot hide behind obstacles. Under such circumstances, the emu can only run in a chaotic manner and change directions frequently to try to evade its attacker. Other raptors, monitor lizards, introduced red foxes, feral and domestic dogs, and feral pigs occasionally feed on emu eggs or kill small chicks.\n\n"


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"=== Parasites ===\nEmus can suffer from both external and internal parasites, but under farmed conditions are more parasite-free than ostriches or rheas. External parasites include the louse Dahlemhornia asymmetrica and various other lice, ticks, mites and flies. Chicks sometimes suffer from intestinal tract infections caused by coccidian protozoa, and the nematode Trichostrongylus tenuis infects the emu as well as a wide range of other birds, causing haemorrhagic diarrhoea. Other nematodes are found in the trachea and bronchi; Syngamus trachea causing haemorrhagic tracheitis and Cyathostoma variegatum causing serious respiratory problems in juveniles.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\nEmus were used as a source of food by indigenous Australians and early European settlers. Emus are inquisitive birds and have been known to approach humans if they see unexpected movement of a limb or piece of clothing. In the wild, they may follow and observe people. Aboriginal Australians used a variety of techniques to catch the birds, including spearing them while they drank at waterholes, catching them in nets, and attracting them by imitating their calls or by arousing their curiosity with a ball of feathers and rags dangled from a tree. "


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"The pitchuri thornapple (Duboisia hopwoodii), or some similar poisonous plant, could be used to contaminate a waterhole, after which the disoriented emus were easy to catch. Another stratagem was for the hunter to use a skin as a disguise, and the birds could be lured into a camouflaged pit trap using rags or imitation calls. Aboriginal Australians only killed emus out of necessity, and frowned on anyone who hunted them for any other reason. Every part of the carcass had some use; the fat was harvested for its valuable, multiple-use oil, the bones were shaped into knives and tools, the feathers were used for body adornment and the tendons substituted for string.The early European settlers killed emus to provide food and used their fat for fuelling lamps. They also tried to prevent them from interfering with farming or invading settlements in search of water during drought. An extreme example of this was the Emu War in Western Australia in 1932. Emus flocked to the Chandler and Walgoolan area during a dry spell, damaging rabbit fencing and devastating crops. "


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"An attempt to drive them off was mounted, with the army called in to dispatch them with machine guns; the emus largely avoided the hunters. Emus are large, powerful birds, and their legs are among the strongest of any animal and powerful enough to tear down metal fencing. The birds are very defensive of their young, and there have been two documented cases of humans being attacked by emus.\n\n=== Economic value ===\nIn the areas in which it was endemic, the emu was an important source of meat to Aboriginal Australians. They used the fat as bush medicine and rubbed it into their skin. It served as a valuable lubricant, was used to oil wooden tools and utensils such as the coolamon, and was mixed with ochre to make the traditional paint for ceremonial body adornment. Their eggs were also foraged for food.An example of how the emu was cooked comes from the Arrernte of Central Australia who called it Kere ankerre:\n\nEmus are around all the time, in green times and dry times. "


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"You pluck the feathers out first, then pull out the crop from the stomach, and put in the feathers you've pulled out, and then singe it on the fire. You wrap the milk guts that you've pulled out into something [such as] gum leaves and cook them. When you've got the fat off, you cut the meat up and cook it on fire made from river red gum wood.\n\nThe birds were a food and fuel source for early European settlers, and are now farmed, in Australia and elsewhere, for their meat, oil and leather. Commercial emu farming started in Western Australia around 1970. The commercial industry in the country is based on stock bred in captivity, and all states except Tasmania have licensing requirements to protect wild emus. Outside Australia, emus are farmed on a large scale in North America, with about 1 million birds in the US, Peru, and China, and to a lesser extent in some other countries. Emus breed well in captivity, and are kept in large open pens to avoid the leg and digestive problems that arise from inactivity. "


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"They are typically fed on grain supplemented by grazing, and are slaughtered at 15 to 18 months.The Salem district administration in India advised farmers in 2012 not to invest in the emu business which was being heavily promoted at the time; further investigation was needed to assess the profitability of farming the birds in India. In the United States, it was reported in 2013 that many ranchers had left the emu business; it was estimated that the number of growers had dropped from over five thousand in 1998 to one or two thousand in 2013. The remaining growers increasingly rely on sales of oil for their profit, although, leather, eggs, and meat are also sold.\n\nEmus are farmed primarily for their meat, leather, feathers and oil, and 95% of the carcass can be used. Emu meat is a low-fat product (less than 1.5% fat), and is comparable to other lean meats. "


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"Most of the usable portions (the best cuts come from the thigh and the larger muscles of the drum or lower leg) are, like other poultry, dark meat; emu meat is considered for cooking purposes by the US Food and Drug Administration to be a red meat because its red colour and pH value approximate that of beef, but for inspection purposes it is considered to be poultry.\nEmu fat is rendered to produce oil for cosmetics, dietary supplements, and therapeutic products. The oil is obtained from the subcutaneous and retroperitoneal fat; the macerated adipose tissue is heated and the liquefied fat is filtered to get a clear oil. This consists mainly of fatty acids of which oleic acid (42%), linoleic and palmitic acids (21% each) are the most prominent components. It also contains various anti-oxidants, notably carotenoids and flavones.There is some evidence that the oil has anti-inflammatory properties; however, there have not yet been extensive tests, and the USDA regards pure emu oil as an unapproved drug and highlighted it in a 2009 article entitled \"How to Spot Health Fraud\". "


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"Nevertheless, the oil has been linked to the easing of gastrointestinal inflammation, and tests on rats have shown that it has a significant effect in treating arthritis and joint pain, more so than olive or fish oils. It has been scientifically shown to improve the rate of wound healing, but the mechanism responsible for this effect is not understood. A 2008 study has claimed that emu oil has a better anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory potential than ostrich oil, and linked this to emu oil's higher proportion of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids. While there are no scientific studies showing that emu oil is effective in humans, it is marketed and promoted as a dietary supplement with a wide variety of claimed health benefits. Commercially marketed emu oil supplements are poorly standardised.\n\nEmu leather has a distinctive patterned surface, due to a raised area around the feather follicles in the skin; the leather is used in such items as wallets, handbags, shoes and clothes, often in combination with other leathers. The feathers and eggs are used in decorative arts and crafts. In particular, emptied emu eggs have been engraved with portraits, similar to cameos, and scenes of Australian native animals. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Mounted Emu eggs and emu-egg containers in the form of hundreds of goblets, inkstands and vases were produced in the second half of the nineteenth century, all richly embellished with images of Australian flora, fauna and indigenous people by travelling silversmiths, founders of a 'new Australian grammar of ornament'. They continued longstanding traditions that can be traced back to the European mounted ostrich eggs of the thirteenth century and Christian symbolism and notions of virginity, fertility, faith and strength. For a society of proud settlers who sought to bring culture and civilisation to their new world, the traditional ostrich-egg goblet, freed from its roots in a society dominated by court culture, was creatively made novel in the Australian colonies as forms and functions were invented to make the objects attractive to a new, broader audience. Significant designers Adolphus Blau, Julius Hogarth, Ernest Leviny, Julius Schomburgk, Johann Heinrich Steiner, Christian Quist, Joachim Matthias Wendt, William Edwards and others had the technical training on which to build flourishing businesses in a country rich in raw materials and a clientele hungry for old-world paraphernalia.\n\n"


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"=== Cultural references ===\n\nThe emu has a prominent place in Australian Aboriginal mythology, including a creation myth of the Yuwaalaraay and other groups in New South Wales who say that the sun was made by throwing an emu's egg into the sky; the bird features in numerous aetiological stories told across a number of Aboriginal groups. One story from Western Australia holds that a man once annoyed a small bird, who responded by throwing a boomerang, severing the arms of the man and transforming him into a flightless emu. The Kurdaitcha man of Central Australia is said to wear sandals made of emu feathers to mask his footprints. Many Aboriginal language groups throughout Australia have a tradition that the dark dust lanes in the Milky Way represent a giant emu in the sky. Several of the Sydney rock engravings depict emus, and the birds are mimicked in Indigenous dances. Hunting emus, known as kari in the Kaurna language, features in the major Dreaming story of the Kaurna people of the Adelaide region about the ancestor hero Tjilbruke.\nThe emu is popularly but unofficially considered as a faunal emblem \u2013 the national bird of Australia. "


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"It appears as a shield bearer on the Coat of arms of Australia with the red kangaroo, and as a part of the Arms also appears on the Australian 50-cent coin. It has featured on numerous Australian postage stamps, including a pre-federation New South Wales 100th Anniversary issue from 1888, which featured a 2 pence blue emu stamp, a 36-cent stamp released in 1986, and a $1.35 stamp released in 1994. The hats of the Australian Light Horse are decorated with emu feather plumes.Trademarks of early Australian companies using the emu included Webbenderfer Bros frame mouldings (1891), Mac Robertson Chocolate and Cocoa (1893), Dyason and Son Emu Brand Cordial Sauce (1894), James Allard Pottery Wares (1906), and rope manufacturers G. Kinnear and Sons Pty. Ltd. still use it on some of their products.There are around six hundred gazetted places in Australia with \"emu\" in their title, including mountains, lakes, hills, plains, creeks and waterholes. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many Australian companies and household products were named after the bird. In Western Australia, Emu beer has been produced since the early 20th century and the Swan Brewery continues to produce a range of beers branded as \"Emu\". "


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"The quarterly peer-reviewed journal of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, also known as Birds Australia, is entitled Emu: Austral Ornithology.The comedian Rod Hull featured a wayward emu puppet in his act for many years and the bird returned to the small screen in the hands of his son Toby after the puppeteer's death in 1999. In 2019, American insurance company Liberty Mutual launched an advertising campaign that features LiMu Emu, a CGI-rendered emu.Another popular Emu on social media is Emmanuel, a resident of Knuckle Bump Farms in south Florida.  Taylor Blake, an employee, since 2013 has recorded video shorts explaining aspects of the farm and is often interrupted as Emmanuel the Emu photobombs her videos earning constant rebukes; the term \u201cEmmanuel don\u2019t do it!\u201d has become popular on social media.\n\n== Status and conservation ==\n\nIn John Gould's Handbook to the Birds of Australia, first published in 1865, he lamented the loss of the emu from Tasmania, where it had become rare and has since become extinct; he noted that emus were no longer common in the vicinity of Sydney and proposed that the species be given protected status. "


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"In the 1930s, emu killings in Western Australia peaked at 57,000, and culls were also mounted in Queensland during this period due to rampant crop damage. In the 1960s, bounties were still being paid in Western Australia for killing emus, but since then, wild emus have been granted formal protection under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Their occurrence range is between 4,240,000 and 6,730,000 km2 (1,640,000\u20132,600,000 sq mi), and a 1992 census suggested that their total population was between 630,000 and 725,000. Their population trend is thought to be stable and the International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses their conservation status as being of least concern. The isolated emu population of the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion and Port Stephens is listed as endangered by the New South Wales Government.Although the population of emus on mainland Australia is thought to be higher now than it was before European settlement, some local populations are at risk of extinction. The threats faced by emus include the clearance and fragmentation of areas of suitable habitat, deliberate slaughter, collisions with vehicles and predation of the eggs and young.\n\n"


id: 981219fcbf03cc3b85c9589fa2384a85
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"== See also ==\nBirds of Australia\nEmu War\nFauna of Australia\nRhea (bird), South American ratites\n\n== Citations ==\n\n== General sources ==\nEastman, Maxine (1969). The Life of the Emu. Angus and Robertson. ISBN 978-0-207-95120-6.\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Emeu\" . Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911."


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"The lar gibbon (Hylobates lar), also known as the white-handed gibbon, is an endangered primate in the gibbon family, Hylobatidae. It is one of the better-known gibbons and is often kept in captivity.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThere are five subspecies of lar gibbon:\nMalaysian lar gibbon (H. l. lar)\nCarpenter's lar gibbon (H. l. carpenteri)\nCentral lar gibbon (H. l. entelloides)\nSumatran lar gibbon (H. l. vestitus)\nYunnan lar gibbon (H. l. yunnanensis) (possibly extinct)\n\n== Physical description ==\n\nThe fur coloring of the lar gibbon varies from black and dark-brown to light-brown, sandy colors. The hands and feet are white-colored, likewise a ring of white hair surrounds the black face. Both males and females can be all color variants, and the sexes also hardly differ in size.  Gibbons are true brachiators, propelling themselves through the forest by swinging under the branches using their arms.  Reflecting this mode of locomotion, the white-handed gibbon has curved fingers, elongated hands, extremely long arms and relatively short legs, giving it an intermembral index of 129.7, one of the highest of the primates.  As with all apes, the number of caudal vertebrae has been reduced drastically, resulting in the loss of a functional tail. "


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"Gibbons have tough, bony padding on their buttocks, known as the ischial callosities, or sitting pads.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nLar gibbons have the greatest north-south range of any of the gibbon species.  They are found in Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. Their range historically extended from southwest China to Thailand and Burma south to the whole Malay Peninsula in primary and secondary tropical rain forests.  It is also present in the northwest portion of the island of Sumatra. In recent decades, especially, the continental range has been reduced and fragmented. Lar gibbons are likely extinct in China, but if they still exist, they would only be found in southwest Yunnan, their former range.Lar gibbon are usually found in lowland dipterocarp forest, hill dipterocarp forest, and upper dipterocarp forest, including primary lowland and submontane rainforest, mixed deciduous bamboo forest, and seasonal evergreen forest. They are not usually found higher than 1200 meters above sea level.\nThe gibbon genus is highly allopatric, usually separated by large rivers. As a result, their range extends through southern and eastern Myanmar, but only east of the Salween River. They are found through the Malay Peninsula. "


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"Lar gibbons also exist west of the Mekong River in northwestern Laos and northern Sumatra.\nThe lar gibbon can be found living in sympatry with several other primates and apes, including orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), siamangs (S. syndactylus), pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus), purple-faced langurs (Trachypithecus spp.), Thomas's langur (Presbytis thomasi), slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), and several macaques (Macaca spp.)In Thailand, lar gibbons probably number between 15,000 and 20,000, though there may be as few as 10 in China, if any.\n\n== Diet and dentition ==\n\nThe lar gibbon is considered frugivorous with fruit constituting 50% of its diet, but leaves (29%) are a substantial part, with insects (13%) and flowers (9%) forming the remainder. In the wild, lar gibbons will eat a large variety of foods, including figs and other small, sweet fruits, liana fruit, tree fruit and berries, as well as young leaves, buds and flowers, new shoots, vines, vine shoots, and insects, including mantids and wasps, and even birds' eggs.  During the summer months, when figs and leaves are less available, insect consumption increases twenty-fold relative to the winter.Its dental formula is 2.1.2.32.1.2.3, the generalized formula for Old World monkeys and apes (including humans).  "


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"The dental arcade is U-shaped, and the mandible is thin and light.  The incisors are broad and flat, while the molars have low, rounded cusps with thick enamel.  The most noticeable characteristic of the dentition of Hylobates lar is the presence of large, dagger-like canines in both the upper and lower jaw.  These canines are not sexually dimorphic.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nLar gibbons are diurnal and arboreal, inhabiting rain forests. Lar gibbons are usually active for an average of 8.7 hours per day, leaving their sleeping sites right around sunrise and entering sleeping trees an average of 3.4 hours before sunset.\nOn average, lar gibbons spend their days feeding (32.6%), resting (26.2%), traveling (24.2%), in social activities (11.3%), vocalizing (4.0%) and in intergroup encounters (1.9%), although actual proportions of activities can change significantly over the course of the year. They rarely come to the ground, instead using their long arms to brachiate through the trees. With their hooked hands, they can move swiftly with great momentum, swinging from the branches.  Although they rarely come to the ground naturally, while there, they walk  bipedally with arms raised above their heads for balance. "


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"Their social organization is dominated by monogamous family pairs, with one breeding male and one female along with their offspring.  When a juvenile reaches sexual maturity, it is expelled from the family unit.  However, this traditional conception has come under scrutiny.  Long-term studies conducted in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand suggest their mating system is somewhat flexible, incorporating extra-pair copulations, partner changes and polyandrous groupings. This multimale polyandry may be attributed to cooperative territory use and female defense. As range size increases, males are more successful in defending it in a pair or group. Additionally, these extra pair copulations may increase the chance of reproduction with a mate of superior genetic quality and decrease the chance of infanticide.\n\n=== Vocalisations ===\n\nFamily groups inhabit a firm territory, which they protect by warding off other gibbons with their calls.  Each morning, the family gathers on the edge of its territory and begins a \"great call\", a duet between the breeding pair.  Each species has a typified call and each breeding pair has unique variations on that theme.  "


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"The great call of Hylobates lar is characterized by its frequent use of short hoots with more complex hoots, along with a \"quavering\" opening and closing.  These calls are one of the traits used determining species differences among the gibbons. Recent studies indicate that gibbon song have evolved to communicate conflict in terms of predation. In the presence of tiger, clouded leopard, crested serpent eagle and reticulated python songs were more likely to contain sharp wow elements than normal duets.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nSexually, they are similar to other gibbons. Mating occurs in every month of the year, but most conceptions occur during the dry season in March, with a peak in births during the late rainy season, in October. On average, females reproduce for the first time at about 11 years of age in the wild, much later than in captivity. Gestation is six months long on average, and pregnancies are usually of a single young. Young are nursed for approximately two years, and full maturity comes at about eight years. The life expectancy of the lar gibbons in the wild is about 25 years.\n\n"


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"== Conservation ==\n\nLar gibbons are threatened in various ways: they are sometimes hunted for their meat, sometimes a parent is killed to capture young animals for pets, but perhaps the most pervasive is the loss of habitat. Lar gibbon habitats are already threatened by forest clearance for the construction of roads, agriculture, ecotourism, domesticated cattle and elephants, forest fires, subsistence logging, illegal logging, new village settlement, and palm oil plantations.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nARKive - images and movies of the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar)\nLar Gibbon photos\nLar Gibbon songs\nGibbon Conservation Center\nLar Gibbon at Animal Diversity Web\nThomas Geissmann's Gibbon Research Lab and Gibbon Network"


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"The Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is one of the largest species of snakes. It is native to a large area of Southeast Asia and is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Until 2009, it was considered a subspecies of the Indian python, but is now recognized as a distinct species. It is an invasive species in Florida as a result of the pet trade.\n\n== Description ==\nThe Burmese python is a dark-colored non-venomous snake with many brown blotches bordered by black down the back.\nIn the wild, Burmese pythons typically grow to 5 m (16 ft), while specimens of more than 7 m (23 ft) are unconfirmed. This species is sexually dimorphic in size; females average only slightly longer, but are considerably heavier and bulkier than the males. For example, length-weight comparisons in captive Burmese pythons for individual females have shown: at 3.47 m (11 ft 5 in) length, a specimen weighed 29 kg (64 lb), a specimen of just over 4 m (13 ft) weighed 36 kg (79 lb), a specimen of 4.5 m (15 ft) weighed 40 kg (88 lb), and a specimen of 5 m (16 ft) weighed 75 kg (165 lb). "


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"In comparison, length-weight comparisons for males found: a specimen of 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) weighed 12 kg (26 lb), 2.97 m (9 ft 9 in) weighed 14.5 kg (32 lb), a specimen of 3 m (9.8 ft) weighed 7 kg (15 lb), and a specimen of 3.05 m (10.0 ft) weighed 18.5 kg (41 lb). In general, individuals over 5 m (16 ft) are rare. The record for maximum length of Burmese pythons is held by a female that lived at Serpent Safari for 27 years. Shortly after death, her actual length was determined to be 5.74 m (18 ft 10 in). Widely published data of specimens reported to have been several feet longer are not verified. At her death, a Burmese named \"Baby\" was the heaviest snake recorded in the world at the time at 182.8 kg (403 lb), much heavier than any wild snake ever measured. Her length was measured at 5.74 m (18 ft 10 in) circa 1999. The minimum size for adults is 2.35 metres (7 ft 9 in). "


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"Dwarf forms occur in Java, Bali, and Sulawesi, with an average length of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in Bali, and a maximum of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) on Sulawesi. Wild individuals average 3.7 m (12 ft) long, but have been known to reach 5.74 m (18 ft 10 in).\n\n=== Diseases ===\nIn both their native and invasive range they suffer from Raillietiella orientalis (a pentastome parasitic disease).\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe Burmese python occurs throughout Southern and Southeast Asia, including eastern India, southeastern Nepal, western Bhutan, southeastern Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, northern continental Malaysia, and southern China in Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi, and Yunnan. It also occurs in Hong Kong, and in Indonesia on Java, southern Sulawesi, Bali, and Sumbawa. It has also been reported in Kinmen.It is an excellent swimmer and needs a permanent source of water. It lives in grasslands, marshes, swamps, rocky foothills, woodlands, river valleys, and jungles with open clearings. It is a good climber and has a prehensile tail. It can stay in water for 30 minutes but mostly stays on land.\n\n"


id: 61fcce9595e00420dbdca6a5cf15bd5a
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"== As an invasive species ==\n\nPython invasion has been particularly extensive, notably across South Florida, where a large number of pythons can now be found in the Florida Everglades. Between 1996 and 2006, the Burmese python gained popularity in the pet trade, with more than 90,000 snakes imported into the U.S. The current number of Burmese pythons in the Florida Everglades may have reached a minimum viable population and become an invasive species. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 was deemed responsible for the destruction of a python-breeding facility and zoo, and these escaped snakes spread and populated areas into the Everglades. More than 1,330 have been captured in the Everglades.\nA genetic study in 2017 revealed that the python population is composed of hybrids between the Burmese python and Indian python.By 2007, the Burmese python was found in northern Florida and in the coastal areas of the Florida Panhandle. The importation of Burmese pythons was banned in the United States in January 2012 by the U.S. Department of the Interior. A 2012 report stated, \"in areas where the snakes are well established, foxes, and rabbits have disappeared. "


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"Sightings of raccoons are down by 99.3%, opossums by 98.9%, and white-tailed deer by 94.1%.\"Road surveys between 2003 and 2011 indicated a 87.3% decrease in bobcat populations, and in some areas rabbits have not been detected at all. Experimental efforts to reintroduce rabbit populations to areas where rabbits have been completely eliminated have mostly failed \"due to high (77% of mortalities) rates of predation by pythons.\"Bird and coyote populations may be threatened, as well as the already-rare Florida panther. In addition to this correlational relationship, the pythons have also been experimentally shown to decrease marsh rabbit populations, further suggesting they are responsible for many of the recorded mammal declines. They may also outcompete native predators for food.For example, Burmese pythons also compete with the native American alligator, and numerous instances of alligators and pythons attacking\u2014and in some cases, preying on\u2014each other have been reported and recorded.\nBy 2011, researchers identified up to 25 species of birds from nine avian orders in the digestive tract remains of 85 Burmese pythons found in Everglades National Park. "


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"Native bird populations are suffering a negative impact from the introduction of the Burmese python in Florida; among these bird species, the wood stork is of specific concern, now listed as federally endangered.Numerous efforts have been made to eliminate the Burmese python population in the last decade. Understanding the preferred habitat of the species is needed to narrow down the python hunt. Burmese pythons have been found to select broad-leafed and low-flooded habitats. Broad-leafed habitats comprise cypress, overstory, and coniferous forest. Though aquatic marsh environments would be a great source for prey, the pythons seem to prioritize environments allowing for morphological and behavioral camouflage to be protected from predators. Also, the Burmese pythons in Florida have been found to prefer elevated habitats, since this provides the optimal conditions for nesting. In addition to elevated habitats, edge habitats are common places where Burmese pythons are found for thermoregulation, nesting, and hunting purposes.One of the Burmese python eradication movements with the biggest influence was the 2013 Python Challenge in Florida. This was a month-long contest wherein a total of 68 pythons were removed. The contest offered incentives such as prizes for longest and greatest number of captured pythons. "


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"The purpose of the challenge was to raise awareness about the invasive species, increase participation from the public and agency cooperation, and to remove as many pythons as possible from the Florida Everglades.A study from 2017 introduced a new method for identifying the presence of Burmese pythons in southern Florida; this method involves the screening of mosquito blood. Since the introduction of the Burmese python in Florida, mosquito communities use the pythons as hosts even though they are recently introduced.\nInvasive Burmese pythons also face certain physiological changes. Unlike their native South Asian counterparts who spend long periods fasting due to seasonal variation in prey availability, pythons in Florida feed year-round due to the constant availability of food. They are also vulnerable to cold stress, with winter freezes resulting in mortality rates of up to 90%. Genomic data suggests natural selection on these populations favors increased thermal tolerance as a result of these high-mortality freezes.They have carried Raillietiella orientalis (a pentastome parasitic disease) with them from Southeast Asia. Other reptiles in Florida have become infested, and the parasite appears to have become endemic.In April 2019, researchers captured and killed a large Burmese python in Florida's Big Cypress National Preserve. "


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"It was more than 5.2 m (17 ft) long, weighed 140 lb (64 kg), and contained 73 developing eggs.\nIn December 2021, a Burmese python was captured in Florida that weighed 98 kg (215 lb) and had a length of 5.5 m (18 ft); it contained a record 122 developing eggs.\n\n== Behavior ==\nBurmese pythons are mainly nocturnal rainforest dwellers. When young, they are equally at home on the ground and in trees, but as they gain girth, they tend to restrict most of their movements to the ground. They are also excellent swimmers, being able to stay submerged for up to half an hour. Burmese pythons spend the majority of their time hidden in the underbrush. In the northern parts of its range, the Burmese python may brumate for some months during the cold season in a hollow tree, a hole in the riverbank, or under rocks. Brumation is biologically distinct from hibernation. While the behavior has similar benefits, allowing organisms to endure the winter without moving, it also involves the preparation of both male and female reproductive organs for the upcoming breeding season. "


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"The Florida population also goes through brumation.They tend to be solitary and are usually found in pairs only when mating. Burmese pythons breed in the early spring, with females laying clutches of 12\u201336 eggs in March or April. They remain with the eggs until they hatch, wrapping around them and twitching their muscles in such a way as to raise the ambient temperature around the eggs by several degrees. Once the hatchlings use their egg tooth to cut their way out of their eggs, no further maternal care is given. The newly hatched babies often remain inside their eggs until they are ready to complete their first shedding of skin, after which they hunt for their first meal.\n\n== Diet ==\nLike all snakes, the Burmese python is carnivorous. Its diet consists primarily of birds and mammals, but also includes amphibians and reptiles. It is a sit-and-wait predator, meaning it spends most of its time staying relatively still, waiting for prey to approach, then striking rapidly. The snake grabs a prey animal with its sharp teeth, then wraps its body around the animal to kill it through constriction. The python then swallows its prey whole. "


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"It is often found near human habitation due to the presence of rats, mice, and other vermin as a food source. However, its equal affinity for domesticated birds and mammals means it is often treated as a pest. In captivity, its diet consists primarily of commercially available appropriately sized rats, graduating to larger prey such as rabbits and poultry as it grows. As an invasive species in Florida, Burmese pythons primarily eat a variety of small mammals including foxes, rabbits, and raccoons. Due to their high predation levels, they have been implicated in the decline and even disappearance of many mammal species. In their invasive range, pythons also eat birds and occasionally other reptiles. Exceptionally large pythons may even require larger food items such as pigs or goats, and are known to have attacked and eaten alligators and adult deer in Florida.\n\n=== Digestion ===\nThe digestive response of Burmese pythons to such large prey has made them a model species for digestive physiology. Its sit-and-wait hunting style is characterized by long fasting periods in between meals, with Burmese pythons typically feeding every month or two, but sometimes fasting for as long as 18 months. "


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"As digestive tissues are energetically costly to maintain, they are downregulated during fasting periods to conserve energy when they are not in use. A fasting python has a reduced stomach volume and acidity, reduced intestinal mass, and a 'normal' heart volume. After ingesting prey, the entire digestive system undergoes a massive re-modelling, with rapid hypertrophy of the intestines, production of stomach acid, and a 40% increase in mass of the ventricle of the heart to fuel the digestive process. During digestion, the snake's oxygen consumption rises drastically as well, increasing with meal size by 17 to 40 times its resting rate. This dramatic increase is a result of the energetic cost of restarting many aspects of the digestive system, from rebuilding the stomach and small intestine to producing hydrochloric acid to be secreted in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid production is a significant component of the energetic cost of digestion, as digesting whole prey items requires the animal to be broken down without the use of teeth, either for chewing or tearing into smaller pieces. "


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"To compensate, once food has been ingested, Burmese pythons begin producing large amounts of acid to make the stomach acidic enough to turn the food into a semi-liquid that can be passed through to the small intestine and undergo the rest of the digestive process.\nThe energy cost is highest in the first few days after eating when these regenerative processes are most active, meaning Burmese pythons rely on existing food energy storage to digest a new meal. Overall, the entire digestive process from food intake to defecation lasts 8\u201314 days.\n\n== Conservation ==\n\nThe Burmese python is listed on CITES Appendix II. It has been listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2012, as the wild population is estimated to have declined by at least 30% in the first decade of the 21st century due to habitat loss and over-harvesting.To maintain Burmese python populations, the IUCN recommends increased conservation legislation and enforcement at the national and international levels to reduce harvesting across the snake's native range. The IUCN also recommends increased research into its population ecology and threats. In Hong Kong, it is a protected species under Wild Animals Protection Ordinance Cap 170. "


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"It is also protected in Thailand, Vietnam, China, and Indonesia. However, it is still common only in Hong Kong and Thailand, with rare to very rare statuses in the rest of its range.\n\n== In captivity ==\n\nBurmese pythons are often sold as pets, and are made popular by their attractive coloration and apparently easy-going nature. However, they have a rapid growth rate, and can exceed 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in length in a year if power fed. However this may cause health issues in the future. By age four, they will have reached their adult size, though they continue growing very slowly throughout their lives, which may exceed 20 years.\nAlthough the species has a reputation for docility, they are very powerful animals \u2013 capable of inflicting severe bites and even killing by constriction. They also consume large amounts of food, and due to their size, require large, often custom-built, secure enclosures. As a result, some are released into the wild, and become invasive species that devastate the environment. For this reason, some jurisdictions (including Florida, due to the python invasion in the Everglades) have placed restrictions on the keeping of Burmese pythons as pets. "


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"Violators could be imprisoned for more than seven years or fined $500,000 if convicted.\nBurmese pythons are opportunistic feeders; they eat almost any time food is offered, and often act hungry even when they have recently eaten. As a result, they are often overfed, causing obesity-related problems to be common in captive Burmese pythons.\n\nLike the much smaller ball python, Burmese pythons are known to be easygoing or timid creatures, which means that if cared for properly, they can easily adjust to living near humans.\n\n=== Handling ===\nAlthough pythons are typically afraid of people due to their great stature, and generally avoid them, special care is still required when handling them. Given their adult strength, multiple handlers (up to one person per meter of snake) are usually recommended. Some jurisdictions require owners to hold special licenses, and as with any wild animal being kept in captivity, treating them with the respect an animal of this size commands is important.\n\n=== Variations ===\n\nThe Burmese python is frequently captive-bred for color, pattern, and more recently, size. Its amelanistic form is especially popular and is the most widely available morph. "


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"This morph is white with patterns in butterscotch yellow and burnt orange. Also, \"labyrinth\" specimens with maze-like patterns, khaki-colored \"green\", and \"granite\" with many small angular spots are available. Breeders have recently begun working with an island lineage of Burmese pythons. Early reports indicate that these dwarf Burmese pythons have slightly different coloring and pattern from their mainland relatives and do not grow much over 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in length. One of the most sought-after of these variations is the leucistic Burmese. This particular variety is very rare, being entirely bright white with no pattern and blue eyes, and has only in 2008/2009 been reproduced in captivity as the homozygous form (referred to as \"super\" by reptile keepers) of the co-dominant hypomelanistic trait. The caramel Burmese python has a caramel-colored pattern with \"milk-chocolate\" eyes.\n\n== See also ==\nInclusion body disease, a viral disease affecting pythons\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n== External links ==\nBurmese python (Python molurus) - EDDMapS State Distribution - EDDMapS\nSpecies profile - Burmese Python (Python molurus), National Invasive Species Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Library"


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"The hippopotamus ( HIP-\u0259-POT-\u0259-m\u0259s; PL: hippopotamuses or hippopotami; Hippopotamus amphibius), also called the hippo, common hippopotamus, or river hippopotamus, is a large semiaquatic mammal native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis or Hexaprotodon liberiensis). Its name comes from the ancient Greek for \"river horse\" (\u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2).\nAside from elephants and rhinos, the hippopotamus is the largest land mammal. It is also the largest extant land artiodactyl. Despite their physical resemblance to pigs and other terrestrial even-toed ungulates, the closest living relatives of the hippopotamids are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises, etc.), from which they diverged about 55 million years ago. Hippos are recognisable for their barrel-shaped torsos, wide-opening mouths with large canine tusks, nearly hairless bodies, pillar-like legs, and large size: adults average 1,500 kg (3,310 lb) for bulls (males) and 1,300 kg (2,870 lb) for cows (females). Despite its stocky shape and short legs, it is capable of running 30 km/h (19 mph) over short distances.\nHippos inhabit rivers, lakes, and mangrove swamps. Territorial bulls each preside over a stretch of water and a group of five to thirty cows and calves. "


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"Mating and birth both occur in the water. During the day, hippos remain cool by staying in water or mud, emerging at dusk to graze on grasses. While hippos rest near each other in the water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos typically do not display territorial behaviour on land. Hippos are among the most dangerous animals in the world due to their aggressive and unpredictable nature. They are threatened by habitat loss and poaching for their meat and ivory (canine teeth).\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe Latin word hippopotamus is derived from the ancient Greek \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, hippop\u00f3tamos, from \u1f35\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, h\u00edppos, 'horse', and \u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, potam\u00f3s, 'river', meaning \"horse of the river\". In English, the plural is \"hippopotamuses\", but \"hippopotami\" is also used.\n\n== Taxonomy and origins ==\n\n=== Classification ===\nThe modern hippopotamus and the pygmy hippopotamus are the only living members of the family Hippopotamidae. Some taxonomists place hippos and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea. Hippopotamidae are classified along with other even-toed ungulates in the order Artiodactyla."


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":\u200a39\u201340\n\nFive subspecies of hippos have been described based on morphological differences in their skulls as well as differences in geographical range::\u200a3\nH. a. amphibius \u2013 (the nominate subspecies) ranges from Gambia east to Ethiopia and then south to Mozambique and historically ranged as far north as Egypt; its skull is distinguished by a moderately reduced preorbital region, a bulging dorsal surface, elongated mandibular symphysis and larger chewing teeth.\nH. a. kiboko \u2013 found in Kenya and Somalia; was noted to be smaller and more lightly coloured than other hippos with wider nostrils, somewhat longer snout and more rounded and relatively raised orbits with the space between them being incurved.\nH. a. capensis \u2013 found in Zambia and South Africa; distinguished by wider orbits.\nH. a. tschadensis \u2013 ranges between Chad and Niger; featured a slightly shorter but broader face, and pronounced, forward-facing orbits.\n"


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"H. a. constrictus \u2013 ranged from the southern Democratic Republic of Congo to Angola and Namibia; skull characterised by a thicker preorbital region, shorter snout, flatter dorsal surface, reduced mandibular symphysis and smaller chewing teeth.The suggested subspecies above were never widely used or validated by field biologists; the described morphological differences were small enough that they could have resulted from simple variation in nonrepresentative samples.:\u200a2\u200a A study examining mitochondrial DNA from skin biopsies taken from 13 sampling locations found \"low, but significant, genetic differentiation\" among H. a. amphibius, H. a. capensis, and H. a. kiboko. Neither H. a. tschadensis nor H. a. constrictus have been tested.\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nUntil 1909, naturalists classified hippos together with pigs based on molar patterns. Several lines of evidence, first from blood proteins, then from molecular systematics and DNA and the fossil record, show their closest living relatives are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises). The common ancestor of hippos and whales branched off from Ruminantia and the rest of the even-toed ungulates; the cetacean and hippo lineages split soon afterwards.\n\n"


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"The most recent theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests hippos and whales shared a common semiaquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around 60 million years ago. This hypothesised ancestral group likely split into two branches again around 54 million years ago.One branch would evolve into cetaceans, possibly beginning about 52 million years ago, with the protowhale Pakicetus and other early whale ancestors collectively known as Archaeoceti. This group eventually underwent aquatic adaptation into the completely aquatic cetaceans. The other branch became the anthracotheres, a large family of four-legged beasts, the earliest of which in the late Eocene would have resembled skinny hippos with comparatively smaller, narrower heads. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, became extinct during the Pliocene, leaving no descendants.A rough evolutionary lineage of the hippo can thus be traced from Eocene and Oligocene species: from Anthracotherium and Elomeryx to the Miocene species Merycopotamus and Libycosaurus and finally the very latest anthracotheres in the Pliocene. These groups lived across Eurasia and Africa. "


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"The discovery of Epirigenys in East Africa, which was likely a descent of Asian anthracotheres and a sister taxon to Hippopotamidae suggests that hippo ancestors likely entered Africa from Asia around 35 million years ago. An early hippopotamid is the genus Kenyapotamus, which lived in Africa from 15 to 9 million years ago. Hippopotamid species would spread across Africa and Eurasia, including the modern pygmy hippo. From 7.5 to 1.8 million years ago, a possible ancestor to the modern hippo, Archaeopotamus, lived in Africa and the Middle East.\n\n=== Extinct species ===\nThree species of Malagasy hippopotamus became extinct during the Holocene on Madagascar, the last of them within the past 1,000 years. The Malagasy hippos were smaller than the modern hippo, a likely result of the process of insular dwarfism. Fossil evidence indicates many Malagasy hippos were hunted by humans, a factor in their eventual extinction. "


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"Isolated individual Malagasy hippos may have survived in remote pockets; in 1976, villagers described a living animal called the kilopilopitsofy, which may have been a Malagasy hippo.An extinct species, Hippopotamus antiquus, ranged throughout Europe, extending as far north as Britain during the Early and Middle Pleistocene epochs, before being replaced by the modern H. amphibius during the latter part of the Middle Pleistocene. The Pleistocene also saw a number of dwarf species evolve on several Mediterranean islands, including Crete (Hippopotamus creutzburgi), Cyprus (the Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus, Hippopotamus minor), Malta (Hippopotamus melitensis), and Sicily (Hippopotamus pentlandi). Of these, the Cyprus dwarf hippo survived until the end of the Pleistocene or early Holocene. Evidence from the archaeological site Aetokremnos continues to cause debate on whether or not the species was driven to extinction, or even encountered, by man. Across Eurasia, the hippopotamus became extinct between 50,000 and 16,000 years ago.\n\n== Characteristics and adaptations ==\n\nThe hippopotamus is a megaherbivore and is exceeded in size among land animals only by elephants and some rhinoceros species. Bulls weigh around 1,500 to 1,800 kg (3,300 to 3,960 lb) and cows around 1,300 to 1,500 kg (2,860 to 3,300 lb). "


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"Exceptionally large males have been recorded reaching 2,660 kg (5,860 lb). Male hippos appear to continue growing throughout their lives, while females reach maximum weight at around age 25. Hippos measure 2.90 to 5.05 m (9.5 to 16.6 ft) long, including a tail of about 35 to 56 cm (1.15 to 1.84 ft) in length and 1.30 to 1.65 m (4.3 to 5.4 ft) tall at the shoulder, with males and females ranging 1.40 to 1.65 m (4.6 to 5.4 ft) and 1.30 to 1.45 m (4.3 to 4.8 ft) tall at the shoulder respectively. The species has a typical head-body length of 3.3\u20133.45 m (10.8\u201311.3 ft) and an average standing height of 1.4 m (4.6 ft) at the shoulder.Hippos have barrel-shaped bodies with short tails and legs, and an hourglass-shaped skull with a long snout.:\u200a3,\u200a19\u200a Their skeletal structures are graviportal, adapted to carrying their enormous weight,:\u200a8\u200a and their dense bones and low centre of gravity allows them to sink and move along the bottom of the water. Hippopotamuses have small legs (relative to other megafauna) because the water in which they live reduces the weight burden. The pelvis rests at an angle of 45 degrees."


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":\u200a9\u200a Hippos usually trot to move quickly on land and can gallop at 30 km/h (19 mph) when needed. They are incapable of jumping but can walk up steep banks. Despite their rounded appearance, hippos have little fat.:\u200a3\u200aThe eyes, ears, and nostrils of hippos are placed high on the roof of their skulls. This allows these organs to remain above the surface while the rest of the body is submerged.:\u200a259\u200a The nostrils and ears can close when underwater while nictitating membranes cover the eyes.:\u200a4,\u200a116\u200a Despite being semiaquatic and having webbed feet, an adult hippo is not a particularly good swimmer, nor can it float. It rarely enters deep water; when does, the animal moves by bouncing off the bottom. A hippo surfaces every four to six minutes, while young to breathe every two to three minutes.:\u200a3\u20134\u200a The hippopotamus sleeps with both hemispheres of the brain resting, as in all land mammals, and usually sleeps in land or in water with the nostrils exposed. Despite this, it may be capable of sleeping while submerged, intermittently surfacing to breathe without waking. "


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"They appear to transition between different phases of sleep more quickly than other mammals.\n\nThe hippo's jaw is powered by huge masseter and digastric muscles which give them large, droopy cheeks.:\u200a259\u200a The jaw hinge allows the animal to open its mouth at almost 180\u00b0.:\u200a17\u200a A folded orbicularis oris muscle allows the hippo to attain an extreme gape without tearing any tissue. On the lower jaw, the incisors and canines grow continuously, the former reaching 40 cm (1 ft 4 in), while the latter can grow to up to 50 cm (1 ft 8 in). The lower canines are sharpened through contact with the smaller upper canines. The canines and incisors are used mainly for combat instead of feeding. Hippos rely on their flattened, horny lips to grasp and pull grasses which are then ground by the molars.:\u200a259,\u200a263\u200a The hippo is considered to be a pseudoruminant; it has a complex three-chambered stomach, but does not \"chew cud\".:\u200a22\n\nHippo skin is 6 cm (2 in) thick across much of its body with little hair.:\u200a260\u200a The animal is mostly purplish-grey or blue-black, but brownish-pink on the underside around the eyes and ears."


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":\u200a260\u200a Their skin secretes a natural, red-coloured sunscreen substance that is sometimes referred to as \"blood sweat\" but is neither blood nor sweat. This secretion is initially colourless and turns red-orange within minutes, eventually becoming brown. Two highly acidic pigments have been identified in the secretions; one red (hipposudoric acid) and one orange (norhipposudoric acid), which inhibit the growth of disease-causing bacteria and their light-absorption profile peaks in the ultraviolet range, creating a sunscreen effect. Regardless of diet, all hippos secrete these pigments so food does not appear to be their source; rather, they may be synthesised from precursors such as the amino acid tyrosine. This natural sunscreen cannot prevent the animal's skin from cracking if it stays out of water too long.The testes of the males do not fully descend and a scrotum is not present. In addition, the penis retracts into the body when not erect. The genitals of the female hippos are unusual in that the vagina is ridged and the vulval vestibule has two large, protruding diverticula. Both of these have an unknown function.:\u200a28\u201329\u200aA hippo's lifespan is typically 40 to 50 years."


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":\u200a277\u200a Donna the Hippo was one of the oldest living hippos in captivity. She lived at the Mesker Park Zoo in Evansville, Indiana, in the US until her death in 2012 at the age of 61. The oldest hippo ever recorded was called Bertha; she had lived in the Manila Zoo in the Philippines since it first opened in 1959. When she died in 2017, her age was estimated to be 65.\n\n== Distribution and status ==\n\nHippopotamus amphibius was widespread in North Africa and Europe during the Eemian (130\u2013115,000 years ago), with remains found as far north as England. Archaeological evidence exists of its presence in the Levant, dating to less than 3,000 years ago. The species was common in Egypt's Nile region during antiquity, but it has since been driven out. According to Pliny the Elder, in his time, the best location in Egypt for capturing this animal was in the Saite nome; the animal could still be found along the Damietta branch of the Nile after the Arab Conquest in 639. Reports of the slaughter of the last hippo in Natal Province were made at the end of the 19th century. "


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"Hippos are still found in the rivers and lakes of the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya, north through to Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan, west to The Gambia, and south to South Africa.Genetic evidence suggests common hippos in Africa experienced a marked population expansion during or after the Pleistocene, attributed to an increase in water bodies at the end of the era. These findings have important conservation implications, as hippo populations across the continent are currently threatened by loss of access to fresh water. Hippos are also subject to unregulated hunting and poaching. The species is included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international export/import (including in parts and derivatives) requires CITES documentation to be obtained and presented to border authorities.As of 2017, the IUCN Red List drawn up by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the species as vulnerable, with a stable population estimated between 115,000 and 130,000 animals. The hippo population has declined most dramatically in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. By 2005, the population in Virunga National Park had dropped to 800 or 900 from around 29,000 in the mid-1970s. "


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"This decline is attributed to the disruptions caused by the Second Congo War. The poachers are believed to be Mai-Mai rebels, underpaid Congolese soldiers, and local militia groups. Reasons for poaching include the belief hippos are harmful to society, as well as financial gain. As of 2016, the Virunga hippo population appears to have increased again, possibly due to better protection form park rangers, who have worked with local fishermen. The sale of hippo meat is illegal, but black-market sales are difficult for Virunga National Park officers to track. Hippo meat is highly valued in some areas of central Africa and the teeth may be used as a replacement for elephant ivory.A population of hippos exists in Colombia, descended from captive individuals that escaped from Pablo Escobar's estate after this death in 1993. Their numbers grew to 100 by the 2020s and ecologists believe the population should be eradicated, as they are breeding rapidly and are an increasing menace to humans and the environment. Attempts to control them include sterilisation and culling.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nHippos are semiaquatic and require enough water to immerse in, while being close to grass. "


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"They prefer relatively still waters with gently sloping shores though, male hippos may also be found in very small numbers in more rapid waters with rocky slopes.:\u200a264\u200a Hippos mostly live in freshwater habitat, but can be found in estuaries.Hippos spend most the day in water to stay cool and hydrated. Just before night begins, they leave the water to foraging on land. Like most herbivores, hippos will consume a variety of plants if presented with them in captivity, but their diet in nature consists almost entirely of grass, with only minimal consumption of aquatic plants. A hippo will travel 3\u20135 km (1.9\u20133.1 mi) per night, eating around 40 kg (88 lb) of grass. By dawn, they are back in the water. On occasion, hippos have been filmed eating carrion, usually near the water. There are other reports of meat-eating and even cannibalism and predation. The stomach anatomy of lacks adaptions to carnivory, and meat-eating is likely caused by not having enough nutrients or just an abnormal behaviour."


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":\u200a82\u201384\u200aBecause of their size and their habit of taking the same paths to feed, hippos can have a significant impact on the land across which they walk, keeping the land clear of vegetation and depressing the ground. Over prolonged periods, hippos can divert the paths of swamps and channels. By defecating in the water, the animals also appear to pass on microbes from their gut, affecting the biogeochemical cycle.\n\n=== Social interaction ===\n\nIt is challenging to study the interaction of bulls and cows because hippos are not sexually dimorphic, so cows and young bulls are almost indistinguishable in the field. Hippo pods fluctuate but can contain over 100 hippos. Although they lie close together, adults develop almost no social bonds. Males establish territories in water but not land, and these may range 250\u2013500 m (270\u2013550 yd) in lakes and 50\u2013100 m (55\u2013109 yd) in rivers. Territories are abandoned when the water dries up. The bull has breeding access to all the cows in his territory. Younger bachelors are allowed to stay as long as they deter to him. A younger male may challenge the old bull for control of the territory. "


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"Within the pods, the hippos tend to segregate by sex and status. Bachelor males lounge near other bachelors, females with other females, and the territorial male is on his own. When hippos emerge from the water to graze, they do so individually.:\u200a4\u20135,\u200a49\u201350\n\nHippos engage in \"muck-spreading\" which involves defecating while spinning their tails to distribute the faeces over a greater area. Muck-spreading occurs both on land and in water and its function is not well understood. It is unlikely to server to territorial, as the animals only establish territories in the water. They may be used as trails between the water and grazing areas.:\u200a5,\u200a51\u201352\u200a \"Yawning\" serves as a threat display. When fighting, bulls use their incisors to block each other's attacks and their large canines as offensive weapons.:\u200a259\u2013260\u200a When hippos become over-populated or a habitat shrinks, bulls sometimes attempt infanticide, but this behaviour is not common under normal conditions.The most common hippo vocalisation is the \"wheeze honk\", which can travel over long distances in air. This call starts as a high-pitched squeal followed by a deeper, resonant call.:\u200a5\u200a The animals can recognise the calls of other individuals. "


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"Hippos are more likely to react to the wheeze honks of strangers than those they are more familiar with. When threatened or alarmed, they produce exhalations, and fighting bulls will bellow loudly.:\u200a5\u200a Hippos are recorded to produce clicks underwater which may have echolocative properties. They have the unique ability to hold their heads partially above the water and send out a cry that travels through both water and air; individuals respond both above and below water.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nCows reach sexual maturity at five to six years of age and have a gestation period of eight months. A study of endocrine systems revealed cows may begin puberty at as early as three or four years. Males reach maturity at around 7.5 years. Both conceptions and births are highest during the wet season. Male hippo always have mobile spermatozoa and can breed year-round.:\u200a59\u201361,\u200a66\u200a After becoming pregnant, a female hippo will typically not begin ovulation again for 17 months.\n\nHippos mate in the water, with the cow remaining under the surface,:\u200a63\u200a her head emerging periodically to draw breath. Cows  give birth in seclusion and return within 10 to 14 days. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Calves are born on land or shallow water weighing on average 50 kg (110 lb) and at an average length of around 127 cm (4.17 ft). The female lays on her side when nursing, which can occur underwater or on land. The young are carried on their mothers' backs in deep water.:\u200a4,\u200a64\u200aMother hippos are very protective of their young, not allowing others to get too close. One cow was recorded protecting a calf's carcass after it had died. Calves may be temporarily kept in nurseries, guarded by one or more adults, and will play amongst themselves. Like many other large mammals, hippos are described as K-strategists, in this case typically producing just one large, well-developed infant every couple of years (rather than many small, poorly developed young several times per year, as is common among small mammals such as rodents). Calves no longer need to suckle when they are a year old.:\u200a64\n\n=== Interspecies interactions ===\n\nHippos coexist alongside a variety of large predators in their habitats. Nile crocodiles, lions, and spotted hyenas are known to prey on young hippos. "


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"Beyond these, adult hippos are not usually preyed upon by other animals due to their aggression and size. Cases where large lion prides have successfully preyed on adult hippos have been reported, but it is generally rare. Lions occasionally prey on adults at Gorongosa National Park and calves are sometimes taken at Virunga. Crocodiles are frequent targets of hippo aggression, probably because they often inhabit the same riparian habitats; crocodiles may be either aggressively displaced or killed by hippos. In turn, very large Nile crocodiles have been observed preying occasionally on calves, \"half-grown\" hippos, and possibly also adult female hippos. Groups of crocodiles have also been observed finishing off still-living male hippos that were previously injured in mating battles with other males.Hippos occasionally visit cleaning stations in order to be cleaned of parasites by certain species of fishes. They signal their readiness for this service by opening their mouths wide. This is an example of mutualism, in which the hippo benefits from the cleaning while the fish receive food. Hippo defecation creates allochthonous deposits of organic matter along the river beds. These deposits have an unclear ecological function. "


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"A 2015 study concluded hippo dung provides nutrients from terrestrial material for fish and aquatic invertebrates, while a 2018 study found that their dung can be toxic to aquatic life in large quantities, due to absorption of dissolved oxygen in water bodies.The parasitic monogenean flatworm Oculotrema hippopotami infests hippopotamus eyes, mainly the nictitating membrane. It is the only monogenean species (which normally live on fish) documented to live on a mammal.\n\n== Hippos and humans ==\n\nThe earliest evidence of human interaction with hippos comes from butchery cut marks on hippo bones found at the Bouri Formation and dated to around 160,000 years ago. 4,000\u20135,000 year art showing hippos being hunted have been found in the Tassili n'Ajjer Mountains of the central Sahara near Djanet.:\u200a1\u200a The ancient Egyptians recognised the hippo as a ferocious denizen of the Nile and representations on the tombs of nobles show the animals were hunted by humans.The hippo was also known to the Greeks and Romans. The Greek historian Herodotus described the hippo in The Histories (written circa 440 BC) and the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote about the hippo in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia (written circa 77 AD). "


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"The Yoruba people called the hippo erinmi, which means \"elephant of the water\". Some individual hippos have achieved international fame. Huberta became a celebrity during the Great Depression for trekking a great distance across South Africa.:\u200a111\u2013112\n\n=== Attacks on humans ===\nThe hippo is considered to be extremely aggressive and has frequently been reported charging and attacking boats. Small boats can easily be capsized by hippos and passengers can be injured or killed by the animals, or drown in the water. In one 2014 case in Niger, a boat was capsized by a hippo and 13 people were killed. Hippos will often raid farm crops if the opportunity arises, and humans may come into conflict with them on these occasions. These encounters can be fatal to either humans or hippos.\n\n=== In zoos ===\n\nHippos have long been popular zoo animals. The first record of hippos taken into captivity for display is dated to 3500 BC in Hierakonpolis, Egypt. "


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"The first zoo hippo in modern history was Obaysch, who arrived at the London Zoo on 25 May 1850, where he attracted up to 10,000 visitors a day and inspired a popular song, the \"Hippopotamus Polka\".Hippos generally breed well in captivity; birth rates are lower than in the wild, but this can be attributed to zoos' desire to limit births, since hippos are relatively expensive to maintain. Staring in 2015, the Cincinnati Zoo built a US$73 million exhibit to house three adult hippos, featuring a 250,000 l (66,000 US gal) tank. Modern hippo enclosures also have a complex filtration system for the animal's waste, an underwater viewing area for the visitors, and glass that may be up to 9 cm (3.5 in) thick and capable holding water under pressures of 31 kPa (4.5 psi).:\u200a158\u2013159\u200a In 1987, the Toledo Zoo saw the first underwater birth by a captive hippo. The exhibit was so popular, the logo of the Toledo Zoo was updated to feature the hippos.\n\n=== Cultural significance ===\n\nIn Egyptian mythology, the god Set takes the form of a red hippopotamus and fights Horus for control of the land, but is defeated. "


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"The goddess Tawaret is depicted as a pregnant woman with a hippo head, representing fierce maternal love. The Ijaw people of the Niger Delta wore masks of aquatic animals like the hippo when practising their water spirit cults, and hippo ivory was used in the divination rituals of the Yoruba. Hippo masks were also used in Nyau funerary rituals of the Chewa of Southern Africa.:\u200a120\u200a According to Robert Baden-Powell, Zulu warriors referred to hippos in war chants. The Behemoth from the Book of Job, 40:15\u201324 is thought to be based on the hippo.Hippos have been the subjects of various African folktales. According to a San story, when the Creator assigned each animal its place in nature, the hippos wanted to live in the water, but were refused out of fear they might eat all the fish. After begging and pleading, the hippos were finally allowed to live in the water on the condition they would eat grass instead of fish, and fling their dung so it can be inspected for fish bones. "


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"In a Ndebele tale, the hippo originally had long, beautiful hair, but it was set on fire by a jealous hare and the hippo had to jump into a nearby pool. The hippo lost most of his hair and was too embarrassed to leave the water.\n\nHippopotamuses were rarely depicted in European art during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, due to less access to specimens by Europeans. One notable exception is Peter Paul Rubens' The Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (1615\u20131616).:\u200a122\u2013123\u200a Ever since Obaysch inspired the \"Hippopotamus Polka\", hippos have been popular animals in Western culture for their rotund appearance, which many consider comical. The Disney film Fantasia featured a ballerina hippo dancing to the opera La Gioconda. The film Hugo the Hippo is set in Tanzania and involves the title character trying to escape being slaughtered with the help of local children. The Madagascar films feature a hippo named Gloria.:\u200a128\u2013129\u200a Hippos even inspired a popular board game, Hungry Hungry Hippos.Among the most famous poems about the hippo is \"The Hippopotamus\" by T. S. Eliot, where he uses the animal to represent the Catholic Church. "


id: ae0628c54ae482f135d2933458e551bc
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"Hippos are mentioned in the novelty Christmas song \"I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas\" that became a hit for child star Gayla Peevey in 1953. They also featured in the popular \"The Hippopotamous Song\" by Flanders and Swann.:\u200a128,\u200a136\u200aA popular internet myth reports that hippos have pink milk. Biologist David Wynick states, \"I think this is an Internet legend that is oft repeated but without any evidence for it that I can find... Like all mammals, hippos produce white or off-white milk for their young.\"== See also ==\n\nAmerican Hippo bill - 1910 bill that proposed the introduction of hippos into Louisiana\nArmley Hippo\nOwen and Mzee - hippo and tortoise who bonded\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\n\"Hippos: Wildlife summary\". African Wildlife Foundation. Archived from the original on 19 November 2010.\n\"Hippo Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union\". International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original on 22 November 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2008.\n\"11 Things You May Not Know About Ancient Egypt: King Tut may have been killed by a hippopotamus\". History. 12 November 2012. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014."


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"The California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) is a nonvenomous colubrid snake endemic to the western United States and northern Mexico, and is found in a variety of habitats. Due to ease of care and a wide range of color variations, the California kingsnake is one of the most popular snakes in captivity.\n\n== Description ==\nThe California kingsnake is on average 2.5 to 3.5 feet long (76 \u2013 107 cm) though they can grow larger; California kingsnakes on Islas Angel de la Guarda, Baja California, Mexico, have been documented growing to 78 inches (2 m). A wide range of color morphs exist in the wild; they are usually found with alternating dark and light bands ranging in color from black and white to brown and cream. Some populations may have longitudinal stripes instead of bands.\n\n== Range and habitat ==\nThe California kingsnake is widespread along the West Coast of North America to elevations of approximately 6,100 ft (1,900 m) in the Tehachapi Mountains and to over 7,000 ft (2,100 m) in the southeastern Sierra Nevada Mountains. This species lives in a wide variety of habitats, including woodland chaparral, grassland, deserts, marshes, and even suburban areas. "


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"These snakes live in Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern Mexico. In Arizona, they intergrade with the desert kingsnake (Lampropeltis splendida) and the Mexican black kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula nigrita). The species has also become invasive on the Spanish island of Gran Canaria.\n\n== Behavior ==\n\nThe California kingsnake is a cathemeral species of snake; they may be active day or night depending on ambient temperatures. During colder months they retreat underground and enter a hibernation-like state called brumation. When disturbed, California kingsnakes will often coil their bodies to hide their heads, hiss, and rattle their tails, which can produce a sound somewhat resembling that of a rattlesnake. When they are nervous they tend to twitch their tails. They are considered harmless to humans, but if handled it is common for this species to bite, as well as excrete musk and fecal contents from their cloaca.\n\n== Diet ==\nCalifornia kingsnakes are opportunistic feeders and common food items include rodents, birds, other reptiles and amphibians. The \"king\" in their name refers to their propensity to hunt and eat other snakes, including venomous rattlesnakes; California kingsnakes are naturally resistant to the venom of rattlesnakes. "


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"California kingsnakes are non-venomous and kill prey by constriction; they are the strongest constrictors proportionate to body size of any snakes. This adaptation may have evolved in response to the kingsnake's preferred reptilian prey, which needs less oxygen to survive an attack by constriction than mammalian prey items.\n\n== Reproduction ==\nThe California kingsnake is an oviparous internal fertilization animal, meaning it lays eggs, as opposed to giving live birth like some other snakes.  Courtship for this kingsnake begins in the spring usually sometime after their hibernation or first shedding and involves the males competing for available females. In order to assert dominance when fighting another male, the California Kingsnake will get onto the other male and proceed biting the other snake. Their mating ritual begins by the male snake vibrating uncontrollably. Eggs are laid between May and August, which is generally 42\u201363 days after mating; in preparation the female will have chosen a suitable location. The typical clutch size is five to 12 eggs with an average of nine, though clutches of 20 or more eggs are known. The hatchlings usually emerge another 40\u201365 days later and are approximately eight to 13 inches in length. "


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"Adult California kingsnakes are most commonly 2.5\u20133.5 feet in length, and rarely exceed four feet.\n\n== In captivity ==\nThe California kingsnake is one of the most popular pet reptiles due to its ease of care, attractive appearance and docile demeanor. Due to natural color and pattern variability between individual snakes, snake enthusiasts have selectively bred for a variety of color patterns known as \"morphs\". Wild-type California kingsnakes are technically illegal to sell without special permits in their home state of California. These increased restrictions are due to a law that prohibits sale of native California species within state lines; albino morphs are exempt from this law. The law is loosely enforced.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Lampropeltis californiae at Wikimedia Commons\n\nLampropeltis californiae \u2013 California Kingsnake \u2013 information and photos of wild snakes.\nCalifornia Kingsnake \u2013 information on captive care.\nDesertUSA: Common Kingsnake \u2013 information about wild common kingsnakes.\nControl of the invasive alien species Lampropeltis getula californiae on the island of Gran Canaria (Spain).\nCalifornia Kingsnake Care Sheet REPTILES magazine"


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"The little corella (Cacatua sanguinea), also known as the short-billed corella, bare-eyed cockatoo, blood-stained cockatoo,  and little cockatoo is a white cockatoo native to Australia and southern New Guinea. It was known as Birdirra among the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara. They would keep them as pets, or traditionally cook and eat them. The downy feathers are used in traditional ceremonies and dances where they adorn head and armbands.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nThe first recorded description of the species was by English ornithologist John Gould in 1843. There are four subspecies as follows:\nC. s. sanguinea\nC. s. normantoni\nC. s. transfreta\nC. s. gymnopis\nC. s. westralensis (Mathews 1917)\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe little corella is a small white cockatoo growing to 35\u201341 cm (14\u201316 in) in length and weighs 370\u2013630 g (13\u201322 oz), with a mean weight of 525 g (1.157 lb). It is similar in appearance to both the long-billed corella and the western corella, but the little corella is smaller, and unlike either of those species, it has upper and lower mandibles of similar length. It is easily distinguished from the long-billed corella by the lack of an orange throat bar. "


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"C. s. normantoni and C. s. normantoni are a little smaller than the nominate form. C. s. normantoni is lightly brownish on the underside of flight and tail feathers. C. s. gymnopis has darker blue eye-rings, more strongly marked pink lores and a yellow wash to the lower-ear coverts. Females are slightly smaller than males in weight, wing length, culmen size, tarsus length, tail length and eye ring diameter.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe nominate form, C. s. sanguinea is found in Northern Australia. C. s. normantoni is found on the Western Cape York Peninsula. C. s. transfreta is found in New Guinea. C. s. gymnopis is found in Central, Eastern, and South-eastern Australia. Habitat ranges from the arid deserts of central Australia to the eastern coastal plains, but they are not found in thick forests. Little corellas can also be found in urban areas, including Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane, where they feed on lawns and playing fields. "


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"They are numerous in farmlands throughout New South Wales and Queensland, and have become so common in some areas that they are considered to be crop pests, and can be destructive to the trees in which they perch, by chewing the bark off smaller twigs.\n\n== Behaviour ==\nLittle corellas congregate in flocks of up to several thousand, which often include other birds such as galahs, sulfur-crested cockatoos and red-tailed black cockatoos. They generally roost in trees overnight, and fly off to feed in the early morning before returning in the late evening. Flocks will often fly many kilometers between their feeding and roosting areas, and in desert areas must also fly to watering holes twice a day, while corellas which live in coastal areas do not have to fly long distances to find water.\n\n=== Call ===\nThe call consists of high pitched notes and screeches somewhat similar to the sulfur-crested cockatoo. Large flocks will call simultaneously and can create a deafening screeching sound audible from several kilometers away.\n\n=== Breeding ===\n\nBreeding occurs from May to October, and usually takes place earlier in the north of its range. "


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"The nest is usually in a tree hollow, cliff cavity or termite mound.\n\n=== Feeding ===\nLittle corellas usually feed on the ground, however occasionally feed in trees and shrubs. They eat a variety of both wild and cultivated seeds and regularly feed on lawn grasses in urban areas. They frequently feed on cereal crops such as wheat, barley and maize and can become a considerable agricultural pest in some areas.\n\n=== Playing ===\nWhen little corellas play, they become very noisy. They have conversations with each other, fly around and also show off. Little corellas show off by hanging themselves upside-down with their feet, beaks or both.\n\n== Relationship to humans ==\nIn Australia, little corellas are considered \"unprotected native fauna\" and may be shot (without a permit), trapped or gassed (with a permit) by landowners. Permits are also available to take a limited number of little corellas from the wild each year for avicultural purposes.\n\n== Threats ==\nIn July 2019, in a scene that was said to resemble a \"horror movie\", about 60 corellas in Adelaide, South Australia, died in a suspected case of poisoning, after \"falling from the sky\", bleeding from their mouths, and wailing. "


id: 9513fdd009c99e89a8cdb160b72895f3
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"At least 57 of the birds were long-billed corellas, with a few of them being were short-billed corellas. It was hoped that whoever poisoned them would get traced after doing a report on toxicology, which could nevertheless take several weeks to complete, because in Australia, people were required to register if they purchase poisons, according to Sarah King, founder of Casper's Bird Rescue, who witnessed the deaths, and also said that the type of poison was a slow one that takes several weeks to work. Additionally, the local Alexandrina council had beforehand called for short-billed corellas to be culled for damaging crops and chewing on streetlights, damaging built infrastructure such as buildings and sporting equipment, and displacing other native species of birds and bees, possums, and other organisms.\n\n== References ==\n\nFlegg, Jim (2002), Birds of Australia: Photographic Field Guide, Sydney: Reed New Holland\n\n== External links ==\n\nWorld Parrot Trust Parrot Encyclopedia - Species Profiles"


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"The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is a wild cat species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. In the 20th century, the Iberian lynx population had declined because of overhunting, poaching, fragmentation of suitable habitats, and the population decline of its main prey species, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), caused by myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease.By the turn of the 21st century, the Iberian lynx was on the verge of extinction, as only 94 individuals survived in two isolated subpopulations in Andalusia in 2002. Conservation measures have been implemented since then, which included improving habitat, restocking of rabbits, translocating,  reintroducing and monitoring Iberian lynxes. By 2012, the population had increased to 326 individuals, to 855 in 2020, and to 1,111 in 2021.It is a monotypic species, and is thought to have evolved from Lynx issiodorensis.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nFelis pardina was the scientific name proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1827 who described skins of Iberian lynxes that were killed in the area of the Tagus river in Portugal and were traded in Paris and London.\nIt is a monotypic species.\n\n"


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"=== Phylogeny ===\nThe Iberian lynx is thought to have evolved from Lynx issiodorensis.\nThe earliest fossil remains of the Iberian lynx date to the Early Pleistocene.The Iberian lynx genetically diverged as a unique species 1.98 to 0.7 million years ago. Its closest living relative is the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) with which it coexisted to a certain degree until the 20th century.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe Iberian lynx has a short bright yellowish to tawny coloured spotted fur. The spots vary in shape and size from small round to elongate. They are arranged in lines and decrease in size from the back towards the sides.\nIts head is small with tufted ears and a ruff. Its body is short with long legs and a short tail. Head and body length of males is 74.7\u201382 cm (29.4\u201332.3 in) with a 12.5\u201316 cm (4.9\u20136.3 in) long tail and a weight of 7\u201315.9 kg (15\u201335 lb). Females are smaller with a head-to-body-length of approximately 68.2\u201377.5 cm (26.9\u201330.5 in) and a weight of 9.2\u201310 kg (20\u201322 lb).\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\nThe Iberian lynx was once present throughout the Iberian Peninsula. "


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"In the 1950s, the northern population extended from the Mediterranean to Galicia and parts of northern Portugal, and the southern population from central to southern Spain. Populations declined from 15 subpopulations in the 1940s to only two subpopulations in the early 1990s, most noticeably in Montes de Toledo and Sierra Morena. Before 1973, it was present in Sierra de Gata, Montes de Toledo, eastern Sierra Morena, Sierra de Relumbrar and coastal plains in the Do\u00f1ana area. Between the early 1960s and 2000, it has lost about 80% of its former range. In 2012, it was restricted to very limited areas in southern Spain, with breeding only confirmed in Sierra Morena and Do\u00f1ana coastal plains. As of 2014, its range included the Sierra Morena and Montes de Toledo of Castilla-La Mancha and the Matachel Valley of Extremadura in Spain, and the Guadiana Valley in Portugal.Fossil remains indicate that the Iberian lynx had a wider range during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Five lynx remains found in Arene Candide in northern Italy date to about 24,820\u201318,620 before present. One specimen found in Cabias cave in southern France was radiocarbon dated to 3780\u00b190 before present. "


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"In 2021, a large concentration of Iberian lynxes dating to 40,000 years ago were identified for the first time in southern Italy, at the fossil site of Ingarano in Apulia.The Iberian lynx prefers heterogeneous environments of open grassland mixed with dense shrubs such as strawberry tree, mastic, and juniper, and trees such as holm oak and cork oak. It is now largely restricted to mountainous areas.\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\nThe Iberian lynx marks its territory with its urine, scratch marks on the barks of trees, and scat. The home ranges of adults are stable over many years.\nCamera trapping surveys in the eastern Sierra Morena Mountains between 1999 and 2008 revealed that six females had home ranges of 5.2\u20136.6 km2 (2.0\u20132.5 sq mi). Four males in the area had home ranges of 11.8\u201312.2 km2 (4.6\u20134.7 sq mi).\n\n=== Diet and hunting ===\n\nThe Iberian lynx preys foremost on the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) for the bulk of its diet, supplemented by red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), rodents and to a smaller degree also on wild ungulates.\nIt sometimes preys on young fallow deer (Dama dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), and ducks. "


id: f11ca25a20f6fe8550f082cf31dac730
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"A male requires one rabbit per day, while a female raising kittens will eat three per day.The species has low adaptability \u2014 it continued to rely heavily on rabbits (75% of its food intake) despite the latter's repeated population crashes due to myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease.It competes for prey with the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), and the European wildcat (Felis silvestris). Also, it often kills other smaller carnivores such as the aforementioned red fox, Egyptian mongoose and common genet (Genetta genetta).\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\nThe kittens become independent at 7 to 10 months old, but remain with the mother until around 20 months old. Survival of the young depends heavily on the availability of prey species. In the wild, both males and females reach sexual maturity at the age of one year, though in practice they rarely breed until a territory becomes vacant; one female was known not to breed until five years old when its mother died. The maximum longevity in the wild is 13 years.Difficulty in finding mates has led to more inbreeding, which results in fewer kittens and a greater rate of non-traumatic death. "


id: 4c20b53eb3bf4db8c23253e760a11587
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Inbreeding leads to lower semen quality and greater rates of infertility in males, hindering efforts to increase the species' fitness.\n\n== Threats ==\nThe Iberian lynx is threatened by habitat loss, road accidents, and illegal hunting. Habitat loss is due mainly to infrastructure improvement, urban and resort development and tree mono cultivation, which fragments the lynx's distribution. In the 20th century, rabbit diseases such as myxomatosis and hemorrhagic disease resulted in a dramatic decline of its main prey. Illegal traps set for rabbits and foxes were leading causes for lynx fatality in the 1990s.\nEvery year, several Iberian lynxes die when trying to cross highways with heavy traffic. In 2013, 14 Iberian lynxes died on roads, and 21 in 2014.In 2007, several individuals died of feline leukemia.In 2013, it was reported that the Iberian lynx possesses antibiotic resistant bacteria within its digestive tract, which may lead to more dangerous and difficult-to-treat infections, and decrease its fitness. Climate change may threaten the Iberian lynx, as it is not able to adapt well to a climate change. It may be induced to disperse to areas with a more suitable climate but fewer rabbits, a circumstance that may contribute to higher mortality.\n\n"


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"== Conservation ==\n\nThe Iberian lynx is fully protected. It is listed on CITES Appendix I, on Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive of the European Union. It has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2014.Conservation measures include restoring its native habitat, maintaining the wild rabbit population, reducing unnatural causes of death, and releasing captive bred individuals.\nThe Spanish National Commission for the Protection of Nature endorsed the Iberian Lynx Ex Situ Conservation Breeding Program to serve as a \"safety net\" by managing the captive population and also to \"help establish new Iberian lynx free-ranging populations through reintroduction programmes.\"Before release of captive-bred cats, their natural habit may be simulated to prepare them for life in the wild. A 2006 study used a non-intrusive monitoring system involving cameras to monitor the demographics of both lynxes and rabbits residing in Sierra Morena. Supplemental food sources could be provided if wild rabbits suffered a decline.Management efforts are being developed to conserve and restore the animal's native range. "


id: 1c426235dafaacc3857535f89e7cdd0
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"Officials intending to release captive-bred lynx look for areas of appropriate habitat, rabbit abundance, and acceptance by the local human population. About 90 million euros was spent on various conservation measures between 1994 and 2013. The European Union contributes up to 61% of funding.\n\n=== Reintroduction programme ===\n\nBeginning in 2009, the Iberian lynx was reintroduced into Guadalmellato, resulting in a population of 23 in 2013. Since 2010, the species has also been released in Guarrizas. Discussions were held with the Ministry of Environment on plans for releases in the Campanarios de Azaba area near Salamanca. In April 2013, it was reported that Andalusia's total wild population\u2014only 94 in 2002\u2014had tripled to 309 individuals. In July 2013, environmental groups confirmed the presence of a wild-born litter in the Province of C\u00e1ceres (Extremadura). "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"A study published in July 2013 in Nature Climate Change advised that reintroduction programs take place in northern Iberia, suggesting that climate change would threaten rabbits in the south.On 26 November 2014, 3 Iberian lynxes were released in the Montes de Toledo; one of them later traveled near Aranjuez, in the Madrid region, the first time in 40 years.The presence of Iberian lynxes in Portugal, particularly in the south, has been verified. In 2014, the Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests signed contracts securing 2,000 hectares of land for Portugal's reintroduction project.\nIn 2015, 10 captive-bred Iberian lynxes were released into Guadiana Valley Natural Park and surrounding areas in southeastern Portugal's Guadiana Valley. By the end of 2015, there were 400 lynx on the Iberian peninsula, the vast majority in Andalusia, in southern Spain, but with smaller new populations in the hills near Toledo, in Extremadura (south-western Spain) and in southern Portugal.The reintroduction of Iberian lynx in Portugal has been a success; from 17 animals that were reintroduced, 12 have already established territories.Since a 2007 outbreak of feline leukemia virus (FeLV), wild lynxes are tested periodically for possible disease. "


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created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"September\u2013December 2013 samples were negative for FeLV but one male became the first of his species to test positive for feline immunodeficiency virus and was placed into quarantine.\n\n=== Captive breeding ===\n\nIn 2002, the Jerez Zoo confirmed it had three females and was developing a plan for a captive breeding program. One of those females was Saliega, captured as a kitten in April 2002. She became the first Iberian lynx to breed in captivity, giving birth to three healthy kittens on 29 March 2005 at the El Acebuche Breeding Center, in the Do\u00f1ana National Park in Huelva, Spain. Over the following years, the number of births grew and additional breeding centers were opened. In March 2009, it was reported that 27 kittens had been born since the beginning of the program. In 2009, the Spanish government planned to build a \u20ac5.5 million breeding center in Zarza de Granadilla.In Portugal, the Centro Nacional de Reprodu\u00e7\u00e3o do Lince-Ib\u00e9rico established a breeding center near Silves, Portugal, and has since nurtured 122 individuals all born in the breeding center, of which 89 survived. 73 of them were reintroduced in the wild. Reintroduction takes place in M\u00e9rtola and Serpa in the Guadiana Valley. "


id: a67e698f88baf210295ed813e9684173
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"As of 2020, there are around 140 individuals in the wild in Portugal spread through an area of approximately 50,000 hectares, 50 of them are cubs.There were 14 surviving kittens in 2008 and 15 in 2009. In 2010, intense rain and health issues resulted in lower reproductive success, i.e. 14 born, eight surviving. But the next year, breeding centers recorded 45 births with 26 surviving kittens. In 2012, breeding centers in Portugal and Spain reported a total of 44 survivors from 59 births, while 2013 saw a total of 44 survivors out of 53 born. In 2017, the total population of Iberian lynx reached 475 specimens. In February 2019, the total population was estimated to grow to around 650 individuals.\n\nIn March 2013, it was reported that Iberian lynx embryos and oocytes had been collected and preserved for the first time. They were collected from Saliega and another female\u2014both sterilized and retired from the breeding program\u2014by Berlin's Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research and stored in liquid nitrogen at the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales in Madrid for possible future breeding. "


id: 25f86b10d71c89fbd65a76993515c780
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"In July 2014, the MNCN-CSIC announced they had produced sperm cells from the testicular tissue of sexually immature lynx.Iberian lynxes are kept at Jerez Zoo, at Lisbon Zoo since December 2014, and since July 2016 at the Madrid Zoo.\n\n== Genetic research ==\nThe genetic diversity of the Iberian lynx is lower than in any other genetically impoverished felid, which is a consequence of fragmentation, a population bottleneck, and isolation of population units. Iberian lynxes in Do\u00f1ana and Andujar differ genetically at microsatellite markers. Samples collected in Do\u00f1ana exhibited a high degree of inbreeding as this unit was isolated for a long time.\n\n== See also ==\n\nBobcat\nCanada lynx\nFelicola isidoroi\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nLarge Carnivore Initiative for Europe \u2013 Iberian lynx\nPrograma de Conservaci\u00f3n Ex-Situ Official Spanish government page (in Spanish)\nSpecies portrait Iberian lynx; IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group\nARKive \u2013 Images and movies of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)\nThe natural history of the Iberian lynx\nLynx in vertebradosibericos.org (in Spanish)\nWWF species profile: Iberian lynx\nLynx pardinus in Naturdata (in Portuguese)"


id: 871ff8ae3a23a4d6c5bd80221bc4711
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"The Russian tortoise (Testudo horsfieldii), also commonly known as the Afghan tortoise, the Central Asian tortoise, Horsfield's tortoise, four-clawed tortoise, and the (Russian) steppe tortoise, is a threatened species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is endemic to Central Asia. Human activities in its native habitat contribute to its threatened status.\n\n== Etymology ==\nBoth the specific name, horsfieldii, and the common name \"Horsfield's tortoise\" are in honor of the American naturalist Thomas Horsfield.\n\n== Systematics ==\nThis species is traditionally placed in Testudo. Due to distinctly different morphological characteristics, the monotypic genus Agrionemys was proposed for it in 1966, and was accepted for several decades, although not unanimously. DNA sequence analysis generally concurred, but not too robustly so. However, in 2021, it was again reclassified in Testudo by the Turtle Taxonomy Working Group and the Reptile Database, with Agrionemys being relegated to a distinct subgenus that T. horsfieldii belonged to. "


id: 31df81c0cbad097fdfa57e3a0b61968e
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"The Turtle Taxonomy Working Group lists five separate subspecies of Russian tortoise, but they are not widely accepted by taxonomists:\nT. h. bogdanovi Chkhikvadze, 2008 \u2013 southern Krygystan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan\nT. h. horsfieldii (Gray, 1844) \u2013 Afghanistan/Pakistan and southern Central Asia\nT. h. kazachstanica Chkhikvadze, 1988 \u2013 Kazakhstan/Karakalpakhstan\nT. h. kuznetzovi Chkhikvadze, Ataev, Shammakov & Zatoka, 2009 \u2013 northern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan\nT. h. rustamovi Chkhikvadze, Amiranschwili & Atajew, 1990 \u2013 southwestern Turkmenistan\n\n== Description ==\nThe Russian tortoise is a small tortoise species, with a size range of 13\u201325 cm (5\u201310 in). Females grow slightly larger (15\u201325 cm [6\u201310 in]) to accommodate more eggs. Males average 13\u201320 cm (5\u20138 in).\nRussian tortoises are sexually dimorphic. Males tend to have longer tails generally tucked to the side, and longer claws; females have a short, fat tail, with shorter claws than the males. The male has a slit-shaped vent (cloaca) near the tip of its tail; the female has an asterisk-shaped vent (cloaca).\nRussian tortoises have four toes. Coloration varies, but the shell is usually a ruddy brown or black, fading to yellow between the scutes, and the body is straw-yellow and brown depending on the subspecies.\n"


id: 8c0a24162dd7f3c73e189f9246a37a82
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"The male Russian tortoise courts a female through head bobbing, circling, and biting her forelegs. When she submits, he mounts her from behind, making high-pitched squeaking noises during mating.The species can spend as much as 9 months of the year in dormancy.\n\n== Captivity ==\nRussian tortoises are popular pets. They can be kept indoors or outdoors, but outdoor tortoise enclosures generally require less equipment and upkeep, and are preferable if the keeper lives in an appropriate climate. Indoor enclosures should measure 8\u2019L x 4\u2019W x 2.5\u2019H, or otherwise offer 32 square feet of floor space. Indoors, specialized equipment is required to maintain moderate temperatures and moderate humidity, with UVB light available in an appropriate strength.\nIn captivity, Russian tortoises\u2019 diet typically consists of lamb's lettuce, plantains and various other dark leafy greens. The diet should be as varied as possible to reduce the risk of imbalanced nutrition. Water is important for all species; the tortoise, being an arid species, will typically get water from their food, but they still need a constant supply. Young Russian tortoises should be soaked 1-2x/weekly in lukewarm water no deeper than their elbows to keep hydrated. "


id: 2d2c03cd0e54104c72ccbcfbc6a427fb
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"Tortoises typically empty their bowels in water to hide their scent; this is an instinct, and it also helps keep their enclosure cleaner.Russian tortoises can live up to 50 years, and require annual hibernation.\nRussian tortoises do not require a CITES Article X certificate.\n\n== 1968 Moon flight ==\nIn September 1968 two Russian tortoises flew to the Moon, circled it, and returned safely to Earth on the Soviet Zond 5 mission. Accompanied by mealworms, plants, and other lifeforms, they were the first Earth creatures to travel to the Moon.\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nda N\u00f3brega Alves, R\u00f4mulo Romeu; da Silva Vieira, Washington Luiz; Gomes Santana, Gindomar (2008). \"Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications\". Biodiversity and Conservation 17(8): 2037\u20132049. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9305-0 (HTML abstract, PDF first page).\nFritz, Uwe; Kirok\u00fd, Pavel; Kami, Hajigholi; Wink, Michael (2005). \"Environmentally caused dwarfism or a valid species \u2013 Is Testudo weissingeri Bour, 1996 a distinct evolutionary lineage? New evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear genomic markers\". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37: 389\u2013401. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.007.\nKhozatsky LI, Mlynarski M (1966). \"Agrionemys \u2013 nouveau genre de tortues terrestres (Testudinidae) \". Bulletin de l'Acad\u00e9mie Polonaise des Sciences II \u2013 S\u00e9rie des Sciences Biologiques 2: 123\u2013125. "


id: c275a11c15b678ef53b0945f6b04a9b0
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content_type: text
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content:
"(Agrionemys, new genus). (in French).\nAlderton D (1988). Turtles and Tortoises of the World. New York: Facts on File.\nErnst CH, Barbour RW (1989). Turtles of the World. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian Institution Press.\nHighfield AC (1990). Keeping and Breeding Tortoises in Captivity. Avon, England: R & A Publishing.\nObst FJ (1988). Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins. New York: St. Martin's Press.\nPritchard PCH (1979). Encyclopedia of Turtles. Neptune City, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications.\nPursall B (1994). Mediterranean Tortoises. Neptune City, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications.\nWahlquist H (1991). \"Horsfield's tortoise, Agrionemys horsfieldii \". Tortuga Gazette 27 (6): 1\u20133.\n\n== External links ==\n\nSpecies Testudo horsfieldii at The Reptile DatabaseRussian (Horsfield's) Tortoise Care Information\nTortoise Forum: Russian Tortoise Care Sheet\nTortoise Supply: Russian Tortoise Care Sheet\nTurtleTimes - Online Resource for Tortoises and Turtles\nPopular Pets: Russian Tortoise Care Sheet\nRussian Tortoise Basic Care and some insight\nRussian Tortoise Care and Information Resource"


id: fbd6eff37b5dfa1b07efc6ee8aded7af
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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"The addax (Addax nasomaculatus), also known as the white antelope and the screwhorn antelope, is an antelope native to the Sahara Desert. The only member of the genus Addax, it was first described scientifically by Henri de Blainville in 1816. As suggested by its alternative name, the pale antelope has long, twisted horns \u2013 typically 55 to 80 cm (22 to 31 in) in females and 70 to 85 cm (28 to 33 in) in males. Males stand from 105 to 115 cm (41 to 45 in) at the shoulder, with females at 95 to 110 cm (37 to 43 in). They are sexually dimorphic, as the females are smaller than the males. The colour of the coat depends on the season \u2013 in the winter, it is greyish-brown with white hindquarters and legs, and long, brown hair on the head, neck, and shoulders; in the summer, the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde.\nThe addax mainly eats grasses and leaves of any available shrubs, leguminous herbs and bushes. They are well-adapted to exist in their desert habitat, as they can live without water for long periods of time. "


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"Addax form herds of five to 20 members, consisting of both males and females. They are led by the oldest female. Due to its slow movements, the addax is an easy target for its predators: humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs and African wild dogs. Breeding season is at its peak during winter and early spring. The natural habitat of the addax are arid regions, semideserts and sandy and stony deserts.\nThe addax is a critically endangered species of antelope, as classified by the IUCN. Although extremely rare in its native habitat due to unregulated hunting, it is quite common in captivity. The addax was once abundant in North Africa; however it is currently only native to Chad, Mauritania, and Niger. It is extirpated from Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, and Western Sahara, but has been reintroduced into Morocco and Tunisia.\n\n== Taxonomy and naming ==\nThe scientific name of the addax is Addax nasomaculatus. This antelope was first described by French zoologist and anatomist Henri Blainville in 1816. It is placed in the monotypic genus Addax and the family Bovidae. Henri Blainville observed syntypes in Bullock's Pantherion and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. "


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"English naturalist Richard Lydekker stated their type locality to be probably Senegambia, though he did not have anything to support the claim. Finally, from a discussion in 1898, it became more probable that British hunters or collectors obtained the addax from the part of the Sahara in Tunisia.The generic name Addax is thought to be obtained from an Arabic word meaning a wild animal with crooked horns. It is also thought to have originated from a Latin word. The name was first used in 1693. The specific name nasomaculatus comes from the Latin words nasus (or the prefix naso-) meaning nose, and maculatus meaning spotted, referring to the spots and facial markings of the species. Bedouins use another name for the addax, the Arabic bakr (or bagr) al wahsh, which literally means \"the cow of the wild\". That name can be used to refer to other ungulates as well. The other common names of addax are \"white antelope\" and \"screwhorn antelope\".\n\n== Genetics ==\nThe addax has 29 pairs of chromosomes. All chromosomes are acrocentric except for the first pair of autosomes, which are submetacentric. "


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"The X chromosome is the largest of the acrocentric chromosomes, and the Y chromosome is medium-sized. The short and long arms of the pair of submetacentric autosomes correspond respectively to the 27th and 1st chromosomes in cattle and goats. In a study, the banding patterns of chromosomes in addax were found to be similar to those in four other species of the subfamily Hippotraginae.\n\n== History and fossil record ==\nIn ancient times, the addax occurred from northern Africa through Arabia and the Levant. Pictures in a tomb, dating back to 2500 BCE, show at least the partial domestication of the addax by the ancient Egyptians. These pictures show addax and some other antelopes tied with ropes to stakes. The number of addax captured by a person were considered an indicator of his high social and economic position in the society. The pygarg (\"white-buttocked\") beast mentioned in Deuteronomy 14:5 is believed to have been an addax. "


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"But today, excess poaching has resulted in the extinction of this species in Egypt since the 1960s.Addax fossils have been found in four sites of Egypt \u2013 a 7000 BCE fossil from the Great Sand Sea, a 5000\u20136000 BCE fossil from Djara, a 4000\u20137000 BCE fossil from Abu Ballas Stufenmland and a 5000 BCE fossil from Gilf Kebir. Apart from these, fossils have also been excavated from Mittleres Wadi Howar (6300 BCE fossil), and Pleistocene fossils from Grotte Neandertaliens, Jebel Irhoud and Parc d'Hydra.\n\n== Physical description ==\n\nThe addax is a spiral-horned antelope. Male addaxes stand from 105 to 115 cm (41 to 45 in) at the shoulder, with females at 95 to 110 cm (37 to 43 in). They are sexually dimorphic, as the females are smaller than the males. The head and body length in both sexes is  120 to 130 cm (47 to 51 in), with a 25 to 35 cm (9.8 to 13.8 in) long tail. The weight of males varies from 100 to 125 kg (220 to 276 lb), and that of females from 60 to 90 kg (130 to 200 lb).The coloring of the addax's coat varies with the season. "


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"In the winter, it is greyish-brown with white hindquarters and legs, and long, brown hair on the head, neck, and shoulders. In the summer, the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde. Their head is marked with brown or black patches that form an 'X' over their noses. They have scraggly beards and prominent red nostrils. Long, black hairs stick out between their curved and spiralling horns, ending in a short mane on the neck.\n\nThe horns, which are found on both males and females, have two to three twists and are typically 55 to 80 cm (22 to 31 in) in females and 70 to 85 cm (28 to 33 in) in males, although the maximum recorded length is 109.2 cm (43.0 in). The lower and middle portions of the horns are marked with a series of 30 to 35 ring-shaped ridges. The tail is short and slender, ending in a puff of black hair. The hooves are broad with flat soles and strong dewclaws to help them walk on soft sand. All four feet possess scent glands. "


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"The life span of the addax is up to 19 years in the wild, which can be extended to 25 years under captivity.The addax closely resembles the scimitar oryx, but can be distinguished by its horns and facial markings. While the addax is spiral-horned, the scimitar oryx has decurved 127 cm (50 in) long horns. The addax has a brown hair tuft extending from the base of its horns to between its eyes. A white patch, continuing from the brown hair, extends until the middle of the cheek. On the other hand, the scimitar oryx has a white forehead with only a notable brown marking: a brown lateral stripe across its eyes. It differs from other antelopes by having large, square teeth like cattle and lacking the typical facial glands.\n\n=== Addaxes in Souss-Massa National Park, Morocco ===\n\n=== Parasites ===\nThe addax is most prone to parasites in moist climatic conditions. Addaxes have always been infected with nematodes in the Trichostrongyloidea and Strongyloidea superfamilies. In an exotic ranch in Texas, an addax was found host to the nematodes Haemonchus contortus and Longistrongylus curvispiculum in its abomasum, of which the former was dominant.\n\n"


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"== Behavior and ecology ==\nThese animals are mainly nocturnal, particularly in summer. In the day, they dig into the sand in shady locations and rest in these depressions, which also protect them from sandstorms. Addax herds contain both males and females, and have from five to 20 members. They will generally stay in one place and only wander widely in search of food. The addax has a strong social structure, probably based on age, and herds are led by the oldest female.  Herds are more likely to be found along the northern edge of the tropical rain system during the summer and move north as winter falls.  They are able to track rainfall and will head for these areas where vegetation is more plentiful. Males are territorial and guard females, while the females establish their own dominance hierarchies.Due to its slow movements, the addax is an easy target for predators such as humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs and African wild dogs. Caracals, servals and hyenas attack calves. The addax is normally not aggressive, though individuals may charge if they are disturbed.\n\n=== Adaptations ===\n\nThe addax is amply suited to live in the deep desert under extreme conditions. "


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"It can survive without free water almost indefinitely, because it gets moisture from its food and dew that condenses on plants. Scientists believe the addax has a special lining in its stomach that stores water in pouches to use in times of dehydration. It also produces highly concentrated urine to conserve water. The pale colour of the coat reflects radiant heat, and the length and density of the coat helps in thermoregulation. In the day the addax huddles together in shaded areas, and on cool nights rests in sand hollows. These practices help in dissipation of body heat and saving water by cooling the body through evaporation.In a study, eight addaxes on a diet of grass hay (Chloris gayana) were studied to determine the retention time of food from the digestive tract. It was found that food retention time was long, taken as an adaptation to a diet including a high proportion of slow fermenting grasses; while the long fluid retention time could be interpreted to be due to water-saving mechanisms with low water turnover and a roomy rumen.\n\n"


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"=== Diet ===\n\nThe addax lives in desert terrain where it eats grasses and leaves of what shrubs, leguminous herbs and bushes are available. Primarily a grazer, its staple foods include Aristida, Panicum, and Stipagrostis, and it will only consume browse, such as leaves of Acacia trees in the absence of these grasses. It also eats perennials which turn green and sprout at the slightest bit of humidity or rain. The addax eats only certain parts of the plant and tends to crop the Aristida grasses neatly to the same height. By contrast, when feeding on Panicum grass, the drier outer leaves are left alone while it eats the tender inner shoots and seeds. These seeds are important part of the addax's diet, being its main source of protein.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\nFemales are sexually mature at 2 to 3 years of age and males at about 2 years. Breeding occurs throughout the year, but it peaks during winter and early spring. In the northern Sahara, breeding peaks at the end of winter and the beginning of spring; in the southern Sahara, breeding peaks from September to October and from January to mid-April. "


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"Each estrus bout lasts for one or two days.In a study, the blood serum of female addaxes was analyzed through immunoassay to know about their luteal phase. Estrous cycle duration was of about 33 days. During pregnancy, ultrasonography showed the uterine horns as coiled. The maximum diameters of the ovarian follicle and the corpus luteum were 15 mm (0.59 in) and 27 mm (1.1 in). Each female underwent an anovulatory period lasting 39 to 131 days, during which there was no ovulation. Anovulation was rare in winter, which suggested the effect of seasons on the estrous cycle.Gestation period lasts 257\u2013270 days (about nine months). Females may lie or stand during the delivery, during which one calf is born. A postpartum estrus occurs after two or three days. The calf weighs 5 kg (11 lb) at birth and is weaned at 23\u201329 weeks old.\n\n== Habitat and distribution ==\nThe addax inhabits arid regions, semideserts and sandy and stony deserts. It even occurs in extremely arid areas, with less than 100 mm annual rainfall. It also inhabits deserts with tussock grasses (Stipagrostis species) and succulent thorn scrub Cornulaca. "


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"Formerly, the addax was widespread in the Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley and all countries sharing the Sahara Desert; but today the only known self-sustaining population is present in the Termit Massif Reserve (Niger). However, there are reports of sightings from the eastern Air Mountains (Niger) and Bod\u00e9l\u00e9 (Chad). Rare nomads may be seen in northern Niger, southern Algeria and Libya; and the addax is rumoured to be present along the Mali/Mauritania border, though there have been no confirmed sightings. The addax was once abundant in North Africa, native to Chad, Mauritania and Niger. It is extinct in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Sudan and the Western Sahara. It has been reintroduced into Morocco and Tunisia.\n\n== Threats and conservation ==\n\nDeclines in the population of the addax have been ongoing since the mid-1800s. More recently, addaxes were found from Algeria to Sudan, but due mainly to overhunting, they have become much more restricted and rare.Addaxes are easy to hunt due to their slow movements. Roadkill, firearms for easy hunting and nomadic settlements near waterholes (their dry-season feeding places) have also decreased their numbers. Moreover, their meat and leather are highly prized. "


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"Other threats include chronic droughts in the deserts, habitat destruction due to more human settlements and agriculture. Fewer than 500 individuals are thought to exist in the wild today, most of the animals being found between the Termit area of Niger, the Bod\u00e9l\u00e9 region of western Chad, and the Aoukar in Mauritania.Today there are over 600 addaxes in Europe, Yotvata Hai-Bar Nature Reserve (Israel), Sabratha (Libya), Giza Zoo (Egypt), North America, Japan and Australia under captive breeding programmes. There are thousands more in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East. Addaxes are legally protected in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; hunting of all gazelles is forbidden in Libya and Egypt. Although enormous reserves, such as the Hoggar Mountains and Tasilli in Algeria, the T\u00e9n\u00e9r\u00e9 in Niger, the Ouadi Rim\u00e9-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar National Park in Sudan, cover areas where the addax previously occurred, some do not keep addaxes at the present time because they lack the resources. The addax has been reintroduced into Bou-Hedma National Park (Tunisia) and Souss-Massa National Park (Morocco). "


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"Reintroductions in the wild are ongoing in Jebil National Park (Tunisia) and Grand Erg Oriental (the Sahara), and another is planned for Morocco.\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\nMedia related to Addax at Wikimedia Commons\nData related to Addax nasomaculatus at Wikispecies"


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"The leopard (Panthera pardus) is one of the five extant species in the genus Panthera, a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, and on the Indian subcontinent to Southeast and East Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because leopard populations are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, and are declining in large parts of the global range. The leopard is considered locally extinct in Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Jordan, Morocco, Togo, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Kuwait, Syria, Libya, Tunisia and most likely in North Korea, Gambia, Laos, Lesotho, Tajikistan, Vietnam and Israel.\nContemporary records suggest that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical global range.Compared to other wild cats, the leopard has relatively short legs and a long body with a large skull. Its fur is marked with rosettes. It is similar in appearance to the jaguar (Panthera onca), but has a smaller, lighter physique, and its rosettes are generally smaller, more densely packed and without central spots. Both leopards and jaguars that are melanistic are known as black panthers. "


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"The leopard is distinguished by its well-camouflaged fur, opportunistic hunting behaviour, broad diet, strength, and its ability to adapt to a variety of habitats ranging from rainforest to steppe, including arid and montane areas. It can run at speeds of up to 58 km/h (36 mph). The earliest known leopard fossils excavated in Europe are estimated 600,000 years old, dating to the late Early Pleistocene. Leopard fossils were also found in Sumatra, Taiwan and Japan.\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe English name 'leopard' comes from Old French: leupart or Middle French: liepart, that derives from Latin: leopardus and Ancient Greek: \u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 (leopardos). Leopardos could be a compound of \u03bb\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd (le\u014dn), meaning lion, and \u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 (pardos), meaning spotted. The word \u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 originally referred to a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus).'Panther' is another common name, derived from Latin: panther and Ancient Greek: \u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1 (p\u00e1nth\u0113r); The generic name Panthera originates in Latin: panthera, which refers to a hunting net for catching wild beasts that were used by the Romans in combats. Pardus is the masculine singular form.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nThe leopard's fur is generally soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the back. "


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"Its skin colour varies between individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its belly is whitish and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round. Leopards living in arid regions are pale cream, yellowish to ochraceous and rufous in colour; those living in forests and mountains are much darker and deep golden. Spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs. Rosettes are circular in East African leopard populations, and tend to be squarish in Southern African and larger in Asian leopard populations. The fur tends to be grayish in colder climates, and dark golden in rain forest habitats. The pattern of the rosettes is unique in each individual. This pattern is thought to be an adaptation to dense vegetation with patchy shadows, where it serves as camouflage.Its white-tipped tail is about 60\u2013100 cm (23.6\u201339.4 in) long, white underneath and with spots that form incomplete bands toward the tail's end.\nThe guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, 3\u20134 mm (0.1\u20130.2 in) in face and head, and increase in length toward the flanks and the belly to about 25\u201330 mm (1.0\u20131.2 in). "


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"Juveniles have woolly fur, and appear to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots.\nIts fur tends to grow longer in colder climates.\nThe leopard's rosettes differ from those of the jaguar (Panthera onca), which are darker and with smaller spots inside.The leopard has a diploid chromosome number of 38.\nThe chromosomes include four acrocentric, five metacentric, seven submetacentric and two telocentric pairs.\n\n=== Size and weight ===\nThe leopard is sexually dimorphic with males larger and heavier than females. It is slender and muscular, with relatively short limbs and a broad head. Males stand 60\u201370 cm (23.6\u201327.6 in) at the shoulder, while females are 57\u201364 cm (22.4\u201325.2 in) tall. The head-and-body length ranges between 90 and 196 cm (2 ft 11.4 in and 6 ft 5.2 in) with a 66 to 102 cm (2 ft 2.0 in to 3 ft 4.2 in) long tail. Sizes vary geographically. Males weigh 37\u201390 kg (81.6\u2013198.4 lb), and females 28\u201360 kg (61.7\u2013132.3 lb).\nSome leopards in North Africa allegedly were as large as Barbary lions (Panthera leo leo). In 1913, an Algerian newspaper reported a leopard killed that allegedly measured about 275 cm (9 ft 0 in) in total length.\n"


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"The maximum weight of a wild leopard in Southern Africa was about 96 kg (212 lb). It measured 262 cm (8 ft 7.1 in). An Indian leopard killed in Himachal Pradesh in 2016 measured 261 cm (8 ft 6.8 in) with an estimated weight of 78.5 kg (173.1 lb); it was perhaps the largest known wild leopard in India.The largest skull of a leopard was recorded in India in 1920 and measured 28 cm (11.0 in) in basal length, 20 cm (7.9 in) in breadth, and weighed 1,000 g (2 lb 4 oz). The skull of an African leopard measured 285.8 mm (11.25 in) in basal length, and 181.0 mm (7.125 in) in breadth, and weighed 790 g (1 lb 12 oz).\n\n=== Variant colouration ===\n\nMelanistic leopards are also called black panthers. Melanism in leopards is caused by a recessive allele and inherited as a recessive trait. Interbreeding in melanistic leopards produces a significantly smaller litter size than is produced by normal pairings.\nThe black leopard is common foremost in tropical and subtropical moist forests like the equatorial rainforest of the Malay Peninsula and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya.\n"


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"Between January 1996 and March 2009, leopards were photographed at 16 sites in the Malay Peninsula in a sampling effort of more than 1,000 camera trap nights. Of the 445 photographs of melanistic leopards, 410 were taken in study sites south of the Kra Isthmus, where the non-melanistic morph was never photographed. These data indicate the near-fixation of the dark allele in the region. The expected time for the fixation of this recessive allele due to genetic drift alone ranged from about 1,100 years to about 100,000 years. Pseudomelanistic leopards have also been reported.In India, nine pale and white leopards were reported between 1905 and 1967.\nLeopards exhibiting erythrism were recorded between 1990 and 2015 in South Africa's Madikwe Game Reserve and in Mpumalanga. The cause of this morph known as a \"strawberry leopard\" or \"pink panther\" is not well understood.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nFelis pardus was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.\nThe generic name Panthera was first used by Lorenz Oken in 1816, who included all the known spotted cats into this group.\n"


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"Oken's classification was not widely accepted, and Felis or Leopardus was used as the generic name until the early 20th century.The leopard was designated as the type species of Panthera by Joel Asaph Allen in 1902.\nIn 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock also subordinated the tiger (P. tigris), lion (P. leo), and jaguar (P. onca) to Panthera.\n\n=== Subspecies ===\nFollowing Linnaeus' first description, 27 leopard subspecies were proposed by naturalists between 1794 and 1956. Since 1996, only eight subspecies have been considered valid on the basis of mitochondrial analysis. Later analysis revealed a ninth valid subspecies, the Arabian leopard.In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the following eight subspecies as valid taxa:\nResults of an analysis of molecular variance and pairwise fixation index of 182 African leopard museum specimens showed that some African leopards exhibit higher genetic differences than Asian leopard subspecies.\n\n=== Evolution ===\n\nResults of phylogenetic studies based on nDNA and mtDNA analysis showed that the last common ancestor of the Panthera and Neofelis genera is thought to have lived about 6.37 million years ago. Neofelis diverged about 8.66 million years ago from the Panthera lineage. "


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"The tiger diverged about 6.55 million years ago, followed by the snow leopard about 4.63 million years ago and the leopard about 4.35 million years ago. The leopard is a sister taxon to a clade within Panthera, consisting of the lion and the jaguar.Results of a phylogenetic analysis of chemical secretions amongst cats indicated that the leopard is closely related to the lion.\nThe geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene. The leopard-lion clade diverged 3.1\u20131.95 million years ago. Additionally, a 2016 study revealed that the mitochondrial genomes of the leopard, lion and snow leopard are more similar to each other than their nuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestors hybridized with the snow leopard at some point in their evolution.Fossils of leopard ancestors were excavated in East Africa and South Asia, dating back to the Pleistocene between 2 and 3.5 million years ago. The modern leopard is suggested to have evolved in Africa about 0.5 to 0.8 million years ago and to have radiated across Asia about 0.2 and 0.3 million years ago.\n"


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"Fossil cat teeth collected in Sumatra's Padang Highlands were assigned to the leopard. It has since been hypothesized that it became extirpated on the island due to the Toba eruption about 75,000 years ago, and due to competition with the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) and the dhole (Cuon alpinus).In Europe, the leopard occurred at least since the Pleistocene. Leopard-like fossil bones and teeth possibly dating to the Pliocene were excavated in Perrier in France, northeast of London, and in Valdarno, Italy. Until 1940, similar fossils dating back to the Pleistocene were excavated mostly in loess and caves at 40 sites in Europe, including Furninha Cave near Lisbon, Genista Caves in Gibraltar, and Santander Province in northern Spain to several sites across France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, in the north up to Derby in England, in the east to P\u0159erov in the Czech Republic and the Baranya in southern Hungary, Leopard fossils dating to the Late Pleistocene were found in Bi\u015bnik Cave in south-central Poland. The oldest known leopard fossils excavated in Europe are about 600,000 years old and were found in the Grotte du Vallonnet in France and near Mauer in Germany. Four European Pleistocene leopard subspecies were proposed. "


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"P. p. begoueni from the beginning of the Early Pleistocene was replaced about 0.6 million years ago by P. p. sickenbergi, which in turn was replaced by P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. The most recent, P. p. spelaea, appeared at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene and survived until about 24,000 years ago in several parts of Europe. Leopard fossils dating to the Pleistocene were also excavated in the Japanese archipelago.\n\n=== Hybrids ===\n\nIn 1953, a male leopard and a lioness were crossbred in Hanshin Park in Nishinomiya, Japan. Their offspring known as a leopon was born in 1959 and 1961, all cubs were spotted and bigger than a juvenile leopard. Attempts to mate a leopon with a tigress were unsuccessful.\n\n== Distribution and habitat ==\n\nThe leopard has the largest distribution of all wild cats, occurring widely in Africa, the Caucasus and Asia, although populations are fragmented and declining. It is considered to be extirpated in North Africa. It inhabits foremost savanna and rainforest, and areas where grasslands, woodlands, and riverine forests remain largely undisturbed. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is still numerous and surviving in marginal habitats where other large cats have disappeared. "


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"There is considerable potential for human-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.Leopard populations on the Arabian Peninsula are small and fragmented. In southeastern Egypt, a leopard killed in 2017 was the first record in this area in 65 years.\nIn western and central Asia, it avoids deserts, areas with long snow cover and proximity to urban centres.In the Indian subcontinent, the leopard is still relatively abundant, with greater numbers than those of other Panthera species. As of 2020, the leopard population within forested habitats in India's tiger range landscapes was estimated at 12,172 to 13,535 individuals. Surveyed landscapes included elevations below 2,600 m (8,500 ft)  in the Shivalik Hills and Gangetic plains, Central India and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, the Brahmaputra River basin and hills in Northeast India. Some leopard populations in the country live quite close to human settlements and even in semi-developed areas. Although adaptable to human disturbances, leopards require healthy prey populations and appropriate vegetative cover for hunting for prolonged survival and thus rarely linger in heavily developed areas. "


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"Due to the leopard's stealth, people often remain unaware that it lives in nearby areas.In Nepal's Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, a melanistic leopard was photographed at an elevation of 4,300 m (14,100 ft) by a camera trap in May 2012. In Sri Lanka, leopards were recorded in Yala National Park and in unprotected forest patches, tea estates, grasslands, home gardens, pine and eucalyptus plantations.\nIn Myanmar, leopards were recorded for the first time by camera traps in the hill forests of Myanmar's Karen State. The Northern Tenasserim Forest Complex in southern Myanmar is considered a leopard stronghold. In Thailand, leopards are present in the Western Forest Complex, Kaeng Krachan-Kui Buri, Khlong Saeng-Khao Sok protected area complexes and in Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary bordering Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, leopards are present in Belum-Temengor, Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin National Parks.\nIn Laos, leopards were recorded in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area and Nam Kan National Protected Area.\nIn Cambodia, leopards inhabit deciduous dipterocarp forest in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary and Mondulkiri Protected Forest.\n"


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"In southern China, leopards were recorded only in the Qinling Mountains during surveys in 11 nature reserves between 2002 and 2009.In Java, leopards inhabit dense tropical rainforests and dry deciduous forests at elevations from sea level to 2,540 m (8,330 ft). Outside protected areas, leopards were recorded in mixed agricultural land, secondary forest and production forest between 2008 and 2014.In the Russian Far East, it inhabits temperate coniferous forests where winter temperatures reach a low of \u221225 \u00b0C (\u221213 \u00b0F).\n\n== Behaviour and ecology ==\n\nThe leopard is a solitary and territorial animal. It is typically shy and alert when crossing roadways and encountering oncoming vehicles, but may be emboldened to attack people or other animals when threatened. Adults associate only in the mating season. Females continue to interact with their offspring even after weaning and have been observed sharing kills with their offspring when they can not obtain any prey. They produce a number of vocalizations, including growls, snarls, meows, and purrs. The roaring sequence in leopards consists mainly of grunts, also called \"sawing\", as it resembles the sound of sawing wood. "


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"Cubs call their mother with a urr-urr sound.The whitish spots on the back of its ears are thought to play a role in communication.\nIt has been hypothesized that the white tips of their tails may function as a 'follow-me' signal in intraspecific communication. However, no significant association were found between a conspicuous colour of tail patches and behavioural variables in carnivores.\n\nLeopards are active mainly from dusk till dawn and rest for most of the day and for some hours at night in thickets, among rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking 1\u201325 km (0.62\u201315.53 mi) across their range at night; they may even wander up to 75 km (47 mi) if disturbed. In some regions, they are nocturnal. In western African forests, they have been observed to be largely diurnal and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.\n\nLeopards can climb trees very skillfully, often rest on tree branches and descend from trees headfirst.\nThey can run at over 58 km/h (36 mph), leap over 6 m (20 ft) horizontally, and jump up to 3 m (9.8 ft) vertically.\n\n"


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"=== Social spacing ===\nIn Kruger National Park, most leopards tend to keep 1 km (0.62 mi) apart. Males interact with their partners and cubs at times, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to two generations. Aggressive encounters are rare, typically limited to defending territories from intruders. In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male\u2013male territorial battle over a carcass.Males occupy home ranges that often overlap with a few smaller female home ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the Ivory Coast, the home range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's. Females live with their cubs in home ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating home ranges belonging to young individuals. It is not clear if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females do. "


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"Individuals try to drive away intruders of the same sex.A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of home ranges was not significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an area, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of home ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human interference.\nSizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the Serengeti, males have home ranges of 33\u201338 km2 (13\u201315 sq mi) and females of 14\u201316 km2 (5.4\u20136.2 sq mi); but males in northeastern Namibia of 451 km2 (174 sq mi) and females of 188 km2 (73 sq mi). They are even larger in arid and montane areas. In Nepal's Bardia National Park, male home ranges of 48 km2 (19 sq mi) and female ones of 5\u20137 km2 (1.9\u20132.7 sq mi) are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.\n\n=== Hunting and diet ===\nThe leopard is a carnivore that prefers medium-sized prey with a body mass ranging from 10\u201340 kg (22\u201388 lb). "


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"Prey species in this weight range tend to occur in dense habitat and to form small herds. Species that prefer open areas and have well-developed anti-predator strategies are less preferred. More than 100 prey species have been recorded. The most preferred species are ungulates, such as impala (Aepyceros melampus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) and chital (Axis axis). Primates preyed upon include white-eyelid mangabeys (Cercocebus sp.), guenons (Cercopithecus sp.)and gray langurs (Semnopithecus sp.). Leopards also kill smaller carnivores like black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), genet (Genetta sp.)and cheetah.The largest prey killed by a leopard was reportedly a male eland weighing 900 kg (2,000 lb). A study in Wolong National Nature Reserve in southern China demonstrated variation in the leopard's diet over time; over the course of seven years, the vegetative cover receded, and leopards opportunistically shifted from primarily consuming tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) to pursuing bamboo rats (Rhizomys sinense) and other smaller prey.The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting. It primarily hunts at night in most areas. In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day. "


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"They usually hunt on the ground. In the Serengeti, they have been observed to ambush prey by jumping down on it from trees.The animal stalks its prey and tries to approach as closely as possible, typically within 5 m (16 ft) of the target, and, finally, pounces on it and kills it by suffocation. It kills small prey with a bite to the back of the neck, but holds larger animals by the throat and strangles them. It caches kills up to 2 km (1.2 mi) apart. It is able to take large prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to drag carcasses heavier than itself up into trees; an individual was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing nearly 125 kg (276 lb) up 5.7 m (18 ft 8 in) into a tree. It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred metres and caches it safely in trees, bushes or even caves; this behaviour allows the leopard to store its prey away from rivals, and offers it an advantage over them. "


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"The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and individual preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.Average daily consumption rates of 3.5 kg (7 lb 11 oz) were estimated for males and of 2.8 kg (6 lb 3 oz) for females. In the southern Kalahari Desert, leopards meet their water requirements by the bodily fluids of prey and succulent plants; they drink water every two to three days and feed infrequently on moisture-rich plants such as gemsbok cucumbers (Acanthosicyos naudinianus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and Kalahari sour grass (Schmidtia kalahariensis).\n\n=== Enemies and competitors ===\n\nIn parts of its global range, the leopard is sympatric with other large predators such as the tiger (Panthera tigris), lion (P. leo), cheetah, spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), wolf (Canis lupus) and up to five bear species. Some of these species steal its kills, kill its cubs and even kill adult leopards. "


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"Leopards retreat up a tree in the face of direct aggression, and were observed when killing or preying on smaller competitors such as black-backed jackal, African civet (Civettictis civetta), caracal (Caracal caracal) and African wildcat (Felis lybica). Leopards generally seem to avoid encounters with adult bears, but kill vulnerable bear cubs. In Sri Lanka, a few recorded vicious fights between leopards and sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) apparently result in both animals winding up either dead or grievously injured.While interspecies killing of full-grown leopards is generally rare, given the opportunity, both tiger and lion readily kill and consume both young and adult leopards. In the Kalahari Desert, leopards frequently lose kills to brown hyenas, if the leopard is unable to move the kill into a tree. Single brown hyenas have been observed charging at and displacing male leopards from kills. Lions occasionally fetch leopard kills from trees.Resource partitioning occurs where leopards share their range with tigers. Leopards tend to take smaller prey, usually less than 75 kg (165 lb), where tigers are present.\nIn areas where leopard and tiger are sympatric, coexistence is reportedly not the general rule, with leopards being few where tigers are numerous. "


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"Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while leopards are pushed closer to the fringes. In tropical forests, leopards do not always avoid the larger cats by hunting at different times. With relatively abundant prey and differences in the size of prey selected, tigers and leopards seem to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the leopard's co-existence with the lion in savanna habitats.Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) prey on leopards occasionally. One large adult leopard was grabbed and consumed by a large crocodile while attempting to hunt along a bank in Kruger National Park. Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) reportedly killed an adult leopard in Rajasthan. An adult leopard was recovered from the stomach of a 5.5 m (18 ft 1 in) Burmese python (Python bivittatus). In Serengeti National Park, troops of 30\u201340 olive baboons (Papio anubis) were observed while mobbing and attacking a female leopard and her cubs.\n\n=== Reproduction and life cycle ===\n\nIn some areas, leopards mate all year round. In Manchuria and Siberia, they mate during January and February. The female's estrous cycle lasts about 46 days, and she usually is in heat for 6\u20137 days. "


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"The generation length of the leopard is 9.3 years. Gestation lasts for 90 to 105 days. Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2\u20134 cubs. Mortality of cubs is estimated at 41\u201350% during the first year.Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Cubs are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth. The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but remain with the mother for 18\u201324 months.The average typical life span of a leopard is 12\u201317 years. The oldest leopard was a captive female that died at the age of 24 years, 2 months and 13 days.\n\n== Conservation issues ==\nThe leopard is listed on CITES Appendix I, and trade is restricted to skins and body parts of 2,560 individuals in 11 sub-Saharan countries. "


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"The leopard is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation and conversion of forest to agriculturally used land, which lead to a declining natural prey base, human\u2013wildlife conflict with livestock herders and high leopard mortality rates. It is also threatened by trophy hunting and poaching.Between 2002 and 2012, at least four leopards were estimated to have been poached per week in India for the illegal wildlife trade of its skins and bones.\nIn spring 2013, 37 leopard skins were found during a 7-week long market survey in major Moroccan cities. In 2014, 43 leopard skins were detected during two surveys in Morocco. Vendors admitted to have imported skins from sub-Saharan Africa.Surveys in the Central African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017. In this period, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders who were accompanied by armed merchants. They engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok.In Java, the leopard is threatened by illegal hunting and trade. "


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"Between 2011 and 2019, body parts of 51 Javan leopards were seized including six live individuals, 12 skins, 13 skulls, 20 canines and 22 claws.\n\n== Human interaction ==\n\n=== Cultural significance ===\n\nLeopards have featured in art, mythology and folklore of many countries. In Greek mythology, it was a symbol of the god Dionysus, who was depicted wearing leopard skin and using leopards as means of transportation. In one myth, the god was captured by pirates but two leopards rescued him. During the Benin Empire, the leopard was commonly represented on engravings and sculptures and was used to symbolise the power of the king or oba, since the leopard was considered the king of the forest. The Ashanti also used the leopard as a symbol of leadership, and only the king was permitted to have a ceremonial leopard stool. Some African cultures considered the leopard to be a smarter, better hunter than the lion and harder to kill.In Rudyard Kipling's \"How the Leopard Got His Spots\", one of his Just So Stories, a leopard with no spots in the High Veldt lives with his hunting partner, the Ethiopian. "


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"When they set off to the forest, the Ethiopian changed his brown skin, and the leopard painted spots on his skin. A leopard played an important role in the 1938 Hollywood film Bringing Up Baby. African chiefs, European queens, Hollywood actors and burlesque dancers wore coats made of leopard skins.The leopard is a frequently used in heraldry, most commonly as passant. The heraldic leopard lacks spots and sports a mane, making it visually almost identical to the heraldic lion, and the two are often used interchangeably. Naturalistic leopard-like depictions appear on the coat of arms of Benin, Malawi, Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Gabon, the last of which uses a black panther.\n\n=== Attacks on people ===\n\nThe Leopard of Rudraprayag killed more than 125 people; the Panar Leopard was thought to have killed more than 400 people. Both were shot by British hunter Jim Corbett. The spotted devil of Gummalapur killed about 42 people in Karnataka, India.\n\n=== In captivity ===\nThe Ancient Romans kept leopards in captivity to be slaughtered in hunts as well as be used in executions of criminals. In Benin, leopards were kept and paraded as mascots, totems and sacrifices to deities. "


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"Several leopards were kept in a menagerie established by King John of England at the Tower of London in the 13th century; around 1235, three of these animals were given to Henry III by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. In modern times, leopards have been trained and tamed in circuses.\n\n== See also ==\nBlack panther \u2013 Variant of leopard and jaguar\nLeopard pattern\nList of largest cats\nPanther (legendary creature)\n\n== References ==\n\n== Further reading ==\nAllsen, Thomas T. (2007). \"Natural History and Cultural History: The Circulation of Hunting Leopards in Eurasia, Seventh-Seventeenth Centuries\".  In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4.\nDeRuiter, D. J.; Berger, L. R. (2000). \"Leopards as Taphonomic Agents in dolomitic Caves\u2014Implications for bone Accumulations in the Hominid-bearing Deposits of South Africa\". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (8): 665\u2013684. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0470.\nSchaller, G. B. (1972). The Serengeti Lion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73639-6.\nSanei, A. (2007). Analysis of leopard (Panthera pardus) status in Iran (in Persian). Tehran: Sepehr Publication Center. ISBN 978-964-6123-74-8.\nSanei, A.; Zakaria, M.; Yusof, E.; Roslan, M. (2011). "


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"\"Estimation of leopard population size in a secondary forest within Malaysia's capital agglomeration using unsupervised classification of pugmarks\" (PDF). Tropical Ecology. 52 (1): 209\u2013217. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-02.\nTaylor, P.; Barrientos, S.; Dolan, C. (2005). Beyond Conservation: A Wildland Strategy. Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-197-5.\nZakaria, M.; Sanei, A. (2011). \"Conservation and management prospects of the Persian and Malayan leopards\". Asia Life Sciences. Supplement 7: 1\u20135.\n\n== External links ==\n\nIUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Panthera pardus in Africa and Panthera pardus in Asia\n\"Leopard\" . Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911."


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"The East Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus), also known as the ebony lutung, Javan langur or Javan lutung, is an Old World monkey from the Colobinae subfamily. It is most commonly glossy black with a brownish tinge to its legs, sides, and \"sideburns\". It is found on the island of Java, as well as on several of the surrounding Indonesian islands. The Latin word auratus in its scientific name means \"golden\", and refers to a less common color variant. Note that the common name golden langur is used for a different species.\nLike all langurs, this species' tail is noticeably long, measuring up to 98 cm in length while the body is only around 55 cm long. The two subspecies of this lutung are fairly similar in appearance and are geographically separated; males and females are both usually glossy black, although the females pale, yellowish white patch around the pubic area. Juveniles of both subspecies are orange in color. "


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"The nominate subspecies Trachypithecus auratus auratus has a rare morph that does not lose its juvenile coloration when it matures, instead the coloration darkens slightly, with yellow tinges on its sides, limbs, and around its ears, and a black tinge on its back.The East Javan langur inhabits the interior and peripheral areas of rainforests.This primate is diurnal and arboreal. Its diet is primarily herbivorous, eating leaves, fruit, flowers, and flower buds, although it also eats insect larvae. As with other colobines, it has evolved a specialised stomach to digest plant material more efficiently. This species also has enlarged salivary glands to assist it in breaking down food.Like other langurs, the East Javan langur is a social animal, living in groups of around seven individuals, with one or two adult males in the group. Although they will look after offspring of other mothers as well as their own, adult females are aggressive towards females from other groups. The brighter coloring of juveniles may alert females to their presence and ensures that they will always be noticed and protected. This species has no discernible mating season and females produce one offspring at a time.\n\n"


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"== Subspecies ==\nFormerly there were two subspecies of Trachypithecus auratus recognized:\n\nEastern Javan langur or spangled ebony lutung, Trachypithecus auratus auratus\nWestern Javan langur, Trachypithecus auratus mauritiusRoos et al., 2008, elevated T. a. mauritius to a separate species as Trachypithecus mauritius.\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n== References =="


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"The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), sometimes referred to colloquially as a gator or common alligator, is a large crocodilian reptile native to the Southeastern United States. It is one of the two extant species in the genus Alligator, and is larger than the only other living alligator species, the Chinese alligator.\nAdult male American alligators measure 3.4 to 4.6 m (11.2 to 15.1 ft) in length, and can weigh up to 453 kg (999 lb), with unverified sizes of up to 5.85 m (19.2 ft) and weights of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) making it one of the largest members of the family Alligatoridae, alongside the black caiman. Females are smaller, measuring 2.6 to 3 m (8.5 to 9.8 ft) in length. The American alligator inhabits subtropical and tropical freshwater wetlands, such as marshes and cypress swamps, from southern Texas to North Carolina. It is distinguished from the sympatric American crocodile by its broader snout, with overlapping jaws and darker coloration, and is less tolerant of saltwater but more tolerant of cooler climates than the American crocodile, which is found only in tropical and warm subtropical climates.\nAmerican alligators are apex predators and consume fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. "


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"Hatchlings feed mostly on invertebrates. They play an important role as ecosystem engineers in wetland ecosystems through the creation of alligator holes, which provide both wet and dry habitats for other organisms. Throughout the year (in particular during the breeding season), American alligators bellow to declare territory, and locate suitable mates. Male American alligators use infrasound to attract females. Eggs are laid in a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. Young are born with yellow bands around their bodies and are protected by their mother for up to one year.The conservation status of the American alligator is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Historically, hunting had decimated their population, and the American alligator was listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Subsequent conservation efforts have allowed their numbers to increase and the species was removed from endangered status in 1987. The species is the official state reptile of three states: Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi.\n\n== Taxonomy ==\n\nThe American alligator was first classified by French zoologist Fran\u00e7ois Marie Daudin as Crocodilus mississipiensis in 1801. "


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"In 1807, Georges Cuvier created the genus Alligator; the American alligator and the Chinese alligator are the only extant species in the genus. They are grouped in the family Alligatoridae with the caimans. The superfamily Alligatoroidea includes all crocodilians (fossil and extant) that are more closely related to the American alligator than to either the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) or the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).\n\n== Phylogeny ==\n\nMembers of this superfamily first arose in the late Cretaceous, about 100\u201365 million years ago (Mya). Leidyosuchus of Alberta is the earliest known fossil, from the Campanian era 83 to 72 Mya.  Fossil alligatoroids have been found throughout Eurasia, because bridges across both the North Atlantic and the Bering Strait connected North America to Eurasia about 66 to 23 Mya.\nAlligators and caimans split in North America during the late Cretaceous, and the caimans reached South America by the Paleogene, before the closure of the Isthmus of Panama during the Neogene period, from about 23 to 2.58 Mya. The Chinese alligator likely descended from a lineage that crossed the Bering land bridge during the Neogene. "


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"Fossils identical to the existing American alligator are found throughout the Pleistocene, from 2.5 million to 11.7 thousand years ago. In 2016, a Miocene (about 23 to 5.3 Mya) fossil skull of an alligator was found at Marion County, Florida. Unlike the other extinct alligator species of the same genus, the fossil skull was virtually indistinguishable from that of the modern American alligator. This alligator and the American alligator are now considered to be sister taxa, meaning that the A. mississippiensis lineage has existed in North America for over 8 million years.The alligator's full mitochondrial genome was sequenced in the 1990s, and it suggests the animal evolved at a rate similar to mammals and greater than birds and most cold-blooded vertebrates. However, the full genome, published in 2014, suggests that the alligator evolved much more slowly than mammals and birds.\n\n== Characteristics ==\n\nDomestic American alligators range from long and slender to short and robust, possibly in response to variations in factors such as growth rate, diet, and climate.\n\n=== Size ===\nThe American alligator is a relatively large species of crocodilian. "


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"On average, it is the largest species in the family Alligatoridae, with only the black caiman being possibly bigger. Weight varies considerably depending on length, age, health, season, and available food sources. Similar to many other reptiles that range expansively into temperate zones, American alligators from the northern end of their range, such as southern Arkansas, Alabama, and northern North Carolina, tend to reach smaller sizes. Large adult American alligators tend to be relatively robust and bulky compared to other similar-length crocodilians; for example, captive males measuring 3 to 4 m (9 ft 10 in to 13 ft 1 in) were found to weigh 200 to 350 kg (440 to 770 lb), although captive specimens may outweigh wild specimens due to lack of hunting behavior and other stressors.There is a common belief stated throughout reptilian literature that crocodilians including the American alligator exhibit indeterminate growth, meaning the animal continues to grow for the duration of its life. However, these claims are largely based on assumptions and observations of juvenile and young adult crocodilians. One long-term mark-recapture study (1979-2015) done at the Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center in South Carolina found evidence to support patterns of determinate growth. "


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"The study allowed for the observation of life histories noting some American alligators can possibly live over the age of seventy. This studies prolong documentation of growth rates, along with several other growing studies point toward the more newly supported pattern of determinant growth in the American alligator.\n\n==== Relation to age ====\nLarge male American alligators reach an expected maximum size up to 4.6 m (15 ft 1 in) in length and weighing up to 453 kg (999 lb), while females reach a maximum of 3 m (9 ft 10 in). On rare occasions, a large, old male may grow to an even greater length.\n\n==== Largest ====\nDuring the 19th and 20th centuries, larger males reaching 5 to 6 m (16 ft 5 in to 19 ft 8 in) were reported. The largest reported individual size was a male killed in 1890 on Marsh Island, Louisiana, and reportedly measured at 5.84 m (19 ft 2 in) in length, but no voucher specimen was available, since the American alligator was left on a muddy bank after having been measured due to having been too massive to relocate. "


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"If the size of this animal was correct, it would have weighed about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). In Arkansas, a man killed an American alligator that was 4.04 m (13 ft 3 in) and 626 kg (1,380 lb). The largest American alligator ever killed in Florida was 5.31 m (17 ft 5 in), as reported by the Everglades National Park. The largest American alligator scientifically verified in Florida for the period from 1977 to 1993 was reportedly 4.23 m (13 ft 11 in) and weighed 473 kg (1,043 lb), although another specimen (size estimated from skull) may have measured 4.54 m (14 ft 11 in). A specimen that was 4.8 m (15 ft 9 in) long and weighed 458.8 kg (1,011.5 lb) is the largest American alligator killed in Alabama and has been declared the SCI world record in 2014.\n\n==== Reported sizes ====\n\n==== Average ====\nAmerican alligators do not normally reach such extreme sizes. "


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"In mature males, most specimens grow up to about 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) in length, and weigh up to 360 kg (790 lb), while in females, the mature size is normally around 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in), with a body weight up to 91 kg (201 lb). In Newnans Lake, Florida, adult males averaged 73.2 kg (161 lb) in weight and 2.47 m (8 ft 1 in) in length, while adult females averaged 55.1 kg (121 lb) and measured 2.22 m (7 ft 3 in). In Lake Griffin State Park, Florida, adults weighed on average 57.9 kg (128 lb). Weight at sexual maturity per one study was stated as averaging 30 kg (66 lb) while adult weight was claimed as 160 kg (350 lb).\n\n==== Sexual dimorphism ====\nWhile noticeable in very mature specimens, the sexual dimorphism in size of the American alligator is relatively modest among crocodilians. "


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"In the saltwater crocodile, for example, the females are only slightly larger at average (2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) in the American alligator, 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) in the saltwater crocodile) than female American alligators, but the mature males, at 4.3 to 5.2 m (14 ft 1 in to 17 ft 1 in) typically, as opposed to 2.4 to 4 m (7 ft 10 in to 13 ft 1 in) expected in mature male American alligators, are considerably bigger than male American alligators and at median are nearly twice as long as and at least four times as heavy as the female saltwater crocodiles of the same species. Given that female American alligators have relatively higher survival rates at an early age and a large percentage of given populations consists of immature or young breeding American alligators, relatively few large mature males of the expected mature length of 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) or more are typically seen.\n\n=== Color ===\nDorsally, adult American alligators may be olive, brown, gray, or black. "


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"However, they are on average one of the most darkly colored modern crocodilians (although other alligatorid family members are also fairly dark), and can be reliably be distinguished by color via their more blackish dorsal scales against crocodiles. Meanwhile, their undersides are cream-colored. Some American alligators are missing or have an inhibited gene for melanin, which makes them albino. These American alligators are extremely rare and almost impossible to find in the wild. They could only survive in captivity, as they are very vulnerable to the sun and predators.\n\n=== Jaws, teeth, and snout ===\n\nAmerican alligators have 74-80 teeth. As they grow and develop, the morphology of their teeth and jaws change significantly. Juveniles have small, needle-like teeth that become much more robust and narrow snouts that become broader as the individuals develop. These morphological changes correspond to shifts in the American alligators' diets, from smaller prey items such as fish and insects to larger prey items such as turtles, birds, and other large vertebrates. American alligators have broad snouts, especially in captive individuals. When the jaws are closed, the edges of the upper jaws cover the lower teeth, which fit into the jaws' hollows. "


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"Like the spectacled caiman, this species has a bony nasal ridge, though it is less prominent. American alligators are often mistaken for a similar animal: the American crocodile. An easy characteristic to distinguish the two is the fourth tooth. Whenever an American alligator's mouth is closed, the fourth tooth is no longer visible. It is enclosed in a pocket in the upper jaw.\n\n=== Bite ===\nAdult American alligators held the record as having the strongest laboratory-measured bite of any living animal, measured at up to 13,172 N (1,343.2 kgf; 2,961 lbf). This experiment had not been, at the time of the paper published, replicated in any other crocodilians, and the same laboratory was able to measure a greater bite force of 16,414 N (1,673.8 kgf; 3,690 lbf) in saltwater crocodiles; notwithstanding this very high biting force, the muscles opening the American alligator's jaw are quite weak, and the jaws can be held closed by hand or tape when an American alligator is captured. No significant difference is noted between the bite forces of male and female American alligators of equal size. Another study noted that as the American alligator increases in size, the force of its bite also increases.\n\n"


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"=== Movement ===\n\nWhen on land, an American alligator moves either by sprawling or walking, the latter involving the reptile lifting its belly off the ground. The sprawling of American alligators and other crocodylians is not similar to that of salamanders and lizards, being similar to walking. Therefore, the two forms of land locomotion can be termed the \"low walk\" and the \"high walk\". Unlike most other land vertebrates, American alligators increase their speed through the distal rather than proximal ends of their limbs. In the water, American alligators swim like fish, moving their pelvic regions and tails from side to side. During respiration, air flow is unidirectional, looping through the lungs during inhalation and exhalation; the American alligator's abdominal muscles can alter the position of the lungs within the torso, thus shifting the center of buoyancy, which allows the American alligator to dive, rise, and roll within the water.\n\n== Distribution ==\n\nAmerican alligators, being native both to the Nearctic and Neotropical realms, are found in the wild in the Southeastern United States, from the Lowcountry in South Carolina, south to Everglades National Park in Florida, and west to the southeastern region of Texas. "


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"They are found in parts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas. Some of these locations appear to be relatively recent introductions, with often small but reproductive populations. Louisiana has the largest American alligator population of any U.S. state. In the future, possible American alligator populations may be found in areas of Mexico adjacent to the Texas border. Alligators have been naturally expanding their range into Tennessee, and have established a small population in the southwestern part of that state via inland waterways, according to the state's wildlife agency.\n\n== Conservation status ==\n\nAmerican alligators are currently listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List, even though from the 1800s to the mid-1900s, they were being hunted and poached by humans unsustainably. In 1987, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service pronounced the American alligator fully recovered.Historically, hunting and habitat loss have severely affected American alligator populations throughout their range, and whether the species would survive was in doubt. "


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"In 1967, the American alligator was listed as an endangered species (under a law that was the precursor Endangered Species Act of 1973), since it was believed to be in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.Both the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and state wildlife agencies in the South contributed to the American alligator's recovery. Protection under the Endangered Species Act allowed the species to recuperate in many areas where it had been depleted. States began monitoring their American alligator populations to ensure that they would continue to grow. In 1987, the USFWS removed the animal from the endangered species list, as it was considered to be fully recovered. The USFWS still regulates the legal trade in American alligators and their products to protect still endangered crocodilians that may be passed off as American alligators during trafficking.American alligators are listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning that international trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.\n\n== Habitat ==\nThey inhabit swamps, streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes.  "


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"A lone American alligator was spotted for over 10 years living in a river north of Atlanta, Georgia. Females and juveniles are also found in Carolina Bays and other seasonal wetlands. While they prefer fresh water, American alligators may sometimes wander into brackish water, but are less tolerant of salt water than American crocodiles, as the salt glands on their tongues do not function. One study of American alligators in north-central Florida found the males preferred open lake water during the spring, while females used both swampy and open-water areas. During summer, males still preferred open water, while females remained in the swamps to construct their nests and lay their eggs. Both sexes may den underneath banks or clumps of trees during the winter.In some areas of their range, American alligators are an unusual example of urban wildlife; golf courses are often favoured by the species due to an abundance of water and a frequent supply of prey animals such as fish and birds.\n\n=== Cold tolerance ===\nAmerican alligators are less vulnerable to cold than American crocodiles. "


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"Unlike an American crocodile, which would immediately succumb to the cold and drown in water at 45 \u00b0F (7 \u00b0C) or less, an American alligator can survive in such temperatures for some time without displaying any signs of discomfort. This adaptiveness is thought to be why American alligators are widespread further north than the American crocodile. In fact, the American alligator is found farther from the equator and is more equipped to handle cooler conditions than any other crocodilian. When the water begins to freeze, American alligators go into a period of brumation; they stick their snouts through the surface, which allows them to breathe above the ice, and they can remain in this state for several days.\n\n== Ecology and behavior ==\n\n=== Basking ===\n\nAmerican alligators primarily bask on shore, but also climb into and perch on tree limbs to bask if no shoreline is available. This is not often seen, since if disturbed, they quickly retreat back into the water by jumping from their perch.\n\n=== Holes ===\nAmerican alligators modify wetland habitats, most dramatically in flat areas such as the Everglades, by constructing small ponds known as alligator holes. "


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"This behavior has qualified the American alligator to be considered a keystone species. Alligator holes retain water during the dry season and provide a refuge for aquatic organisms, which survive the dry season by seeking refuge in alligator holes, so are a source of future populations. The construction of nests along the periphery of alligator holes, as well as a buildup of soils during the excavation process, provides drier areas for other reptiles to nest and a place for plants that are intolerant of inundation to colonize. Alligator holes are an oasis during the Everglades dry season, so are consequently important foraging sites for other organisms. In the limestone depressions of cypress swamps, alligator holes tend to be large and deep, while those in marl prairies and rocky glades are usually small and shallow, and those in peat depressions of ridge and slough wetlands are more variable.\n\n=== Prey ===\n\n==== Bite and mastication ====\nThe teeth of the American alligator are designed to grip prey, but cannot rip or chew flesh like teeth of some other predators (such as canids and felids), and depend on their gizzard, instead, to masticate their food. "


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"The American alligator is capable of biting through a turtle's shell or a moderately sized mammal bone.\n\n==== Tool use ====\nAmerican alligators have been documented using lures to hunt prey such as birds. This means they are among the first reptiles recorded to use tools. By balancing sticks and branches on their heads, American alligators are able to lure birds looking for suitable nesting material to kill and consume. This strategy, which is shared by the mugger crocodile, is particularly effective during the nesting season, in which birds are more likely to gather appropriate nesting materials.\n\n==== Aquatic vs terrestrial ====\n\nFish and other aquatic prey taken in the water or at the water's edge form the major part of American alligator's diet and may be eaten at any time of the day or night. Adult American alligators also spend considerable time hunting on land, up to 160 feet (50 m) from water, ambushing terrestrial animals on trailsides and road shoulders. Usually, terrestrial hunting occurs on nights with warm temperatures. "


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"When hunting terrestrial prey, American alligators may also ambush them from the edge of the water by grabbing them and pulling the prey into the water, the preferred method of predation of larger crocodiles.\n\nAdditionally, American alligators have recently been filmed and documented killing and eating sharks and rays; four incidents documented indicated that bonnetheads, lemon sharks, Atlantic stingrays, and nurse sharks are components of the animal's diet. Sharks are also known to prey on American alligators, in turn, indicating that encounters between the two predators are common.\n\n==== Common ====\nAmerican alligators are considered an apex predator throughout their range. They are opportunists and their diet is determined largely by both their size and age and the size and availability of prey. Most American alligators eat a wide variety of animals, including invertebrates, fish, birds, turtles, snakes, amphibians, and mammals. Hatchlings mostly feed on invertebrates such as insects, insect larvae, snails, spiders, and worms, as well as small fish and frogs. As they grow, American alligators gradually expand to larger prey. Once an American alligator reaches full size and power in adulthood, any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey. "


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"Most animals captured by American alligators are considerably smaller than itself. A few examples of animals consumed are largemouth bass, spotted gar, freshwater pearl mussels, American green tree frogs, yellow mud turtles, cottonmouths, common moorhens, and feral wild boars. Stomach contents show, among native mammals, muskrats and raccoons are some of the most commonly eaten species. In Louisiana, where introduced coypu are common, they are perhaps the most regular prey for adult American alligators, although only larger adults commonly eat this species. It has also been reported that large American alligators prey on medium-sized American alligators, which had preyed on hatchlings and smaller juveniles.If an American alligator's primary food resource is not available, it will sometimes feed on carrion and non-prey items such as rocks and artificial objects, like bottle caps. These items help the American alligator in the process of digestion by crushing up the meat and bones of animals, especially animals with shells.\n\n==== Large animals ====\nOther animals may occasionally be eaten, even large deer or feral wild boars, but these are not normally part of the diet. "


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"American alligators occasionally prey on large mammals, such as deer, but usually do so when fish and smaller prey levels go down. Rarely, American alligators have been observed killing and eating bobcats, but such events are not common and have little effect on bobcat populations. Although American alligators have been listed as predators of the Nilgai and the West Indian manatees, very little evidence exists of such predation. In the 2000s, when invasive Burmese pythons first occupied the Everglades, American alligators have been recorded preying on them, possibly controlling populations, thus preventing the invasive species from spreading northwards.\nAmerican alligator predation on Florida panthers is rare, but has been documented. Such incidents usually involve a panther trying to cross a waterway or coming down to a swamp or river to get a drink. American alligator predation on American black bears has also been recorded.\n\n==== Domestic animals ====\nOccasionally, domestic animals, including dogs, cats, and calves, are taken as available, but are secondary to wild and feral prey. Other prey, including snakes, lizards, and various invertebrates, are eaten occasionally by adults.\n\n"


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"==== Birds ====\nWater birds, such as herons and egrets, storks, waterfowl and large dabbling rails such as gallinules or coots, are taken when possible. Occasionally, unwary adult birds are grabbed and eaten by American alligators, but most predation on bird species occurs with unsteady fledgling birds in late summer, as fledgling birds attempt to make their first flights near the water's edge.\n\n==== Fruit ====\nIn 2013, American alligators and other crocodilians were reported to also eat fruit.\nSuch behavior has been witnessed, as well as documented from stomach contents, with the American alligators eating such fruit as wild grapes, elderberries, and citrus fruits directly from the trees. The discovery of this unexpected part of the American alligator diet further reveals that they may be responsible for spreading seeds from the fruit they consume across their habitat. Additionally, American alligators engage in what seems to be cooperative hunting.\n\n==== In Florida and East Texas ====\nThe diet of adult American alligators from central Florida lakes is dominated by fish, but the species is highly opportunistically based upon local availability. "


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"In Lake Griffin, fish made up 54% of the diet by weight, with catfish being most commonly consumed, while in Lake Apopka, fish made up 90% of the food and mostly shad were taken; in Lake Woodruff, the diet was 84% fish and largely consists of bass and sunfish. Unusually in these regions, reptiles and amphibians were the most important nonpiscivore prey, mostly turtles and water snakes. In southern Louisiana, crustaceans (largely crawfish and crabs) were found to be present in the southeastern American alligators, but largely absent in southwestern American alligators, which consumed a relatively high proportion of reptiles, although fish were the most recorded prey for adults, and adult males consumed a large portion of mammals.In East Texas, diets were diverse and adult American alligators took mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates (e.g. snails) in often equal measure as they did fish.\n\n=== Vocalizations ===\n\n==== Mechanism ====\nAn American alligator is able to abduct and adduct the vocal folds of its larynx, but not to elongate or shorten them; yet in spite of this, it can modulate fundamental frequency very well. Their vocal folds consists of epithelium, lamina propria and muscle. Sounds ranged from 50 to 1200 Hz. "


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"In one experiment conducted on the larynx, the fundamental frequency depended on both the glottal gap and stiffness of the larynx tissues. As the frequency increases, there's high tension and large strains. The fundamental frequency has been influenced by the glottal gap size and subglottal pressure and when the phonation threshold pressure has been exceeded, there will be vocal fold vibration.\n\n==== Calls ====\nCrocodilians are the most vocal of all non-avian reptiles and have a variety of different calls depending on the age, size, and sex of the animal. The American alligator can perform specific vocalizations to declare territory, signal distress, threaten competitors, and locate suitable mates. Juveniles can perform a high-pitched hatchling call (a \"yelping\" trait common to many crocodilian species' hatchling young) to alert their mothers when they are ready to emerge from the nest. Juveniles also make a distress call to alert their mothers if they are being threatened. Adult American alligators can growl, hiss, or cough to threaten others and declare territory.\n\n==== Bellowing ====\nBoth males and females bellow loudly by sucking air into their lungs and blowing it out in intermittent, deep-toned roars to attract mates and declare territory. "


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"Males are known to use infrasound during mating bellows. Bellowing is performed in a \"head oblique, tail arched\" posture. Infrasonic waves from a bellowing male can cause the surface of the water directly over and to either side of his back to literally \"sprinkle\", in what is commonly called the \"water dance\". Large bellowing \"choruses\" of American alligators during the breeding season are commonly initiated by females and perpetuated by males. Observers of large bellowing choruses have noted they are often felt more than they are heard due to the intense infrasound emitted by males. American alligators bellow in B flat (specifically \"B\u266d1\", defined as an audio frequency of 58.27 Hz), and bellowing choruses can be induced by tuba players, sonic booms, and large aircraft.\n\n=== Reproduction ===\n\n==== Breeding season ====\nThe breeding season begins in the spring. On spring nights, American alligators gather in large numbers for group courtship, in the aforementioned \"water dances\". The female builds a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water.\n\n"


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"==== Eggs ====\nAfter the female lays her 20 to 50 white eggs, about the size of a goose egg, she covers them with more vegetation, which heats as it decays, helping to keep the eggs warm. This differs from Nile crocodiles, which lay their eggs in pits. The temperature at which American alligator eggs develop determines their sex (see temperature-dependent sex determination). Studies have found that eggs hatched at a temperature below 88.7 \u00b0F or a temperature above 94.1 \u00b0F will produce female offspring, while those at a temperature between 90.5 \u00b0F to 92.3 \u00b0F will produce male offspring. The nests built on levees are warmer, thus produce males, while the cooler nests of wet marsh produce females. The female remains near the nest throughout the 65-day incubation period, protecting it from intruders. When the young begin to hatch \u2014 their \"yelping\" calls can sometimes even be heard just before hatching commences \u2014 the mother quickly digs them out and carries them to the water in her mouth, as some other crocodilian species are known to do.\n\n"


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"==== Young ====\nThe young are tiny replicas of adults, with a series of yellow bands around their bodies that serve as camouflage. Hatchlings gather into pods and are guarded by their mother and keep in contact with her through their \"yelping\" vocalizations. Young American alligators eat small fish, frogs, crayfish, and insects. They are preyed on by large fish, birds, raccoons, Florida panthers, and adult American alligators. Mother American alligators eventually become more aggressive towards their young, which encourages them to disperse. Young alligators grow 3\u20138 in (7.6\u201320.3 cm) a year and reach adulthood at 6 ft (1.8 m).\n\n=== Interactions with exotic species ===\nNutria were introduced into coastal marshes from South America in the mid-20th century, and their population has since exploded into the millions. They cause serious damage to coastal marshes and may dig burrows in levees. Hence, Louisiana has had a bounty to try to reduce nutria numbers. Large American alligators feed heavily on nutria, so American alligators may not only control nutria populations in Louisiana, but also prevent them spreading east into the Everglades. "


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"Since hunting and trapping preferentially take the large American alligators that are the most important in eating nutria, some changes in harvesting may be needed to capitalize on their ability to control nutria.Recently, a population of Burmese pythons became established in Everglades National Park. Substantial American alligator populations in the Everglades may be a contributing factor in keeping the python populations low, preventing the spread of the species north. While events of predation by Burmese pythons on young American alligators have been observed, no evidence of a net negative effect has been seen on overall American alligator populations.\n\n=== Indicators of environmental restoration ===\n\nAmerican alligators play an important role in the restoration of the Everglades as biological indicators of restoration success. American alligators are highly sensitive to changes in the hydrology, salinity, and productivity of their ecosystems; all are factors that are expected to change with Everglades restoration. American alligators also may control the long-term vegetation dynamics in wetlands by reducing the population of small mammals, particularly coypu, which may otherwise overgraze marsh vegetation.  In this way, the vital ecological service they provide may be important in reducing rates of coastal wetland losses in Louisiana. "


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"They may provide a protection service for water birds nesting on islands in freshwater wetlands. American alligators prevent predatory mammals from reaching island-based rookeries and in return eat spilled food and birds that fall from their nests. Wading birds appear to be attracted to areas with American alligators and have been known to nest at heavily trafficked tourist attractions with large numbers of American alligators, such as the St. Augustine Alligator Farm in St. Augustine, Florida.\n\n== Relationship with humans ==\n\n=== Attacks on humans ===\n\nAmerican alligators are capable of killing humans, but fatal attacks are fairly rare. Mistaken identity leading to an attack is always possible, especially in or near cloudy waters. American alligators are often less aggressive towards humans than larger crocodile species, a few of which (mainly the Nile and saltwater crocodiles) may prey on humans with some regularity. Alligator bites are serious injuries, due to the reptile's sheer bite force and risk of infection. Even with medical treatment, an American alligator bite may still result in a fatal infection.\n"


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"As human populations increase, and as they build houses in low-lying areas, or fish or hunt near water, incidents are inevitable where humans intrude on American alligators and their habitats. Since 1948, 257 documented attacks on humans in Florida (about five incidents per year) have been reported, of which an estimated 23 resulted in death. Only nine fatal attacks occurred in the United States throughout the 1970s\u20131990s, but American alligators killed 12 people between 2001 and 2007. An additional report of alligator attacks showed a total of 376 injuries and 15 deaths recorded all from 1948 to 2004, leading this to an increase of the alligator population. In May 2006, American alligators killed three Floridians in less than a week. At least 28 fatal attacks by American alligators have occurred in the United States since 1970.\n\n=== Wrestling ===\n\nSince the late 1880s, alligator wrestling has been a source of entertainment for some. Created by the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes prior to the arrival of Europeans, this tourism tradition continues to persist despite criticism from animal-rights activists.\n\n=== Farming ===\n\nToday, alligator farming is a large, growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas, and Louisiana. "


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"These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6- to 7-ft range have sold for $300 each. The market for alligator meat is growing, and about 300,000 pounds (140,000 kg) of meat are produced annually. According to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 Calories (840 kJ) per 3-oz (85-g) portion, of which 27 Calories (130 kJ) come from fat.\n\n== Culture and film ==\nThe American alligator is the official state reptile of Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Several organizations and products from Florida have been named after the animal.\n\"Gators\" has been the nickname of the University of Florida's sports teams since 1911. In 1908, a printer made a spur-of-the-moment decision to print an alligator emblem on a shipment of the school's football pennants. The mascot stuck, and was made official in 1911, perhaps because the team captain's nickname was Gator. "


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"Allegheny College and San Francisco State University both have Gators as their mascots, as well.The Gator Bowl is a college football game held in Jacksonville annually since 1946, with Gator Bowl Stadium hosting the event until the 1993 edition. The Gatornationals is a NHRA drag race held at the Gainesville Raceway in Gainesville since 1970.\n\n== See also ==\nChinese alligator, the other living species of alligator\nMuja, the oldest living alligator in captivity, lived in Belgrade Zoo, Serbia\nSaturn, an alligator that survived the destruction of the Berlin Zoological Garden during World War II\nThe Alligator People\nGatorland\nBrazos Bend State Park\nSewer alligator\n\n== References ==\n\n== External links ==\n\nCrocodilian Online\nPhoto exhibit on alligators in Florida from State Archives of Florida\nWhy the Gulf Coast needs more big alligators\nAlligator bellows and hisses Archived March 1, 2014, at the Wayback Machine \u2013 sound clips from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service\nView the allMis1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.\n\n== Further reading ==\nBoulenger GA (1889). Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). New Edition. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). "


id: 897548ca4759cd21277f3907b14e01c2
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"x + 311 pp. + Plates I-VI. (Alligator mississippiensis, p. 290).\nDaudin FM (1802). Histoire Naturelle, G\u00e9n\u00e9rale et Particuli\u00e8re des Reptiles; Ouvrage faisant suite \u00e0 l'Histoire Naturelle g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re, compos\u00e9e par Leclerc de Buffon; et r\u00e9dig\u00e9e par C.S. Sonnini, membre de plusieurs soci\u00e9t\u00e9s savantes. Tome Second [Volume 2]. 432 pp. Paris: F. Dufart. (\"Crocodilus mississipiensis [sic]\", new species, pp. 412\u2013416). (in French and Latin).\nPowell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 Plates, 207 Figures. ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Alligator mississippiensis, p. 170 + Plate 13 + photographs on pp. 166\u2013167, 465).\nSmith, Hobart M.; Brodie, Edmund D., Jr. (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3. (Alligator mississippiensis, pp. 208\u2013209)."


id: 805132ac76d3efe25a9f32688604b5cf
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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vector_id: 1175
content:
"The short-tailed parrot (Graydidascalus brachyurus) is the only species of the genus Graydidascalus. It is found along both banks of the Amazon river and other major Amazonian rivers in Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. As suggested by its range, it is associated with the specific forest and woodland types growing near major rivers, although it also extends into the coastal deltas of French Guiana and Amap\u00e1, Brazil.\nThe closest relative is the yellow-faced parrot (Alipiopsitta xanthops) and the members of the genus Pionus.\n\n== Description ==\nIt has a total length of about 24 cm (9+1\u20442 in). It is overall green with a large dark bill (large even for a parrot) and, as suggested by its name, a very short tail. Adults show a small maroon-red spot on the shoulder and at the base of the outer tail-feathers, but typically neither are easy to see.\n\n== Conservation ==\nThe species is considered safe at the moment.\n\n== References =="


id: ce3db03d65fdf3478527146c7fdb61b4
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"The white rhinoceros, white rhino or square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) is the largest extant species of rhinoceros. It has a wide mouth used for grazing and is the most social of all rhino species. The white rhinoceros consists of two subspecies: the southern white rhinoceros, with an estimated 19,682\u201321,077 wild-living animals in the year 2015, and the much rarer northern white rhinoceros. The northern subspecies has very few remaining individuals, with only two confirmed left in 2018 (two females: Fatu, 18 and Najin, 29), both in captivity. Sudan, the world's last known male Northern white rhinoceros, died in Kenya on 19 March 2018 at age 45.\n\n== Naming ==\n\nA popular albeit widely discredited theory of the origins of the name \"white rhinoceros\" is a mistranslation from Dutch to English. The English word \"white\" is said to have been derived by mistranslation of the Dutch word \"wijd\", which means \"wide\" in English. The word \"wide\" refers to the width of the rhinoceros' mouth. "


id: 804bfc8151af28ff60020eb043b94fdd
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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vector_id: 1174
content:
"So early English-speaking settlers in South Africa misinterpreted the \"wijd\" for \"white\" and the rhino with the wide mouth ended up being called the white rhino and the other one, with the narrow pointed mouth, was called the black rhinoceros. Ironically, Dutch (and Afrikaans) later used a calque of the English word, and now also call it a white rhino. This suggests the origin of the word was before codification by Dutch writers. A review of Dutch and Afrikaans literature about the rhinoceros has failed to produce any evidence that the word wijd was ever used to describe the rhino outside of oral use.An alternative name for the white rhinoceros, more accurate but rarely used, is the square-lipped rhinoceros. The white rhinoceros' generic name, Ceratotherium, given by the zoologist John Edward Gray in 1868, is derived from the Greek terms keras (\u03ba\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2) \"horn\" and th\u0113rion (\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03bf\u03bd) \"beast\". Simum, is derived from the Greek term simos (\u03c3\u03b9\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2), meaning \"flat nosed\".\n\n== Taxonomy and evolution ==\n\nThe white rhinoceros of today was said to be likely descended from Ceratotherium praecox which lived around 7 million years ago. Remains of this white rhino have been found at Langebaanweg near Cape Town. "


id: dc803310fec3bcee60a982e97ed868ed
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"A review of fossil rhinos in Africa by Denis Geraads has however suggested that the species from Langebaanweg is of the genus Ceratotherium, but not Ceratotherium praecox as the type specimen of Ceratotherium praecox should, in fact, be Diceros praecox, as it shows closer affinities with the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis. It has been suggested that the modern white rhino has a longer skull than Ceratotherium praecox to facilitate consumption of shorter grasses which resulted from the long-term trend to drier conditions in Africa. However, if Ceratotherium praecox is in fact Diceros praecox, then the shorter skull could indicate a browsing species. Teeth of fossils assigned to Ceratotherium found at Makapansgat in South Africa were analysed for carbon isotopes and the researchers concluded that these animals consumed more than 30% browse in their diet, suggesting that these are not the fossils of the extant Ceratotherium simum which only eats grass. It is suggested that the real lineage of the white rhino should be; Ceratotherium neumayri \u2192 Ceratotherium mauritanicum \u2192 C. simum with the Langebaanweg rhinos being Ceratotherium sp. (as yet unnamed), with black rhinos being descended from C. neumayri via Diceros praecox.\n\n"


id: bb88bd96a1904794d6f8e3f4119b4fb8
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"Recently, an alternative scenario has been proposed under which the earliest African Ceratotherium is considered to be Ceratotherium efficax (now synonymous with C. mauritanicum), known from the Late Pliocene of Ethiopia and the Early Pleistocene of Tanzania. This species is proposed to have been diversified into the Middle Pleistocene species C. mauritanicum in northern Africa, C. germanoafricanum in East Africa, and the extant C. simum. The first two of these are extinct, however, C. germanoafricanum is very similar to C. simum and has often been considered a fossil and ancestral subspecies to the latter. The study also doubts the ancestry of C. neumayri from the Miocene of southern Europe to the African species.\nThe ancestor of both the black and the white rhinos was likely a mixed feeder, with the two lineages then specializing in browsing and grazing, respectively. The oldest definitive record of the White Rhinoceros is during the mid-Early Pleistocene at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, around 1.8 Ma.\n\n=== Southern white rhinoceros ===\n\nThere are two subspecies of white rhino: the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) and the northern white rhinoceros. "


id: dbd66fc1b4cbca09c45687c116d1497a
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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vector_id: 2100
content:
"As of 31 December 2007, there were an estimated 17,460 southern white rhinos in the wild (IUCN 2008), making them by far the most abundant subspecies of rhino in the world; the number of southern white rhinos outnumbers all other rhino subspecies combined. South Africa is the stronghold for this subspecies (93.0%), conserving 16,255 individuals in the wild in 2007 (IUCN 2008). There are smaller reintroduced populations within the historical range of the species in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Uganda and Eswatini, while a small population survives in Mozambique. Populations have also been introduced outside of the former range of the species to Kenya and Zambia.Wild-caught southern whites will readily breed in captivity given appropriate amounts of space and food, as well as the presence of other female rhinos of breeding age. However, for reasons that are not currently understood, the rate of reproduction is extremely low among captive-born southern white females.\n\n=== Northern white rhinoceros ===\n\nThe northern white rhinoceros or northern square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) is considered critically endangered and possibly extinct in the wild. "


id: 19e180974eec25f98cfbcf216d170fd2
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"Formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa south of the Sahara, this subspecies is a grazer in grasslands and savanna woodlands.\nInitially, six northern white rhinoceros lived in the Dv\u016fr Kr\u00e1lov\u00e9 Zoo in the Czech Republic. Four of the six rhinos (which were also the only reproductive animals of this subspecies) were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya, where scientists hoped they would successfully breed and save this subspecies from extinction. One of the two remaining in the Czech Republic died in late May 2011. Both of the last two males capable of natural mating died in 2014 (one in Kenya on 18 October and one in San Diego on 15 December). In 2015, the Kenyan government placed the last remaining male of the subspecies at Ol Pejeta under 24-hour armed guard to deter poachers, but he was put down on 19 March 2018 due to multiple health problems caused by old age, leaving just two females alive which reside at the Ol Pejeta complex.  "


id: 9859f9f767b865aff97cb2a3963455cb
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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vector_id: 1421
content:
"Staff hope to inseminate the remaining females with the last male's semen, although the semen is not preferable due to the age of the rhino.Following the phylogenetic species concept, recent research has led to the hypothesis that the northern white rhinoceros is a different species, rather than a subspecies of white rhinoceros as was previously thought, in which case the correct scientific name for the former should be Ceratotherium cottoni. Distinct morphological and genetic differences suggest the two proposed species have been separated for at least a million years. However, the results of the research were not universally accepted by other scientists.\n\n== Description ==\n\nThe white rhinoceros is the largest of the five living species of rhinoceros. By mean body mass, the white rhinoceros falls behind only the three extant species of elephant as the largest land animal and terrestrial mammal alive today. It weighs slightly more on average than a hippopotamus despite a considerable mass overlap between these two species. It has a massive body and large head, a short neck and broad chest.\n\n"


id: 949ed5c4a5de772dd8694e860713a27f
created_at: 2022-12-12 16:43:10
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content:
"The head and body length is 3.7 to 4 m (12.1 to 13.1 ft) in males and 3.4 to 3.65 m (11.2 to 12.0 ft) in females, with the tail adding another 70 cm (28 in) and the shoulder height is 170 to 186 cm (5.58 to 6.10 ft) in the male and 160 to 177 cm (5.25 to 5.81 ft) in the female. The male, averaging about 2,300 kg (5,070 lb) is heavier than the female, at an average of about 1,700 kg (3,750 lb). The largest size the species can attain is not definitively known; specimens of up to 3,600 kg (7,940 lb) are considered reliable, while larger sizes up to 4,500 kg (9,920 lb) have been claimed but are not verified. On its snout it has two horn-like growths, one behind the other. These are made of solid keratin, in which they differ from the horns of bovids (cattle and their relatives), which are keratin with a bony core, and deer antlers, which are solid bone.\n\nThe front horn is larger and averages 60 cm (24 in) in length, reaching as much as 150 cm (59 in) but only in females. "


