data/curated_samples/wiki.json

[
    {
        "id": 1,
        "url": "https:\/\/sq.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Faqja%20kryesore",
        "title": "Faqja kryesore",
        "text": "\nFaqja kryesore"
    },
    {
        "id": 49,
        "url": "https:\/\/sq.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thanas%20Qerama",
        "title": "Thanas Qerama",
        "text": "Thanas Qerama (7 prill, 1945 \u2013 4 prill, 2004), ishte shkrimtar shqiptar, novelist dhe shkrues i tregimeve fantastiko-shk\u00ebncore, botues i revist\u00ebs Horizonti gjat\u00eb viteve 1979\u20131989, revist\u00eb p\u00ebr moshat adoleshente me p\u00ebrmbledhje, kuriozitete dhe tregime nga shkencat natyrore dhe historike.\n\nTituj t\u00eb veprave \n\n 1981: P\u00ebr dit\u00ebt e liris\u00eb\n 1981: Roboti i pabindur\n 1982: Nj\u00eb jav\u00eb n\u00eb vitin 2044\n 1984: Fajtori i Paduksh\u00ebm - novel\u00eb\n 1984: Dy rrug\u00eb drejt yllberit\n 1987: Misteri i tempullit t\u00eb lasht\u00eb\n 1993: Nj\u00ebzet vjet n\u00eb Kozmos - tregime\nFilmi Lundrimi i par\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb vepr\u00ebn e tij me t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtin titull.\n\nShkrimtar\u00eb shqiptar\u00eb\nScience fiction\nLindje 1945\nVdekje 2004"
    },
    {
        "id": 627,
        "url": "https:\/\/sq.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dhjetori",
        "title": "Dhjetori",
        "text": "Dhjetori (ose dim\u00ebrori ose sh\u00ebn\u00ebndreu) \u00ebsht\u00eb muaji i dymb\u00ebdhjet\u00eb dhe i fundit n\u00eb Kalendarin Gregorian dhe ka 31 dit\u00eb. Emri dhjetor \u00ebsht\u00eb p\u00ebrkthim dhe adaptim nga Latinishtja p\u00ebr fjal\u00ebn \"dhjet\u00eb\" (decem). dhjetori ishte muaji i dhjete p\u00ebr Romak\u00ebt e antikitetit, p\u00ebrpara se t\u00eb shtoheshin muajt janar dhe shkurt."
    },
    {
        "id": 12,
        "url": "https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anarchism",
        "title": "Anarchism",
        "text": "Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including nation-states, and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. As a historically left-wing movement, this reading of anarchism is placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism).\n\nHumans have lived in societies without formal hierarchies long before the establishment of states, realms, or empires. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose. Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.\n\nAnarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis.\n\nEtymology, terminology, and definition \n\nThe etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning \"without a ruler\", composed of the prefix an- (\"without\") and the word arkhos (\"leader\" or \"ruler\"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756\u20131836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808\u20131871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs.\n\nThe first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809\u20131865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism.\n\nWhile the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism. Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberal and socialist but more so. Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.\n\nWhile opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-modern era \n\nBefore the creation of towns and cities, established authority did not exist. It was after the institution of authority that anarchistic ideas were espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had \"significant anticipations\" of anarchism.\n\nAnarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.\n\nIn medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I.\n\nIn Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.\n\nModern era \nDuring the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enrag\u00e9s and the  saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism.\n\nDrawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs.\n\nBy the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.\n\nDespite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too. With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to communist parties which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International.\n\nIn the Spanish Civil War of 1936\u201339, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days, as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.\n\nPost-WWII \n\nBy the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism\u2013Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.\n\nAround the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria.\n\nWhile having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, they inform about the rising rates of world hunger suggest a policy to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers and commodification of food and housing. Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well. Honeywell argues that escalation of problems such as continuous wars and world poverty show that the current framework not only cannot solve those pressing problems for humanity, but are causal factors as well, resulting in the rejection of representative democracy and the state as a whole.\n\nThought \nAnarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter.\n\nBeyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism.\n\nAnarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del M\u00e1rmol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation.\n\nClassical \n\nInceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.\n\nMutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include \"abolishing the state\", reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a \"third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property.\" Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.\n\nAnarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, held by a federal network of voluntary associations, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.\" Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management.\n\nIndividualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation.\n\nPost-classical and contemporary \n\nAnarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.\n\nContemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established \"relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles\", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.\n\nAnarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely \"all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism.\" Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.\n\nTactics \nAnarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.\n\nAnarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.\n\nClassical era \n\nDuring the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.\n\nAnarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.\n\nAnarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.\n\nRevolutionary \n\nIn the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.\n\nOverall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.\n\nEvolutionary \nAnarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the big-A anarchism of the classical era, the newly coined term small-a anarchism signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.\n\nThe decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5\u201320 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.\n\nAs in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.\n\nAnarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.\n\nKey issues \n\nAs anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.\n\nThe state \n\nObjection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.\n\nSpecific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning \"coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be.\" A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.\n\nGender, sexuality, and free love \n\nAs gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.\n\nSexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.\n\nDuring the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.\n\nEducation \n\nThe interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner (\"The False Principle of Our Education\") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.\n\nIn 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that \"for education to be effective it had to be free.\" In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.\n\nAnarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.\n\nLate 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.\n\nWhile few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.\n\nThe arts \n\nThe connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.\n\nOther anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Rob\u00e9 claims that \"anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism.\" Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.\n\nThree overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.\n\nCriticism \nThe most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that \"[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government.\" Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.\n\nAnother criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a \"night-watchman state\", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.\n\nPhilosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.\n\nPhilosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that \"political authority is a moral illusion.\"\n\nOne of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.\n\nFriedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that \"anarchism cannot win\", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.\n\nSee also \n\n Anarchism by country\n Governance without government\n List of anarchist political ideologies\n List of books about anarchism\n\nReferences\n\nExplanatory notes\n\nCitations\n\nGeneral and cited sources\n\nPrimary sources\n\nSecondary sources\n\nTertiary sources\n\nFurther reading \n \n  \n  Criticism of philosophical anarchism.\n \n  A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that \"both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims.\" (p.\u00a0137)\n  Anarchistic popular fiction novel.\n \n \n \n  An argument for philosophical anarchism.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Anarchy Archives \u2013 an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.\n\n \nAnti-capitalism\nAnti-fascism\nEconomic ideologies\nFar-left politics\nLeft-wing politics\nLibertarian socialism\nLibertarianism\nPolitical culture\nPolitical ideologies\nPolitical movements\nSocial theories\nSocialism"
    },
    {
        "id": 39,
        "url": "https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Albedo",
        "title": "Albedo",
        "text": "Albedo (; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).\n\nSurface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.\n\nUnless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 \u03bcm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4\u20130.7 \u03bcm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).\n\nIce\u2013albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice\u2013albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change.\n\nAlbedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management. The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30\u201335% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.\n\nTerrestrial albedo\n\nAny albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.\n\nEarth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.\n\nEarth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about . If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below . If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about . In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water \u2013 a so-called ocean planet \u2013 the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost .\n\nIn 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998\u20132017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.\n\nWhite-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo\nFor land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle \u03b8i can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:\n the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, , sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and\n the bi-hemispherical reflectance, , sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.\nwith  being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and  being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo  (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:\n\nThis formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.\n\nHuman activities\n\nHuman activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. As per Campra et al., human impacts to \"the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth\u2019s radiative energy balance\" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.\n\nThe tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almer\u00eda, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. A follow-up study found that \"CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a consequence of land transformation\" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change.\n\nIt has been found that urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01\u20130.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate urban heat island. Ouyang et al. estimated that, on a global scale, \"an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 Gt of CO2 emissions.\"\n\nIntentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved.\n\nExamples of terrestrial albedo effects\n\nIllumination \nAlbedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.\n\nInsolation effects\nThe intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.\n\nArctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.\n\nClimate and weather\n\nAlbedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.\n\nThe response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by \"self-reinforcing\" or \"positive\" feedbacks and reduced by \"balancing\" or \"negative\" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice\u2013albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds.\n\nAlbedo\u2013temperature feedback\n\nWhen an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow\u2013temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow\u2013temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.\n\nSnow\nSnow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice\u2013albedo positive feedback).\n\nJust as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming.\n\nCryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.\n\nThe dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.\n\nSmall-scale effects\nAlbedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n\nSolar photovoltaic effects \nAlbedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90\u00b0) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.\n\nTrees\n\nForests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo).\n\nIn the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.\n\nMid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit.\n\nIn seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.\n\nStudies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.\n\nWater\n\nWater reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations.\n\nAt the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.\n\nAlthough the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.\n\nNote that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.\nSnow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.\n\nClouds\nCloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. \"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth.\"\n\nAlbedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as  colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.\n\nAerosol effects\nAerosols (very fine particles\/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are:\n Aerosol direct effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.\n Aerosol indirect effect. Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect effect), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (second indirect effect).\n\nIn extremely polluted cities like Delhi, aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an urban cool island effect during the day.\n\nBlack carbon\nAnother albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m\u22122, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m\u22122. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.\n\nAstronomical albedo \nIn astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved.\n\nOptical or visual albedo\nThe albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle (\"phase angle\"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.\n\nEnceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.\n\nThe overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.\n\nTwo common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.\n\nIn detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.\n\nAn important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by:\n\nwhere  is the astronomical albedo,  is the diameter in kilometers, and  is the absolute magnitude.\n\nRadar albedo\nIn planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC). The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, , , or  (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.\n\nThose components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.\n\nFor most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):\n\nwhere the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, . A smooth metallic sphere would have .\n\nRadar albedos of Solar System objects\n\nThe values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P\/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.\n\nRelationship to surface bulk density\nIn the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:\n\n.\n\nHistory \nThe term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria.\n\nSee also\n\n Cool roof\n Daisyworld\n Emissivity\n Exitance\n Global dimming\n Ice\u2013albedo feedback\n Irradiance\n Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation\n Opposition surge\n Polar see-saw\n Radar astronomy\n Solar radiation management\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Albedo Project \n Albedo \u2013 Encyclopedia of Earth\n NASA MODIS BRDF\/albedo product site\n Ocean surface albedo look-up-table\n Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations\n A discussion of Lunar albedos\n reflectivity of metals (chart) \n\nLand surface effects on climate\nClimate change feedbacks\nClimate forcing\nClimatology\nElectromagnetic radiation\nMeteorological quantities\nRadiometry\nScattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)\nRadiation\n1760s neologisms"
    },
    {
        "id": 3,
        "url": "https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%8E%A3%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%9B%20%E1%8E%A7%E1%8F%83%E1%8E%AE%E1%8F%9B%20%E1%8F%A3%E1%8E%B3%E1%8E%A9",
        "title": "\u13a3\u13cd\u13db \u13a7\u13c3\u13ae\u13db \u13e3\u13b3\u13a9",
        "text": "\n\n\u13b9\u13da \u13a4\u13ec\u13ea\u13b3\u13c5\u13af\n\n\u13a2\u13ac\u13f1 \u13a0\u13ef\u13d9\u13b8\u13a2\n \n \u13af\u13a0 \u13aa\u13ea\u13b5 \u13a7\u13c3\u13ae\u13ad \u13a4\u13c1\u13e2\u13d4\u13c5\u13a1 \u13e5\u13cc \u13a6\u13b6\u13c1\u13db, \u13d5\u13eb \u13a4\u13ea\u13e5, \u13a1\u13c6\u13ad\u13bb \u13a4\u13ea\u13e5.\n \u13a1\u13c6\u13ad\u13bb \u13a1\u13cf\u13a9 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a1\u13cf\u13a9\u13c3 \u13e4\u13a6\u13e1 \u13a4\u13d5\u13be\u13b3\u13a2, \u13e4\u13a6\u13e1\u13c3 \u13a4\u13d3 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a0\u13be\u13d3\u13c5\u13df \u13ac\u13e9\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a4\u13d3\u13c3 \u13c7\u13b5\u13cf \u13a0\u13b4 \u13ce\u13b3 \u13ac\u13e9\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2 \u13d6\u13d1 \u13d9\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13ce\u13a2; \u13c7\u13b5\u13cf\u13c3 \u13a2\u13cf\u13b3\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a2\u13cf\u13b3\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a1\u13b5\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a1\u13b5\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a1\u13bb\u13c2\u13d3\u13e1 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a1\u13bb\u13c2\u13d3\u13e1\u13c3 \u13be\u13d0\u13c2 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13be\u13d0\u13c2\u13c3 \u13cc\u13b5\u13d1 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b4\u13a2; \n \u13cc\u13b5\u13d1\u13c3 \u13c9\u13cf \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2 \u13b4\u13ad\u13eb \u13a4\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13ce\u13a2; \u13c9\u13cf\u13c3 \u13a4\u13c7\u13d7 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2 \u13b7\u13cf \u13a4\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13ce\u13a2; \u13a4\u13c7\u13d7\u13c3 \u13e4\u13cf \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13e4\u13cf\u13c3 \u13d5\u13eb \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13e8\u13af \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13d5\u13eb\u13c3 \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af \u13d0\u13b5\u13d1\u13c5 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2 \u13f3\u13b3\u13ef \u13a4\u13d3\u13f4\u13db \u13a4\u13be\u13b8\u13aa\u13eb\u13ce\u13a2; \n \u13d0\u13b5\u13d1\u13c5\u13c3 \u13b6\u13c9\u13d1 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13b6\u13c9\u13d1\u13c3 \u13a1\u13c6\u13ef \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a1\u13c6\u13ef\u13c3 \u13a1\u13cf \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a1\u13cf\u13c3 \u13e6\u13cf\u13c6 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2. \u13e6\u13cf\u13c6\u13c3 \u13e6\u13b3\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13e6\u13b3\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a3\u13cc\u13ef \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a3\u13cc\u13ef\u13c3 \u13e6\u13d3\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13e6\u13d3\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a1\u13ad\u13cf \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a1\u13ad\u13cf\u13c3 \u13ae\u13cf\u13a6\u13ef \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13ae\u13cf\u13a6\u13ef\u13c3 \u13d1\u13be\u13cf \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13d1\u13be\u13d0\u13c3 \u13a0\u13f1\u13c2\u13c3 \u13e6\u13cc\u13ef \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13e6\u13cc\u13ef\u13c3 \u13e4\u13aa\u13be\u13ef \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a0\u13be\u13d3\u13c5\u13df \u13ac\u13e9\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13d3\u13d7\u13b6\u13c2 \u13af\u13eb\u13d7\u13a8\u13a6\u13d8\u13c5\u13cd\u13d4\u13c1\u13a2; \n \u13d3\u13d7\u13b6\u13c2\u13c3 \u13eb\u13d7\u13a8\u13a6\u13d8\u13c3\u13b8 \u13e4\u13aa\u13be\u13ef \u13cc\u13b3\u13d3\u13f1\u13b5 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13cc\u13b3\u13d3\u13f1\u13b5\u13c3 \u13e4\u13b3\u13c7\u13b5 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13e5\u13b3\u13c7\u13b5\u13c3 \u13a0\u13c6\u13ef\u13d7 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2, \u13a0\u13c6\u13ef\u13d7\u13c3 \u13a2\u13b3\u13ef\u13a9\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a2\u13b3\u13ef\u13a9\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a1\u13d0 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a1\u13d0\u13c3 \u13ce\u13d9\u13a9\u13c3 \u13a1\u13a9\u13bb \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a1\u13a9\u13bb\u13c3 \u13a2\u13b3\u13ef\u13d7 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \n \u13a2\u13b3\u13ef\u13d7\u13c3 \u13a2\u13b5\u13a1\u13cc \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2; \u13a2\u13b3\u13a1\u13cc\u13c3 \u13d1\u13d3\u13c2 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b4\u13a2; \u13d1\u13d3\u13c2\u13c3 \u13e4\u13a6\u13e1 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b4\u13a2; \n \u13e4\u13a6\u13e1\u13c3 \u13e6\u13e9 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c1\u13b3\u13a2, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13ba\u13b5 \u13a4\u13f0\u13af \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13d3\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13ce \u13e5\u13cc \u13a6\u13b6\u13c1\u13db \u13e3\u13c3\u13ce\u13b0\u13a2. \n \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13c2\u13a6\u13db \u13b8\u13be\u13d3\u13c1\u13df\u13f4\u13d2 \u13a1\u13c6\u13ad\u13bb \u13e4\u13ae \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13c5\u13d3\u13ac\u13e9\u13d3\u13b4\u13c5\u13db \u13d5\u13eb\u13c3 \u13e4\u13ae \u13c5\u13db\u13cd\u13d8 \u13c2\u13a6\u13da \u13b8\u13be\u13d3\u13c1\u13df\u13f4\u13ce\u13a2; \u13d5\u13eb\u13c3 \u13e4\u13ae \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13c5\u13d3\u13ac\u13e9\u13d3\u13b4\u13c5\u13db \u13d3\u13d7\u13b6\u13c2\u13c3 \u13e5\u13eb\u13d7\u13a8\u13a6\u13d8\u13c5\u13cd\u13d4\u13c1 \u13c5\u13d3\u13f3\u13d3\u13b4\u13c5\u13db \u13e5\u13cc\u13c3 \u13e7\u13d5\u13c1 \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13c5\u13db\u13cd\u13d8 \u13c2\u13a6\u13da \u13c4\u13be\u13d3\u13c1\u13df\u13f4\u13ce\u13a2. \n \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13b5\u13cd\u13d4\u13c2\u13d9\u13b4 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c5 \u13e5\u13cc \u13a6\u13b6\u13c1\u13db. \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13ba\u13b5 \u13e5\u13cc \u13a4\u13e5 \u13e6\u13e9 \u13a4\u13d3\u13b8\u13cd\u13d7, \u13a0\u13cf\u13c9 \u13c2\u13d3\u13be\u13e4\u13ac\u13be \u13a8\u13ce\u13a2, \u13a4\u13c1\u13b5\u13e4 \u13a6\u13b8\u13c9\u13d7\u13f3 \u13a0\u13d3\u13c5\u13d9 \u13a4\u13d3\u13c5\u13d6\u13b8\u13af. \n \u13e6\u13e9 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13be \u13d3\u13be\u13e8\u13cd\u13d7 \u13a4\u13d3\u13c5\u13d8\u13f3 \u13a8\u13d2 \u13a2\u13f3\u13cd\u13d7, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13c4\u13da\u13b5\u13cd\u13ac\u13be \u13a8\u13d2 \u13a2\u13f3\u13cd\u13d7 \u13ac\u13c2\u13a8\u13d2 \u13a4\u13d5\u13b0\u13af\u13cd\u13d9\u13d7\u13f1, \u13a4\u13d5\u13b5\u13db\u13c9 \u13a2\u13f4\u13db \u13ee\u13d3\u13e5\u13ef\u13b3\u13bc. \u13a2\u13ea\u13b5\u13ce\u13a2. \n \u13a0\u13ce\u13c3 \u13a0\u13cf\u13c9 \u13af\u13a0 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13c4\u13cd\u13d5 \u13a0\u13d3\u13c5\u13d6\u13cd\u13a8\u13a2, \u13ac\u13c2\u13f3\u13c9 \u13d7\u13a7\u13bf\u13e9\u13da\u13d7\u13af \u13f1\u13b0\u13e9 \u13a4\u13c5\u13cf\u13db \u13ac\u13c2\u13a8\u13d2 \u13c4\u13db\u13c1\u13b3 \u13a0\u13cd\u13a9\u13d3\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2, \u13af\u13a0 \u13c2\u13d5\u13ea\u13cd\u13a8\u13a2; \u13e6\u13e9, \u13d5\u13eb \u13a4\u13ea\u13e5, \u13de\u13cd\u13d7 \u13e3\u13cd\u13a6\u13b8 \u13af\u13ef\u13c5\u13d7\u13f1 \u13ba\u13b5 \u13e3\u13d3\u13f4\u13cd\u13d7, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13f0\u13c3 \u13be \u13e5\u13a6\u13c1\u13b5 \u13a6\u13b8\u13c9\u13d7\u13f3 \u13a0\u13d3\u13c5\u13d9 \u13a4\u13d3\u13c5\u13d6\u13b8\u13af; \n \u13a0\u13b4 \u13d3\u13a6\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13cf \u13a0\u13e7\u13e3, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13e5\u13cc \u13d5\u13af\u13f2\u13a2\u13ad, \u13e7\u13e4\u13b5\u13f0\u13c3 \u13f4\u13eb \u13d9\u13db\u13cd\u13d5\u13b8\u13af \u13d9\u13d3\u13e7\u13d3\u13b4\u13cf \u13a4\u13c2\u13cd\u13a6\u13c5\u13e8\u13a2. \n \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13af\u13a0 \u13c2\u13a6\u13d7\u13f3 \u13c4\u13b5\u13cd\u13d4\u13c2\u13d9\u13b4 \u13a4\u13d9\u13af\u13f3\u13d7\u13f1 \u13a0\u13f0\u13b8\u13d2\u13a2 \u13af\u13a0 \u13e5\u13c4\u13ea\u13ce \u13f1\u13b0\u13e9 \u13a0\u13d9\u13b4\u13b0\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a0\u13ac\u13d7\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2; \n \u13ac\u13c2\u13f3\u13c9 \u13a0\u13db \u13be\u13e5\u13f3\u13b2\u13be \u13a6\u13c1\u13b5\u13db \u13a8\u13ce\u13cd\u13d7, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13d3\u13a6\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13cf \u13a0\u13e7\u13e3, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13a2\u13d1\u13c4\u13a1\u13b5 \u13a0\u13c3\u13ad\u13ae\u13cd\u13d7, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a0\u13c1\u13e2\u13d4\u13c5\u13af \u13a8\u13d2 \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13cd\u13d7 \u13a6\u13db\u13a6, \u13a4 \u13c1\u13b3\u13c5\u13af \u13a2\u13a8\u13b3\u13d7\u13d9\u13ad. \n \u13e6\u13e9\u13c3 \u13a4\u13f0\u13e6 \u13a4\u13b8\u13a4\u13a2 \u13d7\u13a7\u13bf\u13e9\u13d7\u13d9\u13af \u13f1\u13b0\u13e9 \u13a4\u13d3\u13f3\u13a4\u13cf\u13db \u13c4\u13ea\u13ce\u13b8 \u13c4\u13db\u13c1\u13b4\u13a2, \u13a4\u13ef\u13c5\u13ae\u13c9 \u13a4\u13d3\u13f4\u13cd\u13d7.\n \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a5\u13dd \u13f3\u13a6\u13d9\u13a5\u13ce\u13a2 \u13ac\u13c2 \u13a4\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13eb\u13d2 \u13a2\u13d2\u13f1 \u13a1\u13af \u13a4\u13ea\u13e5 \u13a0\u13b4\u13e3, \u13e5\u13cc\u13c3\u13da\u13ec\u13a1\u13a2.\n\n2\u13c1 \u13a0\u13ef\u13d9\u13b8\u13a2\n\n \u13e5\u13cc\u13c3 \u13a4\u13d5\u13c5 \u13a6\u13da\u13f1 \u13a6\u13da\u13b2 \u13e5\u13d7\u13f1, \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13e4\u13ad \u13a1\u13b6\u13db \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af, \u13ac\u13c2\u13f3\u13c9 \u13a4\u13c2\u13b7\u13e4 \u13e5\u13b7\u13cf\u13b5\u13bb \u13a0\u13c2\u13a6\u13d4\u13bf\u13a2 \u13a4\u13d9 \u13d7\u13a7\u13b8\u13ac \u13a2\u13d7\u13e2 \u13d3\u13c2\u13b6\u13ce\u13a2,\n \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13c2\u13ea\u13ce\u13a2; \u13ad\u13e2 \u13be \u13e7\u13d5\u13c5 \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af \u13a0\u13c2\u13e7\u13cf \u13a4\u13be\u13e4\u13b5\u13a6, \u13a3\u13a9\u13aa\u13b2\u13f0\u13c3 \u13a4\u13e4\u13b5 \u13c3\u13c8\u13cf \u13d7\u13a7\u13b8\u13ac \u13a2\u13d7\u13e2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e3\u13d3\u13d9\u13b5\u13cd\u13d3\u13c1\u13b5\u13a6.\n \u13a1\u13b6\u13db\u13c3 \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af \u13a4\u13db\u13a6\u13c5 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9, \u13a4\u13ea\u13b5\u13af\u13cd\u13d7 \u13a4\u13d3\u13c5\u13d3\u13d5\u13a2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13c2\u13a6\u13db \u13e5\u13b7\u13cf\u13b5\u13bb \u13a0\u13c1\u13af.\n \u13da\u13b3\u13eb\u13db\u13c3 \u13c2\u13a6\u13db \u13c4\u13c2\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13d2 \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8 \u13a0\u13c1\u13b6\u13af, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13f4\u13eb \u13d7\u13c3\u13ea\u13b3\u13c1\u13af, \u13a6\u13db\u13db\u13c1\u13a2, \u13be\u13bf \u13a4\u13d5\u13d7 \u13a8\u13d2 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c1\u13db.\n \u13af\u13a0\u13c3 \u13e5\u13ac\u13e9\u13ea\u13cc\u13b4\u13a2; \u13e7\u13d7\u13f1 \u13a6\u13da\u13f1 \u13a6\u13da\u13b2\u13a2; \u13a0\u13d3\u13f0\u13c3 \u13c4\u13e9\u13c5 \u13a4\u13ec\u13ea\u13b3 \u13a0\u13d9\u13b4\u13b0\u13cd\u13a9;\n \u13a0\u13b4 \u13e5\u13af \u13a6\u13da\u13f1 \u13a6\u13da\u13b2 \u13e7\u13d7\u13f1, \u13a5\u13dd\u13cd\u13a9\u13c2 \u13e3\u13cd\u13d7\u13a7\u13c2 \u13f1\u13a9, \u13e5\u13e3\u13e7\u13d1\u13ef \u13c4\u13c2\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13d2 \u13e7\u13d7\u13f1 \u13c2\u13af\u13f0\u13c3 \u13d3\u13e3\u13c4\u13aa\u13e5 \u13d7\u13c6\u13f4\u13eb \u13a2\u13cf\u13b5-\u13d7\u13a7\u13c1\u13e4\u13af.\n \u13bf\u13c9\u13c3 \u13a1\u13e3\u13db \u13a4\u13d5\u13b5\u13db \u13eb\u13da\u13ef\u13c5\u13b2 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a0\u13c2\u13a6\u13d4\u13bf\u13a2, \u13a3\u13cd\u13db \u13a6\u13db\u13d8\u13cc\u13c1 \u13a2\u13f3\u13c9 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13c3\u13c8\u13cf \u13a4\u13be\u13c4\u13aa\u13e8\u13a2.\n \u13a0\u13b4 \u13da\u13c5\u13ce \u13a6\u13da\u13f1, \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13ea\u13ce\u13a2; \u13a2\u13e4\u13be \u13a3\u13cd\u13db \u13ea\u13e5\u13f2\u13a6 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a4\u13cd\u13d7 \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5, \u13a2\u13f3\u13c3 \u13a1\u13e5\u13e9\u13b2\u13ad, \u13a2\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3\u13c1\u13b5\u13b8\u13ad, \u13a0\u13f4\u13c3 \u13be\u13cd\u13c9 \u13be\u13e5\u13b7\u13e8\u13ad, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13e5\u13ef\u13d3\u13d9\u13b5\u13cd\u13d3\u13c1\u13b8\u13ad.\n \u13a4\u13be\u13db\u13a6\u13c3\u13c1\u13b8\u13c3 \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af \u13a4\u13be\u13c2\u13a9\u13ce\u13a2, \u13ac\u13c2\u13f3\u13c9\u13c3 \u13c3\u13c8\u13cf, \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a4\u13c2\u13aa\u13b2\u13af \u13d7\u13a7\u13b8\u13ac \u13a2\u13d7\u13e2, \u13a2\u13ac\u13f1 \u13a4\u13c1\u13a4\u13a1\u13b4\u13a2, \u13a1\u13c2 \u13ed\u13b7\u13e5\u13b8 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13b4\u13eb\u13cd\u13d4\u13c5 \u13a6\u13b8\u13b3\u13d7\u13e2 \u13be\u13bf \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a1\u13b2\u13a2.\n \u13a4\u13c2\u13aa\u13b2\u13c3 \u13be\u13cd\u13a9 \u13c3\u13c8\u13cf, \u13a4\u13e3\u13d4\u13c5\u13af \u13a4\u13be\u13b5\u13ae\u13b5\u13e4\u13a2.\n \u13a0\u13d3\u13c1\u13b8\u13c3 \u13a4\u13c2\u13f4\u13b8 \u13a4\u13c2\u13aa\u13ae \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e5 \u13ba\u13b5, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a1\u13b3\u13d7 \u13da\u13be\u13d3\u13c5\u13c1\u13a2, \u13a4\u13be\u13d3\u13d9\u13b5\u13cd\u13d3\u13c1\u13b4\u13a2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13e7\u13ac\u13e9\u13b6\u13d7 \u13a4\u13c2\u13b3\u13c5\u13db \u13da\u13c2\u13cd\u13da\u13a2\u13d2 \u13a4\u13c2\u13c1\u13b8\u13c1 \u13a4\u13be\u13b5\u13cd\u13aa\u13b8\u13d4\u13c5\u13af, \u13a0\u13d5\u13b8-\u13d3\u13b6\u13c2\u13a8, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13a6\u13be\u13cd\u13db \u13a6\u13e9\u13d2\u13a9 \u13a0\u13dc, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13bb\u13b3.\n \u13a0\u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13d3\u13cd\u13ac\u13c3 \u13a4\u13c1\u13b3\u13c5\u13af \u13da\u13c1\u13e4\u13b8 \u13a1\u13b6\u13db\u13f1 \u13ed\u13c2\u13b6\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13f1 \u13c2\u13a8\u13d2\u13be, \u13a4\u13be\u13c2\u13a9\u13d2 \u13a4\u13e3\u13d8\u13c2\u13c9 \u13a2\u13d7\u13e2 \u13ed\u13c2\u13b6\u13ce \u13a2\u13a4\u13c1\u13c5 \u13a4\u13be\u13e4\u13b5\u13aa\u13af.\n \u13a4\u13be\u13c2\u13a9\u13d2\u13c3 \u13a1\u13c2\u13f3\u13c9 \u13d7\u13a7\u13bf\u13e9\u13d7\u13d9\u13af \u13a4\u13c5\u13cf\u13db \u13f1\u13a8\u13e9 \u13a1\u13c2\u13a8\u13d2 \u13c4\u13db\u13c1\u13b4 \u13e6\u13e9 \u13a0\u13cd\u13a9\u13d3\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2, \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13ea\u13ce\u13b4\u13a2; \u13d4\u13b4\u13b2\u13a6, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13d4\u13d8\u13c4\u13a6 \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13ad\u13b5\u13d8, \u13a2\u13e5\u13c8 \u13be\u13b6\u13af, \u13be\u13bf\u13c3 \u13ea\u13ae\u13cd\u13d7 \u13ac\u13c2 \u13eb\u13ac\u13c1\u13e4\u13b8\u13ad, \u13a1\u13b6\u13db\u13f0\u13c3 \u13a0\u13ce \u13db\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a4\u13cd\u13d7 \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a4\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13f1.\n \u13bf\u13c9\u13c3 \u13da\u13b4\u13c5 \u13a4\u13d8\u13c5\u13ad\u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e5 \u13d2\u13c3\u13f1, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a2\u13e5\u13c8\u13f1 \u13ed\u13b6\u13ce\u13a2.\n \u13a0\u13b4 \u13be\u13bf \u13ea\u13ae \u13ac\u13c2 \u13a1\u13b6\u13db \u13a4\u13f2\u13b1\u13d2; \u13a4\u13d9\u13af\u13f3\u13c1 \u13a4\u13c1\u13b3\u13c5\u13af \u13a4\u13c1\u13e8\u13a2, \u13a0\u13d9\u13b4\u13a8\u13cd\u13a9 \u13d3\u13ee\u13d4\u13c1\u13a2, \u13af\u13a0 \u13e5\u13c4\u13ea\u13ce\u13a2; \u13a2\u13e5\u13c8\u13f1 \u13eb\u13e5\u13ef\u13c5\u13b2 \u13a0\u13c7\u13e5.\n \u13bf\u13c9\u13c3 \u13a4\u13d9\u13af\u13f3\u13c1 \u13e4\u13b5\u13b9\u13ef \u13a0\u13d9\u13b4\u13b0\u13cd\u13a9 \u13a4\u13c1\u13e8\u13af, \u13af\u13a0\u13e5\u13c4\u13ae\u13ce\u13a2;\n \u13b4\u13b9\u13f1 \u13a7\u13c1\u13ac \u13a4\u13be\u13db\u13a6\u13c5\u13a9, \u13d3\u13c2\u13f4\u13ac\u13a2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13d3\u13be\u13e0\u13f1\u13b2\u13a2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e9\u13d8 \u13a4\u13c1\u13b7\u13ac\u13a2; \u13a0\u13e5\u13b5 \u13a0\u13cd\u13aa\u13c2\u13b2 \u13d3\u13ae\u13e5, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13c4\u13da\u13b5\u13cd\u13ac\u13be \u13a8\u13d2 \u13a4\u13c4\u13ec\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13f1, \u13a4\u13d7\u13a6\u13b5\u13cd\u13d9\u13d7\u13cd\u13ac \u13be\u13c1\u13b2\u13be\u13c9 \u13a8\u13d2\u13a2.\n \u13bf\u13c9\u13c3 \u13a1\u13b6\u13db \u13a4\u13d9\u13b4\u13b0\u13d2 \u13a0\u13c2\u13a6\u13d4\u13bf\u13a2 \u13ac\u13e9\u13b5\u13d3\u13cd\u13d4\u13c5\u13a2, \u13a4\u13e3\u13d4\u13c5\u13af \u13a4\u13d4\u13b3\u13ec\u13ce\u13a2, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13d3\u13c5\u13ce \u13eb\u13da\u13c2\u13b0\u13c1 \u13c2\u13a6\u13db \u13d7\u13c2\u13f3\u13b5 \u13a6\u13da\u13f1 \u13a0\u13c1\u13af, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13c2\u13a6\u13db \u13c2\u13ac\u13be\u13db \u13be\u13bf\u13c2, \u13d4\u13b5 \u13a2\u13f3\u13be\u13d5\u13d8\u13f4\u13db \u13e9\u13cd\u13d8, \u13be\u13af\u13f3 \u13a4\u13d3\u13f3\u13d3\u13b4\u13c5\u13db \u13e5\u13d3\u13b5\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d3\u13c1\u13ae \u13e5\u13d3\u13db\u13db\u13e2\u13b8\u13a2\u13cd\u13a8 \u13a0\u13c2\u13a6\u13d4\u13bf\u13a2.\n \u13af\u13a0 \u13c4\u13ea\u13ce\u13b3\u13a2; \u13d4\u13b4\u13b2\u13a6 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13ad\u13d8\u13c4\u13a6 \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e5, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13ae\u13be \u13a2\u13cf\u13b5\u13f1, \u13bf\u13c9\u13f0\u13c3 \u13da\u13c2\u13f2\u13b1\u13d2 \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13ac\u13c5 \u13e7\u13c2\u13f2\u13b2\u13a9.\n \u13da\u13b4\u13c5\u13c3 \u13a4\u13d8\u13c5\u13ce \u13a0\u13f2\u13b5 \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a4\u13e5, \u13a0\u13b4 \u13a2\u13cf\u13b5\u13f1 \u13ed\u13b7\u13e4\u13a2.\n \u13a0\u13ce\u13c3 \u13a4\u13db\u13a6\u13c5 \u13a0\u13e5\u13b3 \u13a4\u13ac\u13eb\u13f3\u13af \u13a8\u13d2 \u13e7\u13d7\u13f1 \u13a4\u13d9\u13d3 \u13a1\u13b6\u13db \u13a4\u13d3\u13c1\u13a2\u13f4\u13cd\u13d3\u13c1\u13b8\u13a2, \u13a4\u13cd\u13a6\u13b4 \u13be\u13bf \u13ed\u13b6\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13f1; \u13a0\u13ce\u13c3 \u13a4\u13c1\u13b3\u13c5\u13af \u13a4\u13ea\u13ef\u13b3\u13c5\u13af \u13a8\u13d2 \u13a0\u13cd\u13a9\u13d3\u13ac\u13a2, \u13a8\u13b5\u13b5 \u13ed\u13aa\u13b8\u13cd\u13d4\u13c1\u13a2;\n \u13a6\u13da\u13b2\u13c3 \u13be\u13ce\u13b5\u13d7 \u13e7\u13d9\u13a2\u13db \u13ed\u13b7\u13e8 \u13be\u13bf \u13a1\u13ae\u13a2. \u13be\u13cd\u13a9\u13c3 \u13a4\u13d9\u13af\u13f4\u13c1 \u13a0\u13be\u13d9\u13b4\u13b0\u13cd\u13a9 \u13e7\u13c2\u13c1\u13e4\u13a2, \u13be\u13ce\u13b5\u13d7 \u13a1\u13af \u13a0\u13aa\u13ce\u13ae\u13cd\u13d7, \u13e7\u13be\u13db\u13c1\u13a2.\n\n\u13e7\u13be\u13c1\u13c4\u13d7 \u13d7\u13c1\u13b8\u13d9\u13d7\nTo be checked"
    },
    {
        "id": 824,
        "url": "https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%8F%A7%E1%8E%BE%E1%8E%BB",
        "title": "\u13e7\u13be\u13bb",
        "text": "\u13d7\u13e7\u13be\u13bb \u13a0\u13b9\u13c9\u13a2 \u13a4\u13c3\u13b4 \u13a1\u13c9.  \n\nTo be checked"
    },
    {
        "id": 828,
        "url": "https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%8F%AB%E1%8E%A9%E1%8F%87%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%AF%3A%E1%8E%BE%E1%8E%A5%20%E1%8F%84%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B8%20%E1%8E%BE%E1%8E%BF%E1%8E%A2",
        "title": "\u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:\u13be\u13a5 \u13c4\u13be\u13d3\u13b8 \u13be\u13bf\u13a2",
        "text": "\n en: Requests for the bot flag should be made on this page. This wiki uses the standard bot policy, and allows global bots and automatic approval of certain types of bots. Other bots should apply below, and then request access from a steward if there is no objection.\n\n\u13a0\u13cd\u13d7\u13aa\u13af\u13cd\u13d4\u13c5 \u13aa\u13ea\u13b5 (Archive 2004-2017)\n\nIdeas to aggressively delete or mostly blank poor-quality entries\nI am currently streaming a video conference about the Cherokee language and language-revitalization efforts from Western Carolina University's Cherokee Language program where Dr. Hartwell Francis, the former director, is speaking. To paraphrase him, he stated that the Cherokee-language community has been aware of this project for a decade, but that many of the current Wikipedia articles are of remarkably poor quality because of the influence of bot-generated entries. This makes even looking at them incredibly demotivating because the challenge of fixing them is so daunting. Thus, he suggests cleaning up the project and perhaps revitalizing it through aggressive deleting of low-quality entries. \n\nA possible alternative to mass deletion might be mass partial blanking to encourage more human-created edits. A poor quality article could be reduced to some boiler-plate text like \"XXX is in need of an article\" or \"XXX had the previous article replaced with this text because it was poor-quality, but please feel free to begin a new article now\", but in Cherokee. I am not a Cherokee-speaker, but I could help make these edits (or teach someone else to) if a boiler-plate text and a list of the low-quality demotivating entries were provided. I plan to notify Dr. Hartwell Francis about this thread, and let him know that I believe an bold approach like this is warranted (and feasible) in order to deal with what appears like a stagnant project. Any ideas? Biosthmors (talk) 16:00, 26 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\n\nPing to User:Ooswesthoesbes, who I see has helped start short articles here (for example \u13e3\u13b3\u13a9 \u13ab\u13be\u13d5\u13b6\u13c6\u13cd\u13d7 \u13da\u13d3\u13e5\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2). Biosthmors (talk) 16:16, 26 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nIf partial blanking or mass deletion of those pages results in more activity from native (or at least fluent) speakers, I have no objections :) Although I believe pages like \u13c5\u13c3\u13af are also important to look at, as they seem to be bot generated articles which are not fully translated and probably incorrectly as well. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 16:35, 26 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nThanks for the reply Ooswesthoesbes. For \u13c5\u13c3\u13af, yes, I'd guess, just based on hearing people talk about Cherokee Wikipedia, that a lot is probably incorrectly translated. The concept of turning articles into much shorter versions of themselves (\"stubs\") should also be considered. (For reference, on English Wikipedia the concept is referred to as \"stubifying\".) If a couple sentences of useful content can be preserved or generated, then massively chopping a gargantuan poor-quality article down to a factual sentence or short paragraph is also a significant improvement. Biosthmors (talk) 17:20, 26 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nCherokee Wikipedia is a 2007 guinea pig victim of an experiment in machine translation run by Jeffrey Merkey. The **** was just dumped onto the pages en masse. Any page longer than one sentence was produced by a computer program, and no human ever looked at it. Seb az86556 (talk) 21:41, 26 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nThanks for the info. I found this showing more info about their contributions elsewhere. Biosthmors (talk) 21:53, 27 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nIt's a very bad situation indeed. Automatic translation is especially bad when used for languages that are totally unrelated and function with a different grammar, such as from English to Cherokee. I propose to use a bot to add a template on top of all pages, so we can work to a way to fix them. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 13:41, 28 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nMy understanding is that there are several hundred articles on this wiki? I've been clicking the random page generator button (top left \"\u13a4\u13cd\u13c6\u13c2\u13aa\u13d7 \u13a4\u13c6\u13d3\u13db\", for anyone who doesn't know] and blanking down to \"Subject ...\", as I just did here. This is blunt, but I just want to get started. I did see someone edit a page on this wiki to add a category, marking an article as machine translated. Maybe most of the horrendous articles are already categorized? I'll post that category when\/if I find it. Biosthmors (talk) 18:11, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\n:Category:Machine-translated articles. So after one cleans one up, remove the category? I just did this with \u13d3\u13ac\u13be \u13e5\u13f3 \u13d7\u13d4\u13b3\u13d7\u13cd\u13d7 \u13da\u13a6\u13d8\u13b8\u13d2\u13a2. Biosthmors (talk) 18:31, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\n908 articles on chr wikipedia as of february, for what it's worth. Biosthmors (talk) 22:53, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nIf we just had a list of articles on here sorted by size that would really help, since the large ones appear to be the garbage ones. Biosthmors (talk) 23:26, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\nSpecial:LongPages is the link for this. Biosthmors (talk) 14:32, 3 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)  Thanks Biosthmors\nI now start from number 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 or below in that list to find candidates to cleanup, for what it's worth. Biosthmors (talk) 15:33, 17 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nThat's good :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 14:59, 18 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\n\nThanks Biosthmors for starting this conversation and Ooswesthoesbes and Seb az86556 for providing context and clarification on the machine translation debacle. I see that editor was banned from Wikipedia a decade ago. \n\nI also gave some remarks at the symposium at Western Carolina (I'm Derek). I think there would be interest in organizing an edit-a-thon out at Western Carolina, and hopefully we could get some of the fluent speakers to attend along with advanced learners. It would be great if, in preparation, we could clean all the garbage articles out. I like the idea of blanking them with boilerplate. It would be nice if there was a bot to do this, but if there are just a few hundred articles, we could probably get it done manually? I'm not a speaker, but could coordinate the translation of the boilerplate or template by a fluent speaker.\n\nWhat else should we be considering if we wanted to reboot this project with an edit-a-thon? --R12ntech (talk) 18:24, 9 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nI'm pretty sure we can get a user run a bot to mark all pages automatically. That shouldn't be too much work. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:18, 10 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\n\nShall I make a request so someone will run a bot on this wiki to mark all pages with a category like [[Category:To be checked]]? Or would you prefer the category to have another name? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 09:23, 13 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nThat would be great, thanks. --R12ntech (talk) 15:40, 13 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nA user has already indicated she is willing to help us out :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 16:28, 18 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nHi. Is it correct that simply all pages in the main namespace should be added to the category \"To be checked\"? Should I run my bot with or without a bot flag? --MF-Warburg (talk) 12:12, 19 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nYes, that's correct. As there are virtually no edits on this wiki, I think a bot flag is not necessary. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:34, 20 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nDone. By the way, I also unprotected a lot of pages in the Wikipedia namespace, see Special:Log\/protect, which might be worth to look at \/ update \/ delete \/ ... --MF-Warburg (talk) 12:59, 20 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nThank you very much! Hopefully we can address the issue soon :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 14:53, 20 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\n@Biosthmors, if you look here, Cherokee is currently at the top of the \"100+ articles\" list. If you start mass blanking and\/deleting existing pages, then Cherokee's ranking in the list would decrease to near the bottom. In the past, language editions such as Chamorro, Dzongkha, Sango, Venda, Kirundi, Inupiak, Inuktitut, Xitsonga were all proposed by various users for Closure due to the low number of articles and no native speakers contributing, Language projects that were closed down (ie. locked down) include Ndonga, Choctaw, Kuanyama, Marshallese, Hiri Motu, Afar and Muscogee.\nEven Zulu wikipedia was proposed for closure in the past, now would anyone even think of closing Zulu Wikipedia? \nMass deletion\/blanking of pages will not result in a revival of Cherokee wikipedia, it would result in its continued stagnation and attract zero native speakers to edit here.\nImagine if all the stubs of Kashmiri Wikipedia were deleted right now, would a flood of Kashmiris start editing there?  Highly unlikely. \nThere are other methods that can be utilized to revive a Wikipedia project and they ought to be explored. --Philip J (talk) 04:18, 27 \u13a7\u13a6\u13b5 2019 (UTC)\nThere are 16,000 Cherokee speakers. If each Cherokee speaker created 1 article on Cherokee Wikipedia, then there will be 16,000 articles. Just ensure that they create good quality articles and not short 1 sentence stubs. The New Kituwah Academy teaches Cherokee to students. Maybe they can be contacted to participate here as part of a school classroom project? --Philip J (talk) 04:32, 27 \u13a7\u13a6\u13b5 2019 (UTC)\nThe biggest problem here is that there are 0 contributors with enough knowledge to create true articles. Contacting the Cherokee nation has been tried earlier, maybe through the wrong channels.\nIt should be noted that inactivity or no contents is generally no longer considered to be a valid reason to lock or delete a wiki nowadays. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 09:40, 27 \u13a7\u13a6\u13b5 2019 (UTC)\n\nRandom thoughts for someone knowledgeable about Cherokee\n\nI searched for \u13a0\u13b9\u13cd\u13a7\u13a6\u13af at cherokeedictionary.net but there were no hits. I noticed that one source defined a waterfall as \u13a0\u13b9 \u13a6\u13d9\u13a3\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2, but I believe that was derived from a self-published source, for what it's worth. I wonder if it is an incorrect title. Biosthmors (talk) 10:14, 2 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nThat website didn't have a definition for badger, so it's not as comprehensive as I was hoping, for what it's worth. Biosthmors (talk) 16:56, 2 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nWhen the ancient Cherokee saw waterfalls I am sure they believed them to be mystical. \u13a0\u13b9 \u13a6\u13d9\u13a3\u13cd\u13ac\u13a2 refers to nothing that I can find or have been taught. However, it may be derived from an \"overfill of water\", \"absess or abundance of water\", or even a \"flood\". What I do know is the Cherokee held, and for some still do hold, that water has a Spiritual connection to us and therefore the word(s) for waterfall have other meanings. \u13a0\u13b9\u13cd\u13a7\u13a6\u13af means \"waterfall\" but also a name for \"Water Spirits\". \u13a0\u13e5\u13b3\u13d7\u13f0\u13af, another word for \"waterfall\", also is a name given for the \"Will o' the Wisp\" which we now know to be the phenomenon when gases are released from a swamp and produce a light like a floating orb but to the ancient Cherokee would be seen as having Spirit connections. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 14:51, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI'm surprised to see that Jupiter \u13e7\u13c8\u13d3 has Cherokee names for 50 of its moons. Where could that be verified? The word list cited in the article doesn't go into that kind of detail. Biosthmors (talk) 23:00, 2 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\n\n\u13d3\u13c6 is linked, through Wikidata I presume, as being about baleen whales. But the consortium word list states \u13d3\u13c6 just means whale. Biosthmors (talk) 17:12, 6 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nNow fixed. Biosthmors (talk) 16:11, 9 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\n\n:Category:\u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 shows the word being used most commonly for economics here, but \u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13c0\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 (my emphasis) is given when one searches for a match at http:\/\/cherokeedictionary.net\/ Biosthmors (talk) 20:08, 2 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nShall I move the category to the correct form \"\u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13c0\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9\", including all the pages that are in it? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:52, 3 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nMaybe we should wait for someone who knows more about Cherokee to comment? I've heard some words can be represented with alternate forms. But if you want to be bold and go ahead and do so, I wouldn't object. Thanks. Biosthmors (talk) 19:27, 3 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nIs there a difference between \"economy\" and \"economics\" in English? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:13, 4 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nYes. Why do you ask about that? \u13a0\u13b5\u13cf\u13c5\u13d9\u13d7 is given as economy in the Noquisis word list, for what it's worth. And I'm assuming a bit that \u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 means economics anyhow, from context. A recent post here shows two varieties (Eastern and Western) for the word for :en:w:Fire Pink, for what it's worth. I wonder if \u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 and \u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13c0\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 are just two different dialectal forms. Biosthmors (talk) 23:55, 5 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nIn that case, let's leave it for now. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:24, 7 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\n@Biosthmors@Ooswesthoesbes I hope tagging you both is ok. Biosthmors is correct in the dialectal differences. The Eastern or Kituwah dialect uses \"ts\" in place of the more widely used \"tl\" in the Western or Overhill dialect. These differences are not only found in written but also spoken Cherokee. \"Ts\" in the Western dialect is spoken as a soft \"J\" as in jaw. At any rate, \u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13c0\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9 is most often used for \"economics\" while \u13a0\u13b5\u13cf\u13c5\u13d9 is used for \"economy\". For what it is worth, Economic is \u13a0\u13b3\u13cf\u13c5\u13d9\u13d7 while Economical is \u13a0\u13b3\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d7, respectively. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 16:22, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC) \nTagging is always okay. That way people get a message and know there is something to read here. :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 17:14, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\nThe word \"\u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13c0\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9\" appears to be the result of a bad transliteration conversion. It transliterates to \"analisinahisdisgi\". The word \"\u13a0\u13be\u13b5\u13cf\u13be\u13af\u13cd\u13d7\u13cd\u13a9\" also transliterates to analisinahisdisgi. The first form with \"\u13c0\u13a2' in the middle is incorrect. Reasoning: \"\u13c0\" is an obsolete glyph that is not used and has not been used since nearly the creation of the Syllabary (relatively speaking). --\u13b9\u13a6\u13b5  \n\nI wonder what \u13c5\u13d3 \u13a2\u13a6 \u13a1\u13af \u13a4\u13ea\u13e5 \u13a0\u13a8\u13f3\u13e3 means and if there an English-language Wikipedia article on the same topic. Biosthmors (talk) 22:10, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2018 (UTC)\nThe only words I think I can out of it are \"sun\", \"son\" and \"girl\", so maybe it's somekind of story\/myth? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 09:48, 6 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2018 (UTC)\n\nInterface translation\nThis Wikipedia was created before the Incubator system, so there has apparently never been a major push to complete the interface translation. If anyone wants to work on this, the Cherokee portal on translatewiki is here: , and the direct link to the \"most important messages\" for the Mediawiki interface is here: \n\nHere's a brief article on the topic: Translating the software that powers Wikipedia --R12ntech (talk) 19:32, 11 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nThanks for these links. One of the interface links I have been creating a decent amount is one via Template:Commons. However, I just(diff) unlinked the term \u13eb\u13a9\u13bb\u13d7\u13a0 \u13aa\u13bc\u13c4\u13cd in this template because I'm guessing \u13eb\u13a9\u13bb\u13d7\u13a0 \u13aa\u13bc\u13c4\u13cd means Wikimedia Commons and a separate link to\/about that project seems slightly spammy, as if we're promoting Wikimedia Foundation wikis over other sources. Biosthmors (talk) 15:22, 19 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2018 (UTC)\n\nIt would be nice to have Template:Stub translated into Cherokee. Biosthmors (talk) 13:07, 15 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nYes, any idea how to translate this? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:44, 19 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nAdmin \n\nConsidering we probably got a lot of clean-up work to do, I want to request admin rights to delete unsalvageable pages, so we don't get a way too long backlog. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 14:59, 18 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nTemporary admin access has been granted, so I can delete pages now for clean up. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:13, 1 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nCool. Would it be reasonable for you to post here (or somewhere else) what you might delete and why? Maybe we could use this thread as a place to propose\/discuss\/act upon articles people think would be better off deleted. To begin, I've noticed some random pages around here, such as Zemeros flegyas, a S. and SE Asian butterfly species, or Ayyavazhi, a Hindu denomination. I would guess that those articles would be good candidates to delete because they are in no way connected to the Cherokee language, culture, or history, as far as I am aware. (Actually I notice that Ooswesthoesbes you created the one on the butterfly, for what it's worth.) Biosthmors (talk) 20:22, 2 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nSure, post them here.\nPlease keep in mind that Wikipedia is an ideal platform for Sprachausbau: showing that the Cherokee language is more than just connected to its own culture, and can be used to discuss everything in all domains (including things on the other side of the world, or even further). A more valid reason to delete Zemeros flegyas would be that it has no real contents except for an image and the chances are low that it will be expanded. (As you are aware, I have only superficial knowledge of Cherokee and can't write my own sentences. I created the article a long time ago. Then they wanted to close this wiki, and I tried to do some activity to prevent closure). --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:50, 3 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nI agree with what you're saying about Sprachausbau. I'd say the unlikeliness that it will be expanded would be the best reason. My cleanup activities around here (example) are premised on the idea that the beginning of a sentence (despite it not containing any significant content) will make it easier for someone to write a decent introductory sentence or two on a topic. Biosthmors (talk) 19:22, 3 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nSure :) Mark any page you see fit for deletion with {{Delete}}, and I'll run through them. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:13, 4 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\n\n\u13a0\u13d1\u13eb\u13cd\u13d7 means rouge according to http:\/\/cherokeedictionary.net\/ , but it is currently the title of the article for color. Color appears to be \u13d7\u13a7\u13c3\u13d7, which is currently only a redirect to \u13a0\u13d1\u13eb\u13cd\u13d7. Perhaps we should delete the redirect at \u13d7\u13a7\u13c3\u13d7 and move the color article there, then delete the leftover redirect for \u13a0\u13d1\u13eb\u13cd\u13d7? Biosthmors (talk) 19:37, 3 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nDone. However, I kept the redirect for now, as it is linked a lot. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:13, 4 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nI have personally used \u13a0\u13d1\u13eb\u13cd\u13d7 for color and \u13d7\u13d1\u13eb\u13cd\u13d7 for colors but \u13d7\u13a7\u13c3\u13d7 is listed as the word for color in many dictionaries and word lists. Thank you for keeping this as a redirect @Ooswesthoesbes. Perhaps the confusion is that rouge is color and therefore the words are interchangeable. I don't believe either is incorrect at this point. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 19:12, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nDelete?\nI placed {{Delete}} on Sung Jae-gi. I think we should delete it because it seems unlikely it will ever be expanded to contain quality Cherokee-language content. I also don't like the idea that it has an English name as a title, but I imagine that can't be avoided sometimes. For comparison, at :en:w:Sung Jae-gi, the article has been getting an average of 12 page views a day, for what it's worth. Biosthmors (talk) 16:33, 15 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nThat page is just POV-pushing spam (self-promotional), so it's gone. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:53, 16 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13e9\u13a6\u13e7\u13a7\u13c5\u13cd\u13d5\u13be \u13a4\u13c2\u13be\u13d7\u13c5\u13d7, an article on market trends. I think this article should be deleted because it is a highly specialized topic that is unlikely to be edited, was machine-translated, and seems better scrubbed from the site than to even leave a stub. The article hasn't had any significant edits in the last 12 or so years. I only see that some minor edits (such as fixing transliterations into the Cherokee script) have been made. Biosthmors (talk) 02:36, 23 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nI agree, it is way too specific for now. It's better to focus on articles with more priority. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:49, 23 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\n\nI marked \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9 because it appears to be a common word for flower (but can also mean either rose or orchid per the online dictionary) that is currently redirecting to the rose article. Flower (\u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9) is a fundamental topic that should exist as a red link until a standalone article is created, in my opinion. Biosthmors (talk) 02:19, 25 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nAgreed :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 09:29, 25 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nI would leave this as is. \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9 is used for \"flowers\". I have seen \u13a0\u13c2\u13a0\u13e5\u13b3\u13cd used for \"flowers\" too. Flower(singular) is most often spelled \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9(blossom) or \u13b1\u13e5\u13b8\u13ad but I have even seen it shortened to \u13a0\u13e5\u13b3\u13cd or \u13e5\u13b3. Rose could be my namesake, \u13e5\u13cd\u13da\u13be\u13a9\u13cd\u13a7(Wild Rose), or both \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9(plural) and \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9(singular), respectively. I have seen \u13a0\u13e5\u13b8\u13cd\u13a9 used to refer to orchid before. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 12:39, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI marked \u13a0\u13d3\u13cd\u13d5\u13b8\u13d7 with {{Delete}}. It took me longer than usual to get a decent idea about what's the topic of the article. The online dictionary gives definitions of aid, charity, rescue, assist, protect, intercede, and relief for the term. Wikidata thinks it's about the Great Commandment. One reason I'm of the opinion to delete is because there isn't an apparent lead section\/first sentence to orient readers. (\u13a7\u13c1\u13e8 means word so I'm guessing that first section is about etymology?) For what it's worth, :en:w:Charity (virtue) and :en:w:Charity (practice) are separate topics on English Wikipedia. It seems charity is the topic of the article. There have been no significant edits to the article in the last 12 years, only minor changes from Roman letters into the Cherokee syllabary since the machine-translated data dump. It just seems better to delete this one to me. Biosthmors (talk) 17:56, 29 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nDone. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 12:27, 30 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2018 (UTC)\nI did not get to see the content of the article prior to deletion but if it was not depicting the act of offering aid, charity, assistance, protection or intercession or the action of rescuing then it was probably incorrectly attributed. \u13a0\u13d3\u13cd\u13d5\u13b8\u13d7 is a word of action, not a simple virtue. Good catch! --Tsistunagiska (talk) 12:49, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13aa\u13b1\u13cd\u13d7 \u13ac\u13d4\u13c2\u13d3\u13cd\u13d7. This machine-translated article is intended to be about tools. However, the term \u13aa\u13b1\u13cd\u13d7 \u13ac\u13d4\u13c2\u13d3\u13cd\u13d7 is defined as instruments in the Cherokee online dictionary. (Another term is used for tools.) It appears this article is so bad that it can't even get the title right. We might as well scrap it. Biosthmors (talk) 13:31, 8 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\u13aa\u13b1\u13cd\u13d7\u13ac\u13d4\u13c2\u13d3\u13cd\u13d7 does mean \"instrument\" but can also refer to a \"tool\" to complete a task. When referring to \"tools\"(plural) then \u13aa\u13b1\u13cd\u13d7\u13d7\u13ac\u13d4\u13c2\u13d3\u13cd\u13d7 is used. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 13:00, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nSimilarly, I placed {{Delete}} on \u13c1\u13b5\u13d2. It is supposed to be about thought, but the dictionary defines it as assumed. Another word is given for thought. Biosthmors (talk) 23:34, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nThis is a case where the bot (if used) most likely took Nelisv and split the syllables as Ne-li-sv which is \u13c1\u13b5\u13d2, however, the proper split is Ne-li-s-v which is \u13c1\u13b5\u13cd\u13a5. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 13:13, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nAnd I placed {{Delete}} on \u13d5\u13a6\u13c3\u13e3\u13b8 because it is machine-translated to be about telegraphy, but the dictionary defines \u13d5\u13a6\u13c3\u13e3\u13b8 as publication. For what it's worth, the dictionary says telegram is \u13a0\u13be\u13a6\u13b3\u13d4\u13c5. Biosthmors (talk) 13:08, 13 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nI'll deal with those pages once I get the necessary tools. Did you forget to place the deletion template on \u13d5\u13a6\u13c3\u13e3\u13b8 or have you changed your mind? --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:00, 14 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nGreat. Yes, I forgot to place the template. I'll do that now. Thank you. Biosthmors (talk) 13:09, 14 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nPlease delete Coat of Arms. It's drive by tagging\/vandalism. Biosthmors (talk) 00:50, 24 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2019 (UTC)\nDone. If any new pages are created by vandalism, you can just tag them. I will regularly check Recent changes anyway :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:14, 24 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13a6\u13b8\u13b3\u13d7\u13e6\u13d2 \u13a0\u13d3\u13c5\u13d2 \u13e7\u13be\u13c1\u13b6\u13d7\u13a2 with the following rationale: One can see the discussion at https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion\/Heaven_Sent_Gaming for example. I would suspect this article was established for promotional purposes. It's just not important enough for an article here. Biosthmors (talk) 19:54, 20 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13a7\u13b9\u13b9 \u13a4\u13d4\u13be. The article is about https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elephantidae but we don't even have an article on elephant at the moment here. This topic is just too technical to be useful at this point in time on this project, in my opinion. Biosthmors (talk) 20:00, 20 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n\nSimilarly, I placed on {{Delete}} on \u13cf\u13c6\u13a4\u13e4\u13e3\u13cd\u13d7 as it's also a technical biological concept ( https:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/wiki\/Q6584653 ). I went ahead and deleted the link back to that Cherokee article on Wikidata. I also went ahead and created an article on opossum with a picture (\u13cf\u13c6 \u13a4\u13e4\u13e5\u13cd\u13d7), since we didn't previously have one. Biosthmors (talk) 21:57, 20 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC) \n\nI placed {{Delete}} on Zemeros flegyas. It's an Asian species of butterfly, and I don't see how there would be a Cherokee word for it. There were no hits when searching for the English word \"Zemeros\" in the Cherokee online dictionary. Honestly, I don't see why we should host obscure articles here that have no conceivable connection to the Cherokee language. I feel like this encyclopedia needs to prioritize things that are relevant in Cherokee if we are to attract those wishing to preserve and revitalize the language. Any article we host here, in my opinion, is an implicit request for contributions from those with Cherokee knowledge. And since Cherokee is endangered, and that resource (Cherokee knowledge) is exceedingly scarce, I feel like we should be mindful of that and typically only host relevant concepts or things of general interest to a global population. (A random Polish town or village would not qualify, for example. I recall seeing those on this site.) For examples of relevant concepts in Cherokee, this link shows files with terms for animals, insects, and plants that are documented on the Cherokee Nation website. Biosthmors (talk) 20:35, 20 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13a0\u13e3\u13c5\u13d9. This word is defined as ornament, and despite that, this title used to host the article on plasma, which has been moved and is now at \u13a9\u13a6 \u13a4\u13b8\u13cc\u13d3. An inappropriate redirect remains. Thanks. Biosthmors (talk) 18:26, 29 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n \nI placed on {{Delete}} on Ayyavazhi. It is a Hindu denomination of 8 to 10 million people according to the English Wikipedia. One day when there's an article on Hinduism (one doesn't currently exists according to Wikidata) perhaps it can be mentioned there. This topic is too specialized for this project's purposes at this moment. When so many things that do have Cherokee words for them aren't covered here I just don't see the point. The same goes for Carl Menger. Perhaps he could be mentioned on an economics article should one be written. I placed the delete template there as well. Biosthmors (talk) 23:39, 29 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on the redirect \u13a0\u13ec\u13ad\u13b5. It redirects to the concept of eagle, however it appears that this redirect is main word for eagle according to a dictionary search. So I propose moving \u13ec\u13ad\u13b5 (eagle) there when it is deleted. Thanks. Biosthmors (talk) 20:06, 13 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13a2\u13c3\u13b5. It is currently linked to Wikidata as the American badger. However, I can't find a word for badger on the online dictionary. There also isn't a word for badger on the Cherokee Nation poster of animals. However, I did find the word \u13a2\u13c3\u13b5 on the Consortium Word List, which says it means \"black fox\". After looking that up it might refer to a historical person as https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_Fox_(Cherokee_chief) or to an animal as https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silver_fox_(animal) , or both concepts perhaps. I propose deleting it for now as it appears we have it wrong for the moment. Biosthmors (talk) 20:19, 13 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nThe Cherokee word for badger is \u13a4\u13ab\u13be. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 13:36, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13ac\u13c2\u13a8\u13e7\u13b5. I couldn't find any evidence that this was the correct word for the red fox. For what it's worth, \u13e7\u13b5 is the accepted word for fox according to the Cherokee Nation poster of animals. Biosthmors (talk) 20:28, 13 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\u13e7\u13b3 seems to be the current entry on fox for what it's worth. Maybe \u13e7\u13b3 and \u13e7\u13b5 are synonyms. To be determined. Biosthmors (talk) 17:45, 14 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nThe Cherokee Nation word list gives \u13e7\u13b3 for fox. Interesting. The Raven Rock\/Eastern dialect dictionary gives \u13e7\u13b3 \u13a9\u13a6\u13a8 for the red fox. Both the Noquisis word list and the Raven Rock Dictionary give \u13e7\u13b3 for fox, so with three sources I think it's safe to say \u13e7\u13b3 is the predominant word for fox. Biosthmors (talk) 17:19, 20 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\u13ac\u13c2\u13a8 is described as \"the color of death\" which also refers to black and used in many names of animals such as black bear (\u13ac\u13c2\u13a8\u13f2\u13be). \u13a9\u13a6\u13a8 is the color of red. \u13e7\u13b5 may refer to the plural of fox and therefore when speaking of the entire species of black fox you may refer to it as \u13ac\u13c2\u13a8\u13e7\u13b5. \u13e7\u13b5 also appears in words like \u13e7\u13b5\u13ac\u13e9\u13b3\u13c5\u13af which means \"process\". To your later point, \u13e7\u13b3 is also accepted as the written word for \"fox\" but may refer to a single fox. That would justify the differences between what is written in the above mentioned poster and the words you located in the dictionaries. It could also be differences in the dialects as I am studying the Western Dialect, which is more commonly used. \u13a2\u13c3\u13b5 does refer to Chief Blackfox of the Cherokee and not the animal.--Tsistunagiska (talk) 20:32, 3 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13d7\u13c2\u13c3\u13a8\u13c2 because the dictionary says it is defined as \"arms\" but right now it is tied to the concept of rifle via Wikidata. When you go to the dictionary to search for arm, then you see that \u13d7\u13a7\u13c3\u13a8\u13c2 is the NC medical definition for arms. And \u13a6\u13c3\u13a8\u13c2 is given as the term for his arm. Given that all of these words have \u13c3\u13a8\u13c2 in them, I suspect this is a biological term, and not one for armaments. Given the ambiguity, and the fact there's no real content, I say we should just delete it. Biosthmors (talk) 20:34, 15 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13b4\uab72\uabb9. It appears someone interested in Japanese culture added the article, but it isn't a Cherokee word I think it's safe to assume. If we're proven wrong later, the article can be recreated. I also placed the delete template on \u13bc\uaba9 \u13a6\uab70\uab9a\uab71\uab8e \u13c9\uab9a\uab8e \u13d4\uabb3 as it is something relevant in Japanese but not in Cherokee, I presume. Ethnologue says ~1500 people speak Cherokee right now. I imagine they are talking about something else in Cherokee than random things that are concepts in Japanese. Biosthmors (talk) 18:04, 17 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13a0\u13eb\u13f3\u13cd\u13d8. I could not find a match for antelope in the either online dictionary or the animals poster. I don't know how we can make sure this is the right word. For what it's worth, the google definition says that antelope are African and\/or Asian, so I'm not sure a Cherokee word for them even exists. And as an aside, specific Cherokee words for bird species abound. I'm guessing we're missing a lot of those articles. Biosthmors (talk) 20:47, 17 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nI can imagine words for non-native animals exist. In Limburgish, we've got words like tieger too, while tigers do not natively occur in our region. For now, I'd give this one the benefit of the doubt. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:17, 20 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\u13a0\u13eb\u13f3\u13cd\u13d8 is the Cherokee word for antelope. This one is correct. There are multiple word dictionaries on the internet. I am working to consolidate most into one but it is an arduous task as I am adamant about accuracy. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 20:53, 3 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nI placed {{Delete}} on \u13e1\u13ac\u13a2. It is a redirect to the current tree article \u13e1\u13ac, but I find \u13e1\u13ac\u13a2 more frequently as the word for tree in the dictionary. Also, for what it's worth, \u13e1\u13ac is only defined in the online dictionary as a Microsoft computing term for a data tree. I guess leaving it as a redirect to \u13e1\u13ac\u13a2 is fine though. Biosthmors (talk) 16:51, 21 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\u13e1\u13ac\u13a2 or \u13e1\u13ac have been used as \"tree\". I have also seen \u13e3\u13b5\u13ab and \u13a2\u13e2\u13ac used to describe a tree, however that may have been to represent a specific species of tree and not a tree in general. \u13d5\u13e1\u13ac has been used to describe trees in plural. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 13:42, 5 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nProlonging temporary admin access \n\n@Biosthmors and other users: my admin access expires on the 30th of July. I would like to prolong it, as I have used it a few times the past three months. I hope you agree with that :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:11, 21 \u13ab\u13f0\u13c9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nWorks for me! Biosthmors (talk) 16:34, 22 \u13ab\u13f0\u13c9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nThey've prolonged it for half a year, to expire on 30 January :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:18, 31 \u13ab\u13f0\u13c9\u13c2 2018 (UTC)\nIs it time for another renewal Ooswesthoesbes, or did they already grant you the user rights again? Best. Biosthmors (talk) 21:18, 9 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nNo, I'll make the announcement :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:39, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nTemporary admin access again \nDear people, as my admin access expired over a month ago, I would like to reapply if you all agree :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:40, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nAgreed. Thanks. Biosthmors (talk) 13:38, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nI informed meta here. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:47, 19 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nGranted for 6 months. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 16:29, 19 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nSite notice \n\nThe site notice posts \"Do you speak \u13e3\u13b3\u13a9 \u13a7\u13ec\u13c2\u13af\u13cd\u13d7? Help us to revive the Cherokee Wikipedia! Discuss the future of this project on \u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:\u13be\u13a5 \u13c4\u13be\u13d3\u13b8 \u13be\u13bf\u13a2.\" for all newcomers to view I presume, and I just never dismiss it. I use the link to \u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:\u13be\u13a5 \u13c4\u13be\u13d3\u13b8 \u13be\u13bf\u13a2 to come here from time to time. But no matter what Cherokee Wikipedia page I view right now, the link to \u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:\u13be\u13a5 \u13c4\u13be\u13d3\u13b8 \u13be\u13bf\u13a2 is bold and doesn't actually link here. Any ideas? Thanks. Biosthmors (talk) 13:42, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nWell it's an active link again, and I guess I just closed out a browser window and reopened one. I'm don't know what would cause this. Biosthmors (talk) 13:52, 12 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nIt must be, as for me it is functioning just fine too. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 09:55, 14 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nHi guys \n\nI'm one of those that originally tried to whip up some steam in regards to this Cherokee Wiki a million years ago (I added the Cherokee keyboard under the edit box etc). I'm glad to see some more people being active. I am nowhere near a good speaker though, so mostly I just help in the background. I just wanted to say I'm here too! Cheers, Nesnad (talk) 18:14, 28 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nHello there! Thanks for your contributions, and thanks for saying hello. I saw this in the news about students writing in Cherokee. Maybe reaching out to tsalagi dideloquasdi, the Cherokee immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, is worth a shot? I wish I knew more Cherokee, but I just know a tiny amount. But I'm happy to help answer questions about editing here if someone with Cherokee knowledge has any questions. Best wishes. Biosthmors (talk) 01:48, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nHi! :) That might be a good idea indeed. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 10:18, 29 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nHello again Nesnad! I was wondering if you might be able to help out with something (two somethings actually). First, what does \u13db\u13bf\u13a2 \u13d9\u13aa\u13ea\u13b8 mean? I tried to look those words up at http:\/\/www.cherokeedictionary.net\/ but I didn't get any hits. Also, I was uncertain if \u13a6\u13c2\u13dd\u13a2 is the right word for animals. I shared alternatives to that spelling at Talk:\u13a6\u13c2\u13dd\u13a2. Do you have any thoughts? Many thanks! And best wishes. Biosthmors (talk) 20:39, 25 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nAs I said above, I am less than a good speaker, so I guess I failed. 2011 is too long ago to remember what sources I was studying from, but clearly I got excited to learn something new and added a page that was wrong? From the grouping it is pretty clear I thought I learned how to classify animals scientifically, but that is clearly wrong as you point out. Should be redirected or renamed, I think the list is somewhat useful though. Although I suppose the subsets of the list (although I didn't make them) should be checked too. Cheers, Nesnad (talk) 01:00, 27 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\nAh no worries, and thanks for the reply! I don't think there's any rush to do anything with \u13db\u13bf\u13a2 \u13d9\u13aa\u13ea\u13b8. Perhaps it's a good idea for an article based on a good source you were using. Best wishes. Biosthmors (talk) 01:47, 27 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n@Biosthmors@Nesnad@Ooswesthoesbes The Cherokee word for animals is \u13a1\u13bf\u13a2 and for animal is \u13a6\u13be\u13dd\u13a2. \u13a6\u13be\u13dd\u13a2 is Gan(a)tlai where the \"a\" is silent and only added to bring the word into compliance with Sequoyah's Syllabary. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 20:46, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\nIt looks like there was some classroom and\/or Cherokee Nation involvement here back in 2009 on \u13e3\u13b3\u13a9 \u13e7\u13be\u13d5\u13b6\u13c6\u13cd\u13d7 (the article for Tsalagi Dideloquasdi, the Cherokee Immersion School) and \u13ea\u13cc, for what it's worth. Biosthmors (talk) 18:28, 27 \u13d5\u13ad\u13b7\u13f1 2019 (UTC)\n\nMultilingual Shared Templates and Modules \nHello chr-wiki community! ()\n\nI recently organized a project to share templates and modules between wikis. It allows modules and templates to be \u201clanguage-neutral\u201d, and store all text translations on Commons. This means that it is enough to copy\/paste a template without any changes, and update the translations separately. If someone fixes a bug or adds a new feature in the original module, you can copy\/paste it again without any translation work. My bot DiBabelYurikBot can help with copying. This way users can spend more time on content, and less time on updating and copying templates. Please see project page for details and ask questions on talk page.\n\nP.S. I am currently running for the Wikimedia board, focusing on content and support of multi-language communities. If you liked my projects like maps, graphs, or this one, I will be happy to receive your support. (any registered user group can vote). Thank you! --Yurik (talk) 05:59, 11 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2019 (UTC)\n\nQuestion \n\nHello all! I'm Jonathan. I'm an editor on the English Wikipedia, but this is my first time here on the Cherokee Wikipedia. Nice to meet everyone!\nI was wondering if anyone is still trying to revive this wiki. If so, who's still here? What's being done? Is there any way I could help?\nI live in North Carolina, so I thought maybe I could try to get in touch with local Cherokee. I don't have any personal relations to the Cherokee people, and don't speak Cherokee, but after reading that Cherokee is on the verge of becoming extinct I was hoping I could help out in some way... \nDoes anyone know of any good Cherokee language learning materials? Are any Cherokee speakers currently working on this wiki? What are some topics that need articles? Are there any decent translation tools from languages with many good articles into Cherokee? What are some of the best existing articles on this wiki?\nMight it make sense to try to write some decent articles in English about topics that are relevant to the Cherokee people, and then try to translate them into Cherokee? \nHere are some topics that I think might be relevant:\n anything about the Cherokee language\n Cherokee ceremonies, rituals, etc\n Modern Cherokee people (the various tribes, areas with significant Cherokee populations, etc)\n Cherokee schools, immersion programs\n important Cherokee literature\n Cherokee language learning materials (maybe have a section in the wiki that provides links to such materials)? My idea is to help anyone who is interested learn enough Cherokee to be able to write basic articles for this wiki.\nIf there's anything I can do to help out, let me know! JonathanHopeThisIsUnique (talk) 02:55, 30 \u13da\u13c2\u13c5\u13d7 2019 (UTC)\nHi! :) I'm still regularly watching this wiki for since of life or vandalism, but it has gone quiet recently. The general lack of knowledge of the Cherokee language prevents us from doing anything more than remove incorrect automatic translations and other clean-up activities.\nThe overall poor quality of the articles seems to put off any true speakers of the language, which is unfortunate. If you happen to be in contact with any of them, you can always point out that we need their help! :) --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:36, 30 \u13da\u13c2\u13c5\u13d7 2019 (UTC)\nThanks for responding so quickly, and nice to meet you! \nCurrently I only know one person of Cherokee ancestry, a good friend of mine. He doesn't speak Cherokee, but I can check if he's in contact with anyone who does, perhaps his extended family.\nBeyond that, do you know of any wikis that focus on Cherokee affairs? Even if not necessarily written in Cherokee, perhaps such wikis might be helpful in preserving Cherokee culture... And in the other direction, do you know of any other Wikimedia Foundation projects that deal with Cherokee matters? JonathanHopeThisIsUnique (talk) 17:39, 30 \u13da\u13c2\u13c5\u13d7 2019 (UTC)\nIt's always worth trying, so of course you can ask :)\nAs far as I'm aware, we've got the Cherokee Wikipedia, and a lot of Cherokee affairs on the English Wikipedia, but I don't know of any wiki that focusses solely on Cherokee. --Ooswesthoesbes (talk) 08:26, 31 \u13da\u13c2\u13c5\u13d7 2019 (UTC)\n\nHello \n\nI am from the english wikipedia. If you need anything from me let me know. I am on the SWMT. https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_talk:Bobherry Bobherry (talk) 04:23, 17 \u13a7\u13a6\u13b5 2020 (UTC) :en:User:Bobherry\n\nGreetings \n\nI am very honored to find such a discussion like this. I will promote this with the (http:\/\/www.cherokeeheritage.org\/) Cherokee Heritage Center the next time I am able to communicate with them. Perhaps that will get some interest going. This is a perfect way to keep the written language alive. --Tsistunagiska (talk) 10:35, 4 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\n\nGreetings from a long time avid pursuer of Cherokee, who can sort of pronounce Cherokee words and recognize an occasional word. I've memorized the syllabary and can sing the first verse of Amazing Grace. I do try very hard to be accurate, although I know very little.\nI could type in things in the language ( at least when using my phone, not this Chromebook ). Oops, not logged in. I am Anijilvsgi\/ R. D. Flowers.\nI am retired and have some time available, and am willing to do work for the language and this wiki, that needs only a little knowledge of the language. I do have some reference material, including the 27 lesson language book. I could type lists from it and other sources, and even short reasonable use conversational passages.\nI live in Chattanooga, TN, and have only a 1\/64 traceable Cher ancestry (of which I am proud). I have many issues of the Journal of Cherokee Studies, and if given permission by the copyright holders, could even type in stories and\/or articles from it.\nThere is someone more knowledgeable by far than me, that I will approach to see if he will get involved here.  172.58.4.55 08:00, 30 \u13c4\u13d3\u13d5\u13c6 2021 (UTC)\n\nThe Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC): we want to hear from you. \n. Apologies that you may not be reading this message in your native language: translations of the following message may be available on Meta. . \n\nAt times, our contributor communities and projects have suffered from a lack of guidelines that can help us create an environment where free knowledge can be shared safely without fear. There has been talk about the need for a global set of conduct rules in different communities over time.\n\nRecently, the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees announced a Community Culture Statement, asking for new standards to address harassment and promote inclusivity across projects.\n\nThe universal code of conduct will be a binding minimum set of standards across all Wikimedia projects, and will apply to all of us, staff and volunteers alike, all around the globe. It is of great importance that we all participate in expressing our opinions and thoughts about UCoC and its values. We should think about what we want it to cover or include and what it shouldn\u2019t include, and how it may create difficulties or help our groups.\n\nThis is the time to talk about it. Before starting drafting the code of conduct, we would like to hear from you and to solicit the opinions and feedback of your colleagues. In order for your voice to be heard, we encourage and invite you to read more about the universal code of conduct (UCoC) and then write down your opinions or feedback on the discussion page.\n\nTo reduce language barriers during the process, you are welcome to translate the universal code of conduct main page from English into your respective local language. You and your community may choose to provide your opinions\/feedback using your local languages.\n\nThanks in advance for your attention and contributions, The Trust and Safety team at Wikimedia Foundation 16:42, 22 July 2020 (UTC)\n\nRelated conversation about Scots Wikipedia \n\nSiyo! There's an interesting discussion about the Scots Wikipedia happening over at Meta, maybe some of you have already seen it: m:Requests for comment\/Disruptive editing on sco.wikipedia on an unparalleled scale. Apparently that wiki also has a catastrophic problem with poorly-translated content. While the context is a bit different (chr's bad machine translations vs. sco's bad human translations) the resulting problems are similar. I'll be interested to see what approach they take to resolving them. --R12ntech (talk) 17:23, 26 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2020 (UTC)\nWado, R12ntech. There are similarities. Hopefully our solution here is to link up with fluent speakers aided by the Cherokee Nation and\/or Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians to promote this wiki as a useful tool and beneficial to the preservation of the culture and language of the Cherokee at-large.Tsistunagiska (talk) 17:41, 11 \u13da\u13b5\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7 2020 (UTC)\nSpeaking of bad machine translations: The first translator I found on google gives the name of this page as \"I am going to Beer-sheba; near the blacks of the same.\" Which is obviously BS. Casualdejekyll (talk) 00:19, 30 \u13a7\u13e9\u13c2 2022 (UTC)\n\nInvitation to participate in the UCoC conversation \n. Apologies for cross-posting, and that you may not be reading this message in your native language: translations of the following announcement may be available on Meta. . \n\nWe are excited to share a draft of the Universal Code of Conduct, which the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees called for earlier this year, for your review and feedback. The discussion will be open until October 6, 2020.\n\nThe UCoC Drafting Committee wants to learn which parts of the draft would present challenges for you or your work. What is missing from this draft? What do you like, and what could be improved?\n\nPlease join the conversation and share this invitation with others who may be interested to join, too.\n\nTo reduce language barriers during the process, you are welcomed to translate this message and the Universal Code of Conduct\/Draft review. You and your community may choose to provide your opinions\/feedback using your local languages.\n\nTo learn more about the UCoC project, see the Universal Code of Conduct page, and the FAQ, on Meta.\nThanks in advance for your attention and contributions, The Trust and Safety team at Wikimedia Foundation, 17:55, 10 \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u044f 2020 (UTC)\n\nCherokee localization for Telegram! \nHello, Cherokee Wikipedia editors. I don't speak Cherokee, but I'm here to tell you that, since this week, Telegram has a platform for localizing\/translating the app to Cherokee language. You have to join the translation discussion group here to begin translating the Telegram app: https:\/\/t.me\/translation_tsalagi Thank you!\n\nHow can I help to expand? \nHey there! This is an editor from Tagalog Wikipedia, and I was wondering if I could help expand Cherokee Wikipedia. How can I decode the alphabet? Do you know any reputable online translators for Cherokee? If there is no online translator, is there a trusted person that I can contact? Thanks! ~~~~\nno, no, and no. But thanks. :) Seb az86556 (talk) 19:05, 7 \u13a0\u13be\u13a0\u13ac\u13d8 2021 (UTC)\nSometimes, translators are not good. Use a dictionary.\nYes, here is a Cherokee script generator\/decoder (you can do either Latin to Cherokee script or Cherokee to Latin script). I don't know of any (good) machine translators for Cherokee (apparently the Cherokee Nation is helping Google Translate add Cherokee and the Google search engine is available in Cherokee), so I would recommend using an online dictionary.\n\nCountry list in Cherokee \n\nHi, I just have been contributing (note I'm Australian so I don't know HEAPS of Cherokee) and I found an online list of every country and dependency name in Cherokee (written in Cherokee script). Feel free to view it here. It would be useful so we can A expand this Wikipedia and get to 1,000 articles and B so we can (eventually) make a Cherokee version of :en:List of sovereign states. Thanks. 144.136.10.9 05:55, 20 \u13da\u13b5\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7 2021 (UTC)\n\nSelect You the question statements for candidates of Drafting Committee Movement Charter \n\nInto 2021-10-04 11:59:59 UTC you can select question statements for the candidates of Drafting Committee Movement Charter. \u270d\ufe0f Du\u0161an Krehe\u013e (talk) 22:01, 29 \u13da\u13b5\u13a2\u13cd\u13d7 2021 (UTC)\n\nCall for Feedback about the Board of Trustees elections is now open \n\n You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.\n  \u2022 \n\nThe Call for Feedback: Board of Trustees elections is now open and will close on 7 February 2022.\n\nWith this Call for Feedback, the Movement Strategy and Governance team is taking a different approach. This approach incorporates community feedback from 2021. Instead of leading with proposals, the Call is framed around key questions from the Board of Trustees. The key questions came from the feedback about the 2021 Board of Trustees election. The intention is to inspire collective conversation and collaborative proposal development about these key questions.\n\nJoin the conversation.\n\nBest,\n\nMovement Strategy and Governance\n\nXeno (WMF) (talk) 01:22, 15 \u13da\u13c3\u13b8\u13d4\u13c2 2022 (UTC)\n\nProject namespace name \n\nHello Chrwiki folks! I noticed that MassMessages to this page are failing to arrive, because it is not configured as an actual \"Project:\" namespace, but is simply a page in the main (content) namespace with a prefix of \"\u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:\"\n\nIf you would like this changed, you can just follow the instructions at m:Requesting wiki configuration changes#How to request a change. (I.e. File a Phabricator task, confirming the details of what you want the \"Project:\" namespace to be localized as.)\n\nAdditionally, in your request, it might help to note that there are 3 pages (and 1 redirect) which you'd like moved: https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:PrefixIndex?prefix=\u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:&namespace=0 (If I understand correctly)\n\nI hope that information helps! Quiddity (WMF) (talk) 22:13, 3 \u13a0\u13c4\u13f1 2022 (UTC)\n\nVote for your favourite Wikimedia sound logo \n\nWe are really sorry for posting in English\n\nVoting in the Wikimedia sound logo contest has started. From December 6 to 19, 2022, please play a part and help chose the sound that will identify Wikimedia content on audio devices. Learn more on Diff.\n\nThe sound logo team is grateful to everyone who participated in this global contest. We received 3,235 submissions from 2,094 participants in 135 countries. We are incredibly grateful to the team of volunteer screeners and the selection committee who, among others, helped bring us to where we are today. It is now up to Wikimedia to choose the Sound Of All Human Knowledge.\n\nBest wishes, Arupako-WMF (talk) 08:33, 15 \u13a5\u13cd\u13a9\u13a6 2022 (UTC)\n\nHello \n\nHello there to anyone who sees this. I have been lurking around looking at this wiki for the past couple of months or so and have decided to finally try and get involved. I don't know much Cherokee, but I have been trying to learn. I'm posting here to see if there is anyone who is still active on this project who can fill me in on what is happening right now. A cursory glance at Special:RecentChanges shows that most of the recent changes have been made by a couple of IP users, with some edits by logged in users appearing here and there. To be honest, I'm not really expecting anyone to respond to this post, but I do hope that there is someone who still cares about this project.\n\nThanks,\n-- Waffledogefern (talk) 05:03, 17 \u13da\u13c3\u13b8\u13d4\u13c2 2023 (UTC)\n\nPlans to enable Content and Section translation tool in Cherokee Wikipedia \n\n Cherokee Wikipedians!\n\nApologies as this message is not in your native language, .\n\nThe WMF Language team is pleased to let you know that we will like to enable the Section and Content translation tool in Cherokee Wikipedia. For this, our team will love you to read about the tool and test the new Section Translation tool so you can:\n\n Give us your feedback\n\n Ask us questions\n\n Tell us how to improve it\n\nBelow is background information about the tools and how you can test the Section translation tool.\n\nBackground information\n\nContent Translation has been a successful tool for editors to create content in their language. More than one million articles have been created across all languages since the tool was released in 2015. However, the tool is not out of beta in Cherokee Wikipedia, limiting the discoverability of the tool and its use and blocking the enablement of the Section translation in your Wikipedia\n\nSection Translation extends the capabilities of Content Translation to support mobile devices. On mobile, the tool will:\n\n Guide you to translate one section at a time in order to expand existing articles or create new ones\n\n Make it easy to transfer knowledge across languages anytime from your mobile device\n\nWe plan to enable the tools on Cherokee Wikipedia in 2 weeks if there are no objections from your community. After it is enabled, we\u2019ll monitor the content created with the tools and process all the feedback. In any case, feel free to raise any concerns or questions you may already have as a reply to this message or on the project talk page\n\nTry the Section translation tool\n\nBefore the enablement, you can try the current implementation of the tool in our testing instance. Once it is enabled, you\u2019ll have access to https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:ContentTranslation with your mobile device. You can select an article to translate, and machine translation will be provided as a starting point for editors to improve.\n\nProvide feedback\n\nPlease provide feedback about Section translation on the project talk page. We want to\u00a0 hear about your impressions on\n\n The section translation tool\n\n What do you think about our plans to enable it\n\n Your ideas for improving the tool\n\nThanks and we look forward to your feedback and questions.\n\nUOzurumba (WMF) (talk) 14:59, 17 \u13a6\u13b6\u13c2\u13a2 2023 (UTC) On behalf of the WMF Language team."
    },
        {
            "id": 4,
            "url": "https:\/\/hr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glavna%20stranica",
            "title": "Glavna stranica",
            "text": "\n\nArhiva\u00a0\u010clanak\u00a0tjedna\nArhiva\u00a0Novosti\n\nArhiva\u00a0Izabrana\u00a0slikaArhiva\u00a0Na\u00a0dana\u0161nji\u00a0dan\nO\u00a0Wikipediji\nWikipedija na hrvatskome jeziku osnovana je 16. velja\u010de 2003.\n\n Wikipedija \u2013 \u0161to je Wikipedija, povijest i organizacija projekta\n Za\u0161to postati suradnik?\n Pomo\u0107 \u2013 kako sudjelovati, \u0161to treba znati, kako koristiti?\n Uvodni te\u010daj \u2013 za one koji vole lagani uvod\n Wikipedija A-\u017d \u2013 za napredne\n \u010cesto postavljana pitanja (FAQ)\n Kafi\u0107 \u2013 stranica za raspravu, pitanja i razgovor\n Abecedarij svih \u010dlanaka\n Popis svih jezika Wikipedije\n Impresum\nKako\u00a0pomo\u0107i?\nNakon \u0161to ste svladali upute iz Uvodnog te\u010daja sura\u0111ujte u:\n nadopuni zapo\u010detih \u010dlanaka\n odr\u017eavanju Wikipedije\n pobolj\u0161avanju i popravku \u010dlanaka\n Wikiprojektima\n pisanju:\n najtra\u017eenijih \u010dlanaka\n tra\u017eenih \u010dlanaka po temama\n \u017eeljenih \u010dlanaka\n\n__BEZURE\u0110IVANJAODLOMAKA__\n__BEZSADR\u017dAJA__\n\naf: be: bg: bs: ca: cs: da: de: el: en: eo: es: et: eu: fa: fr: he: hu: id: io: it: ja: la: mk: nl: no: pag: pl: pt: ro: ru: sk: sl: sq: simple: sr: fi: sv: tr: uk: zh:\n\nWikipedija"
        },
        {
            "id": 6,
            "url": "https:\/\/hr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hrvatski%20jezik",
            "title": "Hrvatski jezik",
            "text": "Hrvatski jezik (ISO 639-3: hrv) skupni je naziv za nacionalni standardni jezik Hrvata, te za skup narje\u010dja i govora kojima govore ili su nekada govorili Hrvati. Njime govori vi\u0161e od 5,5 milijuna ljudi, poglavito Hrvata u Hrvatskoj, 3\u202f980\u202f000 (popis iz 2001.) i Bosni i Hercegovini, 469\u202f000 (2004.). Hrvatski je materinski jezik za Hrvate u drugim zemljama: Sjedinjenim Ameri\u010dkim Dr\u017eavama, 58\u202f400 (popis iz 2000.); Austriji, 19\u202f400 (popis iz 2001.); Srbiji, 19\u202f223 (popis iz 2011.); Ma\u0111arskoj, 14\u202f300 (popis iz 2001.); Italiji, 3500 (Vincent 1987.); Crnoj Gori, 6810 (2006.); Slova\u010dkoj, 890 (popis iz 2001.).\n\nHrvatski je slu\u017ebeni jezik Republike Hrvatske te jedan od tri slu\u017ebena jezika Bosne i Hercegovine; tako\u0111er je jedan od 24 slu\u017ebena jezika Europske unije.\n\nKao manjinski hrvatski jezik je u slu\u017ebenoj uporabi u nekim pokrajinama na ozemlju susjednih zemalja, tako je hrvatski jedan od slu\u017ebenih jezika u uporabi u crnogorskim op\u0107inama u Boki kotorskoj, zatim jedan je od sedam slu\u017ebenih jezika u srbijanskoj autonomnoj pokrajini Vojvodini, lokalni idiomi hrvatskoga jezika u slu\u017ebenoj su uporabi u austrijskoj saveznoj zemlji Gradi\u0161\u0107u, te tako\u0111er u talijanskoj provinciji Moliseu i rumunjskoj \u017eupaniji Kara\u0161-Severin.\n\nHrvatski jezik obuhva\u0107a standardni, odnosno knji\u017eevni ili op\u0107i hrvatski jezik te sve narodne govore kojima se slu\u017ee Hrvati.\n\nU genetsko-lingvisti\u010dkom smislu hrvatski jezik je sustav triju narje\u010dja:\n\n \u0161tokavskog\n kajkavskog\n \u010dakavskog\n\nMakar je standardni hrvatski jezik o\u010dito najbli\u017ei \u0161tokavskom narje\u010dju, i preostala dva narje\u010dja su mnogo doprinijela njegovu formiranju, te jezikoslovac Radoslav Kati\u010di\u0107 i knji\u017eevnik Drago \u0160tambuk promoviraju gledi\u0161te da se hrvatski jezik uop\u0107e ne mo\u017ee sagledati izvan tog suodnosa njegovih triju narje\u010dja, koji nazivaju \"zlatnom formulom hrvatskoga jezika \u010da-kaj-\u0161to\". Drago \u0160tambuk se, konstatiraju\u0107i da je hrvatski standard nastao uz jak doprinos sva tri hrvatska narje\u010dja, zala\u017ee za (ponovno, i ja\u010de) \"otvaranje prozor\u010di\u0107a\" na suvremenom knji\u017eevnom standardu, kako bi se omogu\u0107ilo da ga dodatno \"bogati i oplemenjuje leksik iz \u010dakavice, kajkavice i dijalektalnih varijanti \u0161tokavice. Enormna je leksi\u010dka pri\u010duva hrvatskoga jezika, tolika da je hrvatski jezik kroz nju jedan od najbogatijih slavenskih jezika.\"\n\nNazivi narje\u010dja potje\u010du od arhai\u010dnog oblika odnosno-upitne zamjenice koja je glasila k\u044a, a kasnije je pre\u0161la u \u010d\u044c (\u044c i \u044a oznake su za poluglase). U \u010dakavskom se poluglas vokalizirao i pre\u0161ao u a (a javljaju se i druge kombinacije \u010de, ca, ce, \u0107a, \u0107e...), u \u0161tokavskom se zamjenica \u010d\u044c povezala s to, \u010d\u044cto. Kasnije je polugas i\u0161\u010dezao ostaviv\u0161i \u010dto, koje je zbog pojednostavnjivanja pre\u0161lo u \u0161to (a javljaju se i druge kombinacije \u0161ta, \u0161t'a, \u015bta, \u0161to, \u0161t'o, \u015bto...). U kajkavskom se arhai\u010dni oblik zamjenice k\u044a kombinirao s j\u044c, pa je prelaskom u a prvog, a gubljenjem drugog poluglasa nastao kaj \u00a0(a javljaju se i druge kombinacije kej, ke, ka...).\n\nZanimljivost je da se sli\u010dna, \u0161tokavska promjena, dogodila i u ruskom jeziku, no dok oni izgovaraju \u0161to, u pismu im je ostao arhaizam \u010dto.\n\nNajstariju gramatika hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika napisao je isusovac Bartol Ka\u0161i\u0107 po\u010detkom 17. stolje\u0107a: knjiga je objavljena u Rimu 1604. godine (tj. nedugo nakon prve gramatike engleskog jezika koju je William Bullokar objavio 1586. godine, te pribli\u017eno stolje\u0107e i pol prije prvih gramatika ruskog jezika) pod imenom Institutionum linguae illyricae (Ustroj ilirskoga\/hrvatskoga jezika): oslanjaju\u0107i se na stoljetnu tradiciju hrvatskog pisanja na sva tri narje\u010dja, on se ve\u0107inom oslanja na novo\u0161tokavsku jekavicu (koju zove \"dubrova\u010dkim\" govorom) na koju 1630-ih godina prevodi Bibliju, te u ono doba po hrvatskim zemljama znatno ra\u0161irenije \u0161tokavske ikavice (koju Ka\u0161i\u0107 zove \"bosanskim\" govorom), kojom pi\u0161e svoj Ritual Rimski (slu\u017ebena zbirka tekstova i uputa za bogoslu\u017eje) iz 1640. godine.\n\nNakon \u0161to se tijekom narednih stolje\u0107a brojna knji\u017eevna djela \u2013 pa i gramatike \u2013 pi\u0161u kako na novo\u0161tokavskoj ikavici, tako i na ijekavici (tako\u0111er i na \u010dakavskom, te osobito kajkavskom narje\u010dju), zaslugom Ilirskog pokreta sredinom 19. stolje\u0107a sve vi\u0161e prevladava ijekavica; naposljetku krajem 19. stolje\u0107a postaje za uporabu u \u0161kolama obvezatan Hrvatski pravopis Ivana Broza iz 1892. godine, koji upu\u0107uje na slu\u017ebenu uporabu jekavske novo\u0161tokavice kakvu se \u2013 uz manje promjene \u2013 kao standardni hrvatski jezik koristi do danas.\n\nDo najnovijeg vremena, najve\u0107i dio hrvatskih govornika je izvan slu\u017ebenih prigoda govorio jednim od narje\u010dja hrvatskog jezika, koji se i danas puno koriste, osobito u ruralnim podru\u010djima. Standardni jezik koji se sve vi\u0161e upotrebljava kao govorni jezik u urbanim podru\u010djima, ima \u010desto regionalne posebnosti, koje u pravilu dolaze iz lokalnih dijalekata.\n\nDijalektima \u010dakavskoga i kajkavskoga narje\u010dja govore samo Hrvati (na ju\u017enoslavenskom dijalektalnom kontinuumu, mo\u017eemo prepoznati srodnost hrvatskih kajkavskih govora s nekim slovenskim narje\u010djima, napose s govorima Slovenaca uz granicu s Hrvatskom, pogotovo na podru\u010djima koja su neko\u0107 crkveno ili upravno pripadala Hrvatskoj), dok se \u0161tokavskim narje\u010djem uz Hrvate slu\u017ee i Bo\u0161njaci, Srbi te Crnogorci.\n\nOd \u0161tokavskih dijalekata Hrvati se u na\u010delu slu\u017ee sa sva \u010detiri podrijetlom zapadno\u0161tokavska dijalekta, a to su sjeverni (slavonski) dijalekt kojim govore samo Hrvati, zapadni (novo\u0161tokavska ikavica) dijalekt kojim ve\u0107inom govore Hrvati i pone\u0161to Bo\u0161njaci u zapadnoj Bosni, isto\u010dni (isto\u010dnobosanski) dijalekt kojim se slu\u017ee Hrvati i Bo\u0161njaci te ju\u017eni (novo\u0161tokavska jekavica) dijalekt koji rabe Hrvati na vi\u0161e terena i osobito na \u0161irem dubrova\u010dkome podru\u010dju, ali i drugi ju\u017enoslavenski narodi koji se slu\u017ee sli\u010dnim ijekavskim poddijalektima.\n\nGrani\u010dni dijalekti kajkavskog narje\u010dja; Donjosutlanski, Goranski i Prigorski posjeduju vezu ili prijelaz prema \u010dakav\u0161tini, a jugoisto\u010dna podgrupa \u010dakavskog narje\u010dja; ju\u017eno\u010dakavski, lastovski i jugozapadni istarski posjeduje vezu ili prijelaz prema (zapadnoj) \u0161tokav\u0161tini, dok sjeverozapadna (sjeverno\u010dakavski i buzetski) i sredi\u0161nja podgrupa (srednje\u010dakavski) dijeli vi\u0161e isoglosa s kajkav\u0161tinom.\n\n\u0160\u0107akavski dijelekti (slavonski i isto\u010dnobosanski), djele niz sli\u010dnosti s \u010dakav\u0161tinom, dok sjever slavonskog posjeduje i prijelaz prema kajkavskim govorima. Novo\u0161tokavski dijalekti (zapadni i ju\u017eni) dijele pojedine isoglose s ju\u017enom podgrupom \u010dakavskog narje\u010dja.\n\nVi\u0161e informacija o narje\u010djima i njihovom razvitku se mo\u017ee na\u0107i ovdje.\n\nHrvatske manjinske zajednice\nHrvati u Gradi\u0161\u0107u (Austrija, Ma\u0111arska, Slova\u010dka, \u010ce\u0161ka) slu\u017ee se najvi\u0161e dijalektima \u010dakavskoga narje\u010dja u sredi\u0161njem Gradi\u0161\u0107u, zatim \u0161tokavskoga narje\u010dja u ju\u017enom Gradi\u0161\u0107u i kajkavskoga narje\u010dja u sjevernom Gradi\u0161\u0107u, no oni rabe vlastiti zajedni\u010dki standardizirani oblik gradi\u0161\u0107anskohrvatskoga mikrojezika. \nHrvati u talijanskoj pokrajini Molise slu\u017ee se \u0161tokavsko-\u010dakavskim narje\u010djem, a Hrvati Kra\u0161ovani u Rumunjskoj pod utjecajem okoline razvili su jedan specifi\u010dan kara\u0161evski govor koji danas po svojim svojstvima spada pod torla\u010dko narje\u010dje (neekavsko, jer pod akcentom imaju zatvoreno e od jata, izvan akcenta i)), (u Reka\u0161u na rumunjsko-srbijanskoj granici Hrvatska manjina rabi \u2013 kosovsko\u2013resavski dijalekt odnosno reka\u0161ke govore, Hrvati po isto\u010dnom Srijemu slu\u017ee se vojvo\u0111anskim dijalektom ili ilo\u010dkim dijalektom, a Hrvati u Boki kotorskoj zetsko\u2013ju\u017enosand\u017ea\u010dkim ili bokeljsko-perojskim, Hrvati koji obitavaju na Kosovu u Janjevu i Letnici razvili su govore torla\u010dkoga narje\u010dja, odnosno Janjeva\u010dko-lepeni\u010dki dijalekt. Svi ti dijalekti pripadaju srednjoju\u017enoslavenskom dijasustavu slavenske jezi\u010dne grane.\n\nZnanost koja se bavi hrvatskim jezikom zove se kroatistika.\n\nVidi: Gramatika, Pravopis\n\nZlatna formula hrvatskoga jezika \u010da-kaj-\u0161to \n\nPovjerenstvo za nematerijalnu ba\u0161tinu Ministarstva kulture Republike Hrvatske 29. studenoga 2019. donijelo je Rje\u0161enje kojim se \"Zlatna formula hrvatskoga jezika \u010da-kaj-\u0161to\" progla\u0161ava kulturnim dobrom, te stavlja na \u0161ti\u0107enu Nacionalnu listu nematerijalne ba\u0161tine. Formulu je skovao i ve\u0107 godinama promi\u010de hrvatski pjesnik i kulturni djelatnik, medicinar i diplomat Drago \u0160tambuk.\n\nPodrijetlo hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika \n\nHrvatska pisana jezi\u010dna ba\u0161tina svoje po\u010detke bilje\u017ei ve\u0107 krajem XI. stolje\u0107a. Najstariji su hrvatski tekstovi pisani svojevrsnom mje\u0161avinom hrvatske ina\u010dice crkvenoslavenskog jezika i arhai\u010dne \u010dakav\u0161tine te isklju\u010divo glagoljicom. Od XII. stolje\u0107a Hrvati razvijaju vlastitu ina\u010dicu \u0107irili\u010dnoga pisma, hrvatsku \u0107irilicu (koja se u literaturi 20. stolje\u0107a naj\u010de\u0161\u0107e naziva bosan\u010dicom), a od XIV. stolje\u0107a sve se \u010de\u0161\u0107e slu\u017ee i latini\u010dnim pismom. Utjecaj hrvatske redakcije crkvenoslavenskoga jezika postupno slabi nakon XIV. stolje\u0107a, a osobito nakon provale Turaka u XV. st., kada se na povijesnome hrvatskom prostoru razvijaju pokrajinske pismenosti na pojedinim dijalektima svih triju hrvatskih narje\u010dja. U XVI. i XVII. stolje\u0107u hrvatska \u010dakavska i osobito \u0161tokavska knji\u017eevnost dose\u017eu europsku literarnu razinu.\n\nPo\u010detci standardizacije hrvatskog jezika se\u017eu na po\u010detak 17. stolje\u0107a: 1604. godine u Rimu objavljuje Bartol Ka\u0161i\u0107 prvu hrvatsku gramatiku Institutionum linguae Ilyricae, kojom se koristi u pisanju utjecajnog slu\u017ebenog teksta Rituala Rimskog i koja slijedom tog \"slu\u017ebenog molitvenika\" znatno utje\u010du na jezik molitvenika i crkvenih molitava \u2013 koje su onda poznate \u010dak i nepismenim osobama. Pribli\u017eno u to vrijeme barokna hrvatska knji\u017eevnost tzv. ozaljskog knji\u017eevnog kruga (Petar Zrinski prevodi i na hrvatskom jeziku objavljuje zna\u010dajni ep Adrianskoga mora sirena, kojega je na ma\u0111arskom jeziku napisao njegov brat Nikola Zrinski; Ana Katarina Zrinski pi\u0161e molitvenik Putni tovaru\u0161, a Fran Krsto Frankapan zbirku pjesama Gartlic za \u010das kratiti) stvara zna\u010dajna knji\u017eevna djela napisana uz kori\u0161tenje elemenata sva tri hrvatska narje\u010dja.\n\nU to vrijeme se \u2013 zahvaljuju\u0107i politici Katoli\u010dke Crkve koja brigu za slavenske narode i njihove jezike iskazuje promoviraju\u0107i izu\u010davanje upravo hrvatskog jezika \u2013 hrvatski jezik obavezno izu\u010dava na svim sveu\u010dili\u0161tima diljem Europe. Smatralo se tada da zapravo svi Slaveni govore istim jezikom, koji ima razli\u010dita narje\u010dja \u2013 pa se kao \"slavenski\" izu\u010davao zapravo tada\u0161nji hrvatski jezik.\n\nParalelno se na prostoru sjeverozapadne Hrvatske razvija kajkavski standardni jezik; na ostalim hrvatskim podru\u010djima, bez obzira na to pripadaju li \u0161tokavskomu ili \u010dakavskomu narje\u010dju, utiru se temelji dana\u0161njemu standardnom hrvatskom jeziku koji nastaje na organskoj novo\u0161tokavskoj podlozi zapadnoga tipa. U doba Hrvatskoga narodnog preporoda u prvoj polovici XIX. st. zapadna novo\u0161tokav\u0161tina postaje temeljem op\u0107ehrvatskoga jezi\u010dnoga standarda. Pod utjecajem sjevernih i zapadnih slavenskih jezika uvodi se morfofonolo\u0161ki pravopis, a u grafiju dijakriti\u010dki znakovi.\n\nStolje\u0107ima se hrvatski knji\u017eevnici koji pi\u0161u \u0161tokavicom kolebaju izme\u0111u ikavskog (koji je bio daleko ra\u0161ireniji) i jekavskog refleksa jata. Tako u relativno kratkom razdoblju na po\u010detku 19. stolje\u0107a nastaje gramatika \u0160ime Star\u010devi\u0107a Nova ri\u010doslovnica ilirska (1812.) gdje se polazi od ikavice, Rje\u010doslo\u017eje ilirsko-italijansko-latinsko (1806.) Joakima Stullija koji preferira jekavicu i Ri\u010doslovnik iliri\u010dkog, italijanskog i nima\u010dkog jezika (1802.\/1803.) Josipa Volti\u0107a, koji prikazuje kako ikavicu, tako i jekavicu. Ka\u010di\u0107ev Razgovor ugodni naroda slovinskoga iz\u00a01756.\u00a0godine, koja je skoro dva stolje\u0107a bila jedina knjiga za koju se mo\u017ee re\u0107i da je bila \u010ditana (\"pjevana\") uz svako hrvatsko ognji\u0161te sve do sredine 20. stolje\u0107a \u2013 napisana je \u0161tokavskom ikavicom.\n\nHrvatski jezik u jezi\u010dnom stablu \n\nHrvatski jezik spada me\u0111u ju\u017enoslavenske jezike. S njima pripada \u0161iroj zajednici slavenskih jezika, a svi zajedno ulaze u indoeuropsku jezi\u010dnu porodicu.\n\nNakon raspada indoeuropske jezi\u010dne zajednice \u2013 u razdoblju oko 2000. pr. Kr., stvara se, prema ve\u0107ini znanstvenika, baltoslavenska jezi\u010dna zajednica. Za njezina trajanja nastaju mnoge jezi\u010dne osobine po kojima se jezici slavenskih i balti\u010dkih predaka po\u010dinju razlikovati od jezika ostalih indoeuropskih naroda. Predstavnici pak druge teorije smatraju da se sli\u010dnost balti\u010dkih i slavenskih jezika mo\u017ee objasniti dominacijom balti\u010dkih jezika i njihovih govornika nad Slavenima (ili obratno) u prapovijesno vrijeme.\n\nBaltoslavenska jezi\u010dna zajednica raspala se oko 1500. \u2013 1300. godine pr. Kr. Tada se stvara zasebna praslavenska jezi\u010dna zajednica.\nVrijeme njezina trajanja i prostor koji je zauzimala nisu u znanosti precizno utvr\u0111eni. U toj se zajednici za\u010dinje niz jezi\u010dnih promjena karakteristi\u010dnih za daljnji razvoj slavenskih jezika.\n\nMigracijska kretanja slavenskih plemena dovode do stvaranja triju velikih skupina slavenskih narje\u010dja: zapadnoslavenske, isto\u010dnoslavenske i ju\u017enoslavenske. Iz tih narje\u010dja razvili su se dana\u0161nji slavenski jezici: \nzapadnoslavenski \npoljski, \nka\u0161upski, \ndonjolu\u017ei\u010dki, \ngornjolu\u017ei\u010dki, \n\u010de\u0161ki, \n\u0161leski, \nslova\u010dki.\nisto\u010dnoslavenski \nruski, \nbjeloruski, \nukrajinski, \nisto\u010dnorusinski.\nju\u017enoslavenski \nslovenski\nhrvatski, \nbo\u0161nja\u010dki,\ncrnogorski,\nsrpski, \nmakedonski,\nbugarski.\n\nJu\u017enoslavenski jezici \n\nJu\u017enoslavenski jezici nastaju iz dva ogranka ju\u017enoslavenskog prajezika \u2013 zapadnoga i isto\u010dnoga. Iz zapadnoga su se razvili slovenski, hrvatski, srpski, crnogorski, bo\u0161nja\u010dki, a iz isto\u010dnoga makedonski i bugarski jezik. Iva Luke\u017ei\u0107 podjelu ju\u017enoslavenskog prajezika na dva dijela povezuje s razvitkom i razgrani\u010davanjima frana\u010dke i bugarske vlasti na ovim prostorima.\n\nIsto\u010dnoslavenski je danas mrtav jezik starocrkvenoslavenski (ili staroslavenski). To je jezik prve slavenske pismenosti i knji\u017eevnosti. Utemeljen je na isto\u010dno-ju\u017enoslavenskom narje\u010dju iz okolice Soluna \u0161to su ga sveta bra\u0107a \u0106iril i Metod u drugoj polovici 9. stolje\u0107a uzela za osnovu jezika slavenskoga bogoslu\u017eja i starocrkvenoslavenske knji\u017eevnosti i time ga uzdigla na razinu knji\u017eevnoga jezika.\n\nOn je jo\u0161 vrlo blizak praslavenskom jezi\u010dnom stanju pa poma\u017ee u njegovoj rekonstrukciji. Od ostalih slavenskih jezika (osobito ju\u017enoslavenskih) u najranijim fazama njihova samostalnog razvoja tek se neznatno razlikovao. U kasnijim stolje\u0107ima u taj se knji\u017eevni jezik probijaju elementi jezika naroda u kojih se slavensko bogoslu\u017eje zadr\u017ealo u upotrebi te tako nastaju crkvenoslavenske redakcije: ruska, bugarska, srpska, hrvatska.\n\nHrvatskom se redakcijom slu\u017eila hrvatska glagolji\u010dka liturgijska knji\u017eevnost, prisutna je u ve\u0107oj ili manjoj mjeri u \u010ditavoj glagolja\u0161koj knji\u017eevnoj djelatnosti, a pone\u0161to je utjecala i na narodni jezik hrvatske latini\u010dke pismenosti u prvim stolje\u0107ima njezina postojanja (14. \u2013 16. stolje\u0107e).\n\nHrvatski standardni jezik dijeli sa standardnim jezicima Bo\u0161njaka, Crnogoraca i Srba \u2013 uz stanovite razlike razlike \u2013 zajedni\u010dku novo\u0161tokavsku dijalektnu osnovicu (fonologiju, gramati\u010dki sustav, osnovni rje\u010dnik). Kada standardni jezici razli\u010ditih naroda imaju zajedni\u010dku dijalektnu osnovicu, u nekim se jezikoslovnim disciplinama smatra da se radi o konkretnim realizacijskim oblicima (varijantama) jednoga apstraktnog modela (koji nije u konkretnoj uporabi) standardnog jezika. U tom se smislu mo\u017ee govoriti o konkretnim oblicima standardne novo\u0161tokav\u0161tine, ali za razliku od slu\u010dajeva svih drugih jezika koji imaju varijante, nikada nije bilo jedinstvene novo\u0161tokavske osnovice ni po\u010detni\u010dkoga zajedni\u010dkog standarda, koji se onda, kao u drugim slu\u010dajima, po\u010deo samostalno razvijati u susjednim dr\u017eavama ili u biv\u0161im kolonijama (npr. francuski u Kanadi ili u Senegalu, engleski u Australiji ili u Ju\u017enoafri\u010dkoj Republici). Hrvatski standardni jezik, kao i drugi oblici standardne novo\u0161tokav\u0161tine, predstavlja svojom gramati\u010dkom i glasovnom strukturom prijelaznu formu izme\u0111u sjevernoslavensko-slovenskoga i makedonsko-bugarskoga tipa (npr. stilisti\u010dka vrijednost imperfekta i aorista) i jedini pokazuje osjetne sredozemne jezi\u010dne utjecaje (\u2192\u00a0dalmatski jezik). Me\u0111u specifi\u010dnostima hrvatskoga standardnog jezika u odnosu na obli\u017enje ju\u017enoslavenske standardne jezike, valja spomenuti difton\u0161ki izgovor ijekavskoga refleksa dugoga jata, niz naglasnih specifi\u010dnosti (osobito u oblicima glagol\u00e2), osobitosti u deklinaciji (npr. razlikovanje dativnoga -omu i lokativnoga -ome), pojedine glagolske oblike, izostanak futura II. svr\u0161enih glagola, primjere iz osnovnog leksika (otok, cesta, zob, kruh, kri\u017e i sl., imena mjeseci), mnogobrojne bohemizme (vlak, dojam i dr.), stilemsku vrijednost mnogih orijentalizama i europeizama, dobrim dijelom samostalnu terminologiju svih struka i znanosti, vlastitu pravopisnu tradiciju itd.\n\nPovijesni razvoj hrvatskoga jezika \n\nRazvoj hrvatskog jezika se uglavnom rekonstruira na temelju starih natpisa, tekstova i imena. Rekonstrukcija po\u010dinje od zajedni\u010dkog praslavenskog jezika. U odnosu na druge slavenske jezike, ju\u017eni slavenski jezici pokazuju neke zajedni\u010dke osobine, a detaljnija povijest ne mo\u017ee se to\u010dnije odrediti. Povijest hrvatskog mo\u017eemo pratiti od 7. stolje\u0107a.\n\n10. \u2013 12. stolje\u0107e \n\nOdjeljivanjem od ostalih slavenskih jezika, hrvatski po\u010dinje sa samostalnim razvojem. U odnosu na praslavensko stanje, dolazi do sljede\u0107ih promjena:\n\n gubljenje razlike izme\u0111u dva poluglasa (slabog i jakog)\n nekada\u0161nje y prelazi u i\n glasovi \u0119 i \u01eb (tj. nazalni e i o) prestaju biti nazalni te ve\u0107inom prelaze u \u1eb9 (zatvoreno e) i \u1ecd (zatvoreno o)\n\n13. i 14. stolje\u0107e \n\nU ovom razdoblju dolazi do razli\u010ditog razvoja narje\u010dja, pa i do velikih razlika unutar samih narje\u010dja. Glavni uzrok je nestanak zatvorenih vokala (\u1eb9 i \u1ecd) u ve\u0107ini govora. Glas \u1eb9 ili \u011b (hr. jat) koji je prelazi u a, e, i, je, ije ili opstaje kao \u1eb9 (zatvoreno e), pri \u010demu ponegdje odlu\u010duju kompleksna pravila.\n\nTako\u0111er, nestaje poluglas, i prelazi u a ili e, a iznimno u o.\n\nSlogotvorno l  prelazi u \u1ecd (zatvoreno o), koje kasnije prelazi u u, o ili ostaje \u1ecd (zatvoreno o).\n\nOko 1400. godine zavr\u0161no -l prelazi u o ili a u ve\u0107ini govora \u0161tokavskog narje\u010dja.\n\nStaroslavenski glas t' u prelazi u \u010d, \u0107, me\u0111uglas (\u010d') ili opstaje kao t'.\n\nNa krajnjem jugu (podru\u010dje nastanka novo\u0161tokavice) \u0161\u0107akavske isoglose (refleksi praslavenskih \u0161k', \u0161t', \u017eg' i \u017ed') postaju \u0161takavske (refleksi \u0161k, \u0161t, \u017eg i \u017ed).\n\nTako\u0111er, dolazi do promjene originalnog naglasnog sustava od tri naglaska (akut, kratki i dugi silazni) na sustave od 2 ili vi\u0161e naglasaka, te pomicanjem naglasnih mjesta u mnogim govorima.\n\nSvim ovim promjenama se (novo)\u0161tokavsko narje\u010dje (koje sadr\u017ei 4 naglaska, kratki i dugi ulazni i silazni) se vi\u0161e odjeljuje od ostala dva narje\u010dja.\n\n15. \u2013 18. stolje\u0107e \n\nU ovom razdoblju dolazi do divergencije me\u0111u narje\u010djima, kao i do velikih seoba stanovni\u0161tva, izazvanih turskim osvajanjima i ratovima koji su trajali stotinama godina. U mnoge \u0161tokavske govore ulazi vrlo velik broj turskih rije\u010di (\u010darapa, top, boja, \u0161e\u0107er, budala, jastuk, bunar\u2026) U kajkavsko narje\u010dje ulaze mnoge njema\u010dke rije\u010di, a u primorske govore talijanske (putem venetskog ). Takve razlike u rje\u010dniku postoje i danas.\n\nU mnogim govorima nestaje razlika izme\u0111u \u010d i \u0107\/t'.\n\nTijekom renesanse, u\u010deni Hrvati \u2013 koji studiraju u inozemstvu, ili visokim u\u010dili\u0161tima u Hrvatskoj, poput dominikanskog Sveu\u010dili\u0161ta u Zadru (osnovano 1396. godine), pavlinskog Sveu\u010dili\u0161ta u Lepoglavi (osnovano 1656.), isusova\u010dkog Sveu\u010dili\u0161ta u Zagrebu (osnovano 1669. godine) i franjeva\u010dke Visoke filozofske \u0161kole u Osijeku (osnovana 1707. godine, 8 godina nakon \u0161to je Mirom u Srijemskim Karlovcima Slavonija vra\u0107ena Hrvatskoj) \u2013 po\u010dinju pisati knji\u017eevna djela na narodnom jeziku, sukladno tada\u0161njem europskom trendu. Krajem 15. stolje\u0107a nastaje prva hrvatska drama Radmio i Ljubmir, koju D\u017eore Dr\u017ei\u0107 pi\u0161e na (ijekavskom) dubrova\u010dkom narje\u010dju. 1536. godine Petar Zorani\u0107 (ikavskim) narje\u010djem sjeverne Dalmacije pi\u0161e prvi hrvatski roman Planine.\n\nRazvijanjem tiska, knji\u017eevna djela na hrvatskom jeziku postaju \u0161ire dostupna. Osobito se \u0161ire se osobito molitvenici, te naj\u010ditanija knjiga u hrvatskom narodu do sredine 20. stolje\u0107a. Tako primjerice 1660. godine Petar Zrinski objavljuje u Veneciji hrvatski prijevod djela svojega brata Nikole VII. Zrinskog \"Sirena Jadranskoga mora\" i molitvenik \"Putni tovaru\u0161\", djelo svoje supruge Ane Katarine Zrinski.\n\nOsobito utjecajno knji\u017eevno djelo bio je \u201cRazgovor ugodni naroda slovinskoga\u201d (prvo izdanje: Venecija, 1756.), djelu koje je dalmatinski franjevac Andrija Ka\u010di\u0107 Mio\u0161i\u0107 napisao na \u0161tokavskoj ikavici \u2013 te uz uva\u017eavanje Gramatike koju je Bartol Ka\u0161i\u0107 (isusovac iz Dalmacije) za ikavsku \u0161tokavicu napisao 1604. godine. Znatan utjecaj na postupno prihva\u0107anje \u0161tokavskog standarda imao je i Ka\u0161i\u0107ev prijevod \"Rituala Rimskog\" (Rim, 1640. god.) \u2013 slu\u017ebenog liturgijskog molitvenika iz kojega su sve\u0107enici \u010ditali molitve u najrazli\u010ditijim javnim prigodama \u2013 od vjen\u010danja do pogreba. Me\u0111utim su \u010dakavci i \u0161tokavci ostajali svjesni jezi\u010dnog bogatstva koje su ba\u0161tinili, te se tijekom tog razdoblja nastavila razvijati osobito kajkavska knji\u017eevnost; mo\u017eda je slabijem prihva\u0107anju \u0161tokav\u0161tine na podru\u010dju Sjeverozapadne Hrvatske pridonijela i \u010dinjenica da je to podru\u010dje crkveno bilo vezano uz Ma\u0111arsku, gdje se preferiralo kori\u0161tenje Rimskog Rituala na latinskom jeziku.\n\nTijekom tog razdoblja knji\u017eevnici \u010desto gledaju ugraditi u (hrvatski knji\u017eevni) jezik kojim pi\u0161u najbolje elemente sva tri hrvatska narje\u010dja \u2013 \u0161tokavskog, kajkavskog i \u010dakavskog. To osobito vrijedi za knji\u017eevnike baroknog Ozaljskog knji\u017eevnog kruga, kojega uz gore navedene Petra i Katarinu Zrinsku spadaju Fran Krsto Frankapan i pavlin Ivan Belostenec.\n\n19. stolje\u0107e i kasnije \n\nU najnovijem dobu dolazi do raznih standardizacija jezika, uglavnom na \u0161tokavskoj osnovi, i usporedo s tim do poku\u0161aja \u010di\u0161\u0107enja jezika od posu\u0111enica iz germanskih i romanskih, te iz turskog jezika; one se nerijetko zamjenjuju rije\u010dima posu\u0111enima iz bli\u017eih slavenskih jezika (osobito \u010de\u0161koga: \u010dasopis, naslov, prednost, smjer, u\u010dinak, uloga, ured, zbirka\u2026, kao i ruskoga: \u010dinovnik, iskren, odli\u010dan, opasan, poslovica, razo\u010darati, strog, to\u010dka\u2026). Istovremeno u jezik ulaze mnogi latinski i gr\u010dki termini. U 20. stolje\u0107u dolazi do ulaska stanovitog broja rije\u010di iz engleskoga (vikend, klub, tenk, boks\u2026).\n\nSukladno tada\u0161njim austrijskim geopoliti\u010dkim konceptima (\"austroslavizam\"), dobiva vojvo\u0111anski Srbin \u0110uro Dani\u010di\u0107 (bliski suradnik, te u punom smislu nasljednik srpskog jezikoslovca Vuka Karad\u017ei\u0107a) priliku da u Zagrebu radi na svojem Rje\u010dniku hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika. Taj rje\u010dnik \u2013 koji je napisan u svrhu \u0161to ve\u0107eg pribli\u017eavanja hrvatskog i srpskog knji\u017eevnog jezika \u2013 koji izlazi u razdoblju 1880. \u2013 1882. god., te ostvaruje znatan utjecaj na hrvatski jezik (a i na srpski). Me\u0111utim hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik ne prestaje ni nakon toga primati znatne utjecaje iz kajkavskog i \u010dakavskog narje\u010dja (naposljetku se glavna hrvatska kulturalna sredi\u0161ta i nalaze na \u010dakavskom i kajkavskom podru\u010dju, te su najzna\u010dajniji hrvatski knji\u017eevnici nerijetko od djetinjstva i rane mladosti \"zara\u017eeni\" tim narje\u010djima), te nastojanja da se od hrvatskog i srpskog jezika u\u010dini jedan \"srpskohrvatski\" jezik ipak nisu bila uspje\u0161na. Primjerice je (izvorni kajkavac) Miroslav Krle\u017ea u radzoblju nakon I. svjetskog rata zastupao tezu o jedinstvenom srpskohrvatskom jeziku i narodu, i pisao na ekavici. Nakon stanovitog vremena \u017eivota u jugoslavenskoj dr\u017eavi \u2013 gdje se ubrzo razbijaju njegove iluzije prema kojima bi zbog \u017eeljene bliskosti sa Srbima bilo prihvatljivo odre\u0107i se hrvatskog jezika i hrvatskog nacionalnog identiteta \u2013 sam postaje svjestan proma\u0161enosti politiziranog koncepta u kojem je sudjelovao, istra\u017euje vlastitu kajkavsku ba\u0161tinu (te 1936. god. objavljuje kajkavske \"Balade Petrice Kerempuha\", u kojem ne koristi nijedno od govornih kajkavskih narje\u010dja, nego stvara jedan bogati knji\u017eevni jezik \"kakav je mogao biti da nismo prihvatili \u0161tokav\u0161tinu\") i naposljetku postaje glavnim pokroviteljem Deklaracije o nazivu i polo\u017eaju hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika iz 1967. godine. Kod \u2013 na podru\u010dju jezika vrlo utjecajnog \u2013 M. Krle\u017ee prepoznajemo odrednice burnog razdoblja u razvoju hrvatskog jezika, koji su od razdoblja zadnjeg dijela 19. do prema kraju 20. stolje\u0107a ostali vrlo jako obilje\u017eeni rastom, krizama i kona\u010dnom propa\u0161\u0107u jugoslavenske ideje. Neki autori to razdoblje, zapravo, i zovu \"Krle\u017einim dobom\".\n\nKrajem 20. stolje\u0107a dolazi do razvoja masovnih medija i velikog utjecaja standardnog (\"knji\u017eevnog\") jezika novina, radija i televizije na jezik. Najprije kroz \u0161aljive podlistke, komedije i sl., a kasnije demokratizacijom dru\u0161tvenih odnosa i \u0161ire, ipak u medije ograni\u010deno prodire i govorni jezik. Kao mje\u0161avina stvara se hrvatski supstandardni idiom koji vr\u0161i velik utjecaj na standardni jezik i u praksi ga \u010desto zamjenjuje.\n\nPovijesni razvoj standardizacije hrvatskoga jezika\n\nPo\u010detak \n\nPod kraj 9. stolje\u0107a Hrvati su sa slavenskim bogoslu\u017ejem dobili i knji\u017eevni jezik, starocrkvenoslavenski i pismo, glagoljicu. Pismenost se naglo \u0161irila, a u liturgijske i neliturgijske (nabo\u017ene i svjetovne) tekstove veoma brzo prodiru, ali s razli\u010ditim intenzitetom i opsegom utjecaja, crte narodnoga jezika, u prvom redu \u010dakavskoga narje\u010dja.\nTako je s jedne strane na \u010dakavskoj podlozi za liturgijske knjige razvijen crkvenoslavenski jezik hrvatske redakcije ili hrvatskocrkvenoslavenski jezik, a s druge strane mje\u0161oviti tip knji\u017eevnoga jezika: narodni jezik s crtama crkvenoslavenskoga u slu\u017ebi stilskih sredstava za neliturgijske tekstove (do po\u010detka 14. stolje\u0107a i za pravne).\n\nPrevladavanje jedne ili druge sastavnice u tom hibridnom tipu jezika bilo je uvjetovano raznim \u010dimbenicima:\n starinom predlo\u0161ka\n podrijetlom predlo\u0161ka\n u\u017eom namjenom teksta\n knji\u017eevnom kulturom pisca\n karakterom sredine u kojoj je i za koju je nastajao\n\nTako smo u po\u010detku, u srednjem vijeku, imali uglavnom tri tipa knji\u017eevnoga jezika:\n crkvenoslavenski hrvatske redakcije u liturgijskim spisima\n hibridni crkvenoslavenski-\u010dakavski\n crkvenoslavensko-\u010dakavsko-kajkavski u neliturgijskim spisima, pjesni\u0161tvu, narodni (\u010dakavski) u prikazanjima, svjetovnim tekstovima, zapisima i sli\u010dnim djelima.\n\nNajstariji su spomenici hrvatskoga narodnoga jezika \u010dakavskoga narje\u010dja \"Istarski razvod\" iz 1275., te Vinodolski zakonik, 1288.\n\nMe\u0111u najzna\u010dajnije spomenike hrvatskocrkvenoslavenskoga jezika na glagoljici spadaju \"Misal kneza Novaka\" iz Like, 1368., te \"Hrvojev misal\", 1404. Ostali su tekstovi, bilo narodna izraza, bilo mije\u0161anoga narodnoga i crkvenoslavenskoga.\n\nOd po\u010detka 14. stolje\u0107a (od dviju glagoljskih listina iz Novoga iz 1309. godine) u pravnim spisima srednjovjekovnih hrvatskih glagolja\u0161a pobje\u0111uje upotreba narodnoga jezika, a crkvenoslavenski elementi ovdje su samo mjestimi\u010dna iznimka. Narodni \u010dakavsko narje\u010dje od samoga po\u010detka (\u201cRed i zakon\u201d zadarskih dominikanki iz 1345. godine, i \u201c\u0160ibenska molitva\u201d iz istoga vremena) karakterizira hrvatsku latini\u010dnu knji\u017eevnost.\n\nOd prvih hrvatskih pisanih spomenika, od kojih je Ba\u0161\u0107anska plo\u010da, napisana oko 1100. godine, najva\u017enija jer je s njom hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik stupio na podru\u010dje pismenosti, razvija se bogata hrvatska srednjovjekovna knji\u017eevnost (\u017eivoti svetaca, pripovijetke, romani, duhovno pjesni\u0161tvo, crkvena prikazanja), dobrim dijelom prijevodna.\n\nUz glagoljicu vrlo se rano javlja i hrvatska \u0107irilica, znana i kao \"arvacko pismo\", arvatica, polji\u010dica, bosan\u010dica (Bosna i Hercegovina, srednja i ju\u017ena Dalmacija, Huma\u010dka plo\u010da, \u201cPovaljska listina\u201d iz 1184.\/1250.) i latinica (Dalmacija, Istra, spomenuti \u201cRed i zakon\u201d najstariji je hrvatski tekst koji je u cjelini pisan latinicom).\n\nPrvi je cjeloviti tekst na \u0161tokavskome narje\u010dju uop\u0107e Vatikanski hrvatski molitvenik, nastao u Dubrovniku prije 1400.\n\nU razvoju hrvatske kulture, knji\u017eevnosti i jezika to je va\u017eno razdoblje. Stvorena su zna\u010dajna djela ne samo povijesne nego i trajne kulturne vrijednosti. Preko njih je hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik sa\u010duvao kontinuitet od 11. stolje\u0107a do danas, prvenstveno u rje\u010dni\u010dkom blagu i frazeologiji.\n\nPostanak hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika i renesansna knji\u017eevnost \n\nU razdoblju europskoga preporoda (renesansa) u gradskim sredi\u0161tima, poput Splita, Dubrovnika, Zadra, Hvara, knji\u017eevni radovi stvaraju se na mjesnim narje\u010djima.\n\nOd XIV. stolje\u0107a hrvatski su latinisti pridonosili latinisti\u010dkoj knji\u017eevnosti europskoj: hrvatski se morao potvrditi kao ravnopravan izri\u010daj na kojemu se mo\u017ee prenijeti misleno podru\u010dje: rad je humanista i preporodnih pisaca stoga osobito va\u017ean.\n\nPjesmotvorje na jeziku hrvatskome opstoji od XIV. stolje\u0107a; na njem je spjevana \u201cJudita\u201d (Venecija, 1501.), djelo oca pjesni\u010dke umjetnosti hrvatske, Marka Maruli\u0107a \u2013 kojemu su prete\u010de poznati i nepoznati petrarkisti dubrova\u010dki.\nMaruli\u0107 je pisao \u010dakavskim narje\u010djem, rabe\u0107i katkad i \u0161tokavske i kajkavske oblike kada su mu kao pjesni\u010dko sredstvo bili potrebni.\n\nUlaskom \u0161tokavskoga narje\u010dja u hrvatsku knji\u017eevnost pod kraj 15. stolje\u0107a u djelima \u0160i\u0161ka Men\u010deti\u0107a (1457. \u2013 1527.), D\u017eore Dr\u017ei\u0107a (1461. \u2013 1501.) i pjesama spjevanih \"na narodnu\" u Ranjininu zborniku po\u010dinje na\u0161 dana\u0161nji knji\u017eevni jezik.\n\nDa se kraj 15. stolje\u0107a mo\u017ee smatrati njegovim po\u010detkom, dovoljno je kao osvjetljenje te tvrdnje navesti jednu pjesmicu \u0160i\u0161ka Men\u010deti\u0107a:\n\n'Ti \u0107e\u0161, biti uzrok moje smrti'\n\nAko li i do\u0111e prijeka smrt na mene\nti s\u2019 uzrok, gospo\u0111e, \u017eivot moj da vene.\n\n\u0160esnaesto je stolje\u0107e zna\u010dilo vrhunac hrvatske renesansne knji\u017eevnosti, poglavito \u010dakavsko-\u0161tokavskoga kruga (Hanibal Luci\u0107, Petar Hektorovi\u0107, Petar Zorani\u0107, Mavro Vetranovi\u0107, Marin Dr\u017ei\u0107, Dominko Zlatari\u0107) sa sredi\u0161tima u Zadru, Hvaru, Kor\u010duli i Dubrovniku.\n\nU sjevernoj se Hrvatskoj pojavila knji\u017eevnost na kajkavskome narje\u010dju (Vramec: \u201cPostila\u201d), kao i na \u010dakavsko-kajkavskom me\u0111unarje\u010dju (protestantski pisci Stjepan Konzul Istranin i Antun Dalmatin).\n\nOd ulaska \u0161tokavskoga narje\u010dja u hrvatsku knji\u017eevnost hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik \u0161tokavskoga tipa razvijao se evolutivno, bez velikih lomova i usjeka pa se kraj 15. stolje\u0107a mo\u017ee s pravom smatrati po\u010detkom dana\u0161njeg hrvatskog knji\u017eevnoga jezika odnosno po\u010detkom njegova standardiziranja, jer je me\u0111u ostalim, ve\u0107 onda bio polivalentnim. To\u010dnije, jezik najrazvijenije i vrlo utjecajne dubrova\u010dke knji\u017eevnosti, koja je utjecala na sve ostale pisce na hrvatskom jeziku, postao je standardnim.\n\nU ovom je razdoblju hrvatski jezik postao i jezikom kojeg se izu\u010davalo na sveu\u010dili\u0161tima i to odlukom samih papa. Hrvatski se izabralo zbog legende o hrvatskoj bra\u0107i \u010cehu, Lehu i Mehu, a uzelo ga se kao zajedni\u010dki jezik na kojem \u0107e se objavljivati crkvene knjige za slavenske narode. To je bilo u sklopu programa katoli\u010dke obnove. Time se hrvatski potvrdio da je bio jezikom visoke kulture i znanosti, na istoj razini kao jezici koje je Katoli\u010dka Crkva u to doba smatrala najva\u017enijim svjetskim jezicima za prou\u010davanje Biblije i crkvenih znanosti. Radilo se o dekretima koje je izdao Zbor za \u0161irenje vjere u ime papa. Prvi je iz 1622., u ime pape Grgura XV., u kojem se zapovijeda svim visokim crkvenim \u0161kolama na podru\u010dju Mleta\u010dke Republike osnovati katedre za arapski i ilirski jezik. U dekretu iz 1623. kojeg je izdao u ime pape Urbana VIII., zapovijedilo se neka se na svih crkvenim \u0161kolama i crkvenim sveu\u010dili\u0161tima uz hebrejski, pu\u010dki i klasi\u010dni gr\u010dki, kaldejski (aramejski) i arapski u\u010di tako\u0111er i ilirski jezik. Presuda vrhovnog crkvenog suda, Svete Rote od 10. prosinca 1655. je rije\u0161ila sve dvojbe oko toga na \u0161to se pojam \"ilirski\" odnosi: Ilirik su Dalmacija, u\u017ea Hrvatska, Bosna i Hercegovina te Slavonija i time je obilje\u017eila etni\u010dki prostor hrvatskog naroda.\n\nDjela hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti iz tog razdoblja, posebice iz dubrova\u010dkog podru\u010dja bila su predmetom neutemeljenih velikosrpskih posizanja za hrvatskom kulturom. Te velikosrpske otima\u010dine nisu prestale ni vojnim porazom Srbije u osvaja\u010dkom ratu protiv Hrvatske i BiH.\n\nBarokni slavizam, prosvjetiteljstvo i jezi\u010dna standardizacija \n\n17. stolje\u0107e i prva polovina 18. stolje\u0107a zna\u010de novo razdoblje u razvoju hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti i njezina jezika.\n\nTo je doba zamiranja knji\u017eevnoga i kulturnoga rada u dalmatinskim gradovima pod mleta\u010dkom upravom, doba sve oskudnijega materijalnog i kulturnog stanja na podru\u010djima pod Turcima, doba protureformacije i katoli\u010dke obnove, u kojoj prednja\u010di isusova\u010dki red i koja za svoj obnovljeni vjerskopou\u010dni rad me\u0111u pukom ponovo tra\u017ei \u0161to \u0161ire prihvatljiv i razumljiv knji\u017eevni jezik.\nPostupno povla\u010denje Turaka ostavlja za sobom nove prostore za \u0161irenje knji\u017eevnoga i kulturnoga djelovanja.\n\nTo je i doba nastanka na\u0161ih prvih gramatika i poja\u010danoga leksikografskog rada, doba teorijskih i prakti\u010dnih poku\u0161aja na stvaranju jedinstvenoga knji\u017eevnog jezika. Unato\u010d pokrajinskim i neodre\u0111enim op\u0107im nazivima \u0161to se sve \u010de\u0161\u0107e javljaju kao ime hrvatskoga jezika (slovinski, slovjenski, dalmatinski, ilirski i drugi), traje neprekidna svijest svih hrvatskih krajeva i narje\u010dja o pripadnosti jednom jeziku i o potrebi njegova ujedna\u010davanja. Pritom se sve \u010de\u0161\u0107e izra\u017eava na\u010delo o potrebi stvaranja jedinstvenoga knji\u017eevnog jezika na temelju najra\u0161irenijega narodnoga govora i sve jasnijom biva svijest da je taj najra\u0161ireniji narodni govor \u0161tokav\u0161tina.\n\nNa samom po\u010detku ovoga razvojnog razdoblja hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika nastaje i njegova prva gramatika \u201cInstitutionum linguae illyricae libri duo\u201d Pa\u017eanina Bartola Ka\u0161i\u0107a, objavljena u Rimu godine 1604.\nTo je gramatika jezika dotada\u0161nje hrvatske pismenosti i knji\u017eevnosti. Osnova joj je \u010dakavska, ali u njoj ima i \u0161tokavskih elemenata. Kasnije je njezin autor, na svojim misionarskim putovanjima u krajeve pod Turcima i u Dubrovnik, spoznao da je \u0161tokavsko narje\u010dje najra\u0161irenije me\u0111u na\u0161im narodnim govorima i d\u00e2 bi bilo najpogodnije kao osnova knji\u017eevnoga jezika.\n\nBartol Ka\u0161i\u0107 je i autor prvog poznatog hrvatskog cjelokupnog prijevoda \u201cSvetoga pisma\u201d i hrvatsko-talijanskoga rje\u010dnika, ali je to oboje, na\u017ealost, ostalo u rukopisu (Ka\u0161i\u0107ev je prijevod Biblije prvotiskan 2000. godine.).\nObjavio je niz vjerskih i vjerskopou\u010dnih djela i vi\u0161e prijevoda, od kojih je najzna\u010dajniji \u201cRitual rimski\u201d, objavljen u Rimu 1640. godine, koji je svojom svakodnevnom porabom na \u0161irokom prostoru znatno utjecao na razvoj hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika i imao u njemu onu ulogu koju su u ostalih europskih naroda imali objavljeni prijevodi Svetoga pisma.\n\nU 17. stolje\u0107u razvija se i knji\u017eevnost u Bosni s najpoznatijim predstavnikom Matijom Divkovi\u0107em.\nOn svoja djela pi\u0161e isto\u010dnobosanskom staro\u0161tokavskom ijekavicom za razliku od ve\u0107ine kasnijih bosanskih pisaca, kod kojih sve vi\u0161e prevladava novo\u0161tokavska ikavica. Knji\u017eevni rad u Bosni u 17. i u prvoj polovini 18. stolje\u0107a uklapa se u tijekove katoli\u010dke obnove i gotovo se isklju\u010divo ve\u017ee uz franjeva\u010dki red. Djelovanje bosanskohercegova\u010dkih franjevaca na o\u017eivljavanju vjerskog, kulturnog i knji\u017eevnog \u017eivota u okvirima franjeva\u010dke redodr\u017eave Bosne Srebrne, koja je u to doba obuhva\u0107ala uglavnom sve \u0161tokavske Hrvate, znatno je pridonijelo uklanjanju narje\u010dnih razlika u pisanom jeziku i ujedna\u010davanju hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika na \u0161irokom prostoru od Slavonije do mora. U tom jeziku, uz narje\u010dne osobine pojedinih pisaca, prevladava novo\u0161tokavska ikavica.\n\nU Dubrovniku je u 17. stolje\u0107u prevladala novo\u0161tokavska ijekavica, a sve se vi\u0161e ostvaruju uvjeti za prihva\u0107anje \u0161tokav\u0161tine i kod pisaca \u010dakavaca u ju\u017enoj Hrvatskoj. Ti su pisci ve\u0107 i prije u svoja djela unosili \u0161tokavske crte pod utjecajem dubrova\u010dke i usmene \u0161tokavske knji\u017eevnosti. Djelovanjem bosanskohercegova\u010dkih franjevaca \u0161tokav\u0161tina postaje presti\u017eni knji\u017eevni jezik i na ju\u017eno\u010dakavskom podru\u010dju. Jedan od odva\u017enih poticaja u tom pravcu bio je i rje\u010dnik talijanskoga isusovca Jakova Mikalje \"Blago jezika slovinskoga\" iz 1649. \u2013 1651. Mikalja je sudjelovao u katoli\u010dkoj obnovi u na\u0161im krajevima i u tom je rje\u010dniku izrazio misao da bi Hrvati trebali za knji\u017eevni jezik odabrati svoje najljep\u0161e narje\u010dje, a to je \u201cbosansko\u201d (to jest \u0161tokav\u0161tina), koje se po ljepoti mo\u017ee usporediti s toskanskim u Italiji.\n\nVrhunac je barokni pjesni\u010dki izraz do\u017eivio u djelima Ivana Gunduli\u0107a, Ivana Buni\u0107a i Junija Palmoti\u0107a \u2013 svima pisanima posebnim stiliziranim oblikom ijekavske \u0161tokav\u0161tine.\nDubrovniku je susjedna Hercegovina bila \u0161tokavska, te je s \u010dakavskim podslojem (na Dubrova\u010dkom podru\u010dju se u ranijim stolje\u0107ima govorilo \u010dakavicom) u XVII. stolje\u0107u oblikovan ondje razra\u0111en \u0161tokavski knji\u017eevni izraz. Tim je trima djelovanjima: jezikoslovnima (Ka\u0161i\u0107, Mikalja), pu\u010dko-prosvjetnima (Divkovi\u0107) i knji\u017eevno-umjetni\u010dkima (Gunduli\u0107, Palmoti\u0107) oblikovan jezik koji se po glavnim zna\u010dajkama nije bitno razlikovao od modernoga hrvatskog standardnoga jezika.\n\nU 18. stolje\u0107u, nakon oslobo\u0111enje velikoga dijela Hrvatske od turske vladavine, a u skladu s op\u0107im tendencijama racionalizma, u svim se hrvatskim krajevima javljaju prosvjetiteljski pisci. Cilj im je podizanje kulturne razine svih oblika narodnog \u017eivota, te stoga svoja djela namjenjuju uglavnom neukom puku. Borci su protiv predrasuda, praznovjerja, zaostalosti i neukosti i pobornici istine, razuma i op\u0107eg napretka. U tom su poslu motivirani svije\u0161\u0107u o potrebi uvo\u0111enja vlastite narodne kulture u zajednicu prosvije\u0107enih europskih naroda. U te\u017enji da osvoje \u0161to \u0161iri krug \u010ditatelja i da im pribli\u017ee svoja djela, u svom se stvarala\u0161tvu \u010desto slu\u017ee oblicima i jezi\u010dnim izrazom narodnog stvarala\u0161tva. Na taj na\u010din njihova djela poprimaju pu\u010dko obilje\u017eje i stje\u010du veliku popularnost u narodu, a \u0161ire i utjecaj \u0161tokavskoga narje\u010dja, na kojem su pisana. Naj\u010ditanije su bile i najve\u0107u su popularnost stekle dvije knjige: \u201cRazgovor ugodni naroda slovinskoga\u201d Andrije Ka\u010di\u0107a Mio\u0161i\u0107a iz Makarskoga primorja (1756.; pro\u0161ireno izdanje 1759.), te \u201cSatir iliti divji \u010dovik\u201d Slavonca Matije Antuna Relkovi\u0107a (1762.; drugo, pro\u0161ireno izdanje 1779.).\n\nKa\u010di\u0107ev \"Razgovor ugodni naroda slovinskoga\" \u2013 zbirka poezije na \u0161tokavskoj ikavici koju je Ka\u010di\u0107 kao ve\u0107 zreo intelektualac i pisac sastavio u desetercu i osloncem na tradiciju narodnog pjesni\u0161tva \u2013 imala je nemjerljivi utjecaj na razvoj hrvatskoj jezi\u010dnog standarda. Ta je knjiga bila \u010ditana vrlo mnogo, te je na zimskim sijelima (\"ve\u010deri poezije\", rekli bismo urbanim izri\u010dajem) u selima svih dijelova Hrvatske (i \u0161ire) bilo do drugog svjetskog prakti\u010dno bez iznimke \u010ditana ili recitirana napamet. Time je i u jezi\u010dno iznimno raznolikim kajkavskim i \u010dakavskim podru\u010djima jezik Ka\u010di\u0107evih stihova postajao svojevrsna \"lingua franca\" i referentni izvor rije\u010di (od kojih je mnoge skovao sam Ka\u010di\u0107) i izri\u010daja koji je dopunjavao jezi\u010dni fond koji je puk dobivao u roditeljskoj ku\u0107i i tijekom skromnog \u0161kolskog obrazovanja. \"Tvrdnje o standardizaciji jezika koje su bile zasnovane na unitaristi\u010dkoj, srpskohrvatsko-vukovskoj tendencioznosti, i koje govore da je ona provedena tek u 19. stolje\u0107u, pokazat \u0107e se neistinitima jer i Ka\u010di\u0107 sa svojim djelom, kao i Ka\u0161i\u0107 jo\u0161 prije svojom Gramatikom iz 1604. godine, dakle dva vijeka prije Vuka, pokazuju svojevrsnu normiranost hrvatskog jezika, da ne spominjemo druge zaslu\u017enike u podru\u010dju hrvatskog jezikoslovlja.\"\n\nKnji\u017eevnojezi\u010dni razvoj protekloga razdoblja, u kojem se ve\u0107 jasno ocrtavalo prvenstvo \u0161tokav\u0161tine u ulozi hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika, omogu\u0107io je piscima ovoga razdoblja da prihvate vi\u0161e-manje jedinstven knji\u017eevni jezik na novo\u0161tokavskoj narje\u010dnoj osnovi, uglavnom zapadnoga ikavskog tipa (izuzev ijekavskoga Dubrovnika). U tom jeziku obilje\u017eja jedinstvenosti prete\u017eu nad pokrajinskim razlikama. Osvajanjem \u0161iroke \u010ditateljske publike u ve\u0107inskom dijelu hrvatskoga naroda, \u0161irenjem svoje upotrebe u sve raznolikije svrhe i uklju\u010divanjem u sve novija podru\u010dja ljudske djelatnosti u vezi sa zahtjevima novoga vremena taj jezik ve\u0107 funkcionira kao standardni jezik.\n\nIlirski pokret i filolo\u0161ke \u0161kole \n\nSve je Hrvate u jednom jeziku i u jednom slovopisu (grafiji), tipu slova za pisanje glasova, ujedinio tek Ljudevit Gaj (1809. \u2013 1872.) kao predvodnik kulturalnog i politi\u010dkog Ilirskog pokreta. On 1830. izdaje u Budimu knji\u017eicu \"Kratka osnova horvatsko-slavenskog pravopisanja poleg mudroljubneh, narodneh i prigospodarneh temeljov i zrokov\".\nU njoj po \u010de\u0161kom uzoru predla\u017ee \u010d, \u017e, \u0161, \u013e, \u0148, \u010f, \u02c7g  to jest, za svaki glas poseban znak.\nPrihva\u0107eno je \u010d, \u017e, \u0161, a za druga su slova uzeti dvostruki znakovi, dvoslovi lj, nj, dj ili gj, d\u017e, iz poljskoga je preuzeto \u0107, a kasnije je namjesto dj jo\u0161 predlo\u017eeno \u0111.\nGaj 1835. izdaje Novine Horvatzke s prilogom Danicza Horvatzka, Slavonzka y Dalmatinzka, novine kajkavski, a Danicu kajkavski i \u0161tokavski, uz stari pravopis katkad upotrebljava i novi.\nU po\u010detku 1836. mijenja naslov u Ilirske narodne novine, Danica ilirska i uvodi novi slovopis i hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik stiliziran na \u0161tokavskoj narje\u010dnoj osnovi po ugledu na tradicionalnu hrvatsku knji\u017eevnost Dubrovnika i jezikoslovca Bartola Ka\u0161i\u0107a.\nIako je to za kajkavski Zagreb bio revolucionarni \u010din, Gaj je nai\u0161ao na neznatan otpor jer je i prije njega na kajkavskom podru\u010dju bilo uvrije\u017eeno shva\u0107anje da op\u0107ehrvatski jezik treba stilizirati prema knji\u017eevnosti nekada\u0161nje Dubrova\u010dke Republike kao jedinog slobodnog prostora koji nije bio pod stranim utjecajem, stoga su tako ve\u0107 ranije bila pisana i  Disertacija Janka Dra\u0161kovi\u0107a iz 1832. godine.\nStilizacijom hrvatskoga jezika na \u0161tokavskoj osnovi Gaj nije prekidao jezi\u010dnu tradiciju, nego ju je nastavio i pro\u0161irio obuhvativ\u0161i sva hrvatska narje\u010dja prema jednom stilu, u prvom redu prema dubrova\u010dkom i slavonskom.\nOn je dakle jedan od hrvatskih knji\u017eevnih jezika, koji je u Hrvata ve\u0107 bio izgra\u0111en i prije preporoda, pro\u0161irio i na kajkavsko podru\u010dje.\nTako je Gaj u jednom knji\u017eevnom jeziku i u jednom pravopisu ujedinio sve Hrvate i njegove su zasluge zbog toga goleme: stvorio je najbolje temelje za procvat hrvatske kulture na svim podru\u010djima ljudske djelatnosti.\n\nGaj i ilirci te\u017eili su i vi\u0161e od toga. Nastojali su da u knji\u017eevnom jeziku ujedine sve Ju\u017ene Slavene. Zato su hrvatski jezik nazvali ilirskim i zato su neke pojedinosti prilago\u0111avali tome cilju. Tako su na mjestu nekada\u0161njega jata pisali \u011b te\u017ee\u0107i da tako ujedine ijekavce, ikavce i ekavce. Samoglasno r pi\u0161u s popratnim glasom (perst, parst), u genitivu mno\u017eine pi\u0161u -h (\u017eenah). Pravopis je morfonolo\u0161ki (korijenski, sladka, \u017ealostno). Valja imati na umu da je to bio samo na\u010din pisanja, izgovor je bio prst, \u017eena, slatka, \u017ealosno, jedino se \u011b \u010ditao razli\u010dito. I u jeziku su zadr\u017eali neke posebnosti, na primjer u deklinaciji razli\u010dit dativ, lokativ i instrumental mno\u017eine (dativ \u017eenam, lokativ \u017eenah, mjestih, instrumental \u017eenami, narodi). Ali \u0161iroka se ilirska ideja pokazala neostvarljivom. Svi su ju\u017enoslavenski narodi krenuli svojim putima.\n\nOd samoga je po\u010detka Gajevo djelovanje dalo sna\u017ean poticaj knji\u017eevnosti i tako se hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik kao sredstvo umjetni\u010dkog izraza o\u010dituje u svom najve\u0107em postignu\u0107u.\nGaj je i sam objavljivao stihove i prozu, ali su zna\u010dajnija ostvarenja dali drugi: Vraz, Demeter, Nem\u010di\u0107, a najvrjednija Ivan Ma\u017eurani\u0107 i Petar Preradovi\u0107.\n\nZagreba\u010dka jezikoslovna \u0161kola \n\nJezikoslovno oblikovanje knji\u017eevnog jezika u tre\u0107oj \u010detvrtini 19. stolje\u0107a u znaku je takozvane zagreba\u010dke jezikoslovne \u0161kole. Za\u010detnici su joj Gaj i gramati\u010dari Vjekoslav Babuki\u0107 i Antun Ma\u017eurani\u0107, ali je do najsna\u017enijega izraza do\u0161la kad joj se na \u010delu na\u0161ao gramati\u010dar i knji\u017eevnik Adolf Veber Tkal\u010devi\u0107 (1825. \u2013 1889.) i leksikograf Bogoslav \u0160ulek (1816. \u2013 1895.). Obojica su uglavnom branila dotada\u0161nji na\u010din pisanja, a Tkal\u010devi\u0107 se posebno zalagao za nastavak -h u genitivu mno\u017eine, predla\u017eu\u0107i da se takav oblik i govori. Stoga su on i njegovi sljedbenici nazvani ahavcima. U njihovu je radu zna\u010dajna i te\u017enja za jezi\u010dnom \u010disto\u0107om. Ona se najvi\u0161e o\u010ditovala u zamjenjivanju tu\u0111ica na\u0161im rije\u010dima. \u0160ulek je nastojao da stvori hrvatsko znanstveno nazivlje, ali je zbog otpora prema germanizaciji i suzbijanja prevlasti njema\u010dkoga i latinskoga jezika svjesno nastojao da nazivi budu doma\u0107e rije\u010di.\nAko ih nije bilo, stvarao je nove ili ih je preuzimao iz slavenskih jezika, uglavnom iz \u010de\u0161koga i ruskoga, prilagodiv\u0161i ih hrvatskomu. Obojica su, Tkal\u010devi\u0107 svojim \u010dlancima i gramatikama, i \u0160ulek svojim rje\u010dnicima, u\u010dinili toliko da su njihovi suvremenici dobili jezik sposoban za prakti\u010dnu porabu i u \u0161koli, upravi i znanosti, a po tome su svojim zaslugama zadu\u017eili i kasnije nara\u0161taje. Suvremeni je hrvatski nezamisliv bez \u0160ulekovih novotvorenica kao \u0161to su pojam, vodovod, olovka, nogostup, veleizdaja, ki\u0161obran, ra\u010dunovo\u0111a\u2026.\nJedan od posljednjih zna\u010dajnih knji\u017eevnika koji je uglavnom jo\u0161 pisao jezikom zagreba\u010dke \u0161kole, bio je Ksaver \u0160andor \u0110alski kome su djela poslije njegove smrti prera\u0111ena i iznova izdana fonetskim pravopisom. Nakon njega je vi\u0161e desetlje\u0107a jezik zagreba\u010dke \u0161kole uglavnom nestao iz javnosti, ali se djelimice obnavlja od 1971. do danas, pa ga sada u Hrvatskoj opet zastupaju i razra\u0111uju jezikoslovci Bulcs\u00fa L\u00e1szl\u00f3 i Marijan Krmpoti\u0107 te knji\u017eevnici Mato Mar\u010dinko, Branko Petener, Marijan Horvat Milekovi\u0107 i drugi.\n\nRije\u010dka jezikoslovna \u0161kola \n\nSvojstvuje ju nastojanje za uvo\u0111enje tzv. slavenskog ili kratkog genitiva mno\u017eine te starijih jezi\u010dnih oblika u knji\u017eevni hrvatski jezik.\nTa je \u0161kola imala najkra\u0107e djelovanje i najmanje odjeka. Na \u010delu je Fran Kurelac koji se zala\u017ee za arhai\u010dan i u velikoj mjeri artificijelan jezik, zasnovan na mje\u0161avini hrvatskih narje\u010dja u kojoj \u0107e prevagu imati najstarije, \u010dakavsko najre\u010dje, koje on smatra jezgrom hrvatskoga jezika. Smatrali su da osnovicu standardnog jezika trebaju \u010diniti oni elementi koji su zajedni\u010dki ve\u0107ini slavenskih jezika. Rije\u010dka filolo\u0161ka \u0161kola zalagala se za genitiv mno\u017eine na nulti morfem (puno sel, \u017een, molitav), za 1. osobu prezenta na \u2013u (ja ispletu), za dvojinu i u imenica (dvaju rukopisu, \u0161irokih rukavu) i u glagola (te me uvedosta i pokazasta), za stari kondicional s oblicima bim, bi\u0161, bi, bimo, bite, bi, za futur sa svr\u0161enim prezentom glagola biti (budu govorit), za starinske glagolske priloge i gerunde (navra\u0107aje, obi\u0161ad, na\u0161av\u0161e), za perfekt bez pomo\u0107nog glagola, za posve arhai\u010dne konstrukcije kao \u0161to su poredbeni genitiv (misli kamena tvr\u0111e), dativ apsolutni (profesorom toga se \u017eamora pla\u0161e\u0107im), za arhai\u010dne oblike \u010dto i vsaki, te za mno\u0161tvo pojedina\u010dnih rije\u010di koje su u to doba ve\u0107 bile posve zastarjele, a kojima su oni sami mijenjali dotada\u0161nja zna\u010denja ili koje su posu\u0111ivali iz drugih slavenskih jezika (\u010dest \u2013 sre\u0107a, dugotrp \u2013 strpljiv, lotrija \u2013 besposlica, nauzprek \u2013 protivan, saharana \u2013 spasenje, udilje \u2013 odmah, zaobstun \u2013 uzalud itd.).\n\nZala\u017eu se za:\n G mn. na nulti morfem (puno sel, \u017een, molitav), 1. l. pz. na \u2013u (ja ispletu), \n za dvojinu i u imenica (dvaju rukopisu, \u0161irokih rukavu) i u glagola (te me uvedosta i pokazasta), \n za stari kondicional s oblicima bim, bi\u0161, bi, bimo, bite, bi, \n za futur sa svr\u0161enim prezentom glagola biti (budu govorit), \n za starinske glagolske priloge i gerunde (navra\u0107aje, obi\u0161ad, na\u0161av\u0161e), za perfekt bez pomo\u0107nog glagola,\n za posve arhai\u010dne konstrukcije kao \u0161to su poredbeni genitiv (misli kamena tvr\u0111e), \n za dativ apsolutni (profesorom toga se \u017eamora pla\u0161e\u0107im) te \n za mno\u0161tvo pojedina\u010dnih rije\u010di koje su u to doba ve\u0107 bile posve zastarjele, kojima je on sam mijenjao dotada\u0161nja zna\u010denja ili koje je posu\u0111ivao iz drugih slavenskih jezika (\u010dest \u2013 sre\u0107a, dugotrp \u2013 strpljiv, lotrija \u2013 besposlica, nauzprek \u2013 protivan, saharana \u2013 spasenje, udilje \u2013 odmah, zaobstun \u2013 uzalud itd.), kao i za arhai\u010dne oblici: \u010dto, vsaki. \u0160to se ti\u010de pravopisa zalagao se za dosljedan morfolo\u0161ko-tvorbeni pravopis.\n\nZadarska jezikoslovna \u0161kola \nSvojstvuje ju nastojanje za uvo\u0111enje ikav\u0161tine kao knji\u017eevnoga hrvatskog jezika.\n\nDjelovali su kroz \u010dasopis \u201eZora dalmatinska\u201c, \u010diji je urednik bio Ante Kuzmani\u0107.\n\nZalagali su se za dalmatinsku novo\u0161tokavsku ikavicu, a u prvo vrijeme i za hrvatsku regijonalnu dalmatinsku grafiju.\n\nHrvatski \"vukovci\" \n\nPod kraj 19. stolje\u0107a javlja se nova struja u gledanjima na knji\u017eevni jezik.  \nReforma je srpskoga folklorista i jezikoslovca Vuka Karad\u017ei\u0107a pobijedila u Srbiji i njegov ugled je po\u010deo naglo rasti i u Hrvatskoj.\nTada hrvatski jezikoslovci, nazvani hrvatski vukovci, nastoje knji\u017eevni jezik oblikovat prema Karad\u017ei\u0107evu uzoru.\n\nNajprije je Ivan Broz na fonolo\u0161kim na\u010delima izradio Hrvatski pravopis (Zagreb, 1892.).\nBudu\u0107i da dotada\u0161nji tvorbeno-morfolo\u0161ki nije imao dugu normativnu tradiciju niti kakvih izrazitih prednosti (a i stara je \u201cuzorna\u201d dubrova\u010dka knji\u017eevnost bila pisana prete\u017eito fonolo\u0161kim hrvatskim pravopisom) i kako su Hrvatski pravopis donijeli i prihvatili sami Hrvati, uz neka po\u010detna kolebanja i manji prijekid za NDH fonolo\u0161ki se pravopis ustalio i upotrebljava se uz normalna usavr\u0161avanja i danas.\n\nNa osnovi Karad\u017ei\u0107evih i Dani\u010di\u0107evih djela Tomislav Mareti\u0107 (1854. \u2013 1938.) izradio je svoju veliku Gramatiku i stilistiku hrvatskoga ili srpskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika (Zagreb, 1899., 1931., 1963.).\nOna je unijela ve\u0107e promjene u hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik u mnogim pojedinostima, a zna\u010dajnim dijelom samo u oblicima mno\u017einskih pade\u017ea.\nNo, to je jednim dijelom ve\u0107 bilo na razvojnoj crti hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika pa nije bilo poku\u0161aja da se stari pade\u017ei vrate ni kad su Hrvati poslije opet mogli slobodno odlu\u010diti druk\u010dije.\nNo, u nekim je jezi\u010dnim propisima Mareti\u0107eva \u0161kola slijepo slijedila srpske uzore te je poku\u0161ala hrvatskom standardnomu jeziku nametnuti oblike strane hrvatskoj jezi\u010dnoj tradiciji.\n\nU nekoliko bitnih pitanja \u0161kola hrvatskih vukovaca se razlikovala od ilirskih i poilirskih jezi\u010dnih koncepcija. Osnovne predod\u017ebe o hrvatskome jeziku ilirske, kao i zagreba\u010dke \u0161kole bijahu:\n\n novo\u0161tokavski idiom kao jezgra hrvatskoga standardnoga jezika, no otvorenoga za utjecaje ostalih hrvatskih narje\u010dja (\u010dakavskoga i kajkavskoga), \u0161to se o\u010ditovalo u uva\u017eavanju tronarje\u010dne dimenzije hrvatskoga\n jezi\u010dni purizam koji se iskazivao u novotvorbi hrvatskih rije\u010di mjesto internacionalizama ili tu\u0111ica\n svijest o kontinuitetu hrvatske jezi\u010dne i knji\u017eevne ba\u0161tine te shva\u0107anje knji\u017eevnoga jezika kao vi\u0161e potencije narodnoga\n\n\u0160kola hrvatskih vukovaca, kojoj je na \u010delu bio Tomislav Mareti\u0107, a zastupala je gledi\u0161ta temeljena na osnovnim shva\u0107anjima Vuka Karad\u017ei\u0107a i \u0110ure Dani\u010di\u0107a, imala je sljede\u0107e stavove o hrvatskome jeziku:\n\n izjedna\u010davanje narodnoga i knji\u017eevnoga jezika, \u0161to je u praksi zna\u010dilo jezi\u010dnopovijesni nihilizam i zabacivanje hrvatske knji\u017eevne ba\u0161tine, kao i nekriti\u010dku adoraciju djela Vuka Karad\u017ei\u0107a\n \u0161tokavski purizam, tj. odbijanje \u010dakavskih i kajkavskih rije\u010di i oblika u hrvatskom knji\u017eevnom jeziku, \u0161to je dovodilo i do grotesknih poku\u0161aja \u0161tokavizacije kajkavskih i \u010dakavskih toponima (Dionice i Spljet umjesto Delnice i Split)\n potiskivanje tvorbenosti hrvatskoga jezika, ili ustrajanje u poku\u0161ajima afirmacije me\u0111unarodnica (historija, muzika) na ra\u010dun hrvatskih tvorenica (povijest, glazba)\n odbacivanje, zanemarivanje i pre\u0161u\u0107ivanje dosega starije hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti i standardiziranosti hrvatskog jezika (taj pristup je u potpunosti odbacio razdoblje od po\u010detaka do pojave iliraca i Gaja)\n\nIshod \n\nIako su \"vukovci\" naizgled izvojevali pobjedu koncem 19. stolje\u0107a, uskoro se pokazalo da se radilo o Pirovoj pobjedi. Sve glavne to\u010dke ilirskog i poilirskoga hrvatskoga jezi\u010dnoga programa, od tronarje\u010dnosti i hrvatske knji\u017eevne tradicije do tvorbenosti-definitivno su nadvladale programatski ideal mladogramati\u010dara ili \"hrvatskih vukovaca\". Mladogramati\u010darski su poku\u0161aji propali bujnim razvitkom hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti 20. stolje\u0107a (Tin Ujevi\u0107, Miroslav Krle\u017ea), a hrvatsko ih je jezikoslovlje i \"slu\u017ebeno\" prevladalo koncem SFRJ. Ivan Broz i Franjo Ivekovi\u0107 izradili su Rje\u010dnik hrvatskoga jezika (Zagreb, 1901.) tako\u0111er na Karad\u017ei\u0107evoj i Dani\u010di\u0107evoj osnovi, ali on nije bitno mijenjao dotada\u0161nje hrvatsko jezi\u010dno stanje.\n\nTim su se zahvatima razlike izme\u0111u hrvatskoga i srpskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika znatno smanjile \u2013 privremeno, ali do njihova jedinstva nije do\u0161lo.\n\nJugoslavensko razdoblje \n\nStvaranjem prve Jugoslavije 1918. godine silom srpske vlasti, zakona, odluka i propisa koji su protegnuti na Hrvatsku ili koji su dono\u0161eni u Beogradu samo na srpskome jeziku, srpski se knji\u017eevni jezik znatno pro\u0161irio na \u0161tetu hrvatskoga i tako je na mnogim podru\u010djima kao \u0161to su uprava, zakonodavstvo, sudstvo, \u0161kolstvo i vojska naglo prekinuta hrvatska jezi\u010dna tradicija, ali ni takvim nasilnim postupcima nije postignuto jezi\u010dno jedinstvo. Da se \u0161to vi\u0161e sa\u010duvaju hrvatske jezi\u010dne osobine, dr. Petar Guberina i dr. Kruno Krsti\u0107 napisali su knjigu \u201cRazlike izme\u0111u hrvatskoga i srpskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika\u201d (Zagreb, 1940.). Ta je knjiga imala dugo jak utjecaj na \u010duvanje hrvatske jezi\u010dne posebnosti.\n\nZatiranje hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika trajalo je sve do stvaranja banovine Hrvatske 1939. godine. Tada je u mnogome vra\u0107eno hrvatsko nazivlje, a pogotovo stvaranjem Nezavisne Dr\u017eave Hrvatske. Nevolja je bila samo u tome \u0161to su obje faze, banovinska i endeha\u0161ka, trajale samo sedam godina.\nU partizanskome ratu i dolaskom komunista na vlast u Hrvatskoj hrvatski nazivi vra\u0107eni za Banovine uglavnom su ostali, osim u vojsci jer je tu prevladalo srpsko vojno nazivlje. U po\u010detku je u drugoj Jugoslaviji u na\u010delu priznato svakomu narodu da se slu\u017ei svojim jezikom pa su zakonski priznata \u010detiri ravnopravna jezika: hrvatski, srpski, slovenski i makedonski, dopu\u0161teni su bili prijevodi sa srpskoga na hrvatski i obrnuto. ali je tada hrvatski jezik do\u017eivio drugo rashrva\u0107ivanje.\n\nNovosadski dogovor \n\nKomunisti\u010dka partija Jugoslavije u svome internacionalisti\u010dkome usmjerenju bila je protiv mnogih nacionalnih obilje\u017eja i uvodila svoje, mo\u017ee se re\u0107i komunisti\u010dke nazive.\nTada je na primjer stranka preokrenuta u partija, tajnik i ministar u sekretar, glavni tajnik u generalni sekretar, glavni ili sredi\u0161nji odbor u centralni komitet, vojska u armija, redarstvo i oru\u017eni\u0161tvo u milicija, gospodin u drug, glazba u muzika, povijest u historija, skup, zbor u miting, \u0161kola u centar i druge.\n\nVe\u0107inom su to bile tu\u0111ice, mnoge uobi\u010dajenije u srpskome knji\u017eevnome jeziku, a s njihovim olakim i nekriti\u010dnim preuzimanjem, \u0161to se tako\u0111er podudaralo s osobinama srpskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika, hrvatski je bio potiskivan, a hrvatski jezi\u010dni osje\u0107aj prema tu\u0111icama otupljen pa su tada vrata \u0161irom otvorena anglizmima. No srpska strana nije bila zadovoljna ni takvim stanjem, nego je nastojala da hrvatski i srpski knji\u017eevni jezik \u0161to vi\u0161e zbli\u017ee i da u tome hrvatski bude potpuno potisnut. S tom je namjerom uredni\u0161tvo Letopisa Matice srpske raspisalo anketu o jezi\u010dnim i pravopisnim pitanjima i do rujna 1954. Letopis je objavio odgovore \u010detrdesetak sudionika.\n\nPoslije zavr\u0161ene \"ankete\" odr\u017ean je sastanak na kojem je zaklju\u010deno \"da je jezik Hrvata, Srba i Crnogoraca jedan jezik, pa je i knji\u017eevni koji se razvio oko dva sredi\u0161ta, Zagreba i Beograda, jedinstven s dva izgovora: ijekavskim i ekavskim\", da je u nazivu jezika u slu\u017ebenoj upotrebi \"nu\u017eno istaknuti oba njegova dijela (i hrvatski i srpski)\", da su \"ravnopravna oba izgovora (ijekavski i ekavski) i oba pisma (latinica i \u0107irilica)\", da je \"potrebno izraditi priru\u010dni rje\u010dnik hrvatskosrpskoga\/srpskohrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika, terminolo\u0161ke rje\u010dnike i zajedni\u010dki pravopis\". Sve temeljem ankete koja je obuhvatila 40-ak javnosti nepoznatih sudionika, odredilo se sudbine jezika cijelim narodima.\n\nNa temelju tih zaklju\u010daka izra\u0111en je zajedni\u010dki pravopis koji je 1960. Matica hrvatska izdala ijekavski i latinicom pod naslovom Pravopis hrvatskosrpskog knji\u017eevnog jezika s pravopisnim rje\u010dnikom, a Matica srpska ekavski i \u0107irilicom pod naslovom Pravopis srpskohrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika sa pravopisnim re\u010dnikom.\n\nDeklaracija o hrvatskom jeziku  \n\nDok je zajedni\u010dki pravopis primljen vi\u0161e-manje pre\u0161utno, premda se u nekim svojim dijelovima znatno razlikovao od dotada\u0161njeg Broz-Borani\u0107eva Pravopisa, izlazak Rje\u010dnika Matice hrvatske \u2013 Matice srpske (prozvanoga 'Adok') izazvao je na hrvatskoj strani buru nezadovoljstva.\nUo\u010davaju se i u kritici isti\u010du nedostatci Rje\u010dnika, od kojih je najbitnije unifikatorsko prikrivanje posebnosti hrvatskoga i srpskoga leksika.\nPosljedica tog nezadovoljstva jest \"Deklaracija o nazivu i polo\u017eaju hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika\" iz 1967. godine, koju je potpisala ve\u0107ina hrvatskih kulturnih i znanstvenih ustanova i koja je nai\u0161la na sna\u017enu politi\u010dku osudu.\nMatica hrvatska odri\u010de se Novosadskoga dogovora i zajedni\u010dkoga pravopisa, prekida rad na zajedni\u010dkom rje\u010dniku (koji dovr\u0161ava samo srpska strana), te organizira izradbu novoga pravopisa.\n\n1971. izlazi Hrvatski pravopis Stjepana Babi\u0107a, Bo\u017eidara Finke i Milana Mogu\u0161a, koji je politi\u010dki zabranjen, ali u fototipskom izdanju pojavljuje se u Londonu, te se otada popularno naziva 'Londonac'.\n\nNastavlja se izdavanje \u0161kolskih jezi\u010dnih ud\u017ebenika i priru\u010dnika, medu njima i pet izdanja Te\u017eak-Babi\u0107eva Pregleda gramatike hrvatskosrpskog jezika, dok je \u0161esto izdanje pod izmijenjenim naslovom Pregled gramatike hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika 1973. povu\u010deno iz uporabe.\n\nZadnja desetlje\u0107a Jugoslavije \nGodine 1974. objavljen je novi Ustav Socijalisti\u010dke Republike Hrvatske, po kojemu je u Hrvatskoj u slu\u017ebenoj uporabi \u201ehrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik, standardni oblik narodnoga jezika koji se naziva hrvatski ili srpski\u201c. Iste godine izlazi Sili\u0107-Rosandi\u0107ev ud\u017ebenik i priru\u010dnik za nastavnike pod naslovom Fonetika i fonologija hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika, koji modernim znanstvenim pristupom ozna\u010dava prekretnicu u nastavi materinskoga jezika i \u2013 uz brojne slu\u017ebene i politi\u010dke otpore \u2013 afirmaciju naziva hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik. U tada\u0161njem Institutu za jezik izraduje se Priru\u010dna gramatika hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika, ali nailazi na politi\u010dku osudu, ne odobrava se kao \u0161kolski ud\u017ebenik (republi\u010dki sekretar za prosvjetu, kulturu i fizi\u010dku kulturu Stipe \u0160uvar joj je uskratio odobrenje, zapravo je zabranio), te izlazi s nekolikogodi\u0161njim zaka\u0161njenjem 1979. godine. Kona\u010dnu kodifikaciju hrvatskoga jezi\u010dnog standarda, koja je uklju\u010dila hrvatsku knji\u017eevnu i jezi\u010dnu ba\u0161tinu koju je dogmatska Mareti\u0107eva \u0161kola zanemarivala, ozna\u010dila je velika znanstvena gramatika hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika.\n\nGodine 1986. u izdanju JAZU i Globusa izlaze prva dva njezina dijela: \u201cTvorba rije\u010di u hrvatskom knji\u017eevnom jeziku. Nacrt za gramatiku\u201d Stjepana Babi\u0107a i \u201cSintaksa hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika. Nacrt za gramatiku\u201d Radoslava Kati\u010di\u0107a.\n\nDana 7. prosinca 1988. godine Ustavni sud Jugoslavije proglasio je ustavni amandman o jeziku iz 1972. odnosno ustavnu odredbu iz 1974. protivnima Ustavu SFRJ jer se, po njegovu mi\u0161ljenju, postoje\u0107om formulacijom isklju\u010duje iz javne porabe jezik Srba u Hrvatskoj.\nPo\u010detkom 1989. Sabor SRH pokre\u0107e postupak za promjenu \"spornoga\" ustavnog \u010dlanka o jeziku. Tomu se prvi javno usprotivio Zavod za jezik Instituta za filologiju i folkloristiku u Zagrebu, a njegov su primjer slijedile brojne hrvatske kulturne i javne institucije. Predlo\u017eenu promjenu ustavnog amandmana o jeziku Sabor nije prihvatio.\n\nU novim politi\u010dkim okolnostima, koje su nastupile 1990. godine, kada je Republika Hrvatska krenula samostalnim i neovisnim putem, te postala samostalna, suverena i me\u0111unarodno priznata dr\u017eava, poja\u010dana je i jezikoslovna djelatnost. Godine 1990. izlazi drugo izdanje Priru\u010dne gramatike pod izmijenjenim naslovom \u201cGramatika hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika\u201d, te tre\u0107a knjiga velike znanstvene gramatike, \u201cPovijesni pregled, glasovi i oblici hrvatskoga jezika\u201d, djelo vi\u0161e autora.\n\nNa razini kori\u0161tenja jezika u dru\u0161tvenom i kulturnom \u017eivotu, ustalilo se zadnjih desetlje\u0107a kori\u0161tenje hrvatskog jezika, bez daljnjih tendencija za ujedna\u010davanje sa srpskim jezikom. U Hrvatskoj su i Hrvati i Srbi koristili takav zajedni\u010dki standard, uz odre\u0111ene mjesne specifi\u010dnosti koje i danas karakteriziraju govornike iz pojedinog kraja Hrvatske. U Memorandumu Srpske akademije nauka i umetnosti iz 1986. godine, s nezadovoljstvom se konstatiralo da je do\u0161lo do navodnog \"nametanja slu\u017ebenog jezika koji nosi ime drugog naroda (hrvatskog) oli\u010davaju\u0107i time nacionalnu neravnopravnost. Taj je jezik ustavnom odredbom u\u010dinjen obaveznim i za Srbe u Hrvatskoj, a nacionalisti\u010dki nastrojeni hrvatski jezikoslovci sistematskom i odli\u010dno organizovanom akcijom sve ga vi\u0161e udaljavaju od jezika u ostalim republikama srpskohrvatskog jezi\u010dkog podru\u010dja, \u0161to doprinosi slabljenju veza Srba u Hrvatskoj sa ostalim Srbima\".\n\nSuvremeni jezi\u010dni standard \nJo\u0161 su se u prvoj me\u0111unarodnoj normi za oznake jezika, donesenoj 1988. (ISO 639), hrvatski (hr), srpski (sr) i \u201esrpsko-hrvatski\u201d (sh) navode kao zasebni jezici.\n\nStvaranjem slobodne Hrvatske, hrvatski se knji\u017eevni jezik po\u010dinje opet pohrva\u0107ivati u onome dijelu u kojem je bio rashrva\u0107en. U jednome smislu vra\u0107a se na 1918. da se nastavi tamo gdje je zbog djelovanja srpske prevlasti u prvoj Jugoslaviji hrvatska jezi\u010dna tradicija bila prekinuta, a u drugome na 1945. da se vrate one jezi\u010dne osobine koje su do tada bile proganjane ili prognane pa zaboravljene. To se o\u010dituje u svim podru\u010djima, osobito u znanosti, upravi, zakonodavstvu i vojsci. I na svim drugim podru\u010djima do\u017eivljava svoj preporod jer je do\u0161ao u novo razdoblje slobode.\n\nIpak, iako se hrvatska dr\u017eava osamostalila 1991., hrvatskom su jeziku Hrvatskoj i Hrvatima neskloni krugovi i dalje poricali samosvojnost, pozivaju\u0107i se na \u201esrpskohrvatski jezik\u201d, koji je u me\u0111unarodnoj standardizaciji imao k\u00f4dove scr (fr. serbo-croate l\u2019alphabet latin) i scc (fr. serbo-croate l\u2019alphabet cyrillique). Priznanju hrvatskoga jezika odnosno njegovu samostalnom uklju\u010divanju u me\u0111unarodnu zajednicu suverenih naroda odupirali su se neki inozemni politi\u010dki krugovi. poku\u0161ajima provedbe unitarizacije hrvatskoga i srpskoga jezika. Krugovi koji se protive samostalnome hrvatskom jeziku su one europske politi\u010dke sile koje su sve do bliske pro\u0161losti sna\u017eno politi\u010dki \u201epodupirale koncepciju dosada\u0161njih Jugoslavij\u00e2, u kojima je osporavano temeljno pravo na samostalan jezik i na hrvatsku pisanu ba\u0161tinu\u201d. Takvi politi\u010dki stav je 17 godina ometao me\u0111unarodno priznanje samostojnosti hrvatskoga jezika.\n\nKona\u010dni korak u priznanju odvojenog hrvatskog i srpskog jezika na\u010dinjen je zalaganjem Nacionalne i sveu\u010dili\u0161ne knji\u017enice u Zagrebu, kojoj su se pridru\u017eili Hrvatski zavod za norme, Narodna biblioteka Srbije i srbijanski Institut za normizaciju. Zahtjev za izmjenu k\u00f4da na\u010dinila je NSK, a ostale su tri to prihvatile. Dopisom su se obratile ameri\u010dkoj Kongresnoj knji\u017enici, kao me\u0111unarodnomu tijelu za normizaciju (ISO 639-2\/RA). Ista ustanova je potvrdila prihva\u0107anje i hrvatskoga i srpskoga zahtjeva te je odredila nove oznake hrv za hrvatski i srp za srpski kao jedine vrijede\u0107e oznake (umjesto dotada\u0161njih scr i scc) i za knji\u017eni\u010dnu obradbu i za nazivoslovnu primjenu. Vijest o tome stigla je na 17. lipnja 2008., a odluka je od 1. rujna 2008. postala obveznom. Ravnatelj Nacionalne i sveu\u010dili\u0161ne knji\u017enice u Zagrebu, Tihomil Ma\u0161trovi\u0107 je tom prigodom izjavio: \u201eTako je hrvatski jezik napokon postao me\u0111unarodno priznat i uveden u ISO-standarde obvezne za cijeli svijet.\u201d.\n\nRazvitak suvremenoga hrvatskog jezika u slobodnoj Hrvatskoj dao je slobodu inicijativama koje su postojale jo\u0161 za vrijeme dok je Hrvatska bila dijelom Jugoslavije, a po kojima bi se u jezi\u010dne tokove hrvatskog jezika u Hrvatskoj trebalo uklju\u010diti i usvajati rje\u0161enja Hrvata iz Gradi\u0161\u0107a koji su o\u010duvali u \u017eivoj uporabi mnoge hrvatske rije\u010di i izraze koji su u Hrvatskoj izravno zbog politike tu\u0111inskih gospodara ili neizravno zbog vi\u0161egodi\u0161nje tu\u0111inske vlasti istisnute iz uporabe, kao i rje\u0161enja za suvremene jezi\u010dne situacije (primjerice, Znanstveni institut gradi\u0161\u0107anskih Hrvata na sjednicama \u201eJezi\u010dna komisija svaki misec normira gradi\u0161\u0107anskohrvatske izraze i fraze za razli\u010dna podru\u010dja svakidanjega upotribljavanja ali i stru\u010dne izraze iz razli\u010dnih podru\u010djev znanja.\u201d\n\nSlu\u017ebeni jezik Europske unije \nPristupanjem Hrvatske Europskoj Uniji 1. srpnja 2013. hrvatski je jezik postao i jedan od slu\u017ebenih jezika Europske unije. Jednako tako, postao je i jedan od jezika prava EU-a, koji svojim dosegom nazivlja nadilazi jezik hrvatskoga prava, ali i hrvatski jezik kao slu\u017ebeni jezik Republike Hrvatske i jedan od slu\u017ebenih jezika BiH. U toj, europsko-pravnoj ulazi hrvatski se jezik treba promatrati nadnacionalno jer je du\u017ean primjenjivati standard i norme usvojene u pravnoj uporabi svih dr\u017eava \u010dlanica EU-a. To je zato \u0161to je svaki pojedini od slu\u017ebenih jezika EU-a podjednako izvoran i primjenjiv na cijelomu podru\u010dju Unije.\n\nZakon o hrvatskom jeziku\n\nOsobine \n\nU hrvatskom jeziku postoje sljede\u0107e vrste rije\u010di: imenice, glagoli, zamjenice, pridjevi, prijedlozi, prilozi, veznici, brojevi te rije\u010di koje svrstavamo kao \u010destice.  \nPromjenljive vrste rije\u010di su imenice, glagoli, pridjevi i brojevi.\nU hrvatskom jeziku postoji sedam pade\u017ea: nominativ, akuzativ, genitiv, dativ, lokativ, instrumental i vokativ. Svojstvuje ih promjena nastavka u rije\u010di, uz izuzetak lokativa, koji je istovjetan dativu (osim kod nekih zamjeni\u010dnih i pridjevskih oblika), ali zahtijeva prijedlog uz sebe (iako je nekada mogao stajati samostalno). \nOd brojeva, u hrvatskom postoje jednina, dvojina i mno\u017eina. \nMno\u017eina u hrvatskom mo\u017ee biti kra\u0107a i dulja, s time da se prednost daje kra\u0107oj mno\u017eini. Postoji i oblik za brojivu i nebrojivu mno\u017einu, kao i oblik \"zbirne mno\u017eine\" (stru\u010dni naziv je \"zbirna imenica\"), koji ozna\u010dava \"ve\u0107u gomilu, ve\u0107u koli\u010dinu\" ne\u010dega.\n\nRod imenica u hrvatskom jeziku mo\u017ee biti mu\u0161ki, \u017eenski i srednji.\n\nGlagolska stanja u hrvatskom su radno i trpno (aktiv i pasiv).\n\nVremena u hrvatskom jeziku su: \nPro\u0161la: perfekt, aorist, imperfekt, pluskvamperfekt \nSada\u0161nje: prezent \nBudu\u0107a: futur, futur egzaktni (ili futur II), a u gramatikama prije Mareti\u0107eve bio je zabilje\u017een i klasificiran i 3. oblik futura (v. u \u0160ime Star\u010devi\u0107a).\n\nParticipa u hrvatskom jeziku imamo pet; nazivamo ih glagolskim prilozima i glagolskim pridjevima. \nGlagolski prilozi su sada\u0161nji i pro\u0161li (particip prezenta i preterita aktiva I).\nGlagolski pridjevi su radni i trpni (particip preterita aktiva II i particip preterita pasiva). Particip prezenta aktiva se u knji\u017eevnom jeziku sa\u010duvao u nekoliko rije\u010di.\n\nPomo\u0107ni glagoli u hrvatskom jeziku su biti i htjeti.\n\nGlagoli po vidu mogu biti svr\u0161eni te u\u010destali i trajni (potonje dvoje nazivamo nesvr\u0161enima).\n\nPridjevi mogu biti odre\u0111eni i neodre\u0111eni.\nOdre\u0111eni oblik je samo u atributnoj uporabi, naj\u010de\u0161\u0107e uz imenice. Kao predikatno ime (umjesto glagola) nije ovjeren u hrvatskom jeziku, \u0161to je jednom od bitnih sintakti\u010dkih razlikovnica izme\u0111u hrvatskoga i srpskoga jezika.\nNeodre\u0111eni pridjevski oblik se mo\u017ee rabiti za vi\u0161e stvari. Mo\u017ee biti:\n atributom,\n izricati neodre\u0111enost imenice,\n \"predikatni pro\u0161irak kojemu je mjesto otvorio leksi\u010dki punozna\u010dan glagol kao predikat pa sro\u010dno\u0161\u0107u vezati imenicu u subjektu i izricati neodre\u0111enost te imenice dok se odvija predikatna radnja\",\n predikatno ime.\n\nHrvatski je jezik s puristi\u010dkom tradicijom, odnosno jezik koji je te\u017eio na\u0107i prijevod tu\u0111ice, tako da i sam korijen, sama sr\u017e prevedenice bude hrvatska. Od tu\u0111ica koje postoje u hrvatskom jeziku, zna\u010dajne su rije\u010di iz latinskog, njema\u010dkog, talijanskog, ruskog, ma\u0111arskog, turskog (perzijskog i arapskog preko njega), \u010de\u0161kog, francuskog, a u novije vrijeme veliki je udar na hrvatski jezik od strane engleskog jezika.\n\nHrvatski jezik kao sustav bitno je odre\u0111en svojom narje\u010dnom osnovicom (\u0161tokavskim narje\u010djem), a hrvatskomu je jeziku kao standardu narje\u010dna osnovica samo jezgra, koja za njega nije uvijek u svemu mjerodavna. Hrvatski jezik kao sustav odre\u0111en je lingvisti\u010dki, njime upravljaju jezi\u010dne zakonitosti, a hrvatski jezik kao standard odre\u0111en je sociolingvisti\u010dki. Narav je jezika kao sustava savjetodavna, a jezika kao standarda zakonodavna.\n\nS istih razloga s kojih se razlikuje hrvatski jezik kao sustav i hrvatski jezik kao standard razlikuje se hrvatski standardni jezik od hrvatskoga knji\u017eevnoga jezika.\n\nNaziv hrvatski standardni jezik ve\u0107 je tridesetak godina u neprekidnoj uporabi u hrvatskome jezikoslovlju.\n\nHrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik i hrvatski standardni jezik nisu i ne mogu biti sinonimi, jer je naziv hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik istodobno i pre\u0161irok i preuzak u odnosu prema nazivu hrvatski standardni jezik. Bitna obilje\u017eja standardnog jezika, obilje\u017eja bez kojih nema standardnog jezika i istodobno razlikovna u odnosu prema knji\u017eevnomu jeziku jesu vi\u0161efunkcionalnost i normativnost. Knji\u017eevni jezik ima neobvezatan odnos prema normama standardnog jezika; on norme standardnog jezika po\u0161tuje na svoj na\u010din.\n\nZanimljivosti \n\n najkra\u0107e hrvatske rije\u010di tvore se od jednog slova: a, u, i, o, k, s\n najdu\u017ea rije\u010d hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika (ako se zanemare duga\u010dki brojevi koji se mogu pisati kao jedna rije\u010d) je: prijestolonasljednikovica, odnosno, izvode\u0107i umanjenicu:\nprijestolonasljednikovi\u010dica\ni u posvojni pridjevski oblik za \u017eenski rod\nprijestolonasljednikovi\u010di\u010dina\nodnosno u pade\u017eu u mno\u017eini:\nprijestolonasljednikovi\u010di\u010dinima \u2013 31 znak.\n hrvatski jezik je jednim od izvora za umjetni jezik toki pona,\n Gornje Mrzlo Polje Mre\u017eni\u010dko \u2013 mjesto s najduljim nazivom u Hrvatskoj.\n Rije\u010d \"paprika\" iz hrvatskog je jezika pre\u0161la u mnoge druge europske jezike kao posu\u0111enica. Tako rije\u010d \"paprika\" postoji u: njema\u010dkom jeziku, francuskom, talijanskom, \u0161panjolskom, ruskom, portugalskom, gr\u010dkom, bjeloruskom, ma\u0111arskom, ukrajinskom, \u010de\u0161kom, slova\u010dkom, srpskom, danskom, finskom, norve\u0161kom, \u0161vedskom, litvanskom, poljskom, nizozemskom, gruzijskom, irskom, vel\u0161kom, islandskom, estonskom jeziku i dr. U njema\u010dki jezik do\u0161la je preko ma\u0111arskog u 19. stolje\u0107u, a u ma\u0111arski iz hrvatskog jezika.\n Jedna od rije\u010di, koja ima najvi\u0161e sinonima u hrvatskom jeziku je oklasak (klip kukuruza). Tako su nazivi za oklasak: ajdamak, bat, bataklju\u0161a, bataljika, batu\u010dak, batu\u010dek, batuk, baturak, baturice, \u010depina, \u010dokotinja, \u0107uka, kic, klas, klasina, klasinec, klasovina, klasovinje, ko\u010danj, kocen, komaljika, komu\u0161ina, kukuruzina, kumina, kureljica, kuru\u0161ka, oklipak, okoma, okomak, okomina, okrunica, oru\u0161ek, otu\u010dak, pa\u0107ika, patura, paturica, rucelj, rucl, rulina, \u0161apurika, \u0161\u010davina, \u0161epurina, \u0161truk, tekun, tulina, tulinek i dr.\n U spomen na 23. listopada 1847. godine, kada je na inicijativu Ivana Kukuljevi\u0107a Sakcinskoga Hrvatski sabor umjesto latinskoga proglasio slu\u017ebenim hrvatski jezik, Dru\u017eba \"Bra\u0107a hrvatskoga zmaja\" podigla je u Vara\u017edinskim Toplicama, 18. studenoga 1997. godine, spomenik hrvatskomu jeziku.\n\nSrbijanska osporavanja postojanja hrvatskog jezika \n2021. god. je nastala afera povodom sadr\u017eaja ud\u017ebenika srpskog jezika za 8. razred osnovne \u0161kole u Republici Srbiji, u kojemu se navodi da Hrvati, Bo\u0161njaci i Crnogorci govore srpskim jezikom, koji samo nazivaju drugim imenima, a Matica srpska je objavila djela velikana hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti Marina Dr\u017ei\u0107a \u2013 uz obja\u0161njenje da \u0107e i dalje objavljivati djela napisana na srpskom \u201ebez obzira na kojem su narje\u010dju napisana\u201d. Ministar vanjskih poslova Republike Hrvatske Goran Grli\u0107 Radman je osporavanje postojanja hrvatskog jezika u ud\u017ebeniku nazvao \"sramotnim\", te izvijestio da je Republike Hrvatska tim povodom uputila Republici Srbiji protestnu notu.\n\nPovezani \u010dlanci \nGramatika hrvatskoga jezika\nHrvatske gramatike\nHrvatski rje\u010dnici\nHrvatski pravopis\nPopis hrvatskih jezikoslovaca\nSpomenici hrvatske pismenosti\nKorijenski pravopis\nPovijest jezika u Bosni i Hercegovini\nNarje\u010dja hrvatskog jezika\nPopis najdu\u017eih hrvatskih rije\u010di\n\nPovijesni prikaz \n\nKronolo\u0161ki popis glagoljskih spomenika\nKurzivna glagoljica\nHrvatski glagoljski rukopisi izvan domovine\nHrvatska glagoljska ba\u0161tina u Lici\nHrvatsko njema\u010dki rje\u010dnik\nStaroslavenski institut  \nHrvatski jezik-povijest, opis i propis\nHrvatski jezik, tekst prihva\u0107en u Razredu za filolo\u0161ke znanosti Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti 15. sije\u010dnja 2007, dostavljen Predsjedni\u0161tvu HAZU koje ga je jednoglasno prihvatilo na sjednici od 24. sije\u010dnja 2007. \nClipclip.org  Svi hrvatski pravopisni prijedlozi od 1990. do 2007.\n Me\u0111unarodno priznati jezici.\nDr. Stjepan Krasi\u0107, povjesni\u010dar: \nHrv. franjeva\u010dka provincija Sv. \u0106irila i Metoda Kronologija hrvatskih prijevoda Biblije\n Ivo \u0160kari\u0107: \u201eIje je je\u201c (hrvatski yat je poseban).\n\nSuvremeni hrvatski jezik i op\u0107e poveznice \nHrvatski jezik dostupan svima \nIzjava o polo\u017eaju hrvatskoga jezika Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti iz 2005. godine  \nJezi\u010dne tehnologije za hrvatski jezik\nInstitut za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje\nHrvatski jezi\u010dni korpus\nHrvatski nacionalni korpus\nMatica hrvatska\n\nIzvori\n\nVanjske poveznice \n\nHrvatski jezik \nEthnologue (15th)\nEthnologue (16th)\n Hrvatska jezi\u010dna mre\u017ena riznica\n Jezi\u010dne tehnologije za hrvatski jezik\n\nPovijesna jezikoslovna djela \n\n \n Faust Vran\u010di\u0107: Rje\u010dnik pet najplemenitijih jezika Europe, 1595.\n Portal hrvatske rje\u010dni\u010dke ba\u0161tine\n Bartol Ka\u0161i\u0107: Ritual Rimski, 1640.\n Ljudevit Gaj: Kratka osnova horvatsko-slavonskoga pravopisanja, 1830.\n V\u011bkoslav Babuki\u0107: Ilirska slovnica,1854. \n Antun Ma\u017eurani\u0107: Ilirska \u010ditanka, 1856.\n Vatroslav Jagi\u0107: Iz pro\u0161losti hrvatskoga jezika, 1864.\n Vatroslav Jagi\u0107: Na\u0161 pravopis, 1864.\n Antun Ma\u017eurani\u0107: Slovnica hervatska, 1866.\n Ivan De\u017eman: R\u011b\u010dnik l\u011b\u010dni\u010dkoga nazivlja,1868\n Tomo Mareti\u0107: Istorija hrvatskoga pravopisa latinskijem slovima, 1889. \n Ivan Broz: Hrvatski pravopis, 1893.\n Tomo Mareti\u0107: Gramatika i stilistika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga knji\u017eevnog jezika, 1899.\nMijo Lon\u010dari\u0107: Dijalektolo\u0161ka istra\u017eivanja u Institutu za jezik i jezikoslovlje od 1952, do 2002.  Lu\u010d \u2013\u010dasopis Ogranka Matice Hrvatske u Velikoj Gorici 6 (2018) : 67-98.\n\nZa daljnje \u010ditanje \nHercegBosna.org Hrvatski jezik: povijest, opis i propis\n Matica hrvatska, Promemorija o hrvatskom jeziku, Zagreb, 1995.\n Mijo Lon\u010dari\u0107 (ur.): Hrvatski jezik (prva knjiga s tim naslovom u nekoj me\u0111unarodnoj seriji \u2013  Najnowsze dzieje jezykow slowianskich, Opole 1998.\n Miro Ka\u010di\u0107, Jezikoslovna promi\u0161ljanja, Zagreb, 2001.\n Hrvatski jezik: pro\u0161lost, sada\u0161njost, budu\u0107nost\n Norme i normiranje hrvatskoga standardnoga jezika, MH, Zagreb, 1999. \n Radoslav Kati\u010di\u0107: Na\u010dela standardnosti hrvatskoga jezika\n\nHercegBosna.org Ilirski ili slovinski jezik\n \u010casopis za kulturu hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezika\n Hrvatsko filolo\u0161ko dru\u0161tvo, god. 33., br. 5, 129-160, Zagreb, lipanj 1986. \n Rafo Bogi\u0161i\u0107: Narodnosni pridjev u djelima hrvatskih renesansnih pjesnika\n Jezik, \u010dasopis za kulturu hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezikaHrvatsko filolo\u0161ko dru\u0161tvo, god. 36., br. 4, 97-128, Zagreb, travanj 1986. \n Radoslav Kati\u010di\u0107: \"Slov\u011bnski\" i \"hrvatski\" kao zamjenjivi nazivi jezika \n\nHercegBosna.org Jezik, lingvistika i politika\n Vatroslav Murvar, Na izvorima srpskih neistina, Zagreb, 1999.\n Hrvatski knji\u017eevni jezik i narodne pjesme\n Miro Ka\u010di\u0107, Jezikoslovna promi\u0161ljanja, Zagreb, 2001.\n Politika u znanstvenoj slavistici iliti politi\u010dko jezikoslovlje\n Za\u0161to hrvatski ne mo\u017ee nikako biti hrvatskosrpski?\n Stjepan Babi\u0107, Hrvatski ju\u010der i danas, Zagreb, 1995.\n Hrvatska knji\u017eevnost u evropskom kontekstu, Liber, Zagreb, 1978.\n Dalibor Brozovi\u0107: Hrvatski jezik, njegovo mjesto unutar ju\u017enoslavenskihi drugih slavenskih jezika, njegove povijesne mijene kao jezika hrvatske knji\u017eevnosti\n Bartol Ka\u0161i\u0107, Ritual rimski (Istomaccen slovinski po Bartolomeu Kassichu popubogoslovcu od Druxbe Yesusovae Penitenciru Apostolskomu), pretisak, Zagreb, 1993.\n Govor na predstavljanju pretiska Ka\u0161i\u0107eva prijevoda Rituala rimskoga 4. o\u017eujka 1993.,u crkvi Sv. Katarine u Zagrebu: Teze o jeziku Ka\u0161i\u0107eva Rituala rimskoga \n Drugi hrvatski slavisti\u010dki kongres: Zbornik radova I., Zagreb, 2001.\n Vinko Grubi\u0161i\u0107: Borba za hrvatski jezik u anglosaksonskom svijetu\n Jezik, \u010dasopis za kulturu hrvatskog knji\u017eevnog jezikaHrvatsko filolo\u0161ko dru\u0161tvo, god. 39., br. 1, 18-26, Zagreb, listopad 1991. \n Dalibor Brozovi\u0107: Sumrak srpske lingvistike\n Mate Mar\u010dinko, Iransko podrijetlo Hrvata, Zagreb, 2000.\n Hrvatsko ime u pro\u0161losti i sada\u0161njosti\n Bosanski jezikoslovni karakazan\n \u010casopis Jezik, god. 50., br.1, 1-40, Zagreb, velja\u010da 2003.\n Dalibor Brozovi\u0107: Genetskolingvisti\u010dki i sociolingvisti\u010dki kriterijiu sistematizaciji ju\u017enoslavenskih idioma, s posebnim osvrtom na BiH\n\nGornja navedena djela, koja daju odgovore na brojne dvojbe, su spomenuta jer su na internetu dostupana samo na tim stranicama. Mno\u0161tvo \u010dlanaka o jeziku zbog kojeg ova wikipedija postoji, dostupno je na Portalu znanstvenih \u010dasopisa Republike Hrvatske \n\n \nJu\u017enoslavenski jezici\n \nJezici Austrije\nJezici Bosne i Hercegovine\nJezici Italije\nJezici Ma\u0111arske\nJezici Srbije\nJezici Crne Gore\nJezici Slova\u010dke\nJezici SAD-a\nJezici po abecedi:H\nJezik, hrvatski"
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