INTRODUCTION
The NBAA Management Guide is an industry how to manual for business aviation management. Recognized as one of NBAA ’s
most popular member benefits, this publication assists flight departments with operational, maintenance, administrative and other
considerations.
It should be noted that this is not a complete guide for all functions of the flight department; consequently, it does not cover every
possible situation faced by business aviation managers. However, the NBAA Management Guide does attempt to summarize
essential information concerning the operation of a flight department.
Much of the information contained in this guide may be used as reference material to educate non-aviation company personnel on
accepted practices and norms of the business aviation community. One of the essential functions of flight department personnel is
to ensure that all company personnel appreciate and understand the operation, capabilities and value of the flight department. 
REVISION RECORD
2024-01
The NBAA Management Guide is an evolving document. In coordination with its standing committees, NBAA periodically issues
updated content for this publication as new information becomes available.
EXPLANATION OF CHANGES
The 2024-01 edition of the NBAA Guide supersedes all previous editions.
The 2024-01 edition is a complete overhaul of the structure of the guide with updated content supplied by NBAA’s working groups.
The revision focuses on a structure change that aligns with the Certified Aviation Manger’s domains and a Foreword signed by the
NBAA’s President/CEO.
Note: Margin lines are provided to help readers identify areas with revisions. Sections have been re-flowed and/or renumbered
where needed to accommodate the revisions.
NBAA periodically issues content updates for this publication, so please store your guide with your operations references, so that
you can easily replace pages when future editions are issued. You can always find the latest version of the NBAA Management
Guide online at www.nbaa.org/management-guide.
The association welcomes your feedback and questions on this publication. Send your comments to NBAA’s Operations Service
Group at (202) 783-9250 or ops@nbaa.org.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Made up of committed, talented and knowledgeable volunteers, NBAA’s Standing Committees work together on behalf of NBAA
members to promote business aviation access, operational excellence, professional development, safety and technical standards,
and security. Learn more about them at nbaa.org/committees.
For more information about business aviation management issues, visit NBAA’s online resources for:
Flight department administration resources – nbaa.org/admin
Aircraft operations resources – nbaa.org/ops
Education sessions on operational topics at NBAA events like the Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition, regional
forums and conferences: nbaa.org/events
On-demand education resources like webinars – nbaa.org/ondemand
Other professional development resources – nbaa.org/prodev
Only employees of NBAA member companies may access and order the Management Guide in web, print and PDF
formats, as a benefit of their membership. To review this publication online, to order printed copies or to download PDF
copies, visit the NBAA website today. nbaa.org/management-guide
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 National Business Aviation Association (NBAA). All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be photo-copied,
reproduced or redistributed without written permission. To request permission, contact NBAA at publications@nbaa.org.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 1
 
INTRODUCTION
NBAA 2024 Management Guide Foreword
A Message From Ed Bolen, President and CEO, NBAA
Managing a business aviation operation in today’s world is increasingly like running a business, with the need to reflect company
priorities, report measurable results against organizational objectives, and adapt to all manner of business and industry changes.
Business aviation continues to evolve, and aviation professionals must develop effective approaches to embrace change — from
new, creative ways of thinking about aviation safety, to setting goals for achieving sustainability, to hiring the best and the brightest
amid a challenging workforce environment. This requires those tasked with managing a flight operation to adopt and implement the
latest operational and administrative best practices.
Our mission is to provide you, as business professionals, with the most up-to-date NBAA Management Guide that is created by
the professionals and best practices. It strives to address the needs of the various business aviation operators and the diverse
personnel who work in the industry.
The guide is built on the pillars of NBAA’s Certified Aviation Management (CAM) program, which asserts that business aviation
leaders need to develop expertise in five areas: leadership, human resources, operations, aircraft maintenance and facilities
services, and business management.
It is my promise to you, as president and CEO of NBAA, to fully support positive steps to enhance safety and security, help shape
public policy, and provide the leadership tools needed to grow business aviation through the NBAA Management Guide.
It is my goal to encourage and ensure that this guide is updated annually by the Management Tools Subcommittee of the Business
Aviation Management Committee. I will also rely on you, as an NBAA member, to assist in the evolution of this living document.
I hope all who read the NBAA Management Guide derive valuable information, insight and guidance from this document, and I urge
all NBAA members to take advantage of all the other management resources that NBAA provides (see nbaa.org) to support a
safe, expanding, and vibrant industry.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 2
 
INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
NBAA 2024 MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOREWORD 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
1 ADMINISTRATION 8
1.1 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 8
1.1.1 PURPOSE OF THE AVIATION DEPARTMENT 8
1.1.2 DEMONSTRATING THE VALUE OF BUSINESS AVIATION 10
1.1.3 MANUALS 10
1.1.4 SAFETY 14
1.1.5 SECURITY 17
1.1.6 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING (ERP) 19
1.1.7 FAA VIOLATION AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES 26
1.1.8 SCHEDULING GUIDELINES 32
1.1.9 CARRIAGE OF CANDIDATES FOR THE U.S. HOUSE OR SENATE 33
1.1.10 BUSINESS AIRCRAFT ALLOWANCES 35
1.1.11 AIRCRAFT RESOURCING OPTIONS 41
1.1.12 AIRCRAFT CHARTER 45
1.1.13 FAR PART 135 FOR BUSINESS AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS 51
1.1.14 AIRCRAFT FEASIBILITY STUDY 53
1.1.15 AIRCRAFT OPERATING COSTS 57
1.1.16 MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL RISK 63
1.1.17 AIRCRAFT INSURANCE 63
1.1.18 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 68
1.1.19 REFERENCES FOR BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 69
1.2 LEADERSHIP 71
1.2.1 LEADERSHIP 71
1.2.2 DIVERSITY, EQUITY, & INCLUSION 71
1.2.3 ETHICAL BUSINESS AVIATION TRANSACTIONS 79
1.2.4 SUSTAINABILITY 83
1.2.5 REFERENCES FOR LEADERSHIP 101
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INTRODUCTION
1.3 HUMAN RESOURCES (HR) 102
1.3.1 DEPARTMENT STAFFING GUIDELINES 102
1.3.2 AVIATION DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL, QUALIFICATIONS & TRAINING 103
1.3.3 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS AND CONTINGENT WORKERS 125
1.3.4 PERSONNEL RECORDS 126
1.3.5 SALARIES AND BENEFITS 133
1.3.6 PILOT RETIREMENT CONSIDERATIONS 134
1.3.7 CAREER DEVELOPMENT TRAINING 135
1.3.8 UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTERNSHIP PROGRAMS 139
1.3.9 REFERENCES FOR HUMAN RESOURCES 144
2 FLIGHT OPERATIONS 145
2.1 FLIGHT OPERATIONS 145
2.1.1 OPERATIONAL CONTROL 145
2.1.2 FLIGHT OPERATIONS PERSONNEL CERTIFICATES, RATINGS AND TRAINING 145
2.1.3 CREW TRAINING 146
2.1.4 ADVANCED CREW TRAINING 148
2.1.5 CREW FITNESS AND HEALTH 155
2.1.6 FLIGHT, DUTY AND REST TIME CONSIDERATIONS 158
2.1.7 TRANSIENT FACILITIES AND SERVICES 159
2.1.8 CREW AND PASSENGER RELATIONS 160
2.1.9 PILOT-IN-COMMAND AUTHORITY 164
2.1.10 PREFLIGHT PREPARATIONS 165
2.1.11 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES 165
2.1.12 MINIMUM APPROACH STANDARDS FOR NEW PILOTS 171
2.1.13 LANDING MINIMUMS 171
2.1.14 POST-FLIGHT PROCEDURES 172
2.1.15 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAGS (EFB) 173
2.1.16 TRAFFIC FLOW MANAGEMENT 174
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INTRODUCTION
2.1.17 AIRCRAFT NOISE 174
2.1.18 MAINTENANCE AWAY FROM HOME BASE 179
2.1.19 SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS UNDER IFR 180
2.1.20 REFERENCES FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS 181
2.2 INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS 185
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION 185
2.2.2 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS 185
2.2.3 CUSTOMS, IMMIGRATION AND QUARANTINE (CIQ’S): 192
2.2.4 SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS 195
2.2.5 PERSONAL DOCUMENTATION 195
2.2.6 AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTATION 198
2.2.7 OPERATIONAL DOCUMENTATION 198
2.2.8 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS 202
2.2.9 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE 206
2.2.10 INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT CREW TRAINING 207
2.2.11 INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT PLANNING ORGANIZATIONS 208
2.2.12 GROUND HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS 208
2.2.13 SEARCH AND RESCUE 210
2.2.14 HUMAN FACTORS CONSIDERATIONS 212
2.2.15 INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES FOR INTERNATIONAL OPERATORS 214
2.2.16 NBAA INTERNATIONAL TRIP CHECKLISTS 219
2.3 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 231
2.3.1 UAS 231
3 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 232
3.1 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 232
3.1.1 PURPOSE OF THE BUSINESS AVIATION MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT 232
3.1.2 MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT MISSION STATEMENT 232
3.1.3 MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT BUDGET 232
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INTRODUCTION
3.2 MAINTENANCE TOOLS 233
3.2.1 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN TOOLS 233
3.2.2 CALIBRATION OF PRECISION TOOLS 233
3.2.3 TOOL CONTROL SYSTEMS 233
3.3 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN TRAINING 234
3.4 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN WORK PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 235
3.5 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN WORK PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 239
3.6 ELEMENTS OF AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY 241
3.6.1 PREFLIGHT INSPECTIONS 241
3.6.2 POST-FLIGHT INSPECTIONS 242
3.6.3 INSPECTION PROGRAMS 242
3.6.4 SELECTING AN INSPECTION SCHEDULE 243
3.6.5 ADDITIONAL INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS 243
3.6.6 MANAGEMENT OF THE INSPECTION PROGRAM AND SCHEDULE 244
3.6.7 ENGINE/COMPONENT INSPECTIONS AND OVERHAUL 244
3.6.8 SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE 245
3.6.9 UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE 245
3.6.10 PERFORMANCE OF AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTIONS 245
3.6.11 AIRDATA / RADIO / RADAR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE AND
INSPECTION
245
3.6.12 OPERATIONAL CHECK FLIGHTS 247
3.6.13 SCHEDULING INSPECTIONS, MAINTENANCE AND TIME-LIMITED
COMPONENTS
247
3.6.14 WORK INTERRUPTION PROCEDURES 247
3.6.15 PARTS REMOVAL FORM 247
3.7 QUALITY ASSURANCE 247
3.7.1 REQUIREMENTS 247
3.7.2 OVERVIEW 248
3.7.3 100-PERCENT INSPECTIONS 248
3.7.4 CASS OVERVIEW 248
3.7.5 CASS AUDIT PROGRAM 249
3.7.6 CASS AUDIT RESULTS 250
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INTRODUCTION
3.8 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE RECORDS MANAGEMENT 251
3.8.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FAA RECORDS REGULATION 251
3.8.2 RECORDS MANAGEMENT FOR EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT 254
3.8.3 RECORDS MANAGEMENT FOR MAINTENANCE 255
3.8.4 RECORDS ORGANIZATION 255
3.9 DISCREPANCY MANAGEMENT 258
3.9.1 BRIEFINGS AND DEBRIEFINGS 258
3.9.2 INOPERATIVE INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT 258
3.9.3 DISCREPANCY MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS 260
3.9.4 DISCREPANCY MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS 263
3.9.5 OUTSIDE MAINTENANCE 263
3.10 SPARE PARTS INVENTORY 268
3.11 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN DUTY TIME 270
3.12 COMPENSATION OF MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL 273
3.13 MAINTENANCE SAFETY PROGRAMS 273
3.13.1 LOCKOUT/TAGOUT PROCEDURES 273
3.13.2 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PROGRAM 274
3.13.3 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION PROCEDURES 275
3.13.4 ROLLING STEPLADDER/STAIR SAFETY PROGRAM 275
3.13.5 FALL PROTECTION 276
3.14 REFERENCES FOR MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 277
3.14.1 MANUALS 277
3.14.2 FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS 277
3.14.3 ADVISORY CIRCULARS 278
3.14.4 ICAO DOCUMENTS 279
3.14.5 OTHER FAA DOCUMENTS 279
APPENDIX
NBAA RANGE FORMATS
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1 BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
1.1.1 PURPOSE OF THE AVIATION DEPARTMENT
The purpose of the aviation department is to provide safe, efficient, and convenient air transportation to assist in achieving the
mission and goals of the company. The aircraft is the strategic tool used in fulfilling that role.
An aircraft is a valuable asset. Its tangible benefits include personnel time savings, enhanced productivity, improved operational
flexibility, product marketing, and carriage of critical material. Many intangible benefits are derived from the use of business aircraft,
such as enhanced potential for entrepreneurship and increased community service capability.
Those unfamiliar with the transportation needs of modern business may have a negative impression of business aircraft. This
perception changes, however, as aviation departments continue to promote the appropriate use of business aviation successfullyto people both inside and outside the company-as an essential, strategic business tool.
Unfortunately, negative perceptions of business aviation persist and are shared by many corporate managers and decisionmakers who lack firsthand knowledge of the competitive advantages offered through the strategic use of business aviation. This
will not change unless aviation department personnel actively promote the concept of business aviation as essential so that its
value will be recognized. NBAA provides plenty of information that can be used to justify the use of business aircraft.
The NBAA website (www.nbaa.org) is a valuable resource, and offers numerous studies and resources supporting the value
business aviation drives for companies, the economy and humanitarian purposes.
An aviation department may remain relatively hidden from the rest of the company and its personnel. This is because it is located
offsite, at the airport, and aviation personnel only may interact with a few of the company’s top corporate managers and their
assistants. It is therefore vital for the aviation department to integrate completely into the company so that other departments are
fully aware of the aviation department’s activities and contributions.
In addition to isolation caused by their physical separation from;the rest of the company, aviation department personnel tend to be
naturally isolated because they possess a highly specific professional expertise that is not usually related to that of mainstream
company personnel. This is unfortunate because the company’s administration, human resources, finance, legal, procurement,
facilities, and personnel training departments can be of great value to the health, well-being, and prominence of the aviation
department. Unless the support and counsel of other departments are sought actively, the aviation department will remain isolated
and vulnerable to attack by those who believe it is a nonessential function.
It is incumbent upon the aviation department to help company management realize the worth and full potential of the aviation
department’s service. To achieve this goal, the aviation department must understand the needs of the company, and the only way
for the aviation department to do this is to ask the customer-the user of the aircraft. The aviation department cannot define its own
role; this information must come from aircraft users.
Aviation department managers in particular, and all aviation department personnel in general, must pay close attention to the many
non-aviation duties associated with operating corporate aircraft.
The department must take care of administrative items-such as operating records, budgets, personnel reports, training reports,
and strategic planning, if the department is to remain a viable part of the company.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 8
 
ADMINISTRATION
On a more fundamental level, it is also critically important that aviation department managers are aware of, and can offer guidance
to, the company with respect to making sure that the ownership and operation of the company's aircraft are set up correctly. While
this structuring may not be part of the aviation department manager’s official job description, the failure to structure and operate
correctly could create significant liabilities not only to the company as a whole but also to each pilot or other member of the aviation
department individually. Part of being a professional aviation department manager includes being generally aware of and being able
to provide appropriate resources to company officials to help ensure:
The ownership and operations of the company’s aircraft are set up properly such that the company can legally operate
its aircraft under Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 91 rather than having to obtain Part 135 certification (assuming
the company wishes to operate under Part 91). For example, an aviation flight department company that is set up solely
to own and operate aircraft for the benefit of its corporate parent, which is usually done in an effort to provide liability
shielding to that parent company, is considered to be a commercial operation under the FAR and must comply with Part
135. An illegal flight department company structure could create greater risk and lead to significant civil penalties against
the company as well as certificate actions against the pilots, depending on the pertinent facts and circumstances.
The company’s aircraft operations are properly insured for appropriate civil liability risk management purposes. For
example, in situations where the company has set up an aircraft leasing structure for cost sharing or tax purposes, the
underlying insurance policy may not properly align between the registered owner of the aircraft (who is typically the
“named insured” that policy) and the actual lessee-operators of the aircraft.
The company is receiving appropriate federal income tax benefits, and not triggering inappropriate federal excise taxes,
from the use of the aircraft. This can be an extremely complex area of analysis that can result in significant penalties and
expenses if not set up and monitored correctly.
The company is appropriately addressing state tax obligations. This is often not well understood, and mistakes can
become very costly if not addressed correctly (for example, if the company uses a “fly-away” exemption upon
purchasing an aircraft but does not pay attention to any subsequent use tax that might apply in its home jurisdiction).
The company is addressing any other regulatory or similar obligations that might arise from the use of the aircraft, such
as Securities and Exchange Commission requirements for the personal use of aircraft by publicly traded companies,
international tax and carbon emissions requirements that can arise from international operations, and so forth.
While an aviation department manager is not expected to be an expert in each of the areas highlighted above, a professional
manager will be aware of these areas, and will be able to assist the company in locating the appropriate experts and resources that
can help the company to be sure they are being addressed properly. Perhaps the best way for the aviation department to begin
integrating with the rest of the organization is to establish a policy that promotes interaction between the aviation department and
the rest of the corporation. Since the aviation department is a service organization, higher levels of service provided will build its
reputation as a valued component of the company.
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1.2 DEMONSTRATING THE VALUE OF BUSINESS AVIATION
It is within the scope of the flight department’s responsibility to demonstrate the value of the business aviation function both
internally and externally. This can be achieved by partnering with appropriate individuals in the corporate office who may have
access to some information you need, and who may be involved in decisions impacting the flight department.
Effectively demonstrating the value of the business aviation function starts with good governance in the form of an aircraft usage
policy that is approved by the company’s board of directors. Passenger use of the business aircraft then must follow the policy.
The next step is to document key performance metrics that are tailored to your flight department. The strategic metrics will be the
intersection of your company’s strategic goals and how the business aircraft helps the company achieve those key objectives.
Your colleagues may not be able to share specific objectives with you. However, by working with those individuals to identify the
reasons your company uses business aviation and providing them with relevant data, the flight department can create a system
that will allow your company to track exactly how the business aircraft helps passengers achieve the company’s business
objectives.
The next step is to retain the appropriate records, so when asked for the data, it is available at a moment’s notice. No one knows
when a reporter or a board member may ask for an explanation of why the company has a business aircraft.
Therefore, an internal and external communications plan must be developed so that key individuals throughout the company,
including passengers, corporate communications, finance staff, and others are able to articulate why your company relies on
business aviation for growth and success.
Find resources (including the 2018 study, “The Real World of Business Aviation” about the value of business aircraft at
https://nbaa.org/business-aviation/
1.1.3 MANUALS
1.1.3.1 FLIGHT OPERATIONS MANUAL
A flight operations manual is an essential possession for all aviation departments. In fact, NBAA corporate members must certify
that they use such a manual even though they may operate under Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 91, which does not
require a manual. The manual’s principal function is to provide operational and administrative information to department personnel.
The manual also serves as a communication tool that transmits the aviation department’s goals, policies and procedures to the
entire company.
A properly executed manual serves as a contract between the company’s Chief Executive Officer (Accountable Executive) and
the aviation department. It communicates expectations, limitations and objectives. Once it has the Accountable Executive’s
approval, the manual becomes a corporate directive that protects the aviation department from abuse and provides operational
expectations and rules for the department to follow. Because the manual is used to establish policy, it must be carefully crafted and
reviewed at regular, scheduled intervals to ensure that it continues to meet corporate and departmental needs.
Figure 1.1 shows a sample outline for an operations manual. Figure 1.2 displays a list of requirements for operators certificated
under FAR Part 135. Both items are based on information provided in current NBAA workshops designed to help aviation
department managers develop new manuals or evaluate and review existing manuals. It should be noted that an operator
certificated under FAR Part 135 also must comply with applicable regulations embodied in FAR Part 119, which should be reflected
in the operator’s manual.
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1.3.1.1 Figure 1.1: Outline With Suggested Topics for an Operations Manual
This section shows a sample outline for an operations manual. Each item in the outline should be considered as far as it applies to
flight department operations. Note that an operations manual should provide a method for recording revisions to ensure that the
manual and technical publications always are current
I. Administration
A. Mission/Objectives
B. General Policies
1. FAA Enforcement Actions
2. Smoking
3. Alcoholic Beverages/Drugs
4. Medical Fitness
5. Interaction with Media/Press
6. Security
7. Insurance
C. Organization
D. Job Descriptions
1. Aviation Department Manager
2. Chief Pilot
3. Captain
4. Copilot
5. Flight Attendant
6. Flight Mechanic
7. Director of Maintenance
8. Technician
9. Scheduling/Dispatch Manager
10. Licensed Dispatcher
11. Scheduler
12. Aircraft Handler/Cleaner
13. Administrative Assistant
E. Personnel
1. Appearance
2. Records
3. Primary and Collateral Duties
4. Cabin Crew Training
5. Line Crew Training
6. Dispatcher Training
7. Use of Part-time Personnel
F. Pilots
1. Authority of pilot in command
2. Qualifications
3. Training
4. Contract Pilots
5. Pilot Currency
6. Duty Time
7. Physical Fitness
8. Alcohol/Drug Policy
9. Flight Evaluation
G. Aircraft Maintenance Technician
1. Qualifications
2. Duty Time
3. Physical Qualifications
H. Crisis Planning
1. Organization
2. Notification
3. Information Gathering
4. Initial Actions
5. Communicating the Crisis
6. Records
7. Participation in the
Investigation
8. Media
I. Charter Operations
1. Company Policy
2. Qualification of Operations
I. Operations
A. Safety
B. Control of Flights
C. Scheduling
D. Basic Operations
1. Dispatch Release
a. Operational Control
System
2. Airworthiness
3. Flight Crew Member Duties
4. Flight Plans
5. Operational Reports
6. Maintenance Test Flights
7. Positioning Flights
8. Aircraft Noise Policy
E. Passenger Relations 1. Policy
1. Crew Duties
2. Authority of pilot in command
3. Schedule Changes
4. Limitations
F. Airports
1. Weather
2. Aircraft
3. Crew
4. Hazardous Material
G. Standard Operation Procedures
1. Policy
2. Crew Assignment
3. Basic Crew Responsibilities
4. General
5. (Specific)
H. Abnormal Operations
1. Emergencies
2. Terrorist Hijacking
3. Accidents/Incidents
4. Emergency Equipment
Operating Procedures
5. Use of FDR/ CVR Records
I. International Operations
1. Training
2. Qualification
3. Planning
4. Documentation
5. Security
I. Maintenance Control System
A. Purpose/Mission
B. Basic Policies
1. Airworthiness
2. Inspection of Work Performed
3. Airworthiness Status
Documentation
4. Controlled Publications
C. Airworthiness Release
1. Postflight
2. Release Document
D. Scheduled Inspection and
Maintenance
1. Maintenance Programs
2. Work Assignment
E. Unscheduled Maintenance
1. Discrepancy Reporting
2. Deferred Discrepancies/ MEL
3. Work Assignment
4. Recording Work Performed
5. Returning Aircraft to Service
F. Vendor Selection
1. Approval Process
2. Approved Vendors
3. Major Work
a. Request for Proposals
b. Evaluation of Proposals
G. Aircraft Maintenance Records
1. Responsibility
2. Record Entries
3. Computerized Tracking
System
H. Aircraft Parts
1. Ordering
2. Receiving
3. Inspection
4. Inventory Control
I. Aircraft Fueling
J. Maintenance Test Flights
K. Checklists
1. Accident/Incident
2. International Operations
3. Flight Crew Evaluation
L. Forms
1. Manifest
2. Flight Log
3. Abnormal Operations
4. Airworthiness Release
5. Maintenance Discrepancy
6. Deferred Discrepancy
M. References
1. Advisory Circulars
2. NTSB Part 830
N. Telephone Numbers
1. Flight Department
2. Company
3. Emergency
4. Government
5. Associations
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1.3.1.2 Figure 1.2: Contents of an Operations Manual if Operations Are Conducted Under Part 135
The following FAR citations and text are provided for NBAA member companies that conduct operations under Part 135.23.
Member companies that conduct operations under Part 91 also can use this as a guideline. Each manual shall have the date of the
last revision on each revised page.
The manual must include:
The name of each management
person required under §119.69(a) of
this chapter who is authorized to act
for the certificate holder; the person’s
assigned area of responsibility; the
person’s duties, responsibilities, and
authority; and the name and title of
each person authorized to exercise
operational control under §135.77
Procedures for ensuring compliance
with aircraft weight and balance
limitations and, for multi-engine aircraft,
for determining compliance with
§135.185
Copies of the certificate holder’s
operations specifications or
appropriate extracted information,
including area of operations authorized,
category and class of aircraft
authorized, crew complements, and
types of operations authorized
Procedures for complying with
accident notification requirements
Procedures for ensuring that the pilot in
command knows that required
airworthiness inspections have been
made and that the aircraft has been
approved for return to service in
compliance with applicable
maintenance requirements
Procedures for reporting and recording
mechanical irregularities that come to
the attention of the pilot in command
before, during, and after completion of
a flight
Procedures to be followed by the pilot
in command for determining that
mechanical irregularities or defects
reported for previous flights have been
corrected or that correction has been
deferred
Procedures under §135.179 for the
release for, or continuation of, flight if
any item of equipment required for the
particular type of operation becomes
inoperative or unserviceable en route
Procedures for refueling aircraft,
eliminating fuel contamination,
protecting from fire (including electrostatic protection), and supervising and
protecting passengers during refueling
Procedures to be followed by the pilot
in command in the briefing under
§135.117
Flight locating procedures, when
applicable
Procedures for ensuring compliance
with emergency procedures, including
a list of the functions assigned to each
category of required crewmembers in
connection with an emergency and
emergency evacuation duties under
§135.123
En route qualification procedures for
pilots, when applicable
The approved aircraft inspection
program, when applicable
Procedures and instructions to enable
personnel to recognize hazardous
materials as defined in Title 49 CFR,
and if these materials are to be carried,
stored, or handled, procedures and
instructions for (1) accepting shipment
of hazardous material required by Title
49 CFR, to assure proper packaging,
marking, labeling, shipping documents,
compatibility of articles and instructions
on their loading, storage and handling;
(2) notification and reporting hazardous
material incidents as required by Title
49 CFR; and (3) notification of the pilot
in command when there are hazardous
materials aboard, as required by Title
49 CFR
Procedures for the evacuation of
persons who may need the assistance
of another person to move
expeditiously to an exit if an emergency
occurs
If required by §135.385, an approved
Destination Airport Analysis
establishing runway safety margins at
destination airports, taking into account
the following factors as supported by
published aircraft performance data
supplied by the aircraft manufacturer
for the appropriate runway conditions:
(1) Pilot qualifications and experience;
(2) Aircraft performance data to include
normal, abnormal and emergency
procedures as supplied by the aircraft
manufacturer; (3) Airport facilities and
topography; (4) Runway conditions
(including contamination); (5) Airport or
area weather reporting; (6) Appropriate
additional runway safety margins, if
required; (7) Airplane inoperative
equipment; (8) Environmental
conditions; and (9) Other criteria
affecting aircraft performance
Other procedures and policy
instructions regarding the certificate
holder’s operations that are issued by
the certificate holder
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Since each aviation department operates with different philosophies and values, most of the manual’s contents are unique to each
department. While some policies and procedures may be common to a wide range of aviation operators, efforts should be made to
customize the manual to each aviation department’s operations.
Once the manual is drafted, the Accountable Executive and the person directly responsible for the aviation department should take
the time necessary to review and discuss its contents and application in the organization thoroughly. This joint analysis will give
aviation department management the opportunity to stress safety requirements and explain the realistic limitations imposed by
human capability, the company’s aircraft, and the operating environment. The Accountable Executive’s endorsement of the manual
contents indicates company approval and sets the criteria for use and operation of the aircraft and department.
The manual should recognize that aviation regulations are constantly changing and that the flight department operation should
reflect those changes in a timely manner. It should also include a process for keeping up with changing regulations. The operator
may maintain oversight for operating requirements by:
Reviewing industry publications for the latest information
Reviewing information received from subscriptions/mailing lists for update services: (FAA, ICAO, NBAA, etc.)
Reviewing information received from subscriptions to vendors/services that disseminate information
Attendance at industry events (workshops, conferences, etc.) can also be a valuable source of obtaining and interpreting
the latest operational information.
Aviation department personnel must understand that the primary purpose of an operations manual is to improve safety and
efficiency by standardizing administrative and operational procedures and management philosophy. All personnel should be
required to accept and follow the procedures and policies presented in the manual.
Policies non-regulatory in nature may be waived on a case-by-case basis via policy waiver and a risk assessment. Any deviation
from the operations manual should be approved by the appropriate manager.
The language of the manual should be clear, concise and understandable. Human factors principles should be considered during
the development of the document. This particularly important when developing crew coordination procedures related to the critical
phases of flight (i.e., takeoff, approach, landing and emergencies). The aviation department manager should determine the
organization and sequence of the manual contents.
The operations manual is not intended to supersede or replace the FARs or a manufacturer’s operating handbook. Some
redundancy may be advisable, however, in order to stress operational procedures or regulatory limitations. The appropriate
reference to an FAR or a manufacturer’s operating handbook should be listed with any policy or procedure that complies with the
regulation or recommendation. This will help aviation department personnel understand why a policy or procedure is included.
Completed manuals should be distributed to each aviation department employee. Copies also should be given to the company
human resources, legal, administration, safety, insurance, and public relations departments, as well as to all individuals who are
authorized to approve trips. In addition, a copy should be kept onboard each company aircraft.
It is essential to keep the manual up to date and reflect the actual policies and procedures used by the department. Periodic review
and revision of the manual will ensure that this goal is achieved.
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1.1.3.2 GENERAL MAINTENANCE MANUAL (GMM)
NBAA recommends that business aviation departments establish a General Maintenance Manual to formalize and document
policies and procedures in a single source.
Aviation department maintenance personnel should refer to this manual for operational guidance in order to provide the highest
degree of safety combined with the most consistent level of support.
The General Maintenance Manual should ensure that:
Maintenance occurs in accordance with designated maintenance program, manufacturer’s guidelines, State regulations
Aircraft is/are appropriately equipped, configured, and maintained for intended use
Documentation is correct, available, and current
Technical records are maintained in accordance with State regulations
1.1.3.3 DOCUMENT CONTROL 
[RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE]
1.1.4 SAFETY
1.1.4.1 FLYING SAFETY PROGRAMS
Managing risk effectively in a modern business aviation flight department requires a proactive, visible, and empowered safety
program. The single most important prerequisite to the development and maintenance of an effective safety program is
management’s visible and enduring commitment to fostering a positive safety culture within the organization. Aviation department
managers, chief pilots, maintenance managers, and all other managers must be aware of and participate in such a program to set
an example for others and to constantly monitor the safety performance of the department. Through such leadership, management
has the ability to prevent accidents and incidents in a cost-effective manner.
Individual safety programs vary based upon several factors. Among those factors affecting a corporate/business flight department
are type and size of operation, type and complexity of aircraft operated, and geographic area of operation.
While each organization’s safety program is unique, certain traits should be common to any program. First, the goal of the safety
program should be to prevent personal injury and losses resulting from accidents and incidents related to the organization’s
business.
Second, the structure and staffing of the safety function should be formally recognized within the organization. The safety program
should have a written charter and personnel assigned to administer the program. Suggested elements of a flight department’s
safety program are:
Management’s Safety Philosophy and Policy
Employee Responsibility for Safety
Risk Management
Operational Standards in Excess of Regulatory Requirements
Non-Punitive Accident/ Incident/ Hazard Identification and Reporting
Accident/Incident/Hazard Investigation (Flight and Ground)
Safety Audits and Compliance Checks
Safety Education and Training
Accident/Incident Response Preparedness (Flight and Ground)
Staffing
Safety Committee/Teams
Passenger, Ground, and Flight Safety
Safety Recognition/Reward Program
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Safety Policy and Objectives
Management Commitment and Responsibility
Safety Accountabilities
Appointment of Key Safety Personnel
Coordination of Emergency Response Planning
Safety Risk Management
Safety risk assessment and mitigation
Hazard identification
Safety assurance
Safety Performance
Monitoring and Measurement
The Management of Change
Continuous Improvement ofSMS
Safety promotion
Training and Education
Safety Communication
Aviation department and company managers must fully support safety efforts if they are to be effective. Aviation department
managers, chief pilots, maintenance managers and all other managers must be aware of and participate in such a program to set
the example for others and to track constantly the safety of the department.
If the operator chooses to allow the transportation of dangerous goods or hazardous materials, a training program must be
implemented that follows Title 49 CFR and ICAO Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods, and the
operator must be certified by DOT’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration.
If the operator chooses not to allow the transportation of dangerous goods or hazardous materials, employees must still be trained
to recognize dangerous goods and hazardous materials to prevent them from being carried on the aircraft.
NBAA recognizes companies, pilots, maintenance technicians and support personnel who achieve accident-free milestones
through its annual Flying Safety Awards Program. An individual company’s flying safety program also could distribute its own
awards or have one of NBAA’s awards as the company goal.
The categories of NBAA Flying Safety Awards are as follows:
Safe Flying Achievement Award (for milestone years)
Corporate Business Flying Safety Award
Commercial Business Flying Safety Award
Aviation Maintenance Department Safety Award
ATP or Commercial Pilot Safety Award
Private Pilot Safety Award
Maintenance/Avionics Technician Safety Award
Aviation Support Services Safety Award
1.1.4.2 SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (SMS)
Through the use of safety management systems (SMS), business aircraft operators can proactively identify and manage risks.
Under a formalizedSMS, operators voluntarily identify potential hazards, track them and ensure that processes are put in place to
effectively manage them.NBAA advocates that flight departments of all sizes implement an advocates that flight departments of all
sizes implement an SMS for aircraft operations that is proactive, flexible and scalable and that reflects the size, scope and
complexity of the operation.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS) found in Annex 6, Part
2 specify that an SMS is required for operators of non-commercial aircraft over 12,500 pounds or turbojet powered aircraft. The
effective date for ICAO member states (countries) to begin implementation of these standards is November 2010. Effective on
January 1, 2009, theICAO standards applicable to commercial operators required member states to include in their state safety
program the requirement for commercial operators to implement an SMS. While the FAA has yet to issue any SMS regulations for
U.S. registered operators, NBAA is confident that any future regulations will be based onICAO-SARPS.
ICAO has set the general standard for has set the general standard for SMS implementation, but it is up to individual states to
develop the specific regulatory language. In addition to becoming familiar withICAO-SARPs, NBAA members should also look at the
applicable regulations in the countries where they plan to operate. In fact, Part 91.703 of the Federal Aviation Regulations stipulates
that operators of U.S. registered aircraft must comply with the applicable regulations of the foreign country in which the aircraft is
operated.
In general, an SMS contains the following four components along with associated elements:
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IS-BAO has been granted official European recognition as an industry standard for business aircraft operations. This recognition
was achieved through a European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Workshop Agreement.CEN is the official standards
setting body of the European Union and Workshop Agreements are one of their principal standards products.
The European Aviation Safety Agency also proposes to recognize IS-BAO as a means of compliance with its new non-commercial
operating regulations and SMS requirements. Additionally, the United Kingdom Overseas Territories have recognized IS-BAO
 registration as the preferred means of complying with their non-commercial operating rules and SMSrequirements. These
endorsements demonstrate that as major aviation authorities around the world begin to implement SMSregulations, they are looking
to IS-BAO as a model.
Operators following IS-BAO also meet the applicable ICAO standards, which in some cases may exceed those required for U.S.
operations under the FAR’s. Flight departments using IS-BAO therefore ensure that their operations are world-class. For more
information about IS-BAO, visit www.nbaa.org/ops/is-bao.
1.1.4.3 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD FOR BUSINESS AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS (IS-BAO)
The International Standard for Business Aircraft Operations (IS-BAO) is a code of practice designed to help flight departments
worldwide achieve high levels of safety and professionalism. Introduced in 2002, IS-BAO was developed by the International
Business Aviation Council and its member associations, including NBAA.
IS-BAO identifies the baseline industry best practices that operators should apply in structuring and staffing their flight departments
and planning and conducting their operations. This code of practice is designed to be scalable, meaning that they can be used by
any flight operation, regardless of size. At the core of the IS-BAO is an SMS toolkit for business aircraft operators, from single
aircraft/single-pilot operations to large multi-aircraft flight departments. NBAA recommends IS-BAO implementation as an active
means of managing safety risk.
IS-BAO has been granted official European recognition as an industry standard for business aircraft operations. This recognition
was achieved through a European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Workshop Agreement.CEN is the official standards
setting body of the European Union and Workshop Agreements are one of their principal standards products.
The European Aviation Safety Agency also proposes to recognize IS-BAO as a means of compliance with its new non-commercial
operating regulations and SMS requirements. Additionally, the United Kingdom Overseas Territories have recognized IS-BAO
registration as the preferred means of complying with their non-commercial operating rules and SMS requirements. These
endorsements demonstrate that as major aviation authorities around the world begin to implement SMS regulations, they are
looking to IS-BAO as a model.
Operators following IS-BAO also meet the applicable ICAO standards, which in some cases may exceed those required for U.S.
operations under the FARs. Flight departments using IS-BAO therefore ensure that their operations are world-class. For more
information about IS-BAO, visit www.nbaa.org/ops/is-bao.
1.1.4.4 FATIGUE RISK MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (FRMS)
Crew member fatigue, divided into transient fatigue (temporary) and cumulative fatigue (accumulating), will seriously reduce flight
crew reflexes and efficiency. Because fatigue can be the result of many factors and will vary with individuals, it is the duty of each
flight crew member to advise the manager or chief pilot when natural limitations are being reached. The aviation department
manager needs to keep the lines of communication open on such conditions and realize that flight crew members are not always
aware of their level of fatigue. The credibility of an individual’s self-evaluation decreases as the level of fatigue increases.
Individuals fatigue at different rates. Consideration should be given to recognize this and the crew’s limitation becomes that of the
most fatigued crew member.
In the case of temporary fatigue, the flight crew member is fully aware of the problem and the cure can be as simple as a good
night’s rest. The individual usually recognizes cumulative fatigue and the cure involves a day or two away from work. 
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The most serious part of the fatigue problem is the psychological component that causes the person to remain unaware of the
problem or to deny its significance.Chronic fatigue requires a long period of time off and could require the assistance of a medical
professional.
A flight crew member may exhibit the following typical inflight symptoms for all types of fatigue. As an individual’s energy level is
depleted, the subsequent degradation of skills becomes more pronounced. Perhaps the first recognizable sign is that the individual
will accept lower standards of performance. Symptoms include decreased reaction time, reduced attention span, sloppy flying or
roughness on the controls, and distorted judgment. Fatigue has eluded rigorous quantitative definition because each person is
affected differently. Experienced flight crew members should use every opportunity to combat fatigue. This includes altering diets
when necessary, getting away from the airport for some exercise and utilizing day rooms for sleep whenever possible.
It is difficult to adjust to constantly fluctuating schedules due to the effect of circadian rhythms. Medical evidence confirms that a
person cannot store sleep for an expected long duty day. The aviation department manager must constantly assess the
company’s travel requirements and adjust or design the flight and duty time to guarantee a consistently safe flight operation.
Fatigue Management is an approach that identifies and mitigates risks and errors related to human fatigue. It takes into account as
many factors as possible that can contribute to fatigue related errors. Operators may adopt a Fatigue Management Program that
aims to reduce fatigue related errors across all areas of the operation, for all employees.
Establishing a Fatigue Management Program requires a comprehensive evaluation of an operation’s unique risk factors that
contribute to fatigue. A comprehensive program involves more than establishing flight and duty times for pilots. A robust Fatigue
Management Program should include, but is not limited to the following elements:
Establishing work day limitations and recovery/rest periods for all team members
Recognizing the effects of high workloads/periods of sustained high workload on fatigue
For flight crews, establishing flight and duty time limitations and recovery periods as well as mitigation strategies for
extended flight/duty days
Establishing protocols for standby/on-call duty and/or shift-work, if applicable
Identification of factors beyond working hours that might contribute to employee fatigue (stress, commuting, quality of
sleep, etc.)
Implementing scheduling practices that enable employees to effectively manage fatigue levels
Training and awareness for employees to recognize the science behind fatigue and recognition of fatigue onset in
themselves and others (how you function vs how you feel)
Methods of collecting data related to fatigue related metrics
Methods for identifying, mitigating, and tracking fatigue related incidents
Additional information on Fatigue Management Programs and suggested best practices can be found at:
Duty / Rest Guidelines for Business Aviation
Fatigue Management Guide for General Aviation Operators of Large and Turbojet Aeroplanes
1.1.5 SECURITY
Over the past decade, land and air based security concerns and mitigation measures have multiplied significantly in the U.S. and
worldwide. Business aircraft operators must maintain awareness of both domestic and foreign security constraints and hot spots
that may impact their operations.
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) oversee the development
of security regulations and a number of security programs that can affect NBAA member companies. For the list of security
programs affecting operators, aircraft repair stations and flight training candidates, visit www.nbaa.org/ops/security.
The security program should include threat assessment, plans of action and avoidance, and regular training and auditing. For
example, a company might possess an elaborate security system but still might need a plan of what to do if an aircraft is
suspected of being sabotaged.
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1.1.5.1 PLANS TO AVOID A BREACH OF SECURITY
The following steps should be taken in developing any security plan.
Review all sources of media information; newspaper, radio and television coverage of actual events can be very
instructive.
Circulate memos, articles and newsletters throughout the company that discuss security
Review available catastrophe avoidance literature
Require that the security and aviation departments attend security seminars
Consider removal of company identification, logos and the American flag insignia
Do not publicize the aircraft itinerary
Have hangar personnel accompany all visitors to hangar facilities
Avoid having company signs and logos at the company’s hangar facility
Do not make any controversial statements, either in public or in private, since these statements could lead to violence
Cancel trips or specific stops if there is any reason to suspect trouble
Be most sensitive to security information received just before flight time
Use the aircraft’s security system at every stop, no matter how brief
Be very cautious when hiring local guards; local contacts can assist in making arrangements for theft
Know or require positive identification from passengers
Require a passenger manifest
Require all passengers who are not employees to be authorized by an employee
Check fencing, lighting, security patrols, gates and limited access areas at all airports
Encourage flight crews to develop a security awareness attitude
List any security concerns and actions regarding specific threats
Request guard services at security-sensitive locations through FBOs or ground handling agents
Use only reputable catering services and monitor catering carefully
Advise passengers to maintain positive control of their luggage
Check all unmarked or unrecognized baggage for content and ownership
Consider enrolling aircraft in the Block Aircraft Registration Request (BARR) program (www.nbaa.org/barr)
1.1.5.2 PLANS TO RESPOND TO A BREACH OF SECURITY
NBAA recommends that aviation departments consider the following steps in developing a company security program:
Establish an emergency control committee to handle disaster-type emergencies.
Develop a contingency plan for advance response to hijackings, bomb threats, executive abductions, terrorist activities
and extortion demands
Schedule simulated emergencies at least once a year to test the contingency plan
Establish an emergency communication system with a telephone list of key personnel
Audit security at hangar facilities and operational areas.
The risk of an incident involving hijacking (air-piracy) or other terrorist acts exists and is increasing both within the United States
and overseas. The following precautions should be taken if a company suspects it may be a target of terrorism:
Assume that one terrorist act signals the presence of another; if the aircraft is violated in one area, verify that other areas
have not been violated
Ask for help from local authorities, even if terrorist activity is suspected without solid evidence
Receive professional training on the use of any weapon carried on the aircraft
Use any weapon with caution
Consider alternative means of transportation if sabotage is suspected
•Verify that no stowaways are aboard, especially in the lavatories or the baggage compartments
Share any terrorist activity only with company officials, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other appropriate
government agencies
Use security tape on all access panels and doors when parking overnight
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ADMINISTRATION
In case hijacking or air piracy does occur, the flight crew must be familiar with published emergency procedures. These
procedures are listed in detail in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Some elements are provided below. They should be
followed, providing they do not jeopardize the safety of the flight.
Execute a distress radio call on 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
Set the transponder to 7500
Maintain a true airspeed of no more than 400 knots
Maintain an altitude between 10,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) and 25,000 MSL (providing range requirements are met)
Fly a course toward the destination that the hijacker has announced
Comply with any procedures that direct the flight crew to a safe landing
1.1.6 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING (ERP)
Operators must have pre-established clear procedures that will provide direction and guidance in the event of an accident or an
incident. The possible occurrence of an accident or incident cannot be ignored in business aircraft operations. These procedures
should include regulatory requirements as well as company policy.
Responding to requests from NBAA members and NBAA’s Board of Directors, the NBAA staff has created a document that
provides initial guidance for companies in the event of a business aircraft accident. The memorandum, titled “Company Response
to an Aviation Accident,” advises company management and public affairs personnel on how to respond to media, public and
internal inquiries quickly, sensitively and effectively. It has been reviewed and approved by representatives from the National
Transportation Safety Board, Federal Aviation Administration and General Aviation Manufacturers Association. 
1.1.6.1 ACCIDENT NOTIFICATION
The responsibility to notify a company or business of an aircraft accident in which a fatality or a serious injury has occurred
normally is that of the state or local police in the jurisdiction in which the event has taken place. In some instances' notification by
the police may be delayed. For that reason NBAA recommends that operators establish and maintain a proactive flight following
system that will assure the company becomes aware of an event as early as practical.
NBAA recommends that company guidelines delineate who needs to be notified in case of an accident or incident. A pilot of a
business aircraft involved in any accident or incident immediately must notify the aviation department manager or, failing that, the
executive to whom the department reports. Procedures should permit such communications to occur at all times. For example, the
pilot could have access to a paging system or a telephone number that is answered 24 hours a day, every day.
Section 830.5 of the NTSB regulations requires that the operator notify the nearest NTSB field office in the event of any accident
or incident. For specifics as to which accidents or incidents require an operator to notify NTSB, refer to FAR 830.5.
Under the definition of the term operator in Section 830.2 of the NTSB regulations, the operator could be the person who “causes
or authorizes the operation of an aircraft.” NBAA suggests that the company’s pre-accident plan state who should contact the
NTSB. The plan should include at least two or more people who are authorized to contact the NTSB and the order in which the
responsibility descends. If the first person on the list is not available, the second person will be responsible for this task.
Type, nationality and registration marks of the aircraft
Name of owner and operator of the aircraft
Name of the pilot in command
Date and time of the accident
Last point of departure and point of intended landing of the aircraft
Position of the aircraft with reference to some easily defined geographical point
Number of persons aboard, number killed and number seriously injured
Nature of the accident, the weather and the extent of damage to the aircraft, as far as is known
A description of any explosives, radioactive materials or other dangerous articles carried
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1.1.6.2 ON-SITE PROCEDURES
The flight crew, if not incapacitated, must assume control of an accident site and the following procedures should be included as
their duties.
Remove all passengers to a safe area
Secure assistance, render emergency first aid and arrange to provide immediate medical attention for the injured
Arrange for medical examinations of all passengers, whether injured or not, and secure a physician’s report on each
Prepare signals, if in a remote area
Notify the nearest FAA flight service station (FSS)
Ensure the aircraft and its onboard documentation will not be disturbed until properly released by the FAA or NTSB
Preserve the integrity of the accident site for investigators; if there are fatalities, notify the local police and coroner
Obtain names and addresses of eyewitnesses
Arrange for cargo to be stored, if necessary, pending company instructions for disposition
1.1.6.3 ON-SITE STATEMENTS
The flight crew should not make any statements to the authorities or the media until they have had an opportunity to recover fully
from shock, review the details of the event in a thoughtful manner and seek competent legal counsel. When involved in an accident
or any incident, do not speak to a representative of the media. The corporate public relations specialist should handle the press.
Unless served with a subpoena, the pilot is under no legal obligation to make a statement to any government official. The NTSB
accident report should be completed in the time limit set, with the aid of an attorney.
1.1.6.4 COMPANY INVOLVEMENT
A serious accident will have an instantaneous emotional impact on the corporate family. Established procedures will enable the
company to handle most of the matters expeditiously. The aviation department, whether small or large, should coordinate the
formulation of acceptable company post-accident procedures. The corporate executive responsible for the aviation department,
legal counsel and insurance manager (or insurance agent if the company does not employ an insurance manager), and the public
relations officer should be involved in establishing and following administrative procedures.
Companies should ensure that:
Responsibility is delegated to an appropriate company executive to discharge the administrative functions as necessary
Proper notification has been given to the NTSB and/or FAA (ensure that legal counsel has reviewed procedures and
available accident details and is aware of possible legal implications)
Notification procedures satisfy the requirements of the company insurance carrier
After company procedures have been written, they should be distributed to and understood by executives, the aviation department
manager, chief pilot, flight crew, legal counsel, insurance manager and insurance agent. Copies also should be placed on the
aircraft.
1.1.6.5 PARTIES TO AN INVESTIGATION
The company should request to participate as a party to an investigation to help the NTSB develop a complete factual record. This
enables responsible officials, whose product or services might be involved, to have immediate access to accident facts in order to
initiate preventive and/or corrective action. Participation as a party enables a company to learn facts firsthand. The regulations can
be found in Part 831 of the NTSB regulations, which contain accident/incident investigation procedures.
If a company is designated as party to the investigation, it will begin to participate during the investigation’s field phase. Later, if a
public hearing is deemed necessary by the NTSB, it can designate the company as a party to the hearing
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1.1.6.6 PUBLIC RELATIONS
The company’s public relations department, if there is one, should prepare to handle press or other inquiries. If no such department
exists, a key executive should be prepared to handle external and internal inquiries. Those with public relations responsibilities
should help prepare the company’s response in advance. The key components of a company’s response to an accident are as
follows:
The company’s policy statement on the aircraft’s use
Authoritative information on business aircraft accident rates, company flying safety awards and pilot safety records
Set procedures for handling intercompany relationships if the accident involves an aircraft used under time-sharing, joint
ownership or interchange agreements, or when passengers from another company are on board
1.1.6.7 CARE OF SURVIVORS AND NEXT OF KIN
Much has been learned in recent years about the psychological impact of a traumatic event like an aircraft accident on victims,
their next of kin and other people directly and indirectly affiliated with the flight department. NBAA recommends working with trauma
intervention specialists to develop effective notification and support processes and resources. Specific areas to address include:
Development of a next of kin notification strategy, process and resources.
Development of processes, procedures and resources for supporting the immediate needs of the next of kin (such as a
company-family liaison, transportation, financial support, information).
1.1.6.8 COMPANY ACCIDENT COMMUNICATIONS GUIDANCE
This section provides information and guidance to company management and public affairs personnel regarding press and public
inquiries in the event of an accident involving company-operated aircraft. Also provided is a list of specific press concerns to help
company personnel effectively prepare for and respond to inquiries.
Issues related to aircraft accidents may be discussed at any time with the staff of the following organizations:
National Business Aviation Association (NBAA), (800) FYI- NBAA
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), Office of Public Affairs
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Office of Public Affairs
General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA)
Aircraft accidents are complex and unfortunate events that require a deft personal and corporate response. A company’s first and
highest responsibility is to the families of those involved in the accident. Every appropriate provision for their comfort and
accommodation should be considered, assigned and acted upon first, prior to internal company or public comment.
Company management should take steps immediately to notify the families, offer counseling and other support, make needed
arrangements and keep them informed.
The primary sources for information regarding the aircraft, crew and passengers involved typically are internal and can be
obtained from sources such as flight department records, flight department personnel not involved in the accident, company
human resource departments or personnel departments. The leadership of those departments should be contacted at the outset.
Public affairs and investor relations personnel as well as insurance providers also should be contacted immediately.
Aircraft accidents often generate acute levels of public and professional scrutiny previously not experienced by management, in an
area outside their expertise. Although this attention typically is long-term as an investigation unfolds, the broader public’s interest
usually is ephemeral.
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The early acknowledgment of and stated regret for an obvious tragedy, responsibility for the families of those involved in the
accident, and a demonstrable corporate attitude of proactive cooperation with investigating authorities are highly recommended.
The public’s perception of a company’s professionalism in the wake of a crisis often significantly influences public and shareholder
opinion of the company’s competency.
Ultimately, safety is the responsibility of company management, from the Accountable Executive down, and it should be treated as
a fundamental matter of the company culture. Management should articulate in writing a strong, permanent and visible commitment
to safety. Past aircraft accident investigators have noted that the implementation of corporate safety standards for air
transportation often effectively prevent most accidents before they occur.
In the event an accident does occur, company management should have procedures in place to help them respond to the crisis
quickly and effectively, often referred to as a business continuation plan (BCP). The following sections recommend specific actions
that company representatives should (or should not) take in the aftermath of an aircraft accident. They also identify the facts
company representatives should know about the accident and about business aviation in general to answer likely press and public
inquiries successfully.
While this Management Guide addresses accidents from company management’s perspective, flight departments also should
have a separate, complementary “pre-accident” plan in place. This latter plan should be practiced or simulated separately and in
conjunction with the corporate BCP. Flight department managers can refer to several sources for advice, including this
Management Guide. Interested parties also may access the U.S. federal government’s Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
regarding transportation and the National Transportation Safety Board (Title 49, Volume 5, Chapter VIII) – specifically CFR Title 49,
Part 830, titled Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and Overdue Aircraft, and Preservation of Aircraft
Wreckage, Mail, Cargo and Records at www.access.gpo.gov/rara/cfr/index.html
1.1.6.9 COMPANY RESPONSE IN THE AFTERMATH OF AN ACCIDENT
After an aircraft accident has occurred, company management and public affairs personnel must deal with several issues. As
noted above, a company’s first step should always be to accommodate all the family members of those involved in the accident.
Next, company personnel should be prepared to answer questions of fact (not opinion or conjecture; see sections below) posed
by aviation authorities, the media and/or the general-public related to the trip’s purpose and itinerary, the aircraft involved and other
related factors. The type of data most frequently requested by authorities is identified below; companies should have such
information on hand as an investigation unfolds. It is important to note, that companies should not answer certain questions posed
by the media but instead refer them to outside authorities.
For use in a crisis, it is important to create and maintain a crisis communication phone tree or 24/7 contact list for people such as
company personnel, company accident response team members, flight department contacts, public emergency contacts, airport
emergency contacts, NTSB and FAA contacts, legal advisors and insurance contacts. It will need to be checked and updated
regularly to address personnel turnover, a common occurrence.
1.1.6.10 ACCOMMODATION OF FAMILY MEMBERS
Never forget that a company’s first and highest responsibility is to the families of those involved in the accident. A company should
anticipate and answer their needs first, prior to internal company or public comment. Company management should take steps
immediately to notify the families, offer counseling and other support, make any necessary arrangements and keep them informed.
To keep families informed, the company should assign each of them a liaison in a long-term role.
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1.1.6.11 NOTIFICATION OF COMPANY PERSONNEL
Company leadership as well as human resources, flight department, public affairs, investor relations and press relations personnel
should be notified of an accident as soon as possible following the incident. After such notification and by prior arrangement, further
management of this issue would then be assigned to a response team of the company’s design. Only one specifically assigned
response team member should communicate with the media regarding the accident. This “sole source” media contact should be
identified company-wide, reducing the likelihood of uninformed commentary.
1.1.6.12 NOTIFICATION OF INSURANCE PROVIDERS
The company’s insurance carrier and broker should be contacted as soon as possible after an accident. Additionally, since some
insurance providers have their own accident response procedures, company personnel should contact and discuss such
information from the provider and use it in conjunction with this Management Guide information. If flight department practices plan,
the insurance company and broker should participate. Parties should provide emergency contact information for those who will
respond to and support an emergency.
1.1.6.13 PROBABLE CAUSE OF AN ACCIDENT
Do not speculate about the cause of any accident at any time. Company personnel should make no comment regarding the
“probable cause” of an accident. Moreover, not only should companies not comment on the probable cause, but they should not
comment on the investigation at all, i.e., what was or was not found.
By federal statute, the jurisdiction of investigation and the finding of a probable cause for accidents involving aircraft of U.S. registry
is the responsibility of the National Transportation Safety Board, an independent agency of the federal government headquartered
in Washington, DC, with nine regional and field offices located throughout the United States. Company management should refer all
inquiries regarding the probable cause of an accident to the Office of Public Affairs at the NTSB.
Accidents involving loss of life will often involve the dispatch of an NTSB “Go Team,” which will travel rapidly to the site to direct the
accident investigation. Aside from immediate public safety concerns at the crash site, the NTSB alone has the jurisdiction and
authority to command an accident investigation and issue a probable cause finding. No other agency or authority – federal, state,
municipal or local – should or can comment responsibly on the probable cause of an accident.
For accidents that the Board investigates, all questions regarding the aircraft and its contents, crew, passengers, air traffic control
personnel, local weather conditions at the time of the accident, or any additional issues relevant to an accident eventually will be
commented upon officially by the NTSB.
At the Board’s discretion, some accidents involving only property damage will not have an NTSB investigator travel to the accident
scene. Although FAA investigators may go to the accident site, these accident investigations are still under the oversight of the
NTSB, and, therefore, questions concerning these accidents should be directed to the appropriate NTSB regional or field office.
No company personnel should comment on the probable cause of an aircraft accident for several reasons. First, the jurisdiction for
determining probable cause is the NTSB’s alone. Second, speculation may adversely affect a company’s legal liability with regard
to the accident. Third, accidents typically are complex events not completely understood until after at least several months of
analysis are completed, if then. Company personnel rarely are qualified accident investigators, a unique specialization.
Consequently, initial comments and conclusions by accident observers frequently are in error, typically confusing the issue or
worse.
At a company’s request, the National Business Aviation Association may be “a party to” the NTSB investigation process, bringing
additional business aircraft operator expertise and perspective to the process. Requests for NBAA participation should be referred
immediately to the NBAA senior vice president of operations.
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1.1.6.14 SCHEDULING PRESS STATEMENTS
Although the pressures for instant answers in the wake of an aviation accident can be extreme and from many quarters, accurate
information seldom is available early or at the press’s convenience. Companies are cautioned to move as quickly as possible
regarding the accommodation of family members, and as prudently as possible regarding the press. Respect for reporter
deadlines must be tempered by consideration for the families and the ability of the company to respond professionally and with
accuracy. When in doubt, and when possible, it is best to wait and schedule statements and meetings with reporters later rather
than earlier.
If the NTSB is investigating the accident, companies should not speak about the accident investigation. However, companies can
release factual information. The NTSB‘s rule of thumb is that if you could have said it the day before the accident, you can say it
the day after. Therefore, the Board permits, and actually would encourage, companies to release information concerning the
aircraft, such as make, model, age and ownership; the identity of the company itself; the purpose of the flight; and the names of the
crew and passengers. Additionally, it would be helpful to the NTSB if the company’s public affairs personnel contacted the NTSB’s
public affairs officers to notify them of any press statements
1.1.6.15 AIRCRAFT INVOLVED
Company management should be familiar with or know where to find information that relates to their aircraft, examples of which are
listed and defined in the following section.
1.1.6.15.1 Type, Type Designation
Information regarding aircraft identification, including the name of the manufacturer and model number or name of the aircraft,
should be contained within flight department or company administrative records. Typically, this information is reported using an
official FAA “type designation” – a series of letters and numbers with which the FAA officially designates the aircraft type, such as
“Dassault Falcon DA- 20F” or “Learjet LR-25B.”
1.1.6.15.2 Acquisition Date
On what date did the company take control of the aircraft? Prior owners also can be relevant, if recent.
1.1.6.15.3 Engine Data
Engine information includes the number, identity of the manufacturer and model number of the aircraft’s engines. Such data are
often reported separately and distinctly from the airframe’s identification. The number of hours in operation each engine has
experienced may be reported. Also, the number of hours in operation since the last major overhaul or major service interval often
is reported. All of this information may be available internally, through records kept by a company’s flight department. Alternately, if
maintenance has been performed externally, the vendor for that service should have records including this and other information.
1.1.6.15.4 Black Boxes
Unlike commercial airliners, business aircraft typically are not required by Federal Aviation Regulation to use cockpit voice
recorders and flight data recorders, also known as black boxes. However, some business aircraft (typically sophisticated jets) do
carry cockpit voice recorders and/or flight data recorders onboard. If such is the case, company or manufacturer records will
indicate their existence. This information is useful for response to press or other inquiries. However, company representatives
should limit comments to whether the aircraft had black boxes or not; they should not comment on the recorded data.
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1.1.6.15.5 Performance
All questions related to the expected performance of the aircraft should be referred to the aircraft’s manufacturer. Because
accidents inherently call into question the performance of the aircraft – issues such as flight characteristics, fuel use, passenger
and cargo loads, center of gravity concerns, etc., all can and will be raised – and because these issues often contribute to
probable cause findings, companies should decline to speculate on the aircraft’s expected performance. All aircraft registered in
the U.S. have been certified by the FAA and extensively tested to ensure their safe operation under conditions defined in the
aircraft’s operating manual, a public document.
Performance specifications of the aircraft, as certified by the FAA, are available in the aircraft’s operating manual or from the
aircraft’s manufacturer. The General Aviation Manufacturers Association, based in Washington, DC, can supply contact
information for aircraft manufacturers. As a second source, extensive descriptive data about business aircraft also are published
in Jane’s All The World’s Aircraft, which contains information about aircraft manufactured worldwide. Jane’s is published annually
and is readily available at most major libraries. A third source for aircraft operational data is the Planning & Purchasing Handbook,
published by Business and Commercial Aviation, a business aviation trade publication.
1.1.6.15.6 Ownership and Management
The legal ownership of the aircraft is usually obvious. Under certain ownership options, however, ownership can be blurred. What
entity holds legal title to the aircraft? Who is the “practical” owner/operator of the aircraft? Reporters typically will be uninterested in
the legal nuances and will want to report the aircraft’s real-world operator.
Who has management control of the aircraft? Under certain ownership options, management of the aircraft can be outsourced to a
management company, shared, or employ other resourcing strategies. Due to the often-complex nature of such ownership
agreements, a company’s legal counsel or CFO typically is the most knowledgeable source of information regarding the ownership
and management of company aircraft. However, information regarding aircraft operated by a third party, such as those operated
by a management company or under a fractional ownership agreement, also can be secured through those companies.
1.1.6.15.7 Age
The age of an aircraft refers to both how old the aircraft is in years and the amount of hours flown, also known as hours “on the
airframe.” Takeoff and landing or start-up and shut- down “cycles” also sometimes are reported. This information typically is
available from aircraft logbooks located in the company flight department’s or pilot’s office at the airport where the aircraft is based.
1.1.6.15.8 Maintenance Standards and FAA Inspections
It is important to note the maintenance philosophy of the company regarding the aircraft, which is typically stringent. To what
standards or with what attitude was the aircraft maintained? Where was the aircraft maintained? If the aircraft was maintained inhouse, what were the qualifications of the airframe and power plant maintenance technicians? Additionally, information regarding
the aircraft’s most recent FAA inspection should be available within the company’s flight department or through a maintenance
vendor.
As part of its investigation, the NTSB will review the maintenance records of the accident aircraft. A proactive approach to
maintenance, and the disclosure of maintenance records to authorities, is strongly recommended. However, public company
comments regarding the maintenance of the accident aircraft should be extremely limited.
Because maintenance records typically are impounded rapidly following an accident, access to them can be limited to preexisting
duplicates retained by some operators.
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1.1.6.16 TRIP PURPOSE AND ITINERARY
It is usually sufficient for a company to provide a general rather than a specific characterization of a trip’s purpose to the public.
The flight’s expected departure/arrival dates and times, departure/destination locations and timing normally are reported following
an accident.
1.1.6.17 PASSENGERS
Company management should keep information regarding an aircraft’s passengers on hand in the event of an accident. Such
information includes names, titles, ages, professional biographies and names of family members.
1.1.6.18 CREW
Company management always should record information regarding an aircraft’s crew in the event of an accident. Such information
includes the names and titles of pilot(s) and other onboard crew; qualifications of flight crew members, including ratings held, hours
of flight experience in aircraft involved and hours of flight experience in general; company training philosophy; and the safety record
of company aircraft. Companies should expect and preempt aggressive efforts, including invasive inquiries to victims’ families, to
secure photographs or “stories” about those involved in the accident.
1.1.6.19 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
All questions concerning the NTSB’s investigation should be referred to the NTSB, including any questions about air traffic control.
After an accident occurs, the NTSB will obtain air traffic control tapes pertaining to the accident from the FAA and examine them.
When the NTSB returns air traffic control tapes to the FAA, typically a couple of weeks after the accident, the FAA will make the
tapes public.
1.1.6.20 LOCAL WEATHER
Company management should refer weather questions to the nearest airport’s management office or local weather authorities (the
nearest National Weather Service office is a good source), which typically have access to local weather conditions.
1.1.7 FAA VIOLATION AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES
Any FAA certificate holder, and in some cases non-certificate holders can be charged with violating the Federal Aviation
Regulations (FARs). If an employee or representative of a company learns of a violation, it should be reported to the aviation
department manager and the company’s legal department or counsel as soon as possible. They may be in the best position to
handle the incident(s) and protect the company and its airmen. The FAA typically learns of alleged violations through reports from
air traffic control, anonymous (hotline) complaints, routine inspections and voluntary disclosures.
1.1.7.1 PILOT’S BILL OF RIGHTS (PBR)
In 2012 Congress enacted the Pilot’s Bill of Rights #1 and in 2015 enacted Pilot’s Bill of Rights #2. These Acts require the FAA to
provide airmen certain written notifications of investigations with respect to certificate actions. They also require the FAA, when
applicable, to make accessible to the airman, air traffic data and prohibits the FAA from taking any action against the airman for 30
days after the airman receives the data to allow sufficient time to review. If this information is not timely provided to the airman, it
could be fatal to the FAA’s enforcement action.
1.1.7.2 INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES
Anyone can report a suspected or alleged violation of the FARs to the FAA. When a violation is reported, the FAA assigns an
inspector who opens a file and is responsible for the investigation. A letter of investigation (LOI) is sent to the alleged violator.
These LOIs are often referred to as “Ten-Day-Letters”” because the FAA typically requests a response within that time period.
They must, however, include a recitation of the Pilot’s Bill of Rights.
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When someone receives an LOI it can be extremely stressful because the FAA is investigating that individual as a result of an
incident, accident or FAR violation. Even if the involved person(s) does not believe that a violation occurred, the response to the
LOI, must be well-thought-out and provide accurate information. It is important to note, that any information shared with the FAA
may be utilized to bolster enforcement actions. NBAA recommends airmen under investigation consider retaining competent
aviation counsel when being questioned by or responding to the FAA or NTSB personnel. Further, when interacting with FAA
inspectors, an airman should always be courteous. Unless served with a subpoena, an airman is under no legal obligation to make
a statement or to respond to the LOI, but at the same time, responding to the LOI demonstrates cooperation that will be considered
by the investigator in determining what if any sanction will be imposed. Therefore, cooperation with the investigator is usually
appropriate.
After the FAA receives the response to the LOI (or no response) the inspector will decide what action, if any, to take against the
alleged violator. The inspector should consult the procedural rights provided in FAA Order 2150.3C, titled “Compliance and
Enforcement” dated September 18, 2018.
If the inspector finds that no violation occurred, a letter will be sent to the airman with notification that the matter is closed. However,
if the inspector finds a violation, depending on the type and nature of the alleged violation, among other factors, the FAA can use
any of the following methods to address the alleged violation:
Re-examine the airman’s qualifications;
Compliance program;
Administrative actions (warning notice and letter of correction; or
Enforcement actions (suspend or revoke certificate(s) and civil penalties)
1.1.7.3 RE-EXAMINATION – THE 709 CHECK RIDE
If the FAA has reasonable grounds to re-examine the qualifications of an airman (including maintenance technicians), it may do so.
Often these requests result from an accident, incident or violation. This procedure is commonly referred to as a 709 Check Ride.
See 14 C.F.R § 44709. The airman is notified by certified mail of the necessity of and the reasons for the re-examination. The FAA
is required to provide to the airman:
The reasonable basis, described in detail, for requesting the reexamination; and
Any information that the FAA determines is appropriate to provide, such as the scope and nature of the requested
reexamination, that formed the basis for that justification.
The airman is responsible for scheduling a time, place and securing an aircraft for the re-examination, within a specified time frame
as set by the FAA. If the airman fails or refuses to submit to the re-examination, the FAA likely issue an emergency order
suspending the airman’s certificate. If the airman passes the re-examination, the matter is usually concluded. The airman may be
provided more than one examination to show the qualifications are met. However, if the airman fails the re-examination, the FAA will
likely suspend or revoke the airman’s certificate. The airman has the right to appeal the suspension or revocation to the NTSB.
1.1.7.4 COMPLIANCE PROGRAM
The FAA instituted the Compliance Program in 2015 in FAA Order 8000.373. The goal of the program is to “achieve rapid
compliance, to eliminate a safety risk or deviation, and to ensure positive and permanent change.”
The Compliance Program is used by the FAA to correct unintentional violations from simple mistakes, lack of understanding, or
diminished skills. These can be effectively corrected through training and education. The FAA's use of the Compliance Program
does not constitute a determination of a violation. Instead, it provides an opportunity for the fair assessment of genuine errors. The
distinction between the Compliance Program and enforcement actions are blameless unsafe acts that can be addressed by using
compliance tools, and unacceptable behavior that requires enforcement action.
When the FAA uses the Compliance Program in lieu of an enforcement action, the airman is in most cases required to
attend/perform/complete specific training as directed by the inspector. When that training is complete, and the inspector is satisfied
the conduct that led to the violation is remedied, the matter will be closed.
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1.1.7.5 ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS
An administrative action is used to dispose of violations that are too minor to warrant legal enforcement action, but arguably more
serious than a violation that warrants handling through the compliance program. In order to be considered minor, the violation must
not be deliberate, must not be significantly unsafe and must not evidence a lack of competency and qualification. The violator would
be issued either a warning notice or a letter of correction. These administrative actions remain part of the airman’s official record
for two years after action is taken. After this period, it is expunged.
Warning Notices are sent to the alleged violators and recite the facts and circumstances of the violations and request future
compliance. When the FAA issues these warning notices, it is not likely they will remove them from the airman’s file until expiration
of the two-year period (discussed above). However, if the airman disputes the allegations contained in the warning notice or has
some facts to consider in mitigation, the airman should write and send a response to the notice which will be kept in the airman’s file
along with the warning notice.
Letters of Correction serve the same process as warning notices but are used by the FAA when there are agreements with the
alleged violator and the FAA accepts that corrective action has or will be taken in a reasonable amount of time.
An administrative action is used to dispose of violations that are too minor to warrant legal enforcement action, but arguably more
serious than a violation that warrants handling through the compliance program. In order to be considered minor, the violation must
not be deliberate, must not be significantly unsafe and must not evidence a lack of competency and qualification. The violator would
be issued either a warning notice or a letter of correction. These administrative actions remain part of the airman’s official record
for two years after action is taken. After this period, it is expunged.
Warning Notices are sent to the alleged violators and recite the facts and circumstances of the violations and request future
compliance. When the FAA issues these warning notices, it is not likely they will remove them from the airman’s file until expiration
of the two-year period (discussed above). However, if the airman disputes the allegations contained in the warning notice or has
some facts to consider in mitigation, the airman should write and send a response to the notice which will be kept in the airman’s file
along with the warning notice.
Letters of Correction serve the same process as warning notices but are used by the FAA when there are agreements with the
alleged violator and the FAA accepts that corrective action has or will be taken in a reasonable amount of time.
1.1.7.6 FAA ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS
If the FAA inspector finds a violation has occurred, an Enforcement Investigative Report (EIR) is forwarded to the FAA Regional
Flight Standards Office for review. If that office agrees there has been a violation that requires an enforcement action, the report
then goes to the FAA’s legal counsel with appropriate action recommendations. Enforcement actions include certificate actions and
civil penalties.
1.1.7.6.1 REMEDIAL TRAINING PROGRAM
The FAA has begun to permit airmen to complete remedial training as corrective action. Remedial training cannot be used in cases
of an airman’s lack of qualifications or in cases of an airman’s improper conduct that can be considered deliberate and/or grossly
negligent, resulted in an accident, or constituted a criminal offense. In addition, an airman is required to admit to the violation in
order to participate in the training program.
If an FAA inspector uses this approach, the inspector will consider the following:
Will future compliance reasonably be ensured through remedial training alone?
Does the airman exhibit a constructive attitude that leads the inspector to believe the airman has a willingness to comply,
so that noncompliance is less likely in the future?
Does the airman have any prior record of enforcement actions?
The final decision as to whether or not to use remedial training rests with an accident prevention specialist (APS). The APS will
meet with the airman to confirm whether or not remedial training is appropriate, propose a course of study and thereafter develop a
remedial training program.
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The meeting between the APS and the airman should be limited to a discussion of an appropriate remedial training program to help
the airman comply with safety regulations in the future. The merits of the underlying incident or investigation should not be
discussed in any other way. The APS should advise the airman that participation in the remedial training program is a substitute for
legal enforcement action. The airman cannot contest the violation and participate in the program.
During the meeting, the APS will describe a proposed course of study, including training objectives and expected completion
dates. Considerations taken by the APS will include the nature of the violation, the airman’s enforcement record, the specific needs
of the airman and the availability of qualified instructors and facilities in the airman’s geographic area of operation. The airman’s
views on the proposed course should be solicited before the final program is developed.
The agreed course of study and completion date will appear in a letter of agreement. Within the time specified in the agreement, the
airman must provide the required evidence that the training has been completed. A letter of correction stating that required remedial
training has been satisfactorily accomplished will be placed in the airman’s record for two years. After this period, it will be
expunged.
1.1.7.6.2 CERTIFICATE ACTIONS
The airman will be informed of the proposed action by a Notice of Proposed Certificate Action (NOPCA). That notice will identify the
alleged violations and the proposed sanction, for example, a 60-day suspension of an airman’s certificate. The NOPCA will offer
the airman an opportunity to participate in an informal conference with the FAA. The informal conference is attended by an FAA
attorney and the inspector that investigated the alleged violations. Sometimes other FAA personnel such as the investigator’s
supervisor.
NBAA recommends that the airman request an informal conference as it can be a great opportunity for the airman to tell the
airman’s side of the story and provide facts and evidence that the FAA is not, or has not, considered. If an attorney has been
retained, that attorney should do all or most of the talking during the conference. Ideally, the case is settled during the informal
conference. If not, the FAA will issue an Order of Suspension or an Order of Revocation. However, if the FAA determines that an
emergency exists in which safety requires an immediate suspension or revocation, an Emergency Order of Revocation or
Suspension will be issued. When this occurs, the airman must immediately surrender the FAA certificates to the FAA.
The airman has the right to appeal either Order to the NTSB. Unless the case is designated an “emergency” the airman’s
certificate remains effective until the NTSB disposes of the appeal. The first appeal will be before an administrative law judge 
(ALJ) in a trial-type hearing. This decision, in whole or in part can be appealed to the full five-member NTSB and thereafter, that
decision can be appealed in federal court.
However, the airman needs to consider that this appeal process can be a lengthy and expensive process. Again, representation
by competent aviation counsel is essential in ensuring a fair and objective interaction with FAA personnel.
1.1.7.6.3 CIVIL PENALTY
The FAA has the authority to assess civil penalties (fines), for FAR violations. Civil penalty actions are usually assessed against
Part 119 certificate holders and other aviation operators and not airmen. The process is similar to a certificate action, the difference
is that the sanction is monitory and in and of itself, does not affect the certificate It starts with an LOI, then a Notice of Proposed
Civil Penalty, then an Order of Proposed Civil Penalty. However, the first level of appeal is with the FAA’s Office of Dispute
Resolution; the next level is with the FAA Administrator, and finally in the federal courts.
However, when the FAA proposes a civil penalty of $50,000 or more, this will be published by the FAA in a press release. See
https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/press_releases. Further, the case is referred to the Department of Justice, and the appeal will
be heard and decided in the federal courts.
1.1.7.6.3.1 CRIMINAL ACTIONS
The criminal prosecution of these cases rests with the Department of Justice and the rules are the same as those for federal
criminal proceedings. These actions tend to focus on serious offenses such as forgery of certificates, falsified logbooks, carriage
of weapons aboard aircraft, false aircraft markings, illegal aircraft registration and knowingly making false statements on an
application for issuance or renewal of a certificate.
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1.1.7.7 VOLUNTARY DISCLOSURE REPORTING PROGRAM (VDRP)
For Part 119 certificate holders and qualified fractional ownership programs, voluntary reporting guidance is made through FAA
Advisory Circular 00-58B (dated April 29, 2009), titled Voluntary Disclosure Reporting Program (VDRP). The VDRP is not
specifically designed for Part 91 operations, however, when situations arise similar to those mentioned herein, the FAA may use
these VDRP procedures. This is especially true when the violation was inadvertent. These disclosures are exempt from Freedom
of Information Act (“FOIA”) requests.
The purpose of the VDRP is to provide guidance with respect to voluntarily disclosure of apparent violations of the FARs and if
accepted, to avoid enforcement actions such as civil penalty actions. If the FAA accepts the voluntary disclosure, it will not seek a
civil penalty against the reporting entity (”RE”). (The RE is the certificate holder or fractional ownership program authorized to
submit voluntary disclosures under the VDRP).
To be considered for acceptance in the VDRP the following conditions must be met:
The certificate holder must immediately notify the FAA of the apparent violation upon detecting it and before the FAA
learns of it;
The apparent violation must be inadvertent;
The apparent violation does not indicate a lack, or reason- able question of a lack of qualification;
The certificate holder must take immediate action upon discovery to terminate the conduct that resulted in the apparent
violation;
The certificate holder must develop and implement a comprehensive fix satisfactory to the FAA. This comprehensive fix
must include self-audits to ensure the actions taken correct the non-compliance.
1.1.7.7.1 The six stages of VDRP are:
Stage I:
Notification of the Apparent Violation. Ordinarily, notification must be made within 24 hours of discovery of the violation, by one of
the management officials specified in Part 119, § 119.65, § 119.69 or by a person designated by the airline if the employee is
identified in a letter by management as specified in § 119.65 or § 119.69. The Principal Inspector (PI) (maintenance or operations
inspector) will consider on a case-by-case basis if a later notification is still considered timely. This notification should include the
maximum extent possible:
A description of the violation including the duration of time it went undetected and how and when discovered.
Verification that noncompliance ceased after it was identified.
A brief description of the immediate action taken after the apparent violation was identified, the immediate action taken to
terminate the conduct that resulted in the apparent violation, and the person responsible for taking the immediate action.
Verification that an evaluation is underway to determine if there are any systemic problems and the corrective steps
necessary to prevent the apparent violation from recurring.
Identify the person responsible for the comprehensive fix.
Acknowledgment that a written report will be provided within 10 working days.
Stage II:
The PI will review the web-based submission from the air carrier and respond in a timely manner and confirm the notification was
timely, and the violation was inadvertent and does not indicate a lack, or reasonable question, of qualification of the air carrier, the
air carrier had or is developing a comprehensive fix. When the PI completes review a decision will be made to accept or reject the
disclosure or return it for editing. If the disclosure is found to be invalid (non-violation), the case does not go forward and theRE is
notified via email. If the disclosure is accepted the case proceeds to Stage III.
Stage III:
The RE should provide a written report to theFAAvia the web-basedVDRPsystem within 10 days of disclosure. The report should
contain a detailed description of the initial notification. If theRE is unable to provide a proposed comprehensive fix in this time frame,
it should provide at least an overview of its comprehensive fix plans.
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In any event, a comprehensive fix should be submitted within 30 days of the initial notification. The report should include:
A list of the specificFAAregulations that may have been violated.
A description of the apparent violation, including the duration of time it remained undetected, as well as how and when it
was detected.
The immediate action taken to terminate the conduct that resulted in the apparent violation, including when it was taken,
and who was responsible for taking the action.
An explanation that shows the apparent violation was inadvertent.
Evidence that demonstrates the seriousness of the apparent violation and the regulated entity’s analysis of that evidence.
Completion of a Risk Assessment Matrix to aid in evaluating the significance of the event.
A detailed description of the proposed comprehensive fix, outlining the planned corrective steps
Stage IV:
Review by FAAto ensure that the RE has identified the root causes and systemic issues which led to the apparent violation. The PI
completes a Risk Assessment Matrix to aid in evaluating the significance of the event and the proposed comprehensive fix. This
collaboration helps to ensure that the corrective actions contained in the comprehensive fix are acceptable to the FAA.
Stage V:
The plan is implemented and theRE continues to work with the FAA or the PI may issue a letter of corrections.
Stage VI:
At this stage, if the inspector determines the comprehensive fix is satisfactory, it is signed off and entered into the VDRP web
system for completion which will automatically notify theRE. Matrix to aid in evaluating the significance of the event and the
proposed comprehensive fix. This collaboration helps to ensure that the corrective actions contained in the comprehensive fix are
acceptable to the FAA.
1.1.7.7.2 VDRP DISPUTE RESOLUTION
When disputes occur regarding the acceptance of a proposed comprehensive fix, or a modification, the PI and theRE may request
the issue be resolved at the next level of management within the FAA. This procedure will provide for an independent assessment
of the areas in disagreement.
The VDRP only applies to “individuals” in limited circumstances. It applies only when all the following occur:
The apparent violation involves a deficiency of the RE’s practices or procedures;
The airman or other agent of the RE , while acting on behalf of the RE , inadvertently violates the FARs;
The airman or other agent immediately makes the report of the apparent violation to the RE ; and
The RE immediately notifies the FAA of both the airman or other agent’s apparent violation and the apparent deficiency in
its practice or procedures.
The airman or other agent immediately makes the report of the apparent violation to the RE ; and
The RE immediately notifies the FAA of both the airman or other agent’s apparent violation and the apparent deficiency in
its practice or procedures.
1.1.7.8 AVIATION SAFETY REPORTING SYSTEM (ASRS)
In 1975 the FAA instituted the ASRP which is designed to encourage reporting of FAR violations (deficiencies and discrepancies)
to support the FAA’s primary mission of promoting aviation safety. For individuals, voluntary reports can be made under FAA
Advisory Circular 00-46F (dated April 2, 2021), titled the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS).
The FAA has partnered with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to act as a third-party administrator to
receive and analyze ASAP reports. NASA designed and continues to administer the program. This ensures the anonymity of the
reporter and other parties. Confidentiality is essential for the success of the program. NASA does not disclose any information that
may identify any of the involved parties. Further, 14 CFR § 91.25 prohibits the FAA from using any report submitted under ASAP in
any disciplinary action, except for criminal offenses and accidents.
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The FAA considers submission of ASAP reports as indicative of a constructive attitude that tends to prevent future violations,
therefore even if the FAA finds that a violation of the FARs occurred, it will not impose a civil penalty or certificate action so long as:
The violation was inadvertent;
The violation did not involve a criminal offense, accident, or disclose a lack of qualification or competency;
The person has not committed a violation for a period of 5 years prior to the date of occurrence; and
The ASAP report must be made within 10 days after the violation, or date when the person became aware or should have
been aware of the violation.
Electronic reporting forms (NASA ASRS Form 277-series are available for access and secure electronic filing from the NASA
ASRS website at https://asrs.arc.nasa.gov.
1.1.8 SCHEDULING GUIDELINES
Each company should develop and publish its own scheduling guidelines that will assist the scheduler, dispatcher, travel
coordinator and administrative assistant in arranging the business aircraft. These guidelines should include a request form to
ensure that information regarding the desired flight and its approval is clearly communicated. Once the aviation department has
received a request, it should contact the requester to confirm receipt and review the trip details. A sample request form and
passenger manifest appears in Figure 1.11.
NBAA also recommends that the following items be included in scheduling guidelines:
The sequence of executive prioritization by title;
A statement that the aviation department has the final decision-making authority;
A policy for non-employees to board company aircraft;
The titles of all individuals who are permitted to request and/or approve use of company aircraft;
Company policy on participation of charity flights;
Any restrictions on particular executives traveling together;
Position flights;
Ensure ground transportation meets company requirements for safety and insurance issues;
Policy for personal use and family travel on the aircraft.
Some companies have a central travel office that processes requests for all modes of transportation. This office either could be in
the aviation department or in a separate office. Other companies utilize an outside contracted travel service for transportation
services other than the company aircraft, and travel needs are coordinated between the aviation department and the outside
service.
The duties of the travel office could include reservations for airlines, car rentals and hotels as well as the company aircraft. If a
travel office is used for processing requests for the company aircraft, the aviation department must be granted final approval
authority.
For more information about the responsibilities of the scheduler/dispatcher role, see page 1-16
1.1.8.1 GROUP EXECUTIVE TRAVEL
The group executive travel policy should derive from corporate philosophy, legal and risk management review, prudence and a
careful assessment of the risks involved should an accident occur that could jeopardize the continuity of executive management.
Because of the critical and sensitive nature of this policy, it should be developed by senior management. Corporate risk and
insurance specialists also should be consulted.
A policy often begins as a company administrative procedure and eventually becomes part of the company operations manual.
However, actual risk and effect of potential losses should be considered rather than allowing protocol or custom to dictate the
policy.
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The policy should specify executives by title or groups of executives who are prohibited from traveling together. Each policy should
include procedures for deviations from the basic policy in extraordinary circumstances. Codes may be used to identify executives
for security purposes. Enforcement of this policy should be left to corporate headquarters personnel and not to the aviation
department; however, schedulers should point out apparent violation of the policy when trips are being scheduled.
1.1.8.2 ON-CALL PROGRAMS
Business aviation frequently operates on an on-demand basis. Therefore, it is common practice for some flight departments to
keep crew members available for short-notice trips. The availability requirement may be a flexible one, in which crew members are
obliged only to respond to emails, text messages or phone calls, and acknowledge trips which may take place more than 24 hours
in the future. Alternatively, the availability requirement may be quite rigid and necessitate crew members to report to duty as soon
as they are contacted and be prepared to fly to destinations unknown for extended periods of time. While the requirement to have
crew members on-call is a reality in the industry, aviation managers should remain aware of the implications of on-call status where
two crucial areas of flight department operations are concerned: safety and morale.
1.1.8.2.1 Safety
Aviation managers should carefully define the limits of on-call status to avoid placing crews on-duty who are fatigued and/or subject
to the effects of the circadian low. When crew members are on-call are they “in rest” or are they “on-duty?” If crew members are
“in-rest,” how do they cope with the realities of circadian rhythm for evening or early morning flights? If crew members are “onduty” while they are on-call, how long should an on-call period last and how late in the period can a crew member be called for a
trip? These are just a few of the questions that should be considered from a safety perspective in the construction and
management of an on-call program.
1.1.8.2.2 Morale
Aviation managers should have a frank discussion with their principal to determine exactly what the requirements for on-call crew
members should be in their individual operations. For example, it may not be necessary to have all aircraft in the department
available for a two-hour dispatch 24/7/365, and if that availability is required, the department should be staffed accordingly. Aviation
managers should also be sensitive to the imposition in personal time and family flexibility that on-call duty can generate and ensure
that burden is spread evenly throughout the department. In general, some crew members don’t consider on-call days as “off
days,” even if they are not called for a trip, because they were unable to make plans or commitments for that day.
Correspondingly, some corporate HR departments don’t consider on-call days as workdays if a crew member is not called. The
aviation manager must strike a balance between these two positions in order to satisfy the demands of corporate leadership and
maintain the morale of his/her personnel.
1.1.9 CARRIAGE OF CANDIDATES FOR THE U.S. HOUSE OR SENATE
Due to the passage of the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act in 2007, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) has
promulgated new rules governing the private carriage of candidates for federal office. These rules came into effect on January 6,
2010, introducing further restrictions, and in some cases prohibitions on the carriage of federal candidates. The rules also provide
a new method for calculating the reimbursement rate for non-commercial air travel. Reimbursement by candidates is required in
order to avoid an in-kind contribution that would exceed permissible limits set by the FEC.
These new rules apply only to individuals meeting the FEC definition of a candidate currently running for federal office. Individuals
that are not currently candidates for the U.S. House or Senate are not covered by the FEC rules.
The U.S. House and Senate have also established additional rules for currently serving members, which are explained in a later
section.
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1.1.9.1 PROHIBITIONS ON PROVISION OF TRAVEL
The previous regulations, issued by the FEC in 2003, did not specifically prohibit travel on board non-commercial aircraft by any
type of federal candidates. The new regulations, promulgated in 2010, now expressly prohibit travel on non-commercial aircraft by
candidates for the U.S. House of Representatives. These candidates, their authorized committees, and their leadership political
action committees are prohibited from making any expenditure for non-commercial travel on aircraft, unless the aircraft is either
government-operated or owned or leased by the candidate or an immediate family member of the candidate.
1.1.9.2 REIMBURSEMENT RATES
Under the 2003 FEC Regulations, federal candidates were required to reimburse providers of non-commercial air travel according to the first-class, coach, or charter rate between two destinations, depending on the availability of the rates. Under the
2010 regulations, the required reimbursement rates for travel on non-commercial aircraft have changed substantially.
Candidates for the U.S. Senate, vice presidency or presidency are required to reimburse the provider of air transportation for the
candidate’s pro rata share of the normal and usual charter rate or rental charge for travel on a comparable aircraft of comparable
size. The normal and usual charter rate or rental charge is the amount it would cost to charter or rent a comparable aircraft of
comparable size for the given distance or time flown.
In most cases, this is calculated by contacting charter operators and obtaining the price for the trip conducted by the candidate in a
comparable aircraft operated by the air carrier. A comparable aircraft is an aircraft that has similar physical dimensions and
amenities to the aircraft actually flown and is capable of carrying a similar number of passengers.
Under the 2010 regulations, federal candidates are not required to include government-mandated security personnel when
determining the comparable size of the aircraft. Also, media and security personnel may reimburse the service provider directly
instead of reimbursing the candidate as was previously required.
1.1.9.3 RECORD-KEEPING REQUIREMENTS
The 2010 regulations require federal candidates to maintain and report certain records pertaining to non-commercial air travel. For
example, candidates must file reports with the FEC stating the name of the flight provider, aircraft information and a list of all
passengers. Records on the publicly available charter rate used to determine the reimbursement amount must be reported and
available to the public within seven days of the candidate’s actual travel.
1.1.9.4 GOVERNMENT-OWNED AND CANDIDATE-OWNED AIRCRAFT EXCEPTIONS
Exceptions to these regulations exist for both government and candidate-owned aircraft. Questions about these exceptions should
be directed to NBAA’s Operations Service Group at (202) 783-9250 or info@nbaa.org.
1.1.9.5 CARRIAGE OF MEMBERS CURRENTLY SERVING IN THE U.S. HOUSE OR SENATE
Members currently serving in either the U.S. House or Senate must follow the ethics rules set by their respective chambers when
traveling on board non-commercial aircraft. For House members participating in privately sponsored, officially connected travel, the
gift rule prohibits travel on a non-commercial, private or chartered flight, unless exceptional circumstances are demonstrated.
In addition, the House Code of Official Conduct prohibits members from using personal, official or campaign funds to pay for or
reimburse the expenses of a flight on any aircraft unless one of the exceptions to the rule is met. The major exceptions are for
travel on commercially scheduled flights and flights provided by individuals or companies operating a charter service. However, the
use of personal, official, or campaign funds to pay for a flight on a non-commercial aircraft is generally prohibited.
Unlike House members, U.S. senators are not expressly prohibited from utilizing non-commercial aircraft. Under Senate rules,
senators traveling on board non-commercial aircraft must provide reimbursement at the normal charter rate or rental charge for a
similar aircraft.
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There are a number of exceptions and complex scenarios covered in the House and Senate rules that cannot be adequately
discussed here. NBAA members considering transporting U.S. House members or senators are urged to review the rules in detail
with qualified advisors.
1.1.9.6 FAA REGULATIONS, AND STATE LOCAL LAWS
In addition to the FEC Rules, candidates and operators must satisfy the regulations of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
and any applicable state or local laws. The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) allow operators of non-commercial aircraft to
carry federal candidates under FAR 91.321 so long as the service provider does not hold an air carrier certificate.
The FAA requires that the reimbursement provided by the candidate does not exceed the rates required by the FEC regulations.
Unlike federal candidates, state and local candidates are governed by state and local laws, not FEC regulations. For this reason, it
is recommended to consult appropriate counsel before providing or accepting non-commercial air travel in connection with state
and local elections.
1.1.10 BUSINESS AIRCRAFT ALLOWANCES
1.1.10.1 THE INTERNAL REVENUE SERVICE AND EXCISE TAXES
Any operation of an aircraft within the United States is subject to any variety of taxes. If an operation is considered non-commercial
for Internal Revenue Service (IRS) purposes, the operation is subject to fuel taxes. Commercial operations, as defined by the IRS,
are subject to the transportation of persons tax, the transportation of property tax, and/or the international head tax. If an operation
is considered commercial for tax purposes, the operator is entitled to a refund of all fuel taxes paid on aviation fuel (excluding the
Leaking Underground Storage Tank tax and the Deficit Reduction tax), since the commercial excise taxes and the noncommercial
fuel taxes are mutually exclusive. (IRC 4261)
When determining what operations are commercial and noncommercial, it must be noted that the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) and the IRS do not necessarily agree on what constitutes a commercial operator.
The FAA defines a commercial operator as a “person who, for compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by aircraft in air
commerce of persons or property.” To test whether an operation is for “compensation or hire,” determine if the carriage by air is
merely incidental to the person’s other business or is, in itself, a major enterprise for profit. (Management Guide 1.1)
The IRS defines a commercial operator as anyone in the “business of transporting persons or property for compensation or hire
by air.” [IRC 4041(c)]
Although these two definitions sound similar, the FAA allows the noncommercial (Part 91) operator to receive some compensation
for flights conducted under Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) 91.501 Subpart F if the operation is “merely incidental” to the
business of the company. These operations include time-sharing, interchange, and demonstration flights. These operations are
considered noncommercial to the FAA. However, the IRS does not distinguish between operations that are “merely incidental” and
those that are a “major enterprise for profit.” In fact, the IRS has a Revenue Ruling which states that the FAA’s definition of
commercial aviation is not determinative in deciding which tax applies. (IRS Revenue Ruling 78-75)
Another aspect to consider when determining which tax applies in a situation is who has “possession, command, and control” of
the aircraft. The FAA uses the phrase operational control, which translates as the “exercise of authority over initiating, conducting
and terminating a flight.” However, the IRS determines who has possession, command, and control by using the following criteria:
Who owns the aircraft?
Who has control over the aircraft’s personnel?
Who pays the operating expenses of the aircraft?
Who maintains the liability and risk insurance for the aircraft? (IRS RR 55-215)
For more detailed information, see the NBAA Federal Excise Tax Handbook.
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1.1.10.2 NON-BUSINESS USE OF EMPLOYER-PROVIDED AIRCRAFT
From time to time, a company’s aviation department will be asked to fly employees for reasons not related to the business of the
company. The chief executive officer may request the aircraft for a personal trip, or an employee may hitch a ride on a flight
already planned to a certain location. Both of these are examples of personal use of an employer-provided aircraft. NBAA has
guidance on this use of the aircraft via its Tax Issues website at www.nbaa.org/taxes. There are potentially SEC and FAA
considerations as well, particularly with regard to reimbursing the company for personal flights.
Under IRS regulations (Title 26 of the Code of Federal Register or CFR), such transportation may be taxable to the employee.
The applicable sections are Section 1.61-21T of the IRS regulations, which apply between 1985 and 1988, and Section 1.61-
21(g) of the IRS regulations, which apply after January 1, 1989. These regulations are complex and require the aviation
department manager to consult with the company’s legal, tax and accounting departments or consultants. The fundamentals
underlying the IRS regulations are stated below. When flying on a company-provided aircraft for a personal reason, the employee
has received a service of value.
The “fair market value” of the service can be determined.
A receipt of the service constitutes additional compensation as an employer-provided fringe benefit subject to income and
employment taxes.
The regulations include rules to determine when transportation is taxable and how its fair market value is determined.
1.1.10.2.1 When Flights are Taxable
The fair market value of a family member or guest’s transportation is considered additional income to the employee. The
regulations generally do not distinguish between personal use and empty-seat transportation.
An exception is found in the seating capacity rule, which states that if 50 percent or more of the regular passenger seating capacity
of the aircraft on that flight is used for business reasons, then any remaining seats used by employees, spouses and children
traveling for nonbusiness reasons can be considered to have a valuation of zero. For the purpose of computing the number of
passenger seats, the following seats cannot be counted: (1) flight crew seats and (2) seats that cannot be used legally during a
takeoff and will not at any time be used during takeoff. However, the regulations further state that the regular passenger seating
capacity of an aircraft is the maximum number of passenger seats that have at any time been on the aircraft (while owned or
leased by the employer).
A company can reduce or increase the seating capacity of an aircraft permanently. However, if the company then restores some
seats within 24 months, the IRS will ignore the reduction in seating capacity.
The regulation applies to the following individuals:
An employee
A person formerly employed by the employer
Any partner who performs services for a partnership
An employee’s spouse
An employee’s dependent children
A retired employee
An employee separated from service due to a disability
Surviving spouse of a retired employee
Surviving spouse of an employee separated from service due to a disability
An individual who is less than two years of age
An employee guest who is not categorized above may not be valued at zero. The guest may be valued as if they is a non-control
employee, even if the employee who brings the guest is a control employee. (The terms control employee and non-control
employee are defined below.)
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1.1.10.2.2 Types of Employees
Under the IRS regulations, employees are divided into two types: control and non-control. An explanation of each follows:
1.1.10.2.2.1 1. Control Employees
A control employee is defined as:
A board, or shareholder appointed, confirmed, or elected officer of the employer, limited to 1 percent of all employees
or 10 employees (whichever is less), not including an employee whose compensation is less than $50,000
An employee whose compensation, as reported on the employee’s W-2 Form for the prior calendar year, equals or
exceeds the compensation of the top 1 percent of the most highly paid employees, limited to a maximum of 50
employees, but does not include an employee whose compensation is less than $50,000
An employee who owns a 5 percent or greater equity, capital or profit interest in the employer
A person who is a director of the employer
A control employee also may be a former control employee who performed one of the following actions:
Left the company within the past three years
Left the company after reaching age 55
Had compensation that was not less than $50,000
1.1.10.2.2.2 2. Non-Control Employees
Non-control employees are those who do not meet the definition of a control employee. Different definitions apply when the
employer is a government employer.
1.1.10.2.3 How Flights are Valued
The value of a flight deemed taxable under the regulations can be computed two ways.
The first method, according to IRS regulations, is by reference to how much it would cost a hypothetical person to charter the
same or comparable aircraft for the same or comparable flight. The cost to charter the aircraft must be allocated among all
employees on board the aircraft based on all the facts and circumstances. This method of valuation is known as charter rate
valuation or fair market value. In many cases, this method will result in the higher of the two valuation methods allowed.
The second and more common method is known as the noncommercial flight valuation rule, or SIFL (Standard Industry Fair Level)
rule, and involves use of a mileage based computation. This formula is a sliding scale of multipliers based on the maximum gross
takeoff weight of the aircraft and the type of employee. The following table lists the relevant aircraft weights and their applicable
aircraft multiple.
Aircraft Maximum Certified Takeoff Weight
Aircraft Multiples
Control Employee Non- Control Employee
6,000 pounds or less 62.5 15.6
6,001 to 10,000 pounds 125 23.4
10,001 to 25,000 pounds 300 31.3
25,001 pounds or more 400 31.3
Other special considerations include the SIFL rates, which represent an airline industry statistic maintained by the DOT. SIFL rates
include specific cost-per-mile rates for three different ranges of statute mileage and a fixed terminal charge. The SIFL rate changes
every six months.
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Proper use of this special rule precludes the IRS, at some time in the future (usually at audit), from questioning the means by which
the value of nonbusiness use of an employer provided aircraft is derived. This safeguard is not involved when the charter valuation
method is used and thus, in many cases, provides substantial benefit over the charter method. However, if the IRS determines that
the special rule was improperly used, the taxpayer loses the ability to use the special rule to compute the value of a flight and may
instead be forced to use the charter valuation method.
1.1.10.2.4 Consistency Rules
As stated above, use of the special rule for determining the value of taxable transportation is subject to certain restrictions.
The regulations state that the special rule cannot be used to value a flight under either of the following circumstances:
A person who claims to be a control employee is not recognized as a control employee by another control employee or
the employer
The aircraft’s weight class is higher than what had been originally claimed
The same is true regarding use of the seating capacity rule. If a determination regarding the transportation of a control or a noncontrol employee made under the rule is later found to be in error, it subsequently may not be used to value the flight in question.
The regulations maintain that if an employer or employee determines that a flight is not taxable by virtue of having a business
purpose and such determination is later found to be in error, the employee may not value the transportation through use of the
special rule.
Under the regulations, once a taxpayer is found to have lost the ability to use the special rule to value the taxable transportation,
the taxpayer may be forced to use the charter valuation method.
Finally, the regulations provide that only one valuation method, charter or special rule, may be used to value taxable transportation
during a taxable year.
1.1.10.2.5 Bona Fide Security Concerns
Section 1.132-5(m) of the IRS regulations maintains that a bona fide business oriented security concern must be demonstrated in
order for the employee to realize a reduced valuation for the employee’s transportation. The following factors should be considered
when demonstrating the existence of such a concern to the satisfaction of the IRS:
Death threats
Threats of kidnappings or serious bodily harm
A history of violent terrorist activity in the relevant geographic area
However, the regulations also state that no bona fide business-oriented security concern will be deemed to exist unless the
employee’s employer establishes an overall security program with respect to the employee involved. An overall security program
is one in which security is provided to protect the employee on a 24-hour basis.
The regulations do provide that if a business oriented security concern exists with respect to an employee, such concern exists
with respect to the spouse and dependents of the employee as well. When an employee’s spouse and dependents fly on board the
same aircraft as the employee for bona fide business-oriented security reasons, the requirements for a security program are
considered to be satisfied independently with respect to the spouse and dependents of an employee.
Under the safe harbor rule, if, for a bona fide business oriented security concern, the employer requires that an employee travel on
an employer provided aircraft for a personal trip, the employer and the employee may exclude the excess value of the aircraft trip
over the safe harbor airfare from the employee’s gross income. The value of the safe harbor airfare is determined under the
noncommercial flight special valuation rule by multiplying the applicable cost-per-mile rates and the number of miles in the flight by
an aircraft multiple of 200 percent and then adding the applicable Terminal charge.
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1.1.10.2.6 Reimbursement for Personal Flights
The FAA generally prohibits aircraft operators from seeking reimbursements for the costs associated with flights conducted under
14 CFR Part 91. Certain exceptions to this general prohibition are found in 14 CFR § 91.501 and include provisions such as timesharing agreements (91.501(c)(1), demonstration flights (91.501(b)(3), and charge backs for trips that are within the scope of and
incidental to the business of the company (91.501(b)(5).
Generally, flights that are personal in nature are not within the scope of the business of the company operating the aircraft and,
therefore, the FAA prohibits reimbursement under 14 CFR 91.501(b)(5).
However, a 2010 FAA chief counsel interpretation that was issued at NBAA’s request provides an exception under which it may be
permissible for an employee to reimburse the company for costs associated with certain personal flights provided the following
conditions are met:
The company’s governing body (e.g., its board of directors) takes action naming the key executive(s) whose travel plans
are routinely changed within a short time by the company for business reasons due to his or her position in the company.
The company maintains a list of these executive(s) and, upon request, makes the list available to the FAA for inspection.
The company keeps records documenting its determination that the executive was traveling on a “routine personal” flight,
such as a vacation.
1.1.10.2.7 SEC Considerations for Public Companies
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) requires all public companies to report the value of perquisites provided to
named executive officers (NEOs), which generally include the Accountable Executive, CFO and the company’s three most highly
compensated executives. When a business aircraft is used by an NEO, family member or guest for a non-business purpose, it is
generally considered a perquisite or “perk” that must be reported on the public company’s SEC disclosures. Use of the aircraft
must be integrally and directly related to performance of the NEO’s job responsibilities to qualify as business use for SEC
purposes.
When a company reports use of a business aircraft as a perquisite, it is done in the executive compensation section of the
company’s proxy statement. Companies are required to report the aggregate incremental costs (AIC) as the actual costs to
provide the perquisite, which are above and beyond normal cost of providing business transportation. The primary SEC objective
is to provide clear information to investors on the value of the perquisite, so companies should describe the method used to
determine AIC. Generally, the AIC should include variable/direct costs in connection with operating the specific non-business flight.
Fixed operating costs that do not vary based on aircraft usage are generally not included in the AIC calculation.
1.1.10.3 ENTERTAINMENT DEDUCTION DISALLOWANCE FOR CERTAIN PERSONAL FLIGHTS
Prior to the Oct. 23, 2004, effective date of the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 (the “Jobs Act”), the entertainment
disallowance under Internal Revenue Code § 274(a) did not prevent the deduction of the cost of personal flights provided to
employees, because such flights fell within the exception in § 274(e)(2) for costs incurred to provide compensation. The Jobs Act
modified the compensation exception in § 274(e)(2), (9) to the entertainment disallowance rules to provide that the exception is not
available to “specified individuals” (except to the extent of the amount of the taxable fringe benefit reported to the specified
individual).
For example, suppose a flight is provided to a specified individual to go on vacation and the employer reports the value under the
SIFL rate method of $1,000 to the specified individual as a taxable fringe benefit on Form W-2. Suppose further that the employer’s
cost of providing the flight is $5,000. The entertainment disallowance would require the employer on its federal income tax to
reduce its otherwise allowable deductions for the operation of the aircraft by the difference of $4,000. This has created new
requirements for recordkeeping and necessary calculations to determine the deduction disallowance.
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1.1.10.3.1 Specified Individuals
The term “specified individual” is defined as any individual who is subject to § 16(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 with
respect to the company, or any individual who would be subject to it if the company were an issuer of equity securities subject to
the Securities Act, IRC § 274(e) (2)(B); Prop. Treas. Reg. § 1.274-9(b). Under these rules, specified individuals generally include
officers, directors and 10-percent owners. Officers are defined by reference to securities laws and include the principal financial
officer, principal accounting officer or controller, vice presidents in charge of a principal business unit, division or function and any
other officer who performs a similar policy-making function.
1.1.10.3.2 Classification of Flights
Since the Jobs Act amendment provides that the compensation exception to the entertainment disallowance is not available for
flights provided to specified individuals, employers cannot deduct the costs of flights provided as compensation to specified
individuals for entertainment purposes. Therefore, employers generally must divide flights into three categories:
Business flights
Personal non-entertainment flights
Entertainment flights
1.1.10.3.3 Allocation of Costs
In the past, costs were allocated among flights in proportion to the number of miles or hours of the flight based on the primary
purpose of each flight (without allocating costs of a flight among the passengers who may be traveling for different purposes).
While the primary purpose method remains generally applicable to a company’s flights, the IRS has issued proposed regulations
explaining that to allocate costs to determine the entertainment disallowance, companies must use either the “occupied seat
method” or the “flight by flight” method. Under both methods, the calculation may be performed in either hours or miles.
The two passenger-by-passenger allocation methods are described in detail in the NBAA Personal Use Handbook, which also
contains an example of these calculation methods from the proposed regulations with step-by-step instructions.
1.1.10.3.4 Costs Subject to Entertainment Disallowance
The costs subject to the entertainment disallowance calculation include all out-of-pocket expenses of the flights and all costs with
respect to the aircraft. These would include fixed and variable costs of operating the aircraft. The proposed regulations list the
following examples of expenses subject to the disallowance: salaries for pilots, maintenance personnel and other personnel
assigned to the aircraft; meal and lodging expenses for the flight personnel; takeoff and landing fees; costs for maintenance flights;
costs of on-board refreshments, amenities and gifts; hangar fees (at home or away); management fees; costs of fuel, tires,
maintenance, insurance, registration, certification of title, inspection and depreciation; and all costs paid or incurred for aircraft
leased or chartered to or by the taxpayer.
1.1.10.4 STATE AVIATION TAXES
State and local governments generate significant revenue from business aviation by imposing a number of different kinds of taxes
on aviation assets and operations. These taxes may include income or franchise taxes, sales and use taxes, property taxes and
registration fees, employment taxes and unemployment taxes, taxes on fuel and parts, service taxes and other excise taxes.
1.1.10.4.1 State Tax Planning
Planning for state and local taxes in the business aviation arena raises special challenges, and failure to adequately plan for state
taxes can be extremely costly for business aircraft owners and operators.
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NBAA’s website contains a number of resources describing state and local taxes and articles discussing general state tax issues
as well as issues unique to individual states. In particular, the Association’s online State Aviation Tax Report summarizes
information for each state with respect to the following issues:
Sales and use tax rates and exemptions
Fuel tax rates and exemptions for jet fuel and aviation gasoline
Aircraft registration fees
Personal property tax
Updated annually, the report is provided in summary format and includes references to state laws and regulations under which
such taxes are promulgated. Since NBAA’s tax references are necessarily general in nature, they are no substitute for the advice
of legal and tax advisors addressing a specific set of facts and circumstances.
1.1.10.5 TAX LAW CHANGES
FAA, IRS, and SEC laws can change from time to time. It is the responsibility of the flight department personnel to work with the
tax, legal, and accounting departments when there are changes to make sure that changes that affect the flight department are
articulated and processes are updated. Tax reform in late 2017 provides an example of how the laws change. The changes
include:
100% Expensing (Bonus Depreciation)
Like Kind Exchanges (1031)
Prohibition on Deduction of Commuting Expenses
Disallowance of Directly Related Business Entertainment flights
Repeal of Employee Business Expense Deduction
FET for Part 91 Management Companies
The NBAA and its Tax Committee post articles and explanations for changes and how they would affect a flight department. Please
reference https://www.nbaa.org/admin/taxes/ to keep track of the latest changes in tax laws that affect flight departments.
1.1.11 AIRCRAFT RESOURCING OPTIONS
The flight department manager/chief pilot (FDM/CP) is not just a manager of the company aircraft, although that is one of the most
important parts of the management function. As managers of on-demand transportation resourcing, FDMs/ CPs must provide the
most effective and efficient transportation mode to meet the mission of the flight department and the company.
1.1.11.1 EVALUATING TRANSPORTATION MODES
The company aircraft may not always be the most effective or efficient means of meeting the aviation department’s transportation
mission. Various forms of alternative transportation may better meet particular facets of each mission. The FDM/CP must be able
to evaluate alternative transportation modes and justify using, or not using any of these modes, including the company aircraft, to
company management.
The aircraft resourcing options available to companies can be categorized and defined in six ways:
Whole Aircraft In-House Flight Department – An entity being the only registered owner of an aircraft and utilizing an
in-house flight department
Whole Aircraft Management Company – An entity being the only registered owner of an aircraft and utilizing a
management company
Joint Ownership (In-House Flight Department) – Two or more entities are registered owners of an aircraft and one of
the owners operates the aircraft for all owners
Co-Ownership (Management Company) – Two or more entities are registered owners of an aircraft and use a
management company to manage the aircraft for all owners
Fractional Ownership – Several entities are registered owners of an aircraft, hire a management company to manage
the aircraft and allow the management company to exchange this aircraft among their fleet of aircraft
Charter – A company that provides aircraft and crew to the general-public for compensation or hire (profit)
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1.11.2 SUPPLEMENTAL LIFT
The most common supplemental transportation providers include charter and fractional ownership programs. Although
supplemental lift providers may appear to be more expensive per hour or per mile, they may provide a more effective and efficient
means of meeting certain transportation objectives.
The FDM/CP should be able to provide careful and reasoned answers to company management regarding any of these
transportation options. In addition to the financial implications, the FDM/CP should consider the effect these options may have on
the following areas:
Industrial security
Confidentiality
Control of schedule, crew training, crew qualifications and maintenance
For more information on the pros and cons of various transportation options see Figure 1.14.
There are times when a company’s own aircraft will be down for maintenance, is flying other scheduled trips or is impractical for a
given trip’s requirements. During these times, it is likely that a company still has a need for business aviation to transport people or
property because of the flexibility it provides. In these cases, supplemental lift can fill the gap to cover the transportation. This
section provides an overview of supplemental lift options, including:
Aircraft charter
Block charter and jet-card programs
Fractional ownership
Interchange agreement
1.1.11.3 PURCHASE/LEASE AIRCRAFT WITH IN-HOUSE/ INTERNAL MANAGEMENT OF THE OPERATION
Listed below are some advantages and challenges encountered with this management method:
1.1.11.3.0.1 Advantages:
Total operational control and flexibility (when operating aircraft with a seating capacity of less than 20 and payload less
than 6,000 lbs., the ability to operate under FAR Part 91 Regulations)
Direct contact/relationship with internal customer, increasing service initiatives
Direct extension of corporate culture
Economies of scale with existing flight department
Cross utilization of maintenance and flight crew with corporate fleet
Increased quality of life and productivity initiatives
Control of “door-to-door” service package (parking, flight and ground transportation)
Ability to add or delete shuttle destinations quickly (easily adaptable to change)
Feedback/suggestions can be acted upon
Utilizes company flight crews and maintenance (company employees)
Less reliance on outside factory programs (power-by- hour, avionics-by-hour, etc.) with in-house maintenance
1.1.11.3.0.2 Challenges:
Initial capital expenditure
Responsibility for internal structure requirements for operational management
Sole accountability for risk and liability concerns
Required to set up a flight department to be operated by the corporation (if the flight department is not pre-existing),
resulting in increased personnel for corporation
Requires greater attention to aircraft operating procedures
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1.1.11.4 PURCHASE/LEASE OF AIRCRAFT WITH OUTSOURCED MANAGEMENT OF THE OPERATION
Listed below are some advantages and challenges encountered with this management method:
1.1.11.4.0.1 Advantages:
Ability to operate services using outsourced firm’s certificate
Certificate owner is in operational control
Utilization of other operating agreements is established, i.e., fueling, line service and maintenance contracts
It is a core competency for the management company and enables quick startup
No administrative/personnel burden
Economies of scale
Procedures and systems are in place and operational
Flight operations are owned by the management firm and business operations are owned by the corporation
1.1.11.4.0.2 Challenges:
Initial capital expenditure
Responsibility for internal structure requirements for operational management
Lack of direct link to the FAA
Reduced operational control and flexibility
Lack of visibility and involvement in agreements
Potential for misalignment in corporate cultures
Co-employment issues
Indirect contact/relationship with internal customer decreases service initiatives
Adaptability to existing business model
Flight and business contract structure needs to be aligned with clear boundaries
Contracts are structured to avoid one-way cost accountability
Shared accountability for risk and liability concerns
Risk an increase in overall company-negotiated airline fares, depleting volume discounts
1.1.11.5 INTERCHANGE AGREEMENTS
Interchange agreements allow two aircraft-owning persons to exchange use of their aircraft. The exchange must be made on an
hour-for-hour basis. However, if there are dissimilarities in aircraft types and use that could cause a cost differential, the difference
in cost can be made up with limited compensation.
For example, if an operator of Aircraft A entered into an interchange agreement with an operator of the superior Aircraft B, the
Aircraft A operator could use Aircraft B for a specified number of hours. The Aircraft B operator would be permitted to use Aircraft
A for the same number of hours. However, the Aircraft A operator would be permitted to pay the difference between the costs of
owning, operating and maintaining Aircraft A and Aircraft B, since Aircraft B costs more to own, operate and maintain than Aircraft
A. It is not acceptable for the Aircraft B operator to fly two hours in Aircraft A for every one hour that the Aircraft A owner flies in
Aircraft B to make up the differential. The number of hours, costs of owning, operating and maintaining, and duration of the
agreement should be agreed upon in advance and stated in the lease.
Interchange agreements are defined in 14 CFR Part 91 and are permitted between Part 91 operators. These agreements are one
limited exception to the FAA restriction that prohibits Part 91 operators from accepting compensation for flights. Subpart F applies
only to airplanes that are:
U.S.-registered and large (greater than 12,500 lbs. maximum certificated takeoff weight) or
Turbojet-powered (not turboprop or piston-powered) and multiengine (at least two engines) or
Fractional aircraft (regardless of size).
Other U.S.-registered aircraft that do not meet these criteria may apply for an exemption to these regulations or take advantage of
NBAA’s Small Aircraft Exemption, for which more information is available on the NBAA website at www.nbaa.org/exemption.
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1.1.11.6 TIME SHARING, INTERCHANGE AND JOINT OWNERSHIP
Non-commercial business aircraft operations are governed by FAR Part 91. The aviation department should be thoroughly familiar
with the regulations. Of particular importance is FAR Part 91.501, Subpart F, which prescribes operating rules for large and
turbojet-powered multi-engine airplanes. This regulation also specifies in greater detail how turbojet and large business aircraft may
be used.
In general, the regulation covers all normal corporate aircraft operations provided that no charge, assessment, or fee is made for
transportation in excess of the cost of owning, operating and maintaining the aircraft. As long as aircraft use is within the corporate
structure, the corporation may charge its legally constituted subsidiaries/divisions/affiliates for use of the aircraft. Additional
operational requirements are imposed under Subpart F.
NBAA has been granted an FAA exemption that permits its member companies that operate aircraft weighing less than 12,500
pounds to be able to operate under Subpart F on a voluntary basis. Under the exemption, time-sharing and interchange
agreements only are valid between members of NBAA. For more information on NBAA’s Small Aircraft Exemption, including
instructions for submitting the required Notice of Joinder to the Federal Docket, visit www.nbaa.org/exemption.
A company that enters into one of these agreements should discuss the agreement with its insurance carriers to ensure that
appropriate and adequate coverage is included. A discussion with qualified aviation counsel also should be included to ensure that
the agreement meets all the FAA’s requirements.
1.1.11.7 TIME-SHARING
Time-sharing (FAR 91.501(c)(1)), allows the owner to wet lease their aircraft (i.e., lease an aircraft with crew) while limiting cost
recovery to a stipulated per flight list of costs items, according to FAR Section 91.501(d).
In addition, leases under time-sharing agreements are subject to the mandates of the FAR Section 91.23 “truth-in-leasing clause
requirement in leases and conditional sales contracts.”
A written agreement or lease must be mailed to the FAA within 24 hours of execution. In addition, the operator must notify the local
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) 48 hours prior to the first flight. The FAA requirements that a copy of the agreement is
carried on board the aircraft.
While the FAA considers time-sharing a noncommercial operation, the IRS disagrees and views time-sharing as a commercial
operation with tax consequences. A company considering time-sharing should consult with its tax department or consultant and
perform a thorough analysis of the tax liabilities. Companies considering this practice should perform a careful cost-per-mile
computation and compare those costs with what can be recovered.
1.1.11.8 INTERCHANGE
Interchange agreements allow two aircraft-owning companies to exchange use of their aircraft, according to FAR Section
91.501(c)(2). The exchange must be made on an hour-for-hour basis. However, if there are dissimilarities in aircraft types and use
that could cause a cost differential, the difference in cost can be made up with limited compensation (FAA Council opinion, August
17, 1990). Leases under interchange also are subject to the mandates of the FAR Section 91.23 “truth-in-leasing clause
requirement in leases and conditional sales contracts.”
Interchange and time-sharing appear to be similar in most situations. The choice between the two depends upon whether (1) the
other party has a suitable aircraft and (2) an exchange of time for time is acceptable to both parties, with only an allowance for the
difference in expenses between the two aircraft. Again, as in time-sharing, interchange agreements are considered commercial for
tax purposes.
1.1.11.9 JOINT OWNERSHIP
Under joint ownership, which is under FAR Section 91.501(c)(3), two or more companies are permitted to jointly own and use an
aircraft under mutual agreements and share the cost of the flight crew.
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ADMINISTRATION
Each of the parties to a joint ownership agreement must appear as a registered owner on the FAA certificate of registration. The
charges paid by each of the parties are to be set forth in the agreement. A true joint ownership is considered noncommercial for
tax purposes.
1.1.12 AIRCRAFT CHARTER
Charter operators fly when and where a company wants to go, and can meet a company’s particular preferences or needs.
Generally, with a few exceptions, a person or company providing air transportation of persons or property for compensation or hire
must become certificated as an operator under Part 119 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). Once certificated under Part
119, the charter operator flies under strict regulations (like those found in Part 135 or Part 121 of the FARs) that dictate operational
requirements.
After being certificated, these charter operators may advertise that they provide transportation for hire. The FAA considers an
operator advertising to the public as one that “holds itself out” to a segment of the public, as one that is willing to furnish
transportation within the limits of its facilities to any person who wants it.
What does this mean? Since the FAA recognizes that air charter operators have a responsibility to provide air transportation with
the highest degree of safety possible, it has a certification process that is designed to ensure that certificate holders understand
and, more importantly, fulfill this duty.
Not just anyone can buy an airplane and start charging people to fly them from point A to point B. Charter operators undergo a
lengthy certification process, which can take several years. The FAA approves the company leadership and the operating
manuals, oversees the training programs and issues operation specifications that regulate the charter operator. The FARs also
address crew rest and physical examinations, and mandate a stringent anti-drug program for operators. The FAA closely monitors
charter operators to make sure that they conform to the established standards of performance.
A charter flight usually costs a flat rate per hour. If a reposition flight is required to get the aircraft to a location, it may be an
additional cost. Depending on operator and type of trip, other additional fees might also be charged, such as:
Wait time on the ground
Hotel accommodations and meal expenses should the crew need to overnight
Catering
International fees for customs or inspections
Fuel surcharges
Landing fees
Ramp fees
Commercial air transportation charges are subject to federal excise taxes.
1.1.12.0.0.1 Operational Control
The FAA defines operational control in the following way: “‘Operational control,’ with respect to a flight, means the exercise of
authority over initiating, conducting or terminating a flight.”
Aircraft owners flying aboard aircraft they own or lease exercise full control over and bear full responsibility for the airworthiness
and operation of their aircraft. Under these circumstances, the FAA has determined that the appropriate level of oversight is
provided by the regulations in Part 91, which generally are less stringent than those of Part 135. In this case, the owner has
operational control and is fully responsible.
Passengers on a charter flight have surrendered operational control to the operator. Passengers may tell the operator when and
where to go, but they exercise no control over and bear no responsibility for the airworthiness or operation of the aircraft on which
they fly.
The charter operator exercises control of the operation and bears responsibility for compliance with the regulations. Because the
charter operator is a commercial enterprise in the business of air transportation to the public, the FAA imposes on the air carrier
stringent regulations and oversight under Part 135.
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ADMINISTRATION
1.1.12.1 FINDING AND EVALUATING A CHARTER OPERATOR
NBAA publishes an Aircraft Charter Consumer Guide to assist companies seeking a supplemental lift option. Included in the guide
is an overview of regulatory requirements and consumer considerations, pre-screening questions consumers should ask and a
standard request for proposals (RFP) form for use in obtaining charter quotes for specific flights.
NBAA’s Aircraft Charter Consumer Guide addresses:
Determining the mission of the charter flight
The role of air charter brokers
How to find an air charter operator
Selecting a charter operator
Safety and security
Operational considerations
Knowing the charter operator
Insurance requirements and recommendations
Price considerations
1.1.12.2 BLOCK CHARTER AND JET CARDS
Both charter operators and fractional ownership programs have offered customers the ability to purchase block charter packages.
These block charter programs recently have been marketed as “jet cards” or “fleet membership programs.” These programs may
be a viable solution for operators who need to charter an aircraft often and want to have an airplane (or fleet of aircraft) available
but don’t want to participate in a fractional program, because it does not make sense from their mission profile or financial
perspective.
These programs allow customers to purchase a defined number of flight hours. The customer has a finite number of hours
available to them that gets reduced every time they use their “card.” Flight time is typically sold in 25-hour and 50-hour blocks.
Flights are flown under the appropriate air carrier FARs, which for business aircraft is typically FAR Part 135.
1.1.12.2.1 FRACTIONAL OWNERSHIP
Fractional ownership programs offer shared aircraft ownership and provide for the management of the aircraft by an aircraft
management company. Aircraft owners participating in the program agree to share their aircraft with others having an ownership
interest in the aircraft, as well as to lease their aircraft, through a dry lease exchange program, to other owners in the fractional
program who do not have an interest in that specific aircraft. The aircraft owners use the common management company to
maintain the aircraft and administer the leasing of the aircraft among the owners.
On September 17, 2004, the FAA’s final rule “Regulation of Fractional Aircraft Ownership Programs and On-Demand Operations”
was published. This rule established a new Subpart K in Part 91 to cover fractional ownership operations. The new Subpart K
clarifies what qualifies as a fractional ownership program, clarifies who has operational control, defines operational control
responsibilities, codifies many of the “best practices” now being used voluntarily in fractional ownership programs and incorporates
many of the safety standards of Part 135.
In brief, Subpart K accomplishes the following:
It establishes the criteria for qualifying as a fractional ownership program.
It establishes that fractional owners and the management company share operational control of the aircraft and
delineates operational control responsibilities.
It establishes regulatory safety standards for operations under fractional ownership programs, including management
operations, maintenance, training, crew member flight and duty requirements, and others.
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1.1.12.2.2 What is a Fractional Ownership Program?
A fractional ownership program means any system of aircraft ownership and exchange that consists of all the following elements:
The provision for fractional ownership program management services by a single fractional ownership program manager
on behalf of the fractional owners
Two or more airworthy aircraft
One or more fractional owners per program aircraft, with at least one program aircraft having more than one owner
Possession of at least a minimum fractional ownership interest in one or more program aircraft by each fractional owner
A dry-lease aircraft exchange arrangement among all the fractional owners
Multi-year program agreements covering the fractional ownership, fractional ownership program management services
and dry-lease aircraft exchange aspects of the program
Fractional owners buy a part, or share, of an aircraft. A share is contractually defined and allows an undivided interest of a single
aircraft to be sold to multiple owners. Most owners purchase one-quarter of an aircraft, though regulations allow a fractional
ownership interest of as little as one sixteenth.
Typical contract terms for fractional programs are five years. Participating in a fractional program will require companies to sign a
multi-year program agreement, and, in addition to several other documents, a dry lease aircraft exchange agreement and a
purchase agreement.
Though a fractional owner has purchased an aircraft, it may not necessarily be flying on that specific airplane. An appealing aspect
of the fractional programs is that they are usually able to provide an aircraft within four hours of when requested. If a specific
airplane is not available, the aircraft provided will be virtually identical to the one owned.
In addition to the initial acquisition cost, fractional owners will pay a monthly management fee and an occupied hourly fee for each
hour flown. The monthly management fee and the occupied hourly fee generally are adjusted annually based on the Consumer
Price Index. Additionally, owners may pay a fuel variable and certain charges are subject to federal excise tax, Additional fees may
be applied when traveling outside the continental United States. Fractional providers often include stock items for catering but will
charge extra for nonstandard or custom requests.
1.1.12.2.2.1 Operational Control
Subpart K of Part 91 regulates who has operational control in a fractional program.
When the aircraft is operated under Part 91, Subpart K, each owner in operational control of a program flight is ultimately
responsible for safe operations and for complying with all applicable requirements of the aviation regulations, including those related
to airworthiness and operations in connection with the flight. Each owner may delegate some or all of the performance of the tasks
associated with carrying out this responsibility to the program manager, and may rely on the program manager for aviation
expertise and program management services.
When the owner delegates performance of tasks to the program manager or relies on the program manager’s expertise, the owner
and the program manager are jointly and individually responsible for compliance.
An owner is in operational control of a program flight when the owner:
Has the rights and is subject to the limitations set forth in regulations under Subpart K of Part 91
Has directed that a program aircraft carry passengers or property designated by that owner
The aircraft is carrying those passengers or property
An owner is not in operational control of a flight in the following circumstances:
A program aircraft is used for a flight for administrative purposes such as demonstration, positioning, ferrying,
maintenance or crew training, and no passengers or property designated by such owner are being carried.
The aircraft being used for the flight is being operated under Part 121 or 135 of the FARs.
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Fractional aircraft programs that also have a Part 135 air carrier certificate may allow owners to elect for their flights to be operated
by the fractional program under Part 135.
In such cases, the fractional program has operational control and the fractional share owner is no longer responsible for safe
operations and for complying with all applicable requirements of the aviation regulations.
1.1.12.3 CORPORATE AIR SHUTTLE CONSIDERATIONS
Through effective execution, corporate shuttles can realize financial savings, productivity gains and considerable increases in
quality-of-life initiatives.
A vital step in initial shuttle analysis is to take a detailed look at the company’s travel volume and trends. A partnership with the
commercial travel provider is vital to accumulating the necessary data, and it is also through the travel provider that overall
company airline contractual information exists (i.e., negotiated fares, present and future market coverage of the airlines). It is
important to understand and take into consideration the potential for an increase in company negotiated airline fares. The volume
that is depleted from target markets by the operation of shuttles may underscore contractual segment minimums.
For many, the increase in air traffic coupled with a drastic deterioration of service are real costs that are adding up for companies
exponentially. Such costs include missed and canceled meetings, additional hotel and meal costs, unproductive time waiting in
terminals, key employees not traveling when they should, and key employees enduring stress and fatigue when they do travel.
Types of data that substantiate the development of corporate shuttles include:
Total segment volume in target markets
Scatter of the segments (seasonal/quarterly, monthly, daily and time of day)
Ticket fare of target market
Airline delay and cancellation numbers
Ground transportation costs
Anecdotal evidence from travelers and surveys
Hotel charges (such as if airline travel requires an overnight stay)
Merger/acquisition of/with another corporation, which would require frequent travel after amalgamation
Once volume is substantiated, various management methods to provide scheduled service exist. The remainder of this section
lists the methods used by NBAA members operating shuttles.
1.1.12.4 CONTRACTS WITH COMMUTER/COMMERCIAL AIRLINES
Listed below are some advantages and challenges encountered with this management method.
1.1.12.4.0.1 Advantages:
Companies that outsource this type of operation use the aircraft and crews from a Part 121 operator. This option allows
for a “trial” period without capital outlay; contracts can be established for as little as six months. This short duration also
could be utilized as a “proof of concept” tool to further identify potential benefits and actual passenger loads
It requires a minimum of capital investment
Certificate owner is in operational control
Utilization of other operating agreements is established, i.e., fueling, line service and maintenance contracts
It is a core competency for the management company
1.1.12.4.0.2 Challenges:
Contracts (of short or long duration) to include notice of cancellation requirements and costs
Union considerations
Cost for changes in unanticipated shuttle schedule adjustments
“Force Majeure” contract cancellations, such as due to FAA closures or war, or extreme changes in corporation’s
business health
Performance goals, such as on-time arrival goals, excluding weather delays
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FIGURE 1.14: NBAA AIRCRAFT RESOURCING OPTIONS ANALYSIS CHARACTERISTICS
Whole Aircraft In-House
Flight Department
Whole Aircraft
Management Company
Joint Ownership
In-House Flight Department
Service
Quality
Highest level of control/service
possible
Immediate availability likely
If aircraft not available, must use
charter or airlines
Best possible confidentiality/security
Maximum control over safety
options
Potentially excellent; customizable
Immediate availability likely
If aircraft not available, must use
charter or airlines
Potentially excellent; customizable
Availability requires coordination
and planning
If aircraft not available, must use
charter or airlines
Aircraft
Administration
Owner/lessee maintains total
control over and manages aircraft
operations
Personnel on owner’s payroll; must
deal with in-house personnel issues
Owner/lessee maintains control
over, but delegates management of
aircraft operations to management
company
Personnel not on owner’s payroll
Owners/lessees maintain total
control over and manage aircraft
operations
Personnel on owner’s payroll; must
deal with in-house personnel issues
Crew Quality Consistent; owner-controlled
Owner controls training of crew and
maintenance personnel
Consistent, owner input, crews
assignable
Owner delegates control of pilot
and mechanic training
Consistent, owner-controlled
Owners control training of crew and
maintenance personnel
Operating
Costs
Variable; utilization-dependenton cost of operation at reasonable
utilization levels
Subject to deadhead/positioning
expense
Variable; utilization-dependent
Annual costs may be higher than
an in-house flight department
(because of management fee)
Subject to deadhead/positioning
expense
Variable; utilization-dependent
Subject to deadhead/positioning
expense
Cost Offsets There may be a charter option to
help offset costs
There may be a charter option to
help offset costs
Possible availability of fleet
discounts for fuel, insurance and
crew training
There may be a charter option to
help offset costs
Liability Completely liable Shared liability with management
company
Completely liable
Tax
Consequences
No commercial federal excise tax
applicable
Noncommercial fuel tax applies
Maximum depreciation benefit
Maximum depreciation benefit Owners share tax liabilities and
benefits
No commercial federal excise tax
applicable
Noncommercial fuel tax applies
Capital
Commitment
Higher capital investment of
negotiated acquisition cost
Higher capital investment of
negotiated acquisition cost
Owners share higher capital
investment of negotiated acquisition
cost
Aircraft
Acquisition
and
Disposition
Can lease or purchase any aircraft
at any price
Can select aircraft make/model,
interior and exterior
Can choose when to upgrade,
downgrade or sell
Can lease or purchase any aircraft
at any price
Can select aircraft make/model,
interior and exterior
Can choose when to upgrade,
downgrade or sell
Can jointly lease or purchase any
aircraft at any price
Can jointly select aircraft
make/model, interior and exterior
Can jointly choose when to
upgrade, downgrade or sell
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Co-Ownership Management Company Fractional Ownership Charter
Potentially excellent; customizable
Availability requires coordination and
planning
If aircraft not available, must use charter
or airlines
Potentially excellent; more generic
Aircraft availability guaranteed at all times, sourced via
owned, fleet or charter aircraft
Advanced notice required (four to eight hours)
More than one aircraft may be available at the same
time, depending on contract terms and/or subject to
availability
Charter aircraft may be substituted for program aircraft
Unable to leave equipment and/or personal belongings
onboard aircraft
Potentially excellent; more generic
Possible inconsistent service vendor to
vendor
Availability depends on market demand;
no guarantee of aircraft availability from
any one vendor
If aircraft not available, must use other
charter vendor or airlines
Owners/lessees maintain control over,
but delegate management of aircraft
operations to management company
Personnel not on owner’s payroll
Owners maintain control over, but delegate management
of aircraft operations to fractional provider (management
company)
Personnel not on owner’s payroll
None, not applicable
Personnel not on owner’s payroll
Consistent, owner input, crews
assignable
Owners delegate control of pilot and
mechanic training
Crew changes likely, rotating from pool
May be able to request specific crew or use own crew
Owners delegate control of pilot or mechanic training
Crew changes likely, rotating from pool
No control of pilot or mechanic training
Variable; utilization-dependent
Annual costs may be higher than joint
ownership (because of management fee)
Subject to deadhead/positioning expense
 Fixed on a per-hour basis, based upon flight time plus
set ground time per operation used to calculate billed
usage charges; hours in excess of contract at high cost
All fees (including deadhead and positioning charges)
except international handling and customs charges
included in overall fee structure
Higher costs when compared to other forms of
ownership at higher utilization levels, or charter at lower
utilization levels
Lowest overall cost at minimum usage
levels
Consistent charges at low utilization
rates, subject to negotiated reductions at
higher usage levels
Subject to ancillary charges; catering,
landing, etc.
Subject to deadhead/positioning expense
There may be a charter option to help
offset costs
Possible availability of fleet discounts for
fuel, insurance and crew training
None applicable None applicable
Shared liability with management
company
Shared liability with fractional provider Passenger not necessarily immune from
all liability
Owners share tax liabilities and benefits
Noncommercial federal excise tax
(owners pay noncommercial fuel tax
instead) as long as owners maintain
possession, command and control of the
aircraft
Owners share depreciation benefit to the
share owned
Owners share tax liabilities and benefits
Federal excise tax liability exposure
Owners share depreciation benefit to the share owned
Federal excise taxes imposed on charter
rate
 No depreciation tax benefit available as
no aircraft are owned
Owners share higher capital investment
of negotiated acquisition cost
 Lower capital outlay equal to a percentage of an
aircraft share, which may or may not be negotiated
No capital commitment
Can lease or purchase any aircraft at
any price
Can jointly select aircraft make/model,
interior and exterior
Can jointly choose when to upgrade,
downgrade, or sell
Can lease or purchase
Limited to aircraft available via the provider; aircraft
purchased may not be aircraft flown
No aircraft customization
Can choose to upgrade at any time; can choose to
down-grade or sell after meeting minimum time
requirement or pay penalty
A remarketing fee is charged for aircraft disposition
May be penalties for early withdrawal from program
Lower residual value because of higher hours/cycles;
known at purchase
None; no ownership
This matrix has been developed to apply universally. To best apply to your company, it must be customized to accurately reflect your specific circumstances.
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1.1.13 FAR PART 135 FOR BUSINESS AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Some aircraft operators decide to operate under a FAR Part 135 certificate, as opposed to Part 91. Both arrangements have
advantages and disadvantages; each operator must weigh its own needs and obligations when making this decision.
Generally speaking, it is true that aircraft may be operated under Part 91 with fewer restrictions and regulatory requirements than
when operating under Part 135. However, from a risk management perspective, Part 135 exposes the charter customer to the
least amount of regulatory and legal liability risk. As a result, it is necessary to understand the key distinctions between operations
under Parts 91 and 135 in order to determine how they apply to a particular situation.
1.1.13.1 RISK MANAGEMENT
The operator of an aircraft has primary legal liability for injury to persons or property arising from an aircraft accident or incident
regardless of whether the operation is conducted under Part 91 or Part 135. The operator is the party exercising authority over
initiating, conducting or terminating a flight (“Operational Control”). The operator of the flight has legal liability whether the operator is
the actual owner of the aircraft or merely a lessee.
An entity that owns an aircraft may operate that aircraft under Part 91 as long as that operation is incidental to its business. That is,
the entity must derive at least 51% of its revenue from business that is unrelated to its use of the aircraft. In that situation the entity
is exercising Operational Control of the aircraft and as the operator it has liability for its operation of the aircraft.
An entity whose sole purpose is to own the aircraft (an “SPE”) may not operate the aircraft without a Part 135 certificate. However,
an aircraft may be owned by an SPE and then leased to an individual or business lessee who will then operate the aircraft under
Part 91 pursuant to a “dry-lease.” The lessee’s use must be incidental to the lessee’s business. The dry-lease is a lease for the
aircraft alone, without crew, and may be with or without fuel. The lessee is responsible for providing its own flight crew either
directly (e.g. lessee’s employee(s)) or hired from an outside source (e.g. a pilot services or aircraft management company). In this
situation, the lessee is exercising Operational Control and as the operator of the aircraft the lessee will be liable for its operation of
the aircraft.
The Part 135 certificate holder exercises Operational Control over the aircraft and all flights and, as a result, has legal liability for
injury to persons or property arising from an aircraft accident or incident. Passengers on the aircraft do not have legal liability.
An aircraft owner, whether SPE or otherwise, may lease an aircraft to a Part 135 certificate holder under a “dry lease.” The Part
135 operator then provides the crew (either using the Part 135 operator’s employees or independent contractors who are then
agents of the Part 135 operator) and conducts operations pursuant to its Part 135 certificate. In most cases the entity that owns
the aircraft will not have any legal liability for the Part 135 certificate holder’s operation of the aircraft.
1.1.13.2 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to risk management, various differences between operational conditions and limitations under Parts 91 and Part 135
must also be considered.
1.1.13.2.1 Airport Limitations:
1.1.13.2.1.1 Runway Length Requirements
Part 91 – Runway length requirements are determined solely by aircraft requirements and limitations.
Part 135 – The aircraft must be capable of landing within 80% of the runway length. This affects/limits access to a significant
number of smaller airports that may be more conveniently located to the ultimate destination.
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1.1.13.2.1.2 Weather Reporting:
Part 91 – An aircraft may begin an instrument approach to airports where there is no weather reporting and the pilots determine
when they approach the airport whether they can land safely. Additionally, an aircraft may depart from an airport below IFR
weather minimums.
Part 135 – An aircraft may not begin an approach to an airport that has no weather reporting facility unless the alternate airport has
approved weather reporting. This may not only adversely impact whether or when a flight may de- part, but it again has the
potential to limit access to airports that are more conveniently located to the ultimate destination. Takeoff and alternate airport
minimums also restrict whether and when a flight may be conducted.
1.1.13.2.2 Flightcrew Member Restrictions:
1.1.13.2.2.1 Pilot Agency
Under both Parts 91 and 135 Flightcrew members must be agents of the party exercising operational control. This agency may be
established by employment or contract. Flightcrew members who are employees of an entity other than the Part 135 certificate
holder may be paid by their employee and still be agents of the Part 135 certificate holder provided the flightcrew members have
entered into an appropriate agency agreement with the Part 135 certificate holder.
1.1.13.2.2.2 Flightcrew member Duty Time Limitations and Rest Requirements:
Part 91 – Flightcrew member duty time and rest requirements are not imposed.
Part 135 – Flightcrew members are required to comply with specific duty time and rest requirements. The rules are complicated,
but generally provide for a maximum assigned 14-hour duty day, limitations on the number of flight hours during a 24-hour period
and required rest periods. Once a flightcrew member has reached his or her limit, that flightcrew member may not fly until the
applicable rest requirements have been satisfied.
1.1.13.2.2.3 Drug and Alcohol Testing:
Part 91 – Drug and alcohol testing of flightcrew members is not required.
Part 135 – Certificate holders must comply with the same drug and alcohol testing requirements as air carriers operating under
Part 121. Flightcrew members are subject to pre-employment/transfer, random, reasonable suspicion/cause, post-accident, return
to duty, and follow-up drug and alcohol testing pursuant to the Part 135 operator’s drug and alcohol testing program.
1.1.13.2.2.4 Restrictions and Fees in Foreign Countries:
Part 91 –Operations may be subject to some additional fees, but are typically not required to obtain additional licensing to operate in
foreign countries.
Part 135 –Certificate holders operating within foreign countries are subject to bilateral air transport agreements between the U.S.
and those countries. These agreements subject the Part 135 operator to fees, regulations and additional licensing imposed by
foreign countries for its commercial operations. The fees are typically passed on to the customer, increasing the cost of the
charter flight.
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1.1.14 AIRCRAFT FEASIBILITY STUDY 
The decision to purchase a company aircraft should be the result of an intensive and comprehensive evaluation of the company’s
travel needs. Some companies may have the in-house talent to do the evaluation process; others may find it advisable to hire an
aircraft acquisition consultant with experience in conducting aircraft feasibility studies tailored to the company’s specific needs. A
number of aviation consultants are available, and their findings should be objective and in the company’s best interest. For the
names of consultants who specialize in aircraft acquisition planning, search NBAA’s Products & Services Directory at under
“Consultants – Aircraft Purchasing”
The first step in an evaluation is an analysis of the potential uses of the company aircraft, which may include one or all of the
following:
Transport the executives, officers, directors and other management personnel
Transport other company employees
Transport guests and customers
Transport cargo, time-sensitive and/or specialized equipment
Humanitarian efforts
The best outcome will be realized if all potential uses are taken into account in order to ensure correct selection and maximum
utilization of aircraft.
The second step is a comprehensive examination of the following factors:
Frequency of travel requirements
Amount of airline travel, cost and time involved
Complexity of trips, including number of travelers, travel distance, duration and number of sites visited
Availability of convenient airline flights and how close to the final destination they land
Travel time to and from airports
Amount of other travel means used (auto, rail) and cost and time involved
Airport availability and facilities
Company records and interviews of the travelers will provide answers to many of these questions. The data collected then can be
analyzed to best understand what the company’s requirements are.
Consideration also should be given to anticipated needs for forecasting purposes. Current needs may overlook the fact that
personnel may have canceled or delayed trips that could have been made conveniently if a company aircraft had been available.
For instance, the unavailability of direct airline service and the use of other modes of transportation may have added additional time
factors that were unacceptable when measured in terms of value to the company. In order to measure a company’s unsatisfied
travel requirements, a “need-to-travel” questionnaire should be developed to show not only how much traveling a company does,
but also what it really needs to do and could do if it had a business aircraft. That questionnaire should be tailored to a specific
company’s conditions and should include the following items:
Trip data
Number of personnel involved
Travel time required (include all time required from departure point to destination point by all modes of transportation, i.e.,
auto, taxi, airline, etc.)
Duration of stay
Name of authorizing individual
Other specific or unusual requirements
The evaluation of how an executive’s time may be used suggests that data should be collected on:
Importance of the trip
How the requirements can be fulfilled
Degree of satisfaction with alternate arrangements
Measurement of any potential savings from using a company aircraft
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This data then can be assessed so that the purchaser or senior management level can intelligently decide whether they should go
ahead with the purchase of a business aircraft.
An important consideration is whether purchasing a new aircraft (as opposed to purchasing a fractional share of an aircraft or
using charter) will best fulfill the company’s travel needs. 
Often the best solution is a “blended approach” involving a mix of commercial, charter, fractional and whole aircraft usage. If
charter or fractional solutions are to be implemented, a completely separate analysis of different fractional programs and charter
providers will be necessary
1.1.14.1 CHOOSING A NEW AIRCRAFT
In this context, “new” aircraft means aircraft not currently owned by the company. New aircraft can be either fresh from the factory
or used aircraft, and can be the company’s first purchase or additional aircraft.
It also is assumed that the decision to purchase is based on a detailed, comprehensive evaluation of the company’s travel
requirements and current financial position, and consideration of the intangible benefits gained through aircraft ownership. If that
evaluation has not been fully completed or if it has provided only partial justification for ownership, the decision to buy should be
postponed until all factors have been considered.
Having reached a decision to buy, the choice of the aircraft that will best fill the company’s needs also should be the result of a
detailed and comprehensive evaluation of aircraft capability. The rule of thumb most commonly used is that the aircraft should be
no more than what is needed to satisfy most of the company’s requirements, with capability to meet up to 90 percent (90%) of the
need. Purchasing an aircraft with excessive range, speed, or capability can lead to lower use or higher costs, either of which could
affect long-term ownership. The answer to the question, “What do we want the aircraft to do for the company?” should determine
what aircraft is purchased.
Aviation department managers’ or chief pilots’ knowledge of aircraft capability and characteristics should be drawn upon in this
analysis. Many types and models of aircraft are available, but it is possible to narrow the broad field down into manageable
proportions by considering fundamental requirements.
The following discussion will cover most of the points that should be considered; other factors which the company believes are
germane to its circumstances also should be considered.
1.1.14.2 COST FACTORS
1.1.14.2.1 Acquisition Costs
The initial purchase cost of the basic aircraft, instrumentation, avionics and interior is a primary cost consideration. Carefully weigh
the pros and cons of a new aircraft versus a used aircraft. Most manufacturers offer a range of options, which often can run into
millions of dollars. However, new aircraft will include a warranty. For used aircraft, modification, maintenance and cosmetic
improvements to the aircraft instrumentation, avionics, interior and exterior may be necessary or advisable.
For this capital expenditure, NBAA recommends setting a dollar cost range that the company feels it can absorb comfortably. The
company’s financial advisors should consider how a cash purchase, financing or a lease/purchase agreement will affect initial and
subsequent costs. The company also may want to look ahead to the residual value of the aircraft, should its requirements change;
prior sales patterns and historical residual values are available.
1.1.14.2.2 Operating Costs
Of almost equal importance to acquisition cost is the annual operating cost of the aircraft. An analysis of estimated annual aircraft
operating costs should be an integral part of the overall cost evaluation. Factors to be considered include the cost of fuel,
maintenance, hangar, travel expenses, miscellaneous fees, salaries, fringe benefits, pilot and/or maintenance technician training,
depreciation and insurance. Operating costs will vary depending on geographical location, staffing levels and travel patterns.
Estimates should reflect any peculiarities in the company’s operation.
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This analysis of operating costs may have a bearing on initial purchase costs, and the combined cost should be comfortably within
the company’s concept of total ownership costs. Because a number of aircraft are acquired through financing or lease
agreements, those costs may appear in the operating budget and should be recognized as such. Purchase of the aircraft and its
acceptance as a valuable asset to the company should be viewed in much the same light as the major expenditure of capital for
any tool, machine or instrument that will improve the company’s productivity.
1.1.14.2.3 Other Costs to Consider
In addition to capital and operating costs, the company should evaluate the tax impact of aircraft ownership and operation. This
includes an analysis of tax depreciation (and depreciation recapture); the deductibility of operating costs for tax purposes; sales,
use and property taxes; and federal excise taxes. The NBAA website includes resources that provide guidance on many of these
issues. Additionally, an aviation-specific tax specialist should be consulted during the acquisition process.
1.1.14.3 AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTIC FACTORS
Within the initial and operating cost range, anticipated operational requirements such as type, size, speed, range and airport
runway lengths will influence the purchase.
Because most business aircraft are used for passenger travel, seating and range are a primary consideration. The evaluation of
company needs should indicate an average number of passengers and the distance of the trips expected for each flight; this
information is basic to the size of aircraft to be considered. The operating costs of an aircraft are influenced by the size, speed,
range and age of the aircraft. The useful range of the aircraft to be selected depends on the most anticipated routes of flight and is
affected by payload and speed. Airport and runway lengths are also a very important consideration if routes of flight are to
communities with smaller airports.
As elementary as this factor sounds, the aircraft must be able to operate into and out of a specific airport. Operating capability with
a useful payload is sometimes overlooked. Airports that are a frequent destination also should be considered. For example, if
frequent travel to cold climates is expected, snow and ice will affect operational factors.
The annual edition of the Business and Commercial Aviation Planning and Purchasing Handbook provides detailed descriptions of
available aircraft.
1.1.14.4 SAFETY FACTORS
The overall safety record of business aircraft operations is excellent and reflects the professionalism of business aviation pilots
and maintenance technicians as well as the design characteristics of the aircraft. Major safety factors are:
Reliability
Maintainability
Compatibility
In-flight characteristics
Flight crew and maintenance technician training
1.1.14.4.1 Reliability
New aircraft introduced to the market are subject to exhaustive testing by manufacturers and must meet stringent FAA certification
requirements. As the use of a particular aircraft model increases, a considerable amount of knowledge about its relative overall
reliability is collected. NBAA’s Technical Committee is composed of members who own and operate a specific aircraft and are
willing to exchange information about the performance of the aircraft and its components with other NBAA members. In conjunction
with its Annual Meeting & Convention, NBAA schedules a series of Maintenance & Operations Sessions, which are chaired by
members of the Technical Committee, bringing airframe and component parts manufacturers and users together for open
discussions.
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1.1.14.4.2 Maintainability
As aircraft and equipment have become more complex, consideration should be given to where and how the aircraft is to be
maintained. The decision to maintain the aircraft in-house or outsource maintenance should be based on an evaluation of cost
factors related to servicing, testing, removing, overhauling or replacing components.
The maintenance labor hours and equipment costs required per flight hour should be carefully evaluated, but precise figures may
be very difficult to obtain. Manufacturers can provide estimates, but these cannot be verified until the aircraft is acquired and the
maintenance requirements begin. Most manufacturers also provide airframe, engine and parts service contracts that enable a
company to predict its maintenance costs with greater accuracy.
Surveying experienced operators of similar aircraft may help, but because of the diverse maintenance methods used, line-by-line
comparisons are useful only if the companies have similar philosophies for aircraft maintenance and use equally similar
maintenance methods.
One consideration in maintainability is design maturity. New state-of-the-art aircraft and equipment may have advantages but also
may experience an unusual failure rate until the “bugs” have been worked out of the design. Another aircraft in its prime may not be
the latest design, but it may be well-supported and have low failure rates; conversely, equipment may be obsolete and have
inadequate support. These factors also should be considered in the selection process.
1.1.14.4.3 Compatibility
If the company is contemplating purchasing more than one aircraft, or adding aircraft to its existing fleet, the selection of the aircraft
should take into consideration other aircraft being operated or to be operated. Sticking with one product line can offer substantial
advantages and efficiencies in familiarity with systems, parts inventory and personnel skills. However, if the company’s travel
requirements are so diverse that one product line cannot offer all the capabilities that are needed, compatibility should be
compromised so that the company needs are met.
1.1.14.4.4 In-Flight Characteristics
With all due consideration for aircraft type, size and speed, other factors–rate of climb, stability and control, stall reaction, slow and
high speed response, landing and takeoff speeds, and other aerodynamic characteristics-are measures of safety. Many aviation
publications, as part of their readership services, publish detailed aircraft flight evaluations using self-devised performance criteria.
Because the human element is involved, the opinions from even the most experienced pilots about the “feel” of the aircraft may
differ.
However, the performance and capability of the aircraft must relate to where and how it will operate, and those factors should be
the basis for evaluating the aircraft. An operational limitation or restriction affecting the performance of an aircraft could impose
unsuspected handicaps, particularly if those limitations or restrictions are imposed by federal rules.
Passenger comfort in flight cannot be overlooked or underestimated, for if company executives do not feel as much at ease as the
pilot, the aircraft is likely to be a short-term proposition.
The flight department manager or chief pilot is an indispensable ingredient in this phase of the evaluation. However, the flight
department must remember that more than the flightdeck environment is involved. It may be helpful to tabulate not only what each
aircraft will do but what it cannot do.
1.1.14.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The issue of aircraft noise will be one of the greatest constraints in the further development of the aviation system.
A growing trend among local airport authorities has been to increase restrictions on aircraft operations; this threatens to limit the
construction and expansion of airports as well as airport access.
This and other environmental issues will make aircraft noise levels an important consideration when choosing an aircraft for future
operations. Companies planning to purchase aircraft should take a careful look at the airports they intend to use to see if particular
noise levels have been established.
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FAR Part 36 provides noise standards for aircraft and series 36 advisory circulars provide noise data for specific aircraft. The
Business and Commercial Aviation Planning and Purchasing Handbook contains the basic elements of these limits. Further
information on aircraft noise is found elsewhere in this guide.
A recent environmental consideration is the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) implemented for all aircraft
operating to the EU. While there is strong opposition from non-EU nations, including the United States, a company should consider
ETS compliance requirements and costs if planning flights to or from Europe. NBAA offers a wealth of information regarding the
current status of EU-ETS online at www.nbaa.org/ets.
1.1.14.6 THE FINAL STEP
At the end of the process, companies must analyze all the relevant data, address any discrepancies and determine whether an
aircraft acquisition makes sense based on the company’s needs.
Specifically, the company should do the following:
Tabulate the analysis factors with appropriate summary data
Evaluate those factors
Make a final judgment based on the evaluation
Document the evaluations, judgments and decisions
If the selection factors have been thoroughly identified and analyzed, the subsequent steps should fall into place.
For example, manufacturer’s specifications should be impartially analyzed against similar frames of reference; in the absence of
specified standards, those may have to be developed. The exact meaning of terms applied to cruise speeds, range, runway length
requirements, fuel reserves, altitudes, payloads, etc. should be clarified.
A summarized tabulation showing selection factors for each aircraft can take many forms, but it should include all items of value to
the analysis, arranged under appropriate group headings. This tabulation should be referred to in the final judgment.
The product should be a comprehensive and factual set of data that will provide a measure of the degree of difference between
various aircraft under consideration. The figures may be in dollars, miles per hour, feet, or units. There will, undoubtedly, be
significant differences between a few factors which will point to the most desirable aircraft.
Once the final decision has been made, equal attention and care should be given to acquiring the right aircraft. For further insights
and resources, visit the NBAA Aircraft Registration & Transactions site at www.nbaa.org/admin.
1.1.15 AIRCRAFT OPERATING COSTS
NBAA recommends that flight department managers/chief pilots (FDMs/CPs) be familiar with accounting and finance theory and
practice and other business subjects to ensure that aircraft operations are represented properly to the company. Accurate and
well-maintained aircraft operating cost records should achieve the following objectives:
Aid in the preparation of budget requests and forecasts
Provide systematic and timely review of expenditures versus budget projections
Determine aircraft costs per flight hour, per mile, or per passenger-mile, as required by the company
Reflect aircraft maintenance quality and efficiency
Provide a basis for evaluating and comparing operating costs between different aircraft models
Provide a way to allocate costs among the various departments that use or benefit from company aviation services
Direct (sometimes called variable) operating costs and fixed (sometimes called indirect) costs are the two types of costs
associated with aircraft operation. A sample aircraft operating costs form is provided in Figure 1.16.
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1.1.15.1 DIRECT OPERATING COSTS (DOCS)
Direct operating costs are incurred when the aircraft is operating. These costs include:
Consumables (fuel and oil)
Certain maintenance expenditures
Hour-based inspections
Overhaul
Hour-limited parts replacement
These costs may be known and accounted for (receipts are available) or be estimated future expenses. Aircraft DOCs , for
chargeback purposes, are either per hour, per mile, or per passenger-mile flown. See Figure 1.15 to see how DOCs are
determined.
DOCs are usually charged directly to the user or users of the aircraft, and can be charged to one user or department or prorated
among several users. The company sometimes absorbs DOCs, and another appropriate cost is charged to the users (see
section below). Users may include departments actually having passengers aboard or may be expanded to include departments
that receive benefits of the aviation department activities indirectly.
1.1.15.1.1 Figure 1.15: Calculating Direct Operating Costs
Direct operating costs (DOCs) are determined by the following process.
For the period during which the DOC will be applied (usually January to
December, or the company fiscal year):
Total all current and expected future receipts for:
Maintenance
Consumables
Inspections
Overhauls
Replacements
Any other item that can be attributed directly to aircraft use (aircraft
phone use, catering, pilot trip expenses, etc.)
Divide by the hours, miles or passenger miles flown or expected to
be flown, in the period.
1.1.15.2 FIXED COSTS
Fixed costs are incurred whether the aircraft is flying or not. Standard fixed costs are listed below.
Normal overhead expenses include:
Hangar expenses
Shop expenses
Shop equipment expenses
Depreciation
Insurance premiums
Upkeep expenses
Salaries (including fringe benefits) for all flight department personnel
Training expenses for all flight department personnel
Major nonrecurring expenses
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Fixed costs are determined by summing all current and expected expenses incurred and dividing by hours/miles/passenger miles
to get the fixed cost per hour/per mile/per passenger-mile. Fixed costs either are absorbed by headquarters (all or in part) or are
distributed among the users of the aircraft. Users may include departments actually having passengers aboard or may be
expanded to include departments that receive benefits of the aviation department activities indirectly. Depreciation expense
frequently is omitted from aviation department fixed expenses, normally being absorbed as a corporate general and administrative
or headquarters capital expense.
Depreciation expenses result from capital expenditures incurred by the flight department. Capital charges are usually larger onetime expenses that meet certain Internal Revenue Service (IRS) guidelines and generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)
and that are then depreciated over a period of time. Capital expense may be for a new item (acquisition of hangar space, certain
maintenance equipment, new aircraft, etc.), or it may be for an addition to an existing capital item that increases value or adds life
to the item (remodeling of existing office space, additional avionics, etc.).
Book depreciation charged to the flight department for the aircraft capital assets normally should be based either on a salvage
value of 70 to 80 percent of the original purchase cost or on a reasonable estimate of the aircraft sales value after a six-year
depreciation cycle. Aircraft depreciation charged to the flight department should not be based on tax depreciation, which
depreciates the aircraft to a net value of zero. By using book depreciation, the fixed costs per year are lower, so the amount the
flight department must pass on to its users is reduced, and it credits the flight department for its care in managing the future sales
value of the aircraft.
A major nonrecurring expense is a one-time expense of an unusual nature. These are often expensed items (as opposed to
capital) but could be capital. Examples include major equipment installation or overhaul; major facility upkeep, such as roof repair;
and premature powerplant overhaul.
Capital expenses generally include items or actions that add significant value or extend the useful life of an existing asset. The
FDM/CP should seek counsel from company accounting or finance personnel for specific situations.
1.1.15.3 OPERATIONAL DATA
Some companies prefer to relate the cost of operating the aircraft in terms of cost per flight hour because management readily
understands that terminology. Others favor a cost-per-mile analysis because the speed of the aircraft and payload capability may
be important factors; the accuracy oft his method, however, is not as precise as calculating cost by flight hour due to varying
ground speeds. If company records maintain the number of passengers carried on each flight, the cost per passenger seat mile
may be determined by using the operating cost per mile as a base.
The FDM/CP should become familiar with and use an aviation computer-based flight data program. The current computer-based
programs available are capable of providing operational data reports in many formats, using all data tracked by the program. This
allows flight department management to report many kinds of metrics, including data on flight legs, route city pairs, destination
statistics, aircraft operating efficiencies, passenger use data and fuel data.
1.1.15.4 ALLOCATING AIRCRAFT OPERATING COSTS (CHARGEBACKS)
The company’s management needs to decide if the cost of the company aircraft should be allocated internally. If they decide to
allocate the cost in this way, they need to show how and where this will be done.
The costs may be allocated to all departments or only to those departments or divisions that use the aircraft. The complexity of
allocations increases in proportion to the size and complexity of the corporate structure. The method chosen will have some
impact on the use of the aircraft. For example, a fully loaded chargeback rate that incorporates both direct and fixed costs will tend
to decrease overall use of the aircraft and encourage its use only at executive levels. Chargeback rates that incorporate only
DOCs will tend to encourage overall use of the aircraft at all levels of the company unless otherwise limited by policy. Most
chargeback schemes share total operating costs between the company and user. The general chargeback principle is that those
divisions or users of the aircraft pay an equitable share for its use.
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Accounting records should reflect clearly transportation charges to all users of the company. Chargeback rate charges may be
made to subsidiary companies or by a subsidiary to the parent company or other subdivisions within the corporation. Although
business aircraft that operate under Part 91, Subpart F, are classified as noncommercial for transportation furnished within the
corporate structure, the IRS may question the appropriateness of certain charges for taxing purposes. During tax audits, the IRS
occasionally has attributed charges for the use of aircraft differently from what the company actually charged, and then based
taxes on what, in IRS opinion, should have been charged for aircraft use. For these and other reasons, some companies do not
charge individual departments. However, charge-backs based on actual aircraft cost are an acceptable way to account for aircraft
cost and use.
Precise accounting is mandatory should the aircraft operate through time-sharing, interchange, or joint ownership agreements.
Chargeback allocations should be charged against the total travel budget of the entity using the aircraft. Company aircraft
operating costs seldom equate dollar for dollar to the cost of an individual airline ticket, and it must be recognized that basic costs
for transportation do exist. The dollar-for-dollar difference only can be viewed in its proper context when it is related to time and
productivity savings gained through using company aircraft, especially when operating with multiple passengers between airports
not served directly with commercial airline service.
1.1.15.5 ALLOCATION (CHARGEBACK) METHODS
Several methods exist for allocating the costs for company aircraft. The most common are central allocations, direct operating
costs allocation, direct and fixed costs allocation, and flat mileage assessment. Each is discussed below.
There also are others, but these usually are based on some variation of the above. See also Section 1.1.15.1 “DIRECT
OPERATING COSTS (DOCS)” for required charges for employee personal use of company aircraft.
1.1.15.5.1 Central Allocations –
Some corporations consolidate all the headquarters service costs, including the company aircraft, and divide those costs among
all the operating divisions for a central allocation method. There are a variety of formulas used in this method (e.g., a percentage of
net sales or a combination of sales, profits and payroll). Each formula has its advantages and disadvantages.
If the company has established a policy for distributing other central service costs, the aircraft probably would fit into the pattern
without difficulty. When a division uses the aircraft, there are no costs allocated for a specific flight.
Divisions that may have little need for travel or that are limited in use of the aircraft by company policy may resist this method of
cost allocation. However, the central allocation approach remains a popular alternative with many companies.
1.1.15.5.2 Direct Operating Costs Allocation –
Each division that has use of company aircraft is assessed the direct operating costs for a given flight. The company absorbs all
the fixed costs as part of headquarters’ operating expense. If several passengers are on board for the same flight from more than
one division, those costs may be prorated for each individual, so the cost of the flight is divided proportionately among the
divisions.
In some cases, the company also may absorb a portion of the direct operating costs as part of headquarters’ expense. This
arrangement may stimulate the use of the company aircraft because of the favorable cost factor. Divisions that have a budget to
accommodate travel requirements can allocate company aircraft costs against the budget.
1.1.15.5.3 Direct and Fixed Costs Allocation –
Each division may bear the total cost of operating the aircraft, including costs incurred whether the aircraft is flown. Because fixed
costs are proportionately higher than out-of-pocket expenses, this method may discourage use of company aircraft or limit use to
divisions that have a substantial transportation budget.
A variation of this method is to charge the user or users of the aircraft the direct operating cost, and charge the fixed-cost to the
division or operating unit represented by the users. This variation has several advantages. The users bear only the smaller direct
cost amount. The division (either a vice president account or division overhead allocation account) bears the fixed cost at a level
more tolerant to the larger portion of the total cost, and proportional to the division aircraft usage.
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1.1.15.5.4 Flat Mileage Assessment –
Some companies use a flat mileage assessment of costs. A variation of this is to assess amounts that equate to commercial airline
airfares between established airline points of service. The company accepts all the aircraft operating costs in its headquarters
account and is compensated in some degree by charges to divisions.
Flat mileage assessment does not depend on commercial service being available between given points. It remains constant no
matter where the company aircraft goes. The difficulty with assessing flat mileage rates is that no basis may exist for comparison
with airline economy fares. But if the rates are comparable with known scheduled airline mileage rates, the lack of comparison
should not present any serious problems.
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1.1.15.5.5 Figure 1.16: Operating Costs Work Sheet
Fixed/Indirect Costs – Annually Variable/Direct Costs – Annually
Acquisition Resale Liability Coverage Aircraft Operation
Purchase/Lease Costs Loss of License Fuel (block gallons per hour x fuel cost)
Finance Expenses Medical Insurance Oil
Other
(could be covered under Benefits)
Other
Tax Considerations Foreign Maintenance
State Sales Tax Other Labor (associated with a specific flight)
Personal Property Tax Training Parts
Aircraft Registration Fees Initial and Recurrent Flight Crew Training Freight
Depreciation Maintenance Personnel Training Engine Reserves
Capital Gains (on resale) Expenses incurred while at training facility Restoration Allowance
International Taxes CPR/First Aid/Survival APU/Reverser Overhauls
Federal Excise Tax Human Factor Training MSP (hourly)
Other Conferences and Seminars Other
Personnel Other Flight Expenses
Flight Crew Salaries Maintenance Service Plans Transit Fees
Maintenance Technicians Computerized maintenance programs APU Landing/handling/parking
Scheduler/Dispatcher Engine Program/Plan International handling
Accounting Avionics Line-Service Fees
Aircraft Cleaners Other Deicing
Contract Employees (Part Time) Outside Flight Services Cleaning
Secretarial ARINC Lavatory
Flight Department Manager Aviation Computer Services Crew Expenses
Benefits (estimate 30% of wages) International Handling Services Navigation
FAA (crew) Fuel Contract Fees Flight Plans
Physicals AFIS International Handling Fees
Company Physicals Jeppesen Navigation Charts Customs
Drug Testing Other Catering
Uniforms Aircraft Refurbishment SATCOM
Overtime Avionics Upgrades Aircraft Supplies
Other Interior Modification Other
Hangar Paint Other
Hangar Purchase/Rent Physical Upgrades
Hangar Finance Cost Other
Lease Payments Miscellaneous
Utilities Subscriptions/Manuals/Publications
Property Tax Maintenance Manual Subscription
Facility Upkeep Navigation Manual Subscription
Aircraft Support Equipment Trade Publications
Ramp and HazMat Expense News Publications
Hangar Security Association Memberships
Insurance Consulting Fees
Other Miscellaneous Office Expenses
Aircraft Insurance Office Equipment
Insured Hull Value Office Expenses
War Risk/Vandalism Other
Other
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1.1.16 MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL RISK
Organizational risk management (also known as enterprise risk management) is a business discipline receiving increased
attention both inside and outside the corporate boardroom. In general, organizational risk management is a process, applied by
developing strategies across the company, which strives to identify potential events that could negatively affect the entity, and
develop processes and strategies to manage that risk to a reasonable degree. It encompasses all areas of potential organizational
risk exposure to risk (financial, operational, reporting, compliance, legal, strategic, reputational, etc.), and prioritizes and manages
those exposures as an interrelated risk portfolio rather than as individual silos.
While risk management and emergency response planning are essential elements of any basic Safety Management System,
business aircraft operators should look beyond safety risk management and emergency response planning to organizational risk
management. This strategic method of managing risks across the entire organization is one way the aviation director can earn a
seat at the table with other department heads and executives. The aviation function, in addition to requiring relationships and open
lines of communication with headquarters personnel for the flight department’s needs, also can serve as a resource for other
departments by sharing knowledge and broad expertise with regard to risk management.
1.1.17 AIRCRAFT INSURANCE
The purchase of insurance protection against financial, damage and injury losses resulting from aircraft and/or airport operation
accidents is a decision to be made after thorough discussion with insurance consultants and the company’s legal department. The
aviation department manager and those responsible for handling the company insurance should remain in close communication
during preparations and negotiations for any aviation-related insurance contracts. A brief discussion on the important elements of
aviation insurance appears below.
While any insurance policy is in effect, your aviation department, the personnel responsible for handling the company insurance,
your aviation insurance broker and your aviation attorney should remain in close communication. Coverage and premiums may
vary as the aircraft is modified, changes in flight crews occur, normal routes of travel are changed, or travel outside the United
States takes place. The aviation department should be familiar with any insurance warranties relating to the flight crew(s) and/or
their qualifications. A summary of insurance coverage should be included in the aviation department’s operations manual.
Coverage and/or premiums vary as acquisitions of or modifications to aircraft are accomplished. Changes in flight crews, changes
in routes of travel, changes in operational control and international travel also may affect premiums and coverage. The aviation
department manager should know of any restrictions in the insurance coverage, whether related to the flight crews, their
qualifications or any other factors.
The basic coverage in the aviation insurance market are physical damage to the aircraft (hull insurance), aircraft liability insurance
and airport liability (premises) insurance.
Physical damage insurance provides for payment to the aircraft owner for physical loss of, or damage to, the aircraft. This is
usually written for an amount equal to either the market value, contractually agreed value (loan or lease obligation) or replacement
value of the aircraft and covers the interest of both the owner and other persons or organizations who may have a financial interest
in the aircraft. This coverage generally is purchased on an all-risk basis. If more limited coverage is desired, such as ground-only
or builders risk, it also is available.
1.1.17.0.1 The following three types of all-risk coverage may be purchased:
All risk
All risk not in flight (includes taxiing)
All risk not in motion (ground only)
Most companies will price entertainment requests for “fringe” or ancillary provisions coverage such as extra expense insurance
coverage, which provides conditional reimbursement for loss of use occasioned by a covered physical damage loss.
While any aviation insurance policy is in effect, your aviation department, the personnel responsible for handling the company
insurance, your aviation insurance broker and your aviation attorney should remain in close communication.
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Coverage and premiums may vary as aircraft are added, the current fleet is modified, changes in flight crews occur, normal routes
of travel are changed, or international travel is planned. The aviation department should especially be familiar with any geographic
restrictions in coverage or any insurance warranties relating to the flight crew(s) and/or their qualifications.
A summary of insurance coverage should be included in the aviation department’s operations manual.
The purchase of insurance protection against financial loss resulting from aircraft and/or airport operation accidents is a decision
the individual operator must make after thorough discussion with its insurance consultants and the company’s legal department.
The following summary of insurance coverage available to the owner or operator of an aircraft is offered for consideration.
The basic coverage types are physical damage to the aircraft (hull insurance), aircraft liability insurance, war risk and airport
liability (premises) insurance. Included in this section is a brief description of these types of coverage and variations available in the
aviation insurance market,
1.1.17.1 AVIATION INSURANCE RATES
Any type of insurance coverage, whether household, automotive or aircraft, must support itself through a proper balance of
premium income that offsets losses and expenses resulting from claims. An insurance company’s primary concerns are the cost
of losses and the expenses incurred in handling the losses. Once a database containing this information is established, a basic
insurance rate per given amount of coverage can be developed. As underwriting results develop, this charge or rate is adjusted as
loss experience changes.
In every area of aviation, the cost and frequency of accidents or incidents resulting in claims continues to increase. A dented wing
tip now can cost thousands of dollars. These increased costs result from the higher costs of labor and parts, the loss of use
expense during repair (where covered), more advanced manufacturing methods and use of more sophisticated materials.
Accidents generally fall into two categories:
Acts of God, such as windstorms, weather phenomena and bird strikes
Acts of Man, including design deficiency, sub-standard maintenance, and pilot error
Eighty-Four percent (84%) of accidents are caused by Acts of Man.
1.1.17.2 INSURANCE UNDERWRITER’S EVALUATION
Insurance companies that specialize in business aircraft insurance are conscious of the many elements that are required to
establish a professional aviation department. The complexity of policies and procedures may vary, depending on the operation’s
size.
Although the standard worker’s compensation and employer’s liability policy provides broad protection for the individual operator,
endorsements may be requested to cover certain exposures that may not otherwise be covered in the “basic” form (e.g., foreign
voluntary coverage or longshoreman and harbor worker’s coverage).
In a small operation, for example, a 5 or 10-page company memorandum may be adequate. However, for a multiple-aircraft
operation, a complete and detailed operations and administrative manual is desirable. No matter what the size of the operation is,
the underwriter will look for written policies and procedures that should be found in the aviation department’s flight operations
manual. The manual should include management, operations and maintenance policies and procedures.
The underwriter also will review the safety record and accident data for the aircraft make and model.
1.1.17.3 HOW RATES ARE ESTABLISHED
A basic hull (the aircraft itself) rate is established by the insurance company for each general type of aircraft, from single engine
fixed-gear airplanes through the turbojets.
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1.1.17.4 PHYSICAL DAMAGE (HULL INSURANCE)
This coverage provides for payment to the owner of the aircraft for physical loss of or damage to the aircraft, including engines,
propellers, instruments, and equipment usually and ordinarily attached to the aircraft. Unlike auto insurance, which is written on an
actual cash value basis, aviation hull insurance is written on a stated or agreed value basis normally equal to the current market
value of the aircraft. It covers the interest of both the owner and other persons, or organizations identified in the policy that may
have a financial interest in it, such as a bank. This coverage generally is purchased on an all-risk basis, meaning, generally, that all
risks are covered except what is excluded. The following three types of all-risk coverage may be purchased:
All risk- This is the broadest possible form of insurance. With few exceptions, it covers the owner against almost any
physical loss or damage to the plane on the ground and in the air, unless the loss is excluded or not fortuitous.
All risk not in flight- Similar to all risk but it covers the aircraft only on the ground, including taxiing.
All risk not in motion- Covers the aircraft only on the ground while not in motion.
One important exclusion of note is the exclusion for War Risks, Hijacking and other “Covered Perils.” As the name implies, this
coverage responds to physical loss or damage to the aircraft caused by an act of war or war like hostilities. It is more important to
note the war risk perils also cover such exposures as confiscation, seizure, arrest, and detention, sabotage, hijacking and terrorist
acts. As acts of domestic terrorism are increasing and since corporate aircraft frequently travel internationally, this coverage
should not be considered optional.
Most physical damage policies contain the following pertinent provisions and exclusions:
Deductibles – Generally, a deductible for not-in-motion and in-motion losses is a standard feature of policies covering
fixed-wing aircraft. Rotor-craft may have an in-motion deductible based on a percentage of the insured value.
Territory – Most aviation insurance policies cover operations on a worldwide basis; however, it is prudent to confirm
your policy territory with your broker prior to any trip outside the contiguous United States. Keep in mind some countries
such as Mexico and the European Union states require additional coverage prior to entering their airspace. or may
require a “fronting policy.” If you are using an international trip handler, they will generally assist you with compliance.
Automatic attachment – Most policies contain a provision for automatic attachment of newly acquired aircraft for a
limited period after the acquisition of the new aircraft, provided you purchase and register the aircraft in the same name
as your current aircraft. However, most policies will contain a limitation on the insured value of the new aircraft until it is
reported and accepted by the insurance company.
Pilot requirements – Depending upon the type of aircraft involved, most aircraft policies are written to be applicable only
while the aircraft is operated by named pilots or pilots meeting certain minimum qualifications. Pay close attention to the
recurrent training requirements as most policies warrant the pilots have completed aircraft-specific recurrent training
within the preceding 12 months of any flight at an underwriter approved facility. Also, if a pilot not meeting the prescribed
requirements is flying the airplane and a loss occurs, insurers may deny coverage.
Total loss value – Most policies are written on a “stated or agreed value” basis, which provides that, in the event of a
total loss, the company will pay the insured value stated in the policy, regardless of the aircraft’s market value. It is
important to review the current market value of the aircraft on an annual basis and adjust the insured value of the aircraft
accordingly. The goal is not to be under or over insured; both have negative consequences.
Unearned premium insurance – Most policies allow for a pro rata return premium in the event of a total loss. However,
some policies do not, and this should be verified if the company wishes to be protected against the loss of its premium in
the event of a total loss.
Most policies usually exclude loss caused by:
War risk
Wear and tear, including mechanical or electrical breakdowns
Conversion and embezzlement
Violation of the usage clause (i.e., allowable reimbursement)
Diminution of value
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1.1.17.5 NEW AIRCRAFT
When a new aircraft is developed and offered to the market, insurance underwriters will evaluate it much as the potential buyer
does. They will visit the factory, inspect the aircraft, observe the manufacturing processes, examine the materials and parts used,
and (through demonstration flights) determine handling qualities, performance, and systems reliability. They also will review the pilot
training program offered, type of FAA certification of the aircraft, complexity of repairs, availability of repair facilities and the general
service that may be available to the aircraft operator.
Once the analyses of the aircraft, manufacturing process, service requirements and facilities have been completed, the insurance
company will attempt to match the new aircraft with an operational model that is reasonably similar in order to develop the basic
minimum rate or insurance charge. A new aircraft, utilizing new raw materials, a new design, and/or new engines will not have
substantial operational experience and will likely bear higher rates than older aircraft with proven reliability.
1.1.17.6 OLDER AIRCRAFT
As operational experience is gained and historical data is accumulated, insurance rates may go up or down. Contrary to popular
belief, experience data is extremely difficult for insurance companies to amass outside their own company statistics. Because of
the competitive nature of the insurance business, one company is not apt to divulge its experience to a competitor and would
consider claim experience privileged information for internal use only. In addition, there is no common data bank that reveals the
value of all claims paid on a specific aircraft. Therefore, an insurance company must rely heavily on its own experience with a
given aircraft, estimate the claim experience of its competitors and evaluate National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and FAA
accident data on specific aircraft and classes of aircraft. It will also utilize data from other sources, such as other accident
investigation agencies and manufacturers.
Although NTSB accident reports indicate the kind of accident (i.e., hard landing, nose wheel collapse, etc.) and damage (i.e., minor,
substantial, destroyed) that has occurred, they do not show the dollar amount of the ensuing insurance claim. The insurance
company that eventually handles the claim will know precisely what dollar amounts are involved, but it is under no obligation to
make this information known to anyone else.
Other factors also influence claim information retrieval. Not all claims stem from operational accidents. For example, an aircraft that
was exposed during a windstorm (Act of God) may suffer skin damage resulting in payment of a $125,000 claim. An aircraft
damaged while in the possession of maintenance facility (Act of Man) could be covered by hangar keeper insurance, but the usual
procedure for the insurer of the aircraft would be to settle with the owner of the aircraft and negotiate (or subrogate) for
reimbursement from the insurance company providing the hangar keeper insurance.
1.1.17.7 AIRCRAFT LIABILITY INSURANCE
Liability insurance coverage is designed to cover the legal liability of the insured to others for bodily injury and property damage
resulting from the ownership, maintenance or use of the aircraft. This policy offers coverage for legal defense of any suit brought
against the insured, often even if the suit is groundless. Although financial loss, which can result as a consequence of liability
claims, may not be as obvious as loss by reason of damage or destruction of an aircraft, it can be much more costly in the end,
even to the extent of jeopardizing or destroying the company to satisfy liability judgments. Risk of financial loss increases the
importance of carrying liability insurance protection consistent with the company’s risk profile.
Basic policy coverage includes the following items:
Bodily injury liability (excluding passengers)
Passenger bodily liability
Property damage liability
Medical payments
Guest voluntary settlement (admitted liability)
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Risks insured may include liability to third parties arising from (subject to insurance contract or policy conditions, limitations and
exclusions):
An aircraft accident
A contractually assumed obligation
Products and/or completed operations liability after resale of the aircraft or upon completion of work
Use of non-owned, borrowed or rented aircraft
Owned or leased airport premises where aircraft is located
1.1.17.8 NON-OWNERSHIP AIRCRAFT LIABILITY
Non-ownership liability coverage is available as an extension to the owner’s aircraft liability policy or as a separate policy. It
protects the named insured for liabilities arising from the use of certain non-owned aircraft. The possibility of exposure to liability
suits through the use of non-owned aircraft often is overlooked. However, the company may be subject to suits due to bodily injury
or property damage if a company or employee, who may be a pilot and operates his or her own aircraft, or directly (or indirectly
through an agent) rents, charters or borrows an aircraft for use by or on behalf of the organization.
1.1.17.9 GROUP INSURANCE AT LOWER PREMIUM RATES
“If a number of operators of like aircraft joined together, would group aviation insurance be available at lower rates?” NBAA has
been asked this question many times and has explored the possibilities.
Most underwriters feel the present system, which involves insuring aircraft at premium rates based on coverage limits, pilot
qualifications, aircraft use and how well the individual operator runs its aviation department, provide the best rates available in a
very competitive insurance market where each underwriter strives to write the best operators.
1.1.17.10 WORKER’S COMPENSATION AND EMPLOYERS LIABILITY INSURANCE
Unlike other forms of insurance protection, which are optional, the laws of the individual states require operators to carry some
form of worker’s compensation insurance. Whether an individual operator is subject to his or her state’s law and thus is required to
provide this coverage normally depends on the number of persons employed. In some states, one employee is sufficient to bring
an employer under the law; in others, the minimum is 10 employees. An insurance agent or broker should be consulted to
determine specific state requirements.
Worker’s compensation laws provide for the payment of compensation and other benefits to employees who sustain injuries or
contract disease arising out of or occurring in the course of employment. These laws set forth the specific amounts payable for the
time the employee must be away from work because of the injury, as well as make provisions for the payment of medical benefits.
Benefit level requirements vary widely among states. The employer is directly responsible for all of these payments, unless the
proper insurance protection is provided. Even in states in which an individual operator is not subject to the law, the operator still
can be open to a liability suit from the injured employee or others claiming by, through or under his or her name. It is strongly
recommended that an individual operator with employees purchase these types of coverage.
The standard worker’s compensation and employer’s liability policy provides protection for individual operators’ liability under the
law of any state named in the policy, as well as protecting operators from suits brought by employees injured in the employment.
This is accomplished by dividing the policy into two types of coverage: worker’s compensation coverage and employer’s liability
coverage.
Worker’s compensation coverage will pay all compensation and other benefits required of the insured by the worker’s
compensation law and any occupational disease law of a state designated in the policy; it does not include any non-occupational
disability benefits.
The state or states in which the individual operator operates will be listed specifically in the policy. No limit of liability is purchased
for this coverage, because the policy will pay whatever the state law requires regardless of amount.
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Employer’s liability coverage is designed to protect employers’ legal liability resulting from suits instituted by employees for injuries
or disease allegedly sustained in the course of employment or related operations. Although the worker’s compensation law
generally is the exclusive remedy for these injured employees, situations may arise in which a suit may be instituted; employer’s
liability coverage is available for this reason.
In addition, the policy provides for the defense against any suit seeking benefits or alleging injury, even though the suit may be
made on false or fraudulent grounds. These benefits are in addition to the benefits payable under worker’s compensation coverage
or the limit of liability under employer’s liability.
If an employer uses contract employees, or even independent contractors, such use should be discussed with the broker and/or
insurer. Depending upon state law and whether the employee or independent contractor has his or her own coverage, it may be
necessary to report payroll and cover them under the workers' compensation policy.
1.1.17.11 AIRPORT LIABILITY INSURANCE
If the owner of an aircraft also owns or rents hangar, office, lounge or ramp space, the owner should explore the need for airport
liability insurance. This type of insurance is designed to cover liability to the public for bodily injury or property damage in and
around such areas. In current “broad form” corporate policies, a limited form of this coverage often is included
1.1.17.12 INSURANCE EVALUATIONS OF MAINTENANCE
The type of maintenance program may be evaluated by the underwriter based on the following criteria:
Review of aircraft records
Compliance with service bulletins
Compliance with airworthiness directives
Response to discrepancies on mechanical problems
When maintenance is performed by an outside, FAA approved repair station, the underwriter will review that facility’s experience
and qualifications. If maintenance is done in-house, the underwriter will review the qualifications and experience of personnel and
available technical support to maintain the aircraft satisfactorily. When a company’s maintenance facility is an approved repair
station, this is regarded favorably by the underwriter.
1.1.18 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Information about environmental rules and regulations may be obtained from the state in which a member company is based. The
Federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires states to establish environmental regulations that are at least as stringent
as the federal rules and to enforce such regulations. The EPA rules cover a wide range of affected areas, including clean air, clean
water, storm drain permits, toxic substances such as paint removers and other volatile items, and underground storage tanks.
Each state, usually at the state capital, will provide information concerning regulations within the state organization.
Each aviation facility should develop a Pollution Incident Prevention (PIP) and Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure 
 (SPCC) Plan including a Hazardous Waste Contingency Plan. The type of aviation facility, along with local state laws, will dictate
what must be included in these plans. In general, each aviation facility should have an emergency coordinator to handle all
emergency response measures. This person will have to be familiar with the following:
All aspects of the facility’s contingency plan and all operations activities at the facility
The location and characteristics of waste handled
The location of all records within the facility
The facility layout
In 1984, Congress responded to the increasing threat to groundwater posed by leaking Underground Storage Tanks (UST) by
adding Subtitle I to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Subtitle I required the EPA to develop a comprehensive
regulatory program for USTs storing petroleum or certain hazardous substances to prevent, detect and clean up releases. At the
same time, Congress banned the installation of unprotected steel tanks and piping beginning in 1985.
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In 1988, the EPA issued regulations setting minimum standards for new underground fuel tanks and requiring owners of existing
tanks to upgrade, replace, or close them by December 1998. Tanks remaining in operation must have leak detection and leak
prevention components. UST owners and operators are responsible for reporting and cleaning up any releases. Financial
responsibility regulations ensure that, in the event of a leak or spill, an owner or operator will have the resources to pay for costs
associated with cleaning up releases and compensating third parties.
1.1.19 REFERENCES FOR BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
1.1.19.0.1 FAA VIOLATION AND ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES
1.1.19.0.1.1 Advisory Circulars
00-46D – Aviation Safety Reporting Program
00-58 – Air Carrier Voluntary Disclosure Reporting Procedures
1.1.19.0.1.2 FAA Orders
2150.3A – Compliance and Enforcement Program
8300.10 – Airworthiness Inspector’s Handbook, Vol. 2, Chapters 210–214
8700.1 – General Aviation Operations Inspector’s Handbook, Vol. 2, Chapter 55: “Inspect an Executive/Corporate
Operator,” Chapters 180–184
1.1.19.0.1.3 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 13 – Investigative and Enforcement Procedures
Part 61 – Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
Part 63 – Certification: Flight Crew Members Other Than Pilots
Part 65 – Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crew Members
Part 67 – Medical Standards and Certification
Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
Part 119 – Certification: Air Carriers & Commercial Operators
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand Operations
1.1.19.0.2 COMPANY PRE-ACCIDENT PLAN
1.1.19.0.2.1 Publications
NBAA’s Company Response to an Aviation Accident
NBAA Business Aviation Fact Book, published annually
FAA Aeronautical Information Manual
1.1.19.0.2.2 Regulations
49 CFR: Parts 100–179 – Department of Transportation Hazardous Materials Regulations
14 CFR: Part 830 – NTSB Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents or Incidents and Records; Part 831–
Accident/Incident Investigation Procedures; and Part 845– Rules of Practice in Transportation; Accident/Incident
Hearings and Reports
1.1.19.0.3 CARRIAGE OF ELECTED OFFICIALS, INCLUDING CANDIDATES
1.1.19.0.3.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 91.321 – Carriage of Candidates in Federal Elections
1.1.19.0.3.2 Other Regulations
11 CFR – Federal Elections: Part 114 – Corporate and Labor Organization; Section 114.2 – Prohibitions on Contributions
and Expenditures; Section 114.9 – Use of Corporate or Labor Organization Facilities and Means of Transportation; and
Part 115 – Federal Contractors
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1.1.19.0.4 AVIATION SAFETY AND SECURITY
1.1.19.0.4.1 Websites
NBAA Safety Information – www.nbaa.org/safety
NBAA Safety Management System Information – www.nbaa.org/sms
NBAA Security Information – www.nbaa.org/security
Department of Homeland Security – www.dhs.gov
Federal Aviation Administration – www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/sms
National Transportation Safety Board – www.ntsb.gov/aviation/aviation.htm
Southern California Safety Institute – www.scsi-inc.com
International Business Aviation Council – www.ibac.org
Transportation Security Administration – www.tsa.gov
University of Southern California, Aviation Safety and Security Program – http://viterbi.usc.edu/aviation
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University – www.ec.erau.edu
1.1.19.0.4.2 Publications
FAA’s Aeronautical Information Manual
NBAA’s Business Aviation Insider, published bimonthly and online at www.nbaa.org/insider
NBAA Update, published weekly and online at www.nbaa.org/update
NBAA Flying Safety Awards Rules & Regulations, published annually, www.nbaa.org/safetyawards
1.1.19.0.4.3 Advisory Circulars
120-92B – Safety Management Systems for Aviation Service Provider
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1.2 Leadership
1.2.1 LEADERSHIP
Effective leadership is key to the success of any organization and essential in business aviation. It is important to apply the
leadership style that best suits the needs, situation, and culture of your organization. NBAA offers several resources in the area of
leadership (www.nbaa.org/ admin/). The tools and resources provided here will help business aviation professionals hone their
skills and help their organization achieve its vision.
In addition to the resources on NBAA’s website, each year NBAA hosts a Leadership Conference comprising top thought leaders
and educators on different aspects of leadership. The event is attended by flight department personnel, industry professionals,
developing leaders and seasoned leaders.
Your actions, regardless of your title in the organization, demonstrate your leadership skills and affect the outcomes of your
organization. Therefore, all of your actions, from the most mundane to the mission critical, should be aligned with your company’s
values. Utilize the NBAA tools provided and find the inspiration to step up as an aspiring (and inspiring) leader.
Leadership is not a title. It is a behavior that influences others to achieve an objective. Take full ownership of your leadership role.
Motivate and mentor your colleagues in their career paths and equip your team to handle whatever uncertainties lie ahead.
Leaders can lead from any position one does not have to be in a position of power or manage employees to be a leader.
1.2.2 DIVERSITY, EQUITY, & INCLUSION
In 2019, NBAA and its Board of Directors created and adopted the NBAA Diversity, Equity & Inclusion (DEI) statement titled,
“Inclusion Fuels Our Future,” shown below:
From the dawn of our modern era, aviation has thrived through a collaborative spirit. NBAA is committed to fostering an inclusive
culture throughout the business aviation community that reflects this core value.
Listening to diverse voices and promoting practices that enable everyone to excel isn’t just the right thing to do, it’s how our
industry will remain on the forefront of innovation. When every individual feels empowered to be their authentic self, we broaden the
horizons of where business aviation can go.
With business aviation employers and individuals becoming more equitable and inclusive, the entire industry can be seen as a
welcoming career destination, broadening the available talent pool. Diversity creates stronger ideation and innovation that can
increase safety, productivity and profitability.
NBAA encourages business aviation professionals to learn about the benefits of embracing DEI, and to recognize tangible DEI
takeaways to create equity within your organization, tips for reducing bias in the hiring/recruiting process, and best-practice
examples of inclusion and equity with a focus on aviation professionals who are also caregivers. An awareness of the above items
can lead to a desire for change and the knowledge and ability to make it happen.
In addition to its statement of DEI goals, the NBAA also established a Diversity, Equity & Inclusion working group under the
association’s Business Aviation Management Committee (BAMC) to engage business aviation employers and individual business
aviation professionals by:
Creating an awareness about the need for diversity, equity and inclusion in the business aviation industry, and to help
demonstrate the potential and positive impact DEI can have on the business aviation community;
Generating a desire within the industry to proactively become more diverse, equitable and inclusive and to identify and
reduce bias;
Sharing industry success stories, best practices and resources to affect this and reinforce the need for DEI to be an
ongoing and constant effort.
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1.2.2.1 DEFINING DIVERSITY, EQUITY, & INCLUSION
1.2.2.1.1 Diversity
Is the practice of hiring, including and involving people from a range of different social and ethnic back-grounds and beliefs and of
different genders, ages, sexual orientations and disabilities.
1.2.2.1.2 Equity
Is the practice and stated policy of being transparent regarding hiring and evaluation practices, promotions and pay, and providing
fair access to resources and support based on individual needs for team members, understanding that not all people have had the
same experiences and opportunities.
1.2.2.1.3 Inclusion
Refers to the formal and informal activities of business aviation employers and industry professionals and behavior toward one
another that enables participation by all. Inclusion ensures the widest range of participation and voices in every aspect of one’s
professional life. This participation supports each of us individually while also benefiting our industry and the broader community.
Inclusion provides equal access to opportunities and resources for people who might otherwise be excluded or marginalized, and it
identifies and minimizes bias while welcoming dissenting voices. True inclusion removes all barriers and encourages ideas,
thoughts and collaboration from all participants. Inclusion results in a feeling of belonging and making everyone in an organization
feel valued and connected to those around them.
1.2.2.2 DEIBENEFITS IN BUSINESS AVIATION
“Diverse teams are more likely to constantly reexamine facts and remain objective. They may also encourage greater scrutiny of
each member’s actions, keeping their joint cognitive resources sharp and vigilant. By breaking up workplace homogeneity, you can
allow your employees to become more aware of their own potential biases – entrenched ways of thinking that can otherwise blind
them to key information and even lead them to make errors in decision-making processes.”
— David Rock and Heidi Grant,“Why Diverse Teams Are Smarter,” published November 4, 2016, in the Harvard Business Review
Business aviation employers of all sizes can benefit significantly by making concerted efforts to identify and minimize bias,
increase inclusion and build a more equitable work-place. When the three elements of DEI–diversity, equity and inclusion – are
truly practiced, organizations lay the foundation on which to grow, expand and innovate. There also must be a commitment to train
and closely maintain these elements.
1.2.2.2.1 The benefits of increasingDEIin business aviation include:
Increasing Physical and Psychological Safety: Homogeneous teams of any size are more likely to see the world, risks
and opportunities through the same lens, which may increase risk. Diverse teams are more likely to constantly
reexamine facts and remain objective. Diverse teams, when managed correctly, can have a collective focus on the
greater goals of the organization. When mutual trust exists, ideas are shared freely concerns are valued, and
psychological and physical safety can increase.
Increasing Productivity, Profitability, and Innovation: Ideas and innovation are inevitably drawn from team members’
personal experiences, background, understanding, successes and failures. Because each of these elements are
uniquely central to an individual, invention arises from the cultivation of many broad experiences into one. A team
comprised of varied individuals with dissimilar backgrounds enhances the escalation of successful products and
services. A DEI-built and aware flight department is likely to bring about increased efficiency, with substantial benefits to
the principal or organization.
Expanding the Workforce: Due to the critical shortage of business aviation talent, expanding our workforce is an
imperative.
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1.2.2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY
Psychological safety is a team condition in which individual team members feel that the culture is safe for interpersonal risk-taking.
Individuals must feel comfortable sharing ideas, admitting mistakes, learning from failure and vocalizing safety concerns.
Psychological safety creates a culture where team members feel respected and valued, even when they share dissenting
opinions.
Creating psychological safety isn’t a one-time, check-the-box compliance requirement. It must be adopted, reinforced and
normalized at all levels of the organization. It must become part of the culture. DEI is key to this.
1.2.2.3.1 Benefits of Psychological Safety include:
1.2.2.3.1.1 A Stronger Safety Culture and a More Effective Safety Management System
Psychological safety directly impacts an employee’s willingness to self-report and fill out safety reports. Safety reports inform
Safety Performance Indicators, which are a cornerstone of the Safety Assurance pillar in an organization’s Safety Management
System (SMS).
Team culture depends upon the psychological safety of the individuals that comprise it. Employees who do not feel comfortable
speaking up will not fill out safety reports. Those who do not feel valued will not honestly answer a safety culture survey. Burnout,
low morale and infrequent safety reporting are indicators of a poor safety culture.
Psychological safety enhances safety culture because it enables people to ask questions and share their mistakes without fear of
embarrassment or punitive action. DEI is key to team acceptance and psychological safety.
1.2.2.3.1.2 A Platform for Inclusion
Inclusive leadership produces more creativity, increased productivity and a higher level of safety. How do we create inclusive
teams? Part of the answer is understanding an individual’s unique experiences, looking at differences as an asset, and creating a
high level of psychological safety throughout the team. Again, DEI is key.
Proactive safety is highly dependent on the individuals with-in an organization. With a high level of psychological safety, the team
has a sense of belonging and inclusion. This builds trust, which is fundamental to individuals in an organization working together
efficiently and effectively.
1.2.2.3.1.3 A Learning Environment That Motivates Team Members
Psychological safety enhances safety because it creates a learning environment where employees feel engaged and free to
express themselves. It is fueled by group trust and is paramount to healthy, high-functioning teams as it allows employees to feel
heard. This encourages individual motivation to participate in team collaboration. Research shows that psychologically safe
employees are engaged and motivated employees. Awareness of DEI bolsters psychological safety.
The culture of the team is dependent on the psychological safety of the individuals that comprise it. The building blocks of
organizational safety are composed of protocols, processes and the individuals upholding them. When one building block crumbles
because of an employee’s low psychological safety, the whole team’s safety is jeopardized. No person, title or position is exempt
from the negative effects of low psychological safety; it can reach all levels. Creating psychological safety is strongly dependent
upon leadership. It is critical for high-performing teams. DEI is key.
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1.2.2.3.2 Strategies to Build Psychological Safety
Invite team members to participate. If you have a large team, consider creating sub-groups where people feel
comfortable speaking up and assign an individual to represent the sub-group at a larger team meeting.
Foster open communication by welcoming dissenting opinions.
Create a learning mindset by re-framing failure. De-stigmatize failure by framing it as an important and necessary
process of learning. Leaders must demonstrate the willingness to learn by failure.
Demonstrate situational humility - make it safe to say “I don’t know.”
Ask questions - don’t just express your opinion.
Actively listen, acknowledge and show appreciation.
Approach conflict with empathy and curiosity.
Demonstrate transparency: collectively brainstorm next steps.
Consider conducting anonymous safety culture surveys annually.
Make psychological safety part of your Safety Management System.
Create Safety Performance Indicators to measure and enhance a positive safety culture.
Most importantly, seek feedback - often!
1.2.2.4 INCLUSIVE LEADERSHIP
Inclusive leadership empowers team members to speak up, take risks, dissent, manage their own development and bring their
authentic selves to work. Inclusive leaders also are collaborative, transparent and culturally agile. Most importantly, they fully
embrace the vast diversity of today’s workforces and foster a workplace that promotes diverse voices and ideas. Building an
inclusive environment is a critical component to attract and retain diverse talent.
1.2.2.4.1 Important attributes of inclusive leadership include:
1.2.2.4.1.1 Equality and Respect
The first step to creating an equal and respectful work-place is combating bias and discrimination by recognizing it. Leaders must
be acutely aware of any internal, unconscious bias that they may hold and understand that everyone carries some level of bias. If
a leader admits these shortcomings, they can then take steps to correct, identify and modify shortcomings in their team. A leader
should constantly evaluate how those biases impact their decisions and actions, as well as others in the workplace.
The following steps can help ensure that leaders act equitably and respectfully in your day-to-day work:
Listen to and value all contributions equally.
Immediately address inappropriate behavior at all levels and by all team members, from outright discrimination to microaggressions.
Allow people to be authentic – an honest representation of who they are as a person as expressed in their thoughts,
words and actions.
Learn to identify and eliminate blind spots in processes to make sure that decision-making is fair and even.
Allow others equal access to setting the agenda, influencing what, and how work is done, having one’s needs and
interests considered, and having one’s contributions recognized and rewarded.
1.2.2.4.1.2 Teamwork
Leaders should ensure that they listen to all voices, regardless of role or seniority level. Everyone’s experiences should be taken
into consideration and valued. When speaking with your team about diversity efforts, listen to these voices even more closely. If
the team works more collaboratively, less-heard voices will need to be amplified. Respectfully solicit feedback if it is not
volunteered and provide a safe space where you can encourage people to share stories and partake in honest discussion.
1.2.2.4.1.3 Cultural & Emotional Intelligence Empathy
A leader needs to recognize and value a broad range of backgrounds and experiences and the unique qualities each individual
holds. Be open to learning. Ask questions respectfully; demonstrate cultural humility and honor each person’s differences and
cultures.
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1.2.2.4.1.4 Growth and Empowerment
Take turns giving team members high-level projects to work on. See that work is divided evenly and that everyone has an
opportunity to reach their potential with equitable support to achieve it. If someone on your team has a new strategy or idea,
encourage them to exercise that idea while providing the coaching and tools to see it through.
Give them the autonomy they need to try to get the results you both desire, and celebrate their successes. Learn from failures and
demonstrate to the team it is a critical element of growth.
1.2.2.4.1.5 Psychological Safety
The workplace can be a hostile place for those who are deemed “other” or “different.” Even when leaders are working to be
inclusive and combat this sort of treatment, those around you may not. This can impact the mental health and well-being of a
diverse team, which can ultimately impact the safety of the entire organization. Ensure that it is safe for your team to broach issues
they’re experiencing in an inclusive way. If your team comes to you with the sometimes-difficult conversations, then you are
creating the right kind of atmosphere.
1.2.2.4.1.6 Building Trust
You want your diverse team to know that you will support them. Inclusive leaders lead by example and use both their status and
position in the company to pave the way for positive change.
This includes actions as well as words. For example:
Admit when you make a mistake and learn from it. Showing humility is important and a key part of the learning process.
Stand by your word and speak the truth. If you are transparent with your team, team members will be more likely to trust
you.
Use your voice to identify bad behavior and unfair practices. Start those hard conversations at a higher level.
Organizations with inclusive cultures, led by inclusive leaders, gain better perspective on potential problems, imagine smarter and
multi-faceted solutions, and spot the biases in what they’re creating. Establishments and teams that get both elements of diversity
and inclusion right are at a huge advantage. Business aviation is no exception.
Diverse and inclusive organizations, when compared to their peers, are eighty-seven percent (87%) more likely to make better
decisions, according to Korn Ferry Research. In business aviation, that makes for increased efficiency, innovative solutions to
historic and modern dilemmas, as well as a safety culture that creates and breeds psychological safety.
1.2.2.5 CREATING EQUITY
“Equity“ and “Equality“ are very different things. Equality assumes all people in similar roles have had the same experiences and
opportunities and should be given the same resources and career advancement opportunities without consideration of individual
needs. Equity is the practice and stated policy of being transparent regarding hiring and evaluation practices, promotions and pay,
and providing fair access to resources and support based on individual needs – understanding that not all people have had the
same past-experiences and opportunities.
Outcomes of an equitable organization can include:
Better talent attraction
Increased employee engagement
Higher employee retention rates
Positive business outcomes
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The first step in creating an equitable flight department is to recognize that different team members have different needs. Once this
reality has been accepted, examples of ways to create equity in the workplace can include:
Providing transparency around job descriptions, wages, and career advancement paths. Being transparent and openly
discussing correlations between employee performance, position and rate of pay are essential to ensuring fair
compensation. Offering transparency around career advancement paths provides the roadmap for an individual to
understand how to navigate available resources to achieve their desired outcomes.
Adopting skills-based hiring, which acknowledges that while not everyone has had the same access to education and
opportunities, their skills, previous work experience, and other qualities may make them a value-add to the team.
Implementing a workforce education program that supports individual growth, success and promotion. This can include
mentorship, scholarship and/or full coverage/ reimbursement for up-skilling, training, learning opportunities and more.
Empower your team members so that they know what opportunities exist, how to access them and that they can feel
comfortable and safe doing so. These might be aviation-specific as well as business, leadership or other educational
resources and opportunities.
Ensuring equitable benefits for employees to access. For example, making spousal health insurance available to all
partners and offering the same parental leave benefits to all guardians.
Creating equity is vital for the success and growth of today’s flight departments and business aviation employers. As an industry,
our diversity efforts and benefits will not be realized if we are not first equitable and inclusive.
Implementing equitable actions will result in a flight department that is not only welcoming and potentially life-changing for all team
members, but also one that retains talent with safer and better results for all stakeholders.
Challenging orthodoxies restricting equity is not easy. It requires empathy and vulnerability, tough conversations and constant selfreflection. Building an equitable flight department takes sustained commitment from principals, parent companies, leaders and team
members – even when tough and unpopular. DEI!
1.2.2.6 REDUCING BIAS IN THE HIRING PROCESS
Biases are a part of human nature, and they affect the way all individuals make decisions and act. The brain receives more
information than it can consciously process. To help with this processing problem, the brain creates categories and prototypes to
sort incoming information. Some of these categories are decided without an individual’s conscious agreement.
In psychology, there are two main types of bias: conscious and unconscious. Conscious bias, or explicit bias, is intentional-the
individual is aware of certain attitudes and the behaviors that result from them. Unconscious or implicit bias represents the set of
biases that are unintentional – the individual is not aware of these attitudes and the behaviors that result from them.
Because implicit bias is unintentional and often occurs with-out an individual’s knowledge, the strongest instrument to overcome it
is awareness. As an individual gains knowledge of their own biases, they can begin to identify and counter them more easily. If a
concerted effort is made to inform oneself and their respective teams of these often-unknown agents of influence, energies to
attract and retain talent and foster inclusivity skyrocket.
The first step in blocking bias is recognizing it. It’s important to ask, “Why do I think this way?” or “How might I rethink this
decision?” Although mitigating bias may seem like a tall order, this is an area where small changes can have a big impact.
Implementing one or several of these strategies will help individuals and teams to minimize unconscious bias, particularly in the
hiring process.
The area with the most opportunity and impact for countering bias is the hiring process. Below are five simple steps that can be
taken to increase a hiring team’s awareness and reduce bias when recruiting new talent:
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1. Aim for a gender-neutral job description. For example, the words “active,” “confident,” “objective” and “driven” have a
masculine connotation. Similarly, the words “honest,” “interpersonal,” “loyal” and “understanding” have a feminine
connotation. Tools such as Textio (textio.com) can assist in testing the objectivity of job descriptions.
2. Practice applicant anonymity. Ask a team member unrelated to the hiring process to omit names from resumes before an
individual review. Researchers from Harvard and Princeton have found that blind auditions increased the likelihood that
female musicians would be hired by an orchestra from twenty-five percent (25%) to forty-six percent (46%). This is a simple
tactic that can yield immediate results.
3. Ensure standardization within the hiring process. Provide all interviewers with a job-based interview template that is both
measurable and uniform. People are less likely to rely on “gut feelings’’ when asking all candidates the same questions in
similar order. Such standardization allows for direct comparison of responses, as opposed to variance-based interviews
driven by the “feel” or dynamic between interviewer and interviewee.
4. Enlist the help of an uninterested party. If there are multiple interviewers in the hiring process, it’s wise to include an
uninterested party. Consider inviting a participant who would seldom interact with the new employee. This interviewer’s
viewpoint could prove to be vital as they are evaluating the candidate independent of history or desired outcome.
5. Request independent feedback from interview panelists. Many interview teams debrief as a group, which can foster
confirmation bias. Instead, ask interviewers to submit their impressions in writing to the hiring manager before convening as
a group. Even the most advanced and aware teams can succumb to peer influence and “groupthink” when discussing talent
prospects.
1.2.2.7 UNDERSTANDING THE VALUE OF AND ACCOMMODATING CAREGIVERS IN BUSINESS AVIATION
At a time when the industry is facing unprecedented shortages of qualified personnel, identifying and correcting outdated
employment practices can simultaneously help expand the workforce and enhance diversity. To attract and retain talent, business
aviation should continue to adapt systems and policies to meet the needs of professionals with caregiver responsibilities.
The term “caregiver” refers to any individual who provides medical, physical or emotional support for family or loved ones.
Caregivers are most often people who care for children (as parents or guardians), and/or chronically ill, elderly or disabled people.
But these examples do not exhaust the endless iterations of possible caregiving dynamics that business aviation professionals
face.
Fundamentally, caregivers are individuals who are primarily and ultimately responsible for the care of family or loved ones. In
contrast, secondary caregivers may help in a backup capacity. For example, secondary caregivers may be working parents
considered to be the “breadwinner,” or they may support a spouse who provides elder care to an aging parent.
Caregivers are not a distinct and separate group. Increasingly, most business aviation professionals face being in a caregiving
situation at some point in their professional career. While the population of caregivers in business aviation is growing in direct
proportion to the overall population, the needs of this group remain underrepresented.
Timelines and energy requirements for individual caregivers may vary dramatically and have unique challenges. As one
contrasting example, the needs of a healthy, autistic eight-year-old child may look dramatically different from those of an aging
parent with dementia who requires supplemental professional care. Further, caring for a spouse recovering from a car accident will
have a different timeline than caring for a spouse with a chronic or terminal illness.
1.2.2.7.1 Staffing Appropriately
Take advantage of the NBAA Management Guide pilot and/or maintenance technician calculator (Pilot Staffing,
Maintenance).
Build a network of contract and contingent workers (i.e., maintenance technicians, cabin crew and pilots) in advance of
the need for supplemental staff (Independent Contractors and Contingent Workers).
Build relationships with vendors (e.g., maintenance vendors and supplemental flight operations) in advance of the need
for those services.
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1.2.2.7.2 Providing Scheduling Transparency
Encourage trip requesters to provide as much advance notice as possible.
Allow teams to view department schedules in advance.
Eliminate information “gatekeepers.”
Provide non-vacation paid time off and/or flex time for employees, regardless of tenure or seniority.
Allow some vacation to be exercised as individual days off and not as entire weeks.
Explore and utilize flexible and attractive work arrangements including:
Provide part-time work opportunities (for employees).
Provide culturally embedded contract work opportunities (for non-employees). (Independent Contractors and
Contingent Workers).
Promote self-scheduling.
Allow annualized, compressed or staggered hours (e.g., 4 on, 4 off).
Use designated “standby” personnel in the staffing model to cover unexpected time off for other associates.
Establish generous trip-swapping and shift-trading policies.
Remember that a schedule structure that may be beneficial to one caregiver may be an impediment to another. Consideration and
collaboration should be used to address the scheduling needs of the caregiver.
The above examples should help business aviation managers understand and accommodate the needs of caregivers in their
organizations. This is not a comprehensive list: empathy, understanding, and flexibility should be guiding principles to understand
and address the challenges of caregivers in business aviation organizations.
1.2.2.7.3 Creating a flight department that supports caregiversIs closely tied to attracting and retaining top-tier talent. Caregivers in business aviation are typically highly capable, high-value
individuals. They are adaptable and innovative; they have the capacity to solve complex caregiving problems, challenges and
logistics, all of which transfer well to business aviation. They are team-oriented and often possess experience leading teams from
various disciplines to overcome challenges.
Finally, as their name implies, caregivers are deeply caring and reliable people who provide superior service. Adaptability, teamorientation and a caring personality are invaluable traits to employers. These qualities advance culture, people management,
business strategy and operations in any organization. To attract and retain these quality individuals, employers in business aviation
must create the culture and systems to create work/life harmony for caregivers moving forward.
1.2.2.8 MANAGING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
Having a more diverse team without the proper leadership will not only result in missing out on the aforementioned benefits, but it
may also lead to attrition. All team members need to feel safe, seen and supported. And, we can-not state strongly enough – DEI is
key!
The following are imperative leadership skills for all:
1.2.2.8.1 Build Team Identification 
Team identification is when team members identify as part of a group unifying around a common goal such as delivering a great
service to a client, or the principal, or meeting client travel needs with the greatest safety and efficiency. Everyone in the flight
department needs to feel proud of being part of the team and needs to feel valued as a contributor. When this happens, people
work collaboratively toward a common goal for the best outcome.
1.2.2.8.2 Create a psychologically safe environment 
Team members must know that their opinions and ideas are valued. They must be able to speak up and participate safely without
fear of being mocked or belittled, and without repercussion. Dissent and different opinions can minimize risk and optimize return. It
is the leader’s job to promote this environment and to stop bullying and intimidation. Creating a safe space might also mean
evolving individual management style to allow everyone to express themselves. Some people like rapid-fire meetings, while others
may prefer more time and space before contributing.
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1.2.2.8.3 Inclusivity 
Choose words wisely. Be conscientious about the tone and tenor of messaging, and always consider those on the receiving end of
your communication. Similarly, be intentional and inclusive when planning team-building exercises and team events. Ensure the
activities and venues are comfortable for all and not alienating.
1.2.2.8.4 Fairness 
Don’t be harder or easier on different team members. This can be patronizing and create resentment, as well as hold team
members back. Ensure everyone on the team has equal opportunities to excel with equitable support to do so. Equal and equitable
are distinctly different (For further details see Section 1.2.2.5 - CREATING EQUITY).
1.2.2.8.5 Celebrate Differences 
It is imperative to recognize each other’s differences while simultaneously honoring each other’s different experiences and ideas.
Team members must be able to express themselves without fear of retribution, both verbally and non-verbally. It is the leader’s job
to foster an environment that values diversity and immediately act if it is being violated. Make sure that everyone is being seen.
Make sure to learn and genuinely care about team members’ backgrounds, motivations, goals, aspirations, hobbies and more.
1.2.2.8.6 Manager Communication 
Is a manager always understood by their team? Be flexible in how information is conveyed and received. Avoid jargon and
minimize non-verbal communication that might be missed or misunderstood. Proper communication builds trust and confidence.
Remember that communication is not one-sided, but two-sided. Good leaders listen with humble inquiry and thankfulness for
participation.
1.2.2.8.7 Team Member Communication 
Facilitate team-building exercises that provide everyone a chance to share their stories and learn to successfully communicate –
even when they have different opinions or beliefs. Facilitate conversations within the department, addressing potentially hard-todiscuss current events in a thoughtful, empathetic and compassionate way.
1.2.2.8.8 Coaching and Mentoring 
Build a coaching and mentoring program that’s both internal and external to the flight department or company. Being a great leader
in aviation takes more than just great technical aviation skills, but strong communication, business and leadership skills. Building a
bridge with coaching and mentoring programs between the greater organization and the flight department may result in exponential
benefits.
Leading a diverse team requires strong leadership – no different from anything else in life. If the work is done consistently and
authentically, the rewards for the department, the company and/or principal – and for each individual – will be exponential
1.2.3 ETHICAL BUSINESS AVIATION TRANSACTIONS
In support of the NBAA Ethical Business Aviation Transactions Statement (below) and to provide NBAA members questions to help
them make good ethical decisions when buying or selling goods or services or conducting business, several NBAA Committees
have prepared the following statements and questions you can ask vendors and service providers before engaging with them.
The business aviation industry’s strong ethical culture has remained a unique hallmark, one deserving of both pride and attention.
Embracing a culture of ethical behavior supports NBAA’s mission to foster an environment that allows business aviation to thrive in
the United States and around the world. By retaining a positive image, both within the community and among the public at large,
business aviation will succeed and grow.
All industry participants – whether representing the buyer or the seller of any products or services – should conduct themselves in
a manner that seeks to avoid even the appearance of improper behavior when engaging in business transactions.
NBAAencourages business aviation professionals to become familiar with existing company policies or, in the absence of them, to
develop internal policies and regularly conduct training on issues of ethical behavior.
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These policies are broadly designed to deter wrongdoing and to promote:
1. Honest and ethical conduct including the ethical handling of actual or apparent conflicts of interest;
2. Fair, accurate, timely and understandable disclosure; and
3. Compliance with applicable governmental laws, rules and regulations. The following topics highlight, in plain English, the best
ethical practices for transactions in our industry which are in addition to applicable state, federal and international laws.
A good rule of thumb is to ask this question: “How would my actions appear on the front page of a national newspaper?” Would
your actions appear honest, professional and ethical? Or could such exposure cast negative light on your reputation and that of
your company and the industry?
The terms “business aviation professional” and “company” are used below as these best practices are equally applicable to
everyone in the industry-direct employees, contract employees, advisors, brokers, consultants, management companies, and
other agents – who are representing a company or an individual in any transaction.
1.2.3.1 HONEST AND ETHICAL CONDUCT
All business aviation professionals must always conduct him/herself in an honest and ethical manner. Everyone must consistently
adhere to the highest standards of personal and professional integrity and not tolerate any attempts to deceive or evade
responsibility for actions. Business aviation professionals must maintain confidentiality by avoiding inappropriate disclosure of
information.
1.2.3.2 CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
A “conflict of interest” occurs when a person’s private interest interferes in any way (or even appears to interfere) with that of the
company the professional is representing. A conflict situation can also arise when one takes actions or has interests that may
make it difficult to perform his or her work objectively and effectively. It is reasonable for companies to expect business aviation
professionals representing them will perform their duties conscientiously, honestly and in the best interests of the company. Such
professionals must not use their position or any knowledge gained as a result of their position for private or personal advantage.
Conflicts of interest may also arise when an individual or a member of his or her family solicits, is offered, or receives improper
personal benefits or emoluments (e.g., finders fees, kick-backs, undisclosed rebates or commissions) as a result of his or her
position working for the company.
Regardless of the circumstances, if a course of action an individual pursues risks generating a conflict of interest with the
company, that person has a duty to disclose this fully to the company by immediately communicating all facts to their supervisor or
in accordance with company procedures. All actual or apparent conflicts of interest between personal and professional
relationships must be handled honestly and ethically.
Like many industries, there are a variety of loyalty and rewards programs available to business aircraft owners and operators.
NBAA recommends that business aviation professionals discuss with their supervisors the programs in which they participate and
together develop processes, procedures and guidance clearly articulating expectations for program rewards and other benefits to
prevent conflicts of interest.
1.2.3.3 COMPANY FUNDS AND OTHER ASSETS
Business aviation professionals who have responsibility for or access to company funds in any form must follow the prescribed
procedures for recording, handling and protecting money as detailed in company’s policies. Companies impose strict standards to
prevent fraud and dishonesty. If a business aviation professional becomes aware of any evidence of fraud and dishonesty,
they should report the information to a supervisor or follow the company’s whistleblower procedures. When a business aviation
professional’s position requires spending company funds or incurring any reimbursable expenses, that individual must use good
judgment on the company’s behalf to ensure that good value is received for every expenditure. A company’s funds and all other
company assets are to be used only for that company’s purposes.
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1.2.3.4 BUSINESS RECORDS
Business aviation professionals have an obligation to maintain complete and accurate business and financial records. Details of all
transactions must be appropriately documented, in the proper period and in accordance with generally accepted accounting
principles. Documents must be retained and destroyed in accordance with a company’s retention policy.
1.2.3.5 COMPLIANCE WITH STATE, FEDERAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAWS
Business aviation professionals must be mindful of the numerous professional ethics rules (e.g., for lawyers or accountants), state
and Federal laws and regulations that may apply to an individual’s or company’s activities. For example, the U.S. Foreign Corrupt
Practices Act prohibits giving anything of value, directly or indirectly, to officials of foreign governments or foreign political
candidates in order to obtain or retain business. Similar laws have been adopted by other countries. Business aviation
professionals must avoid making illegal payments to government officials of any country. In addition, many governments have laws
and regulations regarding business gratuities that may be accepted by their personnel.
Further, commercial bribery (i.e., where there is no government official involved) is a criminal offense under certain state, federal
and foreign laws. Business aviation professionals must familiarize themselves with the applicable rules. Violations of these laws
can result in sanctions against both the individual and the company.
NBAA recognizes the business aviation industry’s commitment to ethical behavior and will continue to be a leader in this effort.
1.2.3.6 BUSINESS AVIATION SAFETY ETHICS
NBAA’s Safety Committee has identified ethics as a key part of professionalism, one of its Foundations for Safety. Personal
integrity and character define ethical conduct – moral behavior that reflects truth and honesty in any endeavor related to our
industry. To achieve the highest levels of safety performance, business aviation professionals must live by a moral code that
doesn’t tolerate deceit, cheating or thievery.
An organization’s unethical behavior in an area unrelated to safety can also influence employee attitudes toward ethics in ways that
can damage its safety program, so leaders must demonstrate integrity in every aspect of their business to ensure the highest
standards of safety performance. Maintaining and assessing individual or organizational integrity can be challenging, given
pressures that exist to meet performance goals or budget targets, even without the undue influences of greed, coercion or malice.
However, organizations and their leaders can earn the trust of their employees, executives and regulators by demonstrating a
clear ethical compass over time.
In our industry, this trust is essential, as almost all aviation work is founded on self-policing. Did the crew comply with stabilized
approach criteria? Did the mechanic perform every step of the inspection? Did the scheduler/dispatcher choose the handler/fuel
supplier based on the company’s policies? In each case, the organization has placed its trust in its employees to do the right thing.
Organizations and their leaders are, however, not the only actors in determining whether others trust them. We have all heard the
phrase “guilt by association,” reinforcing that it is up to individual decision makers to determine the organizations and individuals
with whom they associate. An organization concerned with its own ethics will choose to associate itself with those individuals and
organizations that share the same values. They will seek out information on new vendors or customers from any available source
and remain vigilant against deals “too good to be true,” vendors unwilling to provide good-faith estimates or warranties, and
customers that ask them to bend the rules.
The individuals that maintain your safety culture, i.e. your employees, are watching how your organization and its leaders make
decisions and will, for the most part, apply the same standard to their own actions in making their safety decisions, or leave if the
organization’s standards do not measure up to their own. In the long run, the ethics demonstrated by an organization are essential
to determining its safety culture, which, in turn, will directly affect the safety of its aviation operations.
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1.2.3.7 ETHICAL AIRCRAFT TRANSACTIONS
Unlike real estate and other asset transaction service businesses, aircraft transactions (and the broader broker/dealer/ consultant
business) are largely unregulated, as there is no licensing process or oversight of the industry as a whole. All participants conduct
their businesses differently, and different models are acceptable as long as there is transparency and positive ethical practices in
the process.
A highly ethical aircraft sale or acquisition is one in which:
The ultimate buyer and seller know who the participants in the transaction are
Each party knows who is looking out for their specific interests
The person looking out for one party’s interest is only working on their behalf, as opposed to working both sides of the
same transaction
Both parties are advised correctly with thorough due diligence conducted on the aircraft’s history, records and
mechanical condition (An aircraft’s condition is typically evaluated through a third-party inspection facility, or if a prepurchase inspection is waived it is done with an understanding of the trade-offs of cost vs. risk)
There is an aircraft purchase agreement agreed upon between buyer and seller clearly defining the terms, conditions,
timelines and protocol for the transaction, and if the transaction will be conducted as a “back-to-back” transaction with an
aircraft dealer taking title in the middle that it is done for a purpose with transparency to the ultimate buyer and seller.
Questions to help you enter into an ethical positive aircraft sale or acquisition transaction:
1. Who are the buyer and seller representatives, if any?
2. How is your representative being paid?
3. Is your representative paying anyone else or accepting payment from anyone else in the process?
4. Will you contract with the actual buyer or seller on the other side of your transaction, or with a dealer in the middle?
5. Have you consulted an aviation attorney on ownership and tax strategies? Will the aviation attorney be involved in the
contracting process of the transaction?
6. Do you know what to expect regarding transaction costs and post-closing costs to bring the aircraft up to speed for your
operation (cosmetics, maintenance and avionics)?
1.2.3.8 AIR CHARTER BROKER SERVICES
Safety begins from both the top-down and the bottom-up. All individuals involved in transactions and operations, including the
charter broker, have a role to perform in managing safety risks. When air charter brokers conduct their business ethically, they
enhance aviation safety.
Aviation regulations govern what an air charter broker must disclose to charter clients. This includes:
The capacity in which they are acting as the broker
The name and DBAs of the operator
The amount and kind of insurance they carry
If a second broker is used and who they are
Other disclosures must be made upon request. These include:
If acting as customer’s agent, any relationship with the carrier/operator that has a bearing on selection of the carrier to
operate the flight
Total cost of the charter, including taxes and fees (need not be itemized)
Any fees the customer must pay directly to third parties (e.g., fuel, landing, hanger, etc.)
The broker must also advise the customer of any changes to these disclosures within a reasonable time of their taking place.
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To ensure you are dealing with the right broker, consider asking the broker the following questions.
1. How do you accurately represent?
2. That you are not a direct air carrier, when that is not the case?
3. The actual quality or kind of service or type of aircraft?
4. The time specific details of the trip?
5. The safety record and certifications of pilots, aircraft or air carriers?
6. The amount of passenger insurance coverage?
7. The fees for air transportation or services in connection therewith?
8. Your relationship with relevant audit organizations?
9. The air carrier’s certification by an auditing organization?
10. The arranged agreement with the direct air carrier?
1.2.3.9 BUSINESS AVIATION AUDITOR ETHICS
Auditor ethics promote a positive culture in the profession of auditing, which is defined as an independent, objective assessment of
behavior and structure designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. This process can help an organization
accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk
management, control, and governance processes.
Key questions you may want to consider when selecting an auditor for your organization are:
1. Is the auditor competent in the domain which they are assessing?
2. Does the auditor exude a professional image?
3. Is the auditor dignified and modest in explaining their perspectives?
4. Can the auditor be impartial in analyzing and assessing the areas identified within the scope of the audit?
5. Does the auditor have any business connections, interests or affiliations which might influence their judgment or impair the
equitable character of their services?
6. How will the auditor ensure there will be no disclosure of information concerning the confidential business affairs or technical
processes of your organization?
For the purpose of this statement, Auditors can mean safety auditors, quality auditors, maintenance auditors, operations auditors,
financial auditors, or any third-party consulting organization brought in to evaluate, comment and provide best practices guidance
on a specific aspect of or all aspects of a flight department.
1.2.4 SUSTAINABILITY
The effects of climate change have spurred a global shift towards environmental sustainability that continues to grow and spans
across government, industry and personal practice. With this widespread societal movement, environmental consciousness is
rapidly becoming a key tenet of any enterprise.
The business aviation industry has been a leader in recognizing and addressing environmental concerns, including what is
perhaps the biggest environmental challenge of our generation, mitigating the effects of anthropogenic emissions on earth’s
climate. Countering the effects of emissions and noise, along with mindfully using and disposing of resources (including water) are
also key aspects of sustainability. Business aviation has consistently improved and continues to enhance its environmental record
through, for example, technical advancements in aircraft, engine and avionics designs, along with adoption of Sustainable Aviation
Fuels (SAF). Building on this record is critical as owners and operators (including shareholders and board members),
policymakers, the media and others seek to reduce their carbon footprint and enhance overall sustainability.
As companies establish sustainability goals focused on environmental stewardship, their flight departments need to be aligned and
help the company achieve its sustainability objectives.
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Sustainability makes good business sense. Strategies often lead to cost savings. For example, reducing consumption of fuel,
electricity and water through efficiency measures or new equipment reduces operating costs and increases return on investment.
Sustainability is also increasingly important to clients, investors and employees, and it is a great driver of innovation.
The NBAA encourages business aviation entities of all sizes to incorporate sustainable practices into their operations to reduce
energy and resource consumption where practical. While a myriad of sustainable practices can and should be pursued,
addressing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) should be a central focus as CO2 emissions are
a primary driver of climate change.
Embarking on the path to sustainability may initially seem like a daunting task, however the process can be broken down into the
following steps:
Obtain preliminary sustainability education including familiarization with key programs, terminology, and policies.
Determine your Business Aviation entity’s sustainability baseline. This requires a comprehensive assessment of current
practices and includes calculating CO2 emissions.
Develop and implement a comprehensive sustainability strategy to make incremental improvements against your
baseline.
Assess your progress at regular intervals and make adjustments as needed.
This chapter of the Management Guide provides recommendations for each of these steps.
1.2.4.1 EDUCATION
The first step towards making any environmentally sustainable improvements is to build the required foundational knowledge. This
includes an understanding of the drivers of environmental concerns and associated strategies to address challenges. Below are
some key concepts.
One of the primary environmental challenges of our time is greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon emissions. The
Greenhouse Gas Protocol has identified three categories of common sources of GHG emissions that are well understood and can
be applied to the business aviation industry for the purposes of tracking and reduction. These are Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions.
Scope 1 GHG emissions are direct emissions from sources that are owned or controlled by the business aviation
entity. This includes fossil fuel combustion and fuel consumption.
Scope 2 GHG emissions are indirect emissions from sources that are owned or controlled by the business aviation
entity. This includes emissions that result from the generation of electricity, heat or steam purchased by the entity from a
utility.
Scope 3 GHG emissions are indirect emissions that are the result of activities from assets not owned or controlled by
the reporting organization, but that the organization indirectly impacts in its value chain. Scope 3 emissions include all
sources not within an organization’s scope 1 and 2 boundaries. This includes purchased goods/services, employee
travel and commuting, emissions associated with contracted solid waste disposal, investments, and leased assets.
A simplified explanation is:
Scope 1 - You burn it (fuel)
Scope 2 - You buy it (electricity)
Scope 3 - Is everything else
Carbon emissions can be addressed in a variety of ways. Some of the most common tactics that a business aviation entity may
encounter include, but are not limited to, the following:
Sustainable Aviation Fuel - Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) refers to jet fuel that is produced from renewable sources
rather than refined from petroleum. It is fossil-free fuel. For emphasis: SAF is Jet fuel.
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SAF is blended with Jet-A to meet the specs required for current turbine engine technologies (engines need some chemicals
(aromatics) found in Jet-A for lubrication). The highest concentration currently allowed is 50/50, but most SAF blends available
currently for business aircraft are 70% Jet-A and 30% SAF. This is changing rapidly as OEMs in coordination with producers such
as NESTE as well as consumers such as SAS are now successfully operating test flights on one hundred percent (100%) SAF.
Burning SAF is a direct carbon reduction. SAF made from renewable sources are the best option today to directly reduce our
carbon footprint as we develop more fossil free energy sources for aircraft. SAF is the answer for companies/individuals that want
to take direct action to reduce CO2.
Book & Claim (SAFc) - Book & Claim, also known as SAFc, is the process by which jet operators can purchase SAF
for use at an airport where it is unavailable and still receive a credit for its reductions while it is put into the fuel supply
elsewhere.
Operators purchase and claim the carbon savings of SAF without uploading it directly into their tanks. Fuel distributors purchase
an amount of SAF from the refinery. They then sell credits (one-gallon SAF = 1 credit) to ‘green’ operators. The credit’s price is the
cost difference between a gallon of Jet-A, and a gallon of SAF. The distributor sells that SAF to a local airport retail fuel outlet (FBO,
airport authority, etc) at the Jet-A price.
Market-Based Carbon Reduction Measures - Market-based measures are instruments designed to address the
climate impact of aviation, beyond what operational and technological measures or sustainable aviation fuels can
achieve. They are intended to reduce emissions as aviation moves toward solutions that directly reduce emissions
through efficiency, technology and Sustainable Aviation Fuels. They are effective instruments for the reduction of
greenhouse gasses and meeting climate goals.
Voluntary Offsetting - Any aircraft operator can purchase carbon credits to offset their emissions. These offsets
effectively reduce the carbon output. A carbon offset (or credit) is a verified reduction or avoidance of one metric ton of
carbon dioxide.
Each carbon credit represents independently verified reductions or avoidance of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (“mtCO2”).
Typically, credits are generated from projects like forestry, renewable energy, or new efficiencies; all of which must meet the
following criteria: For a carbon-reduction project to generate carbon credits, it needs to demonstrate that the achieved emission
reductions or carbon dioxide removals are real, measurable, permanent, additional, independently verified, and unique.
Carbon offset credits are not a simple commodity (eg: Any ton of spring wheat is equal to any other ton of spring wheat. One
carbon offset isn’t necessarily equivalent to another that’s sold by the same organization). As with many products whose quality is
difficult for casual buyers to assess, standards organizations have been created to ensure quality assurance. These carbon offset
programs perform basic functions that include developing and approving methodologies which set criteria for the quality of carbon
offset credits, review at the project level against these standards through 3rd party environmental verifiers and operate registry
systems that issue, transfer, and retire offset credits that ensure transparency and no double claiming. There are a number of
offset programs in the voluntary and compliance space. California (CCO) is a good example of a compliance program. All carbon
credits should be verified and validated through industry leading standards. Best practice is to first consider efficiencies and
other means of reducing your carbon emissions before seeking out carbon offsets.
ICAO recognizes voluntary standards to ensure Carbon credit viability See below to learn more about standards accepted through
CORSIA for the voluntary phase. These registries are good choices for voluntary participation.
Note: There are many offset providers available in the market. By researching and speaking to your trusted advisors you can
mitigate emissions and support carbon reduction projects globally that meet stringent standards and high quality program metrics.
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Regulatory Offsetting - Depending on the destinations and frequency of flights to those destinations, some flight
departments are subject to mandatory carbon-reduction laws or regulations. There are currently two such regulatory
schemes which affect international flight operations.
1.2.4.1.1 CORSIA -
The Carbon Offset & Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) is a carbon-offsetting initiative created by ICAO. The
Scheme’s scope covers all flights between the 193 ICAO member states. It doesn’t cover domestic flights within the member
states.
Who is affected? Any operator emitting 10,000 tons CO2 (approx 1,050,000 gallons) on flights within the scope of the scheme.
Most US corporate flight departments don’t emit this much in their international operations.
Affected aircraft operators must offset all emissions from international flights by purchasing carbon offsets. One carbon offset
equals one ton of CO2. To ensure the integrity of the scheme, ICAO set standards for the carbon offsets operators are allowed to
use. These credits earn the title of CORISA-eligible offset credits.
The scheme works along two separate but complementary paths. First, it adds a cost to the flight operator’s emissions, providing a
cost-based incentive for reduction. Second, operators must offset the emissions. The scheme provides an instrument to make
international aviation actually carbon neutral. Both paths utilize public market strategies to set the price(s) and invest resources in
the areas with the highest return.
1.2.4.1.2 EU ETS -
The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is an emission’s ‘permitting’ scheme enacted by the European
Commission. The Scheme’s scope applies to all flights into, out of, within, and between the 27 EU Member states, their territories,
Switzerland, Norway, and Iceland.
Who is affected? Any operator flying more than 273 legs AND/OR emitting more than 1000 tonnes CO2 (approx 105,000 gallons of
Jet fuel) on flights within the scope of the scheme.
The scheme sets an economy-wide, carbon emissions' threshold (cap) for given time periods (currently 2023-25). Aircraft
operators must have a permit for emissions above that cap. This ‘permit’ is called a ‘carbon allowance’ - European Union
Allowance (EUA). One EUA is a permit to emit one metric ton of CO2 (104 gallons Jet-A).
The EU sells EUAs through an open market – a carbon commodities exchange. The scheme, therefore, uses market forces to set
a price on emitted carbon which effectively adds cost to emitting CO2. This provides a monetary incentive to decrease carbon
emissions. As of June 2022, one EUA was selling for €87. A carbon allowance is not an offset. One EUA, in and of itself, doesn’t
represent a reduction of 1 ton of carbon.
1.2.4.1.3 EU ETS vs. CORSIA -
What is the difference between each scheme? Their scopes and their compliance mechanisms.
The EU ETS covers only flights that ‘touch’ the 27 member states, Switzerland, Norway, and Iceland - this includes both
international AND domestic flights. CORSIA only applies to international flights between the 193 signatory countries; it ignores
domestic flights within those countries.
CORSIA’s goal is to cap international aviation emissions at 2019 levels and achieve carbon neutral growth.
EU ETS’s goal is to cap economy-wide emissions, not just those from aviation, and slowly reduce year-on-year, the number of
allowed emissions allowances driving up the price and incentivize de-carbonization over time.
Carbon Allowances are not the same thing as Carbon offsets. There are two basic mechanisms to be understood regarding
allowances and offsets. Allowances are regulatory compliance units allowing an emission; they are effectively a permit to emit.
Offsets are primarily voluntary units representing an actual emissions' reduction. Hence, an “allowance” allowing an emission and
an “offset” providing a reduction that counteracts or offsets your emission.
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1.2.4.2 DETERMINING YOUR BASELINE
The most significant factor of your sustainability baseline is calculating your entity’s CO2 emissions or carbon footprint. This can
be as easy as hiring one of a few aviation-focused consultants to provide you with a complete carbon footprint assessment to help
navigate developing a sustainable plan for your company. Other options include self-measuring your carbon footprint using a GHG
Calculator or commercially available carbon calculator. If your business aviation entity is part of a larger corporate structure, it is
best practice to determine what internal resources may be available. In larger organizations, these resources are typically found in
the Environmental, Social and Corporate Governance (ESG) entity.
Assessing and addressing the business aviation entity’s carbon footprint may seem like a formidable task. It may be helpful to
conceptualize emissions from the business aviation entity by grouping activities into key emissions areas. Below are four
categories into which emissions may be grouped. The below categories provide some examples of emission generating activities
that a business aviation entity may encounter. These examples are not all-encompassing and serve only as points of
consideration. For a comprehensive accounting of an entity’s entire carbon footprint, a sustainability professional
should be consulted.
Flight - Emissions related to conducting flights (e.g., carbon from jet fuel). Scope 1 emissions.
Operations - Emissions related to purchasing goods/ services (e.g., employee travel/air charter). Scope 3 emissions.
Ground Support - Emissions related to ground support (e.g., owned equipment, vehicles). Scope 1 emissions.
Infrastructure - Emissions related to physical infra-structure (e.g., hangars, facilities’ energy and water consumption).
Scope 2 emissions.
Helpful references for calculating carbon emissions and reductions in each of these four areas are listed below. It is important to
understand that the calculations below are recommendations but are by no means the only way to calculate emissions. There are
a variety of methodologies that can be employed. Utilizing a professional sustainability consultant or internal ESG
resources (if available) is recommended in order to understand the difference in available methodologies.
1.2.4.2.1 Flight: CO2 Emissions Calculation
1. Track fuel uplifts within a designated time period. This could be on an annual basis, quarterly, or according to a
different time period, like fiscal year.
2. Calculate total metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period- In short, multiply all Jet-A fuel
uploaded (in gallons) by 0.0096696 to get total metric tonnes of CO2. This includes any sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) and
book & claim purchases, but does not consider any reductions from those purchases, or offsets (this is further addressed
in the Accounting for Reductions section below). The below calculation relies on a 3.161 conversion factor, which is the
factor commonly used by ICAO for calculating the CO2 emissions associated with conventional jet fuel. The formula uses
this conversion factor along with weight conversions (1 Gal = 6.75lbs or 3.06kg) for jet fuel to provide the metric tonnes CO2
emissions.
Total Jet-A Gallons x 0.0096696 x Total Metric Tonnes CO2 Emissions
1.2.4.2.2 Flight: Accounting for Reductions
1. Calculate any metric tonnes of CO2 emissions reduced through the purchase of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)
within the designated time period - The lifecycle emissions associated with one gallon of SAF vary depending on the blend and
carbon index reduction. Important information to receive at the time of purchase includes gallon quantity, percentage of Neat SAF
in fuel blend and the Neat SAF lifecycle CO2 emissions reduction index. In some cases, the blend lifecycle CO2 emissions
reduction index is also provided. If that is not the case, it can be calculated using the applicable formula below as long as the
previously mentioned values are provided. This does not include book & claim or offsetting. Because each purchase is different,
the individual emissions savings will need to be calculated per individual purchase of SAF. To simplify this process, we recommend
formatting a tracking sheet to calculate emissions savings automatically.
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To calculate (or verify) the percentage of carbon index reduction for a given SAF Blend upload:
% of Neat SAF in Fuel Blend x % Lifecycle CO2 Reduction x SAF Blend % Carbon Index Reduction
To calculate the emissions savings of a single upload:
SAF Blend % Carbon Index
Reduction
 x Individual Upload Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions
= Individual Upload Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions Reduction
Example: A business aviation entity purchases a single SAF upload of 2,000 gallons SAF/conventional jet fuel blend. It contains a
30/70 blend of Neat SAF with an eighty percent (80%) lifecycle CO2 emissions reduction. The total emissions from 2,000 gallons of
conventional jet fuel are 19.34 metric tonnes CO2. Considering the SAF, 30% x 80% results in a 24% carbon index reduction. 24%
of 19.34 is 4.64 metric tonnes CO2 emissions reduction. In total, the entity would have a net-emissions of 14.7 metric tonnes CO2
(19.34 -4.64 = 14.7).
2. Calculate any metric tonnes of CO2 emissions reduced through the purchase of SAF via book & claim (SAFc) within
the designated time period - Book & claim emissions reduction are calculated the same way as direct SAF uploads. Each
purchase varies depending on the blend and carbon index reduction. Important information to receive at the time of purchase
includes gallon quantity, percentage of Neat SAF in fuel blend and the Neat SAF lifecycle CO2 emissions reduction index. In some
cases, the blend lifecycle CO2 emissions reduction index is also provided. If that is not the case, it can be calculated using the
applicable formula above as long as the previously mentioned values are provided.
Similarly, by using a tracking sheet, the total book & claim CO2 emissions reduction can be calculated by adding all individual book
& claim transaction reductions together.
Consider any reductions in total metric tonnes of CO2 emissions as a result of purchasing carbon offsets within the
designated time period - A carbon offset must be retired after a single use. Consult your provider regarding specifics on
retirement.
Calculate net metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period - To calculate net metric tonnes CO2
emissions number, subtract any emissions reductions from SAF, SAF book & claim, and carbon offsets.
1.2.4.2.3 Total Metric Tonnes CO2 Emissions Equation:
— Metric tonnes CO2
reduced from SAF
— Metric tonnes CO2 reduced
from Book and Claim
— Metric tonnes CO2 reduced
from Carbon Offsets
= Net Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions
1.2.4.3 OPERATIONS: CO2 EMISSIONS CALCULATION
Operations can include a variety of emissions generating activities within the business aviation entity. For the purposes of NBAA
Sustainable Flight Department Accreditation outlined at the end of this chapter, Operations includes employee travel via aircraft
operated by a third party (i.e. airlines, charter).
1. Track employee air travel within a designated time period. This could be on an annual basis, quarterly, or according to
a different time period, like fiscal year.
2. Calculate total metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period - This does not include employee
travel on business aviation entity-owned and operated aircraft. This does include all business aviation entity’s employees’
travel. Only include employees who work directly for the business aviation entity (and not, for example, the larger parent
organization). This calculation does not consider any reductions from offsets (this is further addressed in the Accounting for
Reductions section below). The below calculation relies on the ICAO Carbon Emissions Calculator methodology for
calculating CO2 emissions associated with air travel.
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1.2.4.3.0.1 ICAO Carbon Emission Calculator: Calculator
Scheme Approved Registry Additional Specifications
CORSIA
American Carbon Registry (ACR) Issued to activities that started their first crediting period from 1
January 2016 and in respect of emissions reductions that
occurred through 31 December 2023 Architecture for REDD + Transactions (ART)
China GHG Voluntary Emission Reduction Program
Issued to activities that started their first crediting period from 1
January 2016 and in respect of emissions reductions that
occurred through 31 December 2020
Climate Action Reserve (CAR)
Global Carbon Council (GCC)
Verified Carbon Standard (VCS)
The Gold Standard (GS)
Using a tracking sheet, the total employee travel CO2 emissions can be calculated by adding all individual upload trip emissions
together.
Be sure to convert kilograms of CO2 to metric tonnes:
Total kg CO2 Emissions / 1000 = Total Metric Tonnes CO2 Emissions
There are other methods for determining your travel emissions, such as the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. In all calculations, there
are assumptions used and averaged to determine the most accurate estimate.
1.2.4.3.1 Operations: Accounting for Reductions
1. Consider any reductions in total metric tonnes of CO2 emissions as a result of purchasing carbon offsets within
the designated time period - This includes any offsets purchased to specifically offset employee travel emissions only. A
carbon offset must be retired after a single use. Consult your provider regarding specifics on retirement.
2. Calculate net metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period - To calculate the final emissions
number, subtract any emissions reductions and carbon offsets from the total metric tonnes of CO2 emissions.
1.2.4.3.1.1 Total Metric Tonnes CO2 Emissions Calculator:
Metric tonnes CO2 reduced from
commercial SAF purchases
/ Metric tonnes CO2 reduced from carbon
offsets
= Net Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions
1.2.4.3.2 Ground Support: CO2 Emissions Calculation
1.2.4.3.3 Track fuel uploads within a designated time period. This could be on an annual basis, quarterly, or according
to a different time period, like fiscal year.
1. Calculate total metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period- This includes all fuel uploaded to all
owned, or leased combustion vehicles. This includes any alternative fuel or biodiesel purchases, but does not consider any
reductions from those purchases, or offsets (this is further addressed in the Accounting for Reductions section below). The
below calculation relies on the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) greenhouse gas emissions from a gallon of
gasoline. Refer to the EPA’s latest information to conduct the calculation (https://www.epa.gov).
Total Gallons (Gasoline or Diesel) x Gasoline or Diesel kg CO2 per gallon conversion = Total kg CO2 Emissions
Then, convert kilograms to metric tonnes:
Total kg CO2 Emissions / 1000 = Total Metric Tonnes CO2 Emissions
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1.2.4.3.4 Ground Support: Accounting for Reductions
1. Calculate total metric tonnes of CO2 emissions reduced through the purchase of alternative fuels within the
designated time period - The emissions' reduction associated with one gallon of alternative fuel varies depending on a
multitude of factors. Important information received at the time of purchase should allow a business aviation entity to
estimate CO2 emissions reduction. This does not include offsetting. Alternative fuels are not all the same, therefore the
individual emissions savings will likely need to be calculated per individual purchase. To simplify this process, we
recommend formatting a tracking sheet to calculate emissions savings totals.
2. Consider any reductions in total metric tonnes of CO2 emissions as a result of purchasing carbon off-sets within
the designated time period - This includes any offsets purchased to specifically offset ground support emissions only. A
carbon offset must be retired after a single use. Consult your provider regarding specifics on retirement.
3. Calculate net metric tonnes CO2 emissions within the designated time period - To calculate the final emissions
number, subtract any emissions reductions from alternative fuels and carbon offsets from the total metric tonnes of CO2
emissions.
Total Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions
— Metric tonnes CO2 reduced
from alternative fuels
— Metric tonnes CO2 reduced
from carbon offsets
= Total kg CO2
Emissions
1.2.4.3.5 Infrastructure: CO2 Emissions Calculation
1. Track kilowatts of energy usage within a designated time period. This could be on an annual basis, quarterly, or
according to a different time period, like fiscal year.
2. Calculate total kilowatts of energy usage within the designated time period - This includes all energy consumption (in
the form of electricity) within all owned or leased business aviation entity infrastructure. This includes any renewable energy
purchases.
1.2.4.3.6 Infrastructure: Accounting for Reductions
1. Subtract total kilowatts of renewable energy usage within the designated time period - This includes any energy
consumption from renewable resources.
Total Energy
Kilowatts
— Total Energy Kilowatts Sourced from
Renewables
= Net Energy Kilowatts Sourced from
Non-renewables Sources
2. Convert total kilowatts from non-renewable sources to tonnes of CO2 emissions within the designated time
period - The EPA’s website has a number of calculators that can provide emissions equivalencies by inputting kilowatts of
energy (https://www.epa.gov).
3. Consider and subtract any reductions in net metric tonnes of CO2 emissions as a result of purchasing car- bon
offsets to be applied within the designated time period - This includes any offsets purchased to specifically offset
infrastructure emissions only. A carbon offset must be retired after a single use. Consult your provider regarding specifics
on retirement.
Using a tracking sheet, the total carbon offsets CO2 emissions reductions (attributed to offsets as provided by the seller) can be
calculated by adding all carbon offsets reductions together. Subtract this total from the total metric tonnes CO2 emissions from
non-renewable energy sources to calculate the net infrastructure metric tonnes CO2 emissions from non-renewable energy
sources.
Total Infrastructure Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions from Non-renewables
Energy Sources
— Metric tonnes CO2 reduced
from carbon offsets
= Net Infrastructure Metric Tonnes CO2
Emissions from Non-renewables Energy
Sources
1
ICAO calculates 3.16 pounds of CO2 produced for every pound of conventional jet fuel burned.
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1.2.4.4 SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY & IMPLEMENTATION
Once you have assessed your carbon footprint, you will have a reference point upon which to focus specific efficiency and
emissions reducing efforts. A sustainability strategy is an all-encompassing picture of your business aviation entity’s past, present
and future sustainability initiatives. It is a chance to detail the entity’s commitment to environmental sustainability and effort to foster
a sustainability culture. It is important that the strategy should be written as a comprehensive reflection and detail realistic
incremental goals. If the business aviation entity is part of a larger corporate structure, it is best practice for the entity to consult
with the company’s ESG department to ensure alignment of strategy and goals. A comprehensive sustainability strategy may
contain, but is not limited to, the following basic elements:
1.2.4.4.1 Corporate Values and Goals -
The goal is to ensure sustainability goals are rooted in your business aviation entity’s established values.
Identify the business aviation entity’s values (or parent organization’s values) and clarify how environmental objectives
detailed through the sustainability strategy align with those values.
Articulate an environmental vision statement tailored to the scope and size of the business aviation entity. Examples
could include long-range aspirations, such as addressing Scope 3 emissions, long-term partnerships with appropriate
stakeholder to ensure comprehensive greenhouse gas reductions, sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) partnerships or
reducing reliance on offsetting.
Identify your business aviation entity’s environmental goals. The goals may pertain to overarching entity sustainability, or
focus on a particular area for improvement such as flight, operations, ground support or infrastructure. When creating
goals, consider your current footprint (greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, waste, etc.), areas of potential reduction,
areas to transition to eco-friendly alternatives, and remaining areas that may require offsetting. Goals should include:
Benchmarks or milestones
Timelines – Distinguish between short and long-term aspirational goals. Near-term goals should contain more
substance and detailed approaches for achieving them.
A metric for measuring the status of those goals, also including regular internal way-points to measure progress
toward long term goals.
1.2.4.4.2 People and Education Programs -
The goal is to foster your business aviation entity’s sustainability culture through education and incentives.
Identify a sustainability champion – You should designate a specific position or team and define their role(s) and
responsibilities. Examples include ensuring the business aviation entity has formal sustainability training, progress
reports, and tying sustainability goals to this position’s performance or compensation.
Create a training and education plan, which should include:
Training frequency (should be recurring)
Objectives covered during training (should, at a minimum, include: individual emissions accounting, accounting for
SAF, carbon offsetting)
Any education and training requirements
Training and education, future plans and progress reports. This could include:
Completed training data
Employee feedback or survey data
Upcoming training plans or ideas for implementation
Create employee incentives and seek feed-back. This should include a summary of all incentives and the
reception from employees. Examples to consider include employee challenges, the use of social media and
incentivize external education.
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1.2.4.4.3 Sustainability Recognition Initiatives -
The goal is to encourage employee and partner engagement by celebrating their successes and contributions to your business
aviation entity’s sustainability goals.
Identify employee recognition efforts. This summary should include any recognition efforts for employees and describe
the awards program.
How employees are identified and selected for recognition
When, how and where they are recognize
Identify partner recognition efforts. This summary should include any recognition efforts for partners and vendors, and describe
the awards program.
How partners or vendors are identified and selected for recognition
When, how and where they are recognized
1.2.4.4.4 Organizational Partners and Vendor Analysis -
The goal is to include environmental sustainability as part of the process for working with vendors and seeking partnerships.
Review partners and vendors to identify those with sustainability goals and initiatives and conduct an analysis. For those
that have been identified, provide a description that includes:
Summary of partners’ and vendors’ sustainability program or goals, including future initiatives
Identify any local vendors
Ideally, mention the use of any sustainable products created by a given vendor
If a partner or vendor is lacking in their sustainability efforts, summarize how you have communicated with them in order
to foster prioritizing sustainability
Identify procedures to ensure sustainable products are purchased and sustainability is encouraged and prioritized.
Ideally, mention if your vendor RFP process takes sustainability into consideration
1.2.4.4.5 Community Partners -
The goal is to engage with your community and better understand and foster local sustainability initiatives.
Assess community initiatives where the business aviation entity employees can promote sustainability, and create
opportunities for employees to participate. A summary of these engagement initiatives should address any initiatives
already in place, or planned future initiatives, including:
Types of initiatives and project descriptions
Identify benefits to the business aviation entity, employees and society in general
Frequency of these activities
Any feedback from employees
1.2.4.4.6 Emerging Technologies –
The goal is to encourage the use of new technologies in order to reduce green-house gas emissions and other environmental
impacts and stimulate the market for new sustainable products.
Summarize new technologies investigated or implemented to advance sustainability, which should include:
Estimate of expected environmental and/or economic benefits
Timeline to implementation
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In addition to the above basic elements, a comprehensive sustainability strategy should address goals in four key areas: flight,
operations, ground support and infrastructure. It is important to ensure that goals are realistic and aligned with broader company
strategy (where applicable). If feasible, it may be beneficial to focus more intensively on one of the key areas during the initial
development of the sustainability strategy and incorporate a phased approach to addressing the others over a set time period. Key
areas and their associated sustainability strategy components are as follows:
1.2.4.4.7 Flight -
Emissions related to conducting flights (e.g., carbon from jet fuel). Scope 1 emissions.
Total Emissions – The goal is to better understand your business aviation entity’s emissions footprint by investigating
Scope 1 emissions. This will require:
A summary of your business aviation entity’s current emissions within a designated time period (baseline).
A summary of your business aviation entity’s methods to track and reduce emissions, including:
The method with which CO2 emissions were calculated and tracked (e.g. business aviation entity
sustainability officer, consulting service, etc.).
Identify existing procedures to reduce emissions, if applicable.
Identify future plans to reduce or offset business aviation emissions.
EU-ETS – Consider whether your business aviation entity must comply with EU-ETS requirements.
Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) – Consider whether your business
aviation entity must comply with CORSIA requirements.
Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) – If your business aviation entity is claiming emissions reductions from SAF
purchase(s), emissions savings information should be identified. Additional information, such as the location purchased
or how the purchase contributes to your entity’s goals, is encouraged
Book & Claim (SAFc) – If your business aviation entity is claiming emissions reductions from SAF via book & claim
transaction(s), emissions savings information should be identified. Additional information, such as the location purchased
or how the purchase contributes to your business aviation entity’s goals, is encouraged.
Carbon Offsets – If your business aviation entity is claiming a reduction in net emissions from carbon off-setting
purchase(s), information such as the volume of carbon credits in metric tons, project name and details, retirement details
and how the purchase contributes to your business aviation entity’s goals should be addressed.
New Aircraft Acquisition (Including Lease)
If sustainability requirements were included in a recent upgrade or overhaul process, summarize any
environmental improvements realized as a result.
If your business aviation entity plans to upgrade or overhaul the aircraft, summarize any environmental
requirements or considerations included in the process.
Inflight Cabin Service – The goal is to analyze the impact on sustainability of any potential improvements to cabin
service, while ensuring that practices reducing waste do not lead to increased emissions.
Analyze your in-flight service procedures and summarize the current procedures addressing waste and waste
reduction.
Identify areas where waste reduction could be decreased and create a list of current products and any potential
substitutions and goals.
Analyze current plastic waste and summarize the process to select eco-conscious products, packaging and
reduce plastic waste for in-flight services. This should include mention of a recycling or composting program for inflight waste, if possible.
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1.2.4.4.8 Operations -
Emissions related to purchasing goods/ser- vices (e.g., employee travel/air charter). Scope 3 emissions.
Total Employee Air Travel Emissions – The goal is to address emissions as a result of employee air travel within a
designated time period. These Scope 3 emissions may also be addressed by another entity in the value chain, but
identifying this may be part of a longer- term strategy. This will require:
A summary of your business aviation entity’s current total emissions within a designated time period (baseline).
A summary of your business aviation entity’s methods to track and reduce emissions, including:
The method with which CO2 emissions were calculated and tracked (e.g. business aviation entity
sustainability officer, consulting service, etc.).
Identify existing procedures to reduce emissions, if applicable.
Identify future plans to minimize business aviation entity employee travel emissions. Reference the goals
above, if applicable (e.g. video conferencing, selecting flights including GHG considerations, selecting flights
based on the use of SAF, carbon offsetting, etc.).
Employee Commuting – Summarize any emissions data from employee commuting and reductions achieved through
educational efforts.
Carbon Offsets – If your business aviation entity is claiming a reduction in net emissions from carbon off-setting
purchase(s), information such as the volume of carbon credits in metric tons, project name and details, retirement details
and how the purchase contributes to your business aviation entity’s goals should be addressed.
Employee Ground Transportation Emissions – Summarize any emissions data from employee ground transportation for
work and reductions achieved through sustainability awareness and educational efforts.
Individual Employee Travel Sustainability Culture – Identify any actions (i.e. educational programs, procedures,
technology, incentives, etc.) implemented to encourage individuals to track their own emissions.
Waste Reduction Analysis – The goal is to address physical waste as part of a business aviation entity’s sustainability
initiatives.
A summary of your business aviation entity’s waste reduction strategy should describe the activities and
strategies used to transition to more sustainable materials and minimize the amount of hazardous waste generated
and solid waste being sent to landfill, including:
Identify current processes and problem areas where waste production could be decreased.
Identify any eco-conscious packaged products to reduce plastic waste and the process to choose more of these ecoconscious products in the future.
Identify any business aviation entity procedures to minimize printing by transitioning to digital records and providing bins
to recycle paper waste
Identify any procedures to recycle ink cartridges when you are unable to eliminate printing documents.
Summarize your recycling program – location and number of bins, education about materials to be recycled, any
composting.
Identify any procedures that reduce or eliminate the use of disposable plastics.
1.2.4.4.9 Ground Support –
Emissions related to ground support (e.g., owned equipment, vehicles).
Scope 1 Emissions
Total Ground Support Emissions – The goal is to better understand your business aviation entity’s emissions footprint by
investigating Scope 1 emissions. This will require:
A summary of your business aviation entity’s current total emissions within a designated time period(baseline).
A summary of your business aviation entity’s methods to track and reduce emissions, including:
The method with which CO2 emissions were calculated and tracked (e.g. business aviation entity
sustainability officer, consulting service, etc.).
Identify existing procedures to reduce emissions, if applicable.
Identify future plans to minimize employee travel emissions. Reference the goals above, if applicable (e.g.
video conferencing, carbon offsetting, etc.).
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Alternative Fuels - If your business aviation entity is claiming emissions reductions from alternative fuel purchase(s),
emissions savings information should be identified. Additional information, such as the vendor purchased from or how the
purchase contributes to your entity’s goals, is encouraged.
Carbon Offsets - If your business aviation entity is claiming a reduction in net emissions from carbon off- setting
purchase(s), information such as the volume of carbon credits in metric tons, project name and details, retirement details
and how the purchase contributes to your business aviation entity’s goals should be addressed.
New Ground Support Acquisition (Including Lease)
If sustainability requirements were included in a recent upgrade or overhaul process, summarize any
environmental improvements realized as a result, or any product information regarding the improved
environmental impact of a new piece of equipment.If your business aviation entity plans to upgrade or overhaul the
aircraft, summarize any environmental requirements or considerations to be included in the process.
Spill Prevention Control and Mitigation Plan – The goal of this requirement is to ensure all federal, state and local
ordinances are followed regarding spill control and mitigation.
Summarize your business aviation entity’s spill prevention, control and mitigation plan by describing the following:
The procedures required by law.
Any additional procedures used by the business aviation entity that go beyond legal requirements.
Employee training on spill prevention, control and mitigation plan (frequency, length, optional or mandatory,
etc.).
The business aviation entity’s deicing fluid capture and recycling program (e.g. program process or steps,
total fluid recycled, etc.).
1.2.4.4.10 Infrastructure -
Emissions related to physical infrastructure (e.g., hangars, facilities’ energy and water consumption).
Scope 2 Emissions
Total Energy Usage Emissions and Energy Efficiency – The goal is to address Scope 2 emissions as a result of
infrastructure. This will require:
A summary of your business aviation entity’s current total emissions within a designated time period (baseline).
A summary of your business aviation entity’s methods to track and reduce emissions, including:
The method with which CO2 emissions were calculated and tracked (e.g. business aviation entity
sustainability officer, consulting service, etc.).
Identify existing procedures to reduce emissions, if applicable.
Identify future plans to reduce fossil fuel energy consumption. Reference the goals above, if applicable (e.g.
reduction of energy usage, purchasing renewable energy, offsetting strategies, etc.).
Consider any infrastructure or appliances certified or recognized as meeting an environmentally sustainable
standard and their use in the operation.
Renewable Energy Solutions - Summarize or list any renewable energy solutions implemented.
Carbon Offsets - If your business aviation entity is claiming a reduction in net emissions from carbon off-setting
purchase(s), information such as the volume of carbon credits in metric tons, project name and details, retirement details
and how the purchase contributes to your business aviation entity’s goals should be addressed.
Water Management Techniques – The goal of this requirement is to ensure that water management is addressed as part
of a business aviation entity’s sustainability initiatives. This will require:
A summary of your business aviation entity’s water usage. This includes:
Total quantity used in gallons within a designated time period.
A summary of activities that use water (i.e. landscape irrigation, aircraft washing, facilities & restrooms, etc.).
A summary or list any water use reduction solutions implemented.
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Indoor Air Quality – The goal is to consider air quality as part of a business aviation entity’s sustainability initiatives. This
will require:
A summary of the indoor air quality assessment process, including:
Identifying services utilized to conduct assessments.
Identifying any documented results, recommendations, or feedback.
Identifying any solutions implemented or ones that are being.
Infrastructure Resiliency – The goal is to consider the importance of infrastructure resiliency as a critical part of
protecting communities and resources amidst changing climate conditions. This will require:
A summary of the infrastructure resiliency assessment process, including:
Identifying services utilized to conduct assessments.
Identifying any documented results, recommendations, or feedback.
Identifying any solutions implemented or ones that are being planned.
1.2.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY TACTICS
There are a variety of environmental sustainability tactics that the business aviation entity may choose to explore and incorporate
into their sustainability strategy. Below are suggestions for consideration.
1.2.4.5.1 Flight -
Emissions related to conducting flights (e.g., carbon from jet fuel).
Scope 1 Emissions
With current fuel and engine technologies, carbon-free flight is not yet entirely achievable. At this time, there’s no single solution to
eliminate CO2 and other particulate emissions. It’s incumbent, therefore, to look for even the slightest inefficiencies; if we pick up
every ‘wrapper’ and every ‘paper cup’ the sum effect is significant.
To create a sustainable flight operation, flight departments are challenged to review the manner in which they operate, analyze the
effects of incremental changes, and implement changes to policies, procedures and processes where practical.
Below are suggestions for addressing some flight related emissions:
Finding Efficiencies - Flight departments can realize some carbon savings (aka: Fuel and cost savings) by making
their operations more efficient. Often what is good for the environment is also good for the bottom line. Below are some
efficiency best practices.
Establishing Sustainable Policies and Procedures (SOPs) - Unlike other methods of emissions reductions that may
carry an additional cost, such as carbon offsets, SOPs that are developed to reduce fuel burn (therefore, emissions)
directly lower operating cost. SOPs that promote the reuse of materials or employ upgraded technologies can also lower
long-term operating expenses while simultaneously reducing the impact on the environment.
For example, in some aircraft types, employing single-engine taxi procedures can serve to not only reduce the amount of fuel
consumed during taxi or ground delay, but it can also reduce the impact and wear on brake assemblies through reduced thrust
during taxi. The lifespan of the brakes is also increased, reducing replacement costs as well as the resources used to
manufacture new assemblies.
Specifically, SOPs around use of long range cruise or establishing a specific Mach to be flown for a certain mission or building
SOPs that optimize climb and descent profiles can have a significant impact on reducing fuel burn and therefore overall emissions.
Sustainable SOPs can also be established to provide guidance for the use of Ground Power Units (GPU) or Auxiliary Power Units
(APU).
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Additionally, establishing SOPs that optimize tankering and/ or limit excess fuel reserves, cabin stock or limitations on passenger
baggage weight can result in increased efficiency (aka: Fuel savings).
Leveraging Technologies to Address Sustainability - Across the spectrum of aircraft models any modification that
reduces drag, reduces weight, or uses flight time more efficiently helps to reduce fuel use. Winglets, vortex generators,
upgraded GPS based navigation systems, RVSM certification, improved propellers, engine mods like an upgrade to
FADEC, all of these are examples of modifications that increase fuel use efficiency.
In addition to upgrading, when it’s time for acquiring new aircraft, OEMs provide a large volume of information on the aircraft’s
advances as well as the manufacturer’s commitment and metrics toward their own sustainable practices. Sustainable flight
departments will consider not only the added efficiencies of the aircraft but also the manufacturer’s production sustainability
(reduced energy use, reduced waste, sustainable materials (eg: bamboo vs. mahogany, composites vs. mined metals). Look for
facilities with good LEEDS ratings.
Sustainability is a partnership; no one has all the answers or can fix the issues alone. Therefore, its incumbent upon flight
departments reduce their environmental and social impacts horizontally, from the suppliers to the final touchdown.
Flight Planning Tools - A sustainable flight planning tool simply helps flight planners (dispatchers, pilots) be more
efficient; plan flights using the least amount of gas and/or environmental effects (contrails). Although all flight planning
platforms provide route and fuel burn information, a sustainable tool focuses on optimization with fuel consumption (CO2
emissions) in mind. This might include tankering optimization, route (altitude) optimization, or (in the near future) even
contrail avoidance.
To date, there’s no single, sustainable flight planning tool. For instance, Fuelerlink can provide tankering optimization while
ForeFlight gives optimized routing and altitude. Vendors are working to improve their services, but until that time pilots and
dispatchers will need to blend the available services for best results
ATC - With FANS 1/A+ and PM-CPDLC (Europe) coming online, aircraft with avionics that can participate will reap
significant benefits from lower energy use. The upgraded ATC system is designed to reduce ground time with sped up
clearances and fewer taxi holds, reduce flying time with more frequent direct routings, and provide preferred oceanic and
US domestic crossing tracks to name a few.
Since FANS 1/A+ initiation in 2016, the FAA records indicate a savings of 2.44 million minutes of radio time, 1.7 M minutes of
airspace user time, and 20.06 Million metric tonnes of CO2 due to reduced ground fuel burn (APU, engines), reduced ATC
instruction to application time, more direct routing, fewer delays on arrival.
Once FANS 1/A+ is fully implemented, the cost savings through reduced fuel use could well offset the costs of the improved
avionics over the life of the system.
Purchase/Uplift Sustainable Aircraft Fuel
Purchase SAF-C (Book & Claim)
Purchase Carbon Offsets
1.2.4.5.2 Operations -
Emissions related to purchasing goods/services (e.g., employee travel/air charter).
Scope 3 Emissions
Below are suggestions for addressing some operations related emissions:
Employee Air Travel Emissions Reduction Tactics
Establish a Green Travel Program that baselines and tracks CO2 emissions
Choose Trains over Air Travel where possible
Use E Vehicle over air travel for shorter trips
Use Airlines with effective carbon emission strategies
Plan non-stop flights
Avoid first-class cabin
Build a travel approval policy that analyzes necessity vs. emissions
Virtual meetings, when appropriate
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Employee Ground Travel Emissions Reduction Tactics
Carpooling to/from work
Utilizing public transportation
Incentivize with company-sponsored passes
Drive during off-peak times
Utilize GPS with traffic data
Install charging stations for E-Vehicle to incentivize E-Vehicle ownership
Incentivize biking, walking, moving closer to the office, remote working
Business Travel
Choose a hotel location that reduces ground movement
Use green-certified accommodations
Use public transportation
If a rental car is required, consider E-Vehicle
Choose ride-sharing over individual vehicle requests on apps
Use public transportation
Purchase Carbon Offsets
1.2.4.5.3 Ground Support -
Emissions related to ground support (e.g., owned equipment, vehicles). Scope 1 emissions.
It is best practice to research your region for potential new ideas, manufacturers, and green-focused service providers. This
relatively new market has many emerging products, operational equipment, and green service companies, locally, regionally, or
globally.
Below are suggestions for addressing some ground support related emissions:
Company-Owned Ground Equipment: Replace with battery-operated equipment, solar panels for battery charging, and
sustainable fuel
Company-Owned Vehicles: Renewable diesel. Replace with battery-operated equipment solar panel for battery charging
Other Company-Owned Assets: Replace with battery operated equipment, or sustainable fuel for aircraft, electric GPU
Purchase Alternative Fuel
Purchase Carbon Offsets
1.2.4.5.4 Infrastructure -
Emissions related to physical infrastructure (e.g., hangars, facilities’ energy and water consumption).
Scope 2 Emissions
Reduce energy use. From installing ENERGY STAR products and appliances to using LED light bulbs and automatic taps,
reducing waste will increase your efficiency, save energy money, and contribute to overall business sustainability. You can even
start small: encourage employees in energy-saving practices such as turning off lights, carpooling, or telecommuting whenever
possible.
Below are suggestions for addressing some infrastructure related emissions:
Installing motion sensors on all lights.
Encouraging employees to turn off computers when not in use.
Stopping the use of computer screensavers (keeps computers on).
Investing in solar energy
Utilizing LED Lights
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Efficiency upgrades:
SustainableHVAC System: Geothermal Heat Pumps https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/geothermal-heatpumps
Efficiency upgrades for air condition systems
Hydronic Radiant Heating and Cooling
Utilizing ENERGY STAR recommended products
https://www.energystar.gov/products/products_list
Purchasing energy from a green power program with your local utility clean energy electric company
Using hangar or building rooftops for solar panels to generate clean electricity for your use.
Note: Some companies will install at no charge and pay leases for your rooftops. Your company can finance the installation,
establish Power Purchase Agreements with local power companies, and use the revenue to pay for the cost. Once paid in full, the
business would have a new revenue stream.
Consider reviewing your rights to claim renewable energy and reduction with these types of programs.
Purchasing Carbon Offsets
1.2.4.6 ASSESSMENT OF PROGRESS & REVISIONS
The Sustainability Strategy and goals set therein should be assessed at regular intervals. Business aviation entities should
determine the following:
If the goals contained in the strategy are still aligned with broader corporate goals (if applicable)
If the strategy and its mechanics are still reflective of the business aviation entity
If the goals are being met
If any adjustments should be made to the sustainability strategy based on the outcome of the above assessment items
Adjustments made to the strategy should be communicated to the members of the business aviation entity and other key
stakeholders.
1.2.4.7 BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE CULTURE
A critical aspect to the success of a sustainability strategy will be the culture within the business aviation entity. The goal is to have
sustainable practices and pursuits to become so commonplace within the entity that they are the rule as opposed to a novel
exception.
One of the most common challenges any organization faces will always be change. As a business aviation entity embarks on the
journey of sustainability, there are three potential groups that may be encountered in regard to sustainability and environmental
stewardship:
Group 1. Passionate advocates.
Group 2. Those who do not understand sustainability.
Group 3. Those who do not care.
1.2.4.7.1 Considerations for your Sustainable Culture Journey
Survey your employee pool. Knowing where employees fall regarding sustainability can help you design how to
communicate and engage and what materials you need to shift the collective average to support sustainability.
Include employees and start a workgroup, so they may have input and a sense of ownership in building your
sustainability plan. This first start can be both rewarding to individuals and hugely advantageous to building a sustainable
culture for the company.
Distribute the plan to all workers for feedback.
Plan meetings and groups to educate and encourage sustainable practices.
Enforce the mission of the company’s commitment to a sustainable culture.
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Employee engagement is key to implementing a sustainable culture for business, your facility, and operations. Employees can be
inspired and supported to think sustainably about their work and how they will implement sustainable practices. Positive behaviors
can be incentivized through recognition programs or by tying to compensation. Below are some recommendations to aid and grow
an organization’s culture of sustainability.
Promote Sustainable Behaviors
Goal: Employees reduce energy consumption.
Suggestion: Install motion detection lights.
Suggestion: Discourage screensavers setting monitors or laptops. Transition to “sleep” mode after a
specific period of inactivity.
Suggestion: Encourage employees to turn off computers and unplug power strips when they leave the office
by creating a visible check mark at the workstation. This will recognize employees for engaging in
sustainable practice.
Goal: Employees practice sustainable or reduced commuting such as: utilizing carpooling, cycling, walking, public
transit, or remote work.
Suggestion: Company provides perks to encourage the use of public or environmentally friendly
transportation.
Suggestion: Based on the employee's location, utilize ride-sharing apps or rental car companies offering
employee van-pooling.
Suggestion: When able, allow employees to telecommute/work remotely full time, on certain days of the
week, or as needed.
Goal: Employees reduce waste.
Suggestion: Provided dishes, silverware and glasses available for onsite employee use that can be washed
and reused as opposed to disposable (paper/plastic).
Suggestion: Set printers for double-sided printing to reduce paper usage.
Suggestion: Install or set up a water cooler or filtration system to reduce employees’ consumption of bottled
water.
Suggestion: Go paperless where possible by circulating communications, manuals, and other materials
online rather than using paper copies.
Suggestion: When paper is the only option, use post-consumer waste products (PCW or recycled).
1.2.4.8 NBAA SUSTAINABLE FLIGHT DEPARTMENT ACCREDITATION PROGRAM
The NBAA’s Sustainable Flight Department Accreditation Program identifies business aviation organizations meeting exceptional
environmental sustainability standards. The goal of this accreditation program is to further advance a sustainability culture in the
business aviation community. The program recognizes those that meet or exceed specified criteria in the following areas:
Flight - Reducing environmental impact as a result of conducting flights (e.g., carbon emissions) and creating
efficiencies
Operations - Optimizing a sustainability culture focusing on personnel and environmental programs (e.g., recycling,
reduction of resources).
Ground Support - Implementing sustainable strategies related to ground support (e.g., equipment, vehicles) and
selecting vendors that do the same.
Infrastructure - Advancing sustainability through physical infrastructure (e.g., hangars, facilities’ energy, and water
consumption).
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The accreditation program encourages participating entities to think and act critically, implementing as many sustainability
strategies as possible while recognizing the diversity of business aviation operations. The overarching objective is to reduce
carbon emissions first, and then offset when reduction is not possible. The Sustainability Flight Department Accreditation program
requirements set applicants on a path to achieve a reduction of one-quarter (25%) CO2 emissions. To achieve initial accreditation,
a business aviation entity must document a minimum of 10% carbon emissions reduction or offsetting as compared to their
baseline year emissions output.
For more information on the Sustainable Flight Department Accreditation Program please visit: The NBAA Sustainable Flight
Department Program
1.2.5 REFERENCES FOR LEADERSHIP
[RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE]
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1.3 Human Resources (HR)
1.3.1 DEPARTMENT STAFFING GUIDELINES
Staffing of the aviation department should be a joint effort between the company personnel (or human resources) department and
the aviation department manager. The personnel department provides the expertise necessary to ensure compliance with Federal
and state employment regulations and conformity with company standards. The aviation department manager has personal
knowledge of the unique requirements relating to the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA’s) aviation requirements and skills.
Between the two, procedures for recruitment, applications, interviews, reference checks, certification, flight checks and
employment can be established.
Recruiting organizations that specialize in aviation personnel may be engaged to assist with the selection and hiring of personnel.
The recruiting and hiring procedures of the company must be adapted to the needs of the aviation department by allowing the
aviation department manager to participate in the selection process and have the final word on who is hired. The aviation
department manager’s duties include flight checks or other practical tests, where appropriate.
1.3.1.1 LAW REGARDING EEO
In addition to credentials (certificates), criteria for employee selection should include work in the aviation environment on typical
company schedules. Some companies use psychological profile tests to screen potential employees. These can prove especially
helpful when filling positions that require contact with the public. A pre-employment physical examination by a company-designated
physician also is recommended for aviation personnel. Company specific physiological criteria should be at least as stringent as
those standards for a first-class medical certificate.
When hiring, aviation department managers need to know about the following federal laws related to equal employment opportunity
(EEO).
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin. In
1978, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act amended Title VII and clarified that women affected by pregnancy and related
conditions must be treated the same as other applicants and employees on the basis of their ability or inability to work.
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 amends Title VII to provide for jury trials, compensatory and punitive damages, and easier
burdens of proof for claimants.
Equal Pay Act of 1963 – Prohibits pay differentials based on sex. Employers may not pay employees of one sex less
than they pay employees of the opposite sex for work that requires equal skill, effort and responsibility and is performed
under similar working conditions.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act – Prohibits discrimination against individuals age 40 or older (as of January 1,
1987).
Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) – Title I of the act makes it unlawful for employers to discriminate against
employees on the basis of disability. Reasonable accommodations must be provided unless it would pose an undue
hardship to an employer (effective July 26, 1992).
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1992 (FMLA) – Requires employers of 50 or more employees to provide 12 weeks of
job-protected leave to eligible employees for the following reasons: (1) to care for the employee’s child after birth or
placement for adoption or foster care, (2) to care for the employee’s spouse, son, daughter or parent who has a serious
health condition or (3) for an employee’s own serious health condition that makes the employee unable to perform his or
her job.
Executive Orders 11246 and 11141 – Bans discrimination on the basis of race, sex, disability and veterans’ status and
requires affirmative action on the part of certain federal government contractors. Executive Order 11141 prohibits
discrimination on the basis of age by government contractors.
Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973, sections 503 and 504 – Bans discrimination against disabled persons by federal
contractors and grant recipients, who also are required to take affirmative action in hiring qualified disabled individuals.
Vietnam Era Veterans’ Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 – Calls for affirmative action by federal contractors to
employ and advance in employment qualified veterans of the Vietnam era and disabled veterans.
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Civil Rights Act of 1866 – Prohibits racial discrimination in certain areas of private employment.
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 – Bans intentional discrimination on the basis of citizenship or national origin
and applies to employers of four or more. These anti-discrimination provisions do not apply to undocumented foreign
nationals or in the limited circumstances when U.S. citizenship is required by law.
Fair Labor Standards Act – Requires minimum rates of pay and overtime for most employees.
Employee Polygraph Protection Act – Generally prohibits private employers from requiring or requesting any employee or
job applicant to take a lie detector test (except in very limited circumstances) and from discharging, disciplining or
discriminating against an employee or prospective employee for refusing to take a test.
1.3.1.2 LAW REGARDING WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR
Aviation Department Managers (ADMs) also should be aware of both state and federal requirements for appropriate workplace
behavior. Managers are required to enforce appropriate behavior as well as be aware of and take action to prevent undesirable
behavior of their employees. If an employee is displaying inappropriate behavior, managers should contact their human resources
representative for advice and direction. For employers who do not have a human resources representative, listed below are
common workplace behavior/issues and related regulation/public law links:
Sexual harassment – www.eeoc.gov/types/sexual_harassment.html
Violence in the workplace – www.dol.gov
Workplace injuries – www.osha.gov
Equal employment opportunity requirements – www.eeoc.gov
Each of these websites contains valuable information to assist managers.
1.3.2 AVIATION DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL, QUALIFICATIONS & TRAINING
The best-qualified person should be chosen for each position in the department. The selection process must take into account the
individual characteristics of each employee and the job functions to be performed. The ability of the department to operate in a
safe, efficient and economical manner will depend upon its employees.The number of personnel and job functions needed depends
upon the complexity of the company’s operation.
Refer to the NBAA Compensation Survey for comprehensive review of aviation department personnel salaries and benefits data.
The following are some job functions that may be required for flight and ground operations:
1.3.2.0.1 For flying operations:
Aviation department manager or director of aviation
Safety manager/officer
Security manager/officer
Chief pilot
Captain (pilot in command)
First officer (second in command)
Flight engineer
Lead flight attendant or flight attendant manager/ supervisor
Flight attendant
Cabin aide, cabin attendant or CSR
Flight technician (mechanic)
In this case, the aviation department manager and chief pilot may be dual, interchangeable titles. The scope of responsibility
depends on the size of the aviation department. Some duties may be designated to other company departments as well.
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1.3.2.1 AVIATION DEPARTMENT MANAGER OR DIRECTOR OF AVIATION
The responsibilities of the Aviation Department Manager or Director of Aviation can be divided into two categories: administrative
and operational. NBAA recommends that this position possess the Certified Aviation Manager (CAM) credential.
1.3.2.1.1 Administrative duties include:
Reporting is discussed extensively above and reporting structure is not a job duty
Developing and instituting department policies and procedures – including basic company policies, procedures and
objectives – into departmental functions
Preparing annual operating budgets that include operating expenses, facilities, supplies, outside services, personnel,
training, capital expenses and reserves
Monitoring an operating budget on a monthly, quarterly, or semiannual basis, depending on company procedure
Reporting deviations between estimated expenditures and actual costs to higher management with appropriate
explanations according to company procedure
Establishing scheduling policies and procedures that provide effective control and management
Establishing and maintaining liaisons with relevant company personnel
Establishing, with the cooperation and assistance of company personnel and salary administration officers, minimum
employment qualifications, hiring procedures, salary structure, performance appraisal procedures, grade structure and
dismissal procedures
Advising management on the status and requirements for aircraft and other equipment consistent with the company’s
transportation needs and goals
Recommending additions to the department, which include comparative aircraft studies
Establishing measures of effectiveness and efficiency for the department
Establishing and maintaining records as required by the FARs, manufacturers, and company policies
Monitoring these records if they are maintained by an outside agency, such as a computer service
Scheduling and establishing criteria for annual technical audits of the aircraft and maintenance operations
Reporting results of a technical audit to immediate superiors with an explanation of deficiencies found and corrective
actions taken
1.3.2.1.2 For ground operations:
Manager of maintenance
Lead maintenance technician, maintenance foreman or chief inspector
Maintenance technician
Avionics technician
Chief licensed dispatcher, licensed dispatcher
Chief scheduler, lead scheduler, scheduler
Line service personnel or hangar attendant
The aviation department manager should report to the highest office possible in the company’s management structure, ideally a
revenue-generating division, where appreciation of and support for the operation can be obtained. Also, the aviation department
must fit into the company structure and should not be treated as a separate entity.
Once the aviation department manager has been designated, company management and the manager should agree upon the
reporting structure, as well as the manager’s specific responsibilities and authority. NBAA recommends that the activities of the
aviation department be required to interrelate with other functions (e.g., developing uses for the aircraft that would integrate it into
marketing programs, customer and public relations, or humanitarian missions).
A sample reporting chart for a larger aviation department is found in Figure 1.3. In larger operations, a chief pilot can be given
duties related to flight crew schedules, recurrent training, standardization and so forth.
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When the aviation department has several aircraft and flight crews in addition to a maintenance department, the administrative
duties multiply. Administrative duties are the primary responsibility of the aviation department manager; however, assistance from
other functional managers, such as the corporate comptroller, salary administrator, or purchasing agent, is necessary.
In smaller departments (one or two aircraft) the chief pilot may perform the administrative duties of the aviation department
manager in addition to flight crew duties. A sample reporting chart for a smaller aviation department is provided in Figure 1.4.
Preparing short and long-range plans that include corporate and departmental objectives
Developing department personnel to realize their full potential
1.3.2.1.3 Operational duties include:
Providing leadership and direction to flight and maintenance personnel to ensure personal performance and competence
Establishing and maintaining an active aviation safety program
Ensuring that high levels of customer service are provided to the company and its customers
Maintaining an operation's policy manual to include flight, maintenance and pertinent company policies
Ensuring that department personnel are thoroughly familiar and comply with company policies, appropriate FARs and
pertinent operating manuals, practices and publications
Establishing programs for pilots and maintenance technicians, including proficiency reviews, initial training, recurrent
training and upgrade training
Analyzing various training sources, which could include aircraft training flights, simulator training, en route flight checks,
ground school training and prepackaged learning courses
Anticipating the need for upgrade training to meet additional or replacement needs
Evaluating department personnel periodically to ensure superior levels of performance
Establishing standards and limitations to ensure safe and efficient department operations
Establishing flight dispatch policies and procedures that govern the approval, delay, or cancellation of flight operations
Monitoring the flight crew and dispatchers to ensure they comply with flight dispatch policies and procedures
Coordinating the activities of the maintenance department with flight operations to achieve the company’s goals and
objectives
Helping personnel understand the company’s objectives and each other’s needs
Establishing and monitoring security procedures to protect the aircraft and company facilities
Establishing and maintaining lists of aviation-related vendors that meet the highest level of aviation safety
Representing the company in aviation matters through trade associations, the FAA, state or municipal aviation bodies,
airport management, community organizations and contract agencies
Maintaining high morale through an awareness of company and department policies, employee development programs
and periodic department meetings for the two-way communication of ideas, goals and objectives
Implementing specific programs of local, regional or national concern, consistent with company policy, in such areas as affirmative
action, energy conservation, equal employment opportunity (EEO) and environmental control
Establish severe weather/natural disaster procedures to protect personnel, aircraft and facilities. Procedures should
address plans for (but not be limited to) situations involving hurricanes, tornados, high winds, flooding and hail
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1.3.2.1.4 Figure 1.3: Sample Corporate Flight Department Reporting Chart - Larger Department
1.3.2.1.5 Figure 1.4: Sample Corporate Flight Department Reporting Chart - Smaller Department
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1.3.2.2 SAFETY MANAGER/OFFICER
NBAA recommends that corporate members appoint at least one individual to fulfill the safety manager/safety officer function and
that this person report directly to the aviation department manager, or equivalent. The safety manager serves as a liaison with
NBAA on all matters related to safety. The Association further recommends the following responsibilities for this position:
Acts as resident expert on matters related to all aspects of safety
Ensures that safety program elements are carried out
Acts as liaison with safety organizations (formal and informal) on matters of industry safety concerns
Provides periodic reports to management on program status and compliance
Monitors the trends in voluntary reporting system and accident and incident reports
Makes recommendations to correct/prevent identified safety issues
Communicates safety issues to all within the flight department
\Monitors compliance with applicable safety standards (e.g., DOT, FAA, OSHA, EPA)
Monitors corrective/preventive actions
The person assigned to this position should have extensive operational experience in aviation, including knowledge of safety
programs, standards, safe operating procedures, IS-BAO and Federal Aviation Regulations. Additionally, anyone responsible for
the safety function should have completed an aviation safety education program consistent with the position’s responsibilities. If the
individual has not completed an aviation safety education program prior to appointment to the position, they should attend one to
supplement his/her experience. Further, participation in industry safety meetings, conferences, and schools is considered an
essential part of the continuing education of the appointed individual. Ideally, the qualified person should have at least the following
qualifications:
Pilot, Mechanic or Dispatcher certificate or equivalent experience
Knowledge of:
Aviation-related safety programs
Safety standards applicable to aviation operations
Accident causation and prevention theory
Safety margins
Risk management techniques
Human error
Exceptional interpersonal and communication skills
1.3.2.3 AVIATION SECURITY MANAGER/OFFICER
NBAA recommends that corporate members appoint at least one individual to fulfill the security manager/security officer function
and that this person report directly to the aviation department manager. It is also recommended that a conduit for direct reporting
above the aviation department manager be established to ensure complete transparency and requisite oversight of the security
program.
The security manager is responsible for establishing/maintaining a proactive aviation security program which fosters a positive
security awareness culture. NBAA further recommends the following responsibilities for this position:
Monitor all aspects of flight department security on a continuing basis and report all security-related issues/ incidents to
the aviation department manager
Serve as a resident expert on all matters related to aviation security
Maintain a security information program for all department personnel
Maintain a positive working relationship with the company’s security department, local airport security/law enforcement
personnel and TSA personnel
Embrace industry best practices with regard to intelligence products and services (security-related software
applications, security service providers, U.S. Department of State-Overseas Advisory Council (OSAC) and Smart
Traveler Enrollment Program (STEP)
Monitor compliance with applicable security standards (e.g., TSA, CBP, IS-BAO, FAA)
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Conduct annual security awareness training and testing for all personnel
Maintain a positive visitor control program within the flight department
Manage an access control system for department keys and badges
Develop, maintain and exercise a security-related Emergency Response Plan (ERP) in close coordination with the safety
manager and company risk management personnel
The person assigned to this position should have extensive operational experience in aviation, including knowledge of security
programs, standards, security best practices and government regulations. Additionally, anyone responsible for the security
function should have completed an aviation security education program consistent with the position’s responsibilities. If the
individual has not completed an aviation security education program prior to appointment to the position, they should attend one to
supplement his/her experience. Further, participation in industry security meetings, conferences and schools is considered an
essential part of the continuing education of the appointed individual. Ideally, the qualified person should have at least the following
qualifications:
Exceptional interpersonal and communication skills
Knowledge of:
Aviation-related security programs
Security standards applicable to aviation operations
Physical security, security protocols, and compliance
Security training
Risk management and threat/vulnerability assessment
Human error
Cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities
1.3.2.4 CHIEF PILOT
If an aviation department manager is employed, the Chief Pilot should report to that person and perform such duties as the
manager assigns. If only a chief pilot is employed, all the aviation department manager’s duties, as detailed above, will be
performed by the chief pilot, in addition to the duties listed below. NBAA recommends that this position possess the Certified
Aviation Manager (CAM) credential.
Chief pilot duties include:
Remaining informed of the latest developments within the business aviation community, including the FARs, and other
Federal, state, local and foreign regulations affecting operations.
Chief Pilot should report to that person and perform such duties as the manager assigns. If only a chief pilot is employed, all the
aviation department manager’s duties, as detailed above, will be performed by the chief pilot, in addition to the duties listed below.
NBAA recommends that this position possess the Certified Aviation Manager (CAM) credential.
1.3.2.4.1 Chief Pilot duties include:
Remaining informed of the latest developments within the business aviation community, including theFARs, and other
Federal, state, local and foreign regulations affecting operations
Establishing and supervising the initial and recurrent training of aviation department personnel, both internally and
externally with a professional training facility
Instructing flight crews in the use of the standard operating procedures (SOP) manual
Ensuring that revisions and amendments to the standard operating procedures are current
Preparing and distributing periodic reports and statistics as required
Assisting with the preparation of budgets and financial forecasts
Reviewing the current budget implementation
Evaluating Department Expenditures Incurred by Subordinates
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If the chief pilot also is the aviation department manager (and perhaps a line captain), the chief pilot’s duties could appear
overwhelming. In this instance, many of the listed duties should be delegated to other aviation department members. Administrative
and personnel functions should be delegated to non-aviation department corporation members.
Aircraft management, maintenance management and training organizations can help fill any voids that exist within the aviation
department. All the duties and functions listed for the aviation department manager and chief pilot are valid. However, the level of
emphasis assigned to each is a function of the size and duty of the aviation department.
1.3.2.5 CAPTAIN
Captains are responsible for the safe conduct of flights to which they are assigned. Captains report directly to the chief pilot. When
assigned to a flight, the captain has the final authority in the operation of the aircraft. Captains must ensure compliance with all
federal, state, local and foreign regulations, as well as the policies and procedures specified in the company operations manual.
Captains are the company’s most visible representative to the passengers and must act with tact and decorum while ensuring an
efficient and safe operation.
1.3.2.5.1 The duties of a captain include:
Acting as pilot in command (PIC) of flights for which the pilot has been scheduled
Providing excellent customer service to passengers
Complying with schedules and other directives governing the aircraft’s operation
Ensuring that preflight inspections are performed
Studying weather conditions at destination, en route, alternate airports and departure points
Preparing flight plans (unless done by a scheduler or dispatcher)
Ensuring that the aircraft is clean and prepared for flight with all provisions on board for the safety and comfort of the
passengers
Reviewing and calculating the aircraft weight and balance, fuel on board and performance charts
Using checklists
Supervising the first officer (second in command) in any duties necessary for the smooth, safe and efficient operation of
the aircraft
Coordinating the functioning of all crew members assigned to the flight
Monitoring crew performance, sharing knowledge with crew members and evaluating crew member potential for
advancement
Making decisions necessary to start, delay, or cancel flights and deviate the flight from planned route or destination when
operating conditions dictate
1.3.2.6 FIRST OFFICER (COPILOT)
The first officer reports to the chief pilot and is responsible to the captain of the flight for the conduct and execution of assigned
duties.
Some first officer’s duties include:
Assisting the captain with discharging safety responsibilities
Providing excellent customer service to passengers
Performing duties as assigned during flight preparation and in flight
Being prepared to assume the duties of the pilot in command in the event the pilot in command is incapacitated
Being familiar with and following all FARs and company policies pertinent to assigned duties
In addition, another flight crew member, such as a flight engineer, may be assigned to duty in an aircraft during flight time.
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1.3.2.7 FLIGHT ATTENDANT ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES & TRAINING
FAR Part 91.533 require the presence of a flight attendant (also known as a third crew member) on any aircraft carrying more
than 19 passengers. FAR Parts 125.269 and 135.107 require the presence of a flight attendant (also known as a third crew
member) on any aircraft carrying more than 19 passenger seats.
However, with the responsibilities and duties involved, in addition to business aircraft becoming increasingly larger, some
companies choose to operate with a fully trained flight attendant even with fewer than 19 passengers or seats and regardless of
passenger load, to operate at the highest level of cabin safety and exercise industry best practices. The flight attendant position
should be viewed and considered an integral part of the crew, as it relates to the operation and safety of the passengers and flight.
A trained flight attendant is the person who instructs and leads passengers to safety during an emergency, such as a
decompression, inflight fires, planned/unplanned evacuations, and medical events. Professional flight attendants should be trained
and qualified in cabin safety, emergency procedures and evacuation drills, the use of emergency equipment on board the aircraft,
as well as inflight medical emergencies. Any cabin personnel who could/would be perceived as a fully trained flight attendant,
should be professionally trained to maintain industry best practices.
A qualified flight attendant is fully trained under 14CFR Part 91.1063 (a component of the regulations applicable to fractional aircraft
program managers) and 14CFR Part 135 Subpart H (for on-demand charter operators) and has successfully passed the testing
requirements of 14CFR Part 91.1067 (also for fractional aircraft programs) and 14CFR Part 135 Subpart G.
1.3.2.7.1 Training would include at minimum, but not be limited to:
Specific initial aircraft training on all aircraft to which a flight attendant would be assigned.
Cabin egress training, emergency scenarios and drills, including hands-on training with emergency equipment.
Inflight medical emergencies with AED/CPR certification.
Basic indoctrination, which covers all appropriate FAA regulations and the company’s standard operating procedures.
Food safety certification, HazMat, dangerous goods and security training.
Culinary preparation and presentation.
OSHA and SMS training and awareness.
1.3.2.8 LEAD FLIGHT ATTENDANT OR FLIGHT ATTENDANT MANAGER
The lead-flight attendant/flight attendant manager typically reports to the aviation department manager, director of aviation, or chief
pilot/lead captain.
1.3.2.8.1 Duties to include, but are not limited to:
Performing duties as assigned by their supervisor.
Ensuring training qualifications and records are maintained for the flight attendants: annual recurrent training, inflight
medical training, AED/CPR certification, food safety certification, SMS training and company policies.
Creating and maintaining annual, in-house training, specific to the flight department’s aircraft. To include on board
emergency equipment, department standards, policies and procedures and passenger protocols.
Establishing and maintaining cabin standards, procedures, policies and processes.
Protecting the investment of cabin furnishings with knowledge on proper operation, care and cleanliness.
Creating and maintaining a flight attendant manual and/ or cabin manual.
Maintaining stockroom and aircraft supplies.
Creating and maintaining confidential crew and passenger profiles for catering and medical concerns.
Managing the catering, small aircraft supplies, furnishings and amenities’ budgets.
Participating in flight attendant hiring, performance reviews, and disciplinary action in conjunction with Chief Pilot and the
company’s Human Resources Department.
Performing annual check rides with flight attendants.
Managing or collaborating on the flight attendant’s schedules.
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Maintaining relationships with other lead flight attendants, striving to improve leadership, management and inflight service
skills while aiming for industry best practices.
Being knowledgeable and staying current on food and service trends, as well as educational opportunities in which to
obtain those skills.
Providing the highest level of customer service.
Leading by example with the highest level of integrity, honesty, and respect.
1.3.2.9 FLIGHT ATTENDANT
The flight attendant typically reports to the lead flight attendant/manager if applicable, and/or aviation department manager, director
of aviation, chief pilot/lead captain, or pilot in command (PIC).
1.3.2.9.1 For flight attendants not in a leadership/supervisory role, duties include but are not limited to:
Executing tasks and duties assigned by pilot-in-command and/or lead flight attendant.
Attending annual recurrent training on emergency procedures, inflight medical emergencies, AED/CPR certification,
Hazmat and dangerous goods, CRM, SMS, aircraft/department specific equipment and policies and procedures.
Providing a safe cabin environment by performing a pre-flight emergency equipment inspection, ensuring all carry-on
items are properly stowed, performing a preflight passenger briefing and ensuring seat belts/ shoulder harnesses are
fastened prior to takeoff/ landing.
Notifying the PIC when the cabin is secure for take-off/ landing and observing sterile flightdeck procedures.
Providing emergency medical assistance when needed.
Planning, ordering and procuring all catering for the in-flight service.
Providing a high level of customer service.
Maintaining cleanliness in the cabin, as well as protecting the investment of cabin furnishings through proper care and
operation.
Restocking the galley, cabin and maintaining stockroom inventory.
Flight attendants should receive the same flight and duty time limitations as the flight deck crew to mitigate fatigue properly and
insure the highest level of cabin safety.
1.3.2.10 CABIN AIDE, CABIN ATTENDANT OR CSR
This is a service-oriented position and is not qualified to perform any safety related functions nor provide aid or leadership to
passengers in an emergency. This important distinction should be made clear to passengers by the pilot-in-command, to avoid the
inadvertent perception that this employee is trained and qualified in safety related duties and functions.
1.3.2.10.1 Duties of this position include:
Planning, ordering, and procuring catering and other necessary amenities
Cleaning, restocking, and maintaining the cabin.
Providing a high level of customer service.
1.3.2.11 MANAGER OF MAINTENANCE
On the ground operations side, the aviation department may contain several positions in support of the maintenance function,
including manager of maintenance, lead maintenance technician/maintenance foreman, maintenance technician and avionics
technician.
The size of the aviation department and number of aircraft determine the requirement for these positions. The guidelines for the
maintenance positions to follow can be adjusted and adapted to each unique operation, considering number and type of aircraft,
number of existing maintenance personnel and the qualifications of those personnel. The manager of maintenance reports directly
to the aviation department manager or chief pilot. This position usually includes more administrative duties than actual maintenance
and repair. NBAA recommends that this position possess the Certified Aviation Manager (CAM) credential.
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1.3.2.11.1 Recommended qualifications of the manager of maintenance should include:
Having broad knowledge of and experience with the maintenance of aircraft of the class, category and type that the
company operates
Holding an Airframe and Powerplant (A&P) Certificate and an Inspection Authorization (IA)
Holding an ASTM/NCATT Technician Certificate and appropriate endorsements
Holding at least a bachelor’s degree
1.3.2.11.2 The responsibilities of the manager of maintenance include:
Ensuring safe maintenance and line operations
Supervising maintenance personnel
Ensuring the quality of aircraft, engine and avionics maintenance and repair
Assisting with development of department policies
Assisting with preparation of short and long-range plans
Assisting with preparation of the annual operating budget
Assisting with assessment of aircraft cost studies
Assisting with establishment of salary structures
Assisting with establishment of minimum employment qualifications
Developing assigned personnel to realize their full potential
Assisting with establishment of performance appraisal procedures and dismissal standards
Recommending the proper staffing for the maintenance department
Establishing schedules for periodic inspections, general overhaul, repairs and modifications
Establishing and maintaining records as required by FARs, manufacturers and company policy
Monitoring these records, if maintained by outside agency
Establishing maintenance safety rules and procedures
Establishing spares and ground support equipment inventories
Ensuring that department personnel are thoroughly familiar with company policies, appropriate FARs, pertinent manuals,
practices and publications
Establishing programs for maintenance technician proficiency training, reviews and upgrades, in accordance with FAA
and company requirements
Establishing aircraft handling procedures
Establishing requirements for hangar space, grounds and a fuel farm, if applicable
Helping monitor security and environmental affairs, including completing material safety data sheets on all chemicals, fire
drills and safety training
Helping coordinate activities of the maintenance department with flight operations
Helping ensures that maintenance and flight crew personnel understand the company’s objectives and each other’s
needs
Helping provide efficient and timely scheduling of all maintenance and repair
Directing compliance of minimum equipment list (MEL) maintenance procedures
Assuming responsibility for maintenance and upkeep of the aviation hangar and office facility
Submit annual maintenance budget
Provide long range spend forecast
Develop and track performance KPI
Develop reports utilizing difference analytics tools
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1.3.2.12 LEAD MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN, MAINTENANCE FOREMAN OR CHIEF INSPECTOR
The person in this position reports to the manager of maintenance and supervises maintenance technicians. Qualifications for the
lead maintenance technician/maintenance foreman/chief inspector include:
Holding an A&P certificate and an IA
Having a background of verifiable practical experience as an active aircraft maintenance technician
Holding an ASTM/ NCATT Avionics Electrical Technician Certificate and appropriate endorsements
Demonstrating the ability to manage and supervise people
Holding an associate or higher college degree
1.3.2.12.1 The duties of the lead maintenance technician/maintenance foreman/chief inspector include:
Assisting the manager of maintenance
Coordinating all aircraft maintenance work
Coordinating and monitoring all shipping, receiving and inventory
Ensuring that all work is completed before final inspection
Overseeing quality controls
Ensuring that all test equipment is calibrated and maintained
Ensuring compliance with all Service Bulletins (SBs) and Airworthiness Directives (ADs)
1.3.2.13 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN
A maintenance technician reports to the lead maintenance technician/maintenance foreman/chief inspector, if one is employed, or
directly to the manager of maintenance.
1.3.2.13.1 Qualifications for maintenance technicians include:
Holding an A&P certificate
Holding an associate or higher college degree (recommended but not necessary)
Having practical experience as an active aircraft maintenance technician with experience in the type of aircraft assigned
Having completed manufacturer’s training in the company’s aircraft and powerplant (recommended but not necessary)
1.3.2.13.2 The maintenance technician’s duties may include:
Performing inspections, preventive maintenance, trouble-shooting and replacement of parts on the aircraft
Maintaining shop and hangar tools and equipment
Ensuring compliance with ADs ’s
1.3.2.14 FLIGHT TECHNICIAN (MECHANIC)
Some companies may wish to operate with a flight technician onboard the aircraft. A Flight Technician (FT) is an FAA-certified
aircraft maintenance technician who travels with the aircraft. This position’s primary responsibility is to provide safe, comfortable
and reliable transportation for the passengers and crew. A FT must also be comfortable supporting senior executive-level
passengers.
As the cabin crew member, the FT ensures the aircraft is airworthy and compliant to complete the mission through effective crew
resource management, communication skills and teamwork. The FT is alert and prepared to resolve any ground or inflight
emergency that may occur with the aircraft, crew and passengers. If required, the FT mitigates any maintenance discrepancies to
return the aircraft to service prior to a flight.
The FT is a dynamic dual role (technician/cabin crew member) that requires the ability to multi-task and provide superior customer
service to executive level staff while managing aircraft and ancillary systems. The flight technician reports to the director of
maintenance, director of aviation or chief pilot and should coordinate with the cabin services manager.
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Qualifications for the flight technician include:
FAA Airframe Powerplant License
College Degree (recommended)
Aircraft Specific Initial and Recurrent Maintenance Training
Cabin Emergency and Egress Training
Medical Emergency AED/CPR Training
Crew Resource Management:
Food Safety Training
Culinary Food Preparation Training
Cabin Connectivity (Internet, Communication, and Entertainment) Training
Aircraft Electronic Technician, National Center for Aerospace & Transportation Technologies (NCATT) Certified
(recommended)
Aero IT (recommended)
Duties for this position include but are not limited to:
Understand and comply with rules and regulatory requirements in accordance with the appropriate regulatory authority;
company procedures, and operations manual
Comply with IS-BAO recommended best practices achieving high levels of safety and professionalism
Conducting pre/post-flight inspections, supervising or performing any servicing, such as refueling operations
Perform scheduled or unscheduled maintenance, or supervise maintenance on the road or at home base
Overseeing performance of aircraft maintenance away from home base
Return aircraft to service after maintenance
Perform aircraft deicing and inspect for a “clean” aircraft
Apply and document Minimum Equipment List (MEL) if required for aircraft dispatch
Comply with relevant OSHA requirements and hazardous material will not carry regulations
Prepare documentation for flight awareness or other flight following applications by original equipment manufacturer
Performing cabin server functions as required, such as greeting guests, arranging catering and serving owners,
customers and guests
Ensuring aircraft is stocked, clean and prepared for flight
Preparing passengers and aircraft for landing, following procedures
Providing inflight cabin service functions and acting as safety coordinator to all passengers and crew
Baggage handling and complying with aircraft baggage and cargo restrictions
Assisting the flight crew with ground and airborne duties, as requested
Performing all tasks associated with aircraft ground movements, such as engine run and taxi, and towing
Performing aircraft maintenance, as required
Food safety, allergy and security
If trained and qualified, additional duties may include:
Assisting passengers during flight
Receiving and stowing catering materials
Providing emergency assistance to passengers as necessary (requires training in evacuation procedures, medical procedures)
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1.3.2.15 AVIONICS TECHNICIAN
If the size of the operation warrants it, or the location of the home base demands it, consideration should be given to adding an
avionics technician to the staff. This position should report to the lead maintenance technician/maintenance foreman/chief
inspector, if one exists, or directly to the manager of maintenance.
1.3.2.15.1 Qualifications for the avionics technicians include:
Holding an FCC Avionics Repairman License
Holding an ASTM/ NCATT Avionics Electrical Technician Certificate and appropriate endorsements
Holding an A&P certificate (recommended but not necessary)
Holding an associate or higher college degree (recommended but not necessary)
Having practical experience as an active avionics maintenance technician
Having completed manufacturer’s training in the appropriate aircraft avionics systems
1.3.2.15.2 The maintenance technician’s duties may include:
Performing inspections, preventive maintenance, troubleshooting and repairs as necessary on the company’s aircraft
avionics system
Ensuring compliance with all avionics ADs
1.3.2.16 LINE SERVICE PERSONNEL OR HANGAR ATTENDANT
This person reports to the manager of maintenance or lead maintenance technician.
1.3.2.16.1 NBAA recommends that this person hold a high school diploma or equivalent. The duties of this position
include:
Refueling aircraft
Moving aircraft in and out of the hangar
Cleaning and restocking the aircraft
Assisting in routine maintenance
Assisting in preflight checks
Assisting passengers in any appropriate manner
Meeting arriving aircraft and dispatching departing aircraft
Monitoring and maintaining the fuel farm and fuel inventories
1.3.2.17 LICENSED DISPATCHER/ SCHEDULER
The flight department should have an individual who is responsible for planning, arranging and coordinating the travel requirements
for company personnel, guests of the company and aircrew who travel on both the company aircraft and on aircraft which are
chartered through the flight operations department.
Whether a scheduler or licensed dispatcher, this individual must be capable of making time-dependent logistical decisions related
to safety of flight, security, personnel and costs. This person also should have sophisticated computer and highly developed
communication skills compatible with executive level management.
1.3.2.17.1 Responsibilities include:
Being knowledgeable and compliant with all standards set forth in the department’s Flight Operations Manual or Opspecs
Scheduling and planning travel on the company aircraft, charter aircraft, or other company vehicles in compliance with
FAA, ICAO and company regulations
Ensuring safe, cost effective, and efficient use of aircraft for the company, and when necessary, exploring alternative lift
options
Knowing company aircraft performance and limitations, crew duty limits, airport operations, and company operations
manual requirements and restrictions to make appropriate recommendations of optimal airports and timings to
passengers and/or their representatives
Assisting crew with the feasibility analysis of new and special use airports
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Reviewing NOTAMS/Restrictions to Operations at all destination and alternative airports in the planning process
Working with the crew members to identify risks and develop a mitigation plan through the initiation of risk assessments
on all flights coordinated, facilitated and dispatched while complying with all federal, international, company and
departmental guidelines
Initiating operational waivers in conjunction with the company Safety Management System, when required, to identify and
mitigate operational limitations
Participating in all ERP drills & events, gathering contact info for passengers and next of kin, in case of emergency
Familiarity and utilization of flight scheduling software and other Aviation related programs and resources
Coordinating with international handlers, government agencies, and officials to obtain overflight/landing permits and slots
in accordance with airport operations and regulations
Paying attention to detail in communications to maintain department records and reports, accounts payable, taxes, flight
schedules, flight logs, and ensure validity of crew member documents, international identification badges, and records to
remain compliant with flight operations
Knowing Federal Aviation Regulations and company policies to remain compliant with same in all operations.
Staying abreast of changes in regulations, procedures and equipment that may affect operations or the fulfillment of the
flight department mission
Being available for after hours/weekend/holiday calls to schedule aircraft, update flight information, flight follow, or aid flight
crew or passengers, including meeting and greeting passengers, car services, and other duties at the hangar when
necessary
Ensuring that aircraft schedules meet with any airport/ airspace restrictions
Having knowledge of domestic and international regulations and procedures to notify, coordinate, and establish business
relationships with airports, FBOs (Fixed Base Operators), caterers, international handlers, government agencies and
officials, to comply with airport hours and operations and to obtain any necessary permits, parking, slots, customs
requirements, and any other necessary documents for the flight
Communicating (verbally and in writing) with all levels of employees and customers
Coordinating passport and visa processing for crew members and ensuring crew and passengers have the proper
documentation for international travel on the company aircraft as required by handlers and local authorities and US
Advising passengers when vaccines and additional documentation are required for specific aircraft routing
Communicating and coordinating with ATC Traffic Management and/or the GA Desk to negotiate flight delays and route
out options
Coordinating trip logistics for flight crew and passengers to include catering, hotel ground transportation and special
requests
Performing dispatch brief and debrief with flight crews to share information regarding passenger needs or requests
Coordinate to assign and direct contracted aircrew as needed
Managing contract employee records and compliance
Maintaining evolving company operations manual and emergency response plan
Establishing working relationships through collaboration with executive members of the senior leadership team, Board of
Directors, Executive Assistants, aircrew, aircraft technicians, service providers & FBO Personnel
Negotiating discounts with fuel providers and contract fuel companies to demonstrate measurable cost savings
Maintaining a flight following system to ensure safety of flight and smooth coordination of services
Participating with IS-BAO and other internal/external audits
Providing accounting services and managing costs, SIFL/ IRS/SEC reporting, auditing and report generation, including
submitting invoices for payment, processing chargebacks, participating in annual budget preparation and monitoring of
budget throughout the year
Auditing and coordinating use of charter services or fractional shares to meet or exceed company guidelines and
standards
Participate in company audits as needed, to include: IS-BAO Audit, Safety Audit, Expense Report Audit, Financial Audit
Coordinating crew training to best accommodate flight schedule
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Coordinating scheduled and non-scheduled aircraft maintenance with the maintenance department manager to best
accommodate flight Schedule
Communicating with all necessary parties to ensure scheduled maintenance will not affect necessary travel
Developing and maintaining security policies and procedures to ensure safety of people, facilities and equipment, and
communicating policies/procedures as needed to passengers
Acting as effective liaison between management and flight crew
Arranging catering services in accordance with company and passenger requirements
Interfacing with flight crew to advise of passenger needs or requirements
Ensuring all flown flights details are posted for accurate aircraft documentation
Scheduling flight crew to ensure compliance with company and FAA regulations regarding currency, flight and duty times,
including balancing workloads, facilitating a safe operating environment through fatigue management techniques and
encouraging a healthy work/life balance
Providing administrative support to the department
Creating and maintaining sensitive and confidential flight, crew, and passenger information.
Remaining current on resources available and training opportunities to facilitate an effective scheduling operation
Scheduling and maintaining records of FAA medicals, immunizations, and audio grams for crew members
Checking on and paying or facilitating payment of airway, navigation and duty fees to ensure safe and effective
operations in foreign countries (i.e., SENEAM, CENAMER, CO-CESNA, etc.)
Setting up, managing and renewing Visa Waiver Program, Overflight Permits and Customs decal
Analyzing and reviewing weather forecasts for operational impacts
Working in a fast-paced, rapidly changing environment
Ensuring all aircraft/fleet documents and manuals are current and accurate in preparation of potential SAFA checks at
international locations
Soliciting and securing post-trip feedback, analysis and follow up after each trip from each stakeholder
Passengers
Crew
Service providers/handlers/intra-company providers
Government agencies
Recommended Training
FAA Dispatcher licensing
Recurrent training and requirements
Familiarization flights
PDP courses
NBAA Schedulers & Dispatchers Conference
NBAA International Operators Conference
NBAA Leadership Conference
Human factors
Fatigue management training
Required company Training (i.e., CPR & First Aid, Ethics & Compliance etc.)
Participate in company mishap response drills
1.3.2.18 SCHEDULER
[RESERVE FOR FUTURE USE]
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1.3.2.19 LICENSED DISPATCHER
[NEW SECTION – ADD CONTENT]
1.3.2.20 LINE PERSONNEL
[NEW SECTION – ADD CONTENT]
1.3.2.21 PILOT
1.3.2.21.1 Pilot Qualifications
Pilots must be selected on the basis of the many factors already discussed in this manual. A pilot history form may be developed to
determine pilot qualifications. It can be combined with the personnel department’s traditional employment history form.
1.3.2.21.2 The pilot history form should include the following information:
FAA certification and ratings
Aviation education and training
Total flight time
Total pilot in command flight time
Recent flight experience
Instrument flight time
Proficiency and line checks
Type of aircraft flown
Under the Freedom of Information Act, anyone may request a search of the FAA’s Accident/Incident Data System and
Enforcement Information System for any records pertaining to an individual. When requesting records, include the airman’s full
name, certificate number, social security number and date of birth. This request may be faxed to the FAA at (405) 954-4655, or it
may be sent to the following address:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Aviation Data Systems Branch, AFS-620
P.O. Box 25082 Oklahoma City, OK 73125
The request must specify if accident, incident or enforcement information, or all three, are needed. Requests that are faxed are
usually answered within two weeks. Requests that are mailed may take up to a month and a half.
Many companies establish minimum educational qualifications, such as an Associate or higher college degree, in addition to the
FAA’s requirements and minimum flight hours.
A company that establishes an aviation department for the first time should use as much information as possible from publications
or trade organizations when establishing these qualification guidelines, such as NBAA’s Compensation Survey. Company
executives and Human Resources departments, or the aviation department managers of other companies with their own aviation
departments, can provide assistance to establish these minimum criteria.
The NBAA Bylaws provide requirements and recommendations for operating members that employ professional pilots. Aviation
insurance companies also have minimum pilot qualification and experience standards, especially with regard to high performance
aircraft.
As a preliminary guideline, some NBAA member companies follow the requirements outlined below. In addition, any pilot considered
for employment must be neat-in-appearance, possess a competent work ethic, be a team player and have the ability to
communicate intelligently with all other flight department personnel as well as with the company’s executives and clients.
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Each captain/pilot in command (PIC) and first officer/second in command should meet certain basic requirements. The following
guidelines can be adjusted and adapted to each unique operation, considering number and type of aircraft, number of existing crew
members and their qualifications, previous experience and qualifications of the new crew member.
The captain/PIC should:
Hold an airline transport pilot (ATP) certificate with appropriate type ratings
Have logged a minimum of 1,500 flight hours with sufficient flight experience in the type of aircraft to ensure competency
Hold a first class medical certificate
Meet all currency requirements regarding instrument flight recency and landings
Have logged (if the pilot will be flying as a captain on turbine-powered aircraft) 500 hours as PIC in turbine powered
aircraft
The first officer/second in command should:
Hold a commercial certificate with appropriate category and class ratings
Hold an instrument rating
Have logged a minimum of 500 flight hours
Hold a second-class medical certificate
Meet all currency requirements regarding instrument flight recency and landings
Some companies require each second in command to obtain an ATP certificate and a first-class medical certificate by the end of
12 months of employment. Consideration also should be given to the applicant’s previous PIC experience and ability to assume
PIC responsibilities.
The organization should establish a crew selection process to manage the safety risks related to crew qualification, experience,
and currency. This process will ensure the requisite competency of each crew member, while also establishing risk levels related
to reduced experience in type and/or operations, as well as breaks in currency.
1.3.2.21.3 Pilot Staffing
The following factors should be considered when deciding the number of pilots required for a company’s operation:
Number of aircraft operated
Company flight time and rest considerations
Aircraft hours per year
Number of concurrent trips
Number of trips that keep the pilot flying for a number of consecutive days
Number of trips overnight (RONs)
Number of night flights
Number of trips with augmented crew
Number of trips where flight crew are pre-positioned
Vacation policy
Training policy
Consideration also should be given to whether the aviation department manager or chief pilot will fly on a part-time, scheduled, or
as-needed basis, or not at all.
Some companies use 1.5 crew (three pilots) per aircraft as a rule of thumb to estimate the number of pilots required. Other
methods use more detailed approaches. Two examples are found in Figure 1.5 and Figure 1.6. Regardless of the method, the
unique aspects of a company’s operations, location and personnel must be accommodated. It is essential to customize pilot
requirements.
Many times, especially during international operations, a third flight crew member is used to augment the flight crew. Another option
is to preposition flight crew at an intermediate stop. This crew change allows a fully rested crew to continue a long-range flight.
Consideration should be given to the number of times a third flight crew member is used or two flight crew members are prepositioned to meet an aircraft during a long-range trip. This may affect the total number of pilots required.
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1.3.2.22 MAINTENANCE
1.3.2.22.1 Staffing the Maintenance Department
Section 1 of this Management Guide provides guidelines to assist in determining the appropriate number of staff members for a
particular maintenance operation. The formula provided may be modified to meet the unique needs or demands of any given
company.
Consultation with other corporate operators may provide important information when forecasting staffing requirements. This
information may be most helpful when adding, replacing or upgrading a piece of equipment to the current fleet. Caution should be
exercised when using manufacturer’s data for any type of maintenance personnel planning, since this information often favors
optimum situations rarely found in actual operating conditions.
1.3.2.22.2 Maintenance Technician Qualifications
Business aviation departments should require that their technicians hold an FAA Airframe and Powerplant license. Criteria for the
licensing can be found in Subpart D of FAR Part 65.
One of the most important qualifications of the maintenance technician is the individual’s ability to grasp the operation of an
aircraft’s system(s) and solve complex system and procedural problems. This experience is acquired over time by on-the-job
experience and specialized training.
Therefore, when considering a prospective candidate for a position within an aviation department, management should consider
both the experience and training of that person.
Computer skills also are an increasingly valuable enhancement that will complement a technician’s ability, since air- craft
manufacturers now are providing equipment that can be fault analyzed with a laptop and appropriate software. In addition, aircraft
are often delivered with maintenance manuals in digital format (as revised).
Other beneficial experience includes personal improvement courses, which add to an individual’s ability to listen and communicate,
and human factors training and resource management courses, which allow the individual to recognize and manage interpersonal
issues. A flight department should provide this type of training for all staff members as part of a complete departmental
development plan.
In certain circumstances, an apprenticeship program for individuals who do not yet possess an Airframe and Powerplant license
may be applicable. Such a program provides the opportunity to develop and mold a technician who demonstrates a high level of
ability and a willingness to learn.
The Inspection Authorization (IA) certificate is an attachment to an individual’s Airframe and Powerplant license. This endorsement
can give the maintenance department added flexibility through increased signature authority level. (Reference FAR Part 65 for
further details.)
Examples of maintenance department responsibilities include:
100-hour and annual or progressive inspections
Replacement of accessories
Airframe repairs
Replacement of time-controlled items
Compliance with service bulletins and Airworthiness Directive’s (AD’s)
Aircraft fueling and movement
Preflight and post-flight activities
Interior cleaning and restocking
Exterior cleaning
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1.3.2.22.3 Figure 1.5: Calculation of Number of Pilots Based on Number of Days Pilot Is Needed
Each company could vary this calculation according to its own requirements. This sample calculation presumes a seven day-aweek operation (the aircraft is available seven days a week) with a particular pilot available five days a week. Five pilots would be
required if a five-day-a-week operation is used.
DESCRIPTION CALCULATION TOTALS
Number of aircraft in fleet 2
Work days/pilot 52 weeks/year x 5 days/week 260
Days not available: Vacation: 15
Holidays: 11
Sick Leave: 5
Training and physical examination: 10
Subtotal of days not available: 41
Total days available for duty 260 days – 41 days 219
Number of crew seats (if two per aircraft) (2 aircraft x 2 pilots/aircraft) 4
Number flight crew days/year 4 pilots x 365 days 1,460 
Number of pilots required (rounded up) (219 days available) 7
Note: Does not take into consideration augmented or prepositioned flight crew.
1.3.2.22.4 Figure 1.6: Calculation of Number of Pilots Based on Estimated Flight Hours per Year
This example could be beneficial for a company that expects future flight crew needs to be similar to past needs. Like the example
in Figure 1.5, each company can vary the calculation according to its own needs.
DESCRIPTION CALCULATION TOTALS
Number of aircraft in fleet 3
Estimated number of flight hours/year (per aircraft) 450
Total flight time (fleet) 3 aircraft x 450 hours each 1,350
Number of pilots/aircraft 2
Total number of pilot hours 1,350 flight hours x 2 pilots/aircraft 2,700
Duty/flight ratio* 3 hours duty / 1 flight hour 3
Number of duty hours/year 2,700 pilot hours x 3 (the duty flight ratio) 1,752
hrs. available for duty (ea. pilot) 8,100 duty hours per year / 1,752 hours available for duty 4.6
Number of pilots required (rounded up) 5
*This ratio assumes that a pilot spends at least three hours on duty for each hour in the air. The duty time includes preflight,
postflight and ground time. The ratio could vary for a company that often requires long periods of waiting between flights on the
same day.
**See Figure 1.5 for the calculation of days available for work.
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In larger aviation departments, company personnel perform most or all of these functions. Smaller aviation departments can
perform some of these responsibilities themselves and outsource the periodic inspections, annual inspections and engine changes
to repair stations. At least one of the maintenance employees should hold an IA.
Basic factors that should serve as general guidelines for maintenance personnel staffing are:
Type and number of aircraft
Home base location
Flight route structure
Utilization rate by hours flown
Proximity to overhaul and repair facilities
Supply points for spares
The maintenance department should employ a minimum number of personnel responsible for minor inspections, record keeping,
and scheduling and supervising maintenance with a commercial agency. A formula for determining this number is shown in Figure
1.7.
NBAA offers the following additional guidelines on staffing levels to support aircraft maintenance needs for a high-utilization
corporate operation. This guidance can be used for planning a start-up or re-assessing an existing operation. The sample scenario
in this section can be modified to address unique operations, challenges and experience.
The end result of this exercise is to establish the minimal required number of full-time equivalent (FTE) licensed A&P mechanics.
Depending on administrative requirements, line service requirements or economies of scale from operations, the FTE basis should
be increased or decreased based on judgment or additional analysis.
Additionally, age of aircraft, aircraft type/complexity, shop experience and segregation of responsibilities as required by Part 145
repair station and Part 135 operations, and manufacturer technical support responsiveness are other factors that can impact
maintenance staffing needs.
Assumptions
Aircraft are typically utilized for an average of four cycles (flights) per operating day and 1.25 flight hours per flight,
resulting in an average utilization of 1,200 flight hours per year, per aircraft.
Flight operations are scheduled primarily on weekdays only, with weekends off. However, if routinely scheduled,
weekend activity should be factored in.
No flights are scheduled on statute vacation days with historically low load factors (e.g., Thanksgiving or Independence
Day), thereby reducing the required potential days to approximately 240 days annually.
Flight operations may cease during certain major holidays (e.g., Christmas or New Year’s), which are typically periods of
low utilization. This time may be used to complete heavy maintenance and annual inspections.
Vacation and training events should not be scheduled over the winter holidays (e.g., Christmas and New Year’s).
Additionally, vacation and training schedules should not create a shortage of personnel or impact the shuttle schedule or
maintenance needs.
Calculations are based on a single aircraft operation; multiple aircraft will result in a closer calculation of manpower
requirements.
Process: The analysis has been broken down into a sequence of steps. Each component of this process should be modeled and
analyzed individually so that interdependencies can be addressed.
Step 1: Establish what maintenance activities are planned for completion in-house by maintenance personnel. This will serve as a
baseline for the manpower requirements.
Step 2: Calculate base man-hours associated with routine maintenance activities and periodic maintenance requirements (per
manufacturer’s FAA-approved maintenance program; see sample in Figure 1.8). A table identifying general maintenance
requirements and potential resources that can be used to establish “base man-hours” (BH) is shown in Figure 1.9).
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Step 3: Determine an appropriate “margin of error” (E) for task-based man-hour requirements to establish judged man-hours (JH),
as follows:
BH x (1+E) = JH
E.g.: One aircraft: 900 x (1 + .25) = 1,125.
Step 4: Determine an appropriate amount of time to add for documentation and paperwork requirements
(D) and an appropriate amount of time to add for corrective actions identified during scheduled inspections (CA) to establish
primary hours (PH). Note: Corrective actions will likely correlate to age and complexity of aircraft.
JH x (1+ D + CA) = PH
E.g.: One aircraft: 1,125 x (1+ .35 + .50) = 2,081.
Step 5: Determine the amount of labor required to deal with unscheduled maintenance events. This labor need has the greatest
degree of uncertainty and will be highly dependent on aircraft type reliability (fleet wide), aircraft age, technician experience, parts
availability and the operator’s tolerance of flight delays or cancellations.
One-fleet reliability = unscheduled probability.
Unscheduled probability x annual flights = estimated events.
Establish tolerance level (1.0 = 0 tolerance, .95 = 5% tolerance, etc.).
Add/subtract for “other factors” or anomalies.
Estimate total man-hours required per unscheduled event;
E.g., one aircraft: (1 - .93) x 480 x 1.0 x .33 x 2.5 = 166 man-hours.
Establish ratio between unscheduled man-hours and preliminary hours: 166 / 2,081 = 8%.
Step 6: Calculate total estimated man-hour requirements per aircraft; e.g., 2,081 x 1.08 = 2,247 annual man-hours.
Step 7: Calculate annual productive man-hours available per maintenance FTE. Available hours will vary depending on vacation
and sick day policies, assumed overtime and maintenance training programs.
​Per ​FTE
Annual Standard Hours Paid 2,080
Overtime (10%) 208
Break Time (15 min. x 2/day) -125
Lunch
Sick Leave/Absence (About 5 days/year) -40
Vacation (2 weeks/year) -80
Training (5 days/year – recurrent) -40
Paid Holidays (8) -64
Other (LOAs – jury duty, reserves, etc.) -48
Annual Available Hours Per FTE 1,891
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Step 8: Calculate required FTE per aircraft; e.g., 2,247 / 1,891 = 1.2.
Step 9: Develop maintenance staff work schedule based on re-currency of maintenance requirements and business needs. The
schedule will depend on maintenance task scheduling (every morning, every night, weekends, etc.) and risk tolerance for
unscheduled events (i.e., “just in case” labor). It will also depend on the availability of on-demand labor at remote bases of
operation that can deal with unscheduled events as required. Adjust FTE per aircraft for schedule constraints, availability of flexible
labor and site-specific factors (with site referring to where aircraft is based);
E.g., 1.2+ 0.10 for other factors = 1.3 FTE per aircraft.
Validation:
Review results with NBAA peer operators who conduct business with similar aircraft types and flight schedules.
Compare resulting maintenance hours to flight hours ratio against manufacturer data and industry publications (e.g.,
Conklin & de Decker, ARG/US).
E.g.: (4 FTE x 1,891 available hours) / (3 aircraft x 1,200 FHs) = 2.1 maintenance hours per flight hour
Compare estimated man-hours for scheduled inspections (Step 5) against vendor quotations to complete the same
inspection at external labor rates.
For further guidance on the maintenance function, see the Maintenance Operations section of this NBAA Management Guide
1.3.2.22.5 Figure 1.7: Maintenance Personnel Formula
The following formula is provided for determining the number of maintenance personnel required. A constant of four work hours of
maintenance per one hour of aircraft flight is used. The company can revise this number as necessary. The other constant is
1,577 maintenance hours a year per a person.
DESCRIPTION CALCULATION TOTAL
Constant Variables
Maintenance hours per one flight hour 4 hrs work hrs / 1 hr aircraft flight use 4
Work hrs a year per maintenance technician 52 weeks per year x 40 hours per week 2,080
*Estimated Flight Hours per Year 850
Hours Not Available: 
 Vacation: 15 days x 8 hrs -120
 Holidays: 11 days x 8 hrs -88
 Sick Leave: 5 days x 8 hrs -40
 Training: 10 days x 8 hrs -80
Subtotal of Hours Not Available: -328
Hours Available for Duty 2,080 hrs – 328 hrs 1,752
Non-Productive Time 10 percent of 1,752 hrs
(Includes training, breaks, and clean-up time)
-175
Total maintenance hours available: 1,752 hrs – 175 hrs 1,577
Estimated Maintenance Personnel Hours Needed 4 Maintenance Work Hours / 850 Flight Hours 3,400
Number of Maintenance Personnel
Technicians Needed (Rounded):
3,400 Maintenance Hours / 1,577 Work Hours per Year 2
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1.3.3 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS AND CONTINGENT WORKERS
In order to meet demand and manage items such as employee vacation or sick time, many flight departments turn to contingent
workers, which include independent contractors or temporary/part-time workers. Contingent arrangements are a valuable
resource for many operators that need additional support from pilots, flight attendants and maintenance professionals, but are not
looking to make a long-term employment commitment.
When utilizing contingent workers, managers must take steps to make an educated determination as to the proper classification of
the worker. For federal tax purposes, a worker is classified as either an employee of the flight department or an independent
contractor to the department.
If an individual is brought on as an independent contractor, but later found to be an employee, there can be significant negative
consequences for the employer. This means that managers must take steps to understand the tax, insurance, and legal
ramifications when determining the proper classification of contingent workers.
1.3.3.1 RISKS OF MISCLASSIFIED WORKERS
The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and state taxation departments estimate that tens of billions of dollars in tax revenue is lost
each year from the misclassification of workers. For example, although an independent contractor must pay state and federal
income taxes on earned income, the entity using the contractor is not required to withhold and remit state and federal income taxes
from payments to the contractors. Independent contractors self-report their income and pay the tax directly to the government, but
it is widely accepted that there is serious underreporting of these payments.
Many states are also concerned with the misclassification of workers as amounts paid to independent contractors are not subject
to unemployment taxes and contractors do not contribute to unemployment insurance on their own behalf.
In an attempt to recover some of this lost tax revenue, the IRS and various states have begun to aggressively audit employers,
and review the classification of independent contractors. Employers that have misclassified employees as independent contractors
are subject to penalties, with interest, for failure to withhold the appropriate income taxes.
1.3.3.2 TESTS TO DETERMINE WORKER STATUS
Many companies believe that they can choose whether to treat any given worker as an employee or independent contractor.
However, there are laws and specific tests that determine whether the worker is an employee or an independent contractor.
In general, an employee is an individual, who performs services for you, and who is subject to your control regarding what will be
done and how it will be done. In contrast, an independent contractor is an individual that performs services, but the entity utilizing
the contractor can only control the result of the work and not the means and methods by which the work is accomplished.
The IRS common law rules are one tool that employers can use to help properly classify workers. There are three main categories
of evidence that show whether a worker is an employee or an independent contractor:
Behavioral control
Financial control
Relationship of the parties
In the case of pilots, employers should carefully review how any written agreements created to satisfy FAA regulatory concerns,
such as operational control requirements, impact worker status. For example, if an agreement indicates that the pilot is an “agent”
of a company and that company has control over the pilot’s actions, it could present evidence that the worker should be classified
as an employee of that company and not as an independent contractor. Most state laws also contain strict tests to determine
whether there is sufficient absence of control by an employer to classify the worker as an independent contractor rather than an
employee. States use these tests to determine whether an employer is required to provide unemployment insurance coverage to
an individual.
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1.3.3.3 INSURANCE CONSIDERATIONS
To make certain the relationship with an independent contractor is insured, the contract for the worker should be submitted to both
the aircraft and workers’ compensation insurance underwriters for their review and approval prior to signing. Underwriters
recommend any written agreement clearly state insurance requirements of both parties.
For aircraft insurance, the contract submitted to the under-writer should name the independent contractor as an insured under the
aircraft liability coverage and provide a waiver of subrogation for hull or physical damage coverage in favor of the independent
contractor.
For workers’ compensation insurance, the contract for the worker should clearly establish who is legally liable for workers’
compensation insurance for each party involved. Operators should note that providing insurance coverage to an independent
contractor is considered an employee type benefit and may be one of the factors regulators use in determining the proper
classification of the worker.
For additional guidance on this topic, flight departments are encouraged to review NBAA’s Best Practices for Utilizing
Independent Contractors.
1.3.4 PERSONNEL RECORDS
Individual personnel files should be maintained for each aviation department employee. Various laws affect file content,
confidentiality, and required period of retention. Medical records must be kept confidential between the crew member and the
personal or company physician. All files can be used in a court of law, both for and against the company. Some file content may
have to be shared with a potential future employer.
Flight department managers/chief pilots should ensure that all records kept are objective, accurate and well-documented.
Content and location, as well as retention of the files, should be coordinated with company, legal and human resource policy to
assure compliance with applicable federal and state laws.
Pilots must be permitted to review their personnel files in accordance with Federal law and company policies. These files should be
organized as appropriate to facilitate information retrieval when needed.
The following records should be maintained at the flight department:
Proficiency check reports (pilot only)
Flight and ground training records
Copy of current FAA medical certificate
Copies of current airman or maintenance certificates
Copies of other pertinent licenses and ratings
Copy of FCC license (required for international operations)
Copy of passport
The following files should be coordinated with company human resource personnel for location and content:
Application for employment, including resume
Record of receipt of manuals and company-issued material
Performance evaluations
Accident and/or incident reports
Company physical examination records (should not be kept at the flight department to ensure confidentiality)
Correspondence
Copies of all letters of commendation or criticism
Copies of all awards and recognitions
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Various performance evaluation instruments exist that adequately and fairly assess a crew member’s performance as a pilot and a
company employee. A sample performance evaluation form is provided in Figure 1.10. It can be used for all flight department
personnel. However, its use should be coordinated with the company human resource personnel. FDMs/CPs should seriously
consider adapting this form to the requirements of their own departments (with input from their human resources personnel), and
should become familiar with other evaluation instruments (such as 360 Performance Appraisals) in use by other flight departments.
In addition, FDMs/CPs should remain abreast of current and potential human resource/personnel evaluation developments. They
should coordinate closely with their company legal and human resource personnel for development and use of personnel
evaluation tools.
1.3.4.1 PILOT
1.3.4.1.1 PILOT RECORDS IMPROVEMENT ACT
The Pilot Records Improvement Act (PRIA) was enacted primarily as a result of certain airline accidents attributable to pilot error.
The accident investigations found that although the pilot or pilots had a history of poor performance, their backgrounds were not
investigated by the current employers. As an FAR Part 91 corporate or business operator, the PRIA does not apply to you in the
hiring phase. However, after a pilot leaves your employ, if requested, you are required to pass along specific records (listed below)
for that ex-pilot.
Operators that fly either full-time or part-time under FAR Part 135 are required to gather specific past records of a new pilot within
90 days of hiring the person. The new Part 135 employer must request and receive records from anyone who has employed the
applicant as a pilot during the past five years. This request must include a signed written consent of the pilot applicant. The consent
immunizes the former employer from any Federal, state, or local lawsuits brought by the pilot, unless the information provided is
intentionally false.
Former employers (including Part 91 operators) must, within 30 days after receiving the request, provide records pertaining to (a)
training, qualification, proficiency or professional competency of the pilot; (b) any disciplinary action that was not subsequently
overturned; (c) any release from employment or resignation, termination or disqualification with respect to employment; and (d) any
FAA-mandated alcohol and drug testing program results. For further information see Advisory Circular 120-68.
1.3.4.1.2 PILOT RECORDS DATABASE (PRD)
The Pilot Records Database (PRD) was implemented to replace the existing Pilot Records Improvement Act. (PRIA) with the goal
of creating a comprehensive, standardized system to be used in pilot hiring decisions. The PRD regulations apply to a variety of
operators, including:
(a) FAR Part 135 operators; and
(b) Any FAR Part 91 operators who engage in activities related to or in advancement of their business, whether incidental or
intentional, with two or more:
(i) Airplanes with standard airworthiness certificates requiring a type rating or;
(ii) Turbine helicopters (Covered Part 91 Operators).
As a first step, all Part 135 Operators and Covered Part 91 Operators must establish an account with the PRD and designate a
“responsible person” to manage the company’s PRD account, including accessing and submitting records and designating
individual users within their company who will have access to review and/or submit records. For FAA Part 135 operators the
Responsible Person must be someone in a required management position as identified in the operator’s Operations Specifications
(i.e., the Director of Operations, Director of Maintenance or Chief Pilot). For Covered Part 91 Operators the responsible person
can be any employee of the company, but is usually someone in the company’s flight department, human resources department,
or another employee who has direct oversight or responsibility for the flight department.
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Similar to the requirements under PRIA, FAR Part 135 operators will be required to review and evaluate certain pilot records before
permitting an individual to begin service as a pilot. In addition to reviewing the records in the PRD, until the final sunset of PRIA on
September 9, 2024, Part 135 Operators may also be required to request certain records that are not included in the PRD (i.e.,
driving history records, historical records not yet required to be reported to the PRD, or records from a previous employer that
have not yet been uploaded to the PRD) using the existing PRIA forms.
1.3.4.1.3 Figure 1.8: Sample Manufacturer’s Maintenance Program
 Sample Manufacturer’s Maintenance Program Manufacturer Estimated Time to Complete
REFERENCE NUMBER DESCRIPTION INT Minutes Hours
32-10-00-220-801-A00 Externally inspect the MAIN LANDING GEAR 5A 12.0 0.20
32-20-00-210-806-A00 Externally inspect the NOSE LANDING GEAR 5A 1.0 0.02
32-20-00-220-801-A00 Externally inspect the NOSE LANDING GEAR 5A 5.0 0.08
53-21-00-220-813-A00 Externally inspect the FUSELAGE components 5A 10.0 0.17
53-31-00-220-808-A00 Externally inspect the FUSELAGE components 5A 5.0 0.08
55-10-00-210-803-A00 Externally inspect the HORIZONTAL STABILIZER 5A 5.0 0.08
55-10-00-210-804-A00 Internally inspect the HORIZONTAL STABILIZER 5A 6.0 0.10
55-20-00-210-801-A00 Internally inspect the ELEVATOR components 5A 6.0 0.10
55-20-00-210-803-A00 Internally inspect the ELEVATOR components 5A 6.0 0.10
55-30-00-210-803-A00 Internally inspect the VERTICAL STABILIZER 5A 5.0 0.08
55-30-00-210-806-A00 Internally inspect the VERTICAL STABILIZER 5A 6.0 0.10
57-21-00-210-801-A00 Externally inspect the WING components 5A 3.0 0.05
57-21-00-210-807-A00 Externally inspect the WING components 5A 1.0 0.02
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1.3.4.1.4 Figure 1.9: General Maintenance Requirements for Establishing Base Man-Hours
 General Maintenance Requirements for Establishing Base Man-Hours
MAINTENANCE NEED RECURRENCES RESOURCES
Routine Checks
Pre-flight Daily Management experience, manufacturer input,
benchmarking with other operators
Post-flight Daily
Line Maintenance
Aircraft Washing Varies Management experience, manufacturer input,
benchmarking with other operators
Interior Inspection/Cleaning Varies
Ground Equipment/Tooling Upkeep Weekly/Monthly
Facility Maintenance/ OSHA Req. Insp. Weekly/Monthly Manufacturer task cards, operations experience,
regulatory requirements, benchmarking
* Engine Oil Performance (SOAP) Weekly/Monthly
* Engine Trend Data Download Weekly/Monthly
Specific Weekly/Monthly Inspections (hourly or calendar) Weekly/Monthly
Scheduled Inspections
Hourly Based on Utilization Aggregate manufacturer task card estimates
associated with individual event, operations
Calendar Calendar Dates experience, benchmarking
Cycles Life limited
Structural – Corrosion, etc. Life limited
*Required for on-condition engine maintenance programs, or as part of engine type certification or maintenance service plans
Although FAR Part 91 operators may voluntarily choose to evaluate a pilot’s records in the PRD as part of the hiring process, they
are not required to do so. FAR Part 135 Operators must upload all the following records to the PRD within 30 days of the creation
of the record (PRD Records)
Records relating to failed drug or alcohol tests (or refusal to submit to a test) or on duty alcohol use
Records establishing a pilot’s compliance with FAA-required training, qualifications, and proficiency events (including
comments from the evaluator)
Records related to pilot performance concerning the training, qualifications, proficiency, and professional competence of
the pilot (including comments from the evaluator)
Records regarding disciplinary actions pertaining to pilot performance
Records documenting separation of employment
Covered Part 91 Operators must retain all PRD Records for a period of five years and must upload them to the PRD within 14
days of receiving a request from an operator that is seeking to hire a pilot previously employed by the Covered Part 91 Operator.
However, this does not apply to records relating to: (a) separation of employment due to pilot performance or professional
disqualification; or (b) disciplinary action resulting in suspension from piloting for any amount of time. Covered Part 91 Operators
must automatically report this subset of PRD Records within 30 days of the relevant event. For clarity, the PRD rules to do not
require Covered Part 91 Operators to create any particular records, only to retain and report records that they create in the normal
course of their business.
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FAR Part 135 Operators must upload all historical PRD Records dating back to August 1, 2010, to the PRD. The deadline to upload
these historical PRD Records is June 12, 2023, for all records dated on or before January 1, 2015, and September 9, 2024, for all
records dating back to August1, 2010. The only historical records that Covered Part 91 Operators are required to retain are
records that were in their possession as of June 10, 2022, and that would have been reportable under PRIA (i.e., all records that
would provide relevant and useful background information concerning the pilot’s experience, proficiency, and safety history).
These records must be retained for five years and are reportable as provided above.
For further information see FAA Advisory Circular 120-68J and the extensive resources on the FAA’s PRD website at
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/pilot_records_database.
1.3.4.1.5 PILOT LOGBOOKS
Each pilot is required by FAR Part 61 to ensure proper certification and currency to exercise the privileges for each type of
operation in which they participate. Additionally, since pilots are controlled by the aviation department through scheduling, the chief
pilot should oversee pilot qualifications and currency to ensure compliance with both federal regulations and company policies.
Management may accomplish this through required reports from crew members or from a separate database maintained incident
to recording flight operations information.
Currency items to track include:
Pilot in command (PIC) proficiency checks
Flight evaluations
Required training
Takeoff/landing (including night)
Actual instrument time and approaches
Date and class of last FAA medical
Additional qualifications (International, MNPS, CAT II, external load, etc.)
1.3.4.2 MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL RECORDS
A technician’s performance of assigned duties may be viewed from two perspectives: First, from that of the FAA, and second, from
that of the company employing the individual.
FAR 43, Subpart 43.13 provides the technician with guidelines to follow when performing maintenance on aircraft. It should be
mentioned that these guidelines, summarized below, are considered the minimum requirements.
A person is required to follow methods, techniques and practices set forth by the aircraft or component manufacturer.
These instructions or techniques should be acceptable to the administrator. The individual carrying out these practices
should use the proper manufacturer’s maintenance manuals or other instructions for continued airworthiness, tools and
equipment as spelled out in the procedures, or the equivalent as acceptable to the administrator.
Each individual maintaining, altering or performing maintenance will do it in such a manner that the condition of the engine,
aircraft or component thereof will be at the very minimum equal to the original or properly altered condition.
Special provisions exist for individuals who operate under air carrier FAR 121, 125, 129 and 135. One of the
requirements when operating under these rules is that when holding an air carrier certificate you must provide a program
of continued airworthiness acceptable to the administrator.
A technician working in business aviation must be a multi-skilled individual. The development and measure of a maintenance
person rely heavily on both interpersonal skills and technical proficiency. These two must work hand in hand in order for the
individual to be effective and productive.
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1.3.4.2.1 Figure 1.10: Sample Performance Evaluation Sheet
Job Classification: Employee’s Name: 
Department: Employment Date: Time on Present Job:
Instructions: Consider the entire evaluation period, not just isolated incidents.
5. Outstanding: Exceeds persons typically found in job. Should be in top 10 percent, very little improvement possible
4. Above Average:
Displays abilities that exceed 70 percent of the people on this level. Does superior work although some
improvement possible.
3. Effective: Doing a respectable job in present assignment; performance may range from adequate to good.
2. Marginal:
Developing slowly or evidences limitations in handling present duties; improvement needed.
1. Inadequate:
Unsatisfactory at present time. Major improvements required.
Accomplishments: 1 2 3 4 5
Does the job get done?
How Much useful work does the employee turn out in relationship to others?
The employee is able to get out special work when needed?
The work output of the employee and subordinates of high quality and accuracy?
Explanation:
Technical Competence 1 2 3 4 5
Does the employee possess the required skills necessary for this position
Does the employee have technical knowledge of related areas
Explanation:
Communications: 1 2 3 4 5
Is the employee able to express ideas effectively?
Is the employee concise?
Is the employee an effective listener?
Explanation:
Planning and Organization: 1 2 3 4 5
Does the employee budget time or get bogged down in routine or lost in details?
How does the employee oeprate under pressure?
Is the employee’s work planned and organized?
What is the employee’s actual performance as compared to the established target?
Explanation:
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Criteria that may be helpful in measuring the performance of not only technicians but also aviation department employees as a
whole include:
Writing skills
Writes clearly and informatively
Edits work for spelling and grammar
Varies style to meet the needs of the audience
Team Participation
Balances team and individual responsibilities
Exhibits objectivity and openness to other views
Gives and welcomes feedback
Contributes to building a positive team spirit
Quantity
Completes work in a timely manner
Achieves established goals
Quality
Demonstrates accuracy and thoroughness
Displays a commitment to excellence
Looks for ways to improve and promote quality
Applies feedback to improve performance
Monitors own work to ensure quality
Problem-solving
Identifies problems in a timely manner
Gathers and analyzes information skillfully
Develops alternative solutions
Resolves problems in early stages
Works well in group-problem-solving situations
Planning and organization
Prioritizes and plans work activities
Uses time efficiently
Plans for additional resources
Integrates change smoothly
Sets goals and objectives
Organization support
Follows policies and procedures
Completes administrative tasks correctly and on time
Supports the organization goals and values
Benefits the organization through outside activities
Oral communication
Speaks clearly and persuasively
Listens and obtains clarification
Responds well to questions
Demonstrates group presentation skills
Participates in meetings
Judgment
Displays a willingness to make decisions
Exhibits sound and accurate judgment
Includes the appropriate people in the decision-making
process
Job knowledge
Competent in the required job skills and knowledge
Exhibits ability to learn and apply new skills
Keeps abreast of current industry developments
Requires minimal supervision
Displays an understanding of how the individual’s job relates
to others’ jobs
Initiative
Volunteers readily
Undertakes self-development activities
Dependability
Responds to requests for service and assistance
Follows instructions and responds to management direction
Takes responsibility for own actions
Commits to doing the best job possible
Meets attendance and punctuality guidelines
Customer service
Displays courtesy and sensitivity
Meets commitments
Responds to customer needs
Manages difficult or emotional customer situations
Cooperation
Establishes and maintains effective relations
Displays positive outlook and pleasant manner
Offers assistance and support to co-workers
Works actively to resolve conflicts
Works cooperatively in group situations
Communications
Expresses ideas and thoughts verbally
Expresses ideas and thoughts in written form
Exhibits good listening and comprehension
Selects and uses the appropriate communication methods
Analytical skills
Synthesizes complex and diverse information
Collects and utilizes data
Uses intuition and experience to compliment data Identifies
data relationships and dependencies
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1.3.5 SALARIES AND BENEFITS
The company human resource department and the flight department manager/chief pilot (FDM/CP) have the responsibility to
develop a salary framework that fits into the company’s salary structure and adequately compensates aviation department
personnel. This is an important function of the FDM/CP to ensure that human resource personnel fully understand and appreciate
the unique qualifications and work performance required of flight department personnel.
NBAA publishes an annual Compensation Survey. The survey is based on information provided by NBAA members and presents
information in a way that ensures confidentiality. The salaries are broken down by type of certificate, seniority with company, years
in current position, age, industry group and other factors. Additionally, the FDM/CP may want to review other salary survey
instruments available through various aviation industry sources.
The following positions are included in the NBAA Compensation Survey:
Aviation department manager (non-flying)
Aviation department manager (flying)
Chief pilot
Senior captain
Captain
Copilot
Manager of maintenance
Maintenance foreman
Airframe and powerplant (A&P) maintenance technician
Maintenance technician helper
Avionics technician
Scheduler
Dispatcher (licensed)
Flight engineer
Flight attendant
Line service personnel
Most aviation department employees are covered by the company benefit programs. Such programs generally include vacations,
sick leave, leave of absence, insurance (e.g., accident, health, travel, disability), and retirement, and may also include bonuses,
stock options, profit sharing and other benefits. Two such items are of particular interest to flight crew members: (1) early
retirement and (2) short-term disability programs.
1.3.5.1 PILOT DISABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
Many companies have disability policies for all employees. The flight department manager/chief pilot (FDM/CP) should ensure that
the disability policy adequately and fairly covers pilot employees.
If a physical ailment arises that is sufficient to ground the pilot, but not sufficient to prevent gainful employment, another position
within the flight department or company structure may be the answer. However, a pilot who has no other employable skills may
require retraining and may have to adjust to a different job/career and pay structure, possibly outside the company. The disability
policy should be broad enough to cover training and outside placement if required.
1.3.5.2 LOSS OF LICENSE INSURANCE
Loss of license insurance also is known as salary continuance and provides funds for the short term rather than the long term.
Use of loss of license insurance should be coordinated with company human resource personnel. This coverage is subject to
change or cancellation depending on loss ratios. NBAA offers a specially designed loss of license insurance program for all
association members.
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1.3.6 PILOT RETIREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
The “ideal” retirement age for business aircraft pilots is subject to debate and is of interest to both pilots and managers alike. While
airlines operating under FAR Part 121 are required to remove pilots from active flight status at age 65, there is no such mandatory
retirement age for non-airline operations.
Nevertheless, some corporate flight departments have adopted policies that require pilots to either retire at age 65. The federal
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC ) has consistently taken the position that such policies, outside the Part 121
context, violate the Federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA). The ADEA makes it unlawful for an employer to
discriminate based on an individual’s age, as long as the individual is at least 40 years old. (Note, however, that many states have
age discrimination statutes that protect all employees, regardless of age.)
In a recent decision, however, a federal Court of Appeals rejected the EEOC‘s position. The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals found
that the corporate flight department had established that age was a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) of the corporate
pilot position. According to the court, the corporate flight department demonstrated that its mandatory retirement policy was
reasonably necessary to the normal operation of the business and that either it had reasonable cause to believe that substantially
all persons over the particular age would be unable to perform the job safely and efficiently, or that it was impossible or highly
impracticable to deal with the older employees on an individualized basis.
Before rushing to implement a mandatory retirement policy, however, corporate flight departments would be well advised to consult
with experienced aviation employment council before adopting its own “Age 65 rule.” The determination of whether age constitutes
a BFOQ must be made on a case-by-case basis and is heavily dependent on the facts of the cases. Furthermore, the decision of
the Fifth Circuit is no guarantee that other federal or state courts will not reach a different conclusion.
Moreover, a mandatory retirement policy may not be the solution for every flight department. NBAA encourages members to
assess the needs of the flight department and company, and adopt a retirement policy that meets those needs. A survey of NBAA
members revealed a wide variety of retirement plans. Some companies keep pilots on the same retirement plan as other corporate
employees. Some companies with mandatory retirement ages earlier than age 70 also provide additional compensations.
The following additional compensation policies were among those reported to NBAA :
Place the pilot, if qualified, into another position within the company
Credit additional years of service to bring a pilot up to normal retirement benefits
Add additional “points” to the pilot’s retirement program
Continue to provide health and insurance benefits
During those years between a pilot’s “early” retirement and age 65, pay the pilot what Social Security pays pilots who
actually retire at age 65
Pay all or part of a pilot’s actual salary between retirement and age 65
Raise the salary to the maximum
Award a two-year severance pay as salary continuation
Pay a salary equal to three years’ salary for the five years between age 60 and age 65
Pay double the retirement pay until age 65
Pay the early retiree the same early retirement allowance as other employees retiring at age 62 with level of payment
continuing to age 65
Pay 60 percent of base pay until retired at age 65, or 100 percent of annuity at age 55, or 53 percent of annuity at age 50
with 10 years’ service
Award 85 percent of present salary for five years, at age 60, then revert to full pension pay
Pay full salary for two years for non-working capacity
Pay 100 percent of retirement benefit at age 60 and 9 percent of last annual salary additional for life
Pay additional 12 months’ salary on retirement
Pay 85 percent of pension at age 60 that would have been paid at age 65
The particular retirement approach taken by flight department management should reflect careful consideration of current legal,
human resource and corporate policy.
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1.3.7 CAREER DEVELOPMENT TRAINING
Initial, recurrent and other training should be made available to, and required of, all aviation department personnel. Specific
guidelines for flight crew training are contained in the Flight Operations section.
Aeronautically oriented personnel tend to think of training primarily in terms of the technical competency and proficiency required to
maintain safe and efficient aircraft operations. Although these are important areas, they make up only one dimension of the aviation
department assignment.
In order for aviation department personnel to be truly effective, they must support fully the mission of the company in the most
efficient and effective manner possible. This support requires a knowledge and appreciation of the company business in terms of
cost-effectiveness, operational control and planning for future requirements. All flight department personnel should be trained to
understand these and other management concepts of company operations.
Each aviation department member should be encouraged to take courses in basic management, personnel management, planning
and accounting. This type of training should be a part of the overall flight-department career-development plan. It is good for the
company and will enable flight department personnel to develop long-term career skills. NBAA offers this type of course content
through its Professional Development Program (PDP).
As other ways to promote the highest standards of career development and professionalism, NBAA offers the Certified Aviation
Manager (CAM) program and the Standards of Excellence in Business Aviation (SEBA) Program. It also offers career training for
business aviation professionals through its Business Aviation Convention & Exhibitions, regional forums and seminars.
A full list of NBAA career development resources is listed online at www.nbaa.org/education.
1.3.7.1 CERTIFIED AVIATION MANAGER PROGRAM
NBAA developed the Certified Aviation Manager (CAM) program to recognize excellence in the field of business aviation and to
raise the level of professionalism and quality of management within flight departments. The CAM credential is the ultimate
recognition for business aviation professionals.
A CAM is an individual who has met specified qualifications defined by the CAM program and has passed the CAM exam. NBAA,
the CAM Governing Board and the business aviation community recognize CAMs as individuals who have reached a high level of
industry knowledge, and are qualified and prepared for management roles with business aviation.
The CAM exam tests knowledge and experience in five subject areas:
Domain I – Leadership
Domain II – Human Resources
Domain III – Operations
Domain IV – Aircraft Maintenance and Facilities Operations
Domain V – Business Management
NBAA and its CAM Governing Board administer the exam qualification and application process, the CAM exam, and the
certification and recertification of those qualified individuals who have passed the exam. Program materials include the CAM
Candidate Information Handbook and the CAM Study Guide. For more information, contact NBAA at (202) 783-9000 or
cam@nbaa.org, or visit www.nbaa.org/ cam.
1.3.7.2 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
NBAA’s Professional Development Program (PDP) was developed to prepare business aviation professionals for management
roles within business aviation flight departments.
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Any person who occupies or aspires to a management position in a company involved with business aviation is a potential
candidate. Through the program, an individual can begin preparing for management roles in the flight department while working full
or part-time as a flight department member. Individuals receive recognition for successfully completing PDP-approved courses.
For more information about PDP, contact NBAA at (202) 783-9000 or pdp@nbaa.org, or visit www.nbaa.org/pdp.
1.3.7.3 NBAA BUSINESS AVIATION CONVENTION & EXHIBITION, REGIONAL FORUMS
The NBAA Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition provides an unsurpassed opportunity for attendees to view the largest
display of purely civil aviation exhibits in the world. Each year, thousands of people learn about cutting-edge aviation products and
services on the exhibit floor, and the outdoor static display of aircraft features a wide range of state-of-the-art business aircraft.
More than 100 education sessions teach operational best practices that allow flight departments to be even more efficient,
productive and valuable to their organizations.
This gathering of business aviation professionals, where business aircraft management, operations, maintenance, budgeting and
products are covered exhaustively, is the single most important business aviation event of the year.
NBAA also offers a Business Aviation Regional Forum series that targets the needs of regional communities, and international
exhibitions modeled after the NBAA Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition. Learn more about NBAA’s exhibitions and regional
forums at www.nbaa.org/ events.
1.3.7.4 YOUNG PROFESSIONALS IN BUSINESS AVIATION
NBAA‘s Young Professionals in Business Aviation (YoPro) is a group dedicated to building relationships between emerging leaders
across the business aviation industry. Members of the YoPro Council, the group’s governing arm, work to connect young
professionals in the industry through networking events and online initiatives.
YoPro also shining a light on the contributions of young aviation professionals through efforts such as the Business Aviation Top 40
Under 40. Learn how you can get involved in the movement at www.nbaa.org/yopro.
1.3.7.5 MENTORING NETWORK
The NBAA Mentoring Network is designed to help business aviation professionals grow in their roles and within the industry.
Mentoring in the modern era is a collaborative partnership between an experienced individual and someone who desires to learn –
a mentor is no longer someone who dictates the way things should be to a younger or less experienced individual.
Likewise, a mentee is no longer a passive receiver, but instead is an active learner. Mentoring relationships are driven by the
needs and ambition of the mentee, as the two will work together over the course of the program to achieve specific, defined goals
that focus on developing the mentee.
Some mentees will be new to the industry, others may be facing a transition in their flight departments, moving up from a turboprop
to a jet, beginning international operations or putting an aircraft on a Part 135 certificate.
Participants will complete the four stages to the mentoring process: preparation, collaboration, growth, and closure. For more
information on each stage, read the NBAA Guide for Mentors or the NBAA Guide for Mentees.
1.3.7.6 CONFERENCES AND SEMINARS
NBAA offers a comprehensive selection of professional development offerings for business aviation, including an extensive array
of conferences and seminars aimed at targeted professions, from aviation department managers, chief pilots and maintenance
managers to schedulers, dispatchers, flight attendants and flight technicians.
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In an attempt to keep industry professionals current with crucial topics in business aviation, the conferences and seminars offer
education sessions presented by experts addressing such important topics as:
Aircraft and operational regulatory compliance
Flight department asset management
Workplace and community leadership
Safety, security and emergency response plans
Operational excellence and efficiency
Evolving technologies
These events take a “deep dive” approach to providing the access to industry experts and information the business aviation
marketplace needs to get the job done. From addressing current industry trends and issues, to basic hands-on information, to
networking and social opportunities, NBAA‘s conferences and seminars offer professional development at the highest level.
Contact NBAA for an up-to-date schedule, or visit the NBAA website at www.nbaa.org/events.
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1.3.7.6.1 Figure 1.11 Sample Company Aircraft Travel Request Form 
Date 
Trip Number 
Aircraft Requested by Department 
Point of Contact Phone Email 
ITENERARY
Leg Departure Date Aircraft Destination (City and State) *Departure Time (Local) *Arrival Time (Local)
1
2
3
4
5
* Request either the time to depart or the time passenger needs to land
PASSENGER LIST
Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Leg 5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
PURPOSE OF TRAVEL 
Check Selections: o Business o Business Entertainment o Other o Personal 
Details of Business Purpose 
 
 
 Department or Account Charged Requestor’s Signature 
 Authorized by Date 
(Name and Title)
 To Be Completed by Aviation Department: 
 Date Recieved Trip Information Confirmed by 
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1.3.8 UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT INTERNSHIP PROGRAMS
A flight department internship is perhaps the best way to introduce aviation undergraduate students to careers in business aviation,
and this arrangement is mutually beneficial. Host companies realize the benefits of opening their doors to young individuals who
represent the future of business aviation, while students gain exciting work and a rewarding learning experience in business
aviation.
Through internships, students are introduced to the various roles within the flight department and their requirements, as well as the
ways in which flight department members interact as a team. Interns can connect classroom theory with current industry practice
more easily and gain exposure to the latest aviation technology and trends. Just as important, interns have the opportunity to
interact personally with experienced professionals who can provide valuable insight into the flight department’s operations.
Exploring their area of study in a real-world environment gives students a special opportunity to evaluate a potential career in
business aviation.
Employers from a wide variety of industries indicate that graduates with internship experience are highly attractive potential
employees. An intern’s performance is often more professional and such candidates are often able to contribute more effectively
immediately upon entry into the organization. In addition, internship hosts often comment favorably that an intern’s enthusiasm for
the job can have a positive impact on the morale of the entire flight department. The host organization further benefits from the
additional manpower the intern provides.
Company mentors can provide specialized guidance that enhances a student’s aviation education and career development. Many
companies also view a student’s participation in an internship as a means to screen, select and recruit that student for a future
permanent position.
As further guidance, this section provides suggestions for an internship timeline, job description and responsibilities, qualifications
and a list of frequently asked questions. See also Figure 1.12 for a sample onboarding agenda and Figure 1.13 for a sample intern
project assignment list.
1.3.8.1 TIMELINE
Undergraduate student internships typically are scheduled for a 13 to 15 week commitment with consideration given to the flight
department’s schedule and the needs and academic calendar of the student’s home college/university. The suggested internship
timeline is as follows:
Six weeks prior to expected start date – student applications due to the flight department
Four weeks prior to expected start date – interviews held for the intern position
Three weeks prior to expected start date – notification of hire sent to intern
Final day of internship – as arranged (typically a 13 to 15 week commitment)
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1.3.8.2 JOB DESCRIPTION AND RESPONSIBILITIES
The following is a suggested minimum job description for a company to use when advertising its internship program: “This
Undergraduate Student Intern position gives a student an opportunity to gain operational experience with respect to business
aircraft. The intern will rotate through the various areas of responsibility within the flight department to ensure a well-rounded
exposure to all aspects of the department. When applicable, the flight department will provide appropriate documentation to satisfy
the college or university requirements for participating in the intern program.”
The company can also communicate that the student will gain first-hand knowledge of business aircraft operations through the
hands-on observation (excluding flight deck duties) of all facets of the company flight department. The intern can expect to gain
exposure and operational understanding in one or more of the following department areas:
Flight operations
Domestic and international flight operations
Aircraft maintenance
Aircraft servicing
Customer service
Flight attendant operations
Aircraft scheduling
Crew scheduling
Flight planning
1.3.8.3 QUALIFICATIONS
The recommended qualifications for flight department interns are as follows:
Undergraduate student enrolled in an appropriate bachelor’s degree program at an accredited college/university as a
junior or senior in good standing
Strong academic credentials (minimum 3.0 GPA) or strong practical experience or skills. Note: Many individuals who
have struggled with academics have excelled in practical tests and tasks.
Satisfactory disciplinary record (both at school and in the community)
Academic preparation appropriate to the internship position
For pilots: commercial pilot certificate with instrument airplane rating
Proficient in office computer programs such as Microsoft Office (Excel, Word)
Positive attitude and self-motivated work skills
Excellent written and verbal communication skills
Able to provide own housing and transportation during internship
1.3.8.4 INTERNSHIP PROGRAM FAQS
The following are frequently asked questions (FAQs) about business aviation internship programs.
1.3.8.4.1 Are undergraduate student interns “employees” of the host organization?
Undergraduate students are generally not considered employees of the host organization, and are generally not eligible for direct
compensation or benefits regularly extended to employees. No lasting or commercial benefit is sought or expected by the parties,
other than the intrinsic lasting benefit of the work and study experience intended.
1.3.8.4.2 Are undergraduate student interns paid during the internship?
Some host organizations provide undergraduate students interns with remuneration in some form while others do not, and it is
strictly at the discretion of the host organization. It is generally believed that a meaningful work-learning experience is the primary
and essential benefit. When remuneration is offered, it is generally in the form of a stipend or scholarship to support the intern’s
work, learning experience or to defray expenses related to the experience.
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1.3.8.4.3 Figure 1.12: Sample Onboarding
Sample Onboarding Agenda, Day 1
The following is a sample list of topics to cover on Day 1 of the internship.
Human Resources Department
Presentation
Company documents
Company identification cards
Introduction and Training Agenda
Overview
Outline of onboarding agenda
Mentor and sponsor assignments
Present operations manual
Training log forms (build personnel file with copy of application, FAA pilot’s licenses, FAA
physical, pass- port, crew roster form for software)
Company Overview Company values and operating principles
Department goals (safe, flexible, reliable, convenient)
Company aircraft justification and software program
Cost-cutting procedures/new aircraft on order
IS-BAO process
Company structure
Flight department personnel duties
Hangar and Office Orientation
Tour
Introduce aircraft in hangar
Introduce department personnel, give facility tour
Cover gate-codes, keys, security system, airport ID badges
FBO parking sticker, personal business cards
Department mailboxes, reading material, bulletin board, software, email
Telephone voicemail system, department contact numbers
FBO department and customer service lobby areas
Your Company’s Flight
Department Operations Manual
Aircrew dress and appearance
Passenger relations
Aircraft security (unaccompanied baggage policy, passenger verification policy)
Accident procedures (NTSB 830), company emergency response plan
FAA-violations and legal considerations (NASA reporting)
Non-company employment
Divulgence of company information (security, pilot trip sheets)
Press relations Airport Identification Fingerprinting
Local airport ID
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1.3.8.4.4 Figure 1.13: Sample Intern Project Assignment List
Fuel Tracking and
Usage
Automated Flight Deck
Policy
IS-BAO Safety Audit Program Syllabus
Management
Description: Recent increases in fuel
and oil prices worldwide
have had a large impact on
flight operating expenses.
Department policies to
increase operating
efficiencies that conserve
fuel and attain the best
available cost at the point
of purchase help flight
crews, dispatch and
management contribute to
cost-saving efforts. Flight
crews have been asked to
write the actual posted fuel
price on the top of the fuel
receipt issued at FBOs
where fuel is purchased.
Comparing the FBO-postedfuel-price purchase cost to
the actual effective price
issued from volume
discounts, or other
negotiated point-ofpurchase deals, helps
define cost savings.
The company operates
complex; advanced-technology
aviation equipment. HUD, EVS,
GPWS, TCAS, FMS, and
autoflight systems must be
managed from standard flight
deck operating procedures to
enhance safety. The intern will
research industry standards for
guidelines and assist in the
development of standardizing
operating procedures as they
pertain to current and projected
flight deck automation within
company flight operations.
The company’s flight
department has been working
to align operating procedures
with the International
Standard for Business Aircraft
Operations (IS-BAO). An
integral part of this process is
the safety audit, which will be
used across the operation.
This safety audit will
proactively identify safety
issues that can be addressed
to prevent accidents and
improve overall safety
efficiency.
The undergraduate student
intern program is an
opportunity for a student to
gain valuable experience and
an overall understanding of
flight department functions.
The intern will become a part
of the flight department by
contributing input and working
on internal projects
appropriate to the intern’s
experience level. The
company wants this program
to be an enriching and
valuable part of the intern’s
career development, and also
ensure the quality of future
intern programs.
Project
Steps:
Partner with dispatch to
understand the fuel slip
postflight process in the
company software. In
addition, gain an
understanding of the
existing fuel reports
available in the software.
Analyze the data and
construct various methods
of presenting fuel purchase
behaviors (savings over
retail, etc.). In addition, work
with the chief pilot to
summarize the details of the
fuel programs of providers
(FBO fuel programs,
specialty fuel programs).
List aircraft flight deck
equipment within current fleet
and projected replacement
aircraft. Using a variety of
credible resources (OEM
manuals, industry internet sites,
other operators, industry
publications, etc.), research and
assist in the development of
flight deck operating standards.
Review current SOPs for
alignment with industry
standards, and recommend
changes.
Identify areas of the flight
department that will be
evaluated in the safety audit.
Use the IS-BAO design
manual and the “Your
Company Flight Operations”
Manual to design a safety
audit form to collect data and
a rating system to help
interpret the data. Collect data
and evaluate the rating
system results to identify
areas of the company’s
operation that pose the
highest risk factors. Partner
with the safety committee and
department managers to build
strategies to deal with these
risks and track the effects of
the implemented solutions.
Review and provide feedback
on the company’s
undergraduate student intern
program. Compare actual
experiences to expectations at
the start of the program.
Review the effectiveness of
the entire program from the
interview and selection stage,
to the “onboarding”
orientation, to project
completions and trip
observation flights. Review the
program description and
project list for possible
revisions that would, and
enrich the experience for the
next intern candidate. Candid
responses are welcomed and
expected.
Expected
Outcome:
This project will familiarize
the intern with the jet fuel
pricing the importance of
aggressive price
management for a flight
department. Fuel costs
account for the largest
budget expense line item.
This project will enhance
the company flight
department’s ability to
present savings activities for
supplier negotiation
purposes, and to support
expense savings initiatives
in budget meetings.
As a review of this process will
provide an independent look at
the company’s operating
practices and their alignment
with industry standards. By
Researching projected
equipment, the company gains
a preliminary projection of
implementation challenges, and
alignment of desired training
and maintenance programs.
The IS-BAO safety audit will
proactively identify risks that
exist in the flight department
operation. The format and
content of this program should
accurately gather content and
evaluate possible risk factors
within flight department
operations. The intern will be
required to work in partnership
with the safety committee and
department managers design,
implement, interpret and refine
the safety audit process.
The intent of the company’s
undergraduate student intern
program is to have the intern
gain an understanding and
appreciation of business
aviation flight operations.
During the completion phase
of the program, the intern
should possess the best
perspective for current
program effectiveness and
future program development.
Candid feedback on both the
positive and negative aspects
of the program will help guide
the changes that will update
and improve the program for
the next intern candidate.
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1.3.8.4.5 What is expected of the host organization during the internship?
The host organization is expected to assign the under-graduate student intern to duties and work schedules that are both
reasonable and consistent with that position for others holding similar positions of responsibility. The host will provide direct
effective supervision to the intern to ensure prompt, high-quality feedback and opportunity for the intern to resolve any questions
and/or concerns related to assigned duties and professional growth through the internship. The host will provide a final evaluation
to the intern and the intern’s home institution documenting the host organization’s assessment of the intern’s performance during
the internship
1.3.8.4.6 What can the host organization expect of the intern?
Undergraduate student internships are rich experiences and students are screened and selected by the faculty of the home
institution for participation in these experiences. The host organization can expect consistently high-quality work and professional
work habits from the intern, and a strong commitment to the host organization’s success in its mission and operations.
Undergraduate student interns understand the importance of maintaining the confidentiality of proprietary information and practices
and commit to keeping such business information (contracts, projects ideas, work decisions, etc.) strictly private and confidential.
1.3.8.4.7 What liability is incurred by the host organization during the internship?
The host organization does not incur legal liability for the safety and well-being of the intern beyond that which would be reasonably
expected by a visitor or guest. The host organization is obliged to exercise due care for the safety of its operations, crews and
passengers and adhere to relevant state and federal safety and other workplace regulations, and it agrees to provide written
notification to the intern and the intern’s home institution of any special risks to which the intern may be exposed. The student
accepts the internship with advance knowledge of such risks.
1.3.8.4.8 What happens if the host organization is unable to fulfill its obligations?
The host organization is expected to exercise reasonable care in planning for the internship opportunity and to make a good faith
effort to fulfill its obligations to provide a meaningful work-learning experience for the scheduled term.
Still, unforeseen circumstances or substantial changes to the host organization’s operations may preclude completion of the
internship experience. The host organization does not incur legal or contractual liability to the intern or the home institution for the
completion of the experience beyond a good faith effort.
1.3.8.4.9 What is the expected work schedule? How much flexibility is there in this schedule?
Undergraduate student internships are generally planned for a minimum of 15 hours per week on average to a maximum of a fulltime commitment arranged in advance by mutual agreement between the host organization and the student. The basic work
schedule is usually set by agreement and with regard to the intern’s other school commitments (if not serving full time in the
internship). Flexibility by both parties is very useful in response to variations in the operational tempo of the host organization or
especially busy times in the intern’s school calendar. Undergraduate student internships are scheduled for a period of about 12 to
14 weeks.
1.3.8.4.10 How can host organizations identify potential school partners and interns?
Host organizations can identify potential school partners among colleges and universities offering undergraduate degrees in
aviation flight operations, aviation management and related disciplines through two key sources:
The University Aviation Association (UAA) is the professional association of collegiate aviation and home to
colleges/universities, individuals and organizations involved in this work. Information on member schools can be found at
www.uaa.aero or at the home offices of the UAA.
The Aviation Accreditation Board International (AABI) is the accrediting organization for collegiate aviation programs.
Schools that have earned recognition by this body have demonstrated that their programs meet high standards for
program and instruction. Information on accredited programs can be found www.aabi.aero/programs.html. Potential
intern candidates can be identified by contacting a potential school partner directly. Internship programs often are
coordinated by the school’s office of career services, which can put host organizations in contact with potential
candidates or supervising faculty.
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1.3.9 REFERENCES FOR HUMAN RESOURCES
This section lists additional references members may access for more information. NBAA publications may be downloaded or
requested via the NBAA website at www.nbaa.org.
If essential references are missing from this list, contact NBAA at www.info@nbaa.org.
1.3.9.1 DEPARTMENT STAFFING
Industry Database
NBAA Member Directory, www.nbaa.org/directory
1.3.9.2 PILOT LOGBOOKS
Federal Aviation Regulations
Section 61.51: Pilot Logbooks
Section 61.56: Flight Review
Section 61.57: Recent Flight Experience: Pilot in Command
1.3.9.3 SALARIES AND BENEFITS
Publications
NBAA Compensation Survey
1.3.9.4 INDEPENDENT CONTRACTORS AND CONTINGENT WORKERS
Publications
NBAA Best Practices for Utilizing Independent Contractors, www.nbaa.org/contractors
1.3.9.5 TAX CONSIDERATIONS
Payments made by candidates for transportation are subject to federal air transportation excise taxes. Current excise tax rates
are posted at www.nbaa.org/fet.
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2.1 FLIGHT OPERATIONS
2.1.1 OPERATIONAL CONTROL
The FAA defines operate, with respect to aircraft, as “use, cause to use or authorize using aircraft, for the purpose of air
navigation including the piloting of aircraft, with or without the right of legal control (as owner, lessee or otherwise).” This broad
definition is found in 14 CFR § 1.1, which also defines operational control. The latter term, with respect to a flight, means “the
exercise of authority over initiating, conducting or terminating a flight.” The FAA expects the operator of an aircraft to be in
operational control of that aircraft – that is, actively exercising authority over initiating, conducting and terminating the flight – and
places the responsibility of ensuring safety and regulatory compliance squarely on the operator. As well, legal liability of operating
the aircraft lies primarily with the entity in operational control.
In situations where an aircraft is operated by the same entity in all cases, it is generally easier to determine whether that entity is in
operational control as stipulated by the FAA. However, in business aviation, it is not uncommon for a given aircraft to be operated
by more than one entity (sequentially, not simultaneously) on a flight-by-flight basis. A typical situation is for a business aircraft to
be leased to a Part 135 air carrier for commercial use, while the aircraft’s owner retains the ability to also operate the aircraft for its
own use under Part 91. Likewise, an aircraft can be owned by more than one owner, and each owner operates the aircraft for its
own purposes under Part 91. In these and similar cases, it is important to distinguish the entity that has (and must have)
operational control of a given flight, and ensure that the tenets of operational control are satisfied for every flight, no matter the
operator. See the Operational Control Handbook on the NBAA website for additional guidance on operational control.
FAA Operations Specification A008 sets operational control requirements for Part 135 air carriers. Part 91, Subpart K includes
regulations that prescribe operational control responsibilities and requirements applicable to fractional ownership programs. No
matter the regulations under which an aircraft is operated, all operators should be well acquainted with operational control
requirements and responsibilities.
2.1.2 FLIGHT OPERATIONS PERSONNEL CERTIFICATES, RATINGS AND TRAINING
A professional pilot must maintain a level of proficiency that will ensure the pilot’s ability to operate the aircraft safely and cope with
emergency situations.
Each aviation department manager, chief pilot, or designee is responsible for maintaining adequate records and follow-up files on all
maintenance checks, permit and required certificates, licenses and currency requirements for flight crew and personnel.
Any flight crew member delinquent in any required certificates or licenses, currency requirements, flight checks or training,
including FAA medical examinations, should be suspended from flying duty until the requirements are met.
Business aircraft operators should require that the pilot in command hold an airline transport pilot (ATP) certificate and that other
pilots hold at least a commercial certificate with an instrument rating. FAR Part 61.31(a) requires that the person acting as pilot in
command of a turbojet airplane, an airplane over 12,500 pounds maximum gross takeoff weight, a helicopter that requires an ATP
certificate or an aircraft specified by the administrator, hold a type rating in that aircraft.
The FAA also has a specific policy for certain type ratings that are not found in the FARs. FAA Order 8900.1 includes information
for pilots who apply for a type rating in an airplane that is permitted to be operated without a person designated as the second-incommand.
A pilot who applies for a type rating in such an airplane has two options. Under the first option, the pilot can receive the type rating
without any limitations. However, the pilot is required to demonstrate single-pilot competence on the practical test. Under the
second option, the pilot can receive the type rating with a limitation that reads “second in command required.” In this case, the pilot
is not required to demonstrate single-pilot competence. The limitation can be removed by demonstrating single-pilot competence on
a practical test.
The aviation department manager needs to know whether the pilot in command holds any limitations on the type rating and what
those limitations are.
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On Aug. 4, 2005, the FAA released a final rule on the new second-in-command (SIC) pilot type rating to bring the U.S. Federal
Aviation Regulations into compliance with international standards on pilot certificates. The final rule requires pilots who plan to fly
outside U.S. airspace and land in foreign countries, and who are acting as second-in-command of an aircraft certificated for
operations with a minimum flight crew of at least two pilots, to obtain an SIC pilot type rating.
Unmanned aviation presents new complexities, including the level of proficiency and currency as well as the record keeping
maintained. CFR Part 107 requires the individual flying to obtain a Remote Pilot Certificate (RPC) from the FAA to fly unmanned
technology for hire. The RPC with a Small UAS rating applies to unmanned aircraft under fifty-five pounds (55#). Although not a
regulatory requirement, NBAA recommends documentation and record keeping commensurate to normal business aviation
operations for all personnel and equipment necessary for unmanned operations.
While unmanned aviation presents a unique opportunity for business aviation to provide additional added value to an organization,
familiarization with Part 107 is encouraged prior to considering commercial UAS operations.
2.1.3 CREW TRAINING
A professional pilot’s level of proficiency is not subject to compromise. A pilot’s proficiency will greatly affect the individual’s ability to
operate an aircraft safely. A continuous training program is necessary to provide proficiency. Pilots should receive at least an
annual proficiency flight check.
This is required under FAR Part 61.58 for the pilot in command in the operation of an aircraft that requires more than one pilot.
However, the pilot in command is encouraged to complete a check every six months. These check flights may be administered by
a person authorized by the FAA Administrator, such as a designated pilot proficiency examiner.
NBAA recommends using third-party training vendors or in-house trainers as long as the trainers have the most current
information and knowledge.
2.1.3.1 PILOT TRAINING PROGRAM GUIDELINES
Each business aircraft operator should develop a training program for its flight operations personnel to ensure that the flight crew is
familiar with, and competent in, the assigned duties of their positions. The following guidelines can be used to accomplish annual
training in a one-time comprehensive review session, or as part of a progressive schedule that spreads training throughout the
year. The training program should consist of initial and recurrent training in the appropriate areas for each crew member in the
aircraft operated or maintained by the company.
The minimum training and testing requirements for Part 91, Part 125 and Part 135 operators can be found in Part 61 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations. A business aircraft operator that desires to maintain air carrier standards is encouraged to use the training
and testing requirements in Part 121, Part 135 or Part 91, Subpart K as guidance.
Some business aircraft operators have pilot training and testing performed at a pilot school certificated under Part 141 (Pilot
Schools), or Part 142 (Training Centers). The FAA certifies these schools and some have exemptions to use simulators for all or
portions of the training and testing.
Training facilities, simulators, aids and materials should provide an appropriate learning environment to meet the operator’s
requirements. Qualified and current instructors and evaluators must be available to conduct the training and evaluation.
NBAA recommends that pilot recurrent training be accomplished every 6 to 12 months at a reputable training center. Training
schools can be found in the products and services listing of NBAA‘s Member Directory.
DOT and Part 135 regulations require that hazardous materials training be given for all new hires and for those changing job
functions, and that recurrent training be given every 24 months. This includes hazardous materials recognition training even if the
operator has a will-not-carry program.
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2.1.3.2 MINIMUM REGULATORY STANDARDS
Minimum regulatory standards are those regulations that cover the requirements for issuing pilot certificates and ratings and the
proficiency of flight crew, as well as those training requirements specific to the operational needs of different missions. The
following list contains those items that each flight crew member should have or be able to obtain to be considered “legal” to fly
airplanes or rotor-craft under Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations.
Pilot Licensing
Commercial (Airline Transport Pilot preferred)
Instrument
Multi-engine (if applicable)
Land, sea (as applicable)
Airplane, rotor-craft (as applicable)
Aircraft specific type rating (FAR 91 Part 61.31, FAR 91 61.63)
Flight review, or pilot-in-command check (FAR Part 61.58, Part 125.287 and 125.291, Part 135.297)
Medical certificate
Class (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)
Frequency (as applicable)
Recency of flight experience
Day – takeoffs and landings
Night – takeoffs and landings
Instrument currency and instrument competency check
Second-in-command training requirements
High-altitude endorsement
Jet transition course (if transitioning from turboprop or rotary-wing aircraft)
Part 91 requirements (if applicable)
Part 91 Subpart K requirements (if applicable)
Part 125 requirements (if applicable)
Part 135 requirements (if applicable)
FCC radio license (international operations)
International operations training (if applicable); Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM), High-Level Airspace
(HLA)
Required navigation performance (RNP) – en route and approach/departure procedures (if applicable)
Domestic reduced vertical separation minimum (DRVSM) training (if applicable)
FAA and company training requirements for use of supplemental help
FAA and company training requirements for cross-training (various category or type aircraft)
If applicable, meet the requirements of the company for pilot experience and proficiency for use on two or more different
pieces of equipment. The company should be aware that pilot proficiency decreases if the pilot is assigned to more than
two aircraft and that this practice should be discouraged.
Rotor-craft specific training see section 2.1.4.10 for additional guidance on special communications, navigation &
surveillance (CNS) regulatory requirements.
Helicopter IFR procedures, to include: helicopter ILS procedures, helicopter point-in-space approaches, GPS
approaches to heliports
Chart and flight orientation of specific heliports and airports
Helicopter route charts and operations in high-density airspace (Class B)
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2.1.4 ADVANCED CREW TRAINING
Advanced flight crew training is training that is considered above and beyond the regulatory requirements of the FAA. It also
covers different segments of training that would be considered best practices by NBAA. The following topics cover areas that have
been recommended in the past, in addition to training for the new and emerging technologies that are appearing in business
aircraft. The minimum course content and frequency of initial and recurrent training has been specified where applicable. Much of
this training can be taught by external training providers, consultants or manufacturers. If the expertise and time exist, personnel
within a flight department can also teach much of this training.
2.1.4.1 CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT TRAINING
Crew resource management/threat and error management (CRM/TEM) is the effective use of all available resources–human
resources, hardware and information – to ensure safe and efficient flights. NBAA recommends that every crew member be trained
in, understand and apply CRM/ TEM philosophies and standard operating procedures (SOPs). This training should include the
flight attendant and flight engineer positions when utilized. Whenever possible, dispatchers, maintenance personnel and all others
connected with flying operations should be encouraged to attend CRM/TEM training. Most commercial training programs include
CRM/TEM as part of the aircraft-specific curriculum; however, stand-alone programs also are available. The NTSB, NASA and the
FAA strongly support CRM/TEM. Information on CRM/TEM and training recommendations can be found in Advisory Circular 120-
51E, titled “Crew Resource Management Training.”
Special FAR 58, the Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) was published in 1990. It provides an alternate method for qualifying,
training, certifying and otherwise ensuring the competency of flight crew members, cabin crew, aircraft dispatchers, instructors,
evaluators and other operations' personnel subject to the training and evaluation requirements of Part 121 or 135.
2.1.4.1.1 Initial
NBAA recommends that the flight crew member receive CRM/TEM training during initial flight training. It should include but is not
limited to:
Pilot skills and command responsibilities
Standard operating procedures (SOPs)
Crew coordination
Flightdeck communications
Flightdeck/flight attendant communications
Flightdeck/flight engineer communications
Flightdeck/passenger cabin communications
Company policies
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
2.1.4.1.2 Recurrent
NBAA recommends recurrent training for CRM once every two years. Some commercial training programs include integrated CRM
training as part of their regular training curriculum. Stand-alone programs also are available commercially.
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2.1.4.2 WEATHER AND WEATHER AVOIDANCE TRAINING
Severe weather avoidance and the use of weather radar, NexRad and/or Stormscope procedures are an integral part of a safe
and efficient flight operations. Several commercial vendors as well as manufacturer programs are available to assist in
implementing a training program.
2.1.4.2.1 Initial
As soon as practical, flight departments should establish a training program that includes but is not limited to:
Weather theory
Weather reports/forecasts
Weather radar operations and limitations
Windshear/microburst avoidance procedures
Stormscope operations and limitations
NexRad operations and limitations
Company policies and procedures
Specific radar/Stormscope model training
2.1.4.2.2 Recurrent
NBAA recommends recurrent training every two years. Many commercial vendors will incorporate windshear training during
recurrent simulator sessions.
2.1.4.3 FIRST AID, CPR AND AED TRAINING
First aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training for flight crew members is a crucial part of a safe and efficient flight
department. This training can be accomplished in house or through outside commercial vendors, as long as it is conducted by a
nationally recognized CPR/automated external defibrillator (AED) program, such as the American Heart Association or American
Red Cross, and meets local/ state AED guidelines.
2.1.4.3.1 Initial
Flight departments should establish a training program that includes but is not limited to:
Basic first aid focused on business aircraft
CPR certification
AED training (if applicable)
Blood-borne pathogens training that meets the requirements of OSHA’s Part 1910–1030 (Occupational Exposure to
Blood borne Pathogens: Final Rule) and training for other infectious diseases that are relevant for regions to be overflown
In-flight medical emergencies
In-flight medical kit use
Remote medical telemetry equipment (if applicable)
Therapeutic oxygen use (if applicable)
2.1.4.3.2 Recurrent
NBAA recommends annual training. Be advised that certain states of registry require more frequent recurrent training for the use of
automated external defibrillators.
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2.1.4.4 EMERGENCY TRAINING
FAR Part 91 does not contain detailed requirements for flight crew emergency training, however it is highly encouraged. FAR Part
91.505(b) does state that before beginning a flight, each required member of the crew shall become familiar with the emergency
equipment installed on the airplane to which that crew member is assigned and with the procedures to be followed for the use of
that equipment in an emergency situation.
FAR Parts 125.271, 125.319 and 135.331 provide a more detailed list of items to be included in a training program for emergency
training. This list of items is a good reference for all business aircraft operators to use. There are several ways a business airplane
operator can meet the following emergency training requirements. An aviation department may want to provide this training using
internal personnel with training knowledge, or they can obtain professional help from contracted companies, aviation consultants
and/ or aviation service providers. They should provide emergency training in the areas outlined below.
2.1.4.4.1 Initial
The following areas of emergency equipment and emergency situations are to be completed by required crew members prior to
beginning a flight on the airplane to which the crew member is assigned.
A review of emergency equipment on board your aircraft should be completed on an annual basis. A review of emergency
situations such as ditching, smoke and survival should be completed on a biannual basis.
Training should include individual instruction in the location, function and operations of at least the following emergency equipment:
Portable hand fire extinguishers, with knowledge of the classes of fires and appropriate extinguisher to use for each
Location and operation of all emergency exits
First aid kit and related inventory lists
Normal and emergency use of oxygen system by crew and passengers
Over-water operations equipment to be used in ditching and evacuation, if appropriate
Life vests and their operation for adults, children and infants
Life rafts
Pyrotechnic signaling device
Survival kit
Personal protective equipment (i.e., smoke hood), if applicable
Emergency Vision Assurance System (EVAS), if applicable
Automated External Defibrillator, if applicable
Initial emergency training also should include training on emergency procedures as described in the aircraft flight manual, including
but not limited to the following:
Authority of the pilot in command
Crew duties and responsibilities
Passenger handling, including handicapped passengers and other passengers requiring special care
Review of aircraft accidents and incidents
Fire inflight or on the ground, including personal electronic device battery overheat considerations
Smoke control procedures with emphasis on electrical equipment and related circuit breakers found in cabin areas
Emergency evacuation, planned and unplanned
Operation of all emergency exits
Rapid decompression
Ditching and evacuation
Illness, injury, or other abnormal situations involving passengers or crew members
Hijacking and other unusual situations
Aircraft wing contamination
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Crew members who serve in an aircraft with a service ceiling above 25,000 feet must receive instruction in the following as
required by FAR 61.31(g):
·High altitude aerodynamics and meteorology
Decompressions: slow, rapid and explosive
Respiration
Hypoxia
Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen at altitude
Gas expansion and bubble formation
Decompression sickness
Physical phenomena and incidents of decompression
Hyperventilation
NBAA recommends this training be provided to all crew members who serve in operations above 10,000 feet.
The review of emergency equipment should include, but not be limited to:
Individual instruction in the location, function and operations of the items covered in initial training and the following:
Portable hand fire extinguishers, with knowledge of the classes of fires and appropriate extinguisher to use for
each
Location and operation of all emergency exits
First aid kit and related inventory lists
Normal and emergency use of oxygen system by crew and passengers
Over-water operations equipment to be used in ditching and evacuation, if appropriate
Life vests and their operation for adults, children and infants
Life rafts
Pyrotechnic signaling device
Survival kit
Personal protective equipment (i.e., smoke hood), if applicable
EVAS, if applicable
Instruction in emergency assignments and procedures, including coordination among crew members
Review of aircraft accidents and incidents involving actual emergency situations and information provided in the
Aeronautical Information Manual
Each crew member should perform at least the following emergency drills, using the proper emergency equipment and
procedures:
Ditching and unplanned water landing, if applicable
Planned and unplanned emergency evacuation
Fire extinguishing and smoke control
Operation and use of emergency exits
Use of crew and passenger oxygen
Removal of life rafts from the aircraft, inflation of the life rafts, use of lifelines, and boarding of passengers and crew, if
applicable
Donning and inflation of life vests and the use of other individual flotation devices, if applicable
Some companies provide basic emergency procedures training for executives who fly frequently on the company aircraft. This
training includes such items as emergency evacuation, smoke environment and use of basic emergency equipment.
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2.1.4.5 SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS TRAINING
Safety Management Systems (SMS) include the processes and procedures to identify, document, and mitigate risks within the
organization. The SMS consists of four pillars:
Safety Policy, Safety Risk Management, Safety Assurance, and Promotion. SMS is required by ICAO Annex 19 for all operators,
and in the United States is currently required under FAR Part 5 for 121 air carriers. (As of March 2016, all part 119 and 121
carriers must have an approved implementation plan in place and full SMS compliance with the FARs by March 9, 2018). Details on
the FAA’s interpretation of SMS compliance under FAR part 5 are included in Advisory Circular AC 12092B, titled “Safety
Management Systems for Aviation Service Providers.”
SMS training should be completed by all members of the organization. NBAA recommends, that at the very least, all employees
receive initial SMS training and recurrent training on an annual basis. Under FAR 5.91, individuals must be trained and competent in
their duties as they relate to the SMS.
Not all employees will need the same level of training, since management will need to understand data analysis and how to support
and promote line employees’ activities within the SMS. As a result, the Accountable Executive responsible for the SMS and those
employees with management roles should receive additional focused training beyond what all employees receive. Each
organization has a responsibility to identify its own training needs for initial and recurrent training syllabi.
2.1.4.5.1 Initial
NBAA recommends every employee in the organization receive initial SMS training within their first year with the organization. SMS
training can be completed in-house or contracted to a training vendor, and should include at a minimum:
Introduction to Safety Management Systems
The Four Pillars (Policy, Risk Management, Assurance, Promotion)
Human Factors and Fatigue Management
Safety Culture
Types / Stages of organizational cultures
Non-punitive reporting
Just Culture
Employee / Management engagement
Principles of Risk Management
Hazard Identification (Risk Assessments, Safety Reports)
Reporting
Risk Matrices and Risk Scores
Safety Assurance and Continuous Improvement
Safety Performance Indicators (SPIs)
Safety Promotion
Safety Committee and Meetings
Safety Awards
2.1.4.5.2 Recurrent
NBAA recommends that all employees receive annual recurrent training in Safety Management Systems. Annual training may take
many forms and can include structured training sessions, review of SMS initial training topics, re- views / case studies of SMS
submission data, or exercises in safety culture.
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2.1.4.6 SECURITY TRAINING
The type and amount of security training that your organization provides crew members will depend on the type of missions flown
and the destinations frequented. Internal company security personnel or external aviation service providers, contracted companies
or aviation consultants can provide this type of training.
2.1.4.6.1 Initial
Flight departments should establish a security training program that includes but is not limited to:
Appropriate TSA 49 CFR Part 1500, 1540, and 1544 regulations
Review of security incidents or events
Securing of aircraft and use of on-board aircraft security systems
Internal company security plan, including hangar or facility security measures
Development of a security-awareness attitude
Plan to ensure that all access panels and doors have not been tampered with when parked overnight
Hijacking, bomb threats, or other terrorist acts
Electronic communications security
Evaluation security threats in areas of intended operations
Information provided in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
Review of food source systems
2.1.4.6.2 Recurrent
Security training should be reviewed by crew members on a biannual basis. A security training program should include, but not be
limited to, a review of those items outlined in the initial security training program. It also should include:
Review of security incidents or events
Any changes in the internal company security plan
Review of high-risk areas of the world
2.1.4.7 INTERNATIONAL PROCEDURES TRAINING
International operations require extra procedures and vigilance above what is required for domestic operations. Operators should
complete a course of training before attempting any international operations. Several commercial vendors can be found in the
products and services listing of the NBAA Member Directory. In addition, the International Operations section of this Management
Guide has a comprehensive list of procedures for international operations.
2.1.4.7.1 Initial
As soon as practical but before commencing international operations, a training program should be completed that includes at least
the information available in Section 2 (2.2.9) of this guide. In addition, use of a commercial vendor should include instruction in the
latest airspace and country restrictions and regulations, such as EU-OPS, and guidance on determining which regulations are
applicable to the flight. Training also should include procedures for use of augmented crews and long-range flight, if applicable.
Documentation of training is required for several international operations, such as RVSM, Required Navigation Performance, and
North Atlantic High Level Airspace.
2.1.4.7.2 Recurrent
NBAA recommends recurrent training every 24 months. Training should include those items covered in initial training and any
changes in regulations, procedures and/or airspace.
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2.1.4.8 ADVANCED COCKPIT AIRCRAFT TRAINING
As flight departments acquire advanced cockpit airplanes or upgraded avionics equipment, SOPs should be examined in order to
make effective use of the new equipment resources and maintain a safe operation. Previously established operating guidance for
IFR flight may be inadequate for the use of modern avionics systems. CRM and crew communication practices merit special
consideration in the advanced cockpit.
2.1.4.8.1 Initial
Initial training should include the guidelines published by NBAA. In addition, company SOPs should be developed and training
should be provided using operations manuals to cover all the equipment installed on the advanced aircraft (i.e., TCAS, EGPWS,
minimum equipment lists, etc.). The training should also include procedures for operation in domestic and international airspace,
including SIDS and STARS.
2.1.4.8.2 Recurrent
Recurrent training should be progressive and include review and instruction on:
The proficient operation of the aircraft at all four levels of automation
CRM, crew briefings and communications using the advanced equipment
Mode awareness
Crew compliance with limitations and procedures contained in the AFM supplements and the flight operations manuals
The latest advances in procedures and equipment (i.e., precision runway monitoring, data-link procedures, data-link
communications etc.)
Use of FMS/GPS for departure, en route, arrival, holding, approaches and missed approaches
2.1.4.9 FAR, AIM AND MISCELLANEOUS
Knowledge of the Federal Aviation Regulations, Aeronautical Information Manual, and various other miscellaneous sources of
information for the safety of flight are critical pieces of a safe and efficient flight department. The department should have access to
and be trained on the use of these documents as well as the inclusion of these resources in the flight operations manual and
SOPs. Commercial vendors can accomplish some of the training but most of the training can be accomplished in house.
2.1.4.9.1 Initial
Initial training should include but is not limited to:
Federal Aviation Regulations pertinent to the company operations
Basic aerodynamics and flight performance
Aircraft systems review
Aircraft weight and balance
Icing/deicing procedures
Navigation charts
Minimum equipment lists
Air traffic control procedures and radio communications
Uncontrolled airport procedures and communications
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
Physiology of flight
Flight operations manual
Standard operating procedures (SOPs)
Company procedures
Aircraft servicing and ground handling
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommendations
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2.1.4.9.2 Recurrent
Recurrent training should occur on an annual basis and can be accomplished at set intervals throughout the year or on a
progressive basis. It should include but is not limited to a review of all the initial topics with emphasis on changes since the last
training.
2.1.4.10 ROTOR-CRAFT-SPECIFIC ADVANCED FLIGHT CREW TRAINING
Operators of rotor-craft should consider the following topics as areas for additional training for flight crew.
2.1.4.10.1 Initial
Initial training should include but is not limited to:
Federal Aviation Regulations pertinent to rotor-craft operations
Rotor-craft aerodynamics and flight performance, with emphasis on confined area and off airport operations
Turbine transition training, if transitioning from reciprocating rotor-craft
Noise-abatement awareness, to include methods for attaining information at area airports and heliports
Factory and manufacturer education programs, i.e., Sikorsky, Bell, Rolls-Royce Engines, etc.
Safety
Main/tail rotor safety
Passenger safety and awareness of operating around main/tail rotors
Wind conditions conducive to flapping situations
Hearing conservation
Known hazards at airports and heliports
2.1.4.11 UPSET RECOVERY TRAINING
Operators of fixed-wing aircraft should consider loss of control in-flight training, also known as upset recovery training (UPRT), as
another training area for flight crew. This training can be completed in a simulator or appropriate aircraft and usually combines both
classroom and aircraft/simulator instruction.
2.1.5 CREW FITNESS AND HEALTH
NBAA recommends that aviation departments include physical fitness education as part of their training program to create
awareness of the importance of maintaining good physical and mental health. The physical condition of the crew can be as
important as the condition of the aircraft.
Guidelines for crew health should include:
A policy that allows a flight crew member to not fly for health reasons
Information on the effects of over-the-counter medication
Suggestions for a balanced diet
Provision for adequate rest
Suggestions for regular exercise
Information on the recognition of stress
Unlike in an office environment, where a person can perform many duties with minor ailments, the flight environment requires that
the flight crew member be physically fit. FAR Part 61.53 prohibits a pilot from flying if medically unfit. Cabin crew members should
adhere to the same medical guidelines as those followed by the flight crew.
2.1.5.1 DIET, EXERCISE, REST AND STRESS
The lifestyle of many crew members includes eating quick meals at airport restaurants, waiting in pilot lounges and working
irregular duty hours. The crew should be encouraged to select balanced meals. A dietitian could provide guidance on how to eat
nutritious meals while on the road. If catering is used on a flight, meals should be included for the crew. However, each crew
member should be provided with a different meal, in order to lessen the chances that all crew members become ill of food
poisoning should a given meal be contaminated.
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Some fixed base operators (FBOs) have exercise facilities available, but these usually are found only at larger facilities. Company
guidelines could encourage crews to try to walk or perform other moderate exercise while they are waiting. Adequate rest is
another factor that contributes to a crew member’s health. Guidelines on duty time and flight time limitations as well as minimum
rest requirements are imperative. Details on flight and duty time considerations appear in the following section.
Due to the variety and number of demands, stress is a major factor in a business aircraft crew member’s life. Although some
stress enables the crew member to remain alert and ready to accept fast-paced and unusual situations, too much stress can
degrade performance and present a safety hazard. The cumulative effect of stressful situations that occur within an individual’s
family life, interpersonal relationships, company associations and flight operations may have an adverse effect on a crew
member’s performance. All crew members should be watched for indications of too much stress and cautioned to practice selfobservation for excessive stress.
The following suggestions on how to mitigate high stress in the flightdeck come from a study by the Aviation Research and
Education Foundation:
Use SOPs to eliminate much of the uncertainty and many of the misunderstandings that occur during a busy flight
Concentrate on flight operations exclusively
Have adequate fuel and alternate plans for any anticipated problems
Accept stress for what it is
Reduce tension within the flightdeck environment to reduce stress and increase efficiency, but maintain organization and
discipline
Use a “compartmentalization” process whereby the critical problems at hand command 100 percent (100%) of a pilot’s
attention and all unrelated (personal) problems are put aside
Perform comprehensive crew briefings and coordination to keep uncertainties to a minimum
Mentally review the entire flight to help general preparation and possibly reduce unanticipated problems
Develop a mental pre-start checklist to focus attention solely on flight-related items
Get physical exercise and sufficient rest
Pay attention to details and keep a safe pace
Conduct proper briefings at the proper time
Involve the flight crew to develop a team effort
According to a study by Richardson Management Associates in Montreal, an element that contributes to the way people react is
the choice of one, or a combination of, behavioral compulsions called drivers. The general heading for these drivers are:
Be perfect – The person is never satisfied with him or herself, his or her achievements, or with others
Be strong – The person has to be self-sufficient
Hurry up – The person experiences relief with activity
Please everybody – The person feels uncomfortable unless everyone is happy
Try hard – The person typically puts energy into trying instead of doing
Situations appear where these drivers are necessary. However, if a driver becomes a compulsive behavior, an individual could
lose the ability to be flexible. These types of compulsive behaviors lead to stress.
2.1.5.2 MEDICATION
A local aeromedical authority, such as an aviation medical examiner (AME), should be consulted for the dosages and types of
over-the-counter drugs that may be taken by flight crews. It should address the use of common items such as aspirin, antacids,
mild laxatives and decongestants. Use of these types of medications may cause minor discomfort to a person on the ground.
However, the same medication, taken in flight, could have a significant effect on a flight crew member’s performance. Cabin crew
members also should adhere to medical advice provided by an AME.
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2.1.5.3 CREW ILLNESS
Company guidelines should prohibit flight departments from scheduling crew members when they are unfit or ill. Flight departments
should put a policy in place for crew members suffering from a prolonged illness. Likewise, crew members should not accept flight
assignments under those circumstances. An accepted preflight guide for personnel to follow when trying to determine whether-ornot they are fit to fly is the FAA acronym I’M SAFE, which stands for illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, or emotion. If any
of these elements are present, they can affect a flight department member’s performance on the job.
2.1.5.4 ALCOHOL AND DRUG USE
The use of alcoholic beverages by crew members or personnel in a safety sensitive position on duty or within the FAA-specified
time limitations should because for disciplinary action. FAR Section 91.17 states that no person may act as a crew member while
under the influence of alcohol. The definition of “under the influence” includes hangovers.
The FAA specifies that at least 8 hours must have elapsed between the completion of alcohol consumption and the beginning of
flight duty, and 12 hours is generally accepted by the business aviation community. FAR Part 91.17 also states that, except in an
emergency, a crew member may not allow a person who is obviously under the influence of intoxicating liquors or drugs (except a
medical patient under proper care) to be carried on the aircraft. It also specifies circumstances under which a crew member
should submit to a test that measures the level of blood alcohol. The regulations also specify that a crew member must submit to a
drug or alcohol test when there is reasonable basis to believe the person was using any drug that affected the crew member’s
faculties in a way contrary to safety.
FAR Parts 61.15 and 61.16 would require a pilot’s certificate to be suspended or revoked if the pilot is convicted of violating any
Federal or state statute relating to an illegal drug, flying an aircraft while under the influence of alcohol or an illegal drug, flying an
aircraft carrying an illegal drug, refusing to submit to an alcohol test or refusing to furnish alcohol test results to the administrator.
The fact that the use or possession of a particular substance is legal under state law, would not be a valid defense to violation of a
federal law or regulation prohibiting such activity.
Operations certificated under Part 121,Part 135, Part 91K, and 91.147 Sight Seeing operators must have a drug testing program
for safety sensitive positions, as defined in 120.105 and 120.215. These programs include pre-employment, random, periodic and
for-cause testing for five specific drugs. Such a program is not required by Part 91 (except for 91K and 91.147), but many
companies include the crew under a company drug testing program. This program usually includes a requirement for a drug test
as a condition of pre-employment or in a for-cause situation. These tests often include alcohol and additional drugs not included in
the program required by the FARs.
2.1.5.5 BLOOD DONATIONS
According to American Red Cross guidelines, a healthy person may donate blood once every eight weeks. After donating, a 72-
hour waiting period prior to flight may be necessary. Caution should be exercised and a company physician may be required to
approve crew blood donations.
2.1.5.6 SCUBA DIVING
The reduction of atmospheric pressure that occurs during flight can produce physical problems for scuba divers. Any crew
member or passenger who intends to fly after scuba diving should allow for sufficient time for the body to rid itself of excess
nitrogen absorbed during diving, in order to prevent an in-flight emergency. The recommended minimum waiting time before going
to cabin pressures above 8000 feet is at least 24 hours after any scuba dive.
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2.1.6 FLIGHT, DUTY AND REST TIME CONSIDERATIONS
Each aviation department manager should carefully consider flight and duty time limitations for all personnel. For Part 91 operators,
no crew duty limits are given in the FARs except for the eight-hour limitations for flight instructors. However, a company should
establish and abide by limitations so that crew member and personnel fatigue does not reduce the safety of any flight or work
performed. This is true for both the single aircraft operations many NBAA members currently use and the long-range aircraft
options that are available. Planning ahead to minimize crew exposure to fatigue will keep safety paramount within business aviation
operations. The Flight Safety Foundation has developed guidelines for establishing a reasonable company policy, which can be
found on the web at www.flightsafety.org.
Limitations delineated in Part 135, Subpart F, Crew Member Rest Requirements, may be a useful guide to determine the maximum
duty and minimum rest period for Part 91 corporate flight operations. It is possible to tailor appropriate limitations with certain
flexibility for the individual operation.
NBAA recommends that a crew swap consist of the entire crew. Qualified flight attendants are restricted to duty time limitations. It
is recommended cabin servers maintain the same duty time limitations as the other crew members. In a situation where a flight
crew is augmented, the flight attendant or cabin server should be permitted to rest in an adequate sleep location for a period of time
to prevent fatigue.
2.1.6.1 FATIGUE
Crew member fatigue, divided into transient fatigue (temporary) and cumulative fatigue (accumulating), will seriously reduce flight
crew reflexes and efficiency. Because fatigue can be the result of many factors and will vary with individuals, it is the duty of each
flight crew member to advise the manager or chief pilot when natural limitations are being reached. The aviation department
manager needs to keep the lines of communication open on such conditions and realize that flight crew members are not always
aware of their level of fatigue. The credibility of an individual’s self-evaluation decreases as the level of fatigue increases.
Individuals fatigue at different rates. Consideration should be given to recognize this and the crew’s limitation becomes that of the
most fatigued crew member.
In the case of temporary fatigue, the flight crew member is fully aware of the problem and the cure can be as simple as a good
night’s rest. The individual usually recognizes cumulative fatigue and the cure involves a day or two away from work. The most
serious part of the fatigue problem is the psychological component that causes the person to remain unaware of the problem or to
deny its significance. Chronic fatigue requires a long period of time off and could require the assistance of a medical professional.
A flight crew member may exhibit the following typical in-flight symptoms for all types of fatigue. As an individual’s energy level is
depleted, the subsequent degradation of skills becomes more pronounced. Perhaps the first recognizable sign is that the individual
will accept lower standards of performance. Symptoms include decreased reaction time, reduced attention span, sloppy flying or
roughness on the controls, and distorted judgment. Fatigue has eluded rigorous quantitative definition because each person is
affected differently. Experienced flight crew members should use every opportunity to combat fatigue. This includes altering diets
when necessary, getting away from the airport for some exercise and utilizing day rooms for sleep whenever possible.
It is difficult to adjust to constantly fluctuating schedules due to the effect of circadian rhythms. Medical evidence confirms that a
person cannot store sleep for an expected long duty day. The aviation department manager must constantly assess the
company’s travel requirements and adjust or design the flight and duty time to guarantee a consistently safe flight operation.
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2.1.6.2 FLIGHT AND DUTY TIME GUIDELINES
Because business aviation is an on-demand operation, it is characterized by flexibility rather than rigid limitations; however,
operations must be safe and highly efficient. Elements that affect crew fatigue include:
Start and finish time of working day
Length of the working day
Time zone changes
Dehydration
Flight time
Nature of flight requirements
Waiting time
Duties other than those associated with the flightdeck
These elements must be balanced and limited to prevent crew fatigue. NBAA advocates that written policies establish flight crew
duty time limitations. The flight operations manual should clearly state duty time limitations.
Any duty time limitations need to take into consideration the actual length of the duty day. The duty day begins when the crew
enters company premises and ends when the crew leaves the premises. Duty time should include the overall time required to
prepare, perform, and conclude a scheduled flight as well as the time needed for administrative functions, training, meetings and
other duties not related to a flight. The effects of a company policy that requires the crew to be available while on layovers for any
schedule changes or emergencies also should be considered.
When making company policy about flight time, an aviation department should consider the effects of the flight environment. A crew
that performs one cross-country flight may not be as fatigued as a crew that performs a number of short flights into high density
airports. The airspace environment also needs to be evaluated. A crew that only operates in busy areas such as the Northeast,
Southern California or the Great Lakes region of the United States is apt to become fatigued faster than a crew that primarily
operates in less busy airspace.
The maximum duty and flight times for most operations could range from 12 to 16 hours of duty time with 8 to 12 hours of flight
time. A lower number could be assigned for operations in high density airspace and a higher number could be assigned for less
strenuous or long-range flights. Some companies also have maximum duty and flight times over a five-day time period. An example
could be a maximum of 50 hours of duty and 34 hours of flight time.
2.1.7 TRANSIENT FACILITIES AND SERVICES
Information on airports and facilities used by a company’s aircraft can be obtained from a variety of sources. NBAA advises that
operators retain more than one information source because no one single publication includes all the information aviation
departments would need. The FBO could be a contact to arrange services. A phone call is recommended to confirm the latest
information, including fees and pricing for services, with the FBO prior to departure.
Publications that could be used are:
The Airport/Facility Directory, published by U.S. region
The Corporate Pilot’s Airport/FBO Directory for North America and International, published as part of the AC-U-KWIK
mobile app
The Jeppesen Airport and Information Directory (J-AID) These and other publications are available online via web-sites
and mobile apps.
The Standard Service Form (see Figure 2.1: NBAA Standard Service Form) was designed as a communication tool between
the scheduler/dispatcher and the FBO. It should be used in conjunction with a phone call to the service provider to ensure the
information has been received and all requests understood. It also is used as a checklist to request information needed from the
passenger to complete a trip.
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2.1.7.1 AIRPORT ACCESS AFTER FBO HOUR
Many airports have constructed airport perimeter fencing to control wildlife populations and human access within the airport
boundaries. After hours access to the ramp or airplane may be difficult.
Be proactive; call to verify the hours of attendance and accessibility. Verify phone numbers to receive after-hours service. An FBO
may remain open if you are willing to pay an after-hours surcharge. You may be required to use a different airport that has an open
FBO, or modify your time schedule.
Should you find yourself locked out (or in) at an airport, the following steps may help:
Look for a telephone number posted by the FBO to call for after-hours service. There may be a sign visible from the
ramp, in a window of the FBO, in an after-hours pilot lounge or in the terminal building itself or on the FBO’s website, if you
have Internet access. Start by contacting the FBO at this number.
Try contacting the airport manager or airport authority if such a number isn’t available. This information is available
through flight planning websites. Check www.fltplan.com, www.airnav.com or the U.S. & Territories Airport Lookup
page via the FAA site at https://airports-gis.faa.gov/airportsgis/airportLookup/.
The county sheriff’s office or local police station could be contacted if all else fails.
The TSA might have a representative if the airport is served by an airline. However, the agency might not be in a position to grant
you access to the ramp, nor is it likely to have an interest in how access is granted or conveyed to non-airline aircraft.
NBAA strongly recommends that operators do not climb over a fence to access their aircraft or to exit the aircraft operations area
(AOA).
2.1.8 CREW AND PASSENGER RELATIONS
Although the responsibility for the safety and comfort of passengers in business aircraft rests with the pilot in command, the entire
crew is involved. Most passengers, even the most experienced, are sometimes apprehensive about flying. The crew should exert
an accommodating and reassuring influence on the passengers and make every trip as comfortable and pleasant as possible.
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2.1.8.0.1 Figure 2.1: NBAA Standard Service Form
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Passengers always should be:
Escorted to and from the aircraft by a flight department employee at home base or by a crew member while on the road
Assisted with their luggage prior to and after flights
Led to a cabin seat, consistent with weight and balance considerations, and made to feel as comfortable as possible
Treated with respect and deference
2.1.8.1 PASSENGER BRIEFINGS
Passengers must be briefed on emergency exits and procedures. FAR Part 91 requires the pilot in command or flight attendant to
ensure that passengers have been notified to fasten their seat belt and shoulder harness, if installed. A company-trained flight
attendant designated to perform safety functions is eligible to perform this duty, but a cabin aide or cabin attendant is not.
Part 91, Subpart F also requires the pilot in command or flight attendant to provide a briefing to those unfamiliar with the aircraft,
but this briefing may be modified or abbreviated when the pilot in command determines that the passengers are familiar with its
contents.
The briefing, supplemented by aircraft specific printed cards for the use of each passenger and reiterated in the case of an
emergency, should contain the following information:
When, where and under what conditions is smoking prohibited
Use of seat belts, shoulder harnesses, and use of child restraint systems
The placement of seats, tray tables, equipment and stores
Storage of carry-on baggage
Brace procedures in case of an emergency landing
Use of cellular telephones and certain other portable electronic equipment while in flight
Use of cellular telephones, devices and other portable electronic equipment during certain stages of flight
Location and means for opening the passenger entry door and emergency exits
Location of survival equipment
Ditching and the use of required flotation equipment, if the flight involves extended over-water operations
The normal and emergency use of oxygen, if the flight involves operations above 12,000 feet MSL
Location and use of fire extinguishers
Location of passenger safety briefing cards
In the event of an emergency, where circumstances permit, all passengers are given an emergency briefing covering the following
items: safety belts, seat backs, carry-on baggage, brace position, evacuation procedures and life preservers, if applicable.
Aboard business aircraft, passengers also should be advised of convenience equipment, such as desks, radios, lavatories and
food and beverage service, if available.
Before each leg of a flight, a crew member should give the passengers information on the next stop, estimated time of arrival,
cruising altitude, weather expected en route, weather at the destination and alternate plans, if marginal weather is probable. If light
turbulence is encountered, passenger apprehension usually can be dispelled with a casual explanation and reassurance from a
crew member.
A crew member should ensure that the passengers are kept informed of the flight’s progress. Such information could include
present position, route, air speed or ground speed, altitude and estimated time of arrival. When time permits, crew members may
call attention to sights that might interest passengers. However, some passengers would rather not be interrupted by a routine (not
safety related) announcement; this may be determined by asking the principal passenger if they want flight progress
announcements.
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Careful explanations and advance notice of unusual operations may enhance the passengers’ comfort. When there is a delay
because of weather or other reasons, the passengers should be notified and given an estimate of expected departure or arrival
times. Passengers should be advised of such delays as soon as they become evident. In addition, contacting waiting parties on
the ground will help reduce tension caused by delays. If the successful arrival at the planned destination becomes doubtful or
impossible, the principal passenger should be consulted in private to discuss alternative courses of action.
2.1.8.2 PASSENGERS REQUIRING SPECIAL ATTENTION
Some passengers who fly frequently on the company aircraft may have physical ailments that do not prevent them from working.
However, they may require special diets and/or medication, and the crew should be aware that a problem may develop during
flight. These matters should be discussed in a confidential conversation with the individual, the individual’s physician and the
aviation department manager so a plan can be developed that will enable the crew to respond to any potential problems.
Other employees or guests may require special attention and assistance. In FAR Part 91 operations, incapacitated or handicapped
passengers may be taken aboard company aircraft if those persons are capable of personal care without unreasonable attention
and assistance from the crew.
If additional attention is needed, the passenger should be accompanied by an attendant who would be responsible for providing the
proper care. The aviation department manager should be informed of the circumstances and the name of the passenger’s
physician in advance of the flight to determine whether special facilities are needed.
If a company physician is employed, it would be prudent for the aviation department manager to seek the physician’s advice and
counsel regarding special arrangements or potential risks. If the prospective passenger has no physician and no company
physician is employed, NBAA advises that a physician with a background in aviation medicine be consulted. The corporate legal
counsel also should be consulted to determine whether a hold harmless agreement (i.e., special written permission given before a
flight allowing the aircraft to land on some airfields for technical stops) should be executed for a given flight.
FAR Part 135 operators must comply with 14 CFR Part 382, “Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability in Air Travel,”
which prohibits both U.S. and foreign carriers from discriminating against passengers on the basis of disability; requires carriers to
make aircraft, other facilities and services accessible; and requires carriers to take steps to accommodate passengers with a
disability.
Children under 12 years of age should be accompanied by a responsible adult. Women who have passed the eighth month of
pregnancy should be asked to furnish a physician’s statement that the given flight will not be detrimental to the passenger’s health
and well-being.
Another passenger requiring special attention is the problem passenger. Some passengers may be intoxicated.
Others could be under severe stress or have a fear of flying. Those complacent about flying also can be problem passengers;
they are the ones who will not put on a seat belt, request the briefing be skipped, or insist on departing from or landing at an airport
where there is inclement weather.
While unruly or uncooperative passengers are rare, the pilot in command must be assertive to secure the safety of the flight.
Reminding passengers with unreasonable demands of the primacy of the pilot in command should solve many of the problems. It is
the prerogative of the pilot in command to terminate the flight in extreme circumstances, however.
2.1.9 PILOT-IN-COMMAND AUTHORITY
FAR Part 91.3 states that the pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority on, the operation of
the aircraft. The pilot in command is vested with the final decision on whether-or-not to proceed with the flight. Company policy
must stress that the pilot in command cannot be pressured by executives or management into making that decision.
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Company policy also should stress that the person designated as pilot in command is the final authority on whether that pilot is
performing flying or non-flying duties. Pilot in command responsibilities include:
Ensuring compliance with FARs
Ensuring compliance with company policy
Reviewing the correctness of all aspects of flight planning
Monitoring the performance of subordinate crew members and providing training as appropriate
Exercising command authority in routine and emergency situations
Becoming familiar with all available information appropriate to the flight in accordance with FAR 91.103, including all
available meteorological information and an alternative course of action should the flight not be completed as planned due
to weather conditions.
Ensuring that facilities and services are adequate for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Being aware of hazardous weather including thunderstorms and expected icing conditions and equipment status for
aircraft certified for flight into known icing
Ensuring compliance with all other applicable FARs
Ensuring compliance with company policy
While only one pilot can act as the pilot in command for each flight, it is best practice-to-establish this individual prior to the flight on
company records, such as a trip sheet.
2.1.10 PREFLIGHT PREPARATIONS
Prior to the flight, crews should ensure:
The flight department has recorded the names of all passengers on board the aircraft
Aircraft performance and weight and balance has been calculated and determined to be within limits
Appropriate flight plan has been filed
They have become familiar with all information pertinent to the flight in accordance with 91.103
Flight crews should consult their AFM prior to flight for cold weather operations and deicing/anti icing procedures. Crews
should reference current holdover tables, AC 91-74B Pilot Guide: Flight in Icing Conditions, and AC 120-58 Pilot Guide:
Large Aircraft Ground Deicing or AC 135-17 Pilot Guide: Small Aircraft Ground Deicing, as applicable.
2.1.11 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
Aviation department managers are responsible for efficient and safe cockpit management and should set standard operating
procedures (SOPs) for all phases of flight. Flight crews should understand that SOPs are the foundation of crew coordination.
Training in cockpit resource management will enforce the SOPs and add an important safety factor. Company SOPs may include
overall operating procedures as well as aircraft/fleet specific procedures for each type of aircraft operated including those for
single pilot operations and multi-crew operations.
Airframe manufacturers’ pilot operating handbooks contain procedural checklists and may include SOPs. FAR Section 91.503(b)
includes cockpit checklist items for large and turbine-powered multi-engine airplanes. Aviation department managers may desire to
add items based on practical aviation knowledge, experience and aircraft accident reports that reveal poor cockpit management.
Flight crews should be encouraged to evaluate procedures continuously for efficiency and effectiveness and recommend
appropriate changes. A company can provide their SOPs to the pilot school that trains its pilots so the SOPs can be included in
initial training and recurrent training. A copy of the SOP should be carried on board the aircraft in either paper or electronic format.
Most flight crews favor the challenge-and-response method of communication as the means to ensure that monitoring is being
accomplished and that any deviation from acceptable operating limits is recognized and corrected. An electronic checklist,
displayed via a radar screen or the Electronic Flight Information System (EFIS), offers a flight crew the opportunity to utilize a quiet
checklist. Because both pilots can see the condition of a checklist item, the non-flying pilot may complete many non-essential
checklist items without calling for a response. However, items that are essential to the aircraft’s configuration (e.g., landing gear,
flaps) should be subject to the challenge-and-response method and should be included in a company’s SOPs. The following items
should be considered in the SOPs in addition to FAR 91.503B.
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2.1.11.1 PRE-TAXI/DEPARTURE BRIEFING
Flight crew should brief the taxi and departure, discussing any risk mitigation for the taxi, runway incursion “hot spots” and
departure. This briefing may be conducted before passengers are on board the aircraft.
2.1.11.2 ENGINE START UP
Aircraft require a checklist for normal and emergency procedures. Crew coordination on the setting of instruments, radios,
navigation equipment and flight management equipment is recommended. Refer to the aircraft flight manual for details.
VFR TAKEOFF, ABORTED TAKEOFF, CLIMB AND CRUISE
NBAA recommends the use of instrument flight rules (IFR) for turbine-powered aircraft. When IFR departures or arrivals are not
practical, companies should establish procedures for operations under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). NBAA also recommends that an
alternate airport be included in all flight plans, unless the destination is isolated and no alternate is available.
The takeoff briefing and crew coordination procedures could include standardization of flight crew interaction for mechanical
procedures, (i.e., when to call for gear up, flap retraction). Items could include specified limitations and procedures for crosswind
and downwind operations and adjusted V speeds for usual runway conditions. The crew should also brief VFR departure
procedures and traffic pattern operations. After takeoff, the crew should be advised to complete the checklist and continue visual
scanning.
2.1.11.2.1 Figure 2.2: Sample ATIS/Clearance/Briefing Card
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2.1.11.3 IFR TAKEOFF, ABORTED TAKEOFF, CLIMB AND CRUISE
The takeoff briefing and crew coordination should include specific procedures for alternate airports, use of radar (if equipped),
operation in icing conditions and the Standard Instrument Departure (SID). After takeoff, the crew should be advised to complete
the checklist and continue visual scanning.
2.1.11.4 USE OF OXYGEN
Where an aircraft is operated at cabin pressure altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL (700 hPa) but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL (620
hPa), each flight crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes
that is more than 30 minutes in duration.
Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure, altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL (620 hPa), each person on board the aircraft
shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.
The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if:
The aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250;
The aircraft is operated above flight level 410; or
A flight crew member is the sole occupant of the cockpit above flight level
Aircraft will not be operated:
At flight altitudes above FL250 unless at least a 10-minute supply of supplemental oxygen is available for each occupant
of the aircraft for use in the event that a descent is necessitated by loss of cabin pressurization; and
At flight altitudes above FL350 unless one pilot at the controls of the airplane is wearing and using an oxygen mask that is
secured and sealed and that either supplies oxygen at all times or automatically supplies oxygen when-ever the cabin
pressure altitude of the airplane exceeds 14,000 feet (MSL), except that the one pilot need not wear and use an oxygen
mask while at or below FL410, if there are two pilots at the controls and each pilot has quick-donning type of oxygen
mask that can be placed on the face with one hand from the ready position within 5 seconds, supplying oxygen and
properly secured and sealed.
Note: If for any reason at any time it is necessary for one pilot to leave the controls of the aircraft when operating at flight altitudes
above FL350, the remaining pilot at the controls shall put on and use an oxygen mask until the other pilot has returned to that crew
member’s station. At that time, the mask will then be properly stowed in its original location.
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2.1.11.5 INSTRUMENT APPROACHES
A high degree of crew coordination is essential for both precision and non-precision approaches. It is recommended that
preparation begin prior to initial descent (about 20 minutes before anticipated landing) or after the Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS) information has been received. The pilot in command should review the following items with the second-incommand:
Standard terminal arrival (STAR)
Any abnormal aircraft conditions
Type of approach to be made
Altitude to be used on the initial approach
Altitude at which the final approach fix will be crossed
Minimums involved
Decision height (DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA)
Missed approach procedures
Risk mitigation(s) for the specific approach and landing expected
Risk mitigation(s) for the taxi to the ramp, including review of runway incursion “hot spots”
Procedures should require the flight crew to use all available approach and landing aids, monitor autopilot operation closely when in
use, monitor all data indications on vertical and lateral guidance and continually cross-check instruments that provide redundant
information.
Specific challenge-and-responses, or call-outs, should be standard on all descents, approaches and landings. The following callouts are suggested. These will differ with non-precision approaches.
18,000 feet MSL altitude
10,000 feet MSL (250 knots indicated airspeed)
Glide slope interception
Crossing final approach fix
1,000 feet above DH/MDA
500 feet above DH/MDA
Complete checklist
100 feet above DH/MDA
DH/MDA
Airspeed (Any time it varies below or above reference by 10 knots and any time the rate of descent goes below or above
the established parameters.)
Vertical and/or Lateral Deviations exceeding one dot
On missed approaches, heading, altitude and the location of the highest obstacle in the area are the major considerations.
Two common methods for performing an instrument approach should be considered. In the first method, the pilot in command flies
the aircraft and the second-in-command monitors the flight path and instruments. In the second method, the second-in-command
flies the aircraft and the pilot in command monitors the flight path and instruments.
NBAA recommends operators develop a policy prohibiting pilots from conducting instrument approaches into weather below
standard Category I minimums unless the operator has authority to conduct Category II, Category III, or enhanced flight vision
systems (EFVS) operations and pilots have completed and met all training, operating and regulatory requirements.
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2.1.11.6 VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS APPROACH AND LANDING
Large or turbine-powered aircraft are required to remain on or above the glide path per FAR 91.129(e)(2). Standardization should
include procedures to tune the electronic glide path in the navigation radios for an approach, even in visual meteorological
conditions if the runway is served by an ILS approach, or an RNAV approach containing LNAV / VNAV, LPV, or RNP minima. The
pilot must achieve a stabilized approach not lower than 500 feet during VMC or 1,000 feet during IMC. The aircraft should be in full
landing configuration and at final approach speed by 500 feet AGL to ensure a stable approach.
The use of pilot-controlled airport lighting may be necessary even during daylight operations. The VASI at some airports is
controlled through the PCL (pilot-controlled lighting). Risk mitigation(s) for the visual approach and landing as well as taxi to the
ramp and review of runway incursion “hot spots” should be reviewed prior to initial descent or after the Automated Terminal
Information Service (ATIS) information has been received.
STABILIZED APPROACHES
One of the leading threats to business aviation is the recurring trend of runway excursions. In particular, during the landing phase,
these excursions are almost always the result of an un-stabilized approach that was continued rather than going around. NBAA
recommends having a robust stabilized approach policy that highlights common causal factors leading to runway excursions,
creates approach “gates” where the aircraft should realistically be in terms of configuration, speed, and altitude, and encourages
the use of a go-around for any approach that does not meet these criteria. An effective stabilized approach policy will utilize gates
that are practical rather than arbitrary in order to achieve maximum compliance from flight crews. The Flight Safety Foundation has
published two documents that are helpful in developing a stabilized approach policy: Reducing the Risk of Runway Excursions, and
more recently, Go-Around Decision-Making and Execution Project.
2.1.11.7 OPERATIONS AT NIGHT
Night operations bring special hazards and challenges. Some recommendations for enhancing safety at night include:
Require operational runway and airport lights for night-time operation. Activate pilot-controlled lighting at uncontrolled
airports for taxi, takeoff and landing.
Do not operate to a runway that is not served by either electronic or visual vertical guidance.
Fly an instrument approach procedure (IAP) until in position for landing.
On departure, utilize an obstacle departure procedure (ODP) if one is published for the airport, even if the weather is
visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
Plan straight-in landings whenever possible. If not possible, only circle if it can be done visually in a visual flight rules
(VFR) pattern.
Remain on the electronic glide path or VASI to the threshold and aim to touch down at the 1,000 ft. mark. Do not “duck
under” the electronic glide path or VASI.
Be on the alert for animal activity.
2.1.11.8 STERILE FLIGHTDECK
According to FAR Parts 121.542 and 135.100, an air carrier crew is not permitted to engage in actions other than required duties
(e.g., non-essential conversations, reading, paperwork, use of mobile devices or other PEDs) during ground operations involving
taxi, takeoff and landing or other flight operations conducted below 10,000 feet MSL except when an aircraft is in cruise flight.
During this critical phase of flight, a boom microphone should be used for communication below transition altitude/level. NBAA
recommends that this valuable safety concept be included in a company’s SOPs, including for operations conducted under Part
91. These best practices should also be applied to company employees involved in ground operations and maintenance work.
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2.1.11.9 AIRCRAFT MALFUNCTION PROCEDURES
The pilot’s operating handbook or aircraft flight manual outlines these procedures. Many well-trained pilots have committed
emergency procedures to memory and respond instinctively to messages delivered by the aircraft instruments.
Although instinctive and conditioned responses occur, total crew involvement must be initiated as soon as possible, especially if
the aircraft is in a critical phase of flight.
Control of the aircraft is a primary consideration. Once this has been accomplished, the crew can coordinate and accomplish the
various steps involved in the specified emergency procedures. The pilot in command needs to manage the flight crew to ensure
the safe operation of the aircraft. This consists of leadership, delegation of tasks and responsibilities, setting priorities, monitoring
the situation and communicating intent and plans. The pilot in command cannot permit an emergency situation to override the safe
operation of the aircraft.
If the malfunction involves any of the following, the aircraft operator immediately must notify the nearest NTSB field office under
Part 830 of the NTSB regulation:
A flight control system
Failure of a turbine engine’s internal components that results in the escape of debris other than out the exhaust path
An in-flight fire
Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade from an aircraft (except when caused solely by ground contact)
A complete loss of information from more than half of an aircraft’s electronic displays (excluding flickering)
Damage to helicopter tail or main rotor blades that requires major repair or replacement of the blades.
NBAA suggests that the following information be given to the appropriate air traffic control facility to assist in an emergency landing:
Description of the mechanical problem
Aircraft type
Type of landing expected (long, short, or normal)
Standby emergency equipment
Number of passengers
Special or handicapped passengers and seat locations
Cargo type
Hazardous materials
Fuel amount, in quantity and time
Estimated time of arrival
2.1.11.10 EVENTS REQUIRING NOTIFICATION TO THE NTSB
In addition to the system malfunctions listed earlier in this section that require notification to the nearest NTSB field office under Part
830 of the NTSB regulations, there are additional situations that must be reported to the NTSB. They include:
When Airborne Collision and Avoidance System (ACAS) or Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) resolution
advisories are issued to aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan and compliance with the advisory is necessary to avert a
substantial risk of collision between aircraft, or when an advisory is issued to an aircraft operating in class A airspace.
When an airplane operated by an air carrier at a public use airport lands or departs on a taxiway, incorrect runway or
other area not designated as a runway.
When an airplane operated by an air carrier at a public use airport experiences a runway incursion that requires the
operator or the crew of another aircraft or vehicle to take immediate corrective action to avoid a collision.
When an airplane operated by an air carrier at a public use airport accident occurs by a collision with an unmanned aerial
vehicle.
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An occurrence associated with the operation of any public or civil unmanned aircraft system that takes place between
the time that the system is activated with the purpose of flight and the time that the system is deactivated at the
conclusion of its mission, in which:
1. Any person suffers death or serious injury; or
2. The aircraft has a maximum gross takeoff weight of 300 pounds or greater and sustains substantial damage
When an aircraft incident occurs from an inflight collision with an unmanned aircraft.
For a complete list of malfunctions and situations that require immediate notification to the nearest NTSB field office, see NTSB
Regulation 830.5.
2.1.12 MINIMUM APPROACH STANDARDS FOR NEW PILOTS
Higher minimum approach standards may be established for a person who is acting as pilot in command and has logged 100 hours
or less in the particular type of aircraft. FAR Section 135.225(d) provides guidance that may be used by business aircraft
operators. The regulation stipulates that the DH or MDA and visibility landing minimums be increased by 100 feet and a half mile,
respectively. Other considerations are crosswind and tailwind components as well as runway lengths and widths.
2.1.12.1 TAKEOFF WEATHER MINIMUMS
A company should develop procedures for determining takeoff minima and departure procedures to follow from runways where no
takeoff minima are specified. While Part 91 imposes no weather minimum restrictions on takeoff, operators should delay a flight if
weather conditions would preclude a safe return, in the event of an emergency shortly after takeoff, or establish takeoff minimums
associated with procedures for filing and using departure alternates the same as Part 135 operators do.
Additional standards can be adopted from Parts 135 and 121. For example, FAR Section 135.217 specifies that an aircraft cannot
depart if the weather conditions at the airport of takeoff are at or above takeoff minimums, but below authorized IFR landing
minimums, unless an alternate airport is within one hour of flying time at normal cruising speed in still air of the departure airport.
FAR Section 121.617 has a similar requirement except that for two-engine aircraft the alternate airport must be no more than one
hour from the departure airport at normal cruising speed in still air with one engine inoperative. For aircraft with three or more
engines, the alternate airport must be no more than two hours from the departure airport at normal cruising speed in still air with
one engine inoperative.
Business aircraft operators that desire to meet air carrier standards also could follow the requirements found in Part 135, Subpart
D – VFR/IFR Operating Limitations and Weather Requirements. Section 135.225(f) requires that the weather at the departure
airport be above the takeoff weather minimums prior to takeoff. FAR Section 135.219 requires that the destination airport be
forecast to be above authorized weather minimums at the estimated time of arrival. FAR Section 134.221 has similar requirements
for the alternate airport.
NBAA recommends company procedures require takeoff and destination alternates, unless the destination is isolated and no
alternate is available.
For operations outside the U.S. operators should consult the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) for the country in which
they are operating to verify applicable takeoff minima. In some cases the operating minima may be lower than those specified by
the FARs.
Helicopter operators should establish separate VFR weather minima for day and night appropriate to the risk profile of their
operation.
2.1.13 LANDING MINIMUMS
Regarding landing area conditions, the operator should establish minimum requirements on the basis of the manufacturers’
operating handbooks. FAR Section 91.175 states in part that no pilot may land an aircraft when the flight visibility is less than the
visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach procedure being used.
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Although business aircraft operators governed by Part 91 are not constrained from initiating instrument approaches on the basis of
reported weather, commercial aircraft under Part 121 or Part 135 may not execute an instrument approach when the visibility is
reported to be less than the prescribed landing minimum for the airport. Under the Part 91 rules, a business aircraft operator may
initiate an instrument approach with weather reported below minimums.
FAR Section 91.175 requires that at DH, a go-around or missed approach procedure must be initiated if the runway environment
is not in sight. Controversy may arise, however, when the aircraft lands with the weather still reported below minimums although in
the pilot in command’s judgment, there was sufficient ceiling and visibility.
NBAA suggests that the company aviation department manager establish a clearly defined policy on weather minimums for
initiating instrument approaches. Operators should also ensure the weather at the destination airport is better than the minimum
requirements at the estimated time of arrival. NBAA advises that the following options be considered:
Initiate an instrument approach when the ceiling and visibility are reported to be below minimums prescribed for the
approach specified. In this case, the pilot in command automatically will divert the flight to the alternate airport.
Initiate an instrument approach when the ceiling and visibility are reported to be below minimums prescribed for the
approach specified. However, ensure that crew members adhere to FAR 91.175 for missed approach procedures. In
addition, the missed approach procedures for the specified approach should be reviewed thoroughly prior to beginning
the approach to ensure proper cockpit coordination.
Flight crews should not continue an approach beyond the Final Approach Fix for precision approaches or below 1000
feet above the airport for a non-precision approaches, if the reported visibility is less than the specified minima.
The visibility is reported less than specified minima after passing the Final Approach Fix for precision approaches or
below 1000 feet above the aerodrome for non-precision approaches, the flight crew may continue the approach, but
should execute a missed approach in accordance with published procedures if the required visual references for the
intended runway are not distinctly visible and identifiable.
The flight crew may deviate from these procedures in accordance with State requirements (State of Registry and State of
Operation). However, in any case, the flight crew shall not continue the approach beyond a point at which the limits of the
airport operating minima would be infringed.
Operators should develop SOPs for flying instrument approaches at airports without weather reporting capability. NBAA
recommends requiring a suitable alternate airport with weather reporting capability.
The company may wish to specify higher minimums based on precipitous terrain, type of flight operation and the flight crew
experience. FAR Section 135.225 specifies that weather minimums must be at or above the IFR landing weather minimums in
order to commence the final approach segment of an instrument approach. Provisions are also made for the completion of an
instrument approach if the pilot has begun the final approach and later weather reports state that the destination airport is below
weather minimums.
2.1.14 POST-FLIGHT PROCEDURES
The flight crew should follow the procedures outlined in the aircraft’s manufacturers operations handbook for shutting down and
securing the aircraft. Additional procedures could include:
Noting all discrepancies in the discrepancy log, or squawk sheet
Performing a crew debrief (including the use of a debrief checklist)
Closing and locking all doors and hatches
Ensuring that the aircraft is parked in a well-lit area
Activating security systems (if installed)
Install security tape to external doors and hatches (when deemed necessary by PIC)
Ensure all flight plans have been closed
Notifying headquarters that the aircraft has reached its destination safety
In the event of an overdue aircraft, the operator’s ERP will be activated and Search and Rescue operations are initiated
by contacting the appropriate authorities
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2.1.15 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAGS (EFB)
Electronic Flight Bags (EFB‘s) are now part of the many flight operations tools available to a crew. The use of these devices should
be in line with FAA recommendations outlined in current versions of AC 91-78 for non-commercial operators and AC 120-76 for
commercial operators.
It is important to use these devices and the associated software in a reasonable and safe manner. If the device is used for a
critical application, such as displaying approach and en route charts, it is recommended that a minimum of two identical devices be
on board, and all have current databases installed.
Many applications can be hosted on most of these devices, including but not limited to:
Flight operations manuals
Company SOPs
Aircraft performance manual or performance calculators
Weight and balance manuals or calculators
Maintenance manuals
Aircraft flight and servicing logs
Crew credentials, including training records
Charts including approach, STARs, DPs and en route
Uploaded weather and NEXRAD weather images
EFB applications are categorized as Type A or B, and can be hosted on either portable or installed components.
Type A – General applications that do not impact critical portions of a flight. These could include weight and balance
calculators, performance calculators, electronic copies of AFM, company manuals, etc.
Type B – Software that can be used in critical phases of flight and can be used to display approach charts, STARs and
DPs as well as various types of en route charts. However, “own-ship” position should not be displayed while in flight.
All the various types of software from each classification may be run on any type of EFB device. It is important for the operator to
ensure that crews are familiar with each type of software installed on the EFB, as well as to provide training in the use and
limitations of an EFB, as well as the regulatory impact of its use on an operation.
One of the features most used by operators is onboard NEXRAD weather radar, which can come from several commercial
sources or from the ADS-B FIS network. This service is an invaluable tool to the crew for keeping abreast of changing weather
conditions. However, crews should be advised of delays in the presentation of the information. For example, the display generally
will show an age indicator up to six minutes old; however, that data is already five to ten minutes old when it is transmitted to the
aircraft. An operator should consider the NEXRAD display to be a strategic planning device (plan deviations around weather) and
the onboard weather detection equipment as the tactical display for immediate avoidance of convective activity.
While a Part 91 operator is not required to have specific approval from the FAA for the use of a Class 1 or 2 EFB on the aircraft, it
is incumbent on the operator to fulfill the requirements in the appropriate guidance material prior to using the device operationally.
Part 91K, 121 and 135 operators must obtain authority from the certificate holder’s FSDO prior to use of EFBs in the operation.
An operator’s SOPs and operations manual should reflect current best practices with regard to the incorporation of EFBs into a
flight operation. For instance, the pre-flight checklists should incorporate steps to accomplish performance and/or weight and
balance calculations on the EFB device, as well as procedures to revert to non- EFB methods, if required.
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2.1.16 TRAFFIC FLOW MANAGEMENT
Traffic flow management (TFM), sometimes referred to as air traffic management, is the function of air traffic control (ATC) that
seeks to control the overall flow of traffic in the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS), rather than control specific flights.
TFM is accomplished by using a concept called collaborative decision-making (CDM). This approach allows for input from a
variety of sources, such as business aviation, the airlines, the military and all involved ATC facilities, before making a determination
on how to handle a constraint in the NAS.
Flight crew members, schedulers and dispatchers should become familiar with the structure of the NAS and the basics of traffic
flow management in order to increase their understanding of what is going on around them. Being informed will allow them to
operate safely and efficiently while minimizing delays caused by air traffic issues.
A knowledge of basic TFM concepts and terminology will allow flight crew members to more accurately communicate with ATC
when discussing initiatives such as reroutes, ground delay programs and ground stops. In addition, it is important for flight crew
members and flight planners to be familiar with where to find information about what is happening in the NAS at any given time.
This knowledge will also allow flight crew members and flight planners to provide accurate and timely information to their
passengers and to management.
Suggested knowledge and basic concepts for further exploration outside this NBAA Management Guide include:
Concepts of traffic flow management
Collaborative decision-making
Causes of delays
ATC organizational structure
Terminal traffic management initiatives (TMIs)
Ground stops
Collaborative Trajectory Options Program (CTOP)
Ground delay programs
Time-based metering
Special traffic management programs• En route traffic management initiatives (TMIs)
CTOP
Miles-in-trail (MIT)
Reroutes (required, recommended)
Airspace flow program (AFP)
Other TMIs
Other airspace constraints
Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs)
For further training opportunities and references on this topic, refer to References for Flight Operations at the end of this NBAA
Management Guide section.
2.1.17 AIRCRAFT NOISE
Aircraft noise can be a problem in both large and small communities. NBAA supports being a “good neighbor” to residents who
reside near airports. A large component of a good neighbor policy is the level of awareness and respect the business aircraft
operator has for the noise sensitivities of residents near airports.
Communities have become more aware of aircraft noise in recent years. One way for a business aircraft operator to be a good
neighbor is to form an Airport Friends Committee. A committee of this type can help the local community understand that the airport
is a necessary component of the local economy and, in many cases, also is an engine that drives economic activity in an area.
Good local community relations are necessary if groups acting in the public interest wish to close the airport, raise real estate
taxes, alter zoning and land-use controls, or desire other changes. The NBAA Airports Handbook includes information on this
concept.
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Members of the Airport Friends Committee can include local businesses that rely on aviation, both for passengers and freight.
Through participation in this committee, the business operator can let the community see that aviation and airports benefit the
entire community.
The noise level generated by an aircraft always should be a factor in the decision to purchase an aircraft. As noted above,
communities have become more sensitive to aircraft noise, even that from non-air carrier aircraft.
In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed the Airport Noise and Capacity Act. This legislation required that DOT enacts rules to phase
out Stage 2 airplanes from the contiguous 48 states by December 31, 1999, as well as additional provisions on the approval of
noise and access restrictions. Due to this law, operations of Stage 2 aircraft over 75,000 lbs. were ended in 2000, but Stage 2
aircraft under 75,000 lbs. were allowed to continue operating in the United States.
With passage of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, Stage 2 aircraft weighing less than 75,000 lbs. will be allowed to
continue operating in the United States until January 1, 2016. After that date, only Stage 2 aircraft that are modified to meet Stage 3
standards will be allowed to operate in the U.S.
2.1.17.1 NBAA NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAM
2.1.17.1.1 Introduction
NBAA has long believed that quiet flying is good business. NBAA’s Noise Abatement Program has been in existence since 1967,
establishing objectives and operating procedures that have served the business aviation community well and have proven to be
effective in reducing aircraft noise impacts and subsequently, community opposition to business aviation.
NBAA‘s updated Noise Abatement Program was developed with modern aircraft performance and air traffic control (ATC)
requirements in mind. With this revision, NBAA continues to provide operators with guidance to reduce noise impacts that is suited
to the current operating environment, as well as new tools for aircraft operators and airports to address the noise concerns of
adjacent communities.
The updated program includes:
Noise abatement best practices for flight crews
Updates to NBAA’s “close-in” noise abatement departure procedure and approach and landing procedures
Noise abatement guidance for other aviation stakeholders, including airports and air traffic control facilities
2.1.17.1.2 Noise Abatement Best Practices for Flight Crews
Pilots should always be mindful of noise impacts at airports. Even the “quietest” modern aircraft may disturb those that live near the
airport. Care should be taken to minimize the aircraft’s noise profile whenever possible by utilizing noise abatement best practices
at all airports, especially during night-time and early-morning hours when aircraft operations may be especially disturbing.
During the flight-planning process, flight crews should familiarize themselves with the airport’s noise abatement policies
and any applicable noise abatement procedures (NAPs) for the airport they will be using. These may include:
Preferential runway use
Preferential approach and departure paths
Preferred terminal arrival and departure procedures for noise abatement
Other noise-related policies (maximum noise limits, curfews, usage of reverse thrust, engine run-up policies, etc.)
Contact the airport’s Noise Management or Operations department for more information on local noise policies and
procedures
When available, pilots should utilize their company’s recommended departure/arrival NAPs or those recommended by the
aircraft manufacturer for their specific aircraft
Flight safety and ATC instructions and procedures always have priority over any NAP. NAPs should be executed in the
safest manner possible and within all FAA-mandated operating requirements.
Proper pre-departure and pre-arrival crew briefings are essential to ensuring the safe and effective execution of NAPs.
When airport or aircraft-specific procedures are unavailable, NBAA provides recommended noise abatement procedures
suitable for any aircraft type and airport operating environment (see below).
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2.1.17.1.3 Figure 2.3: NBAA Noise Abatement Departure Procedure With High-Density Airport Option
2.1.17.1.4 Figure 2.4: NBAA Noise Approach-and-Landing Procedure
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2.1.17.1.5 NBAA-Recommended Noise Abatement Departure Procedure With High- Density Airport Option
1. Climb at maximum practical rate not to exceed V2+20 KIAS (maximum pitch, attitude 20 degrees) to 1,000 ft. AAE (800 ft.
AAE at high-density-traffic airports) in takeoff configuration at takeoff thrust.
2. Between 800 and 1,000 ft. AAE, begin acceleration to final segment speed (VFS or VFTO) and retract flaps. Reduce to a
quiet climb power setting while maintaining a rate of climb necessary to comply with IFR departure procedure, otherwise a
maximum of 1,000 FPM at an airspeed not to exceed 190 KIAS, until reaching 3,000 ft. AAE or 1,500 feet AAE at highdensity-traffic airports. If ATC requires level off prior to reaching NADP termination height, power must be reduced so as not
to exceed 190 KIAS.
3. Above 3,000 feet AAE (1,500 feet at high-density air- ports) resume normal climb schedule with gradual application of
climb power.
4. Ensure compliance with applicable IFR climb and airspeed requirements at all times (See Figure 2.3, “NBAA Noise
Abatement Departure Procedure With High-Density Airport Option”).
2.1.17.1.6 NBAA-Recommended Approach and Landing Procedure (VFR and IFR)
1. Inbound flight path should not require more than a 25 degree bank angle to follow noise abatement track.
2. Observe all airspeed limitations and ATC instructions
3. Initial inbound altitude for noise abatement areas will be a descending path from 2,500 AGL or higher. Maintain minimum
maneuvering airspeed with gear retracted and minimum approach flap setting
4. During IMC, extend landing gear at the final approach fix (FAF), or during VMC no more than 4 miles from runway
threshold.
5. Final landing flap configuration should be delayed at the pilot’s discretion; however, the pilot must achieve a stabilized
approach not lower than 500 feet during VMC or 1,000 feet during IMC. The aircraft should be in full landing configuration
and at final approach speed by 500 feet AGL to ensure a stable approach
6. During landing, use minimum reverse thrust consistent with safety for runway conditions and available length (See Figure
2.4, “NBAA Approach-and-Landing Procedure [VFR and IFR]”).
2.1.17.1.7 Collaboration, Education and Outreach
Effective aircraft noise management requires a collaborative effort between aircraft operators, ATC and airport operators.
Minimizing noise impacts is in the best interest of all stakeholders.
2.1.17.1.7.1 Aircraft Operators
The noise abatement best practices recommended by NBAA are suggested as a national standard for business aircraft
operators. They are intended for use at any airport and for any aircraft. They should be used when airport-specific or
aircraft-specific procedures are unavailable.
NBAA members should engage their local airport, particularly with regard to noise issues. Where necessary, support
should be provided to assist airport management in adopting procedures which meet the objectives of the NBAA Noise
Abatement Program as they relate to operational safety and usability. Every effort should be made to tailor procedures to
the specifics of each airport in order to provide the maximum noise reduction consistent with safe and efficient
operations.
When applicable, pilots are encouraged to provide feedback on local NAPs to ATC, the airport operator and local pilot
groups.
Pilot training for business aircraft should include the importance of noise abatement and noise abatement procedures for
all ratings and flight checks.
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2.1.17.1.7.2 Airports
Specific information should be developed by airport management and made available to pilots and controllers through
publication of easily attainable flight manuals, NOTAMS, AIMS, letters to airmen, ATIS messages, charts and explanatory
pamphlets. This information should include:
Approach and departure paths over least noise-sensitive areas
Preferential runway usages, if applicable
Use of NBAA’s noise abatement best practices
General map showing surrounding area and marking places of specific sensitivity, such as residential areas, schools
and hospitals
Airports should provide communities with data to demonstrate current and historic airport noise levels and highlight
continued efforts by the airport and aviation industry to minimize noise impacts
Airport approach and takeoff paths should be designated on all official zoning maps. This should be done for all airports,
existing or proposed, in order that land-use zoning, development and real estate activity are conducted with full
awareness of the confines of such areas. Additionally, the land use permitted in these areas should be specified in zoning
regulations and building codes in order to protect inhabitants.
Airport management should investigate the optimal use of visual and electronic approach aids, which can aid noise
abatement procedures at an airport. Improvement in both approach aids and runway facilities encourage aircraft to
approach over the least noise- sensitive areas.
Jet aircraft run-up areas should be developed for least noise disturbances to airport tenants and local communities. Blast
fences, ground run-up enclosures, etc., should be provided and used when necessary.
Airport management should evaluate the airport’s natural terrain and consider ways in which improvements to
landscaping might improve noise conditions around the airport.
Airport management should post signs in pilot information centers, as well as at conspicuous places along airfield entry
points (e.g., walk-through and drive-through gates), the taxiways or runway areas, giving the pilots a last reminder that
they are in a noise-sensitive area calling for use of noise abatement procedures.
Aircraft management should develop education programs to inform pilots and air traffic controllers as to the need for and
procedures associated with noise abatement and good community relations. A more thorough understanding by the pilots
and the controllers as to what the procedures are, as well as the reasons behind them, is the key to success
Preferential runway use systems that are safe and do not unnecessarily restrict the flow of air traffic should be
established at all airports having a need for them
2.1.17.1.7.3 Air Traffic Control
The airport and ATC management should conduct a procedures review to recommend and implement new airport noise
awareness programs. The recommendations should add a statement such as “use noise abatement procedures” to all
ATC clearances issued by control tower operators.
Control tower operators should be permitted to give any needed special attention to jet aircraft that may, for purposes of
noise abatement, be required to land or takeoff using a different runway than the one in use by smaller aircraft.
Control tower operators should develop procedures that will separate high-performance aircraft from low-performance
aircraft as much as possible.
The air traffic control procedures should keep aircraft more than 3,000 feet AGL over noise-sensitive areas to the extent
that this can be accomplished without excessive derogation of air traffic flow.
It is recommended that high-performance aircraft within reasonable operating limits and consistent with noise abatement
policies remain at the highest possible altitude as long as possible when arriving and climb to the requested altitude filed
by the pilot as soon as possible after departing.
SIDs should include references to the use of noise abatement procedures.
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2.1.18 MAINTENANCE AWAY FROM HOME BASE
In general, maintenance away from home base can be separated into two areas of responsibility. The first occurs when the
company has a maintenance manager or someone with responsibility for the aircraft’s maintenance. The second occurs when no
one fills that position. In either situation, the flight crew should consult the MEL. Information on aircraft maintenance can be found in
Section 3.1 of this Management Guide, titled Aircraft Maintenance Operations.
2.1.18.1 MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL)
If an MEL has not been approved for that aircraft, FAR Section 91.213(d) permits a pilot to operate certain small aircraft with
inoperative instruments and equipment without an approved MEL. However, a list of conditions presented in FAR Section
91.213(d) needs to be met. An example of such a condition would be if the FAA has not developed a master MEL for the aircraft.
If the FAA has developed a master MEL for the aircraft, the following inoperative instruments or equipment cannot be included on a
company’s MEL:
Those required for VFR-day certification
Those indicated as required on the aircraft’s equipment list or Kinds of Operation Equipment List for the kind of flight
operations being conducted
Those required under FAR Section 91.205 or other applicable regulation
Those required to be operational under an airworthiness directive
In addition, either the inoperative instruments and equipment must be removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control placarded and
the maintenance recorded, or such equipment must be deactivated and placarded “Inoperative.” The pilot or person who is
certificated and rated to perform maintenance on the aircraft must determine that the inoperative instrument or equipment does not
constitute a hazard to the aircraft.
2.1.18.2 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
If a maintenance manager or similar position exists, the flight crew should consult the MEL and contact that person whenever a
maintenance discrepancy occurs. The maintenance manager or company maintenance technician can help the flight crew
determine what needs to be done to return the aircraft to full operating condition. The maintenance manager should be familiar with
the aircraft and be in a position to help procure necessary parts and appropriate manpower to reduce aircraft downtime.
When a maintenance manager or other similar position does not exist, the flight crew should consult the MEL, if the operator has
one authorized by the FAA, to determine if the discrepancy can be deferred. If so, the aircraft can proceed on to the next flight or to
the home base where normal maintenance is performed. If the aircraft is not airworthy, an FAA-approved maintenance technician
or repair facility must be contacted to obtain the necessary repairs. A special ferry permit may be necessary in order to fly to the
proper repair facility.
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2.1.19 SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS UNDER IFR
The NBAA Bylaws permit companies that use aircraft in the course of conducting business to be eligible for an NBAA Operating
membership. Other requirements include:
The pilot or pilots hold a currently valid commercial license and a currently valid instrument rating
Each pilot or other flight crew member completes a proficiency check at least annually.
As noted above, these members are permitted to operate an aircraft with a single pilot. The risk of an accident or incident in
operations with a single pilot operating under IFR is significantly higher than operations with two pilots under IFR. NBAA realizes
that some companies need to operate with a single pilot in operations under IFR; however, these operations place a considerable
workload on the pilot.
NBAA therefore recommends that the following precautions be taken in any single pilot operation under IFR.
An autopilot with at least a heading hold feature should be used
The pilot should have logged a minimum of 20 hours of instrument flight time in the particular make and model of the
aircraft being flown
The pilot must perform a detailed preflight plan of the intended route with associated charts and options
The pilot should complete an instrument competency check every six (6) months
Further guidance in this area may be found in FAR 135.163.
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2.1.20 REFERENCES FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS
This section lists additional references members may access for more information.
2.1.20.1 OPERATIONAL CONTROL
2.1.20.1.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 1.1 – General Definitions
Part 91.1009 – Clarification of Operational Control
Part 91.1011 – Operational Control Responsibilities and Delegation
Part 91.1013 – Operational Control Briefing and Acknowledgment
Part 135.77 – Responsibility for Operational Control
2.1.20.1.2 Publications
Layman’s Guide to Operational Control – https://nbaa.org/flight-department-administration/aircraft-operatingownership-options/laymans-guide-to-part-91-operational-control/
2.1.20.2 FLIGHT OPERATIONS PERSONNEL CERTIFICATES, RATINGS AND TRAINING
2.1.20.2.1 Advisory Circulars
61-89D – Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings
FAA Orders
8900.1 Flight Standards Information Management System, Volume 5, Chapter 2, Section 19: “Conduct a Pilot Type Rating
Certification.”
2.1.20.2.2 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 61 – Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
Part 67 – Medical Standards and Certification
2.1.20.2.3 ICAO Documents
Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing
2.1.20.3 CREW TRAINING
2.1.20.3.1 Advisory Circulars
60-21 – Announcement of Availability: A Series of Aeronautical Decision Making Training Manuals
61-65C – Certification: Pilot and Flight Instructors
61-89D – Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings
61-107 – Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 feet MSL and/or MACH Numbers (MNO) Greater Than 0.75
103-4 – Hazard Associated with Sublimation of Solid Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice) Aboard Aircraft
120-51B – Crew Resource Management Training
2.1.20.3.2 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 61 – Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors: Subpart A – General; Subpart B – Aircraft Ratings and Special
Certificates
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand Operations: Subpart G – Crew member Testing
Requirements; Subpart H – Training
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2.1.20.4 CREW FITNESS AND HEALTH
2.1.20.4.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 61.14 – Refusal to submit to a drug or alcohol test
Part 61.15 – Offenses involving alcohol or drugs
Part 61.16 – Refusal to submit to an alcohol test or to furnish test results
Part 61.53 – Prohibition on Operation During Medical Deficiency
Part 91.17 – Alcohol or drugs
Part 135.249 – Use of prohibited drugs
Part 135.251 – Testing for prohibited drugs
Part 135.353 – Prohibited drugs
Part 121, Appendix I – Drug Testing Program
Part 121, Appendix J – Alcohol Misuse Prevention Program
2.1.20.5 FLIGHT, DUTY AND REST TIME CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.20.5.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 121 – Certification and Operations: Domestic, Flag and Supplemental Air Carriers and Commercial Operators of
Large Aircraft: Subpart Q – Flight Time Limitations and Rest Requirements: Domestic Air Carriers; Subpart R – Flight
Time Limitations: Flag Air Carriers; Subpart S
– Flight Time Limitations: Supplemental Air Carriers and Commercial Operators
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and
On-Demand Operations: Subpart F – Crew member Flight Time and Duty Period Limitations and Rest Requirements
2.1.20.5.2 Publications
Flight Safety Foundation and National Business Aviation Association. Duty/Rest Guidelines for Business Aviation –
www.nbaa.org/fatigue
Alertness Solutions. The Alert Crew: Fatigue Awareness in Flight Operations – https://nbaa.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/01/the-alert-crew-fatigue-awareness-in-flight-operations.pdf 
IBAC, ICAO, FSF. Fatigue Management Guide for GA Operators of Large and Turbojet Aeroplanes 2016 – http://
https://flightsafety.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/FM-for-GA-Ops-FINAL.pdf
2.1.20.6 CREW AND PASSENGER RELATIONS
2.1.20.6.1 Advisory Circulars
120-48A – Communication and Coordination Between Flight Crew Members and Flight Attendants
121-24D – Passenger Safety Information Briefing and Briefing Cards
2.1.20.6.2 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 91.107 – Use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses and child restraint systems
Part 135.117 – Briefing of passengers before flight
2.1.20.7 PILOT-IN-COMMAND AUTHORITY
2.1.20.7.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 91.3 – Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command
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2.1.20.8 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
2.1.20.8.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules: Subpart B
– Flight Rules
Part 97 – Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and
On-Demand Operations: Subpart D – VFR/IFR Operating Limitations and Weather Requirements
2.1.20.8.2 Publications
Airframe Manufacturer’s Flight Manual or Handbook
FAA Safety Alert for Operators 10008 – Ground Operations During the Hours of Darkness at Uncontrolled Airports
LANDING MINIMUMS
2.1.20.8.3 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules: Subpart B – Flight Rules
Part 97 – Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and
On-Demand Operations: Subpart D – VFR/IFR Operating Limitations and Weather Requirements
2.1.20.9 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT BAGS (EFBS)
FAA Advisory Circular 120-76D
FAA Advisory Circular 91-78
2.1.20.10 TRAFFIC FLOW MANAGEMENT
2.1.20.10.1 NBAA Resources
Webinar – NBAA ATC Traffic Flow Management for Flight Operations
Webinar – Learning to Operate Efficiently in the National Airspace System
Webinar – New York City Area Airspace Overview
Traffic Flow Management web page – www.nbaa.org/ops/airspace/tfm
ATC Issues & Procedures web page – www.nbaa.org/ops/airspace/issues 
Schedulers & Dispatchers Conference sessions
Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition education sessions
2.1.20.10.2 FAA Resources
Operational Information System web page
Advisory Database web page
National Playbook website
Current Reroutes web page
Current Restrictions web page
eCVRS and eSTMP web pages
Collaborative Convective Forecast Product web page
50113 Traffic Management Class at the FAA Air Traffic Control System Command Center
Notices to Airmen
2.1.20.10.3 Other Resources
Aviation Weather Center – http://aviationweather.gov
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2.1.20.11 AIRCRAFT NOISE
2.1.20.11.1 Advisory Circulars
36-1H – Noise Levels for Certificated and Foreign Aircraft
36-2C – Measured or Estimated (Un-certificated) Air- plane Noise Levels
36-3H – Estimated Airplane Noise Levels in A-Weight- ed Decibels
36-4C – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification
91-36C – VFR Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas
91-53A – Noise Abatement Departure Profile
150/5020-1 – Noise Control and Compatibility Planning for Airports
2.1.20.11.2 FAA Orders
5190.6A – Airports Compliance Handbook
2.1.20.11.3 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification
2.1.20.11.4 ICAO Documents
Annex 16 – Environmental Protection: Volume 1: Aircraft Noise and Volume 2: Aircraft Engine Emissions
2.1.20.11.5 Publications
NBAA Airports Handbook, www.nbaa.org/airports
NBAA Noise Abatement Program, https://nbaa.org/aircraft-operations/environmental-sustainability/noiseabatement-program/
2.1.20.12 MAINTENANCE AWAY FROM HOME BASE
2.1.20.12.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 21.197 – Special flight permits.
Part 91.213 – Inoperative instruments and equipment.
Part 43 – Appendix A, Major Alterations, Major Repairs, and Preventive Maintenance.
2.1.20.13 SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS UNDER IFR
2.1.20.13.1 Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 135.163 – Equipment Requirements Aircraft Carrying Passengers Under IFR
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2.2 INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
By its very nature, flying internationally is more challenging and complex than domestic operations. Regulations, procedures and
services vary by region and country. Once outside the borders of the U.S., pilots, crew and passengers alike will be required to
comply with not only the usual FAR’s, but also with the laws and requirements of the countries (also referred to as states) they are
flying over and operating into.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) provides standards and recommended practices (SARPs) for world-wide
operations. These SARPs may be accepted whole, modified or even rejected by a particular country. To minimize the impact of
these variables and provide safe, secure and uneventful service, flight departments engaging in international trips must put
considerable effort into providing resources, planning in advance and developing operational contingencies.
This Management Guide section is intended as an introduction and an overview of operational procedures and trip planning
considerations for flights beyond the borders of the continental U.S. The following guidelines have been developed and refined over
a period of decades by NBAA and its International Operators Committee. Interested flight departments can review this section to
identify many of the variables that can affect their specific operation. A list of reference material used appears at the end of this
section.
Operators planning flights outside the U.S. are strongly encouraged to avail themselves of the many informational resources and
professional training courses available to the industry.
For example, NBAA’s International Resources, available online at https://nbaa.org/aircraft-operations/international/, provides
a multitude of resources to include news, customs and regulatory issues, committee information and others. Also, NBAA‘s
International Feedback Database, located among these resources, provides a clearinghouse for flight crew and dispatch
comments. Available only to NBAA members, the database can be searched by ICAO identifier, country, city, airport name or
ICAO region. Members are encouraged to contribute their findings and observations to the database so that other operators
benefit from first-hand reports about a given region or destination.
Additionally, for more than four decades, NBAA has coordinated an annual International Operators Conference. This professional
development opportunity provides the most recent information from operators, planners and regulators based around the world.
With an emphasis on regional briefings, the conference deals with a broad range of current issues affecting international operations
and provides an educational platform for experienced and novice operators alike.
Questions or comments regarding international operations can be directed to members of the International Operators Committee
listed at www.nbaa.org/committees or to NBAA‘s staff at ops@nbaa.org.
2.2.2 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
This section will provide an overview of broadly relevant, but not region-specific, regulations that will affect international operations.
2.2.2.1 FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
The need to ensure protection of persons and property is fundamental to U.S. regulations, requirements, procedures and
certification of flight operations. These mandates are the “law of the land” inside our borders and within our territories. Title 14 of the
Combined Federal Regulations represents the regulatory implementation responsibilities assigned to the FAA. Title 14 CFR Part 91
regulates the operation of aircraft other than moored balloons, kites, unmanned rockets, unmanned free balloons and ultra-light
vehicles.
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2.2.2.2 14 CFR PART 91, SUBPART H AND ICAO ANNEX 2
This is where a pilot may review many of the pertinent FAA regulations regarding international flight operations. A segment of this
section is 14 CFR, 91.703. This requires each person operating a U.S.-registered aircraft to comply with ICAO Annex 2 when over
the high seas and to comply with the regulations of a foreign country when operating within that country’s airspace when not in
conflict with the regulations of a foreign nation or ICAO Annex 2. This regulation also directs the international pilot to comply with:
91.3 Responsibility and authority of the PIC
91.117 – Aircraft speed
91.123 – Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions
91.127 – Operating on or in the vicinity of an airport in Class E airspace
91.129 – Operations in Class D airspace
91.131 – Operations in Class B airspace
91.181 – Course to be flown
91. 211 – Supplemental oxygen
4 CFR 91.509 – Survival equipment for overwater operations
91.511 – Communication and navigation equipment for overwater operations
91.703 – Operations of civil aircraft of U.S. registry outside the United States
91.705 – Ops within airspace designated as Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace
91.1019 – Conducting tests and inspections
91.1041 – Aircraft proving and validation tests
Appendix C – Operations in the North Atlantic (NAT) MNPS Airspace
Appendix G – Operations in Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) Airspace
2.2.2.3 PRIVATE VS. COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS
Commercial operators follow the regulations of 14 CFR Parts 61, 91, and 135 or 121 as appropriate, which are more restrictive
than Annex 2 or regulations of a foreign country when compliance with these U.S. regulations would not violate requirements of
Annex 2 or the foreign country.
Additional international commercial operations references:
14 CFR 135.3 – Restates a portion of 91.703
14 CFR 135.43 – Crewmember certificates: International operations
14 CFR 135.73 – Inspections and tests
14 CFR 135.89 – Pilot requirements: Use of oxygen
14 CFR 135.98 – Operations in the North Polar Area
14 CFR 135.145 – Aircraft proving and validation tests 14 CFR 135.157 – Oxygen equipment requirements
14 CFR 135.165 – Communication and navigation equipment: Extended over-water or IFR operations.
14 CFR 135.167 – Emergency equipment: Extended over-water operations.
14 CFR 135.364 – Maximum flying time outside the United States
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2.2.2.4 FAA ORDER 8900.1
The FAA Inspector’s Handbook has combined handbooks 8300.10, 8400.10 and 8700.1, into one, “FAA Order 8900.1”
This order directs the activities of aviation safety inspectors (ASI’s) responsible for the certification, technical administration and
surveillance of air carriers and certain other air operators conducting operations in accordance with the appropriate part of Title 14
of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
This order also provides direction for tasks related to aircraft accidents and incidents, investigations and compliance, the aviation
safety program, administrative areas and miscellaneous tasks not related to a specific regulation. In addition, it contains regional
and district office requirements for the support of ASI‘s responsible for those activities.
A specific international operations training curriculum is not described by FAA regulations or by Annex 2 to the ICAO.
It is essential to safe travel in oceanic/remote and foreign environments that operators provide adequate crew training, operating
drills and crew operating procedures. At a minimum, private operators are expected to “be familiar” with the oceanic/remote
operation intended. A commercial provider’s oceanic operations training is useful in fulfilling this requirement.
Commercial operators will need to satisfy the international operations training requirement found in their operator’s approval and
specifications. Military training records, indicating prior oceanic operations experience, may be used as proof of training. More
information on what constitutes an adequate program of instruction can be found in the FAA Aviation Safety Inspector’s Handbook,
FAA Order 8900.1, Volume 4, and Chapter 1
14 CFR Parts 135 and 121 require operators to show the capability to conduct line operations safely and in compliance with
regulatory requirements before receiving authorization to conduct those operations in revenue service. The most common method
of validating an operator’s capability is to observe flight operations. The FAA normally requires validation flights before issuing
operations specifications granting authority to conduct operations beyond the populated areas of the North American continent.
2.2.2.5 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION
The United Nations (UN) recognizes the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as a specialized agency for international
civil aviation; however, ICAO is not subordinate to the UN, nor does it receive any line-of-command authority.
ICAO establishes standards for air navigation, air traffic control, personnel licensing, airport design and many other important
issues related to air safety. By ratifying the convention, obligated member states agree to abide by “certain principles and
arrangements in order that international civil aviation may be developed in a safe and orderly manner, and that international air
transport services may be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically.” Ninety-six
articles, created and accepted at the convention, established the privileges and obligations of the member states. The following are
some of the more significant articles and brief summaries.
2.2.2.5.1 Article 1 (Sovereignty)
Every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over airspace above its territory.
2.2.2.5.2 Article 5 (Right of non-scheduled flight)
The aircraft of states, other than scheduled international air services, have the right to make flights across state’s territories and to
make stops without obtaining prior permission. However, the state may require the aircraft to make a landing.
2.2.2.5.3 Article 6 (Scheduled air services)
No scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a contracting state, except with the special
permission or other authorization of that state.
2.2.2.5.4 Article 10 (Landing at customs airports)
The state can require aircraft that enter its territory to land at designated airports for the purpose of customs and examination.
Similarly, departure from the territory can be required to occur from a designated customs' airport.
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2.2.2.5.5 Article 12 (Rules of the Air)
Each state shall keep its own rules of the air as uniform as possible with those established under the Convention. The duty to
ensure compliance with these rules rests with the contracting state.
2.2.2.5.6 Article 13 (Entry and clearance regulations)
A state’s laws and regulations regarding the admission and departure of passengers, crew or cargo from aircraft shall be complied
with on arrival, upon departure and whilst within the territory of that state.
2.2.2.5.7 Article 16 (Search of aircraft)
The appropriate authorities of each state shall have the right to search the aircraft of other states on landing or departure, without
unreasonable delay.
2.2.2.5.8 Article 24 (Customs duty)
Aircraft flying to, from or across the territory of a state shall be admitted temporarily free of duty. Fuel, Oil, spare parts, regular
equipment and aircraft stores retained on board are also exempt from custom duty, inspection fees or similar charges.
2.2.2.5.9 Article 29 (Documents carried in aircraft)
Before an international flight, the pilot in command must ensure that the aircraft is airworthy, duly registered and that the relevant
certificates are on board the aircraft. The required documents are:
Certificate of registration
Certificate of airworthiness
Passenger names, place of boarding and destination
Crew licenses
Journey logbook
Radio license
Cargo manifest
2.2.2.5.10 Article 30 (Aircraft radio equipment)
The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the
regulations of the state in which the aircraft is registered. Only members of the flight crew suitably licensed by the state in which
the aircraft is registered may use the radios.
2.2.2.5.11 Article 32 (Licenses of personnel)
The pilot and crew of every aircraft engaged in international aviation must have certificates of competency and licenses issued or
validated by the state in which the aircraft is registered.
2.2.2.5.12 Article 33 (Recognition of certificates and licenses)
Certificates of airworthiness, certificates of competency and licenses issued or validated by the state in which the aircraft is
registered, shall be recognized as valid by other states. The requirements for issue of those certificates of airworthiness,
certificates of competency or licenses must be equal to or above the minimum standards established by the Convention.
2.2.2.5.13 Article 40 (Validity of endorsed certificates and licenses)
No aircraft or personnel with endorsed licenses or certificate will engage in international navigation except with the permission of
the state or states whose territory is entered. Any license holder who does not satisfy international standard relating to that license
or certificate shall have attached to or endorsed on that license information regarding the particulars in which he does not satisfy
those standards.
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2.2.2.6 SARPS: ANNEXES, STANDARDS & RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
ICAO’s Annexes, Standards and Recommended Practices, commonly referred to as SARPS, define operational standards and
recommended practices used in safe, regular, and efficient air services. While these recommended practices are desirable
practices, they differ from articles in that member states are not obligated to follow them.
However, if a member state has a standard different from an ICAO standard, that member is duty-bound to notify ICAO of the
difference. Any contracting state, however, should apply these standards when encountering specified conditions unless the
contracting state notifies ICAO of a difference and publishes this difference in its Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP).
The following are the ICAO annexes accompanied by brief summaries.
2.2.2.6.1 Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing)
Standards and recommended practices for the licensing of flight crew members (pilots, flight engineers and flight navigators), air
traffic controllers, aeronautical station operators, maintenance technicians and flight dispatchers.
2.2.2.6.2 Annex 2 (Rules of the Air)
A set of internationally agreed rules of the air consisting of general rules, visual flight rules and instrument flight rules that apply
without exception over the high seas, and over national territories to the extent that they do not conflict with the rules of the state
being flown over.
2.2.2.6.3 Annex 3 (Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation)
This provides necessary meteorological information to operators, flight crew members, air traffic services units, search and
rescue units, airport management and others concerned with aviation.
2.2.2.6.4 Annex 4 (Aeronautical Charts)
Defines the obligations of states to make available certain ICAO aeronautical chart types and specifies chart coverage, format,
identification and content including standardized symbology and color use. The goal is to satisfy the need for uniformity and
consistency in the provision of aeronautical charts containing appropriate information of a defined quality.
2.2.2.6.5 Annex 5 (Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Ops)
An ICAO table of units based essentially on the metric system, but also containing four additional interim tables of units for use by
states unable to use the primary table.
2.2.2.6.6 Annex 6 (Operation of Aircraft)
Provides criteria for safe operating practices. Part I contributes to the efficiency and regularity of international air navigation by
encouraging ICAO contracting states to facilitate the passage over their territories of commercial aircraft belonging to other
countries that operate in conformity with these criteria. Part II deals exclusively with international general aviation, while Part III
concerns all international helicopter operations.
2.2.2.6.7 Annex 7 (Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks)
Addresses aircraft nationality and registration marks and, in a separate table, classifies aircraft by how they maintain sustained
flight in the air.
2.2.2.6.8 Annex 8 (Airworthiness of Aircraft)
Aircraft must be designed, constructed and operated in compliance with the appropriate airworthiness requirements of the state of
registry of the aircraft. Consequently, the aircraft must be issued with a certificate of airworthiness declaring it fit to fly.
2.2.2.6.9 Annex 9 (Facilitation)
Concerns customs and immigration procedures with the aim of preventing unnecessary delays to aircraft, crews, passenger, and
cargo, especially in the administration of the laws relating to immigration, quarantine, customs and clearance.
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2.2.2.6.10 Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommunications)
The five volumes of this annex contain SARPs, procedures for air navigation and guidance material on matters related to aeronautical communication, navigation and surveillance systems.
2.2.2.6.11 Annex 11 (Air Traffic Services)
Guidelines on air traffic control, flight planning information and alerting services.
2.2.2.6.12 Annex 12 (Search and Rescue)
Sets forth the provisions for the establishment, maintenance and operation of search and rescue services by ICAO contracting
states in their territories and over the high seas.
2.2.2.6.13 Annex 13 (Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation)
Provides the international requirements for the investigation of aircraft accidents and incidents.
2.2.2.6.14 Annex 14 Aerodromes
The planning of airports and heliports.
2.2.2.6.15 Annex 15 (Aeronautical Information Services)
Defines how an aeronautical information service shall receive and/or originate, collate or assemble, edit, format, publish/ store and
distribute specified aeronautical information/data.
2.2.2.6.16 Annex 16 (Environmental Protection)
Recognizes the adverse environmental impact that may be related to aircraft activity, such as noise emission of smoke and certain
gaseous pollutants.
2.2.2.6.17 Annex 17 (Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference)
The five volumes of this annex contain SARPs, procedures for air navigation and guidance material on matters related to
aeronautical communication, navigation and surveillance systems.
2.2.2.6.18 Annex 18 (The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air)
Specifies best practices for the safe transportation of dangerous goods that have explosive, corrosive, flammable, toxic or
radioactive properties.
2.2.2.6.19 Annex 19 (Safety Systems)
First published in 2013, each state shall establish a state safety program (SSP) for the management of safety within that state, in
order to achieve an acceptable level of safety performance in civil aviation that includes the following components:
2.2.2.6.19.1 ICAO Documents –
Developed by specialized technical committees and based on recommendations from divisional and advisory panel
meetings, these documents are intended to amplify in further detail the SARPs found in the annexes. Aircraft
Operations (PANS-OPS, document number #8168) Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air Traffic Management
(PANS-ATM, #4444), ICAO Abbreviations and Codes (PANS-ABC, #8400) and Training (PANS-TRNG #9869) are
examples of these documents that are useful to reference. When using these documents, it is important to have all
the supplements, addendums and corrigendum in their most current form.
2.2.2.6.19.2 ICAO Regional Supplements –
Regional Supplementary Procedures (ICAO document #7030), also known as SUPPS, can explain and amplify, but
not conflict with, international standards. Certain procedures apply only in specific regions, so for convenience this
single document includes all similar procedures applicable to two or more regions. It also contains maps that identify
the extent of each region and a listing of the flight information regions (FIRs) included within each region.
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2.2.2.6.19.3 Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) –
Each ICAO state is responsible for developing an Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) containing information on
air traffic, airports, NAVAIDs, special use airspace, weather and other relevant information. An AIP will use one of the
five official ICAO languages and may not be in English, though an English-translated version of most AIPs can be
found online. Not all AIPs are free – some states charge for the publication either electronically or in print. A typical
AIP will contain three sections:
1. General: Information such as the name and contact information of the publishing authority and of designated
authorities concerned with the facilitation of international air navigation, civil aviation, meteorology, customs,
immigration, health, enroute and aerodrome/heliport charges, agricultural quarantine and aircraft accident
investigation. Differences to applicable ICAO documents are found here, as is the regular amendment interval
and the service to contact in case of detected AIP errors or omissions. A record of AIP amendments and
supplements to include a checklist of AIP pages is found in this section.
2. Enroute: This is where to find descriptions (text and charted) of ATS airspace classes, a statement concerning
the criteria on established holding, approach and departure procedures, and publication of arrival/departure
procedures. Detailed descriptions of FIRs, upper flight information regions (UIRs) and terminal control areas
(TMAs), including ATS routes described as high, low, area navigation or helicopter routes, are published here.
There are also descriptions of ATS surveillance services and procedures, including secondary surveillance
radar (SSR) operating procedures and automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) operating
procedures.
This section also includes relevant information on the air traffic flow management (ATFM) system structure,
service area, service provided, location of unit(s) and their hours of operation, service responsible for
provision of information on applied ATFM measures, flight plan requirements and slot allocations.
It will also contain a complete statement on interception procedures and visual signals to be used, with a clear
indication of whether ICAO provisions are applied and, if not, a complete presentation of differences. The
publication of appropriate procedures to be applied in case of unlawful interference or air traffic incidents will be
found in this section. Any hazards such as military exercise training areas, air defense identification zones or
bird migration areas will also be described here.
3. Aerodromes: The final section will contain information on aerodromes and heliports, as well as descriptions of a
state’s general conditions under which aerodromes/heliports and associated facilities are available for use,
such as civil use of military air bases.
Information in both text and graphical formats about the aerodrome geographical and administrative data,
operational hours, handling services, passenger facilities, rescue and firefighting services, seasonal
availability, aprons, taxiways and check locations/positions data, surface movement guidance and control
system and markings, aerodrome obstacles, provided meteorological information, runway physical
characteristics and declared distances. This section will also include a state’s noise abatement procedures
local traffic regulations and flight procedures.
NOTAMS and Aeronautical Information Circulars/AIP Supplements – Pilots should expect
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) when updated information is temporary or an AIP
amendment/supplement cannot quickly be made available. Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)
are another method for states to publish changing information between update cycles.
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2.2.3 CUSTOMS, IMMIGRATION AND QUARANTINE (CIQ’S):
Flight crews entering and exiting a country will interact with government agencies responsible for customs, immigration, agriculture
inspections and quarantine (health) services. ICAO terms these functions as “facilitation services” and details them in SARPS
Annex 9 – Facilitation. More commonly these are simply referred to as CIQ (customs, immigration and quarantine).
Details of the specific procedures to be followed when entering and exiting a country will be published in that country’s statutes.
The AIP’s General section will provide local contact information and outlines of these requirements for crew, passenger and cargo.
Since 2009, the Electronic Advanced Passenger Information System (EAPIS) requires advanced notification to the U.S. Customs
and Border Protection Agency (CBP) of details surrounding each aircraft’s international arrival and/or departure. This electronic
passenger vetting system holds the PIC responsible for inaccurate or missing information.
Additionally, the Electronic System for Traveling Authorization (ESTA) has been recently adopted by the CBP as a means to
streamline the processing of passengers visiting the U.S. under the Visa Waiver Program. Passengers will be issued a unique
reference number, renewable every two years.
A business aircraft leaving the United States under FAR Part 91 is typically not required to be physically present to clear U.S.
customs outbound (as FAR Part 135 flights are), but it may be required that the clearing be performed at a port of entry (POE)
depending on a number of factors, including information provided in the EAPIS submission. Although not common, it can occur –
often with short notice.
If passengers or crew are carrying $10,000 or more per person in cash or negotiable instruments, they are required to make a
customs declaration on Form 4790, “Report of Currency and Other Monetary Instruments,” before departure. With regard to
reentering the United States, the relevant requirements may be found in Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Customs
Duties section. It is necessary to buy a sticker annually from CBP (the fee is nominal) indicating that the necessary customs user
fee has been paid.
Local variations might exist in procedures unique to a region, district or port of entry. Operators will not always receive
documentation providing evidence that an aircraft and flight crew have been inspected, or have otherwise complied with the rules,
so the flight crew should try to record the name and badge number of all inspection personnel they deal with and keep this
information on file. U.S. and other customs regulations differ for private and commercial aircraft operations, and are not the same
as those used by the FAA (see next paragraph). The flight crew must know its status relative to facilitation requirements and be
able to prove it.
In most cases, the criterion for determining whether an aircraft is private or commercial is defined by the use of the aircraft on a
particular flight, and this applies whether the owner or lessee is a corporation, partnership, fractional owner, sole proprietor or an
individual. An aircraft is presumed not to be carrying persons or merchandise for hire, and thus will be a private aircraft for
customs purposes, when the aircraft is transporting only the owner, the aircraft owner’s employees, invited guests or the owner’s
property. In other words, aviation law and definitions do not necessarily have any effect on customs.
The CBP user fee is levied on a per aircraft per annum basis. For commercial operators, overtime is charged for inspection
services performed outside of working hours, as well as on Sundays and holidays. Customs fees may be paid in cash, check or
against a customs surety bond. Such bonds are mandatory for commercial operators in the U.S.
The flight crew is responsible for notifying customs directly and in advance of an intended arrival. Additionally, “ADCUS” (“advise
customs”) should be noted in the remarks (RMK) section or “Other Information” area of the international flight plan as a secondary
notification to customs.
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Before selecting an airport for arrival in the U.S., the airport’s customs status must be determined and appropriate requests made
based on the following definitions:
An international airport is any airport designated by CBP as a port of entry (POE) for civil aircraft. Simply the name of
an airport does not inform its status as a legitimate port of entry. No advanced permission is required, but in most cases
advanced notice of arrival is.
A landing rights airport (LRA) means any airport where permission to land may be granted by customs. The current
19 CFR, Part 122, will contain the latest published customs information, including a list of telephone numbers for all
airports providing customs inspection in the United States.
User fee airports are so named because the costs associated with them are reimbursable by the user of the services.
Private aircraft operators using designated CBP user fee airports are usually required to reimburse the airport operator
for the costs associated with processing their arrivals. These costs may add up to several hundreds of dollars per
arrival.
Designated airport. Private aircraft originating in a foreign location south of U.S. borders are required to furnish a notice
of intended arrival in compliance with the special reporting requirements discussed above. In this case, flights must land
for customs processing at a designated airport nearest the border or coastline crossing point unless the aircraft has
been exempted from this requirement. They then must be inspected at their first point of landing.
In addition to the requirements outlined in this section, private aircraft commanders must comply with all other landing and noticeof-arrival specifications. These landing requirements do not apply to private aircraft that have not landed in a foreign place or that
are arriving directly from other U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam. However, agricultural inspections may be required
prior to departure.
Special regulations exist (generated by U.S. anti-drug and anti-terrorist efforts) that relate to advanced reporting of border
penetration and which identify specific airports along borders where landings must be made for inspection. Southern U.S. border
crossing procedures require additional knowledge. Refer to 19 CFR, Section 122, regarding special requirements for entering from
Mexico and the Caribbean. Mexico has similar regulations mandating stops at Tapachula, Mexico, MMTP, and Cozumel, Mexico,
MMCZ.
When returning to the United States from any foreign country or when entering an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ), flight
crews must provide advanced reporting of the penetration. These regulations are found in the 19 CFR, Section 122.23. Additional
information on this program and other CBP programs is available at www.cbp.gov
In the U.S., regulated garbage must be disposed of in a manner acceptable to the local USDA inspector or CBP. It is not
acceptable to dispose of international garbage in an ordinary garbage receptacle and operators may be fined for doing so. It is
therefore incumbent upon the operator to determine in advance if the arrival airport is equipped to dispose of regulated garbage
and the proper procedure to be followed.
At some locations, it may be necessary to utilize a qualified vendor to de-cater the aircraft. Operators wishing to dispose of their
own regulated garbage at their home base may be able to arrange a compliance agreement with the local CBP agency. At foreign
locations, the operator should coordinate the disposal of garbage with the ground handling agent or the local airport authority.
Most countries have regulations pertaining to the importation of animals and firearms without the necessary certifications or
permits. Additionally, some countries prohibit the importation or possession of alcohol and pornography based on cultural and
religious sensitivities.
Onboard stores of alcohol may be accepted if they are properly secured in a locked/sealed compartment prior to arrival and
remained locked until the aircraft has departed the country. Each operator must determine, and comply with, the applicable
regulations pertaining to these items prior to arrival or face the possibility of delays, confiscation and fines.
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2.2.3.1 CABOTAGE
To a great extent, business aviation is able to provide international transportation for non-commercial purposes with a minimum of
restrictions. However, a complex mix of aviation, immigration, customs and economic regulations applied by individual countries,
and in the case of the European Union, a region can keep this from being an easy process.
Cabotage is technically the practice of providing public transportation for passengers, mail or cargo between two points within a
country that is other than the aircraft’s country of registry. Although the term “cabotage” technically applies to commercial
operations, that is, flights for remuneration or hire, this definition applies to the industrial or commercial benefit transport of goods,
whether-or-not for remuneration. It is within the rights of each ICAO contracting state to allow so-called “Eighth Freedom” (i.e.,
cabotage) flights, and the processes involved should be defined in their state’s AIP. But the laws of some states define a corporate
operation (falling under FAR Part 91 in the U.S.) as commercial for these purposes. Operators are highly encouraged to consult
their international service provider or local handler with specific questions.
Cabotage without permission of the state is prohibited under ICAO Article 7, so where here any state denies cabotage rights, the
customs duty status becomes irrelevant. Customs regulations and restrictions vary by individual state. These can be found in the
Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP) of individual countries, but may not be complete. The regulations that apply to U.S. CBP
inspection are found in 19 CFR, Part 122, Air Commerce Regulations.
In the EU, all countries are legally bound to follow the EC Customs Code 2454/1993, which allows for temporary admission of a
means of transport under certain conditions. The EU itself is also party to the Istanbul Convention on Temporary Admission, which
further defines the conditions by which one can bring a means of transport into a customs' territory.
Generally, private flight is restricted to a maximum stay of six months within a 12-month period under temporary admission in any
customs' territory. It is possible that an aircraft technically could be allowed under the state’s AIP to carry out an eighth-freedom
flight but still be in breach of that state’s customs temporary importation conditions (e.g., overstaying the “six-months-in-twelve”
rule). Being in breach may impose customs duties and VAT based on the present value of the aircraft at current rates for the state
in which the aircraft is operating.
In general, aircraft registered outside a customs’ territory that are owned, leased or mortgaged in the name of persons resident or
established outside that customs territory are required to carry a copy of the appropriate title or lease agreement showing the
connection between the passengers and the registered owner. Additionally, a letter of authorization on company letterhead should
be onboard, listing any person(s) resident to a customs territory in which the aircraft will operate and indicating that they are either
employees or guests on the aircraft. And finally, operators must ensure that aircraft do not violate the six-months-in- twelve rule.
For commercial (FAR Part 135) operations, a charter permit from the national authority is required to carry out a flight from each
contracting state into which a flight is to be made. In the EU, the code allows internal flights where national transport provisions are
in place.
For private operations, however, many countries do allow a local passenger to be picked up and accompany an individual already
onboard as long as the guest’s presence is purely coincidental and is not the purpose for the flight. A country’s customs office
normally enforces these rules and will be the final arbiter. Consultation with the local service provider in the country being traveled
to is recommended for the latest local interpretation of these issues.
In light of the changing environment within the EU, the issue of VAT and the definition used to define commercial operations of an
aircraft becomes a complicated issue. These rules may be applied to transporting any EU citizen across any of the countries in the
EU, including transportation of company personnel on company business within the EU. These matters should be discussed with a
VAT reclamation specialist to divert any potential problems that might arise. The issue can be avoided under certain circumstances
through the process of temporary or permanent importation of an aircraft into an EU country.
NBAA recommends contacting personnel experienced in handling this process to properly address each company’s specific
circumstances. The association has contacts with firms that have expertise in these areas, many of which may be found in
NBAA’s online Products and Services Directory.
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2.2.4 SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
“Forewarned is forearmed” says the old proverb. With regard to security on international trips, this can be accomplished by using
multiple sources, including local assessments, to provide the complete picture of what needs to be addressed or avoided in a
particular location.
A good first step to learn about any location is the CIA World Fact Book. This free resource provides information on the history,
people, government, economy, geography, communications, transportation, military and transnational issues for 267 world entities,
as well as physical and political maps of the major world regions. You will also find important travel information, including the
location of the U.S. embassy and consular offices in every country, statistics on crime and relevant security information, health
and medical conditions, drug penalties and localized hot spots.
U.S. State Department “Travel Warnings” are issued when long-term, protracted conditions that make a country dangerous or
unstable lead the State Department to recommend Americans avoid or consider the risk of travel to that country. A Travel Warning
is also issued when the U.S. government’s ability to assist American citizens is constrained due to the closure of an embassy or
consulate, or because of a draw-down of its staff.
State Department “Travel Alerts” are issued to disseminate information about short-term conditions, either transnational or within a
particular country, that pose significant risks to the security of U.S. citizens. Natural disasters, terrorist attacks, coups,
anniversaries of terrorist events, election-related demonstrations or violence, and high-profile events such as international
conferences or regional sports events are examples of conditions that might generate a Travel Alert.
The surest way to make sure you’re getting the whole story is to consult multiple news sources. From 24-hour news networks to
constantly updating news websites, there is a wealth of information available today, and paying attention to a mix of credible
domestic and international sources will help keep you up-to-date on the broad global picture. You can also sign up for customized
tickers or email alerts that update you about new stories on subject matters that interest you.
Since 1991, the FAA has operated a program of International Aviation Safety Assessment (IASA). The purpose of IASA is to
ensure that all foreign air carriers that operate to or from the United States are properly licensed, with safety oversight provided by
a competent Civil Aviation Authority in accordance with ICAO standards. Results of this program’s findings can be found at
FAA.gov.
FAA Country Data Sheets offer a compilation of information on a range of topics that should be considered when planning a flight
outside U.S. airspace. Individual country requirements and services should be included by pilots in their pre-flight preparation.
NBAA strongly recommends that, whenever possible, aviation departments coordinate security programs with the company’s
internal security division. Professional assistance from companies specializing in international aviation security is also available and
should be considered. If a professional firm is used, in-house security should be made aware to avoid territorial issues.
2.2.5 PERSONAL DOCUMENTATION
When planning a trip to a foreign country, proper personal documentation for all participants-flight crew and passengers alike, must
be obtained. Some private operator/ companies make current personal documentation the responsibility of the individual, but it is
recommended that this responsibility, or at least final oversight, be placed with the aviation or travel department. ICAO SARPS and
most countries specifically hold the pilot-in-command (PIC) responsible for any improper documentation held by crew or
passengers. Penalties can range from denied entry to fines and future sanctions.
Typically, required personal documents include a passport to verify citizenship, immunization records recognized by the World
Health Organization (WHO) to prove acceptable health status, and a visa to permit admission to any countries requiring them.
Please note that driver’s licenses, birth certificates and voter registration cards are no longer valid proof of citizenship. Flight crew
and passengers must have a valid passport to reenter the U.S.
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2.2.5.1 PASSENGERS
A passport is the standard document required for all international travel. Since 2015, ICAO-compliant countries have been requiring
machine-readable passports (MRP), a travel document where the data on the identity page is encoded in optical-characterrecognition format. ICAO Annex 9 requires that all non-MRP passports be removed from circulation. Most countries require a
passport to be valid for a period of at least six months at the time of arrival in a foreign country.
2.2.5.2 CREWMEMBERS
Positive identification of the flight crew will facilitate entry into a country as well as airport access. The International Business
Aviation Council (IBAC) offers an aircrew identification card that has become the standard for the industry. Customized aircrew
cards are available to all NBAA member flight crews through NBAA’s affiliation with IBAC. These cards conform to the requirements
of International Civil Aviation Organization Annex 9, Facilitation, and can be obtained directly from IBAC at www.ibac.org. NBAA
recommends that flight crew members obtain IBAC aircrew cards (or comparable ID cards) and display them while entering the
airport and within its perimeter.
U.S. flight crews traveling abroad are required to carry all appropriate FAA certificates. Permanent certificates are best, as foreign
states rarely accept temporary certificates. ICAO Annex 1 requires both pilots to be type-rated on the aircraft if two pilots are
required for operation, but this is not a domestic FAA rule. The FAA requires only the PIC to be type-rated per FAR Part 61.31 and
allows second-in-command (SIC) privileges based on the training under FAR 61.55.
As ICAO bases medical certificate requirements on the type of license rather than the type of pilot operation, ATP-rated pilots are
required to have a valid first-class medical regardless of the seat they are operating in. Many countries have adopted the ICAO
standard for medical certificate expiration dates. To U.S. operators, this means that the medical certificate is considered valid only
to the actual date of exam and not extended to the end of the expiration month.
ICAO Article 30 requires “radio transmitting apparatus” to be used only by specially licensed crew members. The Federal
Communication Commission (FCC) issues a restricted radiotelephone operator’s permit to U.S. pilots for international use. Similar
to SIC type ratings, they are not required while flying in the domestic United States, Not all crew members may be recognized as
required by state authorities, such as flight attendants and aviation maintenance technicians who are not expressly specified in the
airworthiness certificate.
2.2.5.3 VISAS
Visas are endorsements normally appended to a passport or stamped in ink inside the passport that are issued by the embassy or
consulate of the country to be visited. A visa generally gives non-citizens clearance to enter a country and to remain there within
specified constraints. The possession of a visa is not in itself a guarantee of entry into the country that issued it, and a visa can be
revoked at any time.
A visa application in advance of arrival gives the country a chance to consider the applicant’s circumstance, such as financial
security, reason for applying and details of previous visits to the country. A visitor also may be required to undergo and pass
security and/or health checks upon arrival at the border. These grant permission for the individual named on the passport to enter
and exit that country. Some countries issue visas that grant multiple entries and others authorize only a single entry.
If possible, NBAA recommends obtaining a multi-entry visa for maximum flexibility. It is important to remember that if you are flying
to a country commercially to pick up your corporate aircraft, you’ll require either a tourist or business visa on arrival and a crew
visa on departure. There have been cases of crews trying to operate without the correct crew visa, the result of which can be a
fine or even deportation.
Reputable passport agencies and international service providers can provide additional insights and considerations about applying
for visas.
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2.2.5.4 DOCUMENTATION FOR CHILDREN
Unaccompanied children (defined as under the age of 18) traveling domestically must have written consent of a nonaccompanying parent. The generally accepted international procedure for children under the age of 18 traveling without both
parents is to have the written consent of a non-accompanying parent. While procedures vary by country, the lack of that
documentation can result in the operator being detained until the circumstances of the child traveling without both parents can be
fully assessed. If there is no second parent with legal claims to the child (e.g., if the second parent is deceased or if there is a sole
custody situation), any other relevant paperwork would be useful, including documentation of a court decision, birth certificate
naming only one parent, or death certificate.
ICAO does not provide a standard form letter for this purpose. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) recommends that a
notarized parental consent letter written in English include the details of “who, what, where, when and why,” as well as contact
information for the absent parent(s). For frequent border crossers, the letter should not be older than one year.
2.2.5.5 VACCINATIONS
ICAO Article 14 obliges ICAO contracting states “to take effective measures to prevent the spread by means of air navigation of
cholera, typhus (epidemic), smallpox, yellow fever, plague and such other communicable diseases as the Contracting States shall
from time to time decide to designate.” The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations similar
to ICAO. Annex 6 of the WHO’s International Health Regulation provides a standardized model of an international certificate of
vaccination or prophylaxis. Certificates under this annex are valid only if the vaccine or prophylaxis used has been approved by
WHO and must be signed by the clinician or authorized health worker supervising the administration of the vaccine or prophylaxis.
Certificates must be fully completed in English or in French. They also may be completed in another language, in addition to either
English or French. Certificates are individual and will not be used collectively. Separate certificates are issued for children.
The only vaccine required by International Health Regulations is yellow fever vaccination for travel to certain countries in SubSaharan Africa and tropical South America. Meningococcal vaccination is required by the government of Saudi Arabia for travel
during the Hajj. In these particular cases, specific documentation is also required and should be carried for verification by local
authorities.
Specifically regarding pilots’ FAA medical certification, Mefloquine (Lariam) is associated with adverse neuropsychiatric side
effects, even weeks after the drug is discontinued. Because of the association with adverse neuropsychiatric side effects, even
weeks after discontinuation, a pilot who elects to use Mefloquine for malaria prevention or who contracts malaria and is treated with
Mefloquine will be medically disqualified from duties for the duration of use of Mefloquine and for four weeks after the last dose. In
this instance, the pilot must contact the FAA or his/her aviation medical examiner prior to returning to flight duties after use.
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2.2.6 AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTATION
Federal Aviation Regulations require the following documents be carried onboard:
Airworthiness certificate
FAA Registration Form 8050-1
FCC-issued Aircraft radio station license
Aircraft operator’s handbook with specific weight, balance and aircraft noise information
Any letters of authorization (LOAs) or OpsSpecs that apply such as NAT/HLA, RVSM or RNP-4
Temporary registrations, “Pink slips,” are only valid for the continental United States. To expedite the registration process, obtain a
fax temporary authority, also known as a fly-wire, from the FAA’s licenses and certification office.
ICAO Article 16 allows for the appropriate authorities of each of the contracting states the right, without unreasonable delay, to
search aircraft of the other contracting states on landing or departure, to inspect the certificates and other documents prescribed
by the Convention. Articles 29, 30, 31 and 34 are the documents that these inspections are concerned with. ICAO requires the
following documentation:
Certificate of registration
Certificate of airworthiness
Journey logbook
FCC radio station license
Passenger manifest listing their full names, dates of birth, passport numbers and states of issue, and places of
embarkation and destination
Cargo manifest and detailed declaration of the cargo
Some countries may require the airframe logbook, the engine logbooks and insurance certificates be available for inspection as
well.
“Maintenance Release for Flight” is a specific area of concern for a Part 91 international U.S. operator. For private U.S. operators,
even though a dispatch release is not required, the PIC will be expected to demonstrate when the next inspection is due in hours,
cycles and date. In its simplest form, this is a statement in the aircraft maintenance log stating that from a specific point in time, all
required inspections and maintenance have been completed for “x” number of days into the future.
A master minimum equipment list (MMEL) or minimum equipment list (MEL) permits operations with inoperative equipment for the
minimum period of time necessary for equipment repair. This becomes another area of concern internationally. For example, a
piece of inoperative equipment authorized by the MMEL to be inoperative may be required for operation, or face a shorter repair
interval, within a foreign country. The same is true for a continental/remote flight operation. Germany’s regulations on TCAS/ACAS
vs. the MMEL would be an example of this issue.
2.2.7 OPERATIONAL DOCUMENTATION
2.2.7.1 INSURANCE AND CORPORATE DOCUMENTS
Most aviation insurance policies cover operations on a worldwide basis; however, it is prudent to confirm your policy territory with
your broker prior to any trip outside the contiguous United States. Keep in mind some countries such as Mexico and the European
Union states require additional coverage prior to entering their airspace. If you are using an international trip handler, they will
generally assist you with compliance. Some states will require that an operator carry a third-party insurance policy issued by a
company within the country being visited. In those cases, an insurance certificate issued by that company is required on the
aircraft. Operators should obtain specific written underwriter approval from their insurance agent/broker confirming underwriter
acceptance of the flight.
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Listed below are the areas generally excluded from cover- age area due to hostilities of one form or another:
Afghanistan Algeria Burundi Central African Republic of
Chad Columbia Congo, Democratic Republic of Cote d’lvoire
Eritrea Georgia Haiti Iran
Iraq Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Kenya Lebanon
Madagascar Nepal Nigeria Pakistan
Philippines Saudi Arabia Somalia Sri Lanka
Yemen Sudan Syria Uzbekistan
Some states will require a signed corporate authorization on the operating company’s letterhead authorizing such foreign flights.
These letters should identify all crew members authorized to operate the aircraft on the company’s behalf. Occasionally, copies of
the company’s articles of incorporation will have to be provided as well before the aircraft may be operated in that country.
2.2.7.2 OVERFLIGHT AND LANDING PERMITS
Landings within a country must be made at one of the designated airports of entry, which are usually listed in the country’s AIP. In
some cases, mandatory routes to be flown will also be specified. In most cases outside North America and Western Europe, prior
permission to overfly and/or land in a country must be obtained directly from that country’s civil aviation authority and, in some
cases, from security authorities, too.
Depending on the country, receipt of overflight and landing permits can take anywhere from four hours to four weeks.
Requirements vary and action to obtain overflight and landing permits must be one of the first steps in planning any flight outside
the United States. Once obtained, copies of permits should be kept onboard for inflight reference and presentation upon landing.
There may be international restrictions placed on U.S. operators by Special Federal Aviation Regulations (SFARs), international
NOTAMs or government sanctions. In such cases, U.S.-registered aircraft and/ or airmen can be prohibited from operating into the
airspace of a foreign country or may require an export license from the U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control.
The U.S. embassy in a destination country may be of assistance in some instances, but embassy resources can be limited when it
comes to flight-technical issues. Flight crews must ensure that current and special notices relating to entry and overflight
requirements, published in FAA’s International NOTAM publication “NTAP” and “KCIZ” NOTAMs, are followed.
When returning to the U.S., CBP designates ports of entry, which are listed in the U.S. AIP. These U.S. airports provide customs
service but may not be in operation 24 hours a day. Depending on point of origin, when returning to the US an operator may be
able to obtain an overflight exemption.
All general aviation operators utilizing a border overflight exemption must still abide by all other applicable CBP requirements and
regulations. A copy of the overflight exemption letter must be maintained onboard the approved aircraft.
The CBP’s Guide for Private Flyers publication is no longer being updated but overflight guidance for private flyers is available on
the CBP website at www.cbp.gov, and operators may direct questions about overflight procedures to
private.aircraft.support@dhs.gov.
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2.2.7.3 LETTER OF AUTHORIZATION AND OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS “RNP-10” OR “RNP (RNAV)-10“
This is an RNAV operational application supporting 50 NM lateral and 50 NM longitudinal distance-based aircraft separation minima
in oceanic or remote continental airspace. As an RNAV application, there is no requirement for onboard performance monitoring
and alerting. Aircraft qualified for RNP 4 operations automatically qualify for RNP 10 operations. RNP (RNAV)-10 does not
specifically address communications or ATS surveillance requirements. Since 2016, AC 90-105, Appendix G provides guidance
for RNP (RNAV)-10 operational approval for US operators. Previous authorizations in accordance with FAA Order 8400.12C,
Required Navigation Performance 10 (RNP 10) Operational Authorization, remain valid.
2.2.7.4 NORTH ATLANTIC HIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE, NAT HLA
On Feb. 4, 2016, the airspace formerly known as the North Atlantic Minimum Navigational Specifications Airspace (MNPSA) will
add the BODO Oceanic FIR and will now be designated as the North Atlantic High Level Airspace, NAT HLA (FL285-420
inclusive). This re-designation excludes the BOTA and SOTA areas of the Shanwick OCA.
For MNPS approvals issued before January 2013, the state of registry will have to verify that the lateral navigation capability of
aircraft MNPS approvals based on the “6.3 NM” non-PBN standard. For MNPS approvals issued between January 2013 and
January 2015, approvals may have been based PBN specifications, RNP-10 or RNP-4. The state of registry will need to verify an
operator’s lateral navigation capability to PBN specifications, RNP-10 or RNP-4. For approvals issued after January 2015, the
navigation system accuracy requirements for NAT MNPSA/HLA operation should only be based on the PBN specifications as
RNP-10 or RNP-4 MNPS approvals based on the “6.3 NM” non-PBN standard will no longer be accepted beyond January 2020.
The FAA provides several sources for NAT/HLA procedures and requirements. The FAA’s North Atlantic Resource Guide speaks
directly to NAT/HLA airspace operations. Primarily operators at lower cruise altitudes, the FAA’s “NAT International General
Aviation Operations Manual, 2004” has been incorporated into The North Atlantic Operations and Airspace Manual NAT Document
#007.
The ICAO’s NAT Systems Planning Group produces The North Atlantic Operations and Airspace Manual NAT Document #007.
This a very comprehensive flight guide for North Atlantic Operations.
2.2.7.5 RNP-4
RNP-4 includes accuracy, alerting and monitoring requirements. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is currently the only
oceanic/remote navigation system capable of the accuracy with sufficient alerting and monitoring. RNP-4 is used to support 30 NM
lateral/longitudinal separation minima in oceanic or remote area airspace. It should be noted that RNP-4 addresses only the
navigation requirements of this separation minima. Since 2016, AC 90-105, Previous authorizations in accordance with FAA Order
8400.33, Procedures for Obtaining Authorization for Required Navigation Performance 4 (RNP-4) Oceanic and Remote Area
Operations, remain valid.
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2.2.7.6 B-RNAV/RNAV-5
Existing B-RNAV guidance (FAA and JAA/EASA) has been harmonized under ICAO navigation specification RNAV
The RNAV 5 and B-RNAV navigation specifications are equivalent whether they are based on ICAO, JAA, EASA or FAA guidance.
AC 90-96A with Change#1 provides operational approval and airworthiness guidance material regarding RNAV requirements for
operators of U.S.-registered civil aircraft, operating in a B-RNAV/RNAV 5 environment in European RNAV airspace. EASA AMC
20-4 has superseded the JAA guidance due to the JAA ceasing operations in June 2009. No FAA Letter of Authorization or
Operations Specification approval is required prior to operational use. A statement of conformance to the RNAV-5 accuracy
requirements and installation is all that is required.
2.2.7.7 P-RNAV, RNAV-1 AND RNP-1
These are equivalent in terms of performance but EASA certification does not allow for RNP-1 based upon DME/ DME operations.
States publishing an RNP-1 SID or STAR need to protect the navigation integrity of the procedure. A simple and direct method is to
require the exclusive use of GNSS. A state operational approval to this specification allows an operator to conduct RNAV-1
operations globally. AC 90-96A with Change#1 provides operational approval and airworthiness guidance material regarding PRNAV requirements for operators of U.S.-registered civil aircraft. AC 90-105.
2.2.7.8 RNP-AR APPROACHES
“RNP, Approval Required” describes the ICAO and FAA approach procedure design. If RF legs are used, and/or the approach
criteria is below 0.3 RNP, and/or if greater than RNP 1.0 is required for Missed Approach course guidance, special approval of the
operator’s procedures is required by the state aviation authority. The FAA has discontinued using the SAAAR designation for these
procedures. AC 90-101A with Change#1 provides operational approval and airworthiness guidance material regarding P-RNAV
requirements for operators of U.S.-registered civil aircraft.
2.2.7.9 APV SBAS AND LPV APPROACHES
When the lateral guidance and vertical path guidance on an APV approach is based upon Satellite Based Augmentation System
(SBAS), such as in WAAS or EGNOS, ICAO terms this “APV SBAS.” The FAA term for this same type of lateral and vertical path
guidance is “LPV.” In a September 2016 change, EASA no longer requires operational approval down to 1.0 but instead joined the
FAA in only requiring airworthiness certification and pilot training.
2.2.7.10 VALIDATION FLIGHTS AND SPECIAL AREA OF OPERATIONS
When the FAA conducts a validation flight, they conduct an in-depth review of the applicable portions of the operator’s proposed
procedures, including flight following, training programs, manuals, facilities, and maintenance procedures.
There are four situations that require validation flights in association with approval of Class II navigation: initial approval, addition of
an LRNS or a flight navigator, operations into new areas, and addition of special or unique navigation procedures. Validation flights
are needed when a proposed operation requires confirmation of the ability to operate an aircraft type within specified performance
limitations. Certain areas of Class II airspace are considered special operating airspace for purposes of validation. These areas
include the following:
Politically sensitive areas of operation
Areas of Magnetic Unreliability (AMU)
Polar operations
North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance
SpecificationNAT/HLA) airspace
Canadian MNPS airspace
Central East Pacific (CEPAC) airspace
North Pacific (NOPAC) airspace
Pacific Organized Track System (PACOTS)
Restricted international areas
Arctic Ocean or Antarctic Ocean
West Atlantic Route System (WATRS) and the
Caribbean Sea
South Atlantic (Atlantic routes)
Gulf of Mexico control areas (Gulf routes)
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
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2.2.8 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS
2.2.8.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH FREQUENCY RADIOS
U.S. and ICAO regulations require suitable long-range communication when in oceanic and remote airspace. Operators must be
able to maintain two-way communication with ATC all along the route intended. The inherent line-of-sight limitations of VHF radio
equipment are not suitable for oceanic/remote operations, so aircraft operating under IFR control beyond VHF range are required
to use an assigned HF frequency to communicate with ATC. Simply stated, an airplane must be equipped with at least one
operating HF radio capable of monitoring and communicating with air traffic control any time the airplane is operated beyond the
range of ground-based VHF radio communication, even if an operator has an operational SATCOM Voice or satellite Datalink
system installed.
For U.S. private operators of large and turbine-powered multi-engine airplanes operating on over-water flights more than 30
minutes flying time or 100 nm from the nearest shore, 14 CFR 91.511 directs that the following communication and navigation
equipment should be carried at a minimum:
Two VHF transmitters/receivers
Two microphones
Two headsets or one headset and one speaker
Two electronic long-range navigation units
One HF transmitter/receiver
Exceptions are allowed to this basic requirement for maintenance ferry for repair, with some limitations. When both VHF and HF
communications equipment are required for the route, and the airplane has two VHF transmitters and two VHF receivers for
communications, only one HF transmitter and one HF receiver are required for communications. Another exemption is for
operations over the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean WATRS area if both:
A single long-range navigation system is installed, operational, and appropriate for the route.
Flight conditions and the aircraft’s capabilities are such that no more than a 30-minute gap in two-way radio very high
frequency communications is expected to exist.
For U.S. commercial operators of large and turbine-powered multi-engine airplanes operating on over-water flights more than 30
minutes flying time or 100 nm from the nearest shore, 14 CFR 135.165 directs that the following communication and equipment
should be carried at a minimum:
Two VHF transmitters/receivers
Two microphones
Two headsets or one headset and one speaker
Two electronic long-range navigation units
Two HF transmitters/receivers
Installation and use of a single long-range communication system for extended over-water operations in certain geographic areas
may be authorized by the administrator (OpSpecB045) and approved in the certificate holder’s operations specifications. The
operational factors considered in granting an authorization include:
The ability of the flight crew to navigate the airplane along the route within the degree of accuracy required for ATC
The length of the route being flown
The duration of the very high frequency communications gap
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2.2.8.2 SATCOM VOICE
SATCOM Voice is not required for international operations. Generally speaking, in any emergency or non-normal circumstances
SATCOM voice may be used to contact ATC. State AIPs will contain the necessary telephone numbers.
Dialing instructions can be found in the operator’s guide to the individual equipment application. In 2013, the FAA issued MMEL
Policy Letter 106, which allows U.S. commercial operators to operate with one of the two HF‘s inoperable if procedures are in place
and the phone numbers required to contact ATC via SATCOM voice are identified. 
European airspace regulated by Eurocontrol requires two VHF radios and 8.33 kHz frequency spacing above FL 195. This
requirement expanded to the airspace below FL 195 in specific western European countries in 2014. A simple statement of
compliance inside the AFM is all that is required for U.S. operators.
2.2.8.3 SELECTIVE CALLING
A selective calling (SELCAL) receiver allows a ground radio operator to alert an individual aircraft using a code specifically
registered to the aircraft. This code is a series of four tones transmitted over a separate HF receiver installed on the aircraft. Once
this call is received, a chime is automatically activated in the flightdeck, alerting the crew to respond on a pre-arranged HF
frequency to the ATC /radio relay operator. SELCAL is not required but does aid in complying with “continuous listening watch”
regulations for oceanic and remote airspace.
2.2.8.4 CONTROLLER PILOT DATALINK COMMUNICATIONS
Controller pilot datalink communications (CPDLC) systems provides air-ground communication between controller and pilot over a
datalink system using preset message formats. Currently, U.S. operators require a letter of authorization or operations
specification approval prior to operational usage of CPDLC. This approval covers pilot and dispatcher academic training, normal
and abnormal procedures, minimum equipment list (MEL) limitations and operational contingencies. The U.S. has not yet mandated
CPDLC usage in its airspace. CPDLC is currently used as part of a 30 nm separation standard in the New York, Anchorage and
Oakland Oceanic FIRs. Portions of the NATHLA are mandated to carry and use CPDLC. Starting in 2020, EASA will mandate
CDPLC in European FIRs above FL 285.
2.2.8.5 VHF 8.33KHZ SPACING
More frequencies have been allocated by decreasing the frequency spacing from 25 kHz to 8.33 kHz. Roughly 2,700 “Channels”
are available using this method. European airspace regulated by Eurocontrol requires two VHF radios and 8.33 kHz frequency
spacing above FL195. This requirement is expanding to the airspace below FL195, with the aim of full deployment in all European
airspace by Dec. 31, 2018. A simple statement of compliance inside the AFM is all that is required for U.S. operators. Another
statement of compliance in the AFM needs to indicate all VHF Communication equipment immunity from FM radio broadcasts. VHF
radio communication equipment required shall provide for communication on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121.5 MHz.
2.2.8.6 MODE S TRANSPONDERS
The Mode S system is a combined secondary surveillance radar (beacon) and ground-air-ground datalink system. This
technology can improve the quality of aircraft detection, identification and altitude reporting information. In Europe, Mode S is being
implemented in two stages: Mode S elementary surveillance (ELS) and Mode S enhanced surveillance (EHS).
Mode S ELS is currently required for IFR flights in the airspace over Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Italy, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Greece.
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Mode S EHS is intended to provide additional information about an aircraft’s condition and intentions, such as magnetic heading,
indicated airspeed/Mach number, vertical rate, roll angle, track angle rate, true track angle, ground speed and flightdeck selected
altitude. Aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight greater than 12,566 lbs (5,700 kg) or a maximum cruise true airspeed greater than
250 knots must be equipped with Mode S EHS to operate in the United Kingdom, Germany and France. Aircraft with a certificate of
airworthiness first issued on or after March 31, 2012, will be required to be Mode-S EHS-capable. Time-limited exemptions by the
Mode-S EHS-implementing EU states apply only to aircraft with a certificate of airworthiness first issued prior to March 31, 2005,
and have largely expired.
U.S. mandates for Mode-S are based upon TCAS II requirements and cover only the Mode S ELS transponder. For details, refer to
FAA Advisory Circular 20-151B.
2.2.8.7 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE- BROADCAST
Referred to as ADS-B, this is a method of surveillance that is used primarily in continental/non-remote locations and is usually
associated with remote outlets providing VHF voice communication directly with an ATC controller. ADS-B must transmit on a
compatible datalink to the ATM facilities and other aircraft. Popular ADS-B datalink technologies are the universal access
transceiver (UAT), transmitting on 978 MHz, and a Mode-S transponder using an “extended squitter,” transmitting on 1090MHz, or
VDL Mode 4. VHF datalink, VDL Mode 4, is used in Europe and ICAO primarily for light general aviation aircraft. This is a two-way
link based on the VDL Mode 4 standards. This datalink can provide a network of ground stations support services for ADS-B, TISB and FIS-B similar to the UAT.
There are currently ADS-B Out mandates scheduled to take place in the EU, Canada, Australia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia,
Singapore, and the United States. U.S. operators do not require a letter of authorization or operations specification approval prior to
operational use. LOA/OpsSpec A153 is designed for U.S. operators to prove state approval for ADS-B operations to foreign
authorities.
2.2.8.8 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE- CONTRACT
ADS-C is controlled by datalink contracts established with an ATM ground station. Similar to ADS-B, a pilot can only declare
availability to ADS-C by selecting “Armed,” or cancel contract reporting by selecting “Off” or “Emergency” if the condition arises.
The U.S. has not mandated ADS-C, but it is currently being used in the EU, NAT Region, Oakland Oceanic, Australia, Singapore,
Hong Kong, Mongolia and eastern portions of Russia. ADS-C is used in conjunction with CPDLC and RNP-4 to provide 30 nm
lateral/longitudinal separation in oceanic areas. U.S. operators require a letter of authorization or operations specification approval
prior to operational usage of ADS-C.
2.2.8.9 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER
14 CFR 91.207 states that “there is attached to the airplane an approved automatic type emergency locator transmitter that is in
operable condition.” The regulation applies to a U.S.-registered aircraft whether it is flying within the United States or anywhere
else. No specific frequency is mandated in this regulation.
Since 2008, ICAO recommends that all airplanes should carry an emergency locator transmitter (ELT). ICAO further defines the
standard that all ‘aeroplanes’ authorized to carry more than 19 passengers for which the individual certificate of airworthiness is
first issued after July 1, 2008, shall be equipped with at least two ELTs, one of which shall be automatic. Airplanes authorized
carrying fewer than 19 passengers only need to carry one automatic ELT. Since 2005, these ELTs must transmit on both 406 MHz
and 121.5 MHz simultaneously. The new-technology ELTs using 406 MHz comply with FAA Technical Standard Order C126 and
require specific registration with state of registry and COSPAS-SARSAT for full functionality.
2.2.8.10 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER
No person may operate a U.S. registered multi-engine, turbine-powered airplane having a passenger seating configuration of six
passengers or more and for which two pilots are required by type certification or operating rule unless it is equipped with an
approved cockpit voice recorder (CVR) that is installed in compliance with § 23.1457 or 25.1457 as applicable.
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These regulations are detailed and cover such items as power supply requirements, color of the container, underwater locating
capability and pre-flight functions required.
The CVR must be operated continuously from the first use of the checklist before the flight to completion of the final checklist at the
end of the flight. 14 CFR Part 135 Operations requires that aircraft manufactured after Oct. 11, 1991, or in which a cockpit voice
recorder has been installed after Oct. 11, 1991, have a CVR that is equipped to record the uninterrupted audio signal received by a
boom or mask microphone. Flight crew members are required to use the boom microphone below 18,000 feet MSL. All airplanes
that utilize any of the datalink communications applications or are modified to install and utilize any of the datalink communications
applications on or after Jan. 1, 2016, are required to carry a CVR and must record the data-link communications messages.
For general aviation operations, ICAO uses the term “flight recorder” to reference both CVRs and FDRs. This may be confusing to
U.S. operators. ICAO CVR standards are very similar to FAA regulations in terms of power supply requirements, color of the
container, underwater locating capability and pre-flight functions required. However, there is no mention of “operated continuously
from the use of the checklist before the flight to completion of the final checklist at the end of the flight,” only the length of time that
needs to be recorded, i.e., the last two hours. ICAO recommends that in general aviation operations, the CVR and FDR need not
be separate units if the maximum certificated takeoff mass is over 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs).
2.2.8.11 FLIGHT DATA RECORDER
The FAA published modifications to flight data recorder (FDR) requirements in 2008. The final rule requires modifications to FDR
recording time, power supplies, sampling rates and installation locations. From the regulations quoted below, it is clear the FAA’s
intent was for this requirement to apply only to newly manufactured aircraft and not a requirement retrofit of previous units. Multiengine, turbine-powered aircraft manufactured after Oct. 11, 1991, but before April 7, 2010, with 10 or more passenger seats must
have a digital FDR that records the data specified in 14 CFR 91, Appendix E and is capable of retaining no less than the last eight
hours of operation. If the aircraft is a transport category, the FDR should be a separate unit from the CVR.
ICAO general aviation operations directs that all airplanes for which the individual certificate of airworthiness is first issued on or
after Jan. 1, 1989, with a maximum certificated takeoff mass of over 27,000 kg (59,524 lbs) shall be equipped with a Type I FDR.
ICAO recommends that all airplanes over 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) up to and including 27,000 kg (59,524 lbs) should be equipped with
a Type II FDR. All airplanes for which the individual certificate of airworthiness is first issued after Jan. 1, 2005, and airplanes of a
maximum certificated takeoff mass over 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) shall be equipped with a Type IA DFR.
2.2.8.12 GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM
Terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) is the ICAO term for what US operators describe as ground proximity warning
system (GPWS). There are two types of GPWS/ TAWS systems, Class A or B. Class A is commonly referred to as “EnhancedGPWS” and requires the installation of a situational display, which provides the operator with a visual display of the surrounding
terrain and/or obstacles relative to the aircraft. Class B does not require a situational display of surrounding terrain and/or
obstacles relative to the aircraft. ICAO commercial operations require all turbine-engine airplanes of a maximum certificated takeoff
mass in excess of 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) or authorized to carry more than nine passengers must be equipped with a ground
proximity warning system (GPWS). Beginning Jan. 1, 2004, these airplanes must be equipped with a GPWS that also features a
forward-looking terrain avoidance function.
For general aviation requirements, ICAO requires that all turbine-engine airplanes of a maximum certificated takeoff mass in
excess of 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) or authorized to carry more than nine passengers must be equipped with a GPWS system that
also has a forward-looking terrain avoidance function. ICAO recommends that all turbine-engine airplanes of a maximum
certificated takeoff mass of 5,700 kg or less and authorized to carry more than five but not more than nine passengers should be
equipped with a GPWS that has a forward-looking terrain avoidance function.
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2.2.8.13 TERMINAL COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM
Terminal collision avoidance systems (TCAS), internationally known as airborne collision avoidance systems (ACAS), are a family
of airborne devices that function independently of the ground-based ATC system, and provide collision avoidance protection for a
broad spectrum of aircraft types. All TCAS systems provide some degree of collision threat alerting, and a traffic display. TCAS I
and II differ primarily by their alerting capability. TCAS II provides TAs and Resolution Advisories (RAs) such as recommended
escape maneuvers in the vertical dimension to either increase or maintain the existing vertical separation between aircraft.
Operators of aircraft with TCAS II installed also need to be aware that ICAO Annex 10 requires version 7.1 software on new
aircraft by Jan. 1, 2014, and existing aircraft by Jan. 1, 2017.
ICAO recommends that all private international general aviation (IGA) aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff mass in excess
of 15,000 kg, or authorized to carry more than 30 passengers, for which the individual airworthiness certificate is first issued after
Nov. 24, 2005 should be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance system, ACAS II, and that this system should be operated
in accordance with the relevant provisions of ICAO Annex 10.
ICAO directs that all turbine-engine aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff mass in excess of 15,000 kg or authorized to carry
more than 30 passengers, and first issued an individual airworthiness certificate after Jan. 1, 2007, shall be equipped with an
airborne collision avoidance system,
ACAS II. ICAO recommends that if the maximum certificated takeoff mass is in excess of 5,700 kg (12,566 lbs) but not exceeding
15,000 kg (33,069 lbs) or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers, for which the individual airworthiness certificate is first
issued after Jan. 1, 2008, the aircraft should be equipped with an airborne collision avoidance system.
2.2.8.14 REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMA
The goal of reduced vertical separation minima (RVSM) is to reduce the vertical separation between FL290 and FL410 to a
minimum of 1000ft. This will allow aircraft to safely fly more optimum profiles, gain fuel savings and increase airspace capacity.
Aircraft system performance and operating requirements are defined in JAA TGL #6 and FAA AC 91-85. EASA has since
transposed TGL#6 with AMC1 SPA. RVSM.105 and the FAA has published AC 91-85A in 2016. Providing all these requirements
are met, a state authority can issue an RVSM operational approval.
RVSM is not strictly required by regulations for international operations. This additional state certification adds greatly to the ease of
operating worldwide. FAA approval for RVSM operation covers both domestic and worldwide operation. To operate between FL
290 and 410 there are specific equipage and operating procedures that need to be certified. Without this certification, aircraft must
fly lower or higher than RVSM-designated airspace.
ICAO-compliant RVSM operations will be required to conduct initial monitoring within six months of their initial authorization, and
must conduct recurrent monitoring every two years or within intervals of 1,000 flight hours per aircraft, whichever period is longer.
FAA monitoring requirements became applicable in 2011. RVSM operators should also note that carriage and operation of
ACAS/TCAS is not an RVSM requirement in itself.
2.2.9 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
The possibility of a technical defect or maintenance discrepancy grounding the aircraft away from home base must be taken into
consideration. The availability of maintenance out- side the United States should be balanced against the need to carry spare parts
and an aircraft technician on the flight.
Maintenance release for flight can be another area of problems for an international operator. Specific OEM and company
procedures for post-unscheduled maintenance return-to-flight status should be researched prior to the need, as well as unique
country requirements. While FAR Part 91 operators are not required to have a dispatch release, they can be expected to be able
to demonstrate when the next inspection is due in hours, cycles and date. This becomes your ICAO compliant maintenance
release for flight.
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Advanced planning includes knowing where to find an OEM’s foreign service representatives for airframes, powerplants or
components and carrying those spares for the minimum equipment list (MEL) items most likely to fail and ground the aircraft. The
manufacturers of these items can be contacted from a list of approved dealers and repair facilities overseas. Experienced
international operators often have a standard list of spares, including maintenance manuals and aircraft logs, for their particular
aircraft, which always are carried on extended international flights.
Operators should not assume that they may perform maintenance on their own aircraft in foreign countries without restriction. A list
of FAA-approved maintenance bases and repair stations outside the United States can be obtained from the FAA. Operators
should be aware that maintenance technicians licensed outside the U.S. normally need a specific type endorsement on their
domestic certificate to work on a specific type of aircraft. Many operators choose to carry a flight engineer or crew chief along for
handling maintenance issues. However, even though these positions are correctly licensed to work on the aircraft, this practice
may not be permitted and a local source may be required.
If replacement parts are required in an international location, it is best to work through the technical representative for your aircraft,
ideally in the location of the aircraft. Imported parts will have very large duties, which often can be minimized by using your OEMs
tech reps. Know the contact information for the locations you are traveling ahead of time and, if possible, establish communications
with them.
2.2.10 INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT CREW TRAINING
No specific international operations training curriculum is described by FAA regulations or by Annex 2 to the ICAO, but it is
essential to safe travel in oceanic/remote and foreign environments that operators provide adequate crew training, operating drills
and procedural guidance. It is important to note that this is different from the requirements for training in RVSM or RNP operations.
More information on what constitutes an adequate program of instruction can be found in the FAA’s Aviation Safety Inspector’s
Handbook, FAA Order 8900.1, Volume 4, Chapter 12 (canceled 09-11-2019). The following is a comprehensive list of the
subject material covered:
ICAO measurement standards and operational rules, regulations and procedures
Use of oceanic flight planning charts
Sources and content of international flight publications
Itinerary planning
Preparation of FAA international flight plans, ICAO flight plans and flight logs
Route planning within the special area of operation where flights are to be conducted
Enroute and terminal procedures (different from U.S.)
Long-range, air-to-ground communication procedures
Structure of the special area of operation where the flights are to be conducted
Air traffic clearances
International meteorology, including significant weather charts and prognostic weather charts, tropopause prognostic
charts and terminal weather and seasonal conditions over the route to be flown; the airports to be used; and the terrain
and minimum safe altitudes
Meteorological, communication and air traffic facilities, services and procedures
Search-and-rescue procedures
Navigational facilities and procedures, including any long-range navigation procedures associated with the planned route
Such training is strongly recommended for private operators and required for commercial operators. There are several providers
of qualified instruction in international procedures for operators undertaking international operations. For guidance on this topic or to
find providers, attend the NBAA International Operators Conference, contact International Operators Committee members listed at
www.nbaa.org/ committees or refer to the NBAA member directory at www.nbaa.org/directory.
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2.2.11 INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT PLANNING ORGANIZATIONS
International operators will find a wide range of services available from professional firms that specialize in obtaining over-flight and
landing permits, security information, computerized flight planning, weather information, charts, NOTAM dissemination,
communications, flight following and ground handling for passengers, aircraft selection and crew acquisition.
The decision on whether to use such a firm, and which firm to use, can potentially affect the outcome of an international trip. As
noted in this section, international travel involves extensive attention to detail that must be timely, correctly documented and
properly acted upon. A poorly planned trip can result in complications, delays and denial of entry/exit. NBAA recommends that flight
departments evaluate the use of flight planning firms with international experience as a supplement to in-house expertise and trip
planning resources. Many of these flight planning firms are NBAA associate members and can be found in NBAA’s Products and
Services Directory.
International service providers should be carefully screened before they are hired. During the interview process, all aspects of the
relationship should be discussed, including areas of operation, costs and services provided, and compatibility with the flight
department. It is imperative to pick a service provider that provides adequate communication throughout the process.
Fellow international business aircraft operators often area good source of information during the planning stages of an international
flight. Contact information for NBAA member companies that have recently completed trips to foreign countries can be obtained
from the International Feedback Data-base section of the NBAA website at www.nbaa.org/intl.
2.2.12 GROUND HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS
Domestic operators are accustomed to the assistance of airport service organizations (ASOs), commonly known as fixed base
operators (FBOs). However, these facilities and services are not a given quantity at overseas destinations. Therefore, the
assistance of a locally based ground handling agent is often required to procure and organize services at the destination.
Domestic, regional or international airlines with operations at a specific airport, as well as affiliates of U.S.-based flight-planning
firms, can provide or assist in obtaining many of the required ground support services.
Other agents can help with customs, immigration and public health procedures and can expedite the shipment of spares and
provide aircraft maintenance.
Unlike in the United States, foreign ground handling agents, customs and fuel suppliers frequently operate out of separate facilities
and will need to be coordinated independently by the operator or through a central coordinator. This precaution also pertains to any
information updates, flight plans, weather, etc., sent to the particular airport of destination.
National or multinational oil companies normally supply fuel at airports outside the United States. In some cases, the provision and
sale of fuel are restricted to a government monopoly vendor. It is important to ensure that taxes are accurately assessed and paid
in full, and that a record of payment is maintained. Some vendors can provide full services, such as over-wing (gravity) or singlepoint (pressure) fueling capabilities and Prist (jet fuel additive), but this cannot be assumed. The latter may have to be carried on
the aircraft to some locations.
International operators should arrange for the method of fuel payment in advance. Some options available are direct billing,
payment through a firm, a contract fuel agency or international carnet, or payment via international credit card provided by
international fuel companies. Domestic fuel credit cards may not be honored outside the United States and its territories, so
operators must verify their acceptance in advance.
In some parts of the world, especially developing countries, cash (local or hard currencies, such as U.S. dollar or euro) is the
preferred or only method of payment. New, clean bills may be all that is acceptable and change should not be expected. Traveler’s
checks are a safe way to transport funds, but they will cause delays in some locations where they are not accepted in lieu of cash.
For security reasons, operators should avoid carrying large sums of cash. While legal to do, when more than $10,000 is taken out
of the United States, it must be reported (before departing) to U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP).
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A number of European countries assess significant taxes on fuel uploaded by business aircraft. However, some countries will
reimburse the amount of domestic taxes, commonly known as value added tax (VAT), paid by foreign-registered aircraft that are
flown internationally. This type of information can be found only by directly contacting a local handling agent or agency specializing
in VAT reclamation.
In recent years, fuel usually has been available world-wide, but keep in mind that shortages can develop quickly due to weather,
political unrest or natural disasters.
Direct operating costs can be higher for international operations than domestic U.S. operations. When a business aircraft flies
internationally, it generates direct charges in the form of user fees. Such fees are in addition to fuel taxes that are similar to, but
normally greater than, those accrued in the United States. User fees for international trips normally are broken down into
navigation, communication, landing and handling fees, but they may be described on the invoices by various terms. There are a
number of programs available to provide credit at most international locations.
NBAA recommends that flight crews do not carry more than necessary cash on international trips. CBP requires the reporting of
cash in excess of $10,000 per person on board. Domestic fuel credit cards are not normally accepted internationally but in some
cases, direct billing can be arranged in advance and some fuel companies can provide international fuel carnets.
Major credit card networks all are generally recognized to a greater or lesser degree worldwide, largely dependent upon location.
Many aviation-specific payment cards are recognized as well. In short, make every attempt to have secured all payment terms
before the beginning of a trip.
The ICAO publication, “Manual of Airport and Air Navigation Facility Tariffs, Doc 7100,” provides approximate charges made by
governments for the use of their aviation infrastructures. However, the fees provided are two years behind current rates and can
be used only as a rough guide to expected costs.
In Western Europe, most airway en route charges are billed through the Eurocontrol Route Charges Office, and additional
information can be found at www.eurocontrol.int (key-word “Central Route Charges Office”). Charges assessed for ground
handling and other services rendered to business aircraft vary widely but generally are based on aircraft size and/or weight factors
and services required. The national or airport authorities or the local handling agencies may collect these fees. In Europe, most
ground handlers subscribe to the European Business Aviation Association’s (EBAA) Handling and FBO Code of Practice; see
www.ebaa.org.
Schedules of services and charges can be approximated by contacting the ground handling agent or service facilities at the
airport. Fuel prices vary widely and change frequently. Prices range from half to more than twice what is charged in the United
States at any given time. At times, tankering of fuel may be advisable because additional taxes in some locations can boost actual
fuel costs by up to three hundred percent (300%).
Additionally, regardless of the source of charges, statements should be audited carefully, not only for specific charges but also for
the authenticity of the statement itself, even if it appears to be an official government document. If service fees are billed, these
efforts often are confounded by less than timely distribution of invoices, often three to six months or more after the flight. Because
of these delays, it is important to retain all receipts and maintain good contemporaneous records of all flights. If an error is found,
most agencies are willing to make adjustments when it is brought to their attention.
In recent years, spam scams have surfaced that look quite legitimate. Any unexpected invoices received via email for services
performed should be addressed by telephone call to the purported billing organization. Do not respond by email.
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2.2.13 SEARCH AND RESCUE
A Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) is the primary search and rescue facility in a country that is staffed by supervisory
personnel and equipped for coordinating and controlling search and rescue operations. RCCs are operated unilaterally by
personnel of a single military service, usually the nation’s Air Force or Coast Guard. A Joint Rescue Coordination Centre (JRCC),
is a special type of RCC that is operated by personnel from multiple military services or a combination of military and/or civilian
services. ICAO Annex 12 directs that each rescue coordination center shall have readily available at all times up-to-date
information concerning the search and rescue capabilities within their region.
Search and rescue (SAR) resources and locations are required to be onboard and available to the pilot-in-command (PIC) for
commercial operators by ICAO Annex 6, Part 1, Chapter 9. General aviation operators are recommended to comply with this same
information resource. This information can commonly be found in Jeppesen en route manuals, in the “Emergency” section.
Information about air-to-air interception procedures and visual signals used in the interception of civil aircraft must be included in
the commercial operators’ operations manual. Annex 6, Part 2 also directs this information to be available to the PIC onboard the
aircraft. Details on these procedures and signals can be found in Annex 2, Appendix 1 and 2.
The set of internationally recognized distress signals known as the ground-air visual signal code is found in the appendix section of
ICAO Annex 12. These can be used to convey simple messages to an overflying search aircraft where there is no other means
of communication. These symbols can be made on the ground by using rocks or other material. You must ensure that the symbols
are large enough to be seen by an aircraft flying overhead. The pilot overhead will respond if the signal is understood by rocking
the aircraft’s wings during day-light or flashing the aircraft’s landing lights or navigation lights on and off. If in doubt, use the
international symbol: SOS.
Emergency equipment such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, medical kits and emergency exits, locations and number required
are described in Annex 6, Chapter 6, Part 1 and Part 2. Separate from the required first aid kits, an emergency medical supply kit
provides for the more frequent cases of medical diversions and critical in-flight medical treatment. Commercial operators have
specific details for supplies and carriage. A list of contents, medications and instructions recommended being carried can be found
in ICAO Annex 6, Part 1, Attachment B.
Private operators are recommended to comply with the same equipment mandates. Many operators choose to carry and train for
the use of automated external defibrillators (AED). The carriage of AEDs should be determined by operators on the basis of a risk
assessment, taking into account the particular needs of the operation.
With regard to life vests and rafts, 14CFR 91.509 directs U.S. private operators that no person may take an airplane for a flight
over water more than 50 nm from the nearest shore unless that airplane is equipped with a life preserver or an approved flotation
means for each occupant of the airplane. No person may take an airplane for a flight over water more than 30 minutes flying time
or 100 nm from the nearest shore, whichever is less, unless it has on board the following survival equipment:
A life preserver, equipped with an approved survivor locator light, for each occupant of the airplane
Enough life rafts (each equipped with an approved survival locator light) of a rated capacity and buoyancy to
accommodate the occupants of the airplane (see TSO- C70A 4/13/84)
At least one pyrotechnic signaling device for each life raft
One self-buoyant, water-resistant, portable emergency radio signaling device that is capable of transmission on the
appropriate emergency frequency or frequencies and not dependent upon the airplane power supply
A lifeline stored in accordance with §25.1411(g) of this chapter. The required life rafts, life preservers and signaling
devices must be installed in conspicuously marked locations and easily accessible in the event of a ditching without
appreciable time for preparatory procedures
A survival kit, appropriately equipped for the route to be flown, attached to each required life raft
14 CFR 135.167 directs U.S. commercial operators in extended over-water operations (greater than 50 nm from shoreline) to
carry life vests with locator lights for all occupants. The regulation goes on to require enough approved life rafts of a rated capacity
and buoyancy to accommodate the occupants of the aircraft. Each will be equipped with specific survival gear in a kit attached to
the raft.
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ICAO Annex 6 Part 1, Chapter 6 states that commercial “landplanes” must have life jackets onboard for all occupants if they are
operating greater than the gliding distance to shore or if, in the opinion of the country of the operator, the takeoff or approach path
is so disposed over water that in the event of a mishap there would be a likelihood of a ditching. When operating “long-range overwater flights” – i.e., 30 minutes cruising speed or 100 nm from the nearest shore (whichever is less for multi-engine)-life rafts,
survival kits and pyrotechnic signaling devices are required. Locator lights on the life-jackets are also required.
Annex 6, Part 2, Chapter 2.1 recommends that life jackets be carried only for single-engine landplanes when operating greater
than the gliding distance to shore or, in the opinion of the PIC, when the takeoff or approach path is so disposed over water that in
the event of a mishap there would be a likelihood of a ditching. Rafts, survival kits and signaling devices are only required for
general aviation aircraft if operating in extended flights over water and then only if the PIC determines that the risk warrants it.
The type of raft required for an aircraft is dictated by the certification of the aircraft. There is no direct reference to this in the FARs,
but it is found in the applicable technical standard order (TSO). The FSDO for a particular over-water operation can direct more
and larger rafts based upon the aircraft ditching certification or lack thereof.
For ditching or off-airport emergency landings, the aircraft manufacturer should be consulted about specific aircraft procedures.
General information on ditching can be found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), and additional ditching references are
listed at the close of this section.
ICAO Annex 6, Part 1 and 2, directs that airplanes operated in areas where the state has deemed search and rescue to be
especially difficult must be equipped with such signaling devices and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life) as
may be appropriate to the area overflown. The U.S. has not identified and designated any such areas in its territories to the ICAO.
Operators should consult the AIP of the country where they are operating internationally for information on these requirements.
Pilots and passengers should be thoroughly familiar with the location and proper use of the equipment.
As an example of survival kit requirements, Canada provides a list of capabilities for kits used in their designated remote areas as
follows:
Starting a fire
Providing shelter
Providing or purifying water
Visually signaling distress
Canada also provides a useful list of recommended polar survival items that operators should consider carrying for flights over
northern Canada and for any flight routing north of Prince Christian Sound, Greenland:
A signaling sheet, minimum 1 by 1 meters in a reflecting color
A magnetic compass
Winter sleeping bags in sufficient quantity to accommodate all persons carried
Matches in waterproof covers
A ball of string
A stove and supply of fuel
A snow saw
Candles or some other self-contained means of providing heat with a burning time of about two hours per person; the
minimum candles carried onboard must not be less than 40 hours of burning time
Personal clothing suitable for the climatic conditions along the overflown route
A suitable instruction manual in polar survival techniques Firearms have not been required in Canada’s list since
2001.
Flight crew and passengers should be thoroughly familiar with the location and proper use of the equipment. NBAA recommends
obtaining survival training from organizations experienced in providing such instruction prior to flight over any significant body of
water or remote terrain.
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Life raft survival kits contents vary based upon the type of operation being conducted, private or commercial. Generally speaking,
contents will include:
Lines, including an inflation/mooring line with a snap-hook, rescue or lifeline, and a heaving or trailing line
Sea anchors
Raft repair equipment such as repair clamps, rubber plugs and leak stoppers
Inflation devices including hand pumps and cylinders (carbon dioxide bottles)
Safety/inflation relief valves
Canopy and equipment for erecting the canopy
Position lights
Hook-type knife, sheathed and secured by retaining line
Placards that give the location of raft equipment
Propelling devices such as oars or glove paddles
Water catching devices including bailing buckets, cups and sponges
Signaling devices such as:
At least one approved pyrotechnic device and mirror
One spotlight or flashlight
One police whistle
One dye marker
Radio beacon with water-activated battery and radio reflector
One magnetic compass
A two-day supply of rations supplying at least 1,000 calories a day for each person
One desalination kit for every two persons the raft is rated to carry or two pints of water for each person the raft is rated
to carry
One fishing kit
One book on survival appropriate for any area
A first aid kit
2.2.14 HUMAN FACTORS CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 2.1 will be helpful in providing the details to crews of their layover rest accommodations.
The human body’s natural circadian process influences both cognitive effectiveness and sleep regulation. Sleep regulation is
dependent upon hours of sleep, hours of wakefulness, current sleep debt, the circadian process and sleep fragmentation (i.e.,
awakenings during a sleep period).
Cognitive effectiveness is dependent upon the current balance of the sleep regulation process, the circadian process and sleep
inertia.
Because international flights frequently cross many time zones in very short periods of time, crew rest requirements, including
those of flight attendants and engineers must be considered during the planning phase of the operation. As a rule of thumb, the
average human body takes approximately 24 hours per two hours of time zones crossed to adjust its circadian rhythms to the
local time zone. For brief periods of travel, such as a 24 to 48-hour period, best practice recommendations generally agree that it is
better to stay on one’s home body clock rather than try to adjust to the local time zone.
Augmenting the flight crew provides for reduced time at the controls for each crew member and allows for a sleep opportunity
during a duty period. Consequently, with additional flight crew and an opportunity for sleep, fatigue would be accumulated more
slowly. In this way, duty periods can be increased beyond the recommended limit of 14 hours within each 24-hour period. When an
additional flight crew member rotates into the flight deck positions, the duty period can be extended, with specified restrictions. In
each circumstance, it is required that each flight crew member be provided one or more on-duty sleep opportunities.
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In general, the longer a flight crew member is away from the home-base/domicile time zone, the more recovery time is needed for
readjustment to home-base/domicile time.
Therefore, it is recommended that for duty periods that include crossing four or more time zones and that involve 48 hours or more
in a time zone away from the home-base/ domicile time zone, a minimum of 48 hours off duty be scheduled upon return to homebase/domicile time.
In 2001, SAE International, in conjunction with the USAF, developed a computer-based analysis to address the problem of aircrew
fatigue in aircrew flight scheduling. The Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool (FAST), accessible at papers.sae.org/2004-01-2151,
derives a calculated composite of human performance on a number of cognitive tasks, scaled from 0 to 100 percent. An oscillating
line in the graph represents expected group average performance on these tasks as determined by time of day, biological
rhythms, time spent awake and amount of sleep, and various confidence limits around the average may be displayed.
Additional information about flight, duty and rest time considerations can be found in the Flight Operations section of this NBAA
Management Guide, as well as in the ICAO/ IBAC/FSF Fatigue Management Guide for General Aviation
Operators of Large and Turbojet Aeroplanes (Revised in 2017-replaces ICAO Fatigue Management Guide).
Having a plan in advance on how to get care when become sick or injured overseas without warning is the key to successful
treatment. This applies to all travelers, but is especially important for senior citizens, pregnant women, people with pre-existing
conditions, or people who will be in a foreign country for an extended period of time. The U.S. embassy in your destination country
can help you locate medical services and will notify your family and friends in the event of an emergency.
When selecting a doctor, make sure that they can speak your language. The following resources provide lists of doctors and
clinics that can care for travelers:
The International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers (www.iamat.org) (free membership required)
Joint Commission International (www.jointcommissionininternational.org)
The International Society of Travel Medicine (www.istm.org)
Travel Health Online (www.tripprep.com) gets information from various sources so quality is not guaranteed)
Some simple things to make sure you’re prepared:
Consider whether you might need travel health or evacuation insurance
Register with the U.S. embassy in your destination country at https://step.state.gov/step/
Bring any medicines you may need (pack extra, in case of delays) from home. Medicines in other countries may be
counterfeit
Carry a card that identifies, in the local language, your blood type, any chronic illnesses you have, any medicines you are
taking, and any allergies you have
Wear a MedicAlert bracelet if you have serious medical conditions
If you have been in a country with malaria and develop a fever within a month after you leave, see a doctor immediately. Most
fevers are caused by less serious illnesses but because malaria is a medical emergency, your doctor must first rule it out. A fever
could still be malaria even if you took anti-malarial medicine because the medicine is not 100% effective.
Most malaria develops within 30 days, but rare cases can lie dormant for a year or longer. It’s important to always tell your doctor
about any travel you have done, no matter how long ago.
Most cases of diarrhea go away by themselves in a few days, but see your doctor if you have diarrhea that lasts longer than two
weeks. Persistent diarrhea can make you lose nutrients and is often caused by a parasitic infection that will need to be treated with
specific drugs.
Skin problems (rashes, boils, fungal infections, bug bites) are among the most common illnesses reported by people who have
returned from international travel.
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Most skin problems are not serious, but they may be a sign of a serious illness, especially if you also have a fever.
Whatever the reason, if you go to the doctor after returning from a trip overseas, tell him or her about your recent travel. Make
sure to include all relevant details, including:
What you did on your trip
How long you were gone
Where you stayed (fancy hotel, native dwelling, tent)
What you ate and drank while you were there
Whether you were bitten by bugs
Whether you swam in fresh-water
Any other possible exposures (sex, tattoos, piercings)
2.2.15 INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES FOR INTERNATIONAL OPERATORS
The NBAA International Operators Committee is composed of NBAA member representatives that have experience and interest in
international operations. The committee designates eight regional leads (by ICAO regions) that act as monitors in their areas of
operational expertise. The committee’s regional lead coordinator directs the group’s efforts in conjunction with the committee
chairman, vice chairman and staff liaison to obtain maximum effectiveness in dealing with international issues. It is the information
gained from these regional contributions that forms the basis for NBAA‘s yearly International Operators Conference, which covers
the wide variety of issues involved in the international operation of business aircraft.
NBAA does not attempt to duplicate services that are available from other sources (e.g., facilitation, flight planning, flight following,
security or training organizations). Instead, the association facilitates the collection and dissemination of time-critical information to
its members through the NBAA International Feedback Database at www.nbaa.org/intl. Flight crews are encouraged to provide
operational feedback to the database after each international trip to keep the system active and viable.
The following items are provided to emphasize the critical elements of any international operation.
Take nothing for granted
Always telephone, fax or email the next stop, handler or operations department as appropriate to ensure that all
arrangements have been made
Insist on written confirmations from all agencies wherever possible and keep them available in the cockpit
Attempt to talk to someone who recently has made the same or similar trip. Check NBAA’s International Feedback
Database for contacts
Seriously consider using an international planning organization
Know current and forecasted weather and INOTAM information
Establish procedures to facilitate flight following and crew communications for maintenance and other possible problems
Establish procedures for crew or passenger illnesses
For additional recommendations from the NBAA International Operators Committee, please review the planning checklist at the end
of this chapter.
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2.2.15.1 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AVIATION COUNCIL (IBAC)
The International Business Aviation Council (IBAC), an organization made up of business aviation associations from different
countries, was founded in 1981 to represent the interests of business aviation worldwide. IBAC is an International NonGovernmental Organization (INGO) with permanent observer status with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In
coordination with member associations, IBAC also produces material of direct value to flight departments, such as the International
Standard for Business Aircraft Operations (IS-BAO), Safety Management Tool Kit, SMS eLearning training and the Aircrew
Identification Card.
IBAC is an International Non-Governmental Organization (INGO) with permanent observer status with the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), the United Nations agency for aviation matters. NBAA was a founding member of IBAC, and through
NBAA’s IBAC membership, NBAA members gain affiliate status to the council.
IBAC’s offices are in the ICAO Building in Montreal, Canada. IBAC members are listed at the end of this section, and additional
information is provided at www.ibac.org.
2.2.15.2 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is an international industry trade group of airlines headquartered in Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, where ICAO is also head-quartered. IATA’s mission is to represent, lead and serve the airline industry. IATA
represents some 240 airlines comprising eighty-four percent (84%) of scheduled international air traffic.
2.2.15.3 DOCUMENTATION RESOURCES
AIPs and their supplements, information circulars and NOTAMs remain the best source for travel documentation requirements.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) offers two further resources. The Travel Information Manual (TIM), published at
www.iata.org, is a valuable source for visa and health requirements, provides monthly updates on passenger documentation
requirements and overview of broad generic requirements found in ICAO Annex 9, Facilitation. The IATA also publishes a website
at www.IATATravelCentre.com with this information.
The Jeppesen airways manual has an entry requirements section, which can be outdated but will provide information to check
against other sources.
Commercial visa service companies can help operators obtain required documents and are listed in the NBAA member directory,
www.nbaa.org/directory, and in the NBAA Products & Services Directory, www.nbaa.org/prodsvcs.
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2.2.15.4 ICAO DOCUMENTS
The ICAO source for publications can be found at: https:// store.icao.int/
Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing
Annex 2 – Rules of the Air (This is referenced in 14CFR91.703)
Annex 5 – International Standards of Measurements
Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft
Part I – International Commercial Air Transport Part II – International General Aviation Aeroplanes
Annex 9 – Facilitation
Annex 19 – Safety Management Systems
Document – #7300 Convention on International Civil Aviation (The 96 Articles)
Document #7030 – Regional Supplementary Procedures
Document #4444 – Procedures for Air Traffic Management, PANS-ATM
Document #8168 – Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Operations PANS-Ops
Vol. I, Flight Procedures
Vol. II, Construction of Visual and Instrument Approaches
Document #7100 – Manual of Airport and Air Navigation Facility Tariffs
Document #9613 – Performance Based Navigation
Global Operational of Data Link Document (The “GOLD” Document)
The ICAO source for publications specific to the North Atlantic and Europe are found at https://www.icao.int/eurnat/
Pages/welcome.aspx. Relevant publications include:
NAT Document #007, North Atlantic Operations and Airspace Manual
North Atlantic Oceanic Error Safety (OES) Bulletins and Supplements
North Atlantic Operations Bulletins
2.2.15.5 FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
The FAA source for Advisory Circulars publication can be found at: www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/
AC 91-70B – Oceanic and International Operations
AC 90-85A – Authorization of Aircraft and Operators for Flight in Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace
AC 90-96A – Approval of U.S. Operators and Aircraft to Operate Under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) in European
Airspace Designated for Basic Area Navigation (BRNAV) and Precision Area Navigation (PRNAV)
AC 90-105A -Approval Guidance for RNP Operations and Barometric Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National Airspace
System and in Oceanic and Remote Continental Airspace
AC 120-70C - Operational Authorization Process for Use of Data Link Communication System
AC 90-100A – U.S Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations
The FAA source for the publications below can be found at: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/.
United States Aeronautical Information Manual “AIM”
Notices to Airmen Publication, Class II “NTAP”
Aeronautical Information Publication “AIP”
The FAA source for the publications below can be found at: https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs400/afs470/oceanic_remote/
North Atlantic Resource Guide
Pacific Resource Guide
WATRS, GOMEX, and Caribbean Resource Guide
The FAA source for the chart supplements below can be found at: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/
productcatalog/supplementalcharts/
Alaska Chart Supplement
Pacific Chart Supplement
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2.2.15.6 IBAC MEMBER COUNCILS
International Business Aviation Council (IBAC)
Web: www.ibac.org
Australian Business Aviation Association
9 Guthrie Ave Cremorne NSW 2090 Australia
Tel: +61 (0) 413 994 757
Email: david.bell@flyabaa.com Web: www.abaa.com.au
Associação Brasileira de Aviáçáo Geral (Brazil)
Rua Cel Tobias Coelho 147 São Paulo – SP 04357-070 Brazil
Tel: +(55) (11) 5032-2727
Fax: +(55) (11) 5031-1900
Email: mail@abag.org.br Web: www.abag.org.br
Asian Business Aviation Association
Level 13, 68 Yee Wo
68 Yee Wo Street Causeway, Hong Kong Tel No. +852 3182 7129
Mobile: +852 6014 5025
Email: info@asbaa.org Web: www.asbaa.org
Business Aircraft Operators Association (India)
415A, G5 Building, Opp. Terminal 1D IGI Airport New Delhi – 110037 Tel:+91 11 47104513
Fax:+91 11 41542438
Email: rkbali@baoa.in
British Business and General Aviation Association Of- fice 1, Brook Farm Barns
Dorton, Aylesbury, Bucks
HP18 9NQ UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1844 238020
Fax: +44 (0) 1844 238087
Email: lindsey.oliver@bbga.aero Web: www.bbga.aero
Canadian Business Aviation Association
1 Rideau Street, Suite 700 Ottawa, ON K1N 8S7 CANADA Tel: +613-236-5611
Fax: +613-236-2361
Email: info@cbaa.ca Web: www.cbaa-acaa.ca
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European Business Aviation Association
Square de Meeûs 37, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
Tel: +32-2-318-2800
Fax: +32-2-768-1325
Email: info@ebaa.org Web: www.ebaa.org
European Business Aviation Council (France)
C/O FNAM
28, rue de Chateaudun 75009 Paris, France
Tel: +33 1 45 26 74 74
Fax: +33 1 45 26 23 95
Email: ebaafrance@ebaafrance.aero
German Business Aviation Association e. V.
Georg-Wulf-Straße 2D-12529 Schönefeld, Germany Phone: +49 0 711 252944600
Cell: +49 0 152 59522812
Fax: +49 0 711 252944609
Email: ceo@gbaa.de Web: www.gbaa.de
Italian Business Aviation Association
Aviazione 65
20138 Milano Linate ITALY Tel: +39 02 76.11.0952
Fax: +39 02 76.11.1110
Email: segreteria@ibaa.it
Japan Business Aviation Association
c/o Sojitz Corporation
1 Uchisaiwaicho 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100- 8691, Japan
Tel: +81-3-6871-5107
Fax: +81-3-6871-3246
Email: kitabayashi@jbaa.org Web Site: www.jbaa.org
Middle East Business Aviation Association
Business Central Towers Tower B, Office 3101 Sheikh Zayed Road Media City
PO Box 117733
Dubai UAE
Tel: +971.4.4356670
Fax: +971.4.4574065
Email: info@mebaa.com Web: www.mebaa.com
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National Business Aviation Association (USA)
1200 G Street NW, Suite 1100 Washington, DC 20005 USA Tel: +202-783-9000
Fax: +202-331-8364
Email: info@nbaa.org Web: www.nbaa.org
Russian United Business Aviation Association
121099, Russia, Moscow
Maly Kakovinsky lane, 4, building 1, office 7 Russian Federation
Tel: +7 909 635 49 81
Fax: + 7 (495) 989 20 12
Email: as@rubaa.ru Web: www.rubaa.ru
2.2.15.7 ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS AND WEB- SITES
Further information on a wide variety of relevant topics can be found at the following resources:
NBAA’s fatigue page www.nbaa.org/ops/safety/human-factors/fatigue/
ICAO’s fatigue page https://www.icao.int/safety/fatiguemanagement/Pages/default.aspx 
Management Guide for General Aviation Operators of Large and Turbojet Aeroplanes https://flightsafety.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/09/ FM Management Guide-for-GA-Ops-FINAL.pdf
IATA Travel Information Manual: www.iata.org/publications/timatic/Pages/tim.aspx
Individual state Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs) www.eurocontrol.int/articles/ais-online
IATA’s Know Before You Go website www.iatatravelcentre.com
US Customs and Border Protection www.cbp.gov/travel
NBAA’s Membership Listing of International Flight Planning Services www.nbaa.org/about/contact/air-trafficservices/fpsp/
The U.S. Department of State https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/go.html
The CIA World Fact Book www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
The Centers for Disease Control http://www.cdc.gov
International Business Aviation Council (IBAC) www.ibac.org
2.2.16 NBAA INTERNATIONAL TRIP CHECKLISTS
NBAA has developed several checklists for international flights based on the material in this section. Each checklist touches on a
different aspect of planning an international flight, from flight crew qualifications to local airport conditions. These checklists begin
on the next page.
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2.3 Emerging Technologies
2.3.1 UAS
Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) are being integrated into commercial enterprises as tools to support the capture of new
business, improve safety and performance, expedite response, support current business goals and provide new capabilities and
services to the market. Technological advancement is an essential element of aviation, enabling new capability, supporting
efficiency gains, and providing safety enhancement.
There are a number of key emerging technologies affecting the business aviation community, including those that have recently
been adopted and those on the edge of conceptual development. Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) and unmanned traffic
management (UTM); advanced air mobility (AAM) and electric vertical takeoff and landing EVTOL platforms; augmented, virtual,
and mixed reality (AR/VR/ MR); additive layer manufacturing (ALM); and smart automation, featuring Blockchain, artificial
intelligence (AI), predictive analytics, and “big data” are clear examples.
The common thread among these various technologies is that they each hold the potential to dramatically alter the future
landscape of the industry. Business aviation professionals play an integral role in introducing new operational applications,
developing commercial entrepreneurial opportunities and best practices, and providing review and feedback for regulations,
standards, and training practices. Staying aware and informed of new technologies, whether introduced to specifically support
business aviation operations or as a result of “disruptive” innovation, will help aviation department managers to better evaluate and
realize potential suitability, implications, and benefits.
A number of operators, including corporate flight departments, are exploring how this technology can provide effective economic
advantage and opportunity to meet the needs of several industries, while maintaining an equivalent level of safety across the
aviation community. These industries include but are not limited to agriculture, resource exploration (oil, gas, metals and minerals),
filming (television and movie-making), real estate, insurance, marketing, telecommunications, emergency services, construction
and government contracting.
Despite tremendous potential there are significant challenges, including the need for precise regulation, certification and training;
improved Detect and Avoid (DAA) systems; and public outreach and education, that must be addressed before wide-scale and
routine application will become a reality. Those able to quickly adapt and respond to changing regulatory conditions, apply
resources to address challenges and meet dynamic demands and needs of these industries will ultimately be better positioned to
take full advantage of this technology. The NBAA Emerging Technology Committee is encouraging flight departments to stay
engaged with how their company is using or planning to use UAS technology for their business needs.
Flight departments may not be aware that other sections within the company may be pursuing or already using this type of aircraft.
Whether UAS assets are being acquired or their services contracted, flight departments can provide valuable guidance to ensure
that the equipment is operated legally and safely. Therefore, aviation team engagement is critical to help maintain the same
standards for UAS that are expected of fixed and rotary wing aircraft. Many of the same factors apply, such as risk management,
standard operating procedures, safety management systems, fatigue management, maintenance programs and training
requirements.
Non-aviation personnel may not be aware of NOTAM requirements, maximum altitudes of use and distance requirements from
airports. Additional factors include insurance requirements, personal protective equipment needs and the security of transmitted
data. Amid rapidly changing technology and regulatory requirements, flight departments are best suited to provide guidance for this
expanding segment of aviation and its many uses. For more information, visit www.nbaa.org/uas.
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3.1 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
3.1.1 PURPOSE OF THE BUSINESS AVIATION MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT
A major contributor to the success of the corporate flight department is the aircraft maintenance function. The aviation maintenance
personnel have the direct responsibility of certifying the conformity of aircraft to ensure continued airworthiness which in turn
allows for maximum asset utilization.
The Aviation Maintenance team serves the dual role of asset management, including maintenance planning, budgeting, and aircraft
refurbishment, all contributors to operational capability and asset values.
Documenting and communicating established maintenance practices such as discrepancy entries, corrective action, internal
company policies and other acceptable data should be fully integrated into the Maintenance Operations Manual. Good interdepartment communication should be fostered across work groups that maintain stable aviation operations
The maintenance department should apply analytics to leverage available data establishing metrics that measure and
communicate department key performance and safety indicators (KPIs and SPIs)
3.1.2 MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT MISSION STATEMENT
The aviation department should have an overall mission statement that describes its role for the particular company served. A
mission statement is a brief paragraph that provides a concise and relevant definition of a given activity that may be easily
understood by a large audience. This audience may be potential users, customers and/or senior management. The mission
statement should reflect the values and principles of the NBAA member company.
The maintenance function may wish to develop a statement of its own that supports the flight department’s general mission
statement.
3.1.3 MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT BUDGET
Optimized maintenance departments are required to have suitable monetary resources for the operating (fiscal) year. The parent
company’s budget policies and procedures should be understood and complied with. Both short and long-range planning should be
developed for asset management that reflects day-to-day operations and capital expenditures. The maintenance manager is
tasked with being the primary steward of aircraft spend on maintenance, including monetary considerations for airframe and engine
maintenance programs, accurate warranty work, and comprehensive RFQ procedures for outsourced work. Budgeting
considerations also include evaluating the needs for additional training, replacement parts, support equipment, engine reserves,
salaries, and other applicable items.
Good business practice dictates that the company’s accounting and budgeting personnel be consulted on an ongoing basis to
ensure that they clearly understand the maintenance department’s needs and plan for them. The development of this relationship
may prove to be critical to the approval of important maintenance-oriented programs and the continued success of the aviation
department (for a Sample Maintenance Budget Form, along with related charts for Relative Monthly Expenses and Projected
Monthly Downtime, see Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2, and Figure 3.3.
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3.2 Maintenance Tools
3.2.1 MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN TOOLS
Aircraft maintenance technicians should possess adequate tools to perform normal maintenance tasks. These tasks include the
removal and replacement of standard aircraft fasteners such as screws, bolts, nuts and pins. Tools should be of a quality
appropriate for the maintenance of aircraft and the prevention of personal injury and equipment damage.
The department may give consideration to a tool reimbursement program that will help to defray the high cost of tool purchases.
This program could be developed in such a manner as to promote the purchase of high-quality tools that can improve the
efficiency and quality of work.Shop Tools and Support Equipment.
Performing proper maintenance and ground support requires a flight department to invest in certain equipment. This equipment,
along with staffing and facilities, will determine the overall capabilities of the maintenance function.
The equipment should be of a quality and quantity that will provide safe operations and ease of application. Analysis conducted with
the input of fellow operators and manufacturer field service representatives can help ensure that the selection of equipment is
made wisely.
As a minimum, the department should invest in equipment that meets specifications to provide workplace safety and prevent longterm injuries or discomfort. Some equipment, such as precision torque wrenches and electrical measuring meters, is required to
complete specific work tasks. Other equipment used to facilitate fault isolation is additional and enhances capabilities to expedite
the aircraft’s return to service. Examples of basic servicing equipment include jacking equipment, hydraulic service stands and
compressed gases. Safety for both the maintenance personnel and the aircraft should factor heavily in the selection of such
equipment.
It is required that all tools used to measure or test aircraft components or functions be properly calibrated.
3.2.2 CALIBRATION OF PRECISION TOOLS
A calibrated tools program should be used to track and record the calibration and disposition of all tools used for these purposes.
The maintenance management function is responsible for ensuring the calibration of all precision tools, both company and
employee-owned, including meters, gauges and torque wrenches, in accordance with the applicable specifications.
All precision tools covered by this section will be calibrated every 12 calendar months unless otherwise noted. All precision tools
will be controlled by serial number or another number assigned to the tool for traceability and tracking.
The company performing the tool calibration will affix a sticker to each item calibrated identifying the date of calibration. If the sticker
becomes lost or illegible and the tool is not yet due for recalibration, the director of maintenance may affix a new sticker using the
information from his or her records.
The maintenance department may maintain a tool calibration log identifying the tools or equipment requiring calibration, the date of
last calibration, the company performing the last calibration, the method of calibration and proof that the equipment used for
calibration is traceable to the National Bureau of Standards.
Tool calibration information will be retained until the tool is re-calibrated or no longer used by the company.
A computer program may be used to control tool calibration intervals. The program will be checked once each month to arrange a
list of tools that will need calibration that month. Any calibrated tool that has been dropped or damaged will be re-calibrated prior to
further use.
3.2.3 TOOL CONTROL SYSTEMS
[NEW SECTION – RESERVED]
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3.3 Maintenance Technician Training
Training is an essential element of the maintenance function within a corporate flight department. Maintenance costs in any flight
department can represent one of the most extensive and difficult expenses to predict and budget for, due to unforeseen failures or
malfunctions. With even one inadvertent misdiagnosis of a malfunction, the resulting improper corrective action can unnecessarily
compound these costs. More importantly, the secondary economic impact of a canceled flight, in terms of missed corporate
opportunity and diminished aviation department credibility, can eclipse the immediately measurable costs.
In order for maintenance personnel to be fully effective in supporting the mission of the company, they should be both technically
proficient and knowledgeable of the company business. Development of a strong training program for maintenance personnel is
one of the most effective means by which an aviation department can promote efficiency and cost-effectiveness in its operations,
while maintaining the expected high levels of safety. Initial, recurrent and other professional training should be structured to support
the following:
Safe and efficient aircraft operations
Dispatch reliability/maintainability
Troubleshooting/diagnostic accuracy and cost-effectiveness
Operational control, planning and accounting
Personnel management, leadership and teamwork
Communications skills
Each operator should provide a training program for its maintenance personnel to ensure that the technician is familiar with and
competent in the assigned duties of the position. The training program should consist of initial and recurrent courses in each type
of aircraft operated and maintained by the company. The type-specific courses should focus on aircraft and systems
familiarization, including diagnostic testing and line-troubleshooting techniques designed to promote efficient and cost-effective
operations. This will enable the aviation department to salvage flights that might otherwise be canceled due to a malfunction. Some
existing training programs do not emphasize the line diagnostic and maintenance skills necessary for ensuring dispatch reliability
and cost control. Aviation department managers should aggressively seek out training programs that support these critical
functions.
Training facilities, simulators, aids and materials should provide an appropriate learning environment that meets the trainee’s
requirements. Training should not be treated as a one-time event in which all knowledge is expected to be imparted over a period
of days or weeks. Rather, training should be structured to support the ongoing daily operations of the aviation department,
incorporating reference resources, product support/troubleshooting information and training refresher materials. Examples of such
references include online technical support systems, diagnostic aids, self-directed study materials and interactive training aids.
Further, NBAA recommends that aircraft-specific recurrent training be conducted annually at a reputable training facility. In addition
to training for technical competency, aviation department managers should work to foster a team environment in which all
personnel understand their role in the organization and their impact on the economic and operational efficiency of the department.
Maintenance personnel training should include personnel management, leadership, teamwork and communication skills. The
aviation department’s budgetary process should be participatory in nature to ensure that all personnel recognize and accept their
role in meeting the economic objectives and constraints of the department. To support this, maintenance personnel should receive
training designed to develop budgetary planning and control skills.
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To maximize utilization of all the department’s resources, consideration should be given to providing training for shop equipment not
specifically dedicated to a particular aircraft. This training may be gained on site or through vocational/ technical learning centers.
Additionally, because of the nature of corporate flight activity, all tools within a shop may not receive daily use, so in order for a
technician to remain proficient while continually developing a relevant set of skills, it may be beneficial to provide a program that
encourages a limited number of personal shop projects.
Approval should be given by both the maintenance management and department manager and must fall within established
company guidelines.
The handling of hazardous materials that the maintenance technicians come in contact with during the performance of their duties
raises many concerns. The development of a hazmat training program should be considered to protect both the employee and the
organization. Guidance in this area can be found through the Research and Special Programs Office of Hazardous Materials
Safety at http://hazmat.dot.gov.
3.4 Maintenance Technician Work Performance Criteria
A technician’s performance of assigned duties may be viewed from two perspectives: First, from that of the FAA, and second, from
that of the company employing the individual.
FAR 43, Subpart 43.13 provides the technician with guidelines to follow when performing maintenance on aircraft. It should be
mentioned that these guidelines, summarized below, are considered the minimum requirements.
A person is required to follow methods, techniques and practices set forth by the aircraft or component manufacturer.
These instructions or techniques should be acceptable to the administrator. The individual carrying out these practices
should use the proper manufacturer’s maintenance manuals or other instructions for continued airworthiness, tools and
equipment as spelled out in the procedures, or the equivalent as acceptable to the administrator.
Each individual maintaining, altering or performing maintenance will do it in such a manner that the condition of the engine,
aircraft or component thereof will be at the very minimum equal to the original or properly altered condition.
Special provisions exist for individuals who operate under air carrier FAR 121, 125, 129 and 135. One of the
requirements when operating under these rules is that when holding an air carrier certificate you must provide a program
of continued airworthiness acceptable to the administrator.
A technician working in business aviation must be a multi-skilled individual. The development and measure of a maintenance
person rely heavily on both interpersonal skills and technical proficiency. These two must work hand in hand in order for the
individual to be effective and productive.
Criteria that may be helpful in measuring the performance of not only technicians but also aviation department employees as a
whole include:
WRITING SKILLS
Writes clearly and informatively
Edits work for spelling and grammar
Varies style to meet the needs of the audience
TEAM PARTICIPATION
Balances team and individual responsibilities
Exhibits objectivity and openness to other views
Gives and welcomes feedback
Contributes to building a positive team spirit
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QUANTITY
Completes work in a timely manner
Achieves established goals
QUALITY
Demonstrates accuracy and thoroughness
Displays a commitment to excellence
Looks for ways to improve and promote quality
Applies feedback to improve performance
Monitors own work to ensure quality
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Identifies problems in a timely manner
Gathers and analyzes information skillfully
Develops alternative solutions
Resolves problems in early stages
Works well in group-problem-solving situations
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Date Prepared
Model Current Time Landings
Serial Number Aircraft
Calendar Year #1 Engine
Budgeted Flight Hours #2 Engine
Budgeted Aircraft Landings #3 Engine
3.4.0.5.1 Figure 3.1: Sample Maintenance Budget Form
3.4.0.5.2 
3.4.0.5.3 
 (continued)
Scheduled Maintenance January February March April May June July August SeptemberOctober NovemberDecemberYear
Coordinator Salary 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 $72,000
Inspections, Airframe
Flat Rate $0
Discrepancies $0
Publications/Subscriptions $10,500
Computer Tracking Program
Engine Payment Program (MSP) $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $10,416 $124,922
Hourly Rate ($125 per engine)
Engine Reserves n/a $0
Airframe Payment Program $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $14,583 $174,996
Hourly rates ($350)
Landing Gear Overhaul $0
Engine Overhaul/H.S.I. $600,000 $0
Thrust Reverser Overhaul $600,000
APU Overhaul or MSP $15,000 $0
Corrosion Inspections $15,000
Service Bulletins $0
Airworthiness Directives $0
Subtotal $24,999 $44,499 $633,499 $24,999 $30,999 $24,999 $24,999 $24,9990 $24,999 $24,999 $24,999 $24,999 $997,488
Unscheduled Maintenance January Feburary March April May June July August SeptemberOctober NovemberDecemberYear
Brakes $50,000 $50,000.00 $100,000
Tires and wheels $0
Flight Discrepancies $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $96,000
Subtotal $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $58,000 $8,000 $8,000 $58,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $8,000 $196,000
Mods and Upgrades
Spares $0
Paint $80,000
Interior $45,000 $45,000
Entertainment Systems $0
Avionics $0
Others $0
Subtotal $0 $0 $0 $125,000 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $45,000
Total $32,999 $52,499 $641,499 $207,999 $38,999 $32,999 $82,999 $32,999 $32,999 $32,999 $32,999 $32,999 $1,238,488
Estimated Down Time (in Days) 2 8 25 3 3 $1,238,488
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3.4.0.5.4 Figure 3.2: Relative Monthly Expenses
3.4.0.5.5 Figure 3.3: Projected Monthly Downtime
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3.5 Maintenance Technician Work Performance Criteria
A technician’s performance of assigned duties may be viewed from two perspectives: First, from that of the FAA, and second, from
that of the company employing the individual.
FAR 43, Subpart 43.13 provides the technician with guidelines to follow when performing maintenance on aircraft. It should be
mentioned that these guidelines, summarized below, are considered the minimum requirements.
A person is required to follow methods, techniques and practices set forth by the aircraft or component manufacturer.
These instructions or techniques should be acceptable to the administrator. The individual carrying out these practices
should use the proper manufacturer’s maintenance manuals or other instructions for continued airworthiness, tools and
equipment as spelled out in the procedures, or the equivalent as acceptable to the administrator.
Each individual maintaining, altering or performing maintenance will do it in such a manner that the condition of the engine,
aircraft or component thereof will be at the very minimum equal to the original or properly altered condition.
Special provisions exist for individuals who operate under air carrier FAR 121, 125, 129 and 135. One of the
requirements when operating under these rules is that when holding an air carrier certificate you must provide a program
of continued airworthiness acceptable to the administrator.
A technician working in business aviation must be a multi-skilled individual. The development and measure of a maintenance
person rely heavily on both interpersonal skills and technical proficiency. These two must work hand in hand in order for the
individual to be effective and productive.
Criteria that may be helpful in measuring the performance of not only technicians but also aviation department employees as a
whole include:
WRITING SKILLS
Writes clearly and informatively
Edits work for spelling and grammar
Varies style to meet the needs of the audience
TEAM PARTICIPATION
Balances team and individual responsibilities
Exhibits objectivity and openness to other views
Gives and welcomes feedback
Contributes to building a positive team spirit
QUANTITY
Completes work in a timely manner
Achieves established goals
QUALITY
Demonstrates accuracy and thoroughness
Displays a commitment to excellence
Looks for ways to improve and promote quality
Applies feedback to improve performance
Monitors own work to ensure quality
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Identifies problems in a timely manner
Gathers and analyzes information skillfully
Develops alternative solutions
Resolves problems in early stages
Works well in group-problem-solving situations
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PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION
Uses time efficiently
Prioritizes and plans work activities
PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Integrate changes smoothly
Sets goals and objectives
ORGANIZATION SUPPORT
Follows policies and procedures
Completes administrative tasks correctly and on time
Supports the organization goals and values
Benefits the organization through outside activities
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Participates in meetings
Demonstrates group presentation skills
Responds well to questions
Listens and obtains clarification
Speaks clearly and persuasively
JUDGMENT
Displays a willingness to make decisions
Exhibits sound and accurate judgment
Includes the appropriate people in the decision-making process
JOB KNOWLEDGE
Competent in the required job skills and knowledge
Exhibits ability to learn and apply new skills
Keeps abreast of current industry developments
Requires minimal supervision
Displays an understanding of how the individual’s job relates to others’ jobs
INITIATIVE
Volunteers readily
Undertakes self-development activities
DEPENDABILITY
Responds to requests for service and assistance
 Follows instructions and responds to management direction
Takes responsibility for own actions
Commits to doing the best job possible
Meets attendance and punctuality guidelines
Customer service
Displays courtesy and sensitivity
Meets commitments
Responds to customer needs
Manages difficult or emotional customer situations
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COOPERATION
Establishes and maintains effective relations
Displays positive outlook and pleasant manner
Offers assistance and support to co-workers
Works actively to resolve conflicts
Works cooperatively in group situations
COMMUNICATIONS
Expresses ideas and thoughts verbally
Expresses ideas and thoughts in written form
Exhibits good listening and comprehension
Selects and uses the appropriate communication methods
ANALYTICAL SKILLS
Synthesizes complex and diverse information
Collects and utilizes data
Uses intuition and experience to compliment data
Identifies data relationships and dependencies
3.6 Elements of Aircraft Maintenance Activity
This section discusses preflight and post-flight inspections and identifies various maintenance inspection options defined by
regulations.
3.6.1 PREFLIGHT INSPECTIONS
When operating an aircraft under FAR Part 91, it is the responsibility of the pilot in command to determine the airworthiness of the
aircraft before flight. FAR Part 135 and 121 also have specific regulations regarding preflight inspections and personnel performing
the inspections.
Preflight inspection requirements and details must be obtained from the manufacturer of the aircraft for the specific type and model
being operated. This information may be found in the Approved Flight Manual, Pilot’s Operating Handbook or the Maintenance
Manual. Additional inspection requirements (i.e., instructions for continued airworthiness) contained in a Supplemental Type
Certificate alteration should be included in a preflight inspection checklist. Required “inspection items” must be completed as
directed during the preflight inspection.
It is prudent to have a formalized preflight checklist that is completed before the first flight of each day and signed by that individual
performing the inspection.
Due to maintenance requirements, the configuration of system controls and switches may differ from the flight configuration.
Following any aircraft maintenance, the flight crew should debrief with the maintenance personnel to understand the full scope of
the maintenance performed. The flight crew should perform a particularly detailed preflight verifying all switch positions and
flightdeck control configurations. Additionally, the personnel performing the preflight inspection should ensure sufficient breathing
oxygen is stored onboard and available for crew member and passenger use should it become necessary in flight.
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3.6.2 POST-FLIGHT INSPECTIONS
In the post-flight inspection, the condition of the aircraft and its servicing requirements are evaluated. It is performed before the
subsequent scheduled flight and serves as an opportunity to ensure dispatch for the next scheduled flight.
A detailed inspection of the aircraft should be performed on the last flight of each day. The manufacturer’s inspection criteria and
servicing specifications are to be addressed during the post-flight. Due to regulatory preventative maintenance limitations on flight
crew, aircraft maintenance technicians should carry out post-flight inspections. A formalized checklist should be used that covers
all required items along with a review and disposition of all maintenance discrepancies.
Cleaning of the aircraft cabin, windows and exterior should also take place at this time. If the aircraft is away from home base, the
flight crew must ensure airworthiness by having manufacturer-recommended servicing and inspection items complied with in
conjunction with applicable FARs.
3.6.3 INSPECTION PROGRAMS
FAR Part 91 requires that an aircraft operated under this part have an established inspection program approved by the
administrator (i.e., a manufacturer’s program, an air carrier program, or a self-developed program that has been approved by the
administrator). The selected program must be identified in the aircraft logs and notification made to the local FAA office of
jurisdiction, Flight Standards District Office or equivalent.
Inspection programs have three basic types of schedules: annual, progressive and continuous.
ANNUAL INSPECTION SCHEDULE
In an annual inspection schedule, inspection of the complete aircraft must be made once every 12 calendar months. This
inspection is performed in accordance with a specific checklist of inspection items, and the aircraft condition and airworthiness is
determined and recorded in the aircraft log.
An annual inspection program is performed by a certified technician with an Inspection Authorization and must comply with
Appendix D of FAR Part 43 or the appropriate guidelines established by the manufacturer of the aircraft. This type of inspection is
designed for smaller aircraft. The aircraft manufacturer of small aircraft typically will identify this as their approved program.
The annual inspection schedule is one event from start to finish and cannot be interrupted for return to service until completed. An
annual inspection requires the aircraft to be in maintenance for much longer than an aircraft under the progressive or continuous
programs.
PROGRESSIVE INSPECTION SCHEDULE
In a progressive inspection schedule, inspection of the entire aircraft must be made once every 12 calendar months. However, the
inspection is divided into several events during the 12-month period. This inspection is performed in accordance with a specific
checklist of inspection items, and the aircraft condition and airworthiness is determined for those items inspected at that time. The
completion of inspection items is recorded in the aircraft log.
FAR Section 91.409 (d) outlines what is needed to set up a progressive inspection program. In order to comply, the registered
owner must submit a written request to the FAA FSDO having jurisdiction over the area in which the applicant is located. Further,
the owner must provide a certified technician holding an Inspection Authorization, a certified repair station, or the manufacturer of
the aircraft to perform the inspection. Included in paragraph (d) are other requirements necessary to meet progressive inspection
criteria.
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CONTINUOUS INSPECTION SCHEDULE
In a continuous inspection schedule, inspection of the entire aircraft takes place over the design life of the aircraft as identified to
the FAA during certification. Specific items are inspected or maintained based on hours of utilization, calendar, number of landings
or cycles. Many variations in the combination of criteria are found for larger corporate type aircraft.
FAR 91.409 (e) and (f) provide the basis for establishing a continuous inspection program for large airplanes, turbojet multiengine
airplanes, turboprop multiengine airplanes and turbine powered rotor-craft. Note that options 3 and 4 of paragraph (f) are most
relevant to the corporate operator. Under this program, it is not necessary for a certified technician to hold an Inspection
Authorization for compliance.
Continuous inspection schedules are designed to ensure safe, adequate and timely maintenance that meets both FAA and the
aircraft manufacturer’s specifications. Under this schedule, the inspection and servicing are made in scheduled and incremental
stages so that the aircraft is continuously inspected and constant airworthiness is maintained.
3.6.4 SELECTING AN INSPECTION SCHEDULE
It is most common to select an inspection program and schedule that have been developed and approved during aircraft
certification by the manufacturer. Selecting the manufacturer program will ensure compliance for FAA, aircraft insurance issues
and warranty issues.
Maintenance management should evaluate all the programs and schedules, choosing the best for the company’s operation.
Deviations from the program or the schedule are possible but must be approved by the administrator in all cases. Before any final
decisions are made it is very important that all applicable FAR s are read and clearly understood. If necessary, this should include
consultation with the local FSDO to ensure that all regulations are being followed. NBAA has obtained an exemption from FAR
91.409 for its members that allow those who operate small aircraft or helicopters to use one of the inspection programs specified in
FAR Section 91.409 (e), providing an approved program is available. The person tasked with the selection and tracking of the
maintenance and inspection program should be aware of the difference in philosophies associated with development of these
programs, such as MSG 2 versus MSG 3, as well as the fact that certain aircraft can be operated under either program. This
person also should be aware of the benefits and risks associated with Engine “On Condition” programs that are available.
3.6.5 ADDITIONAL INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS
Aircraft Manufacturer Inspection Programs do not encompass all regulatory items that may affect the airworthiness of the aircraft.
Each national aviation regulatory authority may have specific regulations that must be reviewed and added to the inspection
program as needed to ensure compliance. The FAR Part 39 Airworthiness Directive is one such area for FAA-registered aircraft.
AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are FAA regulations that require inspection and/or modification to an aircraft after it has been
certified. Their intent is to ensure safe aircraft operation by identifying areas in an aircraft that need to be inspected or modified
and/or have become unsafe during experience with the product. A continuous review of all AD notes must be made at each
inspection event.
FLIGHT OPERATIONS INSPECTIONS
There are specific inspections for types of equipment installed based on the airspace environment in which the aircraft will be
operated (i.e., RVSM , IFR , RNP10, etc.). A complete review of the applicable FAR must be made to identify these additional
requirements.
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TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET AND LIFE LIMITED COMPONENTS
Although not considered inspection items, some components have very specific “life limits,” at which time they must be discarded.
These items are a result of engineering system safety analysis during certification. They typically are identified on the aircraft TC
or in the ATA Chapter 5 “Time and Life Limit” or “Airworthiness Limitations” sections of maintenance manuals. These must be
managed in conjunction with the inspection program and schedule.
INSPECTION ITEMS AS A RESULT OF AIRCRAFT MODIFICATION
A review of all Supplemental Type Certificates and Form 337s that pertain to the aircraft must be completed to identify additional
inspection items necessary for continued airworthiness. When an airframe, powerplant or appliance is modified or repaired it must
be evaluated for continuous airworthiness. This evaluation may result in a requirement to inspect or service an area at a specific
interval to continue airworthiness.
OTHER REGULATORY AGENCY INSPECTION
Consideration must be given to other governing agencies and their requirements, such as the Department of Transportation and its
jurisdiction over pressure cylinders (i.e., oxygen bottles and fire bottles). Any identified requirements must be added to the
inspection program to ensure compliance and safe operation.
3.6.6 MANAGEMENT OF THE INSPECTION PROGRAM AND SCHEDULE
The management of the inspection items and status of aircraft airworthiness must be designated to a specific individual or
managing agency. The ability to determine an aircraft’s airworthiness is critical to the safe operation of the aircraft. Both
independent vendors and the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) have developed computerized programs that can be very
effective tools for the management of inspections. Regardless of the methodology selected, a consistent method should be
employed.
3.6.7 ENGINE/COMPONENT INSPECTIONS AND OVERHAUL
An aircraft may have components and engines installed that require their own specific maintenance schedule or inspection as
defined by their manufacturer. These components and engines may not be clearly identified in the aircraft manufacturer’s
maintenance and inspection manuals, and these items may even have optional programs for the operator to select. The typical
option is for either an “on-condition” or “hard time” program.
“On-condition” indicates a methodology that might require more frequent inspection or servicing for the evaluation of the current
condition against set standards or until failure is predicted or occurs.
“Hard time” indicates a methodology that allows the component to operate to a set utilization point (whether hours, landings or
cycles) with less maintenance/servicing until the component is removed for overhaul or replaced.
The owner/operator must evaluate the cost of fixed over-haul against the unpredictability of component replacement and the
impact of each upon the organization.
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3.6.8 SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
Scheduled maintenance of the aircraft may consist of the following actions:
Performing the required inspections items
Servicing systems
Correcting discrepancies
Modifying the aircraft per Service Bulletins, STCs, etc.
Painting and providing cosmetic repairs
This type of maintenance is planned with respect to the amount of time available, the tools/equipment needed, technical personnel
and cost. A complete evaluation of the scope of the work should be completed to select the appropriately rated and capable
agency/facility to perform the work commensurate with the expectations of your organization. If an outside agency/facility is
selected, an audit should be completed before taking the aircraft there for maintenance.
3.6.9 UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
Unscheduled maintenance is that which occurs randomly from aircraft utilization and the effects of the operating environment. It
typically results from causes such as system failures, accelerated wear, lightning strikes, hailstorms, hard landings and wind
shear. An appropriately rated technician using definitions, guidelines and criteria from the manufacturer, the FAA or the designated
airworthiness engineer typically determines corrective action and airworthiness.
Maintenance management must have oversight of all unscheduled maintenance to ensure the appropriate level of corrective
action.
The use of a maintenance authorization form, such as the one that appears in Figure 3.4 is a good way to avoid using
unauthorized individuals or agencies during a nonscheduled maintenance event while away from home base. This form will guide
the maintenance manager and provide a standard to follow during what is normally a high-pressure event. The form guides the
individual to obtain all the proper documentation and authorizations.
The maintenance authorization form should be tailored for each individual operation.
3.6.10 PERFORMANCE OF AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTIONS
The performance of all maintenance and inspections must be completed by those appropriately rated and trained to do so under
the presiding regulatory authority or rules.
United States-registered aircraft may have maintenance and inspections performed by appropriately trained and certified Airframe
and Powerplant technicians, FAR-approved and appropriately rated Part 145 repair stations, and FAA-approved and appropriately
rated foreign JAR 145 Repair Stations.
3.6.11 AIRDATA / RADIO / RADAR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE AND
INSPECTION
The majority of Airframe and Powerplant maintenance technicians are not certified to perform or supervise maintenance and
inspection of radar, radio equipment, autopilots and similar avionics. Unless a competent electronics technician is employed full
time, companies should arrange to have this type of equipment maintained and inspected by a repair station with the appropriate
ratings under FAR Part 145. If a company has its own avionics repair capabilities with properly trained technicians, it would be a
certified repair station with all applicable ratings for the equipment designated.
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3.6.11.0.1 Figure 3.4: Sample Contract Maintenance Authorization Form
3.6.11.0.2 Date ______________________
Registration number_________________________________________ Aircraft
manufacturer__________________________________________
Aircraft model______________________________________________ Aircraft serial Number_________________________
Nature of the maintenance to be performed___________________________________________________________________
Is this aircraft currently listed under Part 135 operations specifications? Yes / No (circle one)
If not, the rest of this section is not applicable.
Make copy of the drug and alcohol program that covers the person performing maintenance,
if applicable___________________________________________________________________________________________
Does the maintenance require RII authorization? Yes / No (circle one)
If yes, complete and check the following forms, if they are not currently on file:
RII authorization____________________________________________ RII list ______________________________________
Make sure the person signing has authorization and is on the list _________________________________________________
Does the maintenance require airworthiness release? Yes / No (circle one)
Airworthiness release authorization_______________________________ Airworthiness release list______________________
Make sure the person signing has authorization and is on the list__________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
For Repair Stations
Get a copy of the Repair Station
Certificate___________________________________________________________________________________
Make sure the Repair Station has the proper authorizations to perform the maintenance needed for this
event_________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________
For Individuals Performing Maintenance
Name______________________________________________________________________________________
What type of training does the individual posses for this task?____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Does the individual possess the proper tools to perform the task?_________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Does the individual possess the current manuals required?______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Get copy of A&P license__________________________________________________________________________________
If yes, instruct the person receiving the part on how to perform an Incoming Parts Inspection.
Make copies of all parts tags, including incoming parts inspection tags_____________________________________________
Make copies of individual’s training certificates or authorizations__________________________________________________
Forward copies of all forms to the chief inspector______________________________________________________________
Name of Person Authorizing Maintenance_________________________________________________________________
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3.6.12 OPERATIONAL CHECK FLIGHTS
Both FAR Section 91.407 and good operating practice require that an aircraft be flown before carrying passengers if it has been
repaired or altered in a manner that may have changed its flight characteristics or substantially affected its operation in flight. If the
check flight is a requirement of returning the aircraft to service, then the pilot conducting the check flight must sign the aircraft
record indicating that the flight was accomplished. It is important, before performing a check flight, that a written Flight Check Profile
be developed and discussed with the crew flying the aircraft. This will help ensure that the crew is prepared for any procedures
that will need to be performed during the flight and avoid any confusion. It is a good safety practice to conduct these flights during
daylight VFR conditions only.
If a ground test can show conclusively that the repair or alteration has not changed the flight characteristics or substantially
affected the flight operation of the aircraft, then an operational check flight is not required.
3.6.13 SCHEDULING INSPECTIONS, MAINTENANCE AND TIME-LIMITED COMPONENTS
Crucial to any flight department’s success is a highly consistent and reliable dispatch rate. When an operator fails in this regard,
the value of service provided erodes to a questionable level. Scheduling maintenance can have a real-time effect on how well a
consistent and reliable dispatch rate is achieved. Maintenance activity should be planned to coincide as smoothly as possible with
the flight schedule; coordination with flight operations is a must. The forecasted demand for both flight and maintenance needs to
be clearly communicated across department functions so that all needs are understood and can be planned for whenever
possible. This is an ongoing assignment that remains constant over the life of the department.
3.6.14 WORK INTERRUPTION PROCEDURES
Implementation of Work Interruption Procedures are very helpful for technicians to follow any time they leave the area of a job that
is not complete. These procedures could be as simple as recording the incomplete item in the Flight Log to preclude a pilot from
taking the aircraft with incomplete work in progress. These procedures should be tailored to the individual operation to ensure that
they are effective.
3.6.15 PARTS REMOVAL FORM
A Parts Removal Form is a very effective tool, especially during an inspection, to verify that all the components removed during the
inspection have been reinstalled in the correct position.
Entry columns in the Parts Removal Book will generally include: Component Description, Part Number Off, Serial Number Off,
Reason for Removal, Part Number On, Serial Number On, and the initials of the installer.
3.7 Quality Assurance
The purpose of a quality assurance program is to verify on a continuing basis that the maintenance policies and procedures in use
are current and effective, and that the aircraft is consistently returned to service in an airworthy condition. The quality assurance
program specifically focuses on maintenance procedures, but it also should coordinate with the organization’s safety management
system (SMS).
3.7.1 REQUIREMENTS
A specific quality assurance program is not required of Part 91 operators, but it should be considered an industry standard or best
practice.
Specific requirements for the quality assurance program for Part 135 and Part 121 operators can be found in FAR 135.431 and
FAR 121.373, which both refer to a continuing analysis and surveillance system (CASS), described further in a later section of this
guide. See also FAA Advisory Circular 120-79A, Developing and Implementing a Continuing Analysis and Surveillance System.
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On an international basis, the fundamental requirement for a quality assurance program is derived from ICAO Annex 6: 8.7.3.2,
which states: “The maintenance organization shall ensure compliance with 8.7.3.1 by either establishing an independent quality
assurance system to monitor compliance with and adequacy of the procedures, or by providing a system of inspection to ensure
that all maintenance is properly performed.” Individual countries develop their own specific regulations to ensure compliance with
this rule.
3.7.2 OVERVIEW
The ICAO definition provides two options in developing a quality assurance program:
A system of 100-percent inspection of all work performed–typically found in smaller organizations where an inspector or
another technician inspects the work of the technician performing the task and signs the task card as the inspector.
For larger organizations, an internal audit system that continuously reviews the policies and procedures in place to
ensure their effectiveness is most commonly used. (This method is also known as the CASS .)
From a safety perspective, having both elements in place would provide the greatest margin of safety for maintenance operations.
Regardless of the method selected, a clearly documented procedure for quality assurance is essential for consistent results.
3.7.3 100-PERCENT INSPECTIONS
In the U.S., duplicate inspections are required for items identified as required inspection items (RII) by the aircraft manufacturer.
These typically include replacement of engines and controls, flight controls, key hydraulic system elements and other items that
could seriously impact the safety of flight. Individual organizations also can add items to the list of duplicate inspection items based
on their own service history.
Most manufacturers provide task forms with a space for an inspector’s signature for scheduled maintenance tasks. While only
required if specified in the approved inspection program, it is certainly a best practice that should be considered in the development
of maintenance procedures.
One key to an effective duplicate inspection program begins with the organizational structure. Typically, a chief inspector reports to
the maintenance manager on an equal level with the chief mechanic or whatever job title is responsible for production and
scheduling of tasks. This structure is adopted to ensure that pressures to return the aircraft to service do not compromise the
integrity of the work performed.
The other key to a successful 100 percent duplicate inspection process is the return-to-service procedures. These procedures
should be documented and ensure that all forms used for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance have areas for the duplicate
inspection signature. Furthermore, the process should ensure that all work performed by the various disciplines (avionics, interior,
NDT, airframe, etc.) contains the inspector’s release for that area and that one signature releases the entire aircraft for service.
3.7.4 CASS OVERVIEW
The Continuous Analysis and Surveillance System (CASS) is essentially an internal auditing program for the maintenance
department. These internal reviews usually divide all maintenance activities into various sections and are conducted on a
scheduled basis. Generally, monthly inspections are conducted so that the entire organization is reviewed on an annual basis,
much like the continuous inspection program for the aircraft.
The first critical success factor is the selection of the auditor(s). The internal audits may be conducted by an individual or by
teams. In either case, it is essential that the person(s) conducting the reviews be well versed in both company procedures and
regulatory requirements. It also is helpful to have training in auditing techniques. Many organizations have included auditor training
into their training programs.
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As with the 100-percent inspections, the organizational structure of CASS is another critical success factor. The person selected
as the internal auditor needs to report directly to the maintenance manager for all matters relating to the internal audits to ensure
that the proper resources are made available for the appropriate corrective actions. Furthermore, the internal auditor should work
with the safety manager, if in place, to ensure continuity with the safety management system.
3.7.5 CASS AUDIT PROGRAM
As mentioned above, the internal audit program first needs to be well documented. The specific checklists used will evolve
continuously as regulations and conditions change, but the frequency and procedures will remain relatively constant. The specific
areas to be reviewed will vary considerably from one organization to another based on the nature of tasks performed, but listed
below is a brief outline of areas typically reviewed:
3.7.5.0.1 Maintenance Authorization
Verify that the work performed is within the scope of approvals, typically the maintenance manual and inspection program. Also,
verify that any work subcontracted is performed by organizations with appropriate certifications (auditing of vendors).
3.7.5.0.2 Maintenance Control
Verify that inspections are performed per the approved inspection program; life-limited parts are maintained per Chapter 5; all
airworthiness directives and mandatory service bulletins are accomplished and other service information is properly reviewed; and
all equipment is installed as alterations are maintained in accordance with instructions for continued airworthiness. Another area of
maintenance control to be reviewed is that of scheduling, duty limits and other administrative polices for presence of procedures
and consistency of application.
3.7.5.0.3 Quality Assurance
Review the effectiveness of the internal audit program to ensure that procedures are used consistently; the procedures in place
reflect current requirements; and non-conformities are promptly corrected.
3.7.5.0.4 Maintenance Records
Ensure that appropriate entries are made and the aircraft is properly released; required supporting documentation is retained (and
ideally the superseded documents are removed); listings are maintained per airworthiness directives and service bulletins; and all
records are maintained and retained in accordance with company policies.
3.7.5.0.5 Training
Review the training program to ensure that all elements are addressed (technical training, industrial safety, company maintenance
procedures, specialized training such as NDT, welding, etc.); the training is accomplished according to the schedule in the training
plan; and appropriate records are maintained.
3.7.5.0.6 Publications
Verify that the appropriate publications are available for all tasks performed, and there is an effective process in place to ensure
that only the most current technical and regulatory information is provided.
3.7.5.0.7 Equipment
Verify that all tooling and equipment necessary to properly perform the maintenance tasks are available and in good working order;
an effective tool calibration program that includes personal tools is in place; and effective controls are used and records
maintained.
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3.7.5.0.8 Spares
Verify that the procedures in place ensure that an incoming inspection is performed; appropriate documentation is retained at
acceptance of the materials; the materials are properly stored; a shelf life program is in place; appropriate tagging procedures are
used; and unserviceable materials are adequately quarantined. In addition, this review should be applied not only to components
but also to all materials such as sheet metal, consumables, standard parts and so on; aircraft materials should be effectively
isolated from non-aircraft materials. Finally, there should be a process in place to qualify suppliers to ensure that only quality
materials are procured.
3.7.5.0.9 Facility
Ensure that adequate facilities and conditions such as lighting, heating, etc. are in place and consistent with human factors
affecting performance. Also, review the issues relating to industrial safety, environmental protection, fire prevention and aircraft
fueling.
The above list is only intended as a starting point for developing an effective internal audit program. The primary resource will be
the procedures found in the company maintenance procedures manual (sometimes referred to as the maintenance exposition).
This document is the repository for company policies and procedures. The purpose of the internal audit program is to ensure that
the procedures are current, complete and complied with.
3.7.6 CASS AUDIT RESULTS
The final critical element of the CASS system is the disposition of the information obtained during the internal audits. A system
needs to be in place to promptly correct any non-conformity discovered during the reviews as well as any items received from
anonymous hazard-reporting mechanisms that may be in place.
The first step is to develop a single list of the non-conformities. Just as with discrepancies found on the aircraft, it is critical to
ensure that all items are properly corrected within the appropriate timeframe.
The next step is the analysis of the items. Frequently, a safety team is developed to help review the non-conformities and suggest
or approve the corrective actions. Regardless of whether a team is used, it is important to have a review mechanism in place. Use
of risk analysis or job hazard analysis tools is common for larger organizations, but less formal processes also can be effective.
Frequently, a hierarchy of corrective actions is developed.
For a given hazard (a hole in the ground), the first choice would be engineering a permanent solution (fill the hole). The second
preference would be to install adequate safeguards (put a rope around the hole), while the third choice might be training of
employees (telling everyone to avoid the hole).
Once an appropriate corrective action has been determined and implemented, a follow-up should be conducted to verify that the
non-conformity has been corrected. The final step is to communicate the results of the actions to the workgroup both to validate
the effectiveness of the program and to encourage participation by all.
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3.8 Aircraft Maintenance Records Management
The need to keep and manage aircraft records is necessary for three distinct purposes:
FAA's regulations require that certain records be maintained.
During an evaluation of the aircraft, records will validate the current status of the aircraft and reflect its current financial
value.
During maintenance, records will provide for more efficient troubleshooting and corrective action, thus reducing cost.
3.8.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FAA RECORDS REGULATION
The FAA’s requirements for tracking the maintenance status of an aircraft and the associated recordkeeping responsibilities are
described within FAR Sections 43.9, 43.11, 91.411, 91.413, 91.417, 91.419 and 91.421. Though these Parts overlap somewhat in
regard to the basic information required for individuals performing the work, it is beneficial for each Part to be discussed individually
to understand what is specifically needed of the corporate operator.
3.8.1.1 MAINTENANCE RECORDS (FAR PART 43.9)
This section covers the content, form and disposition of maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding and alteration records.
Each person performing this type of work will make an entry in the maintenance record of the aircraft, airframe, engine, propeller,
appliance, or component as applicable that contains the following information:
A description of the work performed. The date of completion of the work performed.
The name of the person performing the work if other than the person below.
If the work was performed satisfactorily, the signature, certificate number and kind of certificate held by the person
approving the work. This signature constitutes the approval for return to service only for the work performed. In addition
to the entry required under this Part, major repairs and major alterations will be entered on Form 337 in the manner
described in Appendix B of FAR Part 43.
3.8.1.2 INSPECTION RECORDS (FAR PART 43.11)
This Part is designed to address the content, form and disposition of records for any inspection performed under Part 91. Included
is the format for approval and disapproval for return to service of aircraft and/or other components making up the aircraft under
progressive or other types of inspection programs.
If as a result of discrepancies found during the inspection the aircraft is not returned to service, a list of discrepancies along with
the inspection date is to be provided to the aircraft owner or operator.
As with FAR 43.9, certain information about the person performing the work is required:
The type of inspection and a brief description of the extent of the inspection.
The date of the inspection and aircraft total time in service.
The signature, certificate number and type of certificate held by the person approving or disapproving for return to
service the aircraft, airframe, engine, propeller, appliance, component part or portions thereof.
Approval verbiage for return of the aircraft to service for any inspection other than a progressive program.
Disapproval verbiage for aircraft that do not meet needed maintenance criteria, or are not in compliance with applicable
specifications, airworthiness directives or other approved data for any inspection other than a progressive program.
Progressive inspection verbiage for approval/disapproval for return to service.
Identification of the inspection program, the part of the program accomplished and a statement that the inspection was
performed in accordance with the requirements and procedures of that particular program.
FAR 43-11 has significant importance for the corporate operator. Its final paragraph provides the method for placarding inoperative
items per FAR 91.213 that will allow continued operation under an approved MEL for the particular aircraft inspected.
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3.8.1.3 ALTIMETER SYSTEM/ALTITUDE REPORTING EQUIPMENT TEST AND INSPECTIONS (FAR PART 91.411)
This part specifies altimeter system and altitude reporting equipment tests and inspections for those aircraft operating in controlled
airspace under instrument flight rules. What are described are when and under what circumstances these tests and inspections
must be performed and who may perform the work. Further reference and procedures for certification may be found in FAR Part
43 Appendices E and F. An aircraft record entry is required for this maintenance action.
3.8.1.4 ATC TRANSPONDER TESTS AND INSPECTIONS (FAR PART 91.413)
This part provides the test and inspection guidelines for ATC transponder systems. As with 91.411, compliance procedures are
outlined along with reference to FAR 43
Both 91.411 and 91.413 must have been performed within the last 24 months and often are performed concurrently. Reduced
Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) certification can vary in inspection frequency.
3.8.1.5 MAINTENANCE RECORDS (FAR 91.417)
This regulation is divided into two parts covering (a) the type of maintenance necessary to be kept on file and (b) how long this
documentation must be retained. Defined calendar inspection dates and procedures within FAR 91.411 and 91.413 allow them to
be exceptions to this rule. Records to be kept fall into these categories: maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alteration and
records of the annual, progressive and required or other approved inspections for each aircraft, airframe, engine, propeller, rotor
and appliance. These records must include:
A description (or reference to data acceptable to the administrator) of the work performed.
The date of completion of the work performed.
The signature and certificate number of the person approving the aircraft for return to service.
Records contain the following information:
The total time in service of the airframe, engine(s), propeller(s) and rotor(s).
The current status of life-limited parts of each airframe, engine, propeller, rotor and appliance.
The time since last overhaul of all items installed on the aircraft that are required to be overhauled on a specified time
basis.
The current inspection status of the aircraft, including the time since the last inspection required by the inspection
program under which the aircraft and its appliances are maintained.
The current status of applicable Airworthiness Directives, including for each item the method of compliance, the AD
number and the revision date. If the AD involves recurring action, include the time and date when the next action is
required.
Copies of the forms prescribed in FAR 43.9 (FAA Form 337) for each major alteration to the airframe and currently
installed engine(s), rotor(s), propeller(s) and appliances.
The owner or operator must retain the following records for the periods prescribed:
The records specified in paragraph (a) (1) of this section shall be retained until the work is repeated or superseded by
other work or for one year after the work is performed.
The records specified in (a) (2) of this section shall be retained and transferred with the aircraft at the time it is sold.
A list of defects furnished to a registered owner or operator under FAR 43.11 shall be retained until the defects are
repaired and the aircraft is approved for return to service.
The owner or operator must make all maintenance records required to be kept by this section available for inspection by the
administrator or any authorized representative of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). In addition, when a fuel tank is
installed in the passenger or baggage compartment per Part 43, a copy of the FAA Form 337 must be kept onboard the modified
aircraft by the owner or operator for inspection upon request of any law enforcement officer.
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3.8.1.6 TRANSFER OF MAINTENANCE RECORDS (FAR 91.419)
Any owner or operator who sells a U.S.-registered aircraft must transfer to the purchaser at the time of sale the following records
for that aircraft:
The records specified in FAR 91.417(a) (2).
The records specified in FAR 91.417 (a) (1) that are not included in (a) above except that the purchaser may permit the
seller to keep physical custody of such records. However, custody of records by the seller does not relieve the
purchaser of the responsibility under FAR 91.417(c) to make the records available for inspection by the administrator or
any authorized representative of the NTSB.
3.8.1.7 REBUILT ENGINE MAINTENANCE RECORDS (FAR 91.421)
The owner or operator may use a new maintenance record, without previous operating history, for an aircraft engine rebuilt by the
manufacturer or an authorized agency approved by the manufacturer.
Each manufacturer or agency that grants zero time to an engine rebuilt by it must enter-in-the-new record:
A signed statement of the date the engine was rebuilt.
Each change made as required by airworthiness directives.
Each change made in compliance with manufacturer’s service bulletins, if the entry specifically is requested in that bulletin.
For the purposes of this section, a rebuilt engine is a used engine that has been completely disassembled, inspected, repaired as
necessary, reassembled, tested and approved in the same manner and to the same tolerances and limits as a new engine with
either new or used parts. However, all parts used in it must conform to the production drawing tolerances and limits of new parts or
be of approved over-sized or undersized dimensions for a new engine.
Federal Aviation Regulations, including those outlined above, may be subject to various degrees of interpretation by both the owner
or operator and the FAA. It is critical that these and any other applicable rules and regulations be read thoroughly and clearly
understood. Questions regarding their implementation and use should be directed to your local FSDO.
3.8.1.8 ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES
Usage of an electronic signature can streamline maintenance operations. The electronic signature’s purpose is identical to that of a
handwritten signature, or any other form of signature currently accepted or approved by the FAA; therefore, electronic signatures
must possess those qualities and attributes that guarantee a handwritten signature’s authenticity.
Vendors have developed methods to utilize an electronic signature for aircraft maintenance records including:
Maintenance Logbooks (Approval for Return to Service)
Maintenance Records including Work Cards and Work Orders
Airworthiness Release
Required Inspection Item (RII)
3.8.1.8.1 Regulatory Guidance
Guidance and standards are provided in FAA AC 120-78A and detail an acceptable means for a certificate holder to utilize an
electronic signature system. The FAA recommends that all certificate holders adopt the standards for electronic signatures,
records, and manuals as set forth in the AC, regardless of whether approval, acceptance, or authorization is required. A
description of the electronic signature process must be included in the certificate holder’s manual or for those certificate holders
who are not required to have manuals, a standalone electronic signature process document is an acceptable alternative.
Vendors electronic signature services and software applications are not accepted/approved by the FAA.
FAA's acceptance, approval or authorization is conveyed to an operator (except Part 61, 63, 65, 91, 137 and
183 operators) by using OpSpec A025.
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3.8.1.8.2 Process
The transition to electronic signatures involves many internal procedural changes. Initial discussions are required to ensure that
everyone involved agrees with the desired output of electronic signatures and the steps necessary to reach this output. Once
agreed upon, detailed planning is necessary to move forward as the transition may take time. It is recommended to check with the
operators' maintenance tracking provider as many currently offer an electronic signature capability. Confirm that their offering
adheres to the guidelines detailed in AC 120-78A. Often, they will provide a comparison matrix which details the line-item guidance
in AC 120-78A and how they accomplish each item.
It is recommended to establish a timeframe with milestones to pace the various steps through the overall process.
Additional items to consider include:
The specific forms that an electronic signature will be used on
Procedures for applying an electronic signature used for approval for return to service documents
Ensuring the selected platform for electronic signatures meets the guidance in AC 120-78A
Who will be the responsible person within the organization
How to countermand and/or make corrections after an electronic signature has been applied
The training program and how users are notified of changes to the process
Revising manuals or creating a standalone procedures document is necessary and resources need to be allocated to this.
Capture all steps in a detailed SOP and assign accountability for each process and milestone. Plan to have a routine cadence of
check ins, including with vendors if used, to keep the project on track. Plan a rollout to include training and a go-live plan including if
gradual or all at once. If using a vendor, ensure that they offer initial and ongoing training and continuous support.
3.8.1.8.3 FAA Acceptance or Approval
If the operator is required to obtain FAA acceptance or approval, the application submission process is detailed in AC 120-78A. A
Letter of Intent is used to begin the process by notifying the responsible FAA Flight Standards office. A Sample Letter of Intent is
available in Appendix 1 of AC 120-78A to use as a template. Additional details are required to be included for FAA review including a
demonstration.
Successful completion of the application process concludes with the FAA authorizing use of Electronic Signatures by signing and
issuing OpSpec A025.
3.8.1.8.4 Best Practices
When the entire initial process is completed, a retrospective should be conducted by all individuals and departments involved to
learn what worked and what needed adjustments. Finalizing best practices will ensure the process is easily repeatable when
adding new aircraft to the operation and new personnel to the maintenance department.
3.8.2 RECORDS MANAGEMENT FOR EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT
FAA records requirements, like all FARs, are the minimum requirements to maintain airworthiness and legal regulatory conformity.
Maintenance management attention also must be given toward management of the asset financial value and warranty issues.
During an evaluation of the aircraft, records will validate the current status of the aircraft and reflect its current financial value.
In consideration of this requirement, the following records should be retained in an organization:
Copies of all vendor work orders
Copies of all vendor invoices for inspections, modifications, STCs, refurbishments, etc.
Copies of only the current component FAA 8130 Form or equivalent installed on the aircraft
A record of all Service Bulletins and Service Letters complied with
A record of all discrepancies corrected on the aircraft
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3.8.3 RECORDS MANAGEMENT FOR MAINTENANCE
FAA records requirements do not take into consideration the ease of doing maintenance to improve efficiency. During
maintenance, the technician’s knowledge of the current configuration and previous configuration of an aircraft or its systems will
provide for more efficient troubleshooting and corrective action and thus will reduce cost. Therefore, the following records also
should be retained in an organization:
Copies of all engineering drawings
Copies of all modification instruction associated with their incorporation
Photographs made during modifications
Installation manuals used for modifications
Copies of all wiring diagrams
3.8.4 RECORDS ORGANIZATION
Considering the requirements to hold aircraft records over a period of time and access them, a systematic approach should be
applied to store the necessary records. This system should isolate or identify the following areas as files either in electronic or
hardcopy (paper) format:
Current aircraft and engine hours/landings/cycles
Current summary of Airworthiness Directive status
Current status of all inspection programs
List of all service bulletins, STCs s or modifications completed
ATA structured file that holds current component information
Vendor work orders
Log books relative to each aircraft
Copy of the current Weight and Balance Manual
Copy of the current Equipment List
Current summary of all FAA Form 337s
Copy of Maintenance Task or Work Cards completed
All relevant FAR 25 Burn Certification Documentation
A summary of any “Instructions for Continued Airworthiness”
Copies of all wiring diagrams
One system of organizing these records for easy auditing is the compilation of a Conformity Book. Copies of all the current abovementioned relevant records are kept in a standard format by chapter. This becomes very effective in situations where there are
different aircraft types managed by the same maintenance department.
NBAA does not recommend nor does the FAA require that maintenance logbooks or records be carried aboard an aircraft. In the
event of an accident, these records could be destroyed, thus eliminating critical and relevant information about the aircraft.
3.8.4.1 ELECTRONIC RECORDKEEPING
An electronic record must provide equivalent or better data integrity, accuracy, and accessibility to what would otherwise be
provided by a paper record. In general, a record preserves the evidence of an event.
Utilizing an electronic recordkeeping system has many advantages. Records in a digital format ensures that the records are safely
secured and no longer in danger of damage or loss. This will also protect the asset financial value and ensure that regulatory
records retention requirements are easily met. Additional benefits include search-ability, share-ability, ease of mobile access and
time savings due to less administrative procedures. Searching digital records ensures increased time/cost savings. Sharing
records among the operator’s departments, possible multiple locations, MRO’s, brokers and FAA personnel is easier
than providing access to or transporting physical paper records. This also reduces the possibility of loss or damage while in transit
or when in external storage.
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A lender or insurer may require electronic recordkeeping to further protect their investment, and this may lead to a discounted rate.
Digitized back-to-birth records are easily transferred when the aircraft is sold or is being managed by a new operator as required
by FAR 91.419, 121.380a and 135.441.
3.8.4.1.1 Regulatory Guidance
Guidance and standards are provided in FAA AC 120-78A and detail an acceptable means for a certificate holder to utilize an
electronic recordkeeping system. The FAA recommends that all certificate holders adopt the standards for electronic signatures,
records, and manuals as set forth in the AC, regardless of whether or not approval, acceptance, or authorization is required.
Electronic recordkeeping system procedures must be incorporated into the certificate holder’s manual system or for those
certificate holders who are not required to have manuals, a standalone electronic recordkeeping system procedures document is
an acceptable alternative.
Vendors electronic recordkeeping services and software applications are not accepted/approved by the FAA. FAA's acceptance,
approval or authorization is conveyed to an operator (except Part 61, 63, 65, 91, 137 and 183 operators) by using OpSpec A025.
3.8.4.1.2 Internal Method
Electronic recordkeeping can be accomplished in multiple ways. The operator can use commercially available scanners and
consumer storage applications internal to the organization. Evaluate these storage solutions and develop a procedure, along with
resource allocation, to digitize current and future paper records. This typically includes all logbooks and historical supporting
records. Often, consumer storage applications may lack functionality needed in aviation operations which may include advanced
search and share functionality and integration with other frequently used aviation software applications.
3.8.4.1.3 External Method
Vendors have developed specialized services and aviation specific software programs to digitize aircraft records to ensure they
are secure, searchable and shareable. Additional functionalities available from vendor software platforms may increase
efficiencies. Several maintenance tracking providers offer basic record storage or integrate with a dedicated aircraft record
storage provider.
Using a vendor may be a better value if the operator’s resources are limited, require more functionality and integrations or there is
a need to complete the project in a faster time frame as vendors have tools and personnel available to ensure a timely transition to
electronic recordkeeping. Perform a detailed evaluation as to the vendor’s experience, security authorizations and compliance
protocols, meeting the guidance in AC 120-78A, integrations with other frequently used aviation software applications and the
ability to work towards the desired schedule. Consultation with other operators may provide important information regarding their
experience with vendors. Also, discuss up front expectations to confirm alignment with the
plan.
3.8.4.1.4 Process
The transition to electronic recordkeeping involves many internal procedural changes, sometimes involving multiple personnel or
groups within a flight department. Initial discussions are required to ensure that everyone involved agrees with the desired output of
electronic recordkeeping and the steps necessary to reach this output. Once agreed upon, detailed planning is necessary to move
forward as the transition may take time.
Regardless of the overall method used, it is recommended to establish a timeframe with milestones to pace the various steps
through the overall process.
Additional items to consider include:
The order of aircraft and which records to digitize
Verifying completeness and quality of digitized records
Uploading digitized records into the desired location and/or application
Training how to access, search and share documents
Ongoing records digitization and uploading procedures
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Revising manuals or creating a standalone procedures document is necessary and resources need to be allocated to this.
Capture all steps in a detailed SOP and assign accountability for each process and milestone. Plan to have a routine cadence of
check ins, including with vendors if used, to keep the project on track. Plan a rollout to include training and a go-live plan including if
gradual or all at once. If using a vendor, ensure that they offer initial and ongoing training and continuous support.
3.8.4.1.5 FAA Acceptance or Approval
If the operator is required to obtain FAA acceptance or approval, the application submission process is detailed in AC 120-78A. A
Letter of Intent is used to begin the process by notifying the responsible FAA Flight Standards office. A Sample Letter of Intent is
available in Appendix 1 of AC 120-78A to use as a template. Additional details are required to be included for FAA review including a
demonstration.
Successful completion of the application process concludes with the FAA authorizing use of Electronic Recordkeeping by signing
and issuing OpSpec A025.
3.8.4.1.6 Best Practices
When the entire initial process is completed, a retrospective should be conducted by all individuals and departments involved to
learn what worked and what needed adjustments. Finalizing best practices will ensure the process is easily repeatable when
adding new aircraft to the operation and new personnel to the maintenance department.
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3.9 Discrepancy Management
The sophistication and complexity of aircraft used in the corporate environment matches that of any other part of the aviation
spectrum. Because of this, theFAArecords requirements, like allFARs, are the minimum requirements to maintain airworthiness
and legal regulatory conformity. Maintenance management attention also must be given toward management of the asset financial
value and warranty issues. During an evaluation of the aircraft, records will validate the current status of the aircraft and reflect its
current financial value.
In consideration of this requirement, the following records should be retained in an organization:
Copies of all vendor work orders
Copies of all vendor invoices for inspections, modifications,STCs, refurbishments, etc.
Copies of only the current componentFAA8130 Form or equivalent installed on the aircraft
A record of all Service Bulletins and Service Letters complied with
A record of all discrepancies corrected on the aircraft
3.9.1 BRIEFINGS AND DEBRIEFINGS
Briefings and debriefings are used in an effort to meet the aviation and maintenance departments’ mission statements regarding
safety, cost-effectiveness, professionalism, quality and pride in work and a high level of internal and external customer satisfaction.
A formal briefing and debriefing process is recommended. Working groups as well as individuals benefit from discussing ideas,
developing action plans, identifying ownership and acquiring backup. The maintenance/flight crew brief and debrief process is the
mechanism used to bridge communication gaps regarding discrepancies or issues that concern either maintenance or flight
working groups.
In a briefing session, individuals who were actively involved in performing maintenance on the aircraft or any of its subsystems
should meet with the flight crew to inform them of the maintenance action performed. This can be either corrective action for a
discrepancy or routine maintenance inspections.
In a debriefing session, maintenance technicians and flight crew members meet to acquire relevant information regarding
discrepancies. Once the information is gathered, the individual leaves the debrief meeting with a complete description and
understanding of the discrepancy. Once the information is gathered, the individual leaves the debrief meeting with a complete
description and understanding of the discrepancy.
The underlying objective is to provide the highest level of maintenance service, thereby providing customers with safety and
customer satisfaction. The use of a formalized process creates an environment for professionalism, cost-effectiveness and quality
improvement.
3.9.2 INOPERATIVE INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
In certain circumstances, relief for aircraft discrepancies may be found through FAR 91.213, which states;
Except as provided in paragraph (d) of this section, no person may take off an aircraft with inoperative instruments or
equipment installed unless the following conditions are met:
An approved Minimum Equipment List exists for that aircraft.
The aircraft has within it a letter of authorization, issued by the FAA Flight Standards district office, authorizing
operation of the aircraft under the Minimum Equipment List. The letter of authorization may be obtained by
written request of the airworthiness certificate holder. The Minimum Equipment List and the letter of
authorization constitute a supplemental type certificate for the aircraft.
The approved Minimum Equipment List must –
Be prepared in accordance with the limitations specified in paragraph (b) of this section; and
Provide for the operation of the aircraft with the instruments and equipment in an inoperable condition.
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The aircraft records available to the pilot must include an entry describing the inoperable instruments and
equipment.
The aircraft is operated under all applicable conditions and limitations contained in the Minimum Equipment List
and the letter authorizing the use of the list.
The following instruments and equipment may not be included in a Minimum Equipment List:
Instruments and equipment that are either specifically or otherwise required by the airworthiness requirements
under which the aircraft is type certificated and which are essential for safe operations under all operating
conditions.
Instruments and equipment required by an airworthiness directive to be in operable condition unless the
airworthiness directive provides otherwise.
Instruments and equipment required for specific operations by this part.
A person authorized to use an approved Minimum Equipment List issued for a specific aircraft under subpart K of this
part, part 121, 125 or 135 of this chapter shall use that Minimum Equipment List to comply with the requirements in this
section.
Except for operations conducted in accordance with paragraph (a) or (c) of this section, a person may take off an
aircraft in operations conducted under this part with inoperative instruments and equipment without an approved Minimum
Equipment List provided:
The flight operation is conducted in a –
Rotorcraft, non-turbine-powered airplane, glider, or lighter-than-air aircraft, powered parachute, or
weight-shift-control aircraft, for which a master Minimum Equipment List has not been developed; or
Small rotorcraft, non-turbine-powered small airplane, glider, or lighter-than-air aircraft for which a
Master Minimum Equipment List has been developed; and
The inoperative instruments and equipment are not –
Part of the VFR-day type certification instruments and equipment prescribed in the applicable
airworthiness regulations under which the aircraft was type certificated;
Indicated as required on the aircraft’s equipment list, or on the Kinds of Operations Equipment List for
the kind of flight operation being conducted;
Required by 91.205 or any other rule of this part for the specific kind of flight operation being
conducted; or
Required to be operational by an airworthiness directive; and
The inoperative instruments and equipment are –
Removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control placarded, and the maintenance recorded in
accordance with 43.9 of this chapter; or
Deactivated and placarded “Inoperative.” If deactivation of the inoperative instrument or equipment
involves maintenance, it must be accomplished and recorded in accordance with part 43 of this
chapter; and
A determination is made by a pilot, who is certificated and appropriately rated under Part 61 of this chapter, or
by a person, who is certificated and appropriately rated to perform maintenance on the aircraft, that the
inoperative instrument or equipment does not constitute a hazard to the aircraft.
An aircraft with inoperative instruments or equipment as provided in paragraph (d) of this section is considered
to be in a properly altered condition acceptable to the Administrator.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this section, an aircraft with inoperable instruments or equipment may be operated
under a special flight permit issued in accordance with 21.197 and 21.199 of this chapter.
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3.9.2.1 CARRY OVER LIST
In addition to an MEL, it is helpful to develop a Carry Over List for cosmetic or non-airworthy type items, as well as for the
documentation of dents and scratches that have been measured and found to be within limits. This can save any questions during
an FAA ramp check or audit, and also keeps these items from becoming forgotten at the next inspection or interval at which they
can be addressed.
Even with FARrules as a tool to help the operator, problems may become apparent that will decrease the effectiveness of the
overall discrepancy correction process. For example:
There may exist no common definition/understanding among the FAA, pilots and technicians that explains generic terms
such as “return to service” and what kind of “corrective action” clears a discrepancy write-up.
Discrepancies that are not safety or flight-related and not covered by a MELmay ground an aircraft needlessly.
Problem correction is best addressed through creation of action plans designed to provide a specific set of solutions to
those concerns that may be raised.
It may prove helpful to hold meetings with the FAA, pilots and technicians regarding current MELuse and application,
discrepancy deferral processes and regulations.
Time should be taken to define for all users “corrective action” and “return to service” (see next section).
Begin to document all discrepancies and corrective action in order to improve troubleshooting, speed of repair and the
generation of a clean audit trail. Once all issues are addressed, the documentation of progress to date is important.
Documentation includes both definitions and graphics that clearly illustrate the desired discrepancy correction process.
Such a reference also is the blueprint for an implementation plan.
Develop an aircraft maintenance binder with sections for a discrepancy log, post-flight sign-offs, maintenance/inspection work
cards or due date lists, oil consumption, and so on.
3.9.3 DISCREPANCY MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS
3.9.3.0.1 Corrective Action
Correction action is defined as reasonable, prudent and progressive steps taken to resolve a discrepancy or problem with a
component or system. Corrective action is accomplished either by (1) verification of system or component integrity as required by
the manufacturer’s maintenance manual or instruction for continued airworthiness prepared by the manufacturer, or (2) other
methods, techniques and practices acceptable to the administrator. Corrective action can include progressive troubleshooting to
resolve the fault, component changes or other action taken that demonstrates positive steps in resolving the problem.
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3.9.3.0.2 Figure 3.5: Discrepancy Flow Process for Technicians and Flight Crew Members
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3.9.3.0.3 Figure 3.6: Discrepancy Log
 All prior pages completed Discrepancy Log/N________________ Page #____________
Flight Log # Discrepancy Deferral MEL Item # TFR to Deferred Discrepancy Log
Date Corrective Action Removed from DDL if Necessary
Aircraft Hours
Flight Crew Signature, Cert. #, Date
3.9.3.0.4 Figure 3.7: Deferred Discrepancy Log
 All prior pages completed Deferred Discrepancy Log Page #____________
Flight Log # Discrepancy Deferral MEL Item # Signature, Cert. #, Date
Date Corrective Action
Aircraft Hours
Flight Crew Signature, Cert. #, Date
3.9.3.0.5 Return to Service
Approval to return an aircraft to service is authorized by the holder of an appropriate mechanic’s certificate. Once an aircraft’s
discrepancy, fault, deviation, or error has been addressed in a reasonable and prudent manner (corrective action taken) and the
appropriate entries have been made to the aircraft discrepancy log, the aircraft may be returned to service.
See Figure 3.5 “Discrepancy Flow Process for Technicians and Flight Crew Members,” illustrating the movement and disposition
of a discrepancy.
Once the discrepancy management procedures are in place, follow-up is required to ensure that it meets both current and future
needs of all participants.
Elements to consider are:
Monitoring of discrepancy write-ups and corrective actions to ensure that the process is made routine
Ensuring that communication paths between pilots and technicians stay open
Measuring the time between a noted discrepancy and the final correction
It is important that operators read and understand theFARs. Using an approved MELalong with an organized method of handling
the day-to-day maintenance difficulties as outlined above can provide the high degree of operational flexibility necessary for a
successful aviation department.
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3.9.4 DISCREPANCY MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
The MEL binder contains a copy of the Letter of Authorization with guidelines/procedures for deferrals. Records of discrepancies,
deferrals and corrective action are kept in an aircraft maintenance binder under the title “Discrepancies” (see Figure 3.6).
A deferred discrepancy log is carried in the aircraft (Figure 3.7).
3.9.5 OUTSIDE MAINTENANCE
Occasionally, aircraft will need to visit outside maintenance providers, which may be due to staffing, scope of work, specialized
tooling or scheduling convenience. This experience, either large or small in scope, should be handled in an organized and
methodical manner. Timely implementation of these procedures will result in a better experience and a united service expectation.
This structured Request for Proposal (RFP) process will better ensure a business-driven decision, allowing you to consider not
only the labor costs but also a detailed view of the financials and other fundamental aspects that drive costs differently across
service centers.
Planning for an outside maintenance event should be performed well in advance. Depending on the service center(s) you pick and
their current workload, this planning should begin up to six months in advance. If the planned maintenance is sizable in scope and
cost, it is advisable to prepare the RFP document (see Figure 3.8) that outlines in detail the work being requested. By having a
personalized RFP, you can dictate the desired format of the proposals. While being important to you (easier to compare “apples to
apples”), it is just as important in fairness to the service centers to be competing on a level playing field. First and foremost,
determine which service center(s) (typical procurement guideline is to entertain three bids) you would like to include in this
process. Selection of these facilities should not be taken lightly.
Remember, cheaper is not always better. If price becomes the sole factor in the decision-making process, the end result may not
be what you actually desire.
Beyond the fact that the service center provider must possess the regulatory approval, keep in mind that regulatory approval does
not always translate to manufacturer’s authorization.
Regardless, it is still necessary to determine if the service provider can accomplish the projected work scope. Operators should
check references to determine the quality received and satisfaction level of other operators. Later in the process it may prove
useful to visit the facility prior to aircraft arrival to validate the ability of the provider to perform the work to your company’s
satisfaction. The operator should have a facility audit type checklist to use in evaluating the facilities.
3.9.5.1 SERVICE CENTER SELECTION CHECKLIST
Items of a facility audit type checklist may include:
Appropriate Repair Station ratings for work scope
Manufacturer’s Authorization – service center status for your particular aircraft type can:
Impact their ability to handle warranty work
Affect the hourly rate for said warranty work
Impact the cost of parts passed on to you
Engineering support
Identify if provided on staff or by outside designated engineering representative (DER)
Training and safety policy for service center technicians, inspectors and shop
Review training records specific to aircraft model
Review work force’s practical experience
Identify if service center utilizes full-time or contract technicians
Quality Control department structure and practices
If a quality control (QC) department exists, review QC program and practical experience of inspector
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3.9.5.2 DEVELOPING THE REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL (RFP)
Using Figure 3.8 as a template, develop an RFP that establishes a detailed work scope for the planned maintenance event. By
requiring the proposal to be bid in a line-item format, the playing field has been leveled for each service center. Upon receipt of
each proposal, the items can be transferred to a spreadsheet Figure 3.9 for visual display and an easy comparison of cost
summaries.
The information your RFPshould contain is as follows:
Company name, address and pertinent contacts
Aircraft type, s/n and registration
Desired beginning date of work
Aircraft operated underFAR(i.e., 91,135, etc.)
Detailed work scope
The detailed work scope should be divided into the following categories as applicable:
Airframe
Inspections (best practice is to get a package quote for ease of comparison)
Maintenance items (bid each separately)
Service bulletins (bid each separately)
Paint
Stripping process (check on their disposal method, fee structure for proper disposal)
Fuselage seams (do not rely on existing sealant; most shops will replace sealant)
Primer
Base colors
Stripes/paint schemes
Miscellaneous (removal of flight controls, access panel screw detail, hinges)
Make sure it identifies what items are treated as standard quote and which items are treated as optional or extra
charge
Interior
Refurbishment details
Soft goods
Hardwoods
Floor plan changes
Floor plan drawings defining refurbishment details (good shops will always provide these; ask to see samples of
their quality and details
Materials listing and flammability certification (should be part of permanent aircraft records as this information may
be needed during resale)
Engines
Inspections (hot section, major periodical, core zone, mid-life and/or overhaul)
Maintenance (discrepancies, spectra oil analysis program (SOAP) samples, etc.)
Service bulletins
Line replaceable units (LRU) overhauls
Auxiliary power units (APU) items (inspections, discrepancies, etc.)
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Avionics
Upgrades
Overhauls
New installations
System testing/rectification (FAR 91.411, 91.413 and/ or RVSM)
Wiring diagrams and installation drawings (good shops will always provide these; ask to see samples of their
quality and detail)
Certification documentation for all new equipment and procedures (i.e., 8130-3,STC,FAA337,JAR1)
New electrical load analysis (if applicable)
Continued airworthiness requirements for all new equipment installed
Disclosure Statements
Terms and conditions
Acquire text and forward to your appropriate procurement department for their review and
recommendations.
Downtime for quoted maintenance
Specific beginning and ending dates (remember non-scheduled work could impact the delivery
date)
Shop Rates
Avionics, airframe and engine (rates will normally vary on each)
Are there overtime rates, and when will they apply?
Overtime
Who authorizes the use? (One must understand the issues driving overtime requirements, and
the terms need to be documented)
Flat Rates
Define what is included in the flat rates.
Discrepancies and Change Orders
What is the discrepancy and change order process, including approvals
Warranty
WillOEMwarranty programs and specific campaigns be honored?
What is the warranty policy on parts and labor
Hazardous Waste / Environmental Fees:
Identify costs and charges specific to work scope either by percentage or actual and what they
are based on
Identify maximum cap on the cost of hazmat fees
Define method of hazmat disposal and approval process.
Consumables:
What is included in the definition of consumables (i.e. masking tape, acid brushes, etc.)?
Are there fees, and how are they applied?
Is there a maximum cap on the cost of consumables?
Freight Charge Structure
Is a fixed rate applied to each incoming part or is it based on a percentage of shipping costs?
What is the normal method of shipping?
Records Research
Is this included at no additional cost? If not, define fee structure.
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Parts
What is the policy on restock or rectification charges based on misdiagnosed components?
What is the authorization process before part procurement?
Identify cost structure of parts (i.e., cost, cost plus or minus 10 percent).
Are there fees associated with procurement? (Some shops charge a fee to evaluate the paper trail of
received goods).
Special Tooling
Does the company maintain the special tooling required to service my aircraft?
If not, will there be rental and freight charges associated with acquiring the needed special tooling?
Does the facility charge a fee for special tooling?
Hangar Fees
Are there hangar fees in addition to normal operating fees?
If the aircraft is left in your facility for an extended time, are there storage fees applied?
Taxes
What are the applicable taxes to the goods and services provided? (You will need to contact your tax
advisor regarding the impact of these taxes relating to your state/country of registration.)
Insurance
Define types and amounts of coverage related to hangar keepers, liability, completed operations,
workman’s compensation, and war and terrorism coverage.
Will your company be indemnified for any claims arising out of the services performed at your facility?
Note: Generally, the area of insurance is often misunderstood and can subject your company to
extraordinary financial exposure. Acquire the insurance information well in advance and forward to your
company’s risk management department for their evaluation and recommendations.
Drug and Alcohol
Is there a drug and alcohol program at the facility?
Will documentation be provided, if requested?
Payment Terms
What are your payment terms and conditions
Are deposits required?
Hazardous Waste / Environmental Fees:
When forecasting items monitored under a maintenance tracking program, remember to set the forecast date out to the next major
outside maintenance. This will allow a rational thought process as to what needs to be accomplished.
Once the bids have been received, the comparative analysis begins. Enter all the line item pricing on theRFP analysis spreadsheet
(refer to the template in Figure 3.9, total all major categories and enter a brief summary of “disclosure statements.” Notice the
spaces for “cost of movement” and “incentive offerings.” In the interest of good money management, be always conscious of the
cost of moving the aircraft. The template is designed to give you a financial analysis of the work detail, with the major declarations
listed for each center participating. While the financials are always critical, sometimes the declarations can define key business
objectives that can differentiate the service centers’ complete expense materials. This comprehensive analysis is critical to the
decision process and should be applied to fit your individual situation.
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3.9.5.2.1 Figure 3.8: Request for Proposal (RFP) Template
Company Name ______________________________ 
Address _____________________________________
____________________________________________
Telephone ( ) ________________________________
Fax ( ) ______________________________________
Email _________________________________________
Date ___________________________________
 Aircraft Type ____________________
 Registration # ___________________
S/N _____________________________________
 Desired
Start Date ________________________________
Note: Bid each line item separately.
Airframe:
A. Inspections
1. 150, 300 & 600-hour __________________________________
B. Service Bulletins
1. 32-118 Landing Gear Mod ___________________________________
2. 35-464 Oxygen Valve Upgrade ____________________________________
C. Avionics
1. C/W FAR 91.411 & 413 ____________________________________
2. RVSM Two-Year Renewal ____________________________________
D. Interior
1. Air Stair Carpet Replacement _____________________________________
E. Paint
1. None required ______________________________________
Engines (m/n: AAAAAA):
1. #1 Engine (s/n: 1232456)
1. 150-hour Inspection _______________________________________
2. SOAP sample _______________________________________
3. S/B 77-222 FCU mod _______________________________________
2. #2 Engine (s/n: 123457)
1. 150 & 300-hour Inspection _______________________________________
2. SOAP sample _______________________________________
APU (m/n: BBBBBB)(s/n: 987642):
1. 300-hour Inspection _______________________________________
Declarations (declare the following separately):
1. Estimated downtime (normal weekdays or can the weekends be utilized)
2. Shop rates (both regular and overtime)
3. Hazmat fee structure and is there a cap?
4. Consumable fee structure and is there a cap?
5. Local and state fee structure
6. Coordination of warranty programs for aircraft directly with manufacturer?
7. Records research included in the inspection flat rate (if required)?
8. Freight charge structure
1. Flat fees
2. Component rate fee
9. Are any fees applied to incoming parts?
10. Payment methods, terms and conditions
1. Down payments
2. Progress payments
11. Parts cost structure, charges and fees
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3.9.5.3 SERVICE CENTER COMMUNICATION
Once the service center selection is made, you can begin the process of communicating all the pertinent details for the work scope
and discuss both the customer and service center expectations to ensure a successful experience.
Communication is the key to success.
Upon arrival, request a briefing session with all service center department representatives (i.e. avionics, airframe, paint,
engine, etc.) to review work scope and provide an opportunity for any questions.
Provide written information well ahead of time concerning any known incoming discrepancies.
Establish a means for daily updates regarding work scope progress and cost implications, specifically needed when a
second or third shift is in place.
Request a single point of contact, a key service center manager that you can easily communicate with during the
process.
Have a company representative on site to monitor cost and progress.
Establish that all discrepancies and change orders shall be approved and signed-off by your company representative
prior to implementation.
Ensure task cards or maintenance documentation is being used and provided with sign-offs.
Meet with quality control department to preview a rough draft of the logbook entries and required documentation well in
advance of the projected departure date.
Pre-delivery and acceptance phase plan briefing with all departments for work performed.
Obtain a copy of work order, airworthiness certification
Documentation (see Figure 3.10, Paperwork Flowchart, and Figure 3.11 Paperwork Checklist), and inspection guide (where
applicable) before departure.
Request an estimate of when the invoice might be received
3.10 Spare Parts Inventory
Since all aircraft must be operated in airworthy condition, components that are not covered by an approved MEL or by FAR must
be operable to maintain airworthiness, which necessitates that operators possess an inventory of spare parts for their aircraft.
Aircraft dispatch criteria/level defined by the operator will dictate the level of inventory. Certain aircraft parts are expensive to
purchase. The operator, balancing cost versus aircraft availability, should carefully consider the specific items selected for
inventory. Furthermore, maintenance abilities should be considered to prevent the purchase of components that cannot be
replaced in the field by the particular operator.
The following suggestions have proven useful to operators when planning inventory purchases:
Using the operator’s approved Minimum Equipment List to determine those items that cannot be deferred, thereby
grounding the aircraft.
Determining the time necessary to remove and replace the specific item and comparing that to the time required having it
delivered from the distribution center.
Determining the manufacturer’s recommended inventory levels, which may be most beneficial in selecting consumable
spares.
Determining shelf-life considerations for time-controlled stock.
Sharing experiences with other operators of the same aircraft type.
Learning current fleet tendencies from field service representatives.
Determining the operator’s proximity to parts distribution sites and transportation hubs, which will affect the timeliness of
shipments.
All parts must be purchased from reputable companies. Be aware of parts priced well below market value. The operator must
ensure that the parts are accompanied by proper certification paperwork and, in the case of time-controlled components, that the
current TSO /TSI is documented. Life limited components have documentation that follows a part until it is scrapped.
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3.10.0.0.1 Figure 3.9: RFP Analysis Spreadsheet Template
DELIVERABLES
Airframe Items S.C. #1 S.C.#2 S.C. #3 S.C. #4
Inspections:
1. 150, 300, 600-hour ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Service Bulletins:
1. 32-118 L/G mod. ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
2. 35-464 oxygen valve upgrade ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Avionics:
1. FAR 91.411 and 413 ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
2. RVSM two-year renewal ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Interior:
1. Air stair carpet installation ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Paint:
1. If required ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Engine Items
Engine #1
1. 150-hour inspection ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
2. SOAP ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
3. SB 77-222 FCU mod. ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Engine #2
1. 150 and 300-hour inspection ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
2. SOAP APU items ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Inspections
1. 300-hour inspection ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Miscellaneous Items
“Cost of movement,” aircraft
(Internal cost est.) ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
“Incentive offerings”
(Internal cost est.) ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Less any vendor offerings.
(fuel, discounts, etc.) ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
Total Cost
(Total all above items in each column) $____________ $___________ $___________ $__________
DECLARATIONS
(List these for ease of comparison)
1. Downtime ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
2. Hazmat fees/cap ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
3. Consumable fees/cap ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
4. Shop rates ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
5. Local and state taxes ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
6. Records research ____________ ___________ ___________ __________
7. Insurance coverage ____________ ___________ ___________ _________
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When determining quantity, the operator can reduce stock levels via thorough planning. Upcoming inspections can be examined
for consumable requirements, and an order can be placed to ensure that parts arrive just prior to the commencement of work.
A means for the operator to determine stock quantity and value should be incorporated. This determination may be made through
the use of computerized inventory management software or a simple index-card system. A method to determine parts usage over
time should be considered to enable low utilization parts to be replaced with higher use items.
Inventory should be stored in a safe location. This area should be climate controlled to prevent damage or corrosion. Nonairworthy items should be properly identified and kept segregated from useable stock. A lockable storage cabinet is ideal for this
and will help to ensure that these parts do not make their way onto the aircraft.
The overall complexity of the inventory management process is dependent upon the individual operation. Operators with large
departments and several aircraft may need far more processes in place to ensure proper asset management than a small
department. Regardless of department size, standard practices and processes should be implemented to ensure that cost is
managed and that aircraft availability is properly managed.
3.11 Maintenance Technician Duty Time
NBAA recommends that its member companies develop a policy for limiting maintenance technician duty time. Long duty cycles
are a principal cause of both physical and mental fatigue. Physical fatigue can lead to personal injury, and mental fatigue can lead
to mistakes. These mistakes can lead to serious injury or damage to the aircraft. With this in mind, flight department managers
should carefully consider duty times for their maintenance personnel to maintain the highest level of performance and to ensure
personal and flight safety. Because of the ad hoc schedules of business aviation, it is difficult to estimate work related sleep
deprivation or circadian disruptions. Any program must have enough latitude to handle peak workloads without overstaffing.
Management should be aware of the cumulative effects of long hours or insufficient rest, and the effects of circadian desynchronization to manage the technician’s time properly.
When developing a policy, the following areas should be considered along with the examples shown:
Maximum work day Example –14 hours
Maximum work week
Example – 60 hours in five consecutive work days, or 68 hours in six consecutive work days
Minimum off time between work days Example –10 hours
Minimum off time between work weeks
Example – 24 hours for five consecutive work days, or 48 hours for six consecutive work days
There are times when the aviation department may not be able to adhere to these guidelines. In this case, there should be a written
process in place to handle any deviation appropriately.
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3.11.0.0.1 Figure 3.10: Paperwork Flowchart
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3.11.0.0.2 Figure 3.11: Paperwork Checklist
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3.12 Compensation of Maintenance Personnel
NBAA believes that a stable workforce adds great value to the corporate flight department. Aviation professionals are by nature
highly motivated and require specialized training. Proper investments made in employees for training, compensation and benefits
should aim for employee retention and workforce stability. Wages and associated compensation and benefits should include
vacations, sick leave, uniforms, a 401(K) plan, an insurance package (including accident, health, dental, travel, disability and
liability), a competitive retirement package and incentive compensation, if available. Factors governing this compensation would
include the geographic location of the flight department, local competition for labor, the type of certificates held by the technician,
current position held by the technician and the technician’s documented experience, tenure and duty requirements.
The best management practices include a review of industry salary surveys in order to maintain a competitive advantage.
Federal and state labor rules should be fully examined by qualified individuals prior to a department establishing their compensation
plan. Labor laws dictate that all maintenance personnel not directly supervising others or not in a management function are paid as
non-exempt (hourly) employees. This includes the payment of overtime wages for hours in excess of the standard workweek.
Non-exempt employees should not be regarded as less professional than the traditional exempt or salaried employee by virtue of
their method of compensation. It is simply a method to ensure that employees are compensated for their hours worked and meet
applicable labor rules.
3.13 Maintenance Safety Programs
A primary goal of every maintenance department is to create a safety culture, or safety standard, aimed at reducing the risk
exposure to employees and sub-contractors and avoiding unnecessary damage to equipment.
NBAA member companies need to establish and maintain an ongoing safety program to seek out hazards to safe operations and
to implement programs to reduce risk and eliminate accidents in the workplace. Standards for a safety program should be based
on those of OSHA, EPA, NIOSH, Code Of Federal Regulations (CFR), National Safety Council, Federal and state directives and
others as deemed applicable to the work place, application and industry.
3.13.1 LOCKOUT/TAGOUT PROCEDURES
Industry practices and procedures used in machinery shops should be applied to the aircraft maintenance environment. Work
tasks are identified through cautionary notes, or warnings. These notes prompt required action to prevent inadvertent operation of
systems during specific events.
For the most part, these tagout procedures identify and secure an aircraft system or control that is rendered inoperative for and
during maintenance to prevent electric, hydraulic or pneumatic power from being applied.
Cautionary notes delineate specific procedures for maintenance technicians to render a system or control inoperative. Use of an
identifier tag on the appropriate control-such as a circuit breaker, flap handle, throttle, hydraulic pump, pneumatic system control
panel or combination of flight control and circuit breaker, is an excellent practice.
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In addition to the tagout system defined above, flight controls such as flaps, slats, landing gear and thrust reversers need to be
blocked out or pinned out using appropriate means that generally are listed by the manufacturer.
The lockout/tagout safety program should entail the following:
Detailed procedures outlining an effective communication program, references that define lockout requirements and
processes to be followed to safely lockout/tagout sources of stored energy. Recognition of hazardous energy sources,
types of energy sources specific to particular makes of aircraft, means and methods to safely lockout/ tagout, as well as
removal of the lockout/tagout and re-activation procedures.
An audit/inspection program outlining periodic inspections to ensure that the program is working effectively and achieving
the desired level of safety and personal protection.
A training program, outlining the purpose of the program, comprehension of the program, recognition of hazards and
review of application to specific aircraft type in fleet.
Reference OSHA material: Code of Federal Regulations 29 (CFR).
3.13.2 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PROGRAM
The purpose of the confined space entry safety program is to delineate procedures for the entry of confined spaces and fuel tanks
by maintenance personnel when performing routine checks and/or when performing non-routine repairs or modifications. The
program should entail the procedures and equipment necessary to assure that confined space entry and internal fuel tank
maintenance is accomplished in a manner consistent with aviation industry standards for the personal safety of maintenance
personnel. While not all spaces contain the potential for hazardous atmospheres, they could exhibit potential hazards in high
temperature situations.
The program is divided into two segments: confined space and permit-required confined space. A confined space is a space that is
large enough for an individual to bodily enter, has restricted means of entry or exit and is not intended for continuous occupancy.
Examples of confined spaces are aft maintenance compartments, fuel tanks and avionics bays.
A permit-required confined space has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere, such as welding fumes, carbon monoxide,
solvent vapors and/or flammable or oxygen-deficient atmospheres, i.e. fuel tanks. This segment is further defined as a confined
space that has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or a
floor that slopes downward and/or tapers to a smaller cross-section.
The following are guidelines for a confined entry program:
The basic program should delineate specific procedures for both types of confined spaces. Program highlights should
include definition of confined space and permit-required confined space and control or permit procedures when entering
confined spaces, including management’s oversight role.
Furthermore, the program should delineate specific procedures on how to test for vapor hazards, ventilation and purging
procedures; responsibilities of all individuals involved in and around the confined space, including the immediate supervisor; and
specific apparel and restrictions/cautions, such as but not limited to jewelry and tooling. Very detailed procedures should be
established for attendants stationed outside a permit-required space, as well comprehensive rescue procedures.
With respect to the permit-required confined space program, it should delineate atmospheres that expose individuals to
risk of death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue (that is, escape unaided from permit space), injury or
acute illness. Atmospheric concentration exposure limits should be delineated. Maximum doses or permissible exposure
limits are published in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart G and Subpart Z.
A comprehensive training program is essential and should outline the purpose of the safety program, recognition of
atmospheric conditions, use of testing and purging equipment, responsibilities of individuals and detailed rescue
procedures.
Reference material: Code of Federal Regulations 29 (CFR) 1910, Subpart G – Occupational Health and Environmental Control; Subpart Z – Toxic and Hazardous Substances; and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70 National Electrical Code.
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3.13.3 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION PROCEDURES
The purpose of the respiratory protection procedure safety program is to protect individuals from toxic chemical agents. It
delineates the use and maintenance of respiratory protective equipment, allowing employees to work safely in hazardous work
environments in compliance with Federal and state regulations. The program should address the requirements for the safe use of
respiratory protection within an aviation maintenance environment.
A respiratory protection program should include the following:
The selection of respirators outlining the proper respirators for use when working within fuel tanks and other tasks when the air
contaminant has not been quantified. When the contaminant has not or cannot be measured, delineate the exposure that is
considered immediately dangerous to life and health and when a full-face piece supplied air respirator should be used. Outline how
respirators should be used and the dangers of improper usage; face-seal checks; positive and negative pressure checks; and
how to detect leakage or respirator effectiveness. The program should stipulate which respirators meet the NIOSH standard
(defined as a filter that has at least 99.97 percent efficiency in removing mono disperse particulate of 0.3 micrometers in diameter).
Certified NIOSH 42 CFR 84 particulate filters are the N100, R100, and P100 filters.
Outline procedures that delineate the inspection of respirators as well as the maintenance, care, cleaning and disinfectant
procedures. Outline the annual requirement for fit testing of positive and negative respirators. Fit testing should occur
whenever a different respirator is used or when physical changes occur in individuals (i.e., facial scarring, dental change,
cosmetic surgery, obvious change in body weight, or if the individual states that the fit is unacceptable). The Portacount
fit test protocol should be used. A minimum fit factor pass level of 100 is required for a half-mask respirator, and a
minimum fit factor pass level of 500 is required for negative pressure respirators.
This program necessitates a medical evaluation for the individual required to wear respirators subsequent to fit testing. A
licensed healthcare professional should administer the evaluations and supply written recommendations determining the
individual’s ability to use a respirator. This should cover an evaluation of the environment or specific exposure as well as
the individual’s medical evaluation and limitations.
Because of the complexity of this program, a detailed training program should outline the value of this respiratory
protection; when respirators are to be used; and proper fit, usage, maintenance, inspection, storage and recognition of
medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent effective use.
For those organizations/individuals who are unfamiliar with the interpretation of the regulatory requirements, it might be best to
consult a risk management professional to assist you in developing a program tailored to your equipment and operation.
Reference material: Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.139, CFR 1910.155, American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Z88.2, and NIOSHA 42 CFR 84 Particulate Filters.
3.13.4 ROLLING STEPLADDER/STAIR SAFETY PROGRAM
The purpose of the rolling stepladder/stair safety program is to outline the required methods for using mobile ladders and stairs
during aircraft maintenance operations. The use of rolling ladders and stairs should be (1) in accordance with manufacturer’s
specifications, (2) intended for a task or purpose, (3) in good physical condition and (4) stable. The rolling stepladder/stair should
be capable of being locked down to prevent movement and have fixed steps or handrails secure and free of excessive movement.
A rolling stepladder/stair safety program should include the following:
Procedures outlining the height and load requirements of tasks prior to selection of ladder or stair. Determine appropriate
device for task, visual inspection of ladder/stair, lock-down, chock or tie-off and ascending and descending techniques.
Training program outlining the value of this program, including training requirements, visual inspections, lock-down
procedures, set-up, positioning, ascending and descending procedures as well as storage and general care
requirements. 
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3.13.5 FALL PROTECTION
OSHA governs compliance with Fall Protection Regulations under the following regulations. More information can be found at
www.osha.gov.
3.13.5.0.1 General Industry
1910.23, Guarding floor and wall openings and holes
1910.66, Powered platforms for building maintenance
App A, Guidelines (Advisory)
App C, Personal Fall Arrest System (Section I – Mandatory; Sections II and III – Non-Mandatory)
1910.132, General Requirements (Personal Protective Equipment)
1910.269, Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution. References 1926 Subpart M and contains
additional requirements for fall protection
3.13.5.0.2 Shipyard Employment
1915.159, Personal fall arrest systems (PFAS)
1915 Subpart I App B, General Testing Conditions and Additional Guidelines for Personal Fall Protection Systems (Nonmandatory)
1915.160, Positioning device systems
3.13.5.0.3 Long Shoring
1918.85, Containerized cargo operations; includes requirements for fall protection
Preambles to OSHA Standards
Fall Protection in the Construction Industry (1994, August 9)
OSHA Directives
Focused Inspection Program for Intermodal Container Top Fall Protection. CPL 2-1.27 (1998, May 12), 7 pages.
Provides guidance for enforcing 1918.85
Review Commission and Administrative Law Judge Decisions – The Occupational Safety and Health Review
Commission (OSHRC) is an independent Federal agency created to decide contests of citations or penalties resulting
from OSHA inspections of American workplaces. To locate decisions related to this topic, search for keywords at the
OSHRC site.
Standard Interpretations and Compliance Letters – Standard Interpretations and Compliance Letters related to 1926
Subpart M, Fall Protection:
1926.500
1926.501
1926.502
Authority for 1926 Subpart M
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 276
 
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
3.14 References for Maintenance Operations
Below is a list of materials that may prove helpful if further reference is needed for your particular operation. When attempting to
apply FARs, a positive, professional working relationship with the local Flight Standards District Office should be developed to
ensure that all regulations are properly and mutually understood. Specifically, caution should be exercised regarding the
applicability of each section. When in doubt, work with your local FAA contact. This may prove to be especially beneficial in the
event of a difference in interpretation between the FAA and any given maintenance activity.
A great deal of time and effort may be saved and risk of violations minimized.
A wide range of regulations covers FAA standards for aircraft maintenance. Listed below are examples relative to corporate
operations
3.14.1 MANUALS
Airframe
Powerplant
Component Maintenance
3.14.2 FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
Part 21 – Certification Procedures for Products and Parts
Part 23 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic and Commuter Category Airplanes
Part 25 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes
Part 27 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotor-craft
Part 29 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotor-craft
Part 33 – Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
Part 35 – Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
Part 39 – Airworthiness Directives
Part 43 – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding and Alteration
Part 45 – Identification and Registration Marking
Part 65 – Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crew Members
Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
Subpart C – Equipment, Instrument and Certificate Requirements
Subpart E – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance and Alternations
Part 119 – Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators
Part 121 – Operating Requirements: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Operations
Subpart J – Special Airworthiness Requirements
Subpart K – Instrument and Equipment Requirements
Subpart L – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
Subpart V – Records and Reports
Part 125 – Certification and Operations: Airplanes Having a Seating Capacity of 20 or more passengers or a Maximum
Payload Capacity of 6,000 pounds or more
Part 135 – Operating Requirements: Commuter and On demand Operations
Subpart C – Aircraft and Equipment
Subpart I – Airplane Performance Operating Limitations
Subpart J – Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
Part 145 – Repair Stations
Part 147 – Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools
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AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
3.14.3 ADVISORY CIRCULARS
Any applicable Advisory Circulars that are in the 20 series (aircraft) or 43 series (maintenance). A selected list appears below.
Note suffixes change occasionally, so be sure to check for currency.
20-65 – U.S. Airworthiness Certificates and Authorizations for Operations of Domestic and Foreign Aircraft
20-77 – Use of Manufacturers’ Maintenance Manuals
20-106 – Aircraft Inspection for the General Aviation Aircraft Owner
20-109A – Serviced Difficulty Program (General Aviation)
20-110J – Index of Aviation Technical Standard Orders
20-114 – Manufacturers’ Service Documents
20-117 Hazards Following Ground Deicing and Ground Operations in Conditions Conducive to Aircraft Icing
20-126E – Aircraft Certification Service Field Office Directory
20-131A – Airworthiness and Operational Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II) and Mode
S Transponders
20-133 – Flighdeck Noise and Speech Interference Between Crew members
20-134 – Test Procedures for Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators
20-136 – Protection of Aircraft Electrical/Electronic Systems Against the Indirect Effects of Lightning
20-138 – Airworthiness Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS) Navigation Equipment for use as a VFR and IFR
Supplemental Navigation System
21-9A – Manufacturers Reporting Failures, Malfunctions, or Defects
21-12A – Application for U.S. Airworthiness Certificate, FAA Form 8130-6
21-18 – Bilateral Airworthiness Agreements
21-20B – Supplier Surveillance Procedures
2123 – Airworthiness Certification of Civil Aircraft Engine, Propellers and Related Products
21-24 – Extending a Production Certificate to a Facility Located in a Bilateral Airworthiness Agreement Country
21-26 – Quality Control for the Manufacture of Composite Structures
21-29B – Detecting and Reporting Suspected Unapproved Parts
21-22 – Quality Assurance of Software Used in Aircraft or Related Products
21-35 – Computer Generated/Stored Records
21-40 – Application Guide for Obtaining a Supplemental Type Certificate
-3032H – Announcement of Availability: Parts Manufacturers Approvals
43-3 – Nondestructive Testing in Aircraft
32-4A – Corrosion Control for Aircraft
43-6A – Automatic Pressure Altitude Encoding Systems and Transponders Maintenance and Inspection Practices
43-7 – Ultrasonic Testing for Aircraft
43-9 – Maintenance Records
43-10A – Mechanical Work Performed on U.S. and Canadian Registered Aircraft
43-12A – Preventive Maintenance
43-13-1A – Acceptable Methods, Techniques and Practices – Aircraft Inspection and Repair
43-13-2A – Acceptable Methods, Techniques and Practices – Aircraft Alterations
43-13-2A – Change 2
120-78A – Electronic Signatures, Electronic Recordkeeping, and Electronic Manuals
140-7G – Federal Aviation Administration Certificate Maintenance Agencies Directory
183-35E – Designated Airworthiness Representative (DARs), Designated Alteration Stations (DASs) and Delegation
Option Authorization (DOA) Directory
183-29.1CC – Designated Engineering Representatives
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 278
 
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
3.14.4 ICAO DOCUMENTS
Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing
Annex 2 – Rules of the Air
Annex 3 – Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
Annex 4 – Aeronautical Charts
Annex 5 – Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations
Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft
Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
Annex 8 – Airworthiness of Aircraft
Annex 9 – Facilitation
Annex 10 – Aeronautical Telecommunications
Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services
Annex 12 – Search and Rescue
Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
Annex 14 – Aerodromes
Annex 15 – Aeronautical Information Services
Annex 16 – Environmental Protection
Annex 17 – Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
Annex 18 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
3.14.5 OTHER FAA DOCUMENTS
FAA Order 8300-10D Airworthiness Inspectors Handbook
Volume 2, Chapter 3, “Evaluate Category I/II/III/IIIA Landing Minimum Maintenance/Inspection Programs”
Volume 2, Chapter 35, “Introduction to FAR Part 91 Related Tasks”
Volume 2, Chapter 36, “Evaluate/Inspect FAR Part 91 Operators Aircraft” Section 1, Parts 5, Inspection Programs,
Part 7, Computerized Recordkeeping and Alerting Programs
Volume 2, Chapter 60, “FAR Part 121/135” Section 1 General
Volume 2, Chapter 62, “Evaluate 121/135 Management Personnel Qualifications”
Volume 2, Chapter 64 “Evaluate Continuous Airworthiness Maintenance Program Reunion” Sections 1, 9, 11
Volume 2, Chapter 70 “Evaluate FAR Part 121/135.411 (A) (2) Maintenance Training Program Record” Section 1 (11)
Volume 2, Chapter 83 “Evaluate FAR Part 135 (9 or less) Approved Aircraft Inspection Program”
Volume 2, Chapter 84 “FAR Part 121/135 Operations Specifications Section 1 (29), (33), (35)
Volume 2, Chapter 91, “Evaluate FAR Part 135 (nine or less) Operator/Applicant’s Inspection and Maintenance
Requirements” Section 1
Volume 2, Chapter 92 “Evaluate FAR Section 135.411 (A) (1) Operators Maintenance Records” Section 2 (1) (3)
Volume 2, Chapter 94 “Evaluate FAR Part 135.411 (A) (2) Operators Maintenance Recordkeeping System”
FAA Order 8700.1 General Aviation Operators Inspectors Handbook
Volume 2, Chapter 55 “Inspect an Executive/Corporate Operator”
Volume 2, Chapter 56 “Conduct an FAR Part 91 Ramp Inspection”
Volume 2, Chapter 58 “Approve a Minimum Equipment List”
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 279
 
Appendix
NBAA RANGE FORMATS
In 1965, NBAA began to compile data on various corporate aircraft; the resulting data was the Jet Range Format. This format and
the formats for turboprop airplanes and helicopters are provided in this section. The Business and Commercial Aviation Planning
and Purchasing Handbook uses the NBAA Range Format in depicting aircraft performance.
The intent of the Range Format was to provide a standard for prospective aircraft purchasers to use in comparing the
performance of various aircraft.
The format now includes:
An aircraft’s maximum range
Performance for a 300 nautical mile trip
Performance for a 600 nautical mile trip
Performance for a 1,500 nautical mile trip
Operators must remember that the Range Format is not an operational recommendation on how to plan a flight, but a template
used for comparing performance.
Each profile describes a trip on a “real-life” basis. For example, trips include a missed approach and a flight to an alternate airport.
The origin-to-destination segment may use up to three-step climbs to higher altitudes, at the manufacturer’s discretion. All
altitudes and speeds for origin to destination are the optimum for the aircraft involved.
The optimum altitude and best fuel speed are used for the destination to alternate stage.
For flight stages in which the performance is difficult to measure, some conditions are assumed. For example, a standard
instrument approach is considered to be equivalent to the fuel required to fly at 5,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) for 5 minutes. All
taxiing is presumed to be done at idle for 10 minutes (for operations under instrument flight rules (IFR) and visual flight rules
(VFR).
Many aircraft manufacturers state in their advertising that an aircraft has an NBAA IFR/VFR fuel reserve of a certain number of
pounds. The NBAA IFR Reserves is defined as the route of flight in the profile that begins at the “K–L” leg and goes through to the
end of the flight profile. This is where the aircraft begins its missed approach to divert to an alternate.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Appendix
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR NBAA 
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT RANGE FORMAT
The instructions on the format should provide all information needed to fill in the blanks. In addition, the following
comments may be useful.
Speeds calculated from C to J should not include the 10 minutes allowed for taxi (A–B) and the one-minute allowed
for takeoff (B–C). Subtract this 11 minutes from the total time for speed calculation.
The average rate of climb and TAS during climb segments may be the same for VFR and IFR but could vary when
different cruise levels for each are selected.
Please fill out the format for the following trips:
Maximum range IFR and VFR
300 nm IFR only
600 nm IFR only
1,500 nm IFR only (if maximum IFR range exceeds 2,000 nm)
For trips other than maximum range, the initial fuel should only be that required for the trip. The alternate and the
reserve should be as called for on the format. The payload carried should not exceed about 200 pounds for each
passenger and luggage for the maximum number of passenger seats provided in the airplane. Takeoff weigh for
these trips will naturally be well under maximum and the runway requirements for takeoff also will be less.
For all calculations, use no wind and standard atmospheric conditions. Note the time to the alternate for the aircraft
includes a five minute loiter at 5,000 feet for clearance. This is included in the total time to alternate following the
missed approach.
Although the airplane operation manual may not provide landing runway lengths required for transport operation, the
40 percent (40%) additional runway length for destination and 30 percent (30%) for alternate are the figures to be
used on the format. All runway lengths called for on the format are for the airplane gross weights at the time of
runway use, at sea level, zero wind and standard temperature.
Aircraft basic operating weight should be calculated from the empty weight of an actual airplane (when available)
having an executive interior, full electronic equipment plus galley equipment and supplies. Show “N” number when
applicable.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Appendix
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Appendix
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Appendix
INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR NBAA
ROTARY AIRCRAFT RANGE FORMAT
The instructions on the format should provide all information needed to fill in the blanks. In addition, the following
comments may be useful. 
Speeds calculated from B to E should not include the five minutes allowed for start and condition checks (A–B).
Subtract this five minutes from the total time for speed calculation.
The average rate of climb and TAS during climb segments may be the same for VFR and IFR but could vary when
different cruise levels for each are selected.
Please fill out the format for the following trips:
Maximum range IFR and VFR altitude is required
50 nm range IFR and VFR at 3,000 feet altitude
125 nm range IFR and VFR at 5,000 feet altitude
200 nm range IFR and VFR at 10,000 feet altitude
For trips other than maximum range, the initial fuel should only be that required for the trip. The alternate and the
reserve should be as called for on the format. The payload carried should not exceed about 200 pounds for each
passenger and luggage for the maximum number of passenger seats provided in the helicopter.
Aircraft basic operating weight should be calculated from the empty weight of an actual helicopter (when available)
having an executive interior and appropriate flight and electronic equipment.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Appendix
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
The Glossary consists of technical terms and acronyms used throughout the NBAA Management
Guide. Other commonly used aeronautical terms also are included.
AAAE
American Association of Airport Executives
ABAA
Australian Business Aircraft Association. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
ABAG
Associaçao Brasileira de Aviáçáo Geral. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
AC
Advisory Circular. A series of external FAA publications consisting of all non-regulatory material of a policy, guidance or
informational nature.
APS
Accident Prevention Specialist. An FAA representative who determines if remedial training can be performed as an enforcement
action for a violation.
ACDO
Air Carrier District Office. An FAA field office serving an assigned geographic area, staffed with Flight Standards personnel serving
the aviation industry and the general public on matters related to the certification and operation of scheduled air carriers and other
large aircraft operations (Airman’s Information Manual).
ACFO
Aircraft Certification Field Office
ACI
Airports Council International
AD
Airworthiness Directive. A regulatory notice sent out by the FAA to the registered owner of an aircraft informing the owner of a
condition that must be corrected for the aircraft to maintain its airworthiness status. ADs are prescribed under FAR Part 39 –
Airworthiness Directives.
ADAP
Airport Development Assistance Program (U.S.)
ADS-B
Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast, a satellite-based aircraft monitoring system, will replace the corner-stone
technology for monitoring aircraft in the skies and on the ground. ADS-B uses the aircraft’s Global Positioning System (GPS) for
position information and transmits its position along with several other data fields including aircraft type, speed, flight number, and
whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending, which are not transmitted by today’s radar technology. This information is
sent to air traffic control (ATC), as well as other aircraft. ADS-B updates an aircraft’s position to ATC once per second, while radar
updates ATC once every 3 to 12 seconds. Aircraft equipped with ADS-B that transmit these data field have what is called ADS-B
Out.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
GLOSSARY 
Rev: - 
Additional Reservation
An approved IFR/VFR reservation above the maximum IFR reservation limit at a high density traffic airport (HDTA). Additional
reservations are available for unscheduled operations only. (Advisory Circular 90-43G)
ADF
Automatic Direction Finder
ADIZ
Air Defense Identification Zone. The area of airspace over land or water within which the ready identification, the location, and the
control of aircraft are required in the interest of national security. (The FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation: Calendar Year 1989)
ADMA
Aviation Distributors and Manufacturers Association
Administrative Action
A type of enforcement action utilized by the FAA under FAR Section 13.11 if an alleged violation meets the following criteria: (1) No
significant unsafe condition existed; (2) lack of competency or qualification was not involved; (3) the violation was not deliberate;
and (4) the alleged violator has a constructive attitude toward complying with the regulations, and has not been involved previously
in similar violations. The action takes the form of either a Warning Notice or a Letter of Correction. (FAA Order 2150.3A)
Administrator
The Federal Aviation Administrator or any person to whom the Administrator has delegated authority in the matter concerned.
(FAR Section 1.1)
AFD
Airport/Facility Directory. A publication designed primarily as a pilot’s operational manual which contains data on all airports,
seaplane bases and heliports open to the public and includes communications data, navigational facilities and certain special
notices and procedures. This publication is issued in seven volumes according to geographical area and is available through the
National Ocean Service. (Airman’s Information Manual)
AFS – Airway Facilities Sector
AFP
Airspace Flow Program
AIA
Aerospace Industries Association
AIM
Airman’s Information Manual. A primary FAA publication whose purpose is to instruct airmen about operating in the National
Airspace System of the U.S. It provides basic flight information, ATC procedures and general instructional information concerning
health, medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, accident and hazard reporting and types of aeronautical charts and their use.
(Airman’s Information Manual)
NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE-
 
Glossary
AIP
Aeronautical Information Publication. A publication issued by or with the authority of a State (ICAO member) and containing
aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations
Manual)
Airport Improvement Program (AIP) –
A program that provides grants for the planning and development of public-use airports that are included in the National Plan of
Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS).
Air Carrier
A person who undertakes directly by lease, or other arrangement, to engage in air transportation. (FAR Section 1.1) The
commercial system of air transportation, consisting of the certificated air carriers, air taxis (including commuters), supplemental air
carriers, commercial operators of large aircraft and air travel clubs. (FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation: Calendar Year 1989)
Air Taxi
A classification of air carriers that transports in accordance with FAR Part 135 persons, property and mail using small aircraft.
(FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation: Calendar Year 1989)
Air Traffic Hub
Air traffic hubs are not airports; they are the city or twin cities requiring aviation services. The hubs fall into four classes that are
determined by each community’s percent-age of total enplaned passengers, all services, and all operations of U.S. certificated air
carriers in the 50 states, the District of Columbia and other U.S. areas. (FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation: Calendar Year 1989)
Aircraft
A device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air. (FAR Section 1.1) This includes airplanes, helicopters, gliders and
others.
Aircraft Accident
An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with
the intention of flight and all such persons have disembarked, and during which any person suffers death or serious injury or the
aircraft receives substantial damage. (NTSB Section 830.2)
Aircraft Engine
An engine that is used or intended to be used for propelling aircraft. It includes turbo-superchargers, appurtenances, and
accessories necessary for its functioning, but does not include propellors. (FAR Section 1.1)
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Aircraft Resourcing Options
The aircraft resourcing options available to companies can be categorized and defined in six ways:
Whole Aircraft In-House Flight Department – An entity being the only registered owner of an aircraft and utilizing an inhouse flight department
Whole Aircraft Management Company – An entity being the only registered owner of an aircraft and utilizing a
management company
Joint Ownership (In-House Flight Department) – Two or more entities are registered owners of an aircraft and one of the
owners operates the aircraft for all owners
Co-Ownership (Management Company) – Two or more entities are registered owners of an aircraft and use a
management company to manage the aircraft for all owners
Fractional Ownership – Several entities are registered owners of an aircraft, hire a management company to manage the
aircraft and allow the management company to exchange this aircraft among their fleet of aircraft
Charter – A company that provides aircraft and crew to the general public for compensation or hire (profit)
Airman
A pilot, maintenance technician or other licensed aviation technician. Certification standards are found in FAR Part 61, Certification:
Pilots and flight instructors; FAR Part 63, Certification: Flight crew members other than pilots; and FAR Part 65, Certification:
Airmen other than flight crew members. Medical standards are found in FAR Part 67, Medical standards and certification.
Airport Manager
The person authorized by the airport authority to exercise administrative control of the airport.
Airside
The part of the airport facility where aircraft movements take place.
Airway
Controlled airspace in the form of a corridor in which the centerline is defined.
Airworthiness Certificate
A certificate issued by the FAA to all aircraft that have met the minimum standards required for certification.
Airworthy
The condition of an aircraft, engine or component that meets all the requirements for its original certification.
ALPA
Air Line Pilots Association
Altimeter
An instrument for registering the height of an aircraft, usually in terms of feet above sea level.
AMB
Aircraft Maintenance Base
AME
Aviation Medical Examiner. A licensed physician designated by the Administrator to perform appropriate medical exami- nations
and to issue or deny medical certificates prescribed by the FAR. Rules are found in FAR Part 183, Representatives of the
Administrator.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Annexes
ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS)
Annual Inspection
A complete inspection of an aircraft and engine required by FAR Section 91.409 to be accomplished every 12 calendar months on
all certificated aircraft.
AOPA
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
A&P
Airframe & Powerplant Maintenance Technician. An aircraft maintenance technician who has met the experience and knowledge
requirements of the FAA and is authorized to return an aircraft to service after certain inspections and main- tenance procedures.
Certification standards are found in FAR Part 65, Certification: Airmen other than flight crew members.
Appliance
Any instrument, mechanism, equipment, part, apparatus, appurtenance or accessory, including communications equipment, that is
used or intended to be used in operating or controlling an aircraft in flight, is installed in or attached to the aircraft, and is not part of
an airframe, engine, or propeller. (FAR Section 1.1)
Apron
Area on the airside of the terminal where aircraft are parked and where handling activities take place. (Also known as a ramp.)
Approved Data
Data that may be used as an authorization for the techniques or procedures for making a repair or an alteration to a certificated
aircraft. Approved data may consist of such documents as Advisory Circular 43.13-1A or 2A, Manufacturers’ Service Bulletins,
Manufacturer’s kit, instructions, Airworthiness Directives or specific details of a repair issued by the engineering department of the
manufacturer.
AQP
Advanced Qualification Program. A program approved un- der Subpart Y of Part 121. It provides an alternate method of qualifying,
training, certifying and otherwise ensuring the competency of flight crew members, flight attendants, aircraft dispatchers,
instructors, evaluators and other operations' personnel subject to the training and evaluation requirements of Part 121 or Part 135.
Area Control Center (ACC)
An ICAO term for an air traffic control facility primarily responsible for providing ATC services to IFR aircraft in controlled areas
under its jurisdiction. An ACC is the international equivalent of an Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). (North Atlantic
International General Aviation Operations Manual)
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
ARINC
Aeronautical Radio, Inc. A corporation largely owned by a group of airlines, and licensed as an aeronautical station. ARINC is
contracted by the FAA to provide communications support for air traffic control and meteorological services in portions of
international (usually oceanic) airspace. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations Manual)
ARO
Airport Reservations Office. An operational unit of the Traffic Flow Management Branch responsible for administration of IFR
reservations in accordance with FAR Part 93, Subpart K and agency procedures issued thereunder. (Advisory Circular 90-43G)
ARSA
Airport Radar Service Area
ARTCC
Air Route Traffic Control Center. A facility established to provide air traffic control service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans
within controlled airspace and principally during the en route phase of flight. When equipment capabilities and controller workload
permit, certain advisory/assistance services may be provided to VFR aircraft. (Airman’s Information Manual)
ASM
Available Seat-Miles
ASO
Airport Service Organization
ASR
Airport Surveillance Radar
ATA
Air Transport Association of America
ATA System
ATA’s standardized format for maintenance manuals.
ATC
Air Traffic Control. A service operated by appropriate authority to promote the safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic. (FAR
Section 1.1)
ATCSCC
FAA Air Traffic Control System Command Center
ATCT
Air Traffic Control Tower. A central operations' facility in the terminal air traffic control system, consisting of a tower cab structure,
including an associated IFR room if radar equipped, using air/ground communications and/or radar, visual signaling and other
devices, to provide safe and expeditious movement of terminal air traffic.
ATS
Air Traffic Services
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
AWOS
Automated Weather Observing System. A weather reporting system that consists of various sensors, a processor, a computergenerated voice subsystem and a transmitter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data directly to the pilot. Some
systems are configured to permit the addition of an operator-generated voice message. Similar to the National Weather Service’s
Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS).
Automatic Reinstatement
A policy provision that automatically restores the prior insured value of an aircraft after completion of repairs.
Average Stage Length
The total number of travel miles divided by the total landings or takeoffs. It is generally expressed in nautical miles for operational
purposes and occasionally in statute miles for business purposes.
Azimuth
The angle from the north (moving clockwise) graduated into 360 degrees.
BAAI
Business Aviation Association for India. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
BAASA
Business Aviation Association for Southern Africa. A division of the CAA/SA and a member of the International Business Aviation
Council, Ltd.
Based Aircraft
Aircraft permanently stationed at an airport by agreement between the owner and the airport management.
BBGA
British Business and General Aviation Association. A business aircraft operator’s association in the United Kingdom and a member
of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd. Formerly Business Aircraft Users Association, Ltd.
Bilateral Agreement
Agreement or treaty between two nations to establish inter-national services.
Block Time
The time from the moment the aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of flight until the moment it comes to rest at
the next point of landing. Also known as flight time. (FAR Section 1.1)
BRNAV
Basic RNAV, or Basic Area Navigation System, is what Required Navigational Performance (RNP) is known as in continental
Europe. See also RNP.
Bogus Parts
Parts not approved for use in a certificated airplane. These parts are often marked to appear to be authorized parts, but when
installed in an airplane, safety may be compromised.
CAA/SA
Commercial Aviation Association of South Africa.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Cabotage
Known as the fifth “freedom of the air” in which an aircraft picks up passengers, cargo and mail at one point in a state, other than
the state of its own registry, and discharges same at another point in the grantor’s state.
Cabotage Rights
Right of an aircraft from country A to carry traffic between two points in country B.
Category (of Aircraft)
A grouping of aircraft based upon intended use or operating limitations such as airplane, rotor-craft or glider. (FAR Section 1.1)
CBAA
Canadian Business Aircraft Association, Inc. A business aircraft operators association based in Canada and a member of the
International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
CAM
Certified Aviation Manager. A business aviation professional who has been certified as having a distinct level of industry
knowledge, experience and qualifications.
CDM
The Collaborative Decision Making (CDM) Workgroup is a joint government/industry initiative that works to improve airspace flowcontrol and decision-making as well as long- term strategic planning in the National Airspace System.
Certificated Air Carrier
An air carrier holding a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity issued by DOT to conduct scheduled services. These
carriers operate large aircraft in accordance with FAR Part 121. Nonscheduled or charter operations also may be conducted by
these carriers without holding a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity under FAR Part 135.
Certificated Flight Instructor
CFI. A certificated pilot authorized by the FAA to give flight training. Certification requirements are found in FAR Part 61,
Certification: Pilots and flight instructors.
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
Charter
See aircraft resourcing options.
Check Pilot
A pilot designated by the company and/or the FAA to check other pilots to determine their proficiency with respect to procedures
and techniques to perform their various piloting duties. Regulations for those designated by the FAA are found in FAR Part 183,
Representatives of the Administrator.
Chief Pilot
Designated pilot whose experience as a leader and competence as a pilot is a qualification to direct other pilots. Chief pilot
requirements for an operator certificated under FAR Part 135 can be found in Part 119.71, under Management personnel
qualifications. No regulations exist for operations under FAR Part 91.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Class (of Aircraft)
A broad grouping of aircraft having similar characteristics of propulsion, flight or landing. (FAR Section 1.1) Examples are
landplane, seaplane, helicopter, gyroplane and free balloon.
Class Rate
The premium that is estimated by an insurance company to be adequate for a particular risk.
Co-Ownership
See aircraft resourcing options.
Coinsurance
Two or more policies issued by different insurance companies covering the same risk. Also, a sharing of a risk by the insurer and
the insured on a percentage basis.
Commercial Operator
A person who, for compensation or hire, engages in carriage by aircraft in air commerce of persons or property, other than as an
air carrier or foreign air carrier or under the authority of FAR Part 375. Where it is doubtful that an operation is for “compensation or
hire,” the test applied is whether the carriage by air is merely incidental to the person’s other business or is, in itself, a major
enterprise for profit. (FAR Section 1.1)
Common Carrier
Transportation company that offers its services for public use.
Competency Check
A flight check given by a check airman to determine a pilot’s competence in practical skills in that aircraft or class of aircraft.
COMSAT
U.S. Signatory to Inmarsat Providing Satellite Communications.
Conflict of Laws
Differences of law in different counties, municipalities, states or countries, affecting people who have made agreements or
contracts in two or more of said areas.
Controlled Airspace
Controlled airspace means an airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and to
VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification. Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers Class A, Class B,
Class C, Class D and Class E airspace.
CONUS
Continental United States
Corporate Business Aircraft
Aircraft that is corporate-owned or operated, flown by a professional flight crew and used for the transportation of executives,
employees, customers and guests.
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Glossary
Corporate Flying
Use of aircraft, owned or leased, that are operated by a corporation for the transportation of personnel or cargo and are flown by a
professional flight crew who receive direct salary and compensation from the corporation for that service.
Country-of-Origin
Right of each country to establish whatever conditions it requires for air services originating from it.
Crew member
A person assigned to perform duty in an aircraft during flight time.
CTOP
Collaborative Trajectory Options Program.
CVR
Cockpit Voice Recorder.
dBA
(A-weighted sound pressure level) A sound pressure level that has been filtered or weighted to quantitatively reduce the effect of
low frequency noise. It is designed to approximate the response of the human ear.
Decibel
A logarithmic measurement used to define the relative intensity or ratio of sound. It is noted by the symbol dB.
DG
Directional Gyro
Differences Training
The training required for crew members and dispatchers who have qualified and served on a particular airplane, when the
Administrator finds differences training is necessary for a crew member to serve in the same capacity on a particular variation of
that airplane.
DME
Distance Measuring Equipment
DMIR
Designated Manufacturing Inspection Representative
DOD
Department of Defense (U.S.)
DP
Departure Procedure
Dry Lease
Refers to the lease of the aircraft only. The flight crew is not included in the lease package. (Advisory Circular 91-37A)
DUAT
Direct User Access Terminal. A personal computer system used to retrieve weather/NOTAMs and to file flight plans.
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Glossary
Duty Time
The total amount of time a flight crew member is on duty, beginning when the person reports for an assignment and ending when
the person is released from that assignment. It includes all flight and non-flight related tasks.
EAA
Experimental Aircraft Association
EBAA
European Business Aviation Association. A pan-European business aircraft operators association and a member of the
International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
EBAA France
European Business Aviation Association – France. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
ECAC
European Civil Aviation Conference
EDCT
Estimated Departure Clearance Time
EFB
Electronic Flight Bag
EFIS
Electronic Flight Information System
ELT
Emergency Locator Transmitter. A small, self-contained radio transmitter that will manually or automatically, upon the impact of a
crash, transmit an emergency signal on 121.5, 243.0 and/or 406 MHz. Requirements for aircraft are found in FAR Section 91.207
and ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6, Parts 1 and 2. Note: In the year 2009, 121.5/243 MHz will no longer
be monitored via satellite-based monitoring. After the date of satellite monitoring termination in 2009, 121.5 MHz signals transmitted
from ELTs operated on the lower frequency only will be detected by ground-based receivers or over-flying aircraft.
EMDO
Engineering Manufacturing District Office
Enhanced Vision System (EVS)
A system that uses infrared and very low frequency wave-length radar to penetrate visually limiting meteorological phenomenon.
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
ETA
Estimated Time of Arrival
Exclusions
Certain clauses in an insurance policy that specify situations or special conditions in which coverage would be invalidated.
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Glossary
Exemption
A provision in FAR Part 11 of the Federal Aviation Regulations for a person, certificate holder or organization (such as NBAA) to be
exempt from the requirements of a regulation.
FAA
Federal Aviation Administration (FAR Section 1.2)
FANS
The ICAO Council Special Committee for Future Air Navigation Systems
FAR
Federal Aviation Regulations. Title 14 of the Code of Regulations.
Fatal Injury
Any injury that results in death within 30 days of the accident. (NTSB Section 830.2)
FBO
Fixed Base Operator
FCA
Flow Constrained Area
FCC
Federal Communications Commission
FDA
Flight Data Recorder
FEA
Flow Evaluation Area
FEC
Federal Election Commission
FIFO
Flight Inspection Field Offices
Financial Responsibility Laws
Laws structured to make it impossible for the reckless and financially irresponsible operator of a conveyance to secure a
commercial operator’s license unless there is a guarantee that he or she is able to pay, within the limits established by the statutes,
damages for which he or she becomes liable.
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Glossary
Five Freedoms of the Air
(1) The right to fly over the territory of a foreign nation without landing; (2) the right to land on the territory of a foreign nation for
non-traffic purposes (i.e., refueling, emergency repairs);
(3) the right to put down in a foreign country passenger, mail and cargo taken on in the state whose nationality the aircraft
possesses; (4) the right to take on passengers, mail and cargo in a foreign country for the state whose nationality the aircraft
possesses; and (5) the right to put down or take on in a foreign country passenger, mail and cargo from or for the territory of a
foreign country. (Also referenced is an unofficial “sixth freedom” that allows total freedom from constraints.)
Flight Attendant
A crew member assigned to duty on an aircraft, whose primary responsibility is ensuring passenger safety and comfort, and
whose training includes instruction in aircraft familiarization, evacuation procedures, emergency procedures and passenger
handling.
Flight Crew Member
A pilot, flight engineer, or flight navigator assigned to duty in an aircraft during flight time. (FAR Section 1.1)
Flight Information Center (FIC)
A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting service. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations
Manual)
Flight Information Region (FIR)
An airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information service and alerting services are provided. (North Atlantic
International General Aviation Operations Manual)
Flight Test
Flight for the purpose of investigating the operation/flight characteristics of an aircraft or aircraft component; or a flight for the
purpose of evaluating an applicant for a pilot certificate or rating. (Airman’s Information Manual)
Flight Time
The time from the moment the aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of flight until the moment it comes to rest at
the next point of landing. Also known as block to block time. (FAR Section 1.1)
FMS
Flight Management System. An on-board computer system that integrates multiple sources of navigation input from a database
and real time entries.
Fractional Ownership
See aircraft resourcing options.
FSD
Federal Security Director
FSDO
Flight Standards District Office. An FAA field office serving an assigned geographical area and staffed with Flight Standards
personnel who serve the aviation industry and the general public on matters relating to the certification and operation of air carrier
and general aviation aircraft. Activities include general surveillance of operational safety, certification of airmen and aircraft,
accident prevention, investigation, enforcement, etc. (Airman’s Information Manual)
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Glossary
FSF
Flight Safety Foundation, Inc.
FSS
Flight Service Station. Air traffic facilities that: (1) provide pilot briefing, en route communications and VFR search and rescue
services; (2) assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency situations; (3) relay ATC clearances; (4) originate notices to airmen; (5)
broadcast aviation weather and national airspace system information; (6) receive and process IFR flight plans; and (7) monitor
navigation aids. In addition, at selected locations, an FSS provides en route flight advisory service, take weather observations,
issue airport advisories, and advise customs and immigration of trans-border flights. (Airman’s Information Manual)
GAMA
General Aviation Manufacturer’s Association. An association of U.S. manufacturers of general aviation aircraft.
GBAA
German Business Aviation Association. A business aircraft operator’s association in Germany and a member of the International
Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
GDP
Ground Delay Program. GDPs are implemented to control air traffic volume arriving at airports where the projected traffic demand
is expected to exceed the airport’s acceptance rate for a given period of time. Periods of demand exceeding acceptance rate are
normally a result of the airport’s acceptance rate being reduced for some reason. The most common reason for a reduction in
acceptance rate is adverse weather such as low ceilings and visibility.
General Aviation
The portion of civil aviation that encompasses all facets of aviation except scheduled air carriers, state-operated and military
aircraft.
General Aviation Airport (Public Airport)
Airport that is used for public purposes, under the control of a public agency, and whose landing area is publicly owned; these
airports service aircraft owned by private individuals or firms that are used primarily for business and recreational flying.
GPS
Global Positioning Satellite Navigation System, which is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense.
HAI
Helicopter Association International
HUD
Head-Up Display. It presents electronic flight information in the pilot’s field of vision while the pilot looks through the windshield.
IA
Inspection Authorization. An FAA certificate issued to an individual under FAR Section 65.91 granting authority to certify that
specific maintenance inspections have been completed in order to return aircraft to service after maintenance, alterations or
repairs.
IAOPA
International Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
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Glossary
IATA
International Air Transport Association
IBAA
Italian Business Aviation Association. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
IBAC
International Business Aviation Council, Ltd. An organization based in Montreal that represents, promotes and protects the
interests of business aviation in international forums.
ICAO
International Civil Aviation Organization (FAR Section 1.2). A specialized agency of the United Nations whose objective is to
develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster planning and development of international civil air
transport. (Airman’s Information Manual)
ICAO Airport
Designated U.S. airports serving international operations. ICAO airports are those designated under Article 68 of the Convention
on International Civil Aviation as airports serving international operations (for traffic or refueling purposes).
U.S. airports so designated are identified in ICAO Regional Air Navigation Plans, Document 8755 (North Atlantic, North American,
and Pacific Region) and Document 8733 (Caribbean and South American Regions) and include those regularly served by
scheduled and nonscheduled international commercial air transport, those designated as alternates, and those used regularly by
international general aviation flights. (Advisory Circular 150/5000-5B)
ICAP
Interagency Committee on Aviation Policy
ICC
Interstate Commerce Commission
IFIM
International Flight Information Manual (FAA)
IFR
Instrument Flight Rules (FAR Section 1.2)
IFSS
International Flight Service Station. A central operations' facility in the flight advisory system, staffed and equipped to control
aeronautical point-to-point telecommunications and air/ground telecommunications with pilots operating over international territory
or waters, which provides flight plan following, weather information, search and rescue action and other flight assistance
operations. (FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation: Calendar Year 1989)
IGA
International General Aviation. All international civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air
transport operations for remuneration or hire. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations Manual)
IGIA
Interagency Group on International Aviation. An association that coordinates U.S. response of federal agencies and the aviation
community to international aviation forums.
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Glossary
ILS
Instrument Landing System (FAR Section 1.2)
Incident
An occurrence other than an accident associated with the operation of an aircraft, that affects or could affect the safety of
operations. (NTSB Section 830.2)
In-flight
This refers to maneuvers, procedures or functions that must be conducted in the airplane.
In-House Flight Department
See aircraft resourcing options.
Initial Operating Experience (IOE)
A pilot who has completed training for a position and aircraft type must perform this flight with a check airman. The minimum hours
are: 10 hours for a single-engine aircraft; 15 hours for a multiengine reciprocating aircraft; 20 hours for a multiengine turbineengine-powered aircraft; 25 hours for a turbojet-powered airplane. Requirements are found in FAR Section 135.244.
Initial Training
The training required for crew members who have not qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane of the same
group.
INMARSAT
International Maritime Satellite
INOTAMS
International Notices to Airmen
INP
Inertial Navigation Platform
INS
Inertial Navigation System
International Airports of Entry
These airports that have been designated as international airports for customs purposes. They are open to all international aircraft
for entry and clearance purposes without the necessity of obtaining permission. However, advance notice of arrival is required so
inspectors may be available. Designation as an international airport of entry follows application by the airport operator and finding
by the U.S. Customs Service that the airport will generate sufficient international traffic. An airport of entry must provide adequate
space and facilities for customs and federal inspection purposes and satisfy certain other requirements established by the U.S.
Customs Service. (Advisory Circular 150/5000-5B)
Investigations
A procedure used by the FAA under FAR Part 13 to review the existence of an alleged violation. The FAA is authorized to conduct
investigations, hold hearings, issue subpoenas, require the production of relevant documents, records and property, and take
evidence and depositions.
IRC
Internal Revenue Code
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Glossary
JBAA
Japan Business Aviation Association. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
Joint Ownership
See aircraft resourcing options.
Landing Rights Airports
Landing rights airports are those airports where incoming international flights must obtain prior permission to land and must furnish
advance notice of arrival to U.S. Customs. This category of airports includes most of the so-called “major” U.S. international
airports. Advance notice of arrival may be transmitted via flight plans at those airports where Advise Customs (ADCUS) service is
available and such notice is treated as application for permission to land. Customs officers may, at their discretion, grant blanket
“landing rights” to individuals or companies at certain airports for a specific period of time, in which case advance notices of arrival
are the only requirement. This blanket permission is generally given for scheduled airline flights at busy landing rights airports.
(Advisory Circular 150/5000-5B)
Large Aircraft
An aircraft with a maximum gross weight of more than 12,500 pounds. (FAR Section 1.1)
Layover
Time spent by the aircraft and crew in the middle of a trip other than at home base.
Lease
Agreement by which the owner of a property rents and permits it to be used by a tenant or lessee on payment of a consideration.
Leaseback
A sale of property with a lease given by the purchaser back to the original owner.
Letter of Correction
A letter or form from the FAA to an alleged violator that (1) brings to the attention of the alleged violator the facts and circumstances
of the incident; (2) advises that, based on available information, such operations or practices are contrary to the regulations; (3)
states that the matter has been corrected and/or does not warrant legal enforcement action; and (4) requests future compliance
with the regulation. It is intended to be used when there is agreement with the company, organization, or airmen that corrective
action acceptable to the FAA has been taken, or will be taken, within a reasonable time. (FAA Order 2150.3A)
Letter of Investigation
A written notification, which is not required, from the FAA to an alleged violator of an FAA investigation.
Lien
A claim against another’s property.
Lien (Mechanic’s)
The right of maintenance personnel to retain property in their control until services rendered have been paid for in full.
Line Check
A check, given by a check airman, that consists of a flight over a typical route.
Localizer
Electronic course guidance to the runway used in a precision instrument approach to a landing.
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Glossary
Loran
Long Range Navigation. An electronic navigation system by which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by measuring the
difference in the time of reception of synchronized pulse signals from two fixed transmitters. This allows for direct navigation from
any point to any point within the area of coverage.
Mach Number (M)
The ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound. (FAR Section 1.1)
Maintenance
Inspection, overhaul, repair, preservation and replacement of parts of airframes, powerplants, propellers, rotors and appliances.
This term excludes preventive maintenance. (FAR Section 1.1)
Maintenance Manual
A manual produced by the manufacturer of an aircraft, aircraft engine or component that details the approved method of
maintenance.
Maintenance Release
A return to service approval in the appropriate maintenance record.
Major Alteration
An alteration not listed in the aircraft, aircraft engine or propeller specifications that might appreciably affect weight, balance,
structural strength, performance, powerplant operation, flight characteristics or other qualities affecting airworthiness; or that is not
done according to accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary operations. (FAR Section 1.1). A list of alterations
considered major appears in Appendix A of FAR Part 43, and recordkeeping requirements are found in Appendix B of FAR Part 43.
Major Repair
A repair that, if properly done, might appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength, performance, powerplant operation,
flight characteristics or other qualities affecting airworthiness; or that is not done according to accepted practices or cannot be
done by elementary operations. (FAR Section 1.1). A list of repairs considered major appears in Appendix A of FAR Part 43 and
recordkeeping requirements are found in Appendix B of FAR Part 43.
Marker Beacon
Instrument that provides aural and/or visual identification of a specific position along an instrument approach landing.
MEBAA
Middle East Business Aviation Association. A member of the International Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
MEL
Minimum Equipment List. A list of aircraft appliances and equipment that must be functioning for an aircraft to be flown. Approval
requirements are found in FAR Section 91.213
MIDO
Manufacturing Inspection District Office. Provides for original and supplemental airworthiness certification approval of civil aircraft,
engines, propellers, parts and appliances and conducts inspection surveillance of manufacturing facilities producing civil aircraft,
engines and propellers to determine compliance with prescribed safety standards. This office could be helpful when preparing to
export an aircraft.
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Glossary
Miles-in-Trail Restrictions
A traffic management tool used to control the amount of traffic destined for or passing through Center Sectors that have temporary
capacity constraints.
Minor Alteration
An alteration other than a major alteration. (FAR Section 1.1)
Minor Repair
A repair other than a major repair. (FAR Section 1.1)
MIS
Management Information Systems. Computer-controlled systems management.
MLS
Microwave Landing System. A precision instrument approach system operating in the microwave spectrum that consists of an
azimuth station, an elevation station and precision distance measuring equipment. (Airman’s Information Manual.)
MNPS
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification. A specified set of minimum navigation performance standards that aircraft must
meet in order to operate in MNPS-designated airspace. In addition, aircraft must be certified by the State of Registry for MNPS
operation. The objective of MNPS is to ensure the safe separation of aircraft and to derive maximum benefit, generally through
reduced separation standards, from the improvement in accuracy of navigation equipment developed in recent years. (North
Atlantic International General Aviation Operations Manual)
MNPSA
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification Airspace. A portion of the North Atlantic airspace between FL275 and FL400
extending between latitude 27º North and the North Pole, bounded in the east by the eastern boundaries of control areas Santa
Maria Oceanic, Shanwick Oceanic and Reykjavik, and in the west by the western boundary of Reykjavik control area, the western
boundary of Gander Oceanic control area and the western boundary of New York Oceanic control area excluding the area west of
60º
West and south of 3830º North. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations Manual)
Mode C
Altitude-reporting mode of secondary radar used with AT-CRBS transponders. Requirements for when transponders are needed
are found in FAR Section 91.215.
Mode S
Discrete, addressable secondary radar system that may also include data link.
MRO
Maintenance Repair Order. Order received from customer for repair or replacement.
National Airspace System
The common network of U.S. airspace; navigation aids; communication facilities; aeronautical charts and information; rules,
regulations, and procedures; technical information; and FAA manpower and material. Included are system components shared
jointly with the military. In addition to all designated airspace, the system includes the following components: air navigation facilities
and airports.
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Glossary
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASAO
National Association of State Aviation Officials
NAT
North Atlantic Airspace
NAT/SPG
North Atlantic/Special Planning Group. An ICAO group consisting of countries that abut the North Atlantic and of users of the North
Atlantic.
NATA
National Air Transportation Association
NBAA
National Business Aviation Association. Founded in 1947, NBAA is the leading organization for companies that rely on general
aviation aircraft to help make their businesses more efficient, productive and successful. NBAA is a member of the International
Business Aviation Council, Ltd.
NDB
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (FAR Section 1.2)
NFDC
National Flight Data Center. A facility in Washington, DC, established by the FAA to operate a central aeronautical information
service for the collection, validation and dissemination of aeronautical data in support of the activities of government, industry and
the aviation community. The information is published in the National Flight Data Digest. (Airman’s Information Manual)
NFDD
National Flight Data Digest. A daily (except weekends and federal holidays) publication of flight information appropriate to
aeronautical charts, aeronautical publications, notices to airmen or other media serving the purpose of providing operational flight
data essential to safe and efficient aircraft operations. (Airman’s Information Manual)
Noise Abatement
Procedure for aircraft operating at an airport so as to minimize the impact of noise on the local environment. NBAA’s Noise
Abatement Program is a set of objectives and operating procedures used to reduce noise exposure for people on the ground. The
procedures, established in 1967, are recommended as a standard for all aircraft whose manufacturers have not recommended
specific noise-abatement procedures.
Noise Contou
Continuous line on a map of an airport and its vicinity that connects points of the same noise exposure level
NOPAC
North Pacific Airspace
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Glossary
NOTAM
Notice to Airmen. A notice containing information (not known sufficiently in advance to publicize by other means) concerning the
establishment, condition or change in any component (facility, service, or procedure of, or hazard in the National Airspace
System), the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
NOTAM(D) – A NOTAM given (in addition to local dissemination) distant dissemination beyond the area of respon- sibility
of the flight service station. These NOTAMs are stored and available until canceled.
FDC NOTAM – A NOTAM regulatory in nature, transmitted by USNOF and given system-wide dissemination.
Notice of Proposed Certificate Action
The required notice given to a certificate holder of the
FAA’s intention to order the suspension or revocation of a certificate. This notice is not required if an emergency order is issued.
Regulations on certificate actions are found in FAR Section 13.19. (FAA Order 2150.3A)
NPIAS
National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems
NTIS
National Technical Information Service
NTSB
National Transportation Safety Board
OAC
Oceanic Area Control Center. Any Area Control Center (ACC) with jurisdiction over oceanic airspace for the purpose of providing
air traffic services. Responsibility for the provisions of air traffic services is delegated to various countries based primarily upon
geographic proximity and the availability of the required resources. (North Atlantic International General Aviation Operations
Manual)
OAG
Official Airline Guide
Oceanic Airspace
Airspace over the high seas, for which ICAO delegates responsibility for the provision of ATS to various countries.
Omega
Network of eight very-low-frequency stations located around the world that provides navigational signals normally used in
conjunction with a very low frequency (VLF) system for long-range point to point navigation over remote areas.
100-Hour Inspection
An inspection of a commercially operated aircraft required by FAR Section 91.409 within each 100 hours time in service in
accordance with procedures prescribed by the FAA.
Open Skies Policy
Concept that promotes unrestricted use of airspace and airports by all users.
Operator
Any person who causes or authorizes the operations of an aircraft, such as the owner, lessee or bailee of an aircraft. (NTSB
Section 830.2)
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Glossary
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OTS
Organized Track System. A movable system of oceanic tracks that traverses the North Atlantic between Europe and North
America. The physical position is determined twice daily to take advantage of the winds aloft. (Airman’s Information Manual)
PAMA
Professional Aviation Maintenance Association
PANS
Procedure for Air Navigation Services
PAR
Precision Approach Radar (FAR Section 1.2). Radar equipment in some air traffic control facilities operated by the FAA and/or the
military services at joint-use civil/military locations and separate military installations to detect and display azimuth, elevation and
range of aircraft on final approach course to a runway. (Airman’s Information Manual)
Payload
The weight an aircraft can carry including passengers, fuel, cargo and baggage.
PIC
Pilot In Command. The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of an aircraft during flight time. (FAR Section 1.1)
PMA
Parts Manufacturer Approval. An approval necessary for a manufacturer to produce a modification or replacement on a type
certificated product. Requirements are found in FAR Section 21.303.
PMI
Principal Maintenance Inspector
POI
Principal Operations Inspector
PPE
Pilot Proficiency Examiner
Preventive Maintenance
Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly opera- tions
(FAR Section 1.1). Paragraph (c) of Appendix A of FAR Part 43 lists work that falls under preventive maintenance.
PRNAV
Precision Area Navigation. RNAV that meets a track-keeping accuracy equal to or better than ±1 nm for 95 percent of the flight
time.
Proficiency Check
A check given by a check airman to flight crew members to test the ability of the pilot in specific situations and maneuvers.
Commercial requirements are found in FAR Section 135.297. Non-commercial requirements are found in FAR Section 61.58.
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Glossary
Progressive Inspection
A continuing sequential airworthiness inspection of an aircraft and its various components and systems at scheduled intervals in
accordance with procedures approved by the FAA. Approval requirements are found in FAR Section 91.409.
Propeller
A device for propelling an aircraft that has blades on an engine-driven shaft and that, when rotated, produces a thrust
approximately perpendicular to its plane of rotation. It includes control components normally supplied by its manufacturer, but does
not include main and auxiliary rotors or rotating airfoils of engines. (FAR Section 1.1)
PSI
Principal Security Inspector.
RAARegional Airline Association
RAC
Rules of the Air and Traffic Services
Recurrent Training
The training required for crew members to remain adequately trained and currently proficient for each aircraft, position and type of
operation in which the crew member serves.
Reliever Airport
An airport to serve general aviation aircraft that might otherwise use a congested, air-carrier-served airport.
Report of Violation
A report made under FAR Section 13.1 by any person who knows of a violation of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended,
the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act relating to the transportation and shipment by air of hazardous materials, the Airport
and Airway Development Act of 1982, as amended by the Airport and Airway Safety and Capacity Expansion Act of 1987, or any
rule, regulation or order issued thereunder to the appropriate personnel at any FAA regional or district office.
Reservation
An authorization received in compliance with FAR Part 93, to operate to and/or from a designated high density traffic airport
(HDTA). A reservation is normally allocated on an hourly basis. However, the total hourly reservation limit could be further broken
down to a 30-minute time period limit. A reservation flight may operate only within the approved hour or half hour, unless the flight
encounters a traffic delay. (Advisory Circular 90-43G)
RNAV
Area Navigation System. A method of navigation that permits aircraft operations on any desired course within the coverage of
station-referenced navigation signals or within the limits of self-contained system capability. (FAR Section 1.1)
RNP
Required Navigational Performance is the specified navigation capability necessary for aircraft to operate within a defined airspace.
RNP capabilities of the aircraft are based on its navigational accuracy within the horizontal plane.
RNP/AR
Required Navigation Performance/Authorization Required. A type of approach or departure with a specified required level of
performance and capability that requires special aircraft certification and aircrew training. Procedures may include radius-to-fix
(RF) legs.
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Glossary
RTCA
RTCA, Inc. is a private, not-for-profit corporation that develops consensus-based recommendations regarding communications,
navigation, surveillance and air traffic management (CNS/ATM) system issues. RTCA functions as a Federal Advisory Committee.
Its recommendations are used by the FAA as the basis for policy, program and regulatory decisions and by the private sector as
the basis for development, investment and other business decisions.
Runway IncursionAny occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the
protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
RVSM
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) reduces the vertical separation between flight level (FL) 290–410 from 2,000 feet to
1,000 feet and makes six additional FLs available for operation. The additional FLs enable more aircraft to fly more time-and fuelefficient profiles and provides the potential for enhanced airspace capacity. RVSM operators must receive authorization from the
appropriate civil aviation authority. RVSM aircraft must meet required equipage and altitude-keeping performance standards.
Operators must operate in accordance with RVSM policies/procedures applicable to the airspace where they are flying.
RVR
Runway Visual Range. An instrumentally derived value, based on standard calibrations, that represents the horizontal distance a
pilot will see down the runway from the approach end. It is based on the sighting of either high intensity runway lights or on the
visual contrast of other targets, whichever yields the greater visual range. (Airman’s Information Manual)
SARP
Standards and Recommended Practices (ICAO)
SENEL
Single Event Noise Exposure Limit, expressed in dBA
Serious Injury
An injury that (1) requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days after the date the injury was received;
(2) results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose); (3) causes severe hemorrhages, nerve,
muscle, or tendon damage; (4) involves any internal organ; or (5) involves second or third degree burns or any burns affecting
more than 5 percent of the body surface. (NTSB Section 830.2)
SID
Standard Instrument Departure. A pre-planned IFR air traffic control departure procedure printed for pilot use in graphic and/or
textual form. It provides transition from the terminal to the appropriate en route structure. (Airman’s Information Manual) There are
two types of SIDs:
Air Traffic Control (ATC) SIDs that are intended to maximize traffic flow efficiencies for ATC
Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP) SIDs that are designed to separate departing aircraft from known obstacles via
TERPs designs
SIFL
Standard Industry Fare Level. An airline industry statistic maintained by the Department of Transportation, which includes specific
cents-per-mile rates for three different ranges of statute mileage and a fixed terminal charge.
SITA
Society Internationale de Telecommunications Aeronautiques
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Small Aircraft
An aircraft with a maximum gross weight of 12,500 pounds or less (FAR Section 1.1)
SMIR
Standard Manufacturing Inspection Representative
SOP
Standard Operating Procedure
SPG
Special Planning Group (ICAO)
Stage
1. In turbine engine construction, a single turbine wheel having a number of turbine blades.
2. In aircraft certification, the delineation of the various certificate noise levels and airplanes that meet those noise levels.
Stage 1/Chapter 1
The lowest of the three aircraft noise classes created in 1977, when the FAA amended FAR Part 36 to provide for three levels of
aircraft noise certification standards.
Stage 2/Chapter 2
The noise limit for newly designed large aircraft imposed in 1973 following the establishment of the FAA’s first noise regulation –
FAR Part 36. The international (ICAO) equivalent noise standard is known as ICAO Chapter 2.
Stage 3/Chapter 3
A more stringent aircraft noise limit that applied to aircraft for which new type certificates were applied for on or after November
5,1975. This category of noise certification was created in 1977, when the FAA amended FAR Part 36 to provide for three stages
of aircraft noise levels. The international (ICAO) equivalent noise standard is known as ICAO Chapter 3.
Stage 4/Chapter 4
The most recent and most stringent aircraft noise certification limit that applies to aircraft for which new type certificates are applied
for on or after January 1, 2006. The international equivalent noise standard is known as ICAO Chapter 4.
STAR
Standard Terminal Arrival procedure. A pre-planned IFR air traffic control arrival procedure published for pilot use in graphic and/or
textual form. It provides transition from the en route structure to an outer fix or an instrument approach fix/ arrival waypoint in the
terminal area. (Airman’s Information Manual)
STC
Supplemental Type Certificate. A certificate authorizing an alteration to an airframe, engine or component that has been granted an
Approved Type Certificate. The procedures for the issuance and changes to supplemental type certificates are found in FAR Part
21 – Certification and Procedures for Products and Parts.
STMP
Special Traffic Management Program. Reservation program implemented to regulate arrivals and/or departures at airports that are
in areas hosting special events of national significance. STMPs may or may not include airport slot reservations.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
STOL
Short Takeoff and Landing
Substantial Damage
Damage or failure that adversely affects the structural strength, performance or flight characteristics of the aircraft, and that
normally would require major repair or replacement of the affected component. The following are not considered “substantial
damage” for the purpose of notification and reporting of aircraft accidents or incidents: engine failure or damage limited to the
engine if only one engine fails or is damaged, bent fairings or cowling, dented skin, small puncture holes in the skin or fabric,
ground damage to rotor or propeller blades and damage to landing gear, wheels, tires, flaps, engine accessories, brakes or wing
tips. (NTSB Section 830.2)
SVS
Synthetic Vision System. A system used to create a synthetic image representing the environment external to the aircraft that is
derived from aircraft altitude, high-precision navigation information and a database of terrain, obstacles and relevant cultural
features.
TBO
Time Before Overhaul. A recommendation of the manufacturer of an aircraft engine as to the amount of time that the engine can
operate under average conditions before it should be overhauled. Overhaul at this time will result in the most economical operation.
TC
Type Certificate. The official specifications of an aircraft, engine or propeller. These are issued by the FAA, and the device, in order
to be airworthy, must conform to these specifications. The procedures for the issuance and changes to type certificates are found
in FAR Part 21 – Certification and Procedures for Products and Parts.
T&C
Terms and Conditions (of a purchase)
Temporary Use of Substitute Aircraft
An insurance policy clause that enables an insured to use another non-owned aircraft of similar type, horsepower and seating
capacity for such a time that the insured’s aircraft is being repaired or serviced.
Time Change Item
Any item, component, unit, etc., whose time in service is limited by hours, number of times the unit is operated on, or a calendar
basis, and must be removed and replaced with a new or serviceable like item.
Time In Service
In regard to maintenance records, the time from the moment an aircraft leaves the surface of the earth until it touches down at the
next point of landing.
TRACON
Terminal Radar Approach Control
Traffic Flow Management
Traffic flow management (TFM), sometimes referred to as air traffic management, is the function of air traffic control that seeks to
control the overall flow of traffic in the Nation- al Airspace System, rather than control specific flights. TFM is made possible by a
joint government/industry initiative called Collaborative Decision Making (CDM).
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
Transition Training
The training required for crew members who have qualified and served in the same capacity on another airplane of the same
group.
TSO
Technical Standard Order. An order issued by the FAA that is a minimum performance standard for specified articles (i.e.,
materials, parts, processes or appliances) used on civil aircraft. (FAR Section 21.601(b))
Turbine-Powered Airplanes
This includes turbofan, turbojet, prop fan and ultra-high-bypass, fan-powered airplanes, but specifically excludes turbo-propellerpowered airplanes equipped with variable-pitch, constant-speed propellers. (Advisory Circular 120-50)
Type (of Aircraft)
A specific classification of aircraft having the same basic design including all modifications which might result in a change in
handling or flight characteristics.
Type Certificate Data Sheets
The official specifications of an aircraft, engine or propeller. They are issued by the FAA, and the device, in order to be airworthy,
must conform to these specifications.
Type Rating
An additional rating to a pilot’s certification that authorizes the pilot to act as pilot in command of a specific aircraft. A list of aircraft
that require a type rating in order for a pilot to act as pilot in command is found in Advisory Circular 61-89D.
UAS
Unmanned Aircraft System
UDF
Un-Ducted Prop Fan
UIR
Upper Flight Information Region
Unscheduled Operation
An operation other than one regularly conducted by an air carrier or commuter between a high density airport and another service
point. Certain types of air carrier/commuter operations are also considered as unscheduled. They include irregular charter and
hired aircraft service and non-passenger flights. (Advisory Circular 90-43F)
Upgrade Training
The training required for crew members who have qualified as second-in-command or flight engineer on a particular airplane type,
before they serve as pilot in command or second-in-command, respectively, on that airplane.
VASI
Visual Approach Slope Indicators
VLJ
Very Light Jet
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 
 
Glossary
VFR
Visual Flight Rules
VOR
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Range (FAR Section 1.1)
VORTAC
Integrated VOR and Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), navigational devices that provide azimuth and distance-measuring capability.
Whole Aircraft In-House Flight Department
See aircraft resourcing options.
Whole Aircraft Management Company
See aircraft resourcing options.
 NBAA MANAGEMENT GUIDE, 2024-01 



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