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+{"metadata":{"id":"0005a8035e43e650814cd6249856bfa7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d81f235-6669-4e03-800f-1bcbba202f97/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Twenty-five years of international exchanges of plant genetic resources facilitated by the CGIAR genebanks: a case study on global interdependence","keywords":["genetic resources","Interdependence","International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture","Multilateral system","Conservation","Breeding Communicated by Anurag chaurasia"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":341,"text":"Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) are the basic building blocks of crop improvement and adaptation and, by extension, of food security. As a result of the history of crop domestication and global dispersal and adaptation, all countries are now highly dependent upon plant genetic resources located (or originally collected from) beyond their borders. Global interdependence on plant genetic resources has been previously discussed (Crosby 1972(Crosby , 1986;;Diamond 1997;Fowler et al. 2001;Halewood et al. 2014;Mann 2011;SGRP 2011), and predictions have been made of increased future interdependence as a result of challenges such as climate change (Lane and Jarvis 2007;Burke et al. 2009;Jarvis et al. 2010;Fujisaka et al. 2011;Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2013) and the evolution of food systems and diets (Khoury et al. 2014). Global recognition of the policy significance of interdependence on PGRFA arguably reached its zenith in 2001 when 'interdependence' was explicitly included in Article 11 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) as one of two criteria-the other being relevance for food security-for including crops or forages in the multilateral system of access and benefit sharing (MLS). 1  Through the MLS, ITPGRFA parties agree to create a global, virtual pool of genetic resources for 64 crops and forages (these are listed in the Treaty's Annex 1). In addition to conservation, this germplasm is intended to be utilized for the purposes of training, breeding and research for food and agriculture. Member states agree to provide facilitated access to one another (including natural and legal persons within their borders) on the understanding that monetary benefits will be shared if the recipients incorporate materials in new, commercialized PGRFA products that are not available to others for research, training or breeding. The multilateral architecture of access and benefit sharing under the ITPGRFA was designed to reflect countries' current and future interdependence on PGRFA. The system was meant to minimize transaction costs that could otherwise multiply beyond acceptable limits, given the magnitude of international exchanges of genetic resources that accompany agricultural research, development and plant breeding."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"In recent years, ITPGRFA member states have expressed concerns that the MLS has not been functioning at the anticipated levels, either in terms of generating financial benefits by users to be shared through the international Benefit-Sharing Fund (BSF) or in terms of materials being made available to, and accessed through, the MLS. Based on this concern, the ITPGRFA's Governing Body created the Ad Hoc Open Ended Working Group to Enhance the Functioning of the MLS. Its mandate is to develop a range of optional measures to both increase user-based payments and contributions to the BSF in a sustainable and predictable long-term manner and enhance the functioning of the Multilateral System by additional measures."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"This article focuses on an issue at the heart of the MLS-the state of global interdependence on PGRFA. We hope that the data presented here will be useful within any process aimed at revising or reforming the terms and conditions of the MLS. It is critically important to keep interdependence in mind when developing policies concerning the conditions under which genetic resources can be accessed and used as well as the ways in which benefits derived from their use should be shared. Illustrating the volume, diversity and geographical spread of global flows of plant genetic resources mediated by Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centres, the findings highlight the benefits accrued by virtually all countries in the world-namely, being granted access to a rich variety of materials (and associated technology and information) otherwise unavailable within their own borders and difficult to access under bilateral conditions. The resulting conclusions highlight the importance of the system's non-monetary modalities for sharing benefits, most of which have involved users in developing countries. We hope that such evidence will encourage efforts to maintain and enhance these mechanisms, in addition to improving the mechanisms associated with monetary payments to the BSF."}]},{"head":"Data sources and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Data on the holdings, acquisitions and distributions of nine CGIAR genebanks was retrieved from the CGIAR's System-wide Information Network on Genetic Resources (SINGER). 2 A system-wide database such as SINGER has never been established for the distribution of germplasm from the CGIAR's breeding programmes, and, therefore, our study focuses on genebank distributions only. We asked each of the genebank curators to validate the accuracy of the data stored in SINGER and/or to provide updates or integrations. In the end, we obtained validated or updated data for seven genebanks, which are those included in this study (Table 1). Given the magnitude of the distributions from the other centres whose data is not included in this research, i.e., CIMMYT, CIAT, IITA, the final conclusions regarding the extent of international interdependence would likely have been even stronger had their data been included."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Distribution data followed a standard format gathering information according to the fields shown in Table 2."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"Distribution records were available beginning in 1973 for some of the genebanks included in the study, but there were large gaps in the records until 1985 (due to data storage and reporting systems not being fully in place in all centres). Thereafter, the data were more uniform, which led to the decision to consider only the data from 1985 onwards. Since our focus was the germplasm sent to countries and within-country recipients, intraand inter-CGIAR centre distributions were removed as well as those from CGIAR genebanks to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. The total number of distributed samples shown in Table 1 was the basis for our analysis. These centres' mandate crops (and their wild relatives) include key staples for worldwide food security, such as rice, tropical and dryland legumes and cereals, potatoes and other roots and tubers, bananas and plantains and tropical forages (see Appendix, Tables 6, 7 for details on the collections hosted at all CGIAR centres)."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Various ways of measuring international PGRFA movements were explored. We considered the total number of samples distributed [a single sample consisting ideally of between 50 and 100 viable seeds or less vegetative propagules (CGKB 2014)], the number of accessions distributed (excluding the repeated distributions of the same accession) and the number of species distributed. The latter two statistics provide a picture of the diversity, rather than the sheer volume, of the flows."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"Further analyses qualified the international germplasm flows facilitated by the genebanks using the number of countries from which the materials distributed were originally collected or improved, the number of recipient countries and types of recipient institutions, the number of genera and species distributed, and the type of materials exchanged. Countries were classified based on their development status according to the United Nations classification system (UN 2012), which helped to analyse the germplasm contributions according to the economy of the donor or recipient country. All data handling and analyses were performed in R (R Development Core Team 2011)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":400,"text":"Global flows of PGRFA, 1985-2009: volumes and diversity Between 1985and 2009, germplasm conserved in the selected CGIAR genebanks was distributed to a broad range of users. According to the available data, 999,250 samples of 262,872 accessions belonging to 1470 different plant species were distributed during that period. The average number of samples distributed per year (39,970) is below that of the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS), where total annual distributions have increased from around 120,000 (Bretting 2007) to more than 200,000 (Heisey and Day Rubenstein 2015) over the past few years. About 30 % of NPGS yearly distributions are typically to requestors from outside the U.S. However, in making this comparison, our lack of data from three important CGIAR genebanks should be kept in mind. Notwithstanding the missing data, the yearly volumes described are much higher than the average number of distributions of other important germplasm systems, such as the Russian Vavilov Institute (6400) (FAO 2009), the German Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Resources (4400 of barley only) (Ullrich 2011), the Centre for Genetic Resources in the Netherlands (2500) (Centre for Genetic Resources 2008), the Brazilian Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecua ´ria (1800) (Da Silva Mariante et al. 2009), the Institute of Crop Germpasm Resources in China (1550) (ICGR 2015), the Plant Genetic Resources Institute of Canada (1500) (Fowler and Hodgkin 2004). These numbers are useful for providing a general idea of the CGIAR's relative contribution on the international scene, but they should be considered with caution because of the differences in the reporting periods and the limitations of our data. Virtually all countries in the world have been involved in the exchange of germplasm. The materials listed in Table 1 were originally collected in, or provided by, at least 189 countries and distributed to at least 191 countries. In addition to distributions from the various genebanks, large amounts of germplasm in different stages of improvement have been sent out by the centres' breeding programmes, although no system-wide mechanism has ever been set up to document these distributions over time. However, data provided by the centres 3 for the fourth session of the ITPGRFA's Governing Body indicate that from August 2008 to December 2009 these breeding programmes sent out over 500,000 samples (SGRP 2011). This amount points to the outstanding contribution that the CGIAR breeders make to international flows of germplasm, in addition to the centres' genebanks."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"According to data available through the GENESYS portal, which gathers information on numerous national and international genebanks, the international ex situ collections hosted by the CGIAR centres currently include 712,834 accessions of their mandate crops and related gene pools, originally collected from a vast number of countries (Appendix, Tables 6, 7, 8). The genebanks that were analysed in this study, currently host 445,785 accessions of 2848 species. 4 Our data suggest that samples of roughly half the diversity held have been distributed at least once by these genebanks."},{"index":3,"size":275,"text":"During the period analysed, there appears to be have been a slight downward trend in the overall number of samples distributed, as already highlighted elsewhere (Halewood et al. 2013). A similar decline was observed in the diversity of the materials distributed, which was measured according to the number of accessions distributed and the number of species represented (Table 3). This trend may be attributed to the fact that the requests became more targeted as more characterization and evaluation data became available, which led to breeders and researchers making requests for smaller sets of materials (Halewood et al. 2013;Lo ´pez Noriega et al. 2013a). For those CGIAR genebanks actively distributing sets of materials for international adaptation trials, the decline could also be due to decreases in the funding made available for these multi-location field operations. It could be that some of the requests that were traditionally made to the CGIAR are now being directed to other genebanks. In addition to institutions that have always been at the forefront of international distributions, alongside the CGIAR, such as the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), a number of national institutions in other countries have been increasing their collections and may be receiving more germplasm requests (FAO 2010). In addition, some private sector users-those most likely to apply some form of intellectual property rights to the final PGRFA products-may have refrained in recent years from requesting germplasm from the CGIAR because of their reluctance to accept the benefitsharing clauses of the MLS (Halewood and Nnadozie 2008). It is important to note that traditionally these companies have been an extremely small portion of the users of CGIAR materials, as described later."}]},{"head":"Types of materials and frequency of distribution","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"According to GENESYS, over 50 % of the total germplasm distributed by the CGIAR genebanks over the 25 years analysed are landraces or traditional cultivars, which are predominant within these collections (Fowler et al. 2001;Genesys 2014). Breeding and research lines constitute less than 20 % of the materials distributed, while advanced or improved cultivars comprise only 7 % of the distributions. Wild and weedy relatives amount to 12 % of the samples sent out by the analysed genebanks, not only suggesting their importance as sources of useful traits but also reflecting the greater difficulty of using them in breeding compared to other materials (Fig. 1). The decision about which materials to conserve in the long term is made by each centre independently, often following the outcomes of economic analyses on the costs and benefits of conserving materials in genebanks or breeding programmes (Koo et al. 2004). The data in this study reveal that most centres give priority for long-term storage in their genebanks to materials that belong to the primary genepools -that is, the landraces and wild relatives of their mandate crops. This strategy also reflects the fact that all centres with genebanks also have breeding programmes that actively exchange research, breeding and improved lines with partners worldwide, making the conservation of these sets by the genebank neither necessary nor efficient. However, research, breeding and advanced lines are sometimes included in long-term collections, when the properties, or the use of the material, justify it. For instance, this may be the case with materials that have accumulated unique genetic properties (for example, allele combinations), those that are laborious to reproduce (for example, inter-specific hybrids) or those that are commonly used as benchmark varieties in evaluation trials."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"Based on the number of samples per accession sent to recipients, there appears to be enormous variation in the popularity of any single accession. Almost 60 % of the accessions in the dataset have been distributed between two and ten times, while only 5.7 % (150 accessions) have been distributed more than 100 times. Most of the latter come from ILRI, CIP and ICRISAT and have been distributed to an average of over 38 countries (SD 20.5) (see Appendix, Table 9 for details on the top 50 most 'popular' accessions of our dataset).  More than half of these frequently distributed materials are improved lines, whereas landraces, wild relatives and, to a lesser extent, breeding materials constitute the bulk of the accessions transferred less frequently. Among the possible reasons for the 'popular' materials to be more frequently requested (that is, by many institutions worldwide) is the fact that the characterization and/or evaluation data already accumulated on them increases their value for breeding and research. This information, in turn, facilitates their use including in institutions and countries with limited capacity or infrastructure for conducting lengthy and costly pre-breeding research using non-adapted populations and wild relatives (FAO 2010)."}]},{"head":"Providers and recipients","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Of the total 189 countries from which material distributed by the seven CGIAR genebanks was obtained, 112 are developing countries, 54 are developed countries and 23 have economies in transition. Of the total 191 recipients, 116 are developing countries, 19 are economies in transition and 56 are developed countries. Data for developing countries and countries with economies in transition has been combined in our analyses. Both developed and developing countries are net recipients-that is, they receive more diversity than they contribute to international gene banks. While this 'sink' behaviour is more evident for developed countries, which tend to harbour comparatively less indigenous genetic diversity in their territories, the majority of global exchanges of germplasm mediated by the CGIAR genebanks is distributed South to South-that is, between developing countries (Fig. 2)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"In their analysis of the flows from six of the CGIAR genebanks and from the USDA's National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) between 1990 and 1999, Smale and Kelly Day Rubenstein ( 2002) also observed that a predominance of developing countries and transition economies were providers and recipients. So too did the CGIAR's System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (2011) in its biannual reports to the Governing Body of the ITPGRFA. Tables 4a, b provide more detail on the amount, diversity and geographical coverage of the distributions facilitated by the international genebanks for the top 25 provider countries and the top 25 recipient countries."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"Almost all of the top providers listed in Table 4 are developing countries. Many of them are important centres of origin, domestication or diversification of the crops curated by the   genebanks considered in this study, including India (rice, millet), Peru (potatoes), Syria and Turkey (wheat and barley), China (rice) and a number of African countries (particularly for tropical forages). Many of the top recipients are also developing countries, and, again, many of them are centres of origin or diversity of crops or forages that they have requested, underscoring the fact that even diversity-rich countries are not self-sufficient in terms of their PGRFA needs. As an example, the difference in the amount of germplasm flowing in and out of India, compared to other countries, stands out as very significant."},{"index":4,"size":314,"text":"India has provided and received massive quantities of germplasm. Interestingly, a significant percentage of the materials originally collected in, or obtained from, India ends up going back to Indian recipients (59 % of the samples and over 70 % of the accessions), which makes it the largest recipient of CGIAR-hosted materials originally obtained from within its own borders. A high percentage of 'reabsorption' of their own materials through CGIAR-mediated flows are also recorded for Tunisia and Morocco (48 and 42 % respectively), the Philippines (37 %), Iran and Jordan (30 and 25 %) and others to lesser extents. These observations highlight the additional benefit of germplasm deposited in international collections since it provides long-term secure conservation and availability of quality material (and often value-added characterization and evaluation data) originating from one's own territory, in addition to access to diversity from hundreds of other countries. The latter benefit is particularly relevant for those countries with limited capacity to establish and maintain national conservation programmes for their own local materials. Differences exist not only in the amount, but also in the type of materials provided by developed and developing countries. While developed countries provide an overall lower quantity of materials compared to developing countries, they contribute a proportionally higher share of materials for which some formal research, pre-breeding or other form of improvement has been conducted. In total, 27 % of the samples 'distributed' by our seven CGIAR genebanks from developed countries were research materials and improved/elite lines (with the United States supplying as much as 80 % of this category); only 14 % of the samples distributed from developing and transition countries belonged to these categories. On the recipient side, the share of germplasm that carried some degree of research and improvement flowing into developing countries and transition economies is 30 % of the overall incoming samples, while it is 14 % for developed countries."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"In both developed and developing nations, public institutions (including the National Agricultural Research System (NARS), universities and genebanks) are by far the predominant recipients of CGIAR materials (Table 5; Fig. 3). These public sector recipients are located in developing countries in over 75 % of the cases. The share of samples sent to commercial companies is only around 3 % of the total, and the recipients are primarily (77 %) in developing countries."},{"index":6,"size":168,"text":"These findings are also consistent with those of Smale and Day Rubenstein (2002) who found that most recipients of germplasm from the US NPGS, another important worldwide facilitator of PGRFA for research and breeding, were in the public sector. The volume and diversity of the PGRFA flows described in this study, albeit only a small sample of worldwide exchanges, demonstrate the extent of countries' interdependence on PGRFA for crop improvement and, ultimately, food security. While acknowledging the limits of our dataset, we believe that the conclusions regarding the extent of international interdependence would likely have been even stronger had the data from important genebanks such as those at CIMMYT, CIAT and IITA been included. The emerging picture confirms an established description of modern agriculture as an interdependent network of seed and germplasm sources, in which very few countries or farming systems in the world do not rely to some degree on the international system that moves crop germplasm, breeding lines and improved varieties across international borders (Duvick 1984)."},{"index":7,"size":257,"text":"Analyses by other authors confirm these patterns, describing how crop improvement has benefited from access to a wide range of materials with different origins. Fowler, Smale and Gaiji ( 2001) undertook an analysis of CGIAR data focusing on a different time frame and different measures than those presented here. Smale et al. (2002) used the case of spring bread wheat released by national programmes in developing countries. Warburton et al. (2006) andDreisigacker et al. (2005) looked at synthetic hexaploids to illustrate the significance of access to wild relatives from centres of diversity in wheat improvement. Voysest et al. (2003) took the case of beans in Latin America (Fowler et al. 2001;Smale et al. 2002;Voysest et al. 2003;Dreisigacker et al. 2005;Warburton et al. 2006). Additional studies have focused on those countries that are the centres of crop diversity. Rejesus et al. (1996) reported that 45.6 % of the germplasm used by wheat breeders in Western Asia, the Vavilov centre for the species, comes from international sources. Evenson and Gollin (1997) documented the dependence of Asian countries, including the Vavilovcentre countries such as India, Burma, Bangladesh, Nepal and Vietnam, on IRRI for rice  (Rejesus et al. 1996;Evenson and Gollin 1997). All of this evidence points to the 'international public good' nature of the materials held and made available by the CGIAR as well as by other actors who make such materials available. It highlights the importance of supporting the continuation and enhancement of conservation as well as the internationally facilitated sharing of germplasm within the framework of the ITPGRFA."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"It is clear that access to globally pooled genetic resources is a fundamentally important benefit that all countries have historically exploited when systems were set up to facilitate such access. Any effort to improve the MLS must be guided by the necessity of supporting and improving countries' ability to further capitalize on this benefit. This is particularly true considering the contemporary challenges associated with climate change (Fujisaka et al. 2011), population growth and the harmonization of diets across the world (Khoury et al. 2014). While acknowledging the importance of improving the monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, we believe that one should not lose sight of the need to maintain the non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms when evaluating the effectiveness of the MLS and considering options for its reform. Significant knowledge and opportunities for crop improvement accompany the materials distributed by the CGIAR genebanks, so focusing exclusively on the monetary benefits that can potentially result from germplasm flows represent too narrow a view of its overall impact. Indeed, it has been argued that non-monetary benefits from the MLS (as outlined in Articles 13.1 and 13.2(a)-(c) of the ITPGRFA) can generate much greater economic return than developing countries would ever gain through the BSF."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"With respect to monetary benefit sharing, it is important to underscore the fact that the primary users of germplasm from the CGIAR and the MLS have been public sector organizations (in developing countries) rather than private sector entities. Indeed, it has been pointed out that a crucial factor that determines the demand for genetic resources in the seed and crop protection industries is the effort required to turn them into usable materials. Genetic resources that widen a company's gene pool, but without the identified properties of interest, are typically considered to have little commercial value since they require considerable investment and the return on investment is often risky (Smolders 2005). Although new technology can assist in the search for a specific trait, the expense of doing so is generally prohibitive, particularly for smaller companies (Laird and Wynberg 2006). Larger companies that would most likely trigger the mandatory financial benefit-sharing provisions associated with the MLS tend to opt out of receiving materials from the system (Halewood and Nnadozie 2008). These kinds of reasons likely underlie the failure of efforts to 'privatize' monetary benefit sharing through the adoption of mechanisms for mandatory payments from companies based on sales of products that incorporate materials from the MLS."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"We believe that some other approach to monetary benefit sharing, linked to the operation of the MLS, is necessary. Such an approach should more closely reflect the public goods nature of PGRFA as well as the historical development of the international and national collections that host most of the materials that do, and will, constitute the MLS. It should also be as simple as possible, and less administratively burdensome on both the providers and users of PGRFA, to encourage, rather than discourage, participation. In particular, it could be useful not to link the collection of financial benefits to the privatization of products incorporating materials from the MLS. Rather, it could be governments or public authorities which devise means to assume the costs of the MLS' proper functioning, in a familiar form of state assumed responsibility on publically valuable assets. Governments could then decide if and how they would need to recoup some of those costs; one option, which was actually discussed in early Treaty days, could be some sort of contribution from the commercial sector based on their annual seed sales. This approach would also be in line with the way public organizations have historically supported the collections."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"Of course, there are other ways to improve and enhance the functioning of the MLS and to acknowledge countries' increasing interdependence on PGRFA, beyond adopting a new approach to monetary benefit sharing. No matter how well the system is designed or reformulated, there are practical, institutional and capacity limitations for all countries and all potential beneficiaries (from farmers to breeders and researchers) to take advantage of the MLS, even once their legal ability to do so has been established. This may be particularly true in some developing countries. Capacities and strong partnerships need to be established among the broadest possible range of stakeholders, enabling them to recognize specific traitbased needs, identify where the potentially useful materials could be within the MLS, and request, receive and use the materials concerned. A more proactive and widespread participation would contribute to a greater willingness to voluntarily introduce materials into the MLS, increasing the diversity available to agricultural research and development and giving rise to additional monetary and non-monetary benefits to be shared."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"It has been argued that capacity building, technology transfer and information exchange in the context of the MLS should take place in close relation to other ITPGRFA objectives, particularly the recognition and protection of farmers' rights (Article 9). Indeed, a number of countries have flagged their concern about the MLS having too narrow a focus to the detriment of issues that are more closely related to farmers and their role in on-farm conservation (Lo ´pez Noriega et al. 2013b). After all, most of the ex situ materials that are being, or will be, circulated globally thanks to the MLS are landraces or naturally adapted resources developed and conserved by small farmers, often from developing countries. Their role today is ever more crucial for allowing the continued conservation, evolution and development of genetic resources with the potential to adapt to changing climates. Greater synergy between the architecture of the MLS and the implementation of farmers' rights would also contribute to moving the ITPGRFA forward as a package of integrated measures, building confidence among a wider range of key stakeholders and truly reflecting global interdependence. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig.1Proportion of the different types of germplasm distributed by the selected CGIAR genebanks based on accession data  "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Number of accessions exchanged between developed (the 'North') and developing and transition countries (the 'South') "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Total number of samples sent to national recipients from the seven CGIAR genebanks  AfricaRice Bioversity CIP ICARDA ICRISAT ILRI IRRI AfricaRice Bioversity CIPICARDA ICRISAT ILRIIRRI Samples distributed 38,963 13,436 84,380 246,026 418,934 30,830 166,681 Samples distributed 38,96313,43684,380 246,026418,93430,830 166,681 Table 2 Fields of information included in the distribution data CGIAR centre   Transfer year Table 2 Fields of information included in the distribution dataCGIAR centreTransfer year from CGIAR genebanks Accession number  Recipient country code from CGIAR genebanksAccession numberRecipient country code  Genus   Recipient country name GenusRecipient country name  Species   Recipient institute SpeciesRecipient institute  Country of origin  Recipient last name Country of originRecipient last name  Biological status  Recipient first name Biological statusRecipient first name  Recipient code   Recipient user type Recipient codeRecipient user type  Recipient region  Transfer date Recipient regionTransfer date  "},{"text":"Table 3 Results of the models used for analysing trends in the overall flows over time  Parameter/year Estimate P value Method Parameter/yearEstimateP valueMethod Samples -0.031 \\2e-16 Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution Samples-0.031\\2e-16Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution Accessions -0.065 \\2e-16 Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution Accessions-0.065\\2e-16Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution Species -0.013 \\2e-16 Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution Species-0.013\\2e-16Generalized linear model with Poisson error distribution  "},{"text":"Table 4 Top 25 provider countries (including total number of samples, genera and accessions originally sourced in these countries and circulated by the CGIAR genebanks analysed in this study as well as the number of recipient countries) and top 25 recipient countries (total number of samples, genera and accessions received as well as the number of countries where these materials were originally sourced)  Provider countries 181 178 151 150 150 141 144  97 107  Providercountries18117815115015014114497107 Genera received 70 97 48 175 63 32 89  38 50  Generareceived7097481756332893850 Accessions received 115,849 39,963 18,664 17,572 17,566 12,022 14,283  14,618 8798  Accessionsreceived115,84939,96318,66417,57217,56612,02214,28314,6188798 Total samples received 284,454 45,992 33,690 28,863 20,218 17,628 17,231  16,362 16,332  Total samplesreceived284,45445,99233,69028,86320,21817,62817,23116,36216,332 Recipient country India United States China Ethiopia Australia Japan United Kingdom Morocco The Philippines  RecipientcountryIndiaUnited StatesChinaEthiopiaAustraliaJapanUnitedKingdomMoroccoThe Philippines Recipient countries 144 158 120 156 87 83 78  61 109  Recipientcountries14415812015687837861109 Genera provided 35 23 94 30 26 29 27  17 7  Generaprovided35239430262927177 Accessions provided 48,635 16,216 13,683 6294 9779 9634 7487  3457 4016  Accessionsprovided48,63516,21613,683629497799634748734574016 Total samples provided 188,911 67,899 40,143 36,652 29,829 29,579 26,029  24,262 21,626  Total samplesprovided188,91167,89940,14336,65229,82929,57926,02924,26221,626 Provider country India Peru Ethiopia United States Iran Turkey Syrian Arab Republic Sudan The Philippines Co ˆte d'Ivoire ProvidercountryIndiaPeruEthiopiaUnited StatesIranTurkeySyrian ArabRepublicSudanThe PhilippinesCo ˆte d'Ivoire  "},{"text":"Table 5 Type of recipients, samples and accessions and percentages over the total Biodivers Conserv     Biodivers Conserv Recipient type Samples received Percentage Accessions received Percentage Recipient typeSamples receivedPercentageAccessions receivedPercentage NARS 573,456 57.39 374,714 61.87 NARS573,45657.39374,71461.87 University 297,034 29.73 161,845 26.72 University297,03429.73161,84526.72 Genebank 53,198 5.32 33,967 5.61 Genebank53,1985.3233,9675.61 Commercial company 32,020 3.20 10,985 1.81 Commercial company32,0203.2010,9851.81 Other 24,739 2.48 13,650 2.25 Other24,7392.4813,6502.25 Non-governmental organization 14,821 1.48 7905 1.31 Non-governmental organization14,8211.4879051.31 Regional organization 2727 0.27 2054 0.34 Regional organization27270.2720540.34 Farmer 1255 0.13 528 0.09 Farmer12550.135280.09  "},{"text":"Table 6 Current numbers of accessions of germplasm held by the genebanks of the CGIAR system Data from Genesys, http://www.genesys-pgr.org (accessed on 20 November 2014)  Centre  Number of accessions held CentreNumber of accessions held  Africa Rice  26,098 Africa Rice26,098  Bioversity International 1516 Bioversity International1516  CIAT  64,721 CIAT64,721  CIMMYT  164,320 CIMMYT164,320  CIP  16,061 CIP16,061  ICARDA  147,076 ICARDA147,076  ICRAF  2005 ICRAF2005  ICRISAT  119,524 ICRISAT119,524  IITA  27,232 IITA27,232  ILRI  20,229 ILRI20,229  IRRI  124,052 IRRI124,052 Table 7 Plant genera repre-sented in the genebank collec- Collection Genus Number of accessions Table 7 Plant genera repre-sented in the genebank collec-CollectionGenusNumber of accessions tions of all CGIAR centres (genera represented by less than Africa Rice Oryza 131,840 tions of all CGIAR centres (genera represented by less thanAfrica RiceOryza131,840 50 accessions are grouped as  Other 22 50 accessions are grouped asOther22 ''other''; numbers of accessions Bioversity Musa 1525 ''other''; numbers of accessionsBioversityMusa1525 refer to those received and reported by centres over time and  Ensete 4 refer to those received and reported by centres over time andEnsete4 may overestimate the current CIAT Phaseolus 36,124 may overestimate the currentCIATPhaseolus36,124 living material available for dis-  Manihot 5458 living material available for dis-Manihot5458 tribution in each genebank) Data from Genesys, http://www. genesys-pgr.org (accessed on 20  Stylosanthes Desmodium 4276 3561 tribution in each genebank) Data from Genesys, http://www. genesys-pgr.org (accessed on 20Stylosanthes Desmodium4276 3561 November 2014)  Centrosema 2874 November 2014)Centrosema2874   Aeschynomene 1209 Aeschynomene1209   Macroptilium 1052 Macroptilium1052   Vigna 1050 Vigna1050   Zornia 967 Zornia967   Brachiaria 601 Brachiaria601   Panicum 563 Panicum563   Galactia 561 Galactia561   Calopogonium 553 Calopogonium553   Rhynchosia 389 Rhynchosia389   Teramnus 372 Teramnus372   Chamaecrista 339 Chamaecrista339   Desmanthus 325 Desmanthus325   Crotalaria 274 Crotalaria274   Alysicarpus 259 Alysicarpus259   Pueraria 255 Pueraria255   Canavalia 215 Canavalia215   Dioclea 199 Dioclea199   Leucaena 198 Leucaena198   Indigofera 184 Indigofera184  "},{"text":"Table 8 Countries from which accessions held by CGIAR genebanks were originally collected or improved Data from Genesys, http://www.genesys-pgr.org (accessed on 20 November 2014) Country code in Genesys Country Number of accessions in Country code in GenesysCountryNumber of accessions in   the CGIAR genebanks the CGIAR genebanks AFG Afghanistan 4962 AFGAfghanistan4962 ALB Albania 75 ALBAlbania75 DZA Algeria 3828 DZAAlgeria3828 AGO Angola 110 AGOAngola110 ATG Antigua and Barbuda 116 ATGAntigua and Barbuda116 ANT Antilles 9 ANTAntilles9 ARG Argentina 3991 ARGArgentina3991 ARM Armenia 1304 ARMArmenia1304 AUT Austria 564 AUTAustria564 AZE Azerbaijan 1723 AZEAzerbaijan1723 BHS Bahamas 4 BHSBahamas4  "},{"text":"Table 9 Top 50 most popular accessions of our distribution dataset (based on how many samples of each accession have been distributed), with information on the distributing centre, genus, frequency of distribution, number of recipient countries, biological status and country of origin. Data elaborated from SINGER Accession Centre Genus Frequency of Number of Biological Country of AccessionCentreGenusFrequency ofNumber ofBiologicalCountry of number   distribution recipients status origin numberdistributionrecipientsstatusorigin 328 IRRI Oryza 321 42 Landrace Philippines 328IRRIOryza32142LandracePhilippines CIP 985003 CIP Solanum 312 76 Improved Peru CIP 985003 CIPSolanum31276ImprovedPeru 10865 ILRI Sesbania 268 66 Weedy/ Unknown 10865ILRISesbania26866Weedy/Unknown      wild  wild 104 ILRI Desmodium 253 51 Improved Australia 104ILRIDesmodium25351ImprovedAustralia CIP 720088 CIP Solanum 252 101 Improved Argentina CIP 720088 CIPSolanum252101ImprovedArgentina 4 ILRI Stylosanthes 247 53 Improved Colombia 4ILRIStylosanthes24753ImprovedColombia 69 ILRI Macroptilium 247 59 Improved Unknown 69ILRIMacroptilium 24759ImprovedUnknown 4918 ICRISAT Cicer 246 13 Improved India 4918ICRISAT Cicer24613ImprovedIndia 5159 IRRI Oryza 246 21 Landrace Philippines 5159IRRIOryza24621LandracePhilippines 30333 IRRI Oryza 245 23 Landrace Philippines 30333IRRIOryza24523LandracePhilippines 6765 ILRI Desmodium 240 50 Improved Unknown 6765ILRIDesmodium24050ImprovedUnknown 140 ILRI Stylosanthes 232 49 Improved Brazil 140ILRIStylosanthes23249ImprovedBrazil  "}],"sieverID":"8f2f35d9-0238-488b-a134-57ebb08a5d8e","abstract":"This article analyses 25 years of data about international movements of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), facilitated by the gene banks hosted by seven centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. It identifies trends in the movements of PGRFA for use in research and development, and describes the diversity of those resources transferred over time. The paper also presents data on the number of countries involved in the global exchanges, analyses their development status and describes their role as providers and/or recipients, providing a picture of the breadth of these global exchanges. We highlight that it is primarily developing and transition economies that have participated in the flows, and that the transferred germplasm has been largely used within their public agricultural research and development programmes. We conclude that, when provided the opportunity of facilitated access, countries will use a wide diversity of germplasm from many other countries, sub-regions and continents as inputs into their agricultural research and development programmes. We highlight the importance of enabling the continuation of the non-monetary benefits from international access to germplasm. We discuss the implications for the process of development and reform of the multilateral system of access and benefit sharing under International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture."}

data/part_3/00c9380d8c81cf71ac2fb778b4c5df3b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00c9380d8c81cf71ac2fb778b4c5df3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/669d4ef0-cabb-46b6-b6e6-f381ac7fe11c/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"PILOTING OF INFORMAL POTATO SEED INSPECTION SCHEME: FIRST RESULTS FROM ETHIOPIA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"135 fields were inspected, out of which 116 were accepted as seed plots and 19 were rejected. In addition, more than 80 seed stores were inspected."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Experiences to date indicated that: • Participant farmers, technicians and district administrators view the scheme as useful and suggest institutionalization: Initially, inspections should be funded by incorporating this activity into the regular work program of government line agencies while the cooperatives buy the labels; at a later stage, the inspection could be funded entirely by cooperatives • QDPM objectives and procedures need to be clearly communicated to both technical staff and district-level administrators as well as seed producer cooperatives to create confidence and ownership • Peer control among cooperative members is an effective tool to maintain quality standards, however, cooperatives need to develop and agree on guidelines on how to deal with rejected seed lots to avoid internal conflict • The currently used inspection procedures may need to be simplified / shortened to reduce staff / farmer time needed for the inspections."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Overall feedback is positive. It is recommended to continue piloting and lobbying for at least two additional seasons while simultaneously addressing emerging bottlenecks such as institutionalization, funding and high government staff turnover. The ultimate aim being to operationalize the concept at national level."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The QDPM scheme suggests that two inspection committees, (CoopCom and WerCom) carry out 2 field and 1 post-harvest inspection (Fig 1). The CoopCom consists of representatives of the concerned seed producer cooperative while the WerCom is composed of technical experts from the official, district-level R&D system. The crops in the field and the stored seed tubers are assessed visually against an agreed set of indicators (Table 1 and 2). The system is being piloted in 8 districts of 3 regional states, involving 14 seed producer cooperatives. In 2013, a survey was conducted among members of the two committees as well as district administrators to collect feedback on their perception of the inspection scheme. An informal seed inspection scheme for the production of quality potato seed tubers is being piloted in Ethiopia since mid-2012. The scheme builds on the FAO/CIP concept of producing Quality Declared Planting Material (QDPM). The QDPM concept is recognized by the Ethiopian seed legislation as an option to increase the availability of quality seed potato. However, implementation procedures for vegetatively propagated crops have not yet been developed and tested. It is the purpose of this poster to summarize first findings of the piloted seed inspection scheme."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The authors acknowledge the funding provided by USAID for this pilot activity.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" . Quality declared planting material. Protocols and standards for vegetatively propagated crops. FAO plant production and protection paper 195 S. Schulz, G. Woldegiorgis, G. Hailemariam), A. Aliyi, J. van de Haar, and W. Shiferaw, 2013. Sustainable Seed Potato Production in Ethiopia: From Farmsaved Seed to Quality Declared Planting Material. In: Seed Potato Tuber Production and Dissemination -Experiences, Challenges and Prospects (Eds G. Woldegiorigs, S. Schulz, B. Berihun). EIAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (in press). "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Illustration of the QDPM inspection scheme designed for potato in Ethiopia "},{"text":"Table 1 : Tolerance levels for field inspection Table 2: Tolerance levels for post-harvest inspection in Diffused Light Stores Label for potato seed bags QDPM field inspection  Rotation of at least Rotation of at least  "}],"sieverID":"cc4eec1d-8bdf-409a-aec4-bcbb35281822","abstract":""}

data/part_3/00e5acd1f453b009e808d05b6089172c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00e5acd1f453b009e808d05b6089172c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f29008f0-abac-433b-aaed-6c0d6c1999c4/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"n Investors with risk appetite must lead the way for transformative change, with their willingness to invest in long-term ideas, deploy innovative financing and stay flexible."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"n Public innovators should invest in enhancing social capital and social organizations to facilitate multiplier and spillover effects. Government support can facilitate innovation in a concerted manner as part of the state agenda, and connect with broader agendas like climate action."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"n All innovators need to understand and address bundles of factors affecting scaling including technology, policy, finance, institutions and leadership."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"n Public and private actors should review and adapt innovations over time to meet producer and market needs, and invest in the continuity and quality of extension and advisory services."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Learning from agri-food innovation pathways in Brazil, India and Kenya"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Transformation is a journey, and innovation is a pathway"},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Countries across the Global South are engaged in a search for routes to transformation in agri-food systems: innovations that spur fundamental shifts, for the better, in the way food is grown and supplied. The right innovation pathways can move systems toward sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI), with urgently needed benefits for farming livelihoods, food security, ecosystems and resilience to the impacts of climate change."},{"index":8,"size":90,"text":"CoSAI's series of country studies on innovation pathways sought out innovations -or bundles of innovations -that have successfully scaled up and created transformative changes in their countries within the last 20 years. These changes should be reflected in positive impacts on social, economic and/or environmental dimensions. Importantly, in these studies, innovation is not necessarily a novel idea; it can also refer to an old idea that has been applied in a new way. And it includes not only science and technology but also innovations in policies, finance and social institutions."},{"index":9,"size":55,"text":"Case studies were selected that had sufficient availability of data, had reached scale, were financially sustainable and had shown a transformational impact in environmental, social or economic aspects of the food system. Beyond these screening criteria they were also selected for diversity in farms and farmers, innovations, agricultural contexts and systems and their key actors."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"2 | Learning from agri-food innovation pathways in Brazil, India and Kenya"}]},{"head":"TEN RECENT INNOVATION CASES WERE ANALYZED IN THE THREE COUNTRY STUDIES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Balde Cheio (Full Bucket), a 'participatory technology transfer' project for dairy SAI which expanded progressively to 500 municipalities, tripling productivity."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"One Land Two Waters, a program that brought water harvesting and storage technologies to 200,000 households in the semiarid region, with civil society partnering with government."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Integrated production systems that brought together agriculture, livestock and forestry systems simultaneously, in succession and in rotation, expanding to 17.4 million hectares."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Agrosmart irrigation monitoring system, launched by a start-up as a decision support platform, now monitoring 800,000 hectares for a reported 60% reduction in water use."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming, a program enabling distributed innovation and experimentation by farmers who are adopting Natural Farming practices."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Safe Harvest \"pesticide-free\" products, aimed at the domestic market, with a specialized supply chain of farmer producer organizations involving over 100,000 mostly smallholder farmers."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"Trustea, a sustainability standard tailored to and established in the Indian tea industry, now verifying 56% of the country's tea, mainly for domestic markets."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"Water harvesting and storage in farm ponds, with small-scale farmers excavating an estimated 10,000 ponds to use for crop irrigation."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Solar-powered irrigation in peri-urban Kajiado County, driven by demand for fresh produce in nearby Nairobi and innovative financing models."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"Blended finance supporting SAI and watershed management in the Upper Tana basin, with a Water Fund established by a public-private partnership in downstream Nairobi."}]},{"head":"BRAZIL","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INDIA","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"KENYA","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"National and local leadership drive transformations in Brazil","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Brazil is one of the main producers and exporters of food in the world, and plays a similarly huge role in the search for more sustainable ways to produce food. The four cases showed how Brazilian innovations have evolved and been adapted to respond to major social, environmental and economic challenges through systemic and integrative approaches that combine institutional consolidation (particularly around public research corporation Embrapa), extension services and end-user participation. National government leadership and a sense of mission was critical in three of the four cases."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"For the integrated production systems and Agrosmart irrigation platform, demand needed to be built, so the technological solutions were the fundamental elements, after which came the partnerships and arrangements for gaining scale. Conversely, demand already existed for Balde Cheio and One Land Two Waters, so their gains in scale emerged from establishing institutional arrangements that ensured expansion and consistent financing. Individual leaders were important for keeping their mission on course. Nevertheless, the technological solutions themselves needed to be constantly modified, complemented and extended."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The lessons learned from these case studies are strongly related to Brazil's institutional context, which is endowed with functional monitoring and control mechanisms. Any transfer of the lessons learned to countries with less institutional maturity and organization will need to be adapted to those countries' circumstances, given the importance of Brazilian institutional arrangements in scaling up innovations for SAI."}]},{"head":"Distributed innovation and consolidated standards are a strong mix in India","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"In India, most farming innovations since the Green Revolution have been technology-led ones such as high-yielding seeds and chemical fertilizers. However, these are facing the challenges of accounting for the environment and human development. With limited market and policy incentives, the uptake of sustainable agriculture practices and systems remains low. Nevertheless, the three case studies from India show pathways driving innovation toward SAI at scale."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Andhra Pradesh Natural Farming is a well-known program. The case study highlights the way that this was designed for farmers to become experimenters and innovators, finding solutions suitable to their context and adopting and customizing Natural Farming practices at their own pace. Government support and 'patient' funding have enabled this sustained experimentation."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"The core innovation of Safe Harvest is the creation of a new product category for the domestic market -\"pesticide-free\" food -and establishment of the specialized supply chain it requires. This came out of farmers' demands for product differentiation, and its growth has evidenced how essential it is to design to the demands, needs and priorities of key stakeholders, focusing on long-termism and trust-building. Trustea, meanwhile, is a case of self-regulation by India's tea industry, which has introduced an India-specific sustainability standard for the domestic tea market, focused on issues such as working conditions and food safety. Trustea has been able to scale enormously through multi-stakeholder engagement and capacity building -beyond that seen in most certification effortsto drive compliance among farmers."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Learning from agri-food innovation pathways in Brazil, India and Kenya | 3"},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Tea, Nelliyampathy, Kerala, India. Photo: Aboodi Vesakaran / Unsplash Integrated production systems, Brazil. Photo: Gabriel Faria / Embrapa Good ideas spread along with innovative finance in Kenya Kenya's agricultural sector has a broad spectrum of farm sizes, activities, actors and value chains, and it is among the most innovative in sub-Saharan Africa. This is driven by education, an entrepreneurial environment, international trade, a rapidly growing population with declining areas of good land, climatic limitations, and highly competitive markets. As the case studies show, this is a setting where end-user participation and the right financing is a recipe for fast lateral scaling."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"In eastern Kenya, farm ponds for water harvesting and storage, originally popularized by a retired teacher, have been widely promoted and adopted as part of establishing irrigation for SAI and climate-resilient food security. On the outskirts of Nairobi, another technological innovation has focused on solar-powered irrigation of fresh produce for the hungry urban market -a strong pull factor -and this has equally hinged on innovative financing for solar kits, including panels, pumps and irrigation gear."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"The final innovation case is a program of watershed management in the Upper Tana River Basin, enabled by a blended-finance Water Fund. Through this, the downstream water users in Nairobi contribute and make it possible for upstream communities to develop SAI and watershed conservation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b9f6a28a-460e-4182-92d2-52ea3dda38b2","abstract":"In three countries of the Global South, CoSAI-commissioned studies applied a shared analytical framework to recent cases of innovations that have made a difference for national agri-food systems. The aim was to generate lessons on the factors behind successful innovation pathways, showing the way for investments around the world."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01031439bac78ba068cf11626b4d9738","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a6f3779-177f-46a2-9544-9e6629ba2ac1/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation: Ethiopia Discussion Paper for Stakeholder Consultation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction 1.1 Problem setting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy. It accounts for more than 46% of the national GDP. Subsistence rain-fed systems dominate Ethiopia's agricultural landscape due to erratic rainfall and poor access to supplementary irrigation. As a result, crop production, the major contributor to the agricultural economy, is underperforming. Single cropping is the norm but double-cropping is practiced along rivers in some parts of the country. The potential of irrigable land in Ethiopia is between 3.7 and 4.3 Mha, but only 7 to 10% of the potential is currently irrigated (MoARD, 2009). This present situation contrasts with the country's longstanding tradition of small-scale irrigation (SSI). Small-scale irrigation is usually developed privately by farmers in response to family and local market requirements."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Farmers dig, dam or divert to deliver water to systems, farm plots and plants. It is widely argued that lack of location specific suitable irrigation technologies, management systems and evidence-based decisions are key constraints to revitalizing this important sector of the Ethiopian agricultural economy."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"In most parts of Ethiopia rainfall distribution is extremely uneven both spatially and temporally. Drought frequently results in crop failure, while high rainfall intensities result in low infiltration and high runoff, causing soil erosion and land degradation. This in turn contributes to low agricultural productivity and high levels of food insecurity. Over the past two decades, the Government of Ethiopia has attempted to address these issues through the large-scale implementation of a range of soil and water conservation measures including: stone terraces, soil bunds and area enclosures. Despite these efforts, adoption of the interventions remains low. Studies on the Ethiopian Highlands show that the adoption of rainwater management technologies is influenced by a variety of factors, including biophysical characteristics, such as topography, slope, soil fertility, rainfall amount and distribution (Gebregziabher et al., 2013a)."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"Experiences show that rainwater harvesting technologies, using soil as a \"water tank\", are more effective when soil water holding capacity is large enough. In addition to the nature of the soil itself, soil crusting and compaction are common soil management-related problems and most often attributed to tillage practices that lead to the development of plough pans and thus limiting soil water storage capacity (Hatibu and Mahoo, 1999). Previous research results (Hudson, 1987) have shown that deep tillage is an important factor in controlling soil moisture characteristics, because it reduce surface sealing of the soil and permits roots proliferation to exploit water and soil nutrients at deeper soil horizons. Likewise, Hatibu and Mahoo (1999) reported significant and positive correlation between crop yields and depth of tillage in Hombolo, Central Dodoma in Tanzania."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"However, even when technologies are appropriate to a particular biophysical setting, they may not be implemented due to a variety of social factors farmers consider when adopting land and water management technologies. In general, farmers are more likely to adopt a combination of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies as a coping mechanism against climate variability and agricultural production constraints when technologies are context specific. In Tigray, for example, farmers apply both rainwater harvesting technologies and groundwater irrigation by accessing shallow groundwater sources found in most valley floors of treated catchments (Woldearegay and Steenbergen, unpublished)."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"Similar to the crop production, livestock is an important avenue to improve livelihoods for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Although the proportional contribution of livestock and crops fluctuates from year to year, livestock contributes more than 22% of the agricultural GDP and shares a significant proportion of total export revenue [Netherlands-Africa Business Council (NABC, 2010)] in Ethiopia. Smallholder farmers in the midland and highland areas practice mixed farming systems where livestock and crop production are highly integrated, while in the lowland areas, pastoral systems dominate (AgWater Solutions, 2010;Weight et al., 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"With increasing trends in demand for livestock products, both globally and locally, more opportunities are foreseen and the role of livestock in the livelihood of the majority of smallholder farmers will likely increase. However, these opportunities are highly constrained by shortage of sufficient and quality feed resources (Blummel et al., 2009;Blummel, 2000)."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"Generally feed is an interface between crop and livestock production (Haileslassie et al., 2012;Blummel et al., 2009). Emerging evidence suggests that linking 'system-components' (e.g. crop vis a vis livestock) enables better resource use efficiencies including water use efficiency and food security. When resources flow between livestock and crop compartments, water productivity and financial return are improved (Erkossa et al., 2014)."}]},{"head":"Background and Objectives of the Discussion Paper","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Recognizing the relationships and multi-dimensionality of the system, the United States Towards meeting the above objectives, the project adopts a continual engagement approach with stakeholders. As an initial step in the project, a stakeholder consultation is to be held in each country, with the first to be in Ethiopia, followed by Ghana and Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"This paper is intended as the basis for discussion at the stakeholder consultation, and provides an input to consultations. The first section in the discussion paper summarizes lessons from previous and ongoing IWMI-and ILRI-led projects. That is followed by brief outlines of potential interventions for agricultural water management and integrated irrigated fodder. The final section of the paper lists the potential interventions for further discussion amongst stakeholders. With this discussion paper as a starting point, the objectives of the stakeholder consultation include:"},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"1. To share experiences and lessons on promising small-scale agricultural water management and fodder integration opportunities in Ethiopia 2. To review, discuss and propose potential water delivery and management technologies for small scale irrigation in Ethiopia that may be field-tested and piloted under the ILSSI project 3. To review, discuss and propose potential irrigated fodder technologies for smallholders in Ethiopia that may be field-tested and piloted under the ILSSI project"}]},{"head":"Lessons from Other Projects","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lessons from the AgWater Solutions Project","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The AgWater Solutions project (funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and led by IWMI) aimed to identify investment options and opportunities in agricultural water management with the greatest potential to improve incomes and food security for poor farmers, and to develop tools and recommendations for stakeholders in the sector including policymakers, investors, NGOs and smallholder farmers. The three-year project, which concluded in 2012, was implemented in five countries in Africa, including Ethiopia, and two states in India. Within each country, the project followed a common methodology to identify promising agricultural water management options and their potential for up-scaling nationally and regionally (Box 1). Key findings from the AgWater Solutions and other smallscale irrigation projects are presented here to support the stakeholder discussion."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Based on the preliminary situation analysis and stakeholder consultation of Agricultural Water Management (AWM) practices in Ethiopia (AgWater Solutions, 2010), a set of AWM options were identified to be technically feasible, affordable and practical for smallholder farmers. The technologies identified included community-based watershed management, water-lifting technologies, groundwater use for agriculture and manual well drilling, costbenefit analysis of investment in groundwater irrigation, on-farm water storage, small reservoirs and rainwater harvesting technologies. We summarize below the key findings from the field and watershed level analyses and national scale mapping of the potential for smallholder AWM in general and these aforementioned technologies in particular."}]},{"head":"Box 1. AgWater Solutions approach","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Situation analysis and selection of AWM options: An initial analysis was undertaken of the conditions in each country and the AWM practices already in place. These were reviewed with stakeholders and some of the most promising practices were selected."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Field-scale and community-level case studies: A participatory opportunity and constraint analysis and methodology was applied to understand the complex interaction among social, economic and physical factors that influence the uptake and success of AWM options, and to identify technologies appropriate to different contexts in each of the project countries."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Watershed-level case studies: A multi-disciplinary approach was used to understand how watershed management contributes to livelihood improvement of smallholder farmers and factors that contribute to the success of watershed management."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"National AWM mapping: Maps were developed to assess 1) where AWM will have the greatest impact within a country and where specific interventions will be most viable; 2) the potential for investment in water to support rural populations was mapped based on demand and availability of water; and 3) the suitability and demand for specific AWM interventions and the estimated potential number of beneficiaries, application area and investment costs."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Regional AWM analysis: The regional potential for the 'best-bet' AWM technologies in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa was assessed in terms of: potential application area, number of people reached, net revenue derived and water consumption. Scenarios were also developed to factor in climate change and potential changes in irrigation costs."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder engagement and dialogue:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"A dialogue process was used to ensure that project results reflected stakeholder perceptions and addressed their concerns. National consultations, dialogues, surveys and interviews were fed into all stages of the project."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Note: see Evans (Ed.), 2012 for further details regarding the application of the project methodology in Ethiopia and summary of results."}]},{"head":"Watershed Management","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"A study (AgWater Solutions Project, 2012a) was carried out in six community-managed watersheds (two watersheds each from Tigray, Amhara and Oromia regions). Although the success rates differ from region to region, a range of rainwater harvesting works, such as soil and water conservation activities were implemented and complement watershed management measures. The study reviewed past and present watershed management approaches and assessed factors that influence the performance of watershed management programs with a focus on assessing the upstream and downstream linkages of watershed management and its implication for agricultural water management."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The results suggested that a 'one size fits all' approach does not work, but rather contextspecific watershed development solutions should be identified. Capacity building in managing watershed externalities within and outside the watershed requires cooperation among various stakeholders to build and strengthen institutions and regulations, and to develop systems of sharing responsibilities and benefits. Policy solutions to address land tenure and community rights on watersheds were also proposed."}]},{"head":"2. Water Lifting Irrigation Technologies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A household level survey approach was used to identify factors that influence adoption of water lifting technologies by smallholder farmers in four regions (Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray). The study (Gebregziabher, 2011) hypothesized that smallholder farmers can play a significant role in irrigation development at low cost and much higher efficiency provided they have access to appropriate water lifting technologies."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The study found that adoption rates of smallholder irrigation technologies (such as motor pumps) are low where there is a combination of technical and socio-economic factors combined with weak public support systems. Since irrigation technologies do not stand alone, the type of water source often influences the type of water lifting technology smallholder farmers may adopt. However, information about the potential of surface and groundwater sources is scant. In the absence of such information, smallholder irrigation technologies usually spread spontaneously and in an unregulated manner, posing issues of resource depletion and sustainability and increasing the risk of conflicts between users."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The study also found low level of productivity and efficiency in smallholder irrigated systems, due to highly fragmented and inefficient input and output markets. Poor supply chains; low quality of pumps; limited choice; and high taxes combined with lack of information and knowledge on irrigation, improved seeds, and lack of infrastructure have resulted in inefficient input markets. Output markets are generally dominated by middlemen, who exercise excessive power in setting market prices. This, combined with weak maintenance and extension services, place smallholder farmers at a significant disadvantage."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Issues of equity are also a key issue for women and poorer farmers. The study found that the majority of motor pump users were male and better-off farmers. Moreover, high upfront investment costs coupled with absence of financing tools, limited access to credit and marketing information are likely to widen the gap between men and women and poor and better-off farmers."}]},{"head":"3. Assessment of Opportunities and Constraints of Groundwater Use","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"A study by the AgWater Solutions Project (AgWater Solutions Project, 2012b) examined the potential of groundwater availability, groundwater technologies, and status of the groundwater use for agricultural production, institutions and direction of future groundwater utilization for agriculture. The study was based on a comprehensive review of literature and groundwater data available from regional state water bureaus. It described the geological succession and aquifer types of the country, groundwater potential and its utilization, policies and institutions of groundwater development, human resources and knowledge gap in relation to groundwater development and groundwater drilling technologies."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"In Ethiopia, the development of groundwater for small-scale irrigation has gained prominence more recently. The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), for example, emphasizes the use of shallow wells for agricultural production, but the uptake of groundwater irrigation remains low. A number of factors, such as high cost of well construction, limited capacity in well drilling and underdeveloped markets for high value irrigated crops appear to constrain adoption of groundwater irrigation. Moreover, the institutional framework that governs groundwater development and its use is not clear. For example, the government is the main driver for the development of small-scale irrigation with heavy top-down pressure. Although a role exists for government involvement, especially at initial stages of groundwater development, this has to be turned into opportunity to create strong private sector engagement. For example, a 'smart subsidy' approach where private businesses act as agents for smallholder farmers to clear the subsidy and support in generating a critical mass of turnover is a potentially valuable role for the private sector."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Another key factor currently constraining the uptake of groundwater irrigation is the lack of sufficiently detailed and accurate data and maps regarding soil, hydrogeology and water resources. iDE Ethiopia has reported about 80% success rate in manual well drilling, but it is viable only in specific hydrogeological settings (Weight et al., 2013). Interventions in mapping, data collection, drilling and test of wells are needed to effectively target high potential areas. Database containing such information could also be used to assess the potential and monitor impacts of a variety of investments in water access, utilization and agricultural water management."}]},{"head":"4. Cost-benefit Analysis of Groundwater Irrigation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Complementing the above study, the project team also examined the viability of groundwater irrigation investments in the Raya-Kobo Valley (Gebregziabher et al., 2013b)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"With few exceptions, the empirical results show that investment in groundwater irrigation is viable. Although institutionalization of cost sharing has challenges and carries associated transaction costs, the study recommended a cost-sharing plan to improve the sustainability of investment in groundwater irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Institutionalizing cost sharing effectively requires: (1) improving on-farm production efficiency, which presents opportunities for increasing income and hence farmers' capacity to share part of the initial investment costs; (2) strengthening the capacity of Water User Associations (WUAs) to manage and maintain the systems and foster active participation of farmers in promoting irrigation and the cost-sharing scheme; and (3) expanding rural electrification, which would benefit the rural community as a whole. Addressing these issues through integrated and full participation of users would capitalize on the willingness of farmers to adopt new approaches that may lead to increased yields and sustained incomes."}]},{"head":"National Mapping of Agricultural Water Management","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The Agwater Solutions Project also mapped the potential for AWM to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and found that just over 38 million people (56% of the rural population) could benefit from AWM (Evans (eds.), 2012; FAO, 2012). That study showed a range of AWM options that already exist in different parts of the country that can support the realization of this estimated potential, including river and stream diversions, rainwater harvesting, and soil and water conservation. The Government of Ethiopia has made a commitment to increase irrigation, and there are many opportunities for further investment to overcome the key constraints, including those identified above."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Examples from the study are listed below:"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":" Water-lifting technologies could benefit between 1 and 2 million farm households."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":" Groundwater and manual well drilling could be greatly expanded with investments in hydrogeological maps and groundwater data; and financing for private sector drilling and building a pool of skilled labor for the drilling industry."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":" Land rehabilitation, water availability for supplementary or full-scale irrigation, and new agronomic practices are already improving land and crop productivity and increasing cultivated area in the country's watersheds. Additional investment in community-based watershed management could significantly help the government achieve its aim of making agriculture the driving force of economic development in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Lessons from other IWMI-led projects","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Apart from the AgWater solutions project, IWMI has implemented a wide-range of projects supported by various development partners that are producing information and innovations directly relevant for improving irrigation policies and practices (and more broadly Agricultural Water Management (AWM)) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in general and Ethiopia in particular. Some of the projects that have contributed to this lesson learning include:"}]},{"head":"Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"(French acronym: APPIA; Supported by the Government of France)"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"This project produced and field-tested in Ethiopia and Kenya a participatory diagnostic tool that farmers and technicians can use to identify gaps in irrigation scheme performance and develop implementable solutions."}]},{"head":"Multiple Use Water Services (MUS) Project","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"(Supported by the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food-CPWF)"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"MUS Project documented the outcomes, benefits and costs, and implementation strategies of MUS as opposed to single-purpose water supply schemes, using a \"learning process\" as a means for participants to learn together. That approach has also been recommended and promoted by donors."}]},{"head":"Irrigation and poverty impact in Ethiopia","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"(Supported by the Government of Austria)"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"This project documented irrigation development and future potential, and analyzed the performance of irrigation, with a special focus on the impacts of irrigation investments on poverty reduction, food security and income in Ethiopia. It has provided tools, methods and guidelines for assessing, testing and refining irrigation impacts, which can be used by implementing agencies in Ethiopia, as well as other countries."}]},{"head":"Rethinking Water Storage for Climate Change Adaptation in Sub¬-Saharan Africa","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"(Supported by the Government of Germany)"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"An assessment was made of a variety of options for water storage for AWM as a way of adapting to the impacts of climate change. The research results can be used to understand and develop irrigation commodity value chains, specially looking at inputs and production."}]},{"head":"Groundwater in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for food security and livelihoods","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"(Supported by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa and the Rockefeller Foundation)"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"This groundwater research sought to identify the potential and opportunities for exploiting groundwater for AWM in sub-Saharan Africa. This would provide lessons for harnessing the untapped groundwater resources in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Water Management Technologies in Ethiopia","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(Supported by USAID)"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The project brought together researchers, policy makers and implementers of AWM in Ethiopia to share lessons learned. It also carried out an inventory of AWM practices in Ethiopia and assessed the poverty impacts of these technologies and practices."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"2.2.7. Nile Basin Development Challenge: Improving rural livelihoods and their resilience through a landscape approach to rainwater management in the Ethiopian Highland (Funded by the CPWF)"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The focus of this research was on improved rain-water management practices toward improving the livelihood and income of farmers, improving productivity and ecosystem functions of the land and water resources and reversing environmental degradation."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"All projects mentioned above have provided lessons that will strengthen the implementation of the USAID-ILSSI project. Examples of key lessons learned include:"},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":" Provision of even relatively small amounts of water at key times can make an important contribution to peoples' well-being and livelihoods. Irrigation and access to agricultural water management technologies can significantly reduce poverty."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":" Direct and indirect benefits of irrigation (i.e. increased crop productivity, employment, wages, increased food supplies/food security/food affordability etc.) vary greatly across settings."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":" Impacts of irrigation investments, whether in new development or in the improvement of existing systems are situation specific. For example, depending on the circumstances investments in irrigation can be strongly pro-poor, neutral or even anti-poor."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":" Equity and security in access and rights to resources matter for larger poverty impacts."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":" The poor performance of many small-scale irrigation schemes is related to flawed project design and lack of adequate community consultation during project planning and implementation."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":" Implementation of individual water management technologies is successful if implemented in an integrated manner."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":" Past investments in irrigation and water harvesting have rarely integrated livestock management and crop production options and have often failed to maximize benefits and sustainability."},{"index":13,"size":45,"text":" Poor people need and use water for a wide range of essential activities. Deliberately making provision for these multiple uses of water when designing and managing water supply and irrigation schemes can greatly reduce poverty, increase gender equity and improve health at low cost."},{"index":14,"size":42,"text":" Communities can improve their livelihoods and natural resources significantly despite having degraded biophysical and socio-economic conditions around them. However, to achieve this, drivers are needed in the form of strong individuals, new community organizations, innovative technologies and practices and/or external agents."},{"index":15,"size":51,"text":" Rainfall variability is a major impediment to the livelihoods of many poor people that will most likely get worse as a result of climate change. Under such circumstances water storage, in a variety of forms, is a key intervention, but in any given location it must be fit for purpose."}]},{"head":"Lessons from ILRI-led projects","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation or Africa RISING (Supported by USAID)","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"AfricaRising aims to create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The project aims to identify and validate solutions to problems experienced by smallholder crop-livestock farmers in the Ethiopian highlands."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Since some of the implementation sites of Africa RISING may overlap with the USAID-ILSSI project, it will create strong synergy and learning alliances."}]},{"head":"Livestock and Irrigated Value-Chains for Ethiopian Smallholders, also known as LIVES (Supported by Canadian International Development Agency-CIDA)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"LIVES aims to contribute to enhanced income and gender equitable wealth creation for smallholders and other value chain actors through increased and sustained market off-take of high-value livestock and irrigated crop commodities. Since the objectives of LIVES are very much in line with the objectives of USAID-ILSSI project, there is opportunity for strong synergy and cross-project learning."}]},{"head":"Improving the Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers (IPMS) project","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"(Funded by CIDA)"},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The predecessor of LIVES project, some of the key lessons that can be learned from IPMS include: the importance of involving a wide range of stakeholders from the start of the development and implementation of a projects; the joint identification of the core problems; utilizing innovation systems that integrate expert and research expertise with local and indigenous knowledge; the importance of prevailing regulatory and policy environments; and development of solutions from the available technical, socio-economic, institutional and policy options. Lessons learned from IPMS will be valuable for the success of the USAID-ILSSI project, particularly enhancing the income and wealth creation of smallholder farm households."}]},{"head":"Proposed interventions","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Technologies for improved agricultural water management","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Feed the Future (FtF) Innovation Lab on Small Scale Irrigation (USAID-ILSSI) in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Ghana is planned in such a way to identify, test, demonstrate technologies and put evidence forward for dialogue among the stakeholder community and policy makers."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The project will focus on representative sites which will be defined later using targetingframework. As a guide for the stakeholder discussion we proposed the following interventions."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"a. Pilot Water lifting irrigation technologies. The purpose of this intervention would be to review and identify suitable water sources/storage, delivery, application of irrigation water and management systems where smallholder water lifting irrigation technologies suit better without jeopardizing the environment. Although conflict over groundwater use is not presently high, this is likely to rise when pressure on groundwater increases."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Trends show that smallholder irrigation technologies usually spread spontaneously and unregulated. Hence, small but dispersed water extraction points may pose sustainability risks of resource depletion leading to conflict between users. As part of a smallholder water lifting irrigation technologies pilot, therefore, we will: i) study optimum depth of well as appropriate to a specific water lifting device, ii) contribute understanding of groundwater recharging zones and strategies to protect them, iii) determine well spacing; and iv) understand types of water lifting technology that suit a specific source of water. These would be follow up-activities to the AgWater Solutions project. "}]},{"head":"Framework and technologies to integrate fodder into small-scale irrigation","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Despite the important role of the livestock business in the smallholder livelihood, most parts of Ethiopia suffer from: shortage, spatial and temporal variability of feed quantities and quality. This contributes not only to its current low performances but also failure to target Ethiopian holiday markets (Haileslassie et al., 2011). Implementing small-scale irrigation management and technologies combined with integrating fodder into small-scale irrigation could guarantee two to three crops per year and a year-round supply of green fodder leading to more productive crop-livestock systems. The general understanding is that integrating fodder into small scale irrigation will: i) help to synchronize availability of high quality fodder with potential livestock market; ii) be a model for feed resources based smallscale business which can link the land owner and landless farmers, iii) create a base for wider adoption of livestock business (e.g. fattening and dairy); and iv) where suitable irrigation technologies and high quality management is used to integrate farming technologies and animal feed with food crop production on irrigated farms, it should be possible to exploit complementarities and thus improve the efficiency and overall productivity of irrigation water resources. In fact, participants of an online survey were asked how likely was an introduction of fodder into small scale irrigation to improve the livelihood of small holder farmers: 53% replied very likely and 23% replied extremely likely."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"The on-line survey also examined success factors. To get stakeholders' opinions on success factors for integration of fodder into small-scale irrigation, >75% of the respondents stated that they believe that land size and quality are important factors. Other factors such as market, access to productive animals, volume and quality of water supply, type of water delivery and dominant production system were mentioned as important. In order to tackle the most important constraints limiting integration, we propose a possible framework to integrate fodder into small scale irrigation (Figure 1). On the left, the framework illustrates success factors to integrate fodder production into small-scale irrigation, and on the right side, it shows possible technologies pertinent to spatial-temporal dimensions as a basis for further discussion."}]},{"head":"Framework to integrate fodder into small-scale irrigation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Land size is one of the major limiting or enhancing factors. As landholding declines, per capita food production and farm income also decline, an indicator that extremely small-sized farms have less capacity to invest in external inputs such as irrigation. On the other hand, land fragmentation makes land water linkages more difficult compared to a consolidated plot. For example, a farm household with three plots located at different places may need three water sources, which has strong implications on the magnitude of investment. Above all, the key priority of a smallholder farmer is short-term and food selfsufficiency; thus they opt more for irrigated crop than fodder."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"It is not only the size of the land that matters, but also its location in relation to available water sources for irrigation. Despite huge water resources, most smallholder farmers suffer from inaccessibility of their plots to sufficient quantities of water. This in most cases leads to crop failure or under productivity in general. In light of high rainfall in Ethiopia and several big rivers, the problem is economical rather than physical water scarcity. Economic water scarcity is a type of water scarcity caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water in areas where the population does not have the necessary monetary means to utilise an adequate source of water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers or lakes for domestic and agricultural uses. Large parts of Africa suffer from economic water scarcity; developing water infrastructure could therefore help to reduce poverty. Generally important, a proportion of water in highland areas of Ethiopia is lost as runoff. Capturing this and channeling it to where and when it is most needed is a function of cost and also policy decisions."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"In light of the high investment required for water delivery, adoption of small scale irrigation farmers requires access to reliable markets. Beyond its limitation on adoption of small-scale irrigation, access to markets also influences farmers' decisions on crop selection, and also, therefore the model of integration of fodder into their irrigated farms. For example, high demand for onion during the Easter holiday period in Ethiopia usually pushes farmer to grow onions. As onions can grow in partial shade, this is an opportunity for spatial integration of fodder crops through intercropping."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The dominant production system also influences the type of fodder integration model a farm can adopt. For example, a year-round feed supply is an issue for intensive dairy farm systems. When there is such demand, farmers will benefit both from the sale of green fodder and also from animal products by adding value. Similarly, this is also a feasible option in pastoral areas as land has no other opportunity costs and farmers have slim alternative opportunities for livelihoods."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"Equally important are the productivity levels of livestock, the purpose of animal husbandry, the breed and the herd structure. Recent study by Ayele (2012) suggested that the major purpose of livestock holding in the Ethiopian Nile basin (Ethiopian highland) is mainly animal power. Normal, effective working days for draught animals is about 120 days, which normally overlaps with the rainy season. As such, investment in irrigated fodder has not been a priority. In contrast, for productive dairy-based systems and fattening of small or large ruminants, farmers may adopt technologies of irrigated fodder much easier. This implies also that changing the mind-set of smallholder farmers into business-oriented livestock management will be a 'game changer' for integration of fodder into irrigation practices. This needs evidence, demonstration and dialogue, and also market linkages."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"In summary, determinants for integration of fodder into irrigation practice are interdependent and interactive. For a successful adoption of irrigated fodder, farmers need sufficient land, water and productive animals, and proper input and output market linkages. Water delivery techniques: (to the system, plot and plant)"}]},{"head":"Examples of technologies","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dedicated fodder plots","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Dedicating plots of land to irrigated fodder is an example of spatial integration. This practice is feasible mainly in areas where there is sufficient land and water. A simple online survey suggests that this technology is not common in Ethiopia. Generally, even where farms are small, farmers may allocate a small portion of their plot to irrigated fodder where market linkages are good. The decisive factor in the farmer's eye is the opportunity cost of land and risks related to market failure. Therefore, by targeting action sites with good access to market and availability of productive animals, the option of dedicated fodder plots should be explored. It may work very well in areas where pastoralism dominates, large areas are available, water is not a limiting factor (e.g. where there is large river diversion) and opportunity costs of land and water is lower. One major advantage of this option is that fodder variety selection is not limited by the type of major crops farmers are planting. Very high yielding and space demanding species such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] can be targeted."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Under this option, multiple-cut perennial fodder varieties can be considered."}]},{"head":"Inter-cropping","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Where land is scarcer intercropping is one way of spatially integrating fodder into smallscale irrigation. Despite the possible trade-offs on biomass yield, intercropping is a good candidate for areas where land is short. From the online survey about 15% of the respondents mentioned their experiences in Ethiopia. Depending on the local conditions, intercropping can be in the form of strip, row, mixed and relay intercropping. The decision on the kind of intercropping of fodder (strip, row, mixed and relay) with the main crop depends on the type of crops farmers are targeting for food. As it depends on context, the most suitable fodder can be selected through on-farm exploratory and diagnostic trials."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Generally for selection of fodder and crop species for intercropping the following criteria must be met:"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"1. As much as possible, the technology should not compete with or displace food/cash crop unless the monetary value is on par with the opportunity cost of the land."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"2. The intercrop must be shade tolerant and extract its nutrients and water from a different layer of soil than the major crop (different root zone)."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"3. The fodder crop must be high yielding and sufficiently nutritious to be used as supplementary feed to basal feeds based on crop residue and native hay."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"4. It must be responsive to intensive management such as fertilizing/manure application and irrigation, and must be tolerant to frequent clipping."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"Combinations of cereals such as maize (Zea mays L.) and fodder legumes like cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) can be a useful form of intercropping. Intercropping onion (Allium cepa) and maize on irrigated rain-fed fields is also common in dry-land parts of India. and cowpea(Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.). As previously shown, the effect of seeding density and other agronomic parameters on yield are site specific and dependent particularly on the soil and climate. Thus, on farm trials are important to identify contextspecific optimal practices."}]},{"head":"Use of bunds","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Construction of bunds around field boundaries is common for smallholder plots. Usually bunds are used to separate neighbouring fields. A bund is usually infested by weeds and can be a major source of weed seed. Therefore, planting fodder on bunds is useful both for weed control and for provision of livestock feed. This practice can be also applied to riparian buffers which are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in ditches where water runoff concentrates. "}]},{"head":"Under-storey planting","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Significant proportions of small-scale irrigators in Ethiopia grow perennial crops (personal communication, LIVES project). These include banana, citrus and papaya. These are usually structurally tall crops and there is space in the under-storey which could be potentially used for other crops. Multi-storey cropping is a common technique under such circumstances."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Legume fodder plants that occupy the lower spatial horizons can fit here (e.g. varieties of groundnuts, cowpea). This technique not only helps for improved uses of land and water, but also to exploit solar energy by carefully planning the vertical arrangement of the different plants. Nitrogen fixation by fodder plants is another major benefit that can be reaped from multi-storey cropping. Despite these potentials benefits under-storey planting technologies did not emerge among the currently observed practices in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Relay cropping","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Relay cropping is a common agronomic practice to integrate different crops and maximise use of scarce land. With very careful selection of crops, integration of fodder into irrigated farming can take the form of relay cropping. In relay cropping, at planting time two or more crops of different harvest durations are cultivated in the same field. Once the main shorter duration crop is harvested fodder crops have more space to grow. A good example is relaying of sorghum and onion in India (Bijapur district, Karnataka, personal field observation). This innovative model of relay cropping has not only achieved the scientific objective of better crop management, but also gives higher returns to farmers through advantages in space and time allocation. It also reduces loss of soil moisture from bare soil and thus converts evaporative losses to beneficial outputs, which ultimately improve the water productivity of the system. Relay cropping also reduces risk of uncertainty, enhances utilization of natural capital (land, water) and optimizes use of external resources (fertilizer, pesticide). This practice reduces the cost of cultivation per unit overall yield and increases net returns (including irrigation returns) from a given piece of land."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"With increasing land and water shortages across developing countries, there are strong arguments that the agricultural system must intensify and focus more on food-feed crops so that the interaction of system elements such as crops and livestock will be complementary and resource-use efficiency enhanced. Integrating food-feed crops such as irrigated maize can be an important avenue for improved efficiencies in use of increasingly scarce land and water. Particularly, the use of maize for green corn allows early harvesting of the green maize stover which can be used as animal feed. Silage techniques can be explored for improved feed quality and storage. Green maize also has a shorter growing period compared with harvesting at physiological maturity allowing for planting of fast-growing relay crops (e.g. vetch) using residual moisture. A combination of maize and lablab (Lablab purpureus) is also possible."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"One of the major hurdles for adoption of planted fodder in Ethiopia is lack of access to planting material. In addition to the above proposed intervention, the ILSSI project could pilot community nurseries as a major source of seedling and also form a focus for capacity building and community dialogue."}]},{"head":"Summary of high potential interventions for discussion","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"This paper is intended to provide the basis for consultation with stakeholders comprised of Government of Ethiopia officials, scientists, researchers, practitioners and implementers."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Based on previous and on-going projects, as well as the results of previous research and lessons learned, this paper proposes a number of promising interventions in AWM, irrigation and integrated fodder production, which are listed below:  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Simplified conceptual model to integrating irrigated fodder into small scale irrigation "},{"text":"1. Piloting of a combination of water lifting irrigation technologies with various water sources 2. Demonstrate irrigated fodder integrated into small-scale irrigation, including: dedicated fodder plots, intercropping, use of bunds, and relay cropping 3. Demonstrate in-situ rainwater harvesting, ground and surface water recharging, and soil fertility management technologies, including deep tillage 4. Analysis of gender and institutional constraints and opportunities for potential interventions The project seeks to have continued dialogue and collaboration throughout the proposed research in both the field-level piloting of interventions and the modelling of the potential economic and biophysical opportunities, constraints and sustainability. "},{"text":"gender disaggregated constraints to adoption of smallholder irrigation technologies. Better understanding of the constraints and challenges enables generation of possible practical solutions in terms of start-up capital and taxes that are of benefit the poor. Such a study could include exploring credit arrangements to enable farmers to the poor. Such a study could include exploring credit arrangements to enable farmers to purchase water lifting technologies and exploring opportunities for pump rental markets purchase water lifting technologies and exploring opportunities for pump rental markets and private sector support to produce irrigation equipment locally to benefit the and private sector support to produce irrigation equipment locally to benefit the smallholder. smallholder. c. Assess c. Assess  "},{"text":"institutions to improve access to market information  soil fertility management technologies could include: i) check dams and deep trenches soil fertility management technologies could include: i) check dams and deep trenches to enhance ground and surface water recharge; ii) deep tillage to increase soil water to enhance ground and surface water recharge; ii) deep tillage to increase soil water holding capacity; iii) effective use of stored water using water saving technologies; iv) holding capacity; iii) effective use of stored water using water saving technologies; iv) surface residue mulching and cover cropping to minimize evaporation; v) application of surface residue mulching and cover cropping to minimize evaporation; v) application of fertilizer and organic manure to increase crop-water use efficiency. fertilizer and organic manure to increase crop-water use efficiency. e. Evaluate e. Evaluate  "},{"text":"impact, constraints, opportunities and feasibility (cost-benefits) of technologies and interventions   "},{"text":" The deeper rooting systems of maize and the shallow-rooted onion are a good combination to exploit moisture and soil nutrients in different soil horizons. Maize is a cereal and has high nutrient requirements and cow pea is a nitrogen-fixing legume that can supply nutrients leading to potentially synergetic effects. Although there are existing experiences and research outputs on the effects of spacing and crop combinations on yield, further farm exploratory and diagnostic trials are warranted. It could work to intercrop combinations of perennial crops  "},{"text":" It is suitable for farmers who face land and water constraints. The opportunity costs of land are minimal and plants growing on bunds may not need additional water for irrigation as the fodder plants can use the subsurface flowing water from irrigated fields. Planting on bunds can create a good wind barrier reducing evaporative water losses from the soil surface. A result from online survey suggests that this is the most frequently observed practice in Ethiopia (>75% of the respondent). The challenge is that such practices require agreement among adjacent farms to avoid potential conflict. Technologies such as tree lucerne (Chemacytisus palmensis) are also a very good option. It may need irrigation for establishment and then it uses more soil moisture. Also, perennial grasses such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpurem) and multipurpose trees such as Leucaena leucocephala, Leucaena pallida and Sesbania sesban may work very well for onfarm boundary or soil and water conservation bunds.  "}],"sieverID":"ff8a67d4-01e7-4808-900b-cc0731958122","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0229bf237e4088abe9f1d895e7828b57","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0bf248a-2f8a-4860-9ce8-a6681acf0a7b/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Morphological Characterisation of Selected African Accessions of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)","keywords":["Bambara groundnut","Agro-morphology","Accessions","Quantitative Parameters","Dendrogram"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":627,"text":"There is need for the adaptation of agriculture to the changing climatic conditions which will enhance the utilisation and promotion of suitable crops and tree species. These includes the group of under-utilised and neglected species (NUS), as well as the wild relatives of crops (CWR), which all constitute an important tasks for future agricultural practices [12]. Research into NUS is especially important and necessary, due to the need to secure the basis of food production and thus help to provide a balanced nutritional diet for the rural population of many developing countries, like Nigeria, Bukina-faso and Mali in Africa [14]. Important components of agro-biodiversity are the neglected and under-utilised plants (NUS) as these have traits and properties that are important to provide varied and nutritionally balanced diets. These species are often traditionally used, or are wild species that already contribute to a balanced diet, especially for poor people. They also often possess other important properties including the potential to adapt farming to future climates, such as tolerance to biotic and abiotic constraints, medicinal properties, as well as resistance genes against certain pests and diseases, thereby helping to enhance increased food sufficiency through reduced losses, leading to increased production and consumption [14,17]. Neglected and under-utilised species are comprised of a broad category of agricultural and wild crops in which they exists as either traditional crops that are still being cultivated by farmers or grow as wild vegetables or crops [1,7,8]. Here, farmers have an important role to play as custodians of these traditional crops and planting material, as well as for other NUS species and vegetables [12]. However, this responsibility should not only be saddled with farmers alone, but must be supported with other governmental intervention, that will enable profitable policies to benefit the entire value chain of these NUS. Another important stakeholder is the private sector, as they serve as possible 'engine' for delivery of these products, especially when it comes to product utilization; thus serving as a possible bridge between the farmers and the consumers. Studies of agro-morphological parameters have been an important approach in exploiting the genetic diversity of crops. This especially makes under-utilised crops more attractive to farmers through identifying appropriate morphotypes and farming practices that can help to determine the choice of germplasm to be used in specific climatic condition studies or in nutrition related research. The creation of options for farmers in the agricultural production system is essential, as it drives the ability of society to address diverse livelihood problems, through the farming system and genetic diversity created; thus enhancing the popularity of such crops for consumption [14]. The sustainable conservation and utilisation of plant genetic diversity and the characterisation of NUS are an important means of achieving food security. The global population grows by an estimated 80 million people a year and is expected to reach 9.2 billion by 2050 [13]. Thus, in preparing for global increases in population, NUS like Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) can serve as a way to address certain deficiencies in the predominant consumption of major crops and diets focused on a limited number of species like rice, wheat and maize; as these NUS possesses the potential to solve numerous nutritional challenges and enhance food security in developing countries. Studies have shown that in West Africa, where most of the Bambara groundnut is being grown, the crop is prominent among the traditionally cultivated food species in rural communities. For example, the crop plays a key role in the traditional food and culture of the people in the western and northern parts of Cote d'Ivoire [17]. Three hundred accessions of Bambara groundnut from different African countries, were selected from the collections at the Genetic Resources Centre (GRC) in the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Three hundred (300) accessions of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea), all representing the African accessions in the collection that were domiciled at the Genetic Resources Centre, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, (latitude 7° 30 ′ N and longitude 3° 54 ′E). (2-3) seeds of each of the accession were planted during the 2014 / 2015 planting season. Prior to flowering, each accession was thinned to single plants and watered twice a week for the first two months and then reduced to once a week until harvest. According to the Bambara groundnut descriptors, (Bioversity descriptor, 2000), thirty-seven (37) important agro-morphological parameters, representing twenty-eight (28) quantitative traits and nine (9) qualitative ones were taken from the date of planting until harvest. Fourteen ( 14) important ones out of these parameters were chosen for statistical analysis."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Data were analysed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software package version 9.3 to determine the descriptive statistics, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis was done with subsequent correlation coefficients utilized to construct a dendrogram so as to view the groupings and relatedness among these collections of Bambara groundnut viz a viz the different yield parameters and their country of origin. Also Microsoft excel 2010 was used for data entry and simple charts.  "}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":733,"text":"Bambara groundnut is a crop that is widely grown in Nigeria [19]; and other African countries and has become an important NUS. This legume, predominant in sub -Saharan Africa still exhibits immense untapped potentials. The current paper presents research work on agromorphological performance of 300 African accessions, with the aim of revealing the variability that exists for traits of agricultural importance in this crop with the aim of selection for nutrition parameters and analysis. This will also further aid selection of elite materials in breeding and agricultural improvement programs. From Table 1 shows the mean values of the parametric indices measured; while Table 2 depicts the linear relationship among the chosen parameters. The results of the morphological evaluation revealed mean values for the number of flowers (NFP) to be very few. The number of leaves (NL) had values of wide discrepancies as some were few, while others were numerous, well above 100. The terminal leaf length (TLL) and width (TLW) had scanty and small mean values. The petiole length (PETL) had slightly varied values while those for the plant height (PH) had greater deviations among its values. Also, days to maturity (DM) parameter had a mean value of 134 days for all the collections under evaluation. The results also showed that among all the parameters taken, the number of days to emergence (TDE) had the least variability among its values, while the number of leaves (NL) values exhibited the highest level of variability among its values for the 300 lines evaluated. With respect to inter-relationships among parameters, there was no relationship between the terminal leaf length (TLL) and petiole length (PETL), while the correlation matrix values obtained suggested a relationship between plant height (PH) and peduncle length (PL). There was a positive correlation between the nodulation capacity (NC) and the number of flowers per peduncle (NFP). Among all the yield parameters evaluated across countries of selections, accessions from Cameroon displayed a range in pod length and width from 9.70 mm to 21.0 mm and 8.34 mm to 10.95 mm respectively, while its total seed weight ranged from 0.21g to 5.14 g. Those collections from Nigeria had a range of pod length and width of 10.0 mm to 21.3 mm and 6.0 mm to 14.15mm respectively, while total seed weight ranged from 0.53 g to 3.28 g. The accessions from Zambia gave a range of pod length and width of 9.60 mm to 18.99 mm and 6.70 mm to 10.85 mm respectively, while its total seed weight ranged from 0.25g to 4.25g. Also Zimbabwean accessions gave a range of pod length and width from 9.05 mm to 15.5 mm and 7.09 mm to 12.28 mm respectively, while its total seed weight ranged from 0.20 g to 2.27 g. From the principal components (Fig. 3) and the cluster analysis presented as a dendrogram (Fig. 4) revealed numerous clusters depicting relationships among these collections. It shows that there are at least fifteen main clusters, without counting the numerous sub-clusters and the overlapping ones. Predominant among these were TVSu -1290 with TVSu -1284; also TVSu -1850 showed a close relationship with TVSu -1789. Furthermore the three clusters showing different groupings for TVSu -1187, TVSu -1180; TVSu -1027, TVSu -1026; and TVSu -1262, TVSu -1243 seemed to be exhibiting the greatest proximity with closest relationships among all the clusters observed, while TVSu -156 formed its own cluster. The results of this work further indicated the importance of the crop as revealed by its genetic variabilities and performance in the study. The selected 300 accessions in this study could be of immense benefit for the crop in a developing country like Nigeria. The collected African accessions examined indicated qualitative potentials for some lines such as TVSu -293 (Bukina -Faso); TVSu -395 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1243 (Nigeria). Also, TVSu -397 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1168 (Bukina -Faso) had the highest number of leaves, while TVSu -520 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1022 (Zimbabwe) gave the least. The least number of seeds were given by TVSu -1 and TVSu -353 (Nigeria) and TVSu -454 (Cameroon); while TVSu -395 (Cameroon), TVSu -618 (Nigeria) and TVSu -1897 (Botswana) had the highest number of pods and seeds. The results of this study revealed certain potentials in some of the Bambara groundnut lines evaluated as earlier enumerated, which forms the basis of selection for future nutrition analysis, as well as in breeding and other Bambara groundnut improvement research.     "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":254,"text":"Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) has a large number of landraces throughout Africa where small-scale farmers have preserved its genetic diversity on-farm. To date, the full genetic diversity of the crop remains largely unexploited [5,21,24]. Also there has being little work on its breeding for improved Bambara groundnut varieties at the moment, infact none presently in Nigeria. However, with the results of this work, which further states the importance of the crop as revealed by genetic and agro -morphological descriptors in the study, it serves to form a basis for selection in agricultural improvement programs and nutrition studies in Bambara groundnut. The selected 300 African accessions in this study / research work showed immense benefit of the crop for a developing country like Nigeria specifically and Africa at large. The collected accessions exploited indicated potentials in terms of seed yield for TVSu -293 (Bukinafaso); TVSu -395 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1243 (Nigeria). Also, TVSu -397 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1168 (Bukinafaso) has the highest number of leaves, while TVSu -520 (Cameroon) and TVSu -1022 (Zimbabwe) gave the least. The least number of seeds was given by TVSu -1 (Nigeria), TVSu -353 (Nigeria) and TVSu -454 (Cameroon); while TVSu -395 (Cameroon), TVSu -618 (Nigeria) and TVSu -1897 (Botswana) has the highest number of pods and seeds. The results of this study agrees with the findings of [12] that despite the numerous potentials in the crop, there is however a need to improve upon its utilisation and market potentials, especially in developing countries of Africa, like Nigeria."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Phenotypic variations among African Bambara groundnut collections "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Bambara groundnut (at 7 weeks growth at IITA, field) "},{"text":"87 3. 6 Legend: Data = Mean ± SEm, n=3. Showing also the maximum and minimum values for each of the morphological indices measured. SEm = standard error of the mean; S.D = standard deviation; C.V = coefficient of variation. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Linear relationships among fourteen morrphological parameters by correlation values to emergence PL -Peduncle length NFP -Number of flowers per peduncle NL -Number of leaves TLL -Terminal leaf length TLW -Terminal leaf width PETL -Petiole length PS -Plant spread PH -Plant height NC -Nodulation capacity IN -Internode length DTF -Number of days to flowering DFPF -Number of days to 50% flowering DM -Days to maturity "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 4 . Figure 3. Showing the Principal Component Plot for selected fourteen parametric indicesFigure 4. Cluster analysis revealed as dendrogram for 300 Bambara groundnut accessions "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of the mean values of the selected morphological parameters S/N Descriptors Mean ± SEm Maximum Minimum S.D C.V% S/NDescriptorsMean ± SEmMaximumMinimumS.DC.V% 1 Date of emergence 8.01 ± 0.046 9 7 0.80 9.9 1Date of emergence8.01 ± 0.046970.809.9 2 Peduncle length 12.23 ± 0.153 22 7 2.65 21.6 2Peduncle length12.23 ± 0.1532272.6521.6 3 No flowers/pedcle 1.39 ± 0.031 2 1 0.54 38.8 3No flowers/pedcle1.39 ± 0.031210.5438.8 4 No of leaves 82.91 ± 1.81 156 15 31.51 38.0 4No of leaves82.91 ± 1.811561531.5138.0 5 Terminal leaf lnt 52.52 ± 0.814 81 20 14.10 26.9 5Terminal leaf lnt52.52 ± 0.814812014.1026.9 6 Terminal leaf wdth 18.89 ± 0.272 35 5 4.72 24.9 6Terminal leaf wdth18.89 ± 0.2723554.7224.9 7 Petiole length 69.77 ± 1.529 140 25 26.49 37.9 7Petiole length69.77 ± 1.5291402526.4937.9 8 Plant spread 22.58 ± 0.304 40 12 5.27 23.3 8Plant spread22.58 ± 0.30440125.2723.3 9 Plant height 17.30 ± 0.147 34.5 13 2.55 14.7 9Plant height17.30 ± 0.14734.5132.5514.7 10 Nodulation capacity 3.13 ± 0.120 7 0 2.09 66.7 10Nodulation capacity3.13 ± 0.120702.0966.7 11 Intemode length 10.92 ± 0.114 20 8 1.98 18.1 11Intemode length10.92 ± 0.1142081.9818.1 12 No days to flower 37.08 ± 0.221 50 33 3.83 10.3 12No days to flower37.08 ± 0.22150333.8310.3 13 No days to 50% flower 55.02 ± 0.232 71 52 4.03 7.3 13No days to 50% flower55.02 ± 0.23271524.037.3 14 No days maturity 134.45 ± 0.281 141 129 4.  14No days maturity134.45 ± 0.2811411294.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . List of African countries of Bambara groundnut collection S/N Countries of origin Total S/NCountries of originTotal 1 Nigeria 65 1Nigeria65 2 Burkina Faso 27 2Burkina Faso27 3 Cote d'Ivoire 3 3Cote d'Ivoire3 4 Benin republic 8 4Benin republic8 5 Gambia 4 5Gambia4 6 Cameroon 71 6Cameroon71 7 Zambia 70 7Zambia70 8 Zimbabwe 36 8Zimbabwe36 9 Central Africa Republic (CAR) 12 9Central Africa Republic (CAR)12 10 Botswana 1 10Botswana1 11 Congo, Democratic Republic 1 11Congo, Democratic Republic1 12 Burundi 2 12Burundi2  TOTAL = 300 TOTAL =300  "}],"sieverID":"b9de27d3-2c11-47d6-a298-80540c0f7403","abstract":"Three hundred (300) accessions of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) among the 1973 maintained in the global repository at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, genebank were selected for this study. Two to three seeds of each accession were planted during the 2014 / 2015 planting season at IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Seedlings were thinned to a single plant prior to flowering. Thirty -seven (37) agro-morphological parameters, representing 28 quantitative and 9 qualitative traits were recorded on each plant (IPGRI, 2000). The data were subjected to analysis using the statistics application system (SAS) software, version 9.3, both to depict correlation among parameters and eigen values with principal component on scree plot and dendrogram construction. The results revealed lines (e.g TVSu -293, TVSu -395, TVSu -1243) that had high yield potentials. Also, TVSu -397 and TVSu -1168 had the highest number of leaves while TVSu -520 and TVSu -1022 had the least. The least number of seeds per plant was given by TVSu -1, TVSu -353 and TVSu -454, while TVSu -395, TVSu -618 and TVSu -1897 gave the highest number of seeds at harvest. The result provides information necessary for future nutrition and breeding studies on Bambara groundnut and its improvement."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"022cfad66d12bce15ab269437168caec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/236ab05f-fbc0-4c5c-8fec-6fae5789fb3d/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Co-innovation and scaling: HarvestPlus A series of case studies on participatory co-innovation models and the scaling of agricultural innovations in Latin America and the Caribbean","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"This document is an integral part of a more extensive report that conducts a systematic review of various cases addressing participatory co-innovation models and approaches in the agri-food systems of Latin America and the Caribbean. The CGIAR's AgriLAC Resiliente initiative, especially its scaling component, aims to thoroughly analyze the co-innovation and scaling processes of these cases to identify and examine lessons learned, key enabling factors, and leverage points that trigger the scaling of agricultural innovations in specific contexts. Additionally, it seeks to provide information to guide the design of scaling strategies for innovations developed by the AgriLAC Resiliente initiative. To achieve this purpose, a synthesis of HarvestPlus's case is presented below, analyzing essential elements of both the co-creation and scaling processes in the region."},{"index":2,"size":242,"text":"HarvestPlus is a global initiative focused on combating malnutrition by improving the nutritional quality of staple crops such as vitamin A, iron, and zinc through biofortification. It began in 2003 in response to nutrient deficiencies in the diets of over 2 billion people, prioritizing vulnerable communities and impacting over 60 countries. Initiated in 1990 and led by Howarth Bouis, HarvestPlus has undergone four phases, emphasizing biofortification and strategic partnerships in different countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The creation process involves key actors and collaborative processes with research centers, governments, educational institutions, universities, producer associations, and significant funders in LAC. Collaboration has been crucial to HarvestPlus's success, necessitating the establishment of partnerships and relationships with various sectors such as health, agriculture, and education during its creation. This initiative's scaling efforts have focused on quantitative and geographic types of scaling, emphasizing sustainability, and expanding beneficiaries globally. The strategy includes integrating biofortified features into crop improvement programs, national policies, and value chains, along with providing technical assistance. Especially in Latin America, HarvestPlus has sustained over time, transforming into what is now known as \"Biofortificados.\" Some scaling drivers include strategic partnerships, the credibility and track record of leading institutions in the initiative, evidence, marketing strategy, and adapting the scaling strategy to each country's context. In summary, HarvestPlus has proven to be an effective and sustainable strategy for addressing malnutrition on a large scale, emphasizing the importance of collaboration and integration in all project phases."}]},{"head":"The innovation","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"In 1990, economist Howarth Bouis from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) of the CGIAR highlighted the need to address micronutrient deficiencies in staple crops to improve human nutrition without compromising agricultural yield. This concept gave rise to HarvestPlus, an initiative to enrich crops with essential nutrients for human health. It is one of the pioneering projects to establish a link between agriculture and nutrition improvements."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Despite challenges, biofortification gained scientific support in 2001, ensuring continuous financial backing for its implementation expansion in the subsequent years. In 2004, the Biofortification Challenge Program (BCP) transformed into HarvestPlus, marking four distinct phases for the initiative. The first phase (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008), known as the discovery phase, focused on identifying the target population, and the first biofortified variety was released in Uganda. In 2005, the AgroSalud LAC program introduced biofortification in Latin America, addressing crops like beans, rice, maize, sweet potato, and cassava in 14 countries across the region, significantly intensifying efforts due to the need for a more inclusive approach in line with the diverse range of crops in the regional food basket."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"The second phase (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) advanced biofortification and distribution to farmers, expanding to countries such as Bangladesh, India, and Nigeria, while also sponsoring and establishing activities focused on Latin America. Phases 3 and 4 (2013-2018) concentrated on reaching more farmers globally, establishing monitoring and communication platforms, and developing varieties adapted to local conditions, a process that continued until 2017."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"By 2017, the program had successfully reached 6.6 million households cultivating 181 biofortified varieties. In 2018, expansion accelerated through global and national partnerships, integrating biofortification into seed improvement programs, and strengthening conducive environments. HarvestPlus concluded its activities in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2020, but biofortification persists under the direction of the Biofortified program within the Alliance of Bioversity -CIAT."}]},{"head":"Innovation information","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"HarvestPlus is a global initiative integrated into the CGIAR's Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) research program. Its overarching mission is to combat widespread malnutrition by improving the nutritional quality of staple crops, specifically by increasing the levels of three vital micronutrients: vitamin A, iron, and zinc. This is achieved through coordinating and overseeing a large set of interdisciplinary activities with numerous associated organizations, along with an evidence-based process known as biofortification. Since its inception in 2003, HarvestPlus has evolved through four distinct phases, continuously advancing its objectives and impact. This initiative arises in response to the alarming deficiency of essential vitamins and minerals in the diets of over 2 billion people worldwide. This deficiency has far-reaching consequences, causing preventable premature deaths and hindering overall human well-being. Furthermore, the cascading effects extend to economic productivity, as health deterioration directly impedes socio-economic growth and perpetuates the cycle of poverty."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"HarvestPlus directs its efforts towards rural and low-income communities, recognizing the disproportionate impact of micronutrient deficiency on vulnerable populations, particularly pregnant women and newborns. The consequences are profound, ranging from delays in cognitive development and visual impairments to an increase in perinatal complications."}]},{"head":"Geographical scope","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• Global • Regional (LAC)"},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"In 2004, the first variety of biofortified sweet potato was delivered to orange sweet potato producers in Uganda and Mozambique. A higher presence of vitamin A, an essential nutrient for ocular health and immune system strengthening, characterized this sweet potato variety. Since then, HarvestPlus has maintained its commitment and achieved significant progress. More than 60 countries in different regions of the world have improved varieties of 13 staple crops released by HarvestPlus, all of which have undergone rigorous biofortification processes."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"HarvestPlus's global presence has been particularly relevant in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where improvements in the nutritional quality of foods have significantly impacted the health and development of local communities."}]},{"head":"Co-innovation process","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Co-Innovation Mechanisms","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Several key elements defining a co-innovation process can be identified in the development of HarvestPlus in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). These elements encompass collaborative research, collaboration platforms, technology transfer, involvement of diverse actors, and joint financial collaboration."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"A practical example of these elements was the establishment of a steering committee comprised of individuals from various research centers. This committee, in turn, set up biofortification subcommittees in each country, tasked with overseeing, documenting, and collecting the necessary evidence to demonstrate progress toward predefined indicators. This organizational structure significantly contributed to the efficiency and effectiveness of the project by facilitating and prioritizing collaboration among different stakeholders, creating multidisciplinary partnership approaches to address malnutrition in LAC, and ensuring the tracking of established objectives. This distinctive approach underscores that the project was not exclusively led by CGIAR but involved a broad range of participants, as detailed in the following section."}]},{"head":"Key actors","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Given HarvestPlus's extensive history throughout the project phases, a wide range of actors played diverse roles based on the project's stage at their involvement. In the program's early days, actors contributed to its consolidation. Some research centers associated with the CGIAR consortium, such as IFPRI, CIAT, CIMMYT, and EMBRAPA, played a fundamental role in providing the scientific evidence supporting the process of enhancing human nutrition through crop improvement via biofortification, increasing the levels of vitamins and minerals in their content. Additionally, strategic alliances began forming among research centers to identify potential funding sources and create synergies in activities related to biofortification."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Governments were a crucial part of the process, making long-term financial investments through various development departments to ensure sustainability for the program. Significant funding sources, such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), joined the process. In Latin America, governmental institutions from each region, including the ministries of agriculture, education, and health, and the National Agricultural Research Systems (SNIA), played a vital role. Private sector companies, educational institutions, universities, producer associations, guilds, and producers in general also joined the process. The diversity of involved actors varied according to each country's context."}]},{"head":"Scaling","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainability","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Over two decades, HarvestPlus has sustained its core focus, navigated significant changes, and made notable efforts to combat hidden malnutrition continuously. The sustainability of this initiative has been solidified by its integration into the food security and nutritional policies of several countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The strategy of empowering countries, enabling them to be independent of research centers, has further strengthened its position. Established strategic alliances have played a crucial role in continuing biofortification plans, and the designed financial strategies have significantly contributed to its sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"HarvestPlus has evolved in Latin America into an initiative led by Alliance-Bioversity CIAT, known as \"biofortificados.\" This program, part of the Crop for Nutrition and Health Unit, has maintained its focus for approximately four years after the departure of HarvestPlus. Biofortificados is dedicated to expanding the impacts of biofortification, enhancing agricultural practices, positively influencing crop yield and quality, and strengthening food security in the region."}]},{"head":"Scalability","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"As mentioned, the most recent phase of HarvestPlus has focused on expanding the reach of genetically improved seeds to more beneficiaries and countries. The expansion strategy of HarvestPlus is grounded in essential pillars, ranging from integrating micronutrient traits into global and national crop improvement programs in both public and private sectors. Additionally, it aims to incorporate biofortification into international financial institutions' loan programs and national and regional policies and programs. A crucial aspect involves facilitating biofortification in value chains, from seed production to key staple foods, through collaborations with the private sector."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Numerous studies have focused on assessing the effectiveness of various delivery methods within value chains, addressing both public and private sector systems. These studies have shared valuable lessons learned to guide large-scale implementation. Important elements that need to be incorporated include awareness creation and demand generation, creating a conducive environment through multisectoral approaches, strengthening the capacities of actors in the value chain, and establishing a comprehensive monitoring, evaluation, and learning system to assess progress and generate evidence."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"The scaling-up process has involved various stakeholders in Latin America and the Caribbean. National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), such as ICTA in Guatemala and DICTA in Honduras, have taken responsibility for releasing improved varieties. The participation of governmental institutions, such as the Ministries of Agriculture, Education, and Health in each country, has been observed in collaborations for development and biofortification programs. In the private sector, pilot tests have been conducted with industries to assess the utility of released varieties. Producer associations work on seed production systems, while guilds identify materials with more commercial characteristics."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Key factors for scaling up include strategic partnerships, leading institutions' credibility and track record in the initiative, and evidence and marketing strategy. Additionally, the adaptation of the scaling strategy to the specificities of each country is emphasized, recognizing the diversity of contexts."}]},{"head":"Impact","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"HarvestPlus has built robust evidence base supporting biofortification processes, encompassing aspects such as profitability, nutritional and health benefits, and acceptance by farmers and consumers. With a presence in 63 countries, this initiative has focused on small, resource-poor farmers, resulting in over 12.7 million of them cultivating biofortified varieties by the year 2021 under the direction of CGIAR/HarvestPlus. HarvestPlus projects that by 2030, one billion people will benefit from biofortified foods."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In Latin America and the Caribbean, approximately 209,000 households have adopted biofortified crops, especially high-consumption varieties like beans, maize, and rice. This process has not only contributed to improving food and nutritional security in the region but has also been significantly incorporated into the policies of various countries. Moreover, it has contributed to capacity development for stakeholders in the biofortified crops value chain, particularly in genetic improvement."}]},{"head":"Insights","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The HarvestPlus initiative has played a significant and sustainable role in combating malnutrition globally, with a particular focus on Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Its innovative biofortification approach, initiated in 2003, has enhanced the nutritional quality of staple crops, benefiting over 60 countries and more than 12 million households by 2021. The creation process of HarvestPlus has been marked by the active collaboration of key stakeholders, from research centers to governments, private enterprises, and producer associations. The need to address malnutrition has led to forming strategic partnerships and adapting strategies to specific contexts, emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The positive impact of HarvestPlus is reflected in the integration of biofortification into food and nutritional security policies in various countries in the region. The initiative's sustainability has been supported by well-designed financial strategies and the transfer of responsibilities at the national level, empowering countries to continue biofortification independently. Strategic alliances and collaboration with the private sector have driven the scaling process. Adapting the strategy to each national and regional context has been key to its success."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Collaboration among scientists, farmers, governments, and organizations has been crucial for the success of this initiative, ensuring that the benefits of biofortified crops reach those who need them most. The continuity of biofortification in Latin America, now led by the Alliance Bioversity -CIAT, underscores the successful transition from HarvestPlus to a biofortified program, ensuring the expansion of impacts and continuous improvement of food security in the region."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c992f4c2-9a16-491b-82ea-6e034656fc17","abstract":"CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a105d135a34485599aa4a56987a1f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e45a3f26-d867-4ad9-82f7-8128f27eb13e/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Learning alliances: An approach for building multistakeholder innovation systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The learning alliance approach","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"A learning alliance is a process undertaken jointly by research organizations, donor and development agencies, policymakers and private businesses. The process involves identifying, sharing and adapting good practices in research and development in specific contexts. These can then be used to strengthen capacities, generate and document development outcomes, identify future research needs or areas for collaboration, and inform public and private sector policy decisions. It is important to note that existing sources of good practice may come from within the learning alliance (e.g. one or more of the partner organizations) or from outside (from a literature review or the practices of external organizations). The main challenge is to identify relevant good practices, adapt them to existing needs and contexts, apply them more widely and document and share the outcomes."}]},{"head":"Why learning alliances?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"There is a need to improve understanding of how to establish and maintain multi-stakeholder learning processes, since they can benefit the developing world in several ways. Firstly, they help develop and share knowledge about approaches, methods and policies that work, those that do not, and the reasons for success or failure. These can also be linked to different geographical and cultural contexts. Shared knowledge of this kind can contribute to improved development outcomes as lessons are learned and practice or policy modified accordingly. Secondly, learning alliances give participants the opportunity to learn across organizational and geographical boundaries. Thirdly, they promote synergy among actors by providing a vehicle for collaboration, helping to highlight and develop solutions to problems that may appear intractable to individual actors. This leads to more rapid and effective innovation processes, helps focus research on key problems, provides development agencies and policymakers with access to specialized knowledge, and brings fresh insights to the assessment and Millions of dollars are spent each year on research and development (R&D) initiatives in an attempt to improve rural livelihoods in the developing world, but rural poverty remains an intractable problem in many places. There are many reasons for this; one being the limited collective learning that occurs between researchers, development workers, donors, policymakers and private enterprise. As a result, useful research results do not reach the poor, lessons learned do not influence research, and donor and policy agendas are less relevant than they could be. This Brief describes how the Rural Agroenterprise Development Project of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is addressing the problem. Through building learning alliances that engage multiple stakeholders in processes of innovation, the initiative is enhancing learning and improving effectiveness in rural enterprise development."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"improvement of performance. Fourthly, learning alliances contribute to healthy innovation systems by building bridges between islands of success, helping to assess how this success was achieved and what others can learn from this experience. Finally, they provide a flexible mechanism that can be adapted to topics that are beyond the scope of agricultural research but vital for improving rural livelihoods (e.g. healthcare, education, water and sanitation and natural resource management)."}]},{"head":"Key principles for successful learning alliances","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Clear objectives: These are based on the needs, capacities and interests of the participating organizations and individuals. What does each organization bring to the alliance? What complementarities or gaps exist? What does each organization hope to achieve through the collaboration? Shared responsibilities, costs and credit: A learning alliance seeks to benefit all parties; therefore costs/responsibilities and proper credit for achievements should be shared among the partners."}]},{"head":"Outputs as inputs:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Rural communities are diverse and there are no universally applicable recipes for sustainable development. Learning alliances view R&D outputs as inputs to the process of rural innovation that are place-and time-specific. Methods and tools developed by researchers will change as users adapt them to the needs and realities of different situations. Understanding why adaptations occur, the extent that these lead to positive or negative changes in livelihoods, and documenting and sharing lessons learned are key challenges."}]},{"head":"Differentiated learning mechanisms:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Learning alliances have a diverse range of participants, from people with rural-based livelihoods through extension service and non-governmental organization (NGO) workers, to entrepreneurs, policymakers and scientists. Identifying each group's questions and/or willingness"}]},{"head":"ILAC Brief 8","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"to participate in the learning process is critical to success. Flexible but connected learning methods are needed, ranging from participatory monitoring and evaluation, through conventional impact assessment to the development of innovation histories."}]},{"head":"Long-term, trust-based relationships:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Rural development processes may last for many years or even decades. To influence positive change and understand why that change has occurred requires long-term, stable relationships capable of evolving to meet new challenges. Trust is the glue that cements these relationships."}]},{"head":"How to establish a learning alliance","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The learning alliances established by the Rural Agroenterprise Development Project at CIAT seek to: a) build links between researchers, donor and development agencies, the public sector and private enterprise to achieve more effective processes of rural enterprise development; b) establish an innovation system that matches the supply of new ideas with demand at the field or policy level; c) open communication channels between diverse organizations with relevant experiences; and (d) design and test tools and methods for analysis and documentation that facilitate collective learning within and between organizations."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"The major contribution of CIAT, or other research partners, to development, policymaker and private sector partners in a learning alliance is to help them move from single-cycle learning processes (planning, followed by action, evaluation of results, and back to planning to start another single cycle) to a 'double-loop' process. This includes a period of reflection after results are evaluated, when the partners review the basic premises on which strategic decisions are based. A double loop helps to avoid the trap of replicating ineffective approaches by facilitating critical thinking about what actually needs to be done (Fairbanks and Lindsay, 1999). The application of a double-loop learning process for each topic of interest (see Figure 1) is the primary means by which the alliance learns."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"To achieve these aims, CIAT has implemented the following steps: 1. Identify and convene partner organizations with an interest in rural enterprise development. 2. Develop clear objectives, roles and responsibilities for the learning alliance."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"3. Define specific topics of interest based on partner needs and priorities. 4. Implement a double-loop learning cycle for each topic of interest. 5. Share results among researchers, practitioners and policymakers."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Phase 1. Reviewing our framework: In this phase, the learning alliance partners identify any problems that are limiting the success of their interventions. They also try to view the issues from different perspectives and reflect critically on existing practice. This step helps to avoid the single-loop learning trap described above and leads to the identification and clear definition of a set of topics on which the alliance agrees to work. Once a topic has been selected, the partners spell out the questions that need resolving. These frame the learning process and may range from basic development issues to full-blown research hypotheses, depending on the participants' interests (capacity building or strategic research) or intervention scale (micro, meso or macro)."},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"Next, the partners undertake a review of existing practice, which notes relevant and existing knowledge, results and/or literature, institutional experience and current work by partner organizations. Special attention is paid to documenting positive experiences or 'islands of success' that exist in similar cultural or geographic contexts, since these can often yield useful lessons or inputs for the learning process. The partners share the results of the review in a workshop and short document. This process helps identify lessons learned in a specific context and initiates the sharing of experiences and knowledge within and across organizations. The review leads into a process where diverse tools, methods, approaches or intervention strategies are selected, adapted and/or designed to equip partners with the necessary skills and information they need to apply good practice in the field. Toolkits are designed as prototypes, which different partner organizations are expected to adapt to suit individual needs and contexts."}]},{"head":"Phase 2. Implementing strategic actions:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The learning alliance then facilitates the use of the selected or designed tools, methods, approaches and strategies within ongoing development projects, validating their usefulness and adapting them to different contexts. The alliance also organizes capacity-building efforts to ensure that all partners can use and adapt the contents of the toolkit to their contexts. The capacity building effort may involve CIAT or may be initiated by one or more of • Systematization and evaluation of intervention results"},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"• Assessment of changes in the state of development the partner organizations, and it may be formal (e.g. workshops) or informal (e.g. cross visits or consultations). The emphasis is on building the capacity of the partners to understand the underlying principles and to adapt the approaches or strategies to individual needs and contexts. Finally, participating partner organizations apply the approaches and toolkits in the context of existing development projects, document the results and share them with others. Ongoing informal consultations between participating partner organizations are promoted so that evolving results, both positive and negative, are quickly shared across partner organizations and incorporated into ongoing work. Maintaining a focus on existing development activities helps ensure the tools are practical and solve real-life problems."}]},{"head":"Phase 3: Documenting and analysing results:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The learning cycle is completed only when results are properly documented, analysed and translated into broadly applicable lessons. Thus, throughout the process of toolkit design, capacity building and field application, processes and results should be documented and shared using simple frameworks. Methods can include workshops, training and reflection sessions, joint fieldwork, process documentation and the use of a virtual learning platform and list server (e.g. www.alianzasdeaprendizaje.org)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The learning cycle concludes with a critical review of the field experience based on the initial questions defined in Phase 1. This stage allows participants to reflect on deeper issues that may not be part of their daily work. It also provides inputs for the construction of new approaches, intervention strategies, tools and methods. The reflection process is documented in a short summary document and shared with alliance members. One or more additional learning cycles may take place if there are significant unanswered or new questions that the partner agencies wish to review in greater detail."}]},{"head":"Learning alliances in practice","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"CIAT first experimented with this approach in 2000 in collaboration with CARE Nicaragua and eight local partners in 10 municipalities. From there the idea moved to eastern Africa, where a six-nation learning alliance was established with the East Africa regional office of Catholic Relief Services (CRS). These two experiences constitute a first phase of work, where the basic concepts of learning alliances were developed, tools were tested and promising initial results were achieved."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"From 2003 onwards, Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has supported a second phase of work in Central America that differs from the first phase in several ways. Firstly, since its inception in 2003, the learning alliance in Central America has involved multiple partners, including CARE, the Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), CIAT, CRS, Germany's Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), the National Agricultural University of Honduras, The Netherlands Development Cooperation Service (SNV), Swisscontact and IDRC itself. Secondly, the Central American case marks the first use of a virtual learning platform to facilitate learning within and across partner organizations. And a third difference is the explicit intent to incorporate donor agencies as key stakeholders in the learning alliance, although this goal has proved difficult to achieve in practice."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The most advanced ideas on learning alliances are being implemented in the Andean Region of South America. This work most closely mirrors the conceptual model explained above in that it explicitly involves the public sector, has partner demands for learning as the entry point and focuses more on collaborative strategic research than on capacity building. Research issues include: a) public policy and links between market chains and local economic development; b) rural enterprise development and the inclusion of smallholders in market chains; c) governance, representation and equity in market chains; and d) knowledge management for innovation in market chains."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"A final element is a global initiative between CIAT and CRS to develop or strengthen learning alliances in 30 countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia. This proposal is similar to existing work with CRS in eastern Africa from Phase 1, in that it focuses on capacity building around CIAT tools for rural enterprise development, but it also incorporates some elements of Phase 2 (e.g. the use of a multi-lingual virtual learning platform) and could potentially evolve into a platform for strategic research. The scope of this global learning alliance with CRS presents its own special demands and opportunities for learning across geographic and cultural boundaries."}]},{"head":"Challenges for learning alliances","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"A learning alliance approach is not suited to all agricultural research projects. For researchers and projects who work directly with or hope to effect change on a given rural innovation system, however, this approach can be of significant use. The following challenges and recommendations were highlighted by CIAT's experience."}]},{"head":"Partner and participant selection:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The selection of partner agencies and appropriate individuals within those agencies is critical to the success of a learning alliance. Both agencies and individuals should be open to critical reflection and learning about their own practices. In addition, partner and participant turnover should be avoided or at least minimized, since this has a significant negative impact on the learning process."}]},{"head":"Process facilitation and coordination:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Establishing a learning alliance, while it takes time, is relatively straightforward once appropriate partners and individuals have been identified. The maintenance of the learning alliance and its on-going facilitation, however, are a separate challenge. To stay vibrant, a learning alliance must adapt and change as learning occurs and new questions arise. CIAT recommends assigning research and support staff to this area to ensure that goals are met and partners do not lose interest. While the largest share of development project budgets will be allocated to project implementation, financial resources are also needed to support time for personnel to engage in learning alliance activities."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Funding: Finding a donor agency interested in funding an open-ended learning process is likely to be difficult, and it may be easier to get funding for specific research and development projects that use a learning alliance as an implementation mechanism. Funding for learning alliances can also be secured by linking to large development initiatives, since this makes efficient use of researchers' time and alliance activities can complement dissemination and training budgets. The issue of funding should be discussed early during project design and in the alliance-building process to guarantee a modicum of sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Linking learning across levels: Documenting, analysing and sharing learning from diverse partner agencies at the micro, meso and macro scales is very demanding for all participants, while drawing out key livelihood and policy implications from such a wide range of experiences takes a good deal of thought and time. Selecting a few key research questions that link partner agencies is one way to manage the high demands of the learning alliance approach. Equally, the creative application of diverse tools and methods to promote network building among"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1. The double-loop learning cycle in a learning alliance "}],"sieverID":"5c80cce3-67fc-4b0f-9255-67a1634f789a","abstract":""}

data/part_3/02a42959ae1661066e4395e9465a61d4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a42959ae1661066e4395e9465a61d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb5d4be5-dfa2-4261-8eb0-c1d6fae48e54/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Risk-based approach to food safety research: application to pork value chains in Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"• Food-borne disease is a major public health issue in Vietnam and the contamination of popular foods can occur along the entire food value chain. • Risk-based approach contains tools for managing food safety (e.g. risk assessment) , however in Vietnam it is rarely used and the capacity for application is still limited. "}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"We applied the quantitative risk assessment with biological and chemical sampling and analyses, coupled with practice along the pig value chain and pork consumption assessment and modelling."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Hung Nguyen-Viet -Scientist Food Safety and Ecohealth h.nguyen@cgiar.  "}]},{"head":"Study locations and sampling","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lab analyses: microbial and chemical focus • High values for E. coli presence indicates general poor hygiene along the chain. • High levels of Salmonella in the final pork at market and presence of the banned chemicals (sulfonamid and chloramphenicol) can induce potential health risks for the consumers.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• These data will serve as inputs for more in-depth health risk assessments related to pork consumption."}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Salmonella  "}]},{"head":"Conclusion and next steps","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Salmonella in pork from the markets was 11.4±23.9 MPN/g"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" pooled) ELISA and LC-MS/MS Antibiotic residue (n=18, pooled) ELISA and LC-MS/MS Acknowledgement The research is under PigRISK project (2012-2017) funded by Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and coordinated by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Overall Salmonella contamination prevalence ( , left axis) and E. coli average loads ( , right axis) along different points of the chain at pig farms, slaughterhouses, pork shops, pork. "},{"text":"• We assessed the health  "},{"text":"risks related to pork consumption in the context of small scale pig value chains and pork traded in informal markets.   "},{"text":" Viet 1 , Sinh Dang-Xuan 2 , Tran Thi Tuyet Hanh 3 , Pham Duc Phuc 2 , Delia Grace 1 , Fred Unger 1 , Kohei Makita 4 Biological analysis Biological analysis (All sample types) (All sample types) Salmonella Salmonella (n=1,275) (n=1,275) ISO 6579:2002 ISO 6579:2002  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Prevalence and residue level of analysed chemical on pork  "}],"sieverID":"d8fa51e4-3364-4623-a271-ed74ac31e6d8","abstract":""}

data/part_3/02b4809b435bad2296ee9b69e8ac7aaa.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02b4809b435bad2296ee9b69e8ac7aaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed5b5946-37b2-4748-a283-9b8a362f0d4d/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"9. Research management framework: Making sense of multiple research ideas and priorities. 10. Country growth/strategy framework: Helping countries and donors draw up sustainable equitable growth plans. 11. Data management framework: Making sense of multiple data needs and gathering for the other two frameworks (research management and country growth/strategy frameworks)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Considering the common concerns among regions, the need for research may be summarized as shown below:"},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":" Drivers of successful public smallholder schemes, privately owned large irrigation schemes and public-private partnership models in irrigation system management.  Assessing and enhancing the availability of water through watershed management, rainwater harvesting in small reservoirs and shallow groundwater development for multiple uses , including irrigation.  Gender-equitable wealth creation through optimized value chains for high-value livestock and irrigated crop commodities.  Mapping areas suitable for irrigation taking into account socioeconomic and agroecological constraints.  Enhancing agribusiness partnerships for smallholders."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"The workshop organizers would like to thank the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) for sponsoring the workshop; Nadia Manning-Thomas, Consultant, for facilitating the workshop; Simon Langan, Senior Researcher -Agricultural Water Management and Head of Office, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Nigist Wagaye, Programme Management Officer, IWMI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; and Yemisrach Regassa, Senior Administrative Assistant, for logistical support at Addis Ababa; and Shalika Vyas, Program Assistant, IWMI, New Delhi, India, and Thor Windham-Wright, Communications and Research Uptake Coordinator -Africa, for compiling workshop materials, and preparation of a brief for participants and this final report. "}]},{"head":"Organizers IWMI","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, non-profit research organization dedicated to improving the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI is a member of CGIAR, an international consortium of agricultural research centers. IWMI's mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. IWMI's vision, as reflected in the Institute's Strategic Plan, is water for a foodsecure world. IWMI targets land and water management challenges faced by poor communities in the developing world. Research for development (R4D) is the core activity of IWMI. The Institute's research agenda is organized around four priority themes: Water Availability and Access; Productive Water Use; Water Quality, Health and Environment; and Water and Society. IWMI works through collaborative research with many partners in the North and South and targets policymakers, development agencies, individual farmers and private sector organizations. For more information, please visit http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/index.aspx"}]},{"head":"WLE","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) is an ambitious twelve-year program that brings together innovative thinking on agriculture, natural resource management and poverty alleviation to deliver effective solutions for food security and environmental protection. Unmatched in CGIAR, both in terms of its scope and range of partners, the Program brings together specialists in CGIAR subject matter to solve pressing problems in specific focal regions. The vision of WLE is \"a world in which agriculture thrives within vibrant ecosystems, and where communities have higher incomes, improved food security and the ability to continually improve their lives.\" For more information, please visit http://wle.cgiar.org/"}]},{"head":"CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE): Andrew Noble, Program Director, WLE, and S. A. Prathapar, Leader, Irrigated Systems -Strategic Research Portfolio (SRP)","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary of presentation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":" Why are we working on WLE?"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"o Change is happening rapidly."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"o Resource scarcity -we are consuming more than there is, which leads to water scarcity, land degradation and loss of ecosystem services."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"o External drivers: Massive movements of people. o Huge changes in economic growth and opportunities."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"o Irrigation fits well into all these.  Challenges for humanity: Feeding 9 billion people in 2050.  Vision: A world in which agriculture thrives within vibrant ecosystems, and where communities have higher incomes, improved food security and the ability to continually improve their lives."}]},{"head":"Goals:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":" Improving food security and livelihoods.  Sharing benefits.  Strengthening institutions, which are the key drivers of change and are important if we want to make a change."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"SRP on 'Irrigated systems' has five clusters:"},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":" Enhancing success of irrigation in SSA.  Revitalizing public irrigation systems.  Water management in the Eastern Gangetic Basin.  Managing the saltwater balance in the Indus and Central Asian irrigation systems.  Peri-urban agricultural water management."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Public canal irrigation systems:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":" Irrigation system managers need better skills and capacity. There may also be a need to restructure some of the irrigation agencies."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":" Cost recovery for operation and maintenance (O&M) -maintain canals frequently and how do we raise funds to maintain the canals? The objective of this workshop: Identify technical, policy and institutional research needs to enhance success of irrigated agriculture in SSA."}]},{"head":"Questions, answers and comments","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Question no. 1: Where are we within the WLE cycle and what comes out of this workshop -is the money already there ready for direction or will the workshop outcomes feed into project proposals?"},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Answer: There is funding to start initiatives -if you have to take each cluster -funding for those projects are coming through WLE. This is a new way of doing business. It could open the door to everyone who has the skill to make a change which requires funding. What WLE should be doing is enabling the generation of the start and finding the funds for supporting projects. This is about providing guidance on the priorities for irrigation. Answer: There are a lot of initiatives going on at national and regional level. To get a foothold in there is to achieve impact from research. Some of these initiatives are going ahead without detailed analysis and some are being pushed by development investors. We plan to provide the evidence-based decision making in these initiatives and programs, to ensure they are successful. National-level priorities are a key focus of this workshop."}]},{"head":"Question no. 4:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"A common question from African governments is about investment and how to prioritize investments in irrigation versus rainfed water for agriculture. What's needed is a comparative analysis."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Answer: Governments are investing in both, irrigation and rainfed agriculture. So, the question is how to do this together to achieve the best outcome from these investments. Rainfed and irrigation are a continuum linked together to achieve the best impact. The SRPs are 'homes of expertise' on specific issues which can be brought to bear on projects and initiatives. "}]},{"head":"Current irrigated agricultural practices:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":" Approximately 62% of the area under irrigation so far is located in the Rift Valley, while 29% is located in the Nile Basin.  The remaining 9% is located in the Shebele-Juba Basin.  Nearly 100% of the irrigated land is supplied from surface water, and groundwater use has just been started on a pilot scale.  Surface irrigation is the most common irrigation method widely practiced.  Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on about 2% of the irrigated area for sugarcane production by the government and some private enterprises.  Spate irrigation and flood recession cropping are practiced in the lowland areas of the country. Question: What crops will be included in the analysis of water efficiency and crop productivity?"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Question: In discussions around the performance of public irrigation systems, are we not being misled by talking about water efficiency?"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Question: What modalities or models are there to encourage youth in Africa to stay in (profitable) farming?"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Question: Could the spillover benefits from private irrigation development reach small-scale farmers and also public large-scale farms?"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Question: Is there an irrigation strategy in Kenya or Ethiopia? If so, what are the objectives of these strategies?"},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Question: What about developing water fees for farmers? For example, working on opportunity costs, environmental costs, etc., and linking these costs to the value of output (for example, to a kilogram of sugar). How do we charge/adapt water fees linked to changing commodity prices?"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Question: How can we compare the demographics and needs of small-scale farming with those of large scale farming?"},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"Question: How can research further address and develop beneficial linkages between small-scale and commercial-scale irrigation opportunities, and the diverging constraints between small-scale and largescale irrigation?"}]},{"head":"Answers (on Ethiopia):","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The Ministry of Water and Energy of Ethiopia is partnering with universities to train national staff on irrigation engineering and hydro-engineering, with engineering as the primary priority. The target is to train 250 postgraduate engineers."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The first priority in irrigation development is food security. The time span of irrigation development is the next 7 years as part of the current 10-year plan. The government plans to use dams to collect annual floods in the South. This will be for small-to mid-scale irrigation as well as large-scale irrigation mostly for sugar production, but the government is also looking at other crops."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"There is a strong need for a 'sustainable national irrigation authority'. The government needs assistance from IWMI in developing this 'national irrigation authority'."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"We have a national irrigation policy and strategy, with plans to update this every 5 years."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"We are starting to finance MSc students to work on water-use efficiency at the farm level, and we're working with university partners in developing curriculums based on what skills are needed in the country."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Addis Ababa University is working on this and also on the social and environmental issues related to the value of water. From this we understand that Ethiopian farmers with over 2 hectares of land will pay for irrigation water."}]},{"head":"Answers (on Kenya):","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"We are targeting how to work with national organizations for project and program sustainability. In terms of capacity, farmers are the target through Water User Associations (WUAs), extension services and through exposure to national irrigation researchers."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"We are looking into partnering with IAEA, among others, to examine developments in water-use efficiency."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Commercial farms could be targeted as they could be doing more to use local and national experts (when/if they are available)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Objectives -research needs to engage at the national level to help move things forward on regional priorities and objectives. The key areas are food and income security, and environmental sustainability."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Currently, only 5% of the irrigation potential is exploited in Kenya."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Social and economic issues are often missed out in irrigation research and in the implementation of solutions."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"The focus crops chosen for irrigation development projects and schemes should be according to the needs of the community and farmers (based on food security and profitability)."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"There is currently a disconnect between specific crops and their relevant irrigation potential."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"Kenyan farmers are moving towards plastic tunnel use in a big way. Therefore, research needs to be carried out on the use of this method, and assess whether it pays to invest in it and what the trade-offs are."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"Young farmers need to be engaged with a focus on technology. Workshops such as this one, which bring together policy learning across regions, are critical -\"this is why I'm here.\""},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"Irrigation is critical to the manifestos of both the main political parties in Kenya, but neither are considering irrigation research needs enough as part of this."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"Why are farmers not progressing from subsistence to businesses through the use of technologies such as treadle pumps?"},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"Efficiency of water and inequity of water supply are key issues that need to be addressed."},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"The focus should be on targeting irrigation for both food security and for income generation."}]},{"head":"Comments:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The appropriateness of research with what needs to be achieved, and what and who is being targeted is critical. One solution that fits A (national strategy) may not be appropriate to B (farmers). What is of interest to farmers is key, and for this participatory research is needed."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Research needs: Need to know more about the links between large-scale irrigation systems and smallscale farmers as out-growers."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"There is also a need to empower famers to sign contracts to market products according to agreed prices and quantities."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Farmers closer to cities are more able and more willing to pay for water for irrigation.  Assist the government to implement projects for the rehabilitation of existing projects.  Help countries identify policy and technical reforms that need to be undertaken to create a suitable environment for irrigation."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":" Assist countries to mobilize additional national private sector and external resources to fund irrigation projects."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Some of the work carried out -experience over the last few years from small-scale farmersincluding the private sector:"},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":" Issues related to access to land.  Political challenges.  Competitors for other crops.  World food price fluctuations.  Fuel and electricity access, reliability and cost."}]},{"head":"Institutional capacity and alignment:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":" Many other actors who are actually working with the smallholder farmers.  We have to look at the entire value chain from the logistics to the marketing, and packaging of the product itself."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Long-term financing of the system is needed, if the model is to be sustainable."}]},{"head":"Conclusion:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Encourage countries to go through with their investment plans and the private sector will be able to get involved."}]},{"head":"Addressing irrigation policy, institutional and technological constraints through project design -Barnabas Mulenga, Irrigation Development Support Project","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary of presentation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Addressing irrigation policy, institutional and technological constraints through project design: Irrigation Development and Support Project (IDSP) in Zambia."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The World Bank has provided around USD 200 million support for irrigation development in Zambia."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Zambia holds around 80% of the surface water of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region."}]},{"head":"Key irrigation development challenges:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":" Local farmers shun treadle pumps, and Chinese motorized pumps are sold for not more than USD 50 more than the price of a treadle pump. These motorized pumps are very popular."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":" Small dams of less than 9 m: Concept of water harvesting -is not sustainable in Zambia.  Irrigation policy is skewered towards large-scale farmers.  Labor is not cheap.  Lack of complementary provisions -input market accessibility and lack of reliable markets and agro-services."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":" Lack of conducive policies and a development policy framework -lack of directional guidance to incorporating partners on the approach to technology."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":" The presenter said that Zambia needs IWMI's advice on what should be focused on and what is feasible for irrigation development in the country."}]},{"head":"Improving water-use efficiency and basic infrastructure for smallholder farmers to make use of available water -Dr. Ricardo Maria, Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (Institute of Agricultural Research of Mozambique) (IIAM), Mozambique","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary of presentation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Dr. Maria made the point that, in Mozambique, farmers need dams for irrigation."}]},{"head":"Challenges:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":" Capacity of existing irrigation infrastructure.  Limited capacity of agricultural support systems.  Lack of agricultural policy conducive to development of irrigation systems.  Lack of resources for rehabilitation and maintenance of existing irrigation schemes.  Conflict of interest among institutions over agriculture and water."}]},{"head":"Southern Africa -questions, answers and comments","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Question: The framework management company -do we have enough figures to see the impact and what does the farmer get at the end? Do you have any figures (in the public domain)?"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Question: Has there been an evaluation of the process that has been followed before?"},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Answer: CAADP: What we do in conjunction with the managing company. We assist the managing company -help farmers in terms of negotiation and help in developing the agreement; provide extension support, with training, ongoing work, surveying, mapping, soil testing, and pest management and disease control. Managing the harvesting data. In terms of figures: one of our interests is that we are planning to do some cost-benefit analyses."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"There has been no involuntary resettlement in this scheme."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"There was mistrust between the service providers and farmers, so Illovo Sugar Limited provided capacity building, negotiating facilities and activities in fora to resolve this."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Farmers have been able to access and be part of technical services through large -to smallscale interactions."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Question: Are you addressing issues of water quality and pollution in relation to climate change?"},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"Answer: We are not looking at climate change and water quality. We look at the areas where smallholder farmers exist. We have a department of health that addresses water quality issues. The studies determine what crops should be grown and expanded in certain areas, for example, our maize area has been expanded. Other departments: they step in, but we work with them. Different government departments are working together, but there is still room for more cooperation."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"We are assessing the risks to smallholders' crops as a result of pollution through irrigation."}]},{"head":"Comment:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The case in Ethiopia is different from the one in South Africa. It would be good to learn more about experiences in South Africa."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Question: What are the criteria for getting loans from the commercial banks? What are the viable rates?"},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Answer: CAADP: We have a special arrangement where the normal rate is 18% as long as they invest the money in agricultural development. We have moved away from land as being the focus for collateral, and we have different insurance packages. There are also ring-fenced funds for credit for agricultural development. Through partnerships with the banks, Illovo Sugar Limited is a guarantor and repayment is to be made post-harvesting. Illovo Sugar is trying to get other banks involved in creative ways."}]},{"head":"Question: Why don't you set up cooperation with Madagascar as they have several years of experience in irrigation?","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Comment: There is a huge difference between irrigation in South Africa (private-sector driven) and West Africa (food-security driven). Governments in West Africa don't have funds or the technical capacity to develop irrigation further. We should have more meetings between the two regions to share ideas, observations and experiences."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Question: How to make out-growers efficient suppliers for sugar production? Are there good examples out there? "}]},{"head":"Summary of presentation","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The livelihoods of local farmers are critical, over and above food security. There is a need for assessing and documenting groundwater resources, and linking these with the sustainable extraction of groundwater for agriculture in Ghana."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Integration of the market and research into system level management need to be examined as well as institutional obligations. There is definitely a need for expansion of agriculture, and increasing operationalization to ensure maximum productivity of limited agricultural land is achieved."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"According to the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA), 30% of foreign investment must involve/reach local inhabitants and this includes irrigation and agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Water sector challenges:"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":" Irrigation has not made the expected impact."}]},{"head":"Policy challenges:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":" Irrigation is mainly supply driven.  Low capacity in the construction of dams.  High cost of construction.  Organizational issues leading to frequent rehabilitation.  Inadequate support services.  Inadequate attention is paid to groundwater resources for irrigation.  Inadequate information of small-scale private irrigators and their integration."}]},{"head":"Research considerations:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":" Irrigation management transfer that will be ideal for the Ghanaian environment."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":" PPP model(s) needed to ensure sustainability -particularly with the out-grower system which is generally working well, but there has not been too much focus on irrigation (so far)."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":" Appropriate technology for small/medium-scale farmers for sustainable water management.  Statistical information on the private (informal) small-scale sector and their integration.  Availability and quality of groundwater resources for irrigation development."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":" Size of irrigated land area is very small. Problems related to crop varieties and pest control exist.  Lack of capacity of Niger farmers in using fertilizer, which leads to polluting the water.  Lack of management -cost-benefit environmental intervention.  There are also land-tenure issues. "}]},{"head":"Exploiting the agricultural potential of irrigation and drainage for rice production -","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of the challenges:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":" Domestic rice production is mostly under rainfed cultivation.  Nigeria is importing rice -around NGN 365 billion a year.  Production and productivity are not given adequate attention.  Post-harvest handling of rice is also a problem."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"A number of options have the potential to improve the situation. For example: insurance for farmers, greater collaboration among ministries (energy, trade, etc.), capacity building initiatives, re-activation of extension department, sale of irrigation systems with a 50% subsidy to farmers, further exploitation of the by-products of crops to reduce the costs of products, better on-farm storage, development of a national food reserve, cluster farmers around a factory or other processing plant, and expand the outgrower system. "}]},{"head":"Overview of irrigated agriculture in","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"West Africa -questions, answers and comments","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Questions:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":" Gap between potential and actual irrigation.  iDE: Where does iDE fits into the value chain -do you control the entire chain -have you archived all your experiences and how do we get access to it (very specific questions related to iDE)?"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":" How is livestock being considered in this (irrigated fodder, livelihoods and pastoralists)?  Underperformance of irrigation systems and lack of capacities. How do we address these questions (especially the ones related to Nigeria)?"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":" How do we address the questions of corruption, through irrigation subsidies, for example, and conflict over water resources?"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":" Accountability -comparing best performance -what is the accountability around these investments?  How do we involve the private sector more/effectively?"}]},{"head":"Answers by the presenters:","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":" iDE presenter: Volume and business model: importing the Asian model. We have business models for 5 years. Good models in India.  Nigeria's presenter: The problem we have is seed qualities -dependency on the importation of machinery and chemicals (problem of fake agrochemicals being imported). We need a marketdriven approach."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":" Ghana presenter: Livestock aspect: Every irrigation project production system and livestock has been clearly taken care of. Socioeconomic issues: Ghana has completed policy and strategy development, the next step is to go into how we proceed with implementation. What are the business models for people to uptake and go into the detail -in the form of technical feasibilities? We are going to look at each small, medium and large scale, so that we can come up with a business proposal that fits all individual scales."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":" Presenter from Niger: Niger has established an irrigation agency and extension services to handle issues about irrigation policy. In the 1980s, there was an economic change which led to a cut in public expenditure. A consequence of this economic change has been the degradation of irrigation infrastructure in Niger. Farmers are now going into debt to upkeep and manage the systems. The government is now thinking of reorganizing/modernizing irrigation development in Niger, and Niger's irrigation agency. All irrigation systems are managed by farmers. Niger is calling for assistance from research institutions to help with designing new irrigation policies for Niger and in helping to re-establish an effective Niger irrigation development agency."}]},{"head":"Session 5: WLE Partner Institutions Panel Session (chaired by Timothy Williams, IWMI)","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Representatives from some of the 14 WLE partner institutions provided a brief overview of their organization and organizational priorities with regards to irrigation development, and their involvement in WLE. "}]},{"head":"Questions, answers and comments","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Question: In light of the presentations made yesterday and today regarding the irrigation sector, I want you to describe the way WLE should handle forming partnerships and alliances to raise these issues. What do you see as the main issue your institution is willing to address in terms of the WLE partnership?"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"AfricaRice: Food security issues. Technical issues: We are working on water self-sufficiency, irrigated systems, and lowland and rainfed systems. We come up with solutions with the farmers. The genetic improvement program addresses the food security issue separately."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"FAO: There are opportunities for private irrigation. Is there hope for improving public irrigation schemes? Perhaps there is a need to focus on improving the performance of public schemes. SSA is still importing the majority of its food, so productivity has to rise and this will require more efficient and effective public irrigation schemes."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"IFPRI: I think the big question is, should it be food security at a household level or food security at a regional level? How do you deploy the right irrigation schemes?"},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"WLE defines the health issues. Nutrition aspects: Are you growing vegetables to eat or sugarcane to sell? Do you want to be self-sufficient in producing rice but import vegetables? It depends on what the people in the country want to do. WLE can bring that in along with ecosystem services and make sure that the negative environmental impacts that we have seen in other countries are avoided. There is an important capacity building component, linking the needs in the countries with the resources that exist."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"ICRISAT: First concern: In Nigeria, there are challenges of maintenance. There is a lot of interest in irrigation in Africa and national structures are ready to invest in irrigation, but in terms of technicality there is a lot of over-designing without consulting the farmers. I am impressed by the participatory scheme design of engineers working closely with farmers, so that they can set up something that really works and really addresses a need."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"Second concern: Efficiency of existing schemes: They shouldn't need external support. If you go to the irrigation systems -regardless of the investment -the users abandon schemes because they don't have market access. Linking markets to farmers is important."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Third concern: A lot of water is not reaching the farms."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"Fourth concern: There are quite a few cases of an established irrigation scheme, but then a new donor moves in and moves the farmers onto a different scheme/system."}]},{"head":"IWMI:","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"A number of areas of interest are coming to light from yesterday's discussions. For example, we need to be looking at how to improve existing irrigation systems in ways that are acceptable to, and make a difference to, the poor. The PPP model is being implemented in many countries. We need to further analyze this to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the model."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Improving existing systems -irrigation management transfer is being followed by the World Bank and some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), but the performance of these systems is not solid. Are there any improvements which can be made so that it works properly?"},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"We need reforms in irrigation policies. Some policies are outdated in some countries. We need to customize our policies Question: There is a need to look at irrigation in a catchment context. What do we mean by 'water-use efficiency'? Perhaps this needs to be more closely looked at to ensure that this really makes sense and that we all mean the same thing when we use this term. Capacity building should be learning by doing. How do we get more learning into the system? Perhaps farmers should have mentors from time to time?"},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Comment: WLE shouldn't work in a vacuum. We need to map this all out. We need to understand how the various projects and initiatives are all working together to avoid duplication of work."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"Comment: There is a lot of development going on in terms of small-scale agriculture. Some of the constraints affecting farmers include getting access to credit and markets. There are a lot of groundwater resources, but there are also limits to what you can do with the groundwater in terms of sustainability."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"Comment: Use of fertilizers in Africa has been stagnant for the last 40 years. Looking at the way forward, we should be looking at ecosystems and using more locally available resources to increase agricultural production and relying less on external inputs."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Comment: Will WLE have an executive function? WLE needs a 'military wing'."}]},{"head":"Sessions 6, 7 and 8: Group Work -Developing New Research Project Ideas","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"In Sessions 6 and 7, participants were divided into four groups: East Africa, Southern Africa, West Africa and Pan-Africa. Each group was asked to conceptualize concept notes, which pinpointed to key research questions, objectives, activities, beneficiaries, actors, target countries and timescale for potential new research project proposals, with a view towards revitalizing irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa. Participants were generally engaged in the group which most closely reflected their region of expertise."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"The following concept notes were formulated by each of the four groups: "}]},{"head":"East Africa","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In context to new research priorities, it was noted that the governments of Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania had all expressed the expansion of both large-and small-scale irrigation as a priority. There is a desire to achieve this through horizontal expansion and vertical improvement, and there is recognition of the potential of the value-chain approach to contribute to this process. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the concept notes developed."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"CN 1: Assessing water availability for sustainable use in different irrigated farming systems."}]},{"head":"Context","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Irrigation has immense potential to close the yield gaps present in the region."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Expansion of small-and large-scale irrigation identified as a priority for the governments of the region."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Improved livelihoods through well-informed and designed water policies; database creation."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Reliable, equitable and sustainable development of water infrastructure will ultimately lead to: Productivity increase, gender-focused income growth, diversified work opportunities and improvements in access to water for the poor."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Smallholder farmers, and public and private investors in large irrigation schemes."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Policymakers, water resource managers."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania Pro-poor/gender issues Improved information for water resources development and planning will benefit all sectors and stakeholders; incorporating gender-responsive and equitable resource endowment plans."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Underutilized and vulnerable components of the ecosystem will be identified, and its resilience improved."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":" Quantification of spatial and temporal variability of available water to sustainably support irrigation."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Comprehensive and reliable database of water resources; the type and extent of interventions to improve irrigation will be determined based on reliable data, leading to sustainable intensification and crop diversification."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Lack of data for comprehensive analysis."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"NGOs, implementing partners (CGIAR, FAO), ministries, National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and universities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The project will undertake the following activities:  Review of available information, with a mapping exercise.  Inventory of ongoing activities in the region to improve irrigation management, extent of irrigation and use of water-measuring withdrawal rates.  Modeling scenarios of change.  A validation feedback process.  Institutional analysis, development of ET map(s)."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Three-year time frame. Table 1. Concept note 1."}]},{"head":"Southern Africa","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The overall goal was expressed as 'efforts to improve food security and income of smallholders', with a timescale of 15 years to develop long-term partnerships. Tables 3, 4 and 5 summarize the concept notes developed."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"CN 1: The success and failure factors of public smallholder schemes."}]},{"head":"Context","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Smallholder agriculture is an integral part of this region, but their success had been variable. There is a need to identify and promote conditions that lead to success of smallholder agriculture."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Many governments have initiated multiple public schemes for smallholder agriculture, but a thorough analysis is deemed essential for making such future policy discourse on these issues."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Informed public policy for smallholders."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Better policies will help in moving a step closer to better incomes from increased production."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Small-scale farmers, commercial farmers, pastoralists, private sector, and local and national governments."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique (Southern and Central)."}]},{"head":"Propoor/gender issues","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Smallholder agriculture directly linked with gender and poverty issues. The project has a direct bearing on them."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"No direct impact."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"To provide information on the problem in order to improve intervention (e.g., redesign, incentives for policy, training and markets)."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Policy analysis specific to smallholders will be a relatively new concept."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Not many studies have been carried out to review smallholder-specific public policy."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Activities to include an inventory (e.g., were lessons learned implemented?), identification of successful and failing schemes, and factor mapping (including policy, design, crops, actual intervention process, etc.)."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Three-to five-year time frame. Table 3. Concept note 1."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"CN 2: Review of agribusiness partnerships for smallholders."}]},{"head":"Context","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Novel models of public/private partnerships are being attempted in the region, and their success has been variable. Need to understand socio-policy conditions which promote a win-win situation for smallholders, especially women farmers."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Governments of this region have expressed interest in studies which will help them in providing the necessary information about PPP models for smallholders."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Improved partnerships, sustainable agribusiness models."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Increased production, realizing better income. Beneficiaries Small-scale farmers, commercial farmers, pastoralists, private sector, and local and national governments. Main target Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Countries and crops indicated were: Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia (sugarcane), Zambia (vegetables), and Zambia and South Africa (other crops)."}]},{"head":"Propoor/gender issues","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Project targets smallholder agriculture, therefore direct impact on poverty and gender issues."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Indirect Impact through sustainable PPP models."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To understand pre-and post-conditions which favor successful PPP models that increase profit for smallholders."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"PPP does not burden the governments to invest, but to create an enabling environment where equitable benefit sharing is assured."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Detailed analysis of performance management of such initiatives is missing."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Activities to include: reviewing existing models and factual experiences/benefits in SADC (factual net incomes, risks, etc.), choosing field sites for comparative in-depth research, and the subsequent derivation of appropriate models."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":79,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Three-to five-year time frame. "}]},{"head":"Context","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Private irrigation -especially large schemes to produce for global markets -is expected to play an increasingly important role in the agriculture sector."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":81,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Many governments believe private irrigation may provide solutions in the future for various issues of the water sector, and they are, therefore, interested in the study which carries out their detailed analysis of technological and financial requirements."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Better designed technologies for the private sector."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Increased production, better irrigation services."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":84,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Small-scale farmers, commercial farmers, pastoralists, private sector, and local and national governments."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":85,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":86,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Mozambique (river diversions), Zambia (peri-urban)."}]},{"head":"Pro-poor/gender issues","index":87,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The project will also look into alternatives for providing private irrigation for smallholders and thus indirectly affecting such issues."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":88,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Indirect impact through efficient service deliveries resulting in better yields."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":89,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"To better support and inform supply-driven irrigation interventions. Activities to include: the development of an inventory of technologies, and site selection for comparative in -depth field research."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":90,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A novel concept, which will help in making informed decisions."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":91,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Wide lacuna in research for analyzing private irrigation services and their requirements for technological/financial issues."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":92,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":93,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"A number of crosscutting issues to be considered across the three research questions (concept notes) were noted, including:  Management organization within the community; intervention process -were farmers even consulted?  Markets -proximity to towns, possibilities in remote or pastoralist areas, Exchange visits."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":94,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Three-to five-year time frame. Table 5. Concept note 3."}]},{"head":"Questions and comments:","index":95,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":" We need to allocate appropriate financing mechanisms for continuity and sustainability among the private irrigators."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":" Didn't see any inclusion of livestock. The by-products of sugarcane can be used for meat production.  Smallholder agribusiness partnerships -research question -the main question with regards to profit is, profit for whom?"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":" Are there other criteria to investigate with regard to food security and nutritional health?  It would be good to conduct research that looks at a sample of the small-and large-scale partnership agribusiness schemes in SSA."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":" Smallholder schemes -the countries represented are South Africa, Mozambique and Zambiahow can we derive generic outcomes and apply these to other countries?"}]},{"head":"West Africa","index":96,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The West Africa group pinpointed three research areas: Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models, enabling environment and technical issues (enhanced water availability and productivity). Tables 6, 7 and 8 summarize the concept notes developed."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"CN 1: Analyzing the performance of public-private partnership (PPP) models in irrigated agriculture."}]},{"head":"Context","index":97,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Various models of PPP have been attempted in the region, and their success had been variable. Hence, replication of PPP models should be based on an understanding of pre-and post-requisites of successful models, and a thorough analysis of existing models is necessary."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":98,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The government has shown a keen interest in engaging with the private sector to improve agriculture. Performance analysis will help policymakers further."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":99,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Informed decisions made by policymakers on such partnerships based on this analysis."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":100,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Improved partnerships, leading to enhanced production and income."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":101,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Government agencies, private companies, small-scale farmers and commercial farmers."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":102,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Policymakers, end beneficiaries -Smallholders and large-scale farmers."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":103,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"A selection of countries from across Africa."}]},{"head":"Pro-poor/gender issues","index":104,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The project will aim at analyzing PPP routes for smallholder irrigation, and an enabling environment necessary for its success."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":105,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Indirect impact in terms of increased production from such partnerships."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":106,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":" Determine pre-and post-requisites of successful PPP models.  Find ways of streamlining the best models in existing government plans."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":" Discover what PPP models are already being used (inventory, establish baseline)."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":" Evaluate the performance of different PPP models."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":107,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"PPPs take advantage of positive attributes of both sectors, and hence should lead to a win-win situation."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":108,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Detailed analysis of performance management of such initiatives is missing."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":109,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":110,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Key activities to include:  Inventorize existing PPP models in the region.  Analyze their performance with respect to finances, natural resource-use efficiency, equity in benefit-sharing and overall improvement in the livelihoods of the poor."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":111,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Two-year time frame. Table 6. Concept note 1."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"CN 2: Policy research: Enabling environment for water issues."}]},{"head":"Context","index":112,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Policy research is essential in determining the degree of conflicts and convergence among public policies to enhance livelihoods of the poor and resilience of the ecosystem they rely on."}]},{"head":"Fit with regional focus","index":113,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"With multiple government schemes available, it becomes necessary to analyze such policy discourse and its implications."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":114,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Enhanced knowledge about agricultural policies and an enabling environment required for their success."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":115,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Better and informed policy planning in the future."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":116,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Small-scale farmers, commercial farmers, pastoralists, private sector, and local and national governments."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":117,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":118,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Across Africa."}]},{"head":"Propoor/gender issues","index":119,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Policy research will also focus on gender and poverty issues, as these are some of the most precarious issues in sub-Saharan Africa."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":120,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Indirect impact by policies related to ecological systems."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":121,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":" Develop an inventory of good practices.  Analyze the following:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"-Government policies in relation to water resources used for irrigation, in particular. -Access to inputs, including energy."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"-Taxes."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"-Governance."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"-Prices."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"-Enhancing capacity.  Explore the potential of further/alternative financing (e.g., soft loans).  Analyze access to inputs, including energy."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":122,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A novel concept and will help in making informed decisions."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":123,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Detailed analysis of performance management of such initiatives is missing."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":124,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Farmer organizations, government agencies, research organizations and local communities."}]},{"head":"Design","index":125,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Key activities to include:  Analyzing existing policies and associated synergies, redundancies and conflicts."}]},{"head":"Resources","index":126,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Three-to five-year time frame. Table 7. Concept note 2."}]},{"head":"Pan-Africa","index":127,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"This group proposed three frameworks to guide and structure the WLE process, its relevance and impact:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1. Research management framework. 2. Country growth/strategy framework."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"3. Data management framework."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Tables 9, 10 and 11 summarize the concept notes developed for each of the proposed frameworks."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"CN 1: Research management framework: Making sense of multiple research ideas and priorities."}]},{"head":"Context","index":128,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"How do you design a research framework to assist WLE with structuring research themes that fit the idea of revitalizing irrigation in SSA."}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":129,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Better designed technologies for the private sector."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":130,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Increased production, better irrigation services."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":131,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Eventually -all countries. Main target WLE partners."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":132,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Mozambique (river diversions), Zambia (peri-urban). Pro-poor/gender issues Indirect impact."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":133,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Develop a conceptual framework to organize research themes and priorities."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"What is this framework -how might it appear or be designed? Novelty A novel concept, which will help in making informed decisions."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":134,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Very few research management frameworks that are applicable to the region exist.  "}]},{"head":"Partners","index":135,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Context","index":136,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"How do you design a data management framework to assist African countries develop realistic estimates/plans for achieving their irrigation objectives?"}]},{"head":"Outcome","index":137,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Better planning for irrigation management."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":138,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Multiple partners will be benefited."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":139,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Eventually -all countries."}]},{"head":"Main target","index":140,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Ghana, Burkina Faso, Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Countries","index":141,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Ghana, Burkina Faso, Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Other issues","index":142,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Access to key data, understand the uncertainty, benchmarking, future projections (land area, growth, etc.)."}]},{"head":"Impact on ecosystems","index":143,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Indirect impact."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":144,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":" Design data management and decision support systems, so that this fits with the country strategy frameworks.  Create the baseline and know what strengths to build on, and in which catchments/basins."}]},{"head":"Novelty","index":145,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A novel concept, which will help in making informed decisions."}]},{"head":"Knowledge gaps","index":146,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Very few research management frameworks applicable to the region exist."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":147,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"WLE partners, country partners."}]},{"head":"Design","index":148,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Identify data needs; analysis; existing data; new data, e.g., irrigation types, hectares, farmers, crop production, dollars, calories, water consumption and poverty alleviation. Resources 1 year. Table 11. Concept note 3."}]},{"head":"Questions, answers and comments:","index":149,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Question: What about the practicality? I am not aware of any country taking a model from one country and using it in another country."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Answer: It is WLE's role to turn quite ambitious programs into ones that are credible and can be expedited."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Question: Regarding the data management issue, how realistic is it to achieve within one year? It is costintensive and needs participation of statistical expertise."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Answer: From the short discussion today, we don't have an answer yet. This would be an early study on what is achievable and useful. There will be a lot of existing data."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Comment: It would be useful to identify what the data needs are (those which can be practically used very quickly)."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Comment: I found this proposal very useful but too rigid. It should include research into the changes in livelihoods and details of what is driving the change such as land fragmentation, population pressure, etc."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Answer: There is a need for going to all scales, including the pan-Africa scale. Can Africa feed itself? Are there kinds of the questions that should be able to be answered out of this?"},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Answer: Mapping current pressures is also important. What is going on, what has happened and how successful it has been also need to be looked into."}]},{"head":"Comment:","index":150,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"We have to be very careful. You have to abide by the policies of the government of the country you are researching, and these policies have to be taken into consideration."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Question: What about looking at crosscutting issues?"},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Question: Can we have a research question on enhancing irrigated systems? Can we look at factors, such as social or institutional, which are preventing the systems from working effectively, and what about enhancing the use of ecosystem services?"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Question: We have not explored other issues around ecosystem services. Can we explore research questions around these components?"},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Question: A key thing that needs to be considered is, what is the role of irrigation in the development of Africa? What is important for a farmer at the household level, to a commercial enterprise and what is important at a national policy level, etc."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Question: I like that you focused on data. My question is, who manages the data? Some countries might not be willing to share data. How do we get data that countries consider sensitive?"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Answer: It is a very important point. Data management will be the critical area of WLE. "}]},{"head":"Session","index":151,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" S. A. Prathapar Leader, Irrigated Systems -Strategic Research Portfolio (SRP), CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) Theme Leader -Productive Water Use, International Water Management Institute (IWMI) "},{"text":" Why CAADP -increasing agricultural production, sustainable economic growth, and food and nutritional security.  Integration and research financing are needed.  Strengthen institutional arrangements.  Investment plans and policy reforms. Rationale for Irrigating Africa  We have not used the full potential of what we have in terms of technology. "},{"text":"Session 4 : A Look at West Africa (chaired by Peter McCornick, International Water Management Institute [IWMI])Ghana: Food security and national requirements -Ben Nyamadi, Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) "},{"text":" Nigeria: Prospects and constraints -Sani Miko, Sasakawa Global 2000 Summary of presentation  Complex working structure for irrigated agriculture -Federal Ministry of Water Resources (manages water), Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (manages research and extension), and the Federal Ministry of Environment.  Three irrigation schemes.  Public, farmer-owned and residual flood (Fadama).  Major crops -rice, wheat and vegetables -can bring income. Irrigation potential of Nigeria:  Five-percent of the land is suitable for irrigated agriculture.  Thirteen river basin development authorities, and funded by the ministries of Agriculture and Rural Development, and Water Resources. Constraints: Planning and design flaws.  A bias towards investment in hardware (infrastructure and machinery), thereby neglecting the software requirements (policy formulation, institutional strengthening and capacity building).  Inadequate financial resources for operations and maintenance.  Inconsistency in government policy that established the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs).  Corruption and rent-seeking.  Lack of organized farmer groups and Water User Associations.  Inadequate skills and manpower.  Decay of irrigation infrastructure. Researchable areas:  Irrigation methods/water management techniques for crops.  Salinity and groundwater problems (management and control).  Water harvesting technologies.  Socioeconomic studies on existing irrigation schemes.  Sustainable use of poor-quality water for irrigation purposes.  Deficit irrigation techniques.  Evapotranspiration management.  Bio-drainage for waterlogged areas.  Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM).  Cropping strategies to mitigate the effects of water scarcity.  Drought mitigation through supplementary irrigation.  Alternative water-lifting devices.  Conflict resolution strategies on resource use. "},{"text":" Nigeria's presenter (Sasakawa Global 2000): Salinity -because of poor maintenance. Less training on how best to use the inputs. On subsidy -liberalize the issue of inputs. Conflict resolution -ILRI fodder project -ILRI acted as catalyst and mapped out strategies. "},{"text":" These organizations included: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), International Water Management Institute (IWMI), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and AfricaRice. "},{"text":"CN 3 : Data management framework: Making sense of multiple data needs and gathering for the other two frameworks (Research management and Country growth/strategy). "},{"text":" Three to five presentations by representatives from South Africa (3), Zambia (2) and Mozambique  Question and Answer  Observations from 'Southern Africa Review Panel' (3-4 persons to be tasked with making observations of trends, etc., of needs, opportunities, etc.) Seven presentations by representatives from Burkina Faso (2), Ghana, Niger (2) and Nigeria (2)  Question and Answer  Observations from 'West Africa Review Panel' (3-4 persons to be tasked with making observations of trends, etc., of needs, opportunities, etc.) Presentation by New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) on 'Unlocking the Irrigation Potential in Africa through the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP)' by Tobias  Other presentations from donors or global partners or other projects  Discussion on driving forces and goals of irrigation Group work in regional groups (East Africa, Southern Africa and West Africa) and global group  Group work to discuss and identify the following: -Development goals of the countries/region -State of irrigation, needs and goals for enhancing irrigation -What do we still need to do/what do we still need to know -identifying research questions Session 7 -Group work II -How to achieve the goals, what do we need 2:00-3:30  Group work continues, focusing on: -What kind of research activities are needed (and possible)? -What kind of products are needed from this (data, publications, capacity building, policy influence, etc.)? How should these be made available? -Who are the key actors to be involved? Each group has 10 minutes to 'present' their group work results  Question and Answer, comments, suggestions from others  Nomination of teams to continue Concept Note development "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" What is the timescale -short-term -five years -15 years? Answer: The initial stage is 3 years, but these are long-term projects from CGIAR point of view and partners have long-term commitments. Also, since the research is transdisciplinary, this requires a longterm focus. Question no. 2: Question no. 2:  "},{"text":"Session 2: A Look at East Africa (chaired by Tilahun Amede, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics [ICRISAT]) The status and challenges of irrigation and drainage development and research in Ethiopia -Abiti Getaneh, Ministry of Water and Energy of Ethiopia Summary of presentation  Ethiopia has many large flood events that it has not been able to effectively utilize.  Population density in the East but water resources in the West -generally speaking.  Total irrigable land potential in Ethiopia is 5.3 Mha. This number is subdivided as shown below: o 3.7 Mha from gravity fed surface water. o 3.7 Mha from gravity fed surface water. o 1.1 Mha from groundwater. o 1.1 Mha from groundwater. o 0.5 Mha from rainwater harvesting. o 0.5 Mha from rainwater harvesting.  Current developed land (2.4%).  Current developed land (2.4%).  Development plans (100%).  Development plans (100%).  "},{"text":"Dr. Jide Olumeko, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Nigeria Summary of presentation Annual rainfall in Nigeria ranges from 250 mm in the North to 4,000 mm in the South. Runoff is estimated at 250 billion cubic metres (Bm 3 ) per year with surface water equal to 226 Bm 3 . Irrigable land stands at around 3 Mha. Informal irrigation is prominent, although river basin-scale and private investorled formal irrigation also exist. The gross irrigation water requirement is also not well understood. Policy implementation.  Ineffective handing of irrigation from a business perspective.  Inadequate extension services.  Power supply challenges.  Lack of water user associations and the costs involved in obtaining water.  Lack of effective collaboration among relevant stakeholders in the country.  Lack of understanding of the economics of water use. The challenges: The challenges:  "},{"text":" . Energy policies -can we think of subsidizing energy? It worked in India but with lots of early challenges. What is the smart way of doing that in Africa? Irrigation issues: Many organizations are involved. Is there a way that we can advise governments to come up with solid structures to facilitate this? Work from the demand side. Irrigated agriculture should be self-sustained and profitable for the farmers.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Concept note 2.  "},{"text":"CN 3: Appropriate technologies for private irrigators, and the appropriate financing mechanisms/models.   "}],"sieverID":"03aef62d-fe05-4657-aeea-b4005dbe9de3","abstract":"Reliable irrigation improves crop yields, makes multi-cropping possible, enables smallholders to cultivate high-value crops and provides year-round farm employment. Yet, less than 5% of the land area in Africa is irrigated and this mostly occurs in just three countries (Madagascar, South Africa and Sudan) and on commercial farms.Smallholders mostly depend on rainfed agriculture. A switch to irrigated agriculture could have huge implications for these smallholder farmers, who can triple their food production by pumping their own water. This would introduce the stability they need to settle in one place, allowing them to earn a reliable income, feed their families and educate their children.The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has identified land and water management as a priority, and intends to extend the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control systems to 20 million hectares (Mha) by 2015, which is an increase from its current 7 Mha.In order to transform rainfed landscapes into profitable and sustainable irrigation systems in droughtprone areas, we need to generate scientific knowledge, policy tools and technical options which will help governments to invest wisely in irrigation schemes. Therefore, the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), organized a stakeholder workshop on 'Revitalizing irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa' to assess the research needs to enhance the success of irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02d4bb650861f97b8f1f64bbbcd58fd1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad11b8d4-ad98-480f-904b-608aa5dbff16/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"Álvarez, Elizabeth Production of clean planting material for managing plantain diseases","keywords":["Musa acuminata","2","Musa balbisiana","3","Plant diseases","4","Ralstonia solanacearum","5","Erwinia chrysanthemi","6","Mycosphaerella fijiensis","7","Fusarium oxysporum","8","Xanthomonas campestris","9","Vegetative propagation","10","Disease transmission","11","Symptoms","12","Disease control","13","Agricultural practices","14","Colombia","Local descriptors in English: 1","Plantain","2","Disease management AGRIS subject category: H20 Plant diseases"],"chapters":[{"head":"Importance of plantains and bananas","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Plantain (Musa balbisiana ABB) and banana (M. acuminata AAB) are economically valuable crops that also contribute significantly to the food security of many countries throughout the tropical world. These crops are also important sources of employment and income in these countries."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"World production of plantain reached about 38.9 million tons in 2011. Uganda, Ghana, Cameroon, Rwanda, Colombia, and Nigeria are the main producers. Banana production reached 106.5 million tons, with the main producers being India, China, the Philippines, Ecuador, and Indonesia (FAOSTAT, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Latin America and the Caribbean supplied 63.7% of the international plantain trade in 2010, principally consisting of production from Ecuador (33.2%), Colombia (10.2%), Costa Rica (10%), and Guatemala (8.6%). The world's five leading export countries (Ecuador, Colombia, the Philippines, Costa Rica, and Guatemala) supplied 73.6% of the world trade, with the remaining exporting countries contributing 26.4% (Fundación Produce de Guerrero, A.C., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"The plantain varieties that are most widely cultivated do not produce seeds, their fruits being botanically known as parthenocarpic (lit. virgin fruit). Consequently, the plants' corms or suckers 1 are used as planting material (Canchignia and Ramos, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Major plantain and banana diseases","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The diseases affecting bananas and plantains represent significant problems throughout the world. These diseases, caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses, lead to the deterioration of all plant parts. Fungal diseases include black sigatoka (or black leaf streak disease), caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis; and Panama disease (or fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Foc race 1 and, recently, Foc race 4). The most important bacterial diseases are Moko disease (a vascular wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum race 2); pseudostem rot caused by Dickeya (Erwinia) chrysanthemi; and bacterial wilt caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. Viral diseases are distributed throughout most areas producing plantain and banana. They include banana streak (BSV) and banana mosaic (caused by cucumber mosaic virus [CMV]) (Ploetz, 2004)."}]},{"head":"Diseases transmitted by planting material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Moko disease, bacterial wilt, vascular wilt, maduraviche, or ereke Causal agent of the disease: Ralstonia solanacearum race 2 Caused by the bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum, this significant disease affects plantain, banana, and other crops across broad geographical areas. The extensive genetic diversity of the bacterial strains causing this wilt led to the concept of a R. solanacearum species complex (Genin and Denny, 2012), whereby strains are grouped into races and biovars (Denny, 2006). Races are based on the range of hosts that they infect (Álvarez, 2005); in this case, race 2 affects plantain and banana."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Symptoms. The disease is primarily a wilt of vascular origin, from which the infected plants eventually die (Figure1)."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"The bacterium moves throughout the plant's vascular bundles, blocking the passage of water, nutrients, and photo-assimilates (Gómez et al., 2005) (Figure 2). The blockage produces symptoms of chlorosis and wilt in the leaves, which then droop, rot, and fall off. Offshoots or suckers of infected plants may also show similar symptoms but, often, they remain asymptomatic, allowing the phytopathogen to disseminate through planting material.  Dissemination. The bacterium R. solanacearum naturally inhabits soil. However, successive cropping of plantain varieties highly susceptible to Moko disease such as Dominico Hartón, the use of infected planting material, and a poverty of beneficial soil microorganisms all favor the phytopathogen's spread. Dissemination is further accelerated by increased contamination of both soil and runoff in crops (Figure 3). Other means of dissemination include infested surfaces of tools, equipment, and working clothes; and vector insects and animals (Moorman, 2013). This situation is currently reflected in the extensiveness of devastated cropping areas."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Management. The best strategy is preventive management, that is, the use of certified seed and planting in exclusion zones where the disease is not present."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"In affected areas, to reduce risks of propagating this disease, management includes eradicating infected plants and constantly disinfecting all tools and machinery used in cultivation (Eyres et al., 2001)."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Healthy racemes (i.e., bunches of fruit) can be protected by covering them with translucent plastic bags to help prevent dissemination by aerial vectors. Rotating with crops that do not host the bacterium such as cassava, maize, or beans will also help (Rodríguez and Avelares, 2012)."}]},{"head":"Bacterial soft rot or plantain corm necrosis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Causal agent of the disease: Dickeya (Erwinia) chrysanthemi Recent taxonomic revisions have reclassified the Erwinia genus as Dickeya (Genome Evolution Laboratory, 2007). This bacterium belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family, most of which are phytopathogens that characteristically cause soft rots. That is, tissues are degraded or macerated through enzymes such as pectinases that break down plant cells, causing the exposed plant parts to release nutrients that then facilitate bacterial growth ( Van Vaerenbergh et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Dickeya sp. can survive on those decomposing pseudopetioles that remain adhered to the pseudostem after leaf removal (Martínez-Garnica, 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Incidence of this disease has increased recently, mostly in plantain, with crop losses of 30% to 100%. The presence of the disease is usually associated with bad drainage, poor phytosanitary conditions of the crop, high rainfall, and inadequate irrigation practices (Dita et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"The crops that are most susceptible to the disease are those that have imbalanced nutrition, especially of potassium and boron (Belalcázar, 1991;Palencia et al., 2006). Such imbalances accentuate symptom severity."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Symptoms. The disease is characterized by chlorosis of the lower leaves, which then droop. This is followed by a general wilting of the plant as the disease progresses upwards, totally affecting all leaves (Gómez-Caicedo et al., 2001)."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Aqueous yellow lesions also appear inside the pseudostem. These lesions eventually become dark brown and give off a fetid smell (Figure 4)."}]},{"head":"Dispersal.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The bacterium colonizes xylem vessels, through which it can systemically infect the plant, causing it to wilt overall. This systemic condition is a cause for alarm in the vegetative propagation of plantain (and other crops), as the pathogen can remain latent within planting material and later propagate itself throughout the crop. The bacterium can also survive in crop residues, thus creating a risk of latent infection for the next crop (EPPO/CABI, 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The bacterium can be transmitted on tools used to remove leaves and other dried aerial parts, 2 as well as by insects such as the silky cane banana weevils (Metamasius spp.), and by contaminated planting material."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"2. Known in Spanish as desgüasque, trimming involves the removal of dried or decomposing sheaths of the pseudostem. If such material remains on the plant, the crop becomes potentially predisposed to serious phytosanitary problems such as infestations by pests, including the silky cane weevil, banana root borer, and screwworm fly larvae, as well as bacterial soft rot (Morales 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Management. Constant disinfection of tools during routine work on the crop will reduce the spread of this plant pathogen. Controlling weevils and correctly applying fertilizers will also help in the timely management of the disease."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"The frequent use of sodium hypochlorite, in its commercial presentation (at 5.25%) and dissolved in water at 1:1, is suitable for disinfecting tools (Gómez-Caicedo et al. 2001)."}]},{"head":"Mass multiplication of clean planting material","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"This handbook proposes a system of producing healthy plantain planting material (seed). This system combines two processes: in vitro propagation (Figure 5), and low-cost thermotherapy, using a thermal chamber (Figure 6).   Thermal chamber. Corms and their induced buds are placed in this chamber and subjected to a cleaning system involving thermotherapy. Temperatures are set between 50° and 70°C, relative humidity from 30% to 100%, and the photoperiod may be as long as 24 hours (complemented with artificial light at night). These three parameters, together with frequency of fertigation (i.e., irrigation with a nutritional solution) are automated by means of a programmable logic controller (PLC) (Figure 7) and Software Alpha Programming Mitsubishi® 2001) (FONTAGRO, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"3. TRAS is the acronym for Técnica de reproducción acelerada de semilla, that is, accelerated seed reproduction technique. Buds are not separated from the corms; instead, whole corms are planted in small seedbeds previously prepared to facilitate the sprouting of axillary buds. The apical bud is extracted to a depth of 1 cm below the crown (which joins the corm's pseudostem). This prevents apical dominance and induces axillary buds to sprout (Aguilar et al., 2004). Planting material. Corms (sword-type suckers), weighing between 1 and 2 kg, are used as seed. The corms are produced in plots set aside for elite plants obtained from seed developed in vitro. The corms are first disinfected in a solution of insecticide + fungicide, and then subjected to the technique of accelerated reproduction of seed or planting material (TRAS) 3 (Aguilar et al., 2004). This technique inhibits the growth of apical buds or meristems and induces lateral buds to sprout (Figure 8). The high temperatures inside the thermal chamber shorten the time vegetative buds take to sprout and develop. Within a relatively short time (18 days), larger numbers of buds sprout at a higher emergence rate under the higher temperatures of a thermal chamber than would have sprouted under outdoor conditions (29 days), using the same technique (Figure 9). For plantain variety Dominico Hartón (Musa AAB), the best yield of planting material is obtained by applying the TRAS technique to corms of 1 to 2 kg placed in a thermal chamber and using previously sterilized sawdust as the planting substrate. Studies show that production in a thermal chamber can be as high as 90 shoots/m 2 per month, compared with 35 shoots/m 2 per month under outdoor conditions (Figure 10). "}]},{"head":"Rooting and growth in the greenhouse","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"When shoots in the thermal chamber are 18 days old (Figure 11), they are extracted from the substrate and washed in a solution of 1% sodium hypochlorite. They are then immediately planted in black plastic bags containing sterilized substrate rich in organic matter such as rice husks + white-wood sawdust + fertile soil at a rate of 2:1:1.  Seedbed. Space should be made for establishing a seedbed or nursery (Figure 12), where the bags containing shoots will be placed. The area must be under natural shade (trees) or artificial shade constructed from saran with a 30% to 50% mesh."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"4. Urea is a nitrogen-rich fertilizer (60% N); MAP or DAP is monoammonium or diammonium phosphate, rich in assimilable phosphorus (50% and 48% of P 2 O 5 , respectively); and KCl is potassium chloride (60% of K 2 O). Beginning in the second week after transplanting, the plants, still in their bags, are given fertilizers weekly. The fertilizer used is a mixture of urea 4 (24.5%), MAP or DAP (37.7%), and KCl (37.7%) (Lardizábal and Gutiérrez, 2006;Coto, 2009). After 90 days, the seed will be ready for transplanting to the field (Figure 13)."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"During this stage of growth and development, beneficial microorganisms should be applied, for example, bacteria that promote root growth (e.g., plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria or PGPR), and the fungi Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, and arbuscular mycorrhiza, which favor development of the root system and plant growth before transplantation to the field."}]},{"head":"Thermal chamber","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Conventional method"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Automated and technified production system."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Seed size and weight are uniform, facilitating linkage with seed certification programs, and reducing transportation costs and seed price."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• When elite material from in vitro propagation is used, phytopathogenic microorganisms and pests are excluded."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• The first cropping cycle can be reduced by up to 2 months, depending on temperature ranges."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Planting material is consistently available all year round."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• The root system develops and is protected by beneficial microorganisms."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• From one corm, as many as 15 shoots can be produced and used as planting material."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Production system is neither automated nor technified."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• Seed size and weight are variable, complicating the certification of planting material, and increasing transportation costs and seed price."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"• Greater probability of spreading phytopathogenic microorganisms and pests."},{"index":12,"size":9,"text":"• Cropping cycle is normal, depending on temperature ranges."},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"• Availability of corms may be limited."},{"index":14,"size":9,"text":"• The corms used do not have root systems."},{"index":15,"size":7,"text":"• Larger volumes of seed are required."},{"index":16,"size":22,"text":"• Conventional propagation of Musaceae (plantain and banana) allows separation of corms from their mother plants through desuckering (Martínez et al., 2004)."},{"index":17,"size":10,"text":"Comparing propagation in the thermal chamber with the conventional method"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Plantain plant with symptoms of Moko disease. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Vascular bundles in the plantain rachis are blocked by the pathogen causing Moko disease. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Runoff from prolonged rains in a dissemination focus of Moko disease. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Soft rot in sheaths of a plantain pseudostem. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. A CIAT prototype of a thermal chamber. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. In vitro plantain seed. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Programmable logic controller (PLC). "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Cuts made in a plantain corm to inhibit apical dominance. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. High shoot production from one corm, using the TRAS technique in a thermal chamber. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Effect of environment (i.e., thermal chamber or outdoor conditions) and corm size on the mass propagation of plantain variety Dominico Hartón. "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Plantain shoot ready for transplanting to a seedbed. "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Seedbed with healthy plantain shoots. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Optimal plantain seed for transplanting to the field. "}],"sieverID":"8826c6b9-6b6d-44e6-99d8-f089856f79b6","abstract":"Originally published in Spanish as Producción de material de 'siembra' limpio en el manejo de las enfermedades limitantes del plátano, written by Elizabeth Álvarez, Germán Ceballos, Lederson Gañán, David Rodríguez, Silverio González, and Alberto Pantoja, and published by CIAT, 2013.CIAT encourages wide dissemination of its printed and electronic publications for maximum benefit to the public. Thus, in most cases, colleagues working in research and development should feel free to use CIAT materials for noncommercial purposes. However, the Center prohibits modification of these materials and expects to receive due credit. Although CIAT prepares its publications with great care, the Center does not guarantee their accuracy or completeness.This manual presents the results of a collaborative work with the Regional Fund for Agricultural Technology (FONTAGRO) and the Colombian Federation of Plantain Producers (FEDEPLÁTANO), with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Agricultural Innovation Marketplace.The mention of any commercial product in this handbook does not imply an endorsement of the product nor is it an attempt to promote it on the part of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) or its collaborating agencies."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036867ace8af51c8dd98722d2175ff09","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/836a39f8-f03c-41dd-be40-8d317e30e542/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda Thematic Working Group 3","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"ii ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda"}]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"This study is part of the Integrated Seed Sector Development (ISSD) programme's action learning theme on matching global commitments with national realities. The theme used case studies to reflect upon climate resilience and access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms, specifically with respect to the national policy and legal environment for ABS, and the practical issues involved in the access to and exchange of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) through the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) or the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from the Utilization of Genetic Resources of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Nagoya Protocol/CBD). The objective of the study was to analyse how climate change has affected agricultural productivity in Rwanda, and the strategies that have been put in place to facilitate access to PGRFA required for climate change adaptation. PGRFA exchanges between different stakeholders in and out of the country were studied using secondary data from various institutions, such as the Rwanda National Genebank (RNGB), CGIAR centres, ITPGRFA Secretariat, breeding programmes, regional research projects, breeders' networks and farming communities. A key informant survey, consisting of 52 respondents from various research and breeding programmes, was also used to augment the data obtained from secondary sources. In addition, climate and crop suitability modelling was used to identify collections of PGRFA that could potentially be suitable for climate challenges at present and in the future."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Findings show that CGIAR centres continue to play a critical role in the exchange of genetic resources for crop improvement and technology transfer in Rwanda. Apart from crop improvement, breeders' networks and regional projects have also enhanced knowledge and information dissemination among breeders and other stakeholders. Although most of the materials exchanged for crop improvement are from ex situ collections, famers have contributed, through informal seed systems, to the maintenance of in situ genetic resources by identification, conservation and sometimes even the restoration of varieties with useful traits for climate change adaptation. The RNGB's main function is the conservation of genetic resources; however, the genebank needs to be strengthened to perform other critical functions, such as characterization of PGRFA and information management. The Rwandan government is in the process of implementing the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol in a mutually supportive manner by involving a task force that consists of the focal person for the ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol, and the relevant stakeholders from the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI). "}]},{"head":"List of tables","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Table 1. Effects of climate change on major crops in the 2050s (1 -1.5 ºC increase) ..................................... Table 2. Inflows of PGRFA into Rwanda from CGIAR centres (2007 -2014)            "}]},{"head":"List of figures","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":284,"text":"The whole world is experiencing climate change with greater weather extremes, changes in rainfall distribution, and increasing droughts and floods. These phenomena have a negative impact on the environment and on people's lives and livelihoods (GEF, 2010), especially in Africa. In Rwanda, historical famines that occurred in 1916Rwanda, historical famines that occurred in , 1999Rwanda, historical famines that occurred in , 2000Rwanda, historical famines that occurred in , 2005Rwanda, historical famines that occurred in and 2006 affected agricultural productivity and food security (Government of Rwanda/European Commission, 2006;Downing, 2009). Before the genocide against the Tutsi of 1994, Rwanda had a reliable network of more than 150 weather observation stations, including five synoptic (main) stations, and six agro-meteorological stations, with the remaining stations dedicated to capturing rainfall and temperature variables only. The only reliable weather station left is located at Kigali International Airport. An analysis of historical temperatures at Kigali indicates that minimum temperatures have been rising faster than maximum temperatures, but with a general overall rise in temperature, particularly since 1992. All of the climate model scenarios show future increases in mean annual temperature. Climate change models predict increases in temperature of between 1.5 to 3 degrees Celsius (ºC) by the 2050s (Downing, 2009). The data, based on downscaled data for Kigali's airport weather station, reports an increase in average maximum monthly temperatures of around 1.5 to 2.7 ºC (for a business-as-usual, no mitigation scenario) by the 2050s (2046 -2065), with the greatest increase in temperature occurring in the period July to September. The trends in monthly average minimum temperatures project a rise of 1.7 to 2.8ºC for the same period, with the greatest temperature increase occurring in the period June to August (REMA, 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Changes in precipitation are less certain. Although the intensity, frequency and spatial distribution of precipitation are unknown, all the climate model scenarios show that average rainfall regimes will change, ranging from positive to negative anomalies across the models (REMA, 2011). Most of the projections suggest that average annual rainfall will increase, particularly in some seasons, indicating a potential flood risk. However, some models show reductions in rainfall in certain months. A shift in the timing of seasons is being reported in certain regions and this is already having a significant impact on agriculture (Downing 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"Agriculture is the backbone and main driver of economic development in Rwanda, contributing to more than 36.7% of GDP, employing more than 80% of its population (MINAGRI, 2010;REMA, 2011) and supplying 90% of the nation's food and nutritional needs (Byamukama et al., 2011). Rwanda's agriculture sector is the sector that is most vulnerable to climatic change. The impacts of climate change are mostly due to erratic rainfall and increasing episodes of extreme drought and flood. Consequently, agricultural production in Rwanda is characterized by low productivity; increased incidences of pests and disease, loss of crop genetic diversity and ultimately food insecurity and poverty. Ensuring the sector's resilience against existing and future climatic change is a national concern for long-term development. Strategies for adaptation to climate change have included the use of genetic resources and seeds that possess useful traits, such as drought and flood resistance. These useful traits can be obtained from collections of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) in different genebanks (national or international) or through breeding and crop improvement. All these options require access and benefit-sharing (ABS) mechanisms through which materials can be exchanged."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The pilot project of Integrated Seed Sector Development in Africa (ISSD Africa) aims to work on complex challenges that are of strategic importance to support the development of a marketoriented, pluralistic, vibrant and dynamic seed sector in Africa. This study looks at how climate change affects agriculture and ultimately the PGRFA needs of Rwanda. It also analyses the trends in access to and exchange of PGRFA for climate change adaptation, the stakeholders involved, and the policy issues for ABS in Rwanda."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Secondary data obtained from the Rwanda National Genebank (RNGB), the Secretariat of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the database of Genesys, 1 were analysed to show trends in flows of PGRFA in and out of the country, and within the country. Regarding primary data on germplasm exchange, a survey instrument (Appendix 1) was sent to key informants from agricultural and agriculture-related institutions in Rwanda, namely the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB); the University of Rwanda (UR); the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI); the Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA); farmers' cooperatives, including Imboneramuhinzi Cooperative, Imbaraga Cooperative, Ubumwe Cooperative and Amakiriro Cooperative; Voice of Community Organization (VCO); the National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB); and the National Industrial Research and Development Agency (NIRDA). It aimed to collect information from stakeholders in various institutions that are related to the conservation, use and management of PGRFA, and institutions that deal with climate change mitigation, adaptation and policy. The questionnaire sought to understand the impacts of climate change on agriculture, crop diversity and breeding with respect to climate change and the varieties released and currently in use. Stakeholders were asked to provide information regarding exchanges of PGRFA, terms and conditions of exchange, and best practices or lessons learned from such exchanges within and out of the country. The survey yielded 52 respondents."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"The study also draws upon an analysis of two communities in Rwanda that were selected to demonstrate how climate change drives interdependence, and to identify present and future PGRFA needs for the communities. Two reference sites were chosen, namely Bugesera and Rubaya in Gicumbi district; both communities produce beans as a major food crop but with different agroecologies. The research strategy involved a step-by-step methodology linking various participatory approaches, in combination with GIS and crop suitability modelling, to select suitable varieties of beans for climate change adaptation. The identification of potentially suitable accessions was carried out by matching similar climates using bioclimatic variables relevant for bean growth i.e. temperature and precipitation. A total of 19 bioclimatic variables were extracted using the BIOCLIM algorithm at a resolution of 2.5 arc minutes 2 with the programme DIVA-GIS. Most of these variables were associated with the different precipitation and temperature regimes characteristic of the diverse habitats of beans. Locality (GIS) data from accession specimens were used to extract the variables using ArcGIS 10. The accessions were then clustered according to three variables that are relevant for bean growth (average annual temperature, annual precipitation, and agro-ecological zone); we calculated the average annual temperature and annual precipitation variables using the formulas ((tmin1+tmax1)/2+(tmin2+tmax2)/2+(tmin n +tmax n )/2)/12, and (prec1+prec2+prec n ) respectively."}]},{"head":"ISSD Africa","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda"},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The first set of 20 varieties of beans were identified at the RNGB; they comprised a mix of varieties collected from various places in Rwanda, plus five improved varieties. These varieties were tested by farmers in Bugesera and Rubaya. A second tranche of 20 potentially adapted varieties that were originally collected in Ethiopia, Congo, Tanzania, Kenya and Rwanda were identified in the Genesys database. Those materials were listed as being held in the genebank of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia, and thus available under the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) pursuant to CIAT's Article 15 agreement with the Governing Body of the ITPGRFA. The samples were requested from CIAT but only eleven out of the 20 requests were sent from CIAT because the rest were no longer available in their collection."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"An analysis of the policy and regulatory environment for ABS and climate change was conducted in order to provide insights into the facilitative or inhibitive aspects of ABS regulations on access to and exchange of genetic materials required for climate change adaptation."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Demographics of the respondents","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"There were 52 respondents to the survey: 84.6% were male and 15.4% were female, distributed across seven districts; 25% of respondents were members of cooperatives in Gicumbi district. RAB was the institution that was most represented, with 38.5% of respondents; it has a mission of developing agriculture and animal husbandry through reforms, and using modern methods in crop and animal production, research, agricultural extension, education and training of farmers in new technologies. Considering climate change challenges, the RAB's mission is to increase the productivity of crops, livestock, and natural resources by applying scientific knowledge in the generation and dissemination of appropriate technologies to sustainably enhance the quantity, quality and profitability of agricultural products for improved livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Climate change in Rwanda and related effects","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Trends in climate change and disasters in Rwanda","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"According to a report by REMA , past climate trends indicate that the mean annual temperature gradually increased from 1971 to 2007, from an average of 19.8 ºC in 1971 to 20.7 ºC in 2007, showing an increase of 0.9 ºC in 27 years (REMA, 2010). The report further notes that the number of warm days (with temperatures exceeding 30 ºC) increased, from five days in the 1970s to 26 days in the 2010s, while the number of rainy days decreased from 150 in the 1970s to 125 in 2010s. Recently, these changes have been coupled with the shifting and shortening of growing seasons, rainfall variability and increased incidences of droughts and floods (REMA, 2010). The details in REMA's report were further corroborated in interviews with key stakeholders who felt that there have been recent and significant changes in the following climate-related aspects: (i) irregularity of rainfall, encompassing changes in quantity of rain water or variability in rainfall (46%); (ii) drought length and unexpected drought (41.7%); (iii) disasters (29.3%); (iv) changes/increase in temperature (12.2%); (v) outbreaks of pests and increase in incidence of disease (10.4%); and (vi) unpredictable agricultural season (10%)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Temperature and precipitation changes, and other related climate variability, have led to a shortening of the growing seasons and a shifting of planting dates, with heavy and erratic rainfall causing floods, soil erosion, landslides, and river flow changes. As a result, there has been a reduction ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda in agricultural yields or in the areas suitable for agricultural production, and a proliferation of pests and diseases, impacting on food security and livelihoods (Gishinge, 2014). Finally, climate change has also resulted in a loss of genetic resources."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"Findings from the current studies by Ngoga, Mutabazi and Thomas (2013) have confirmed that climate change impacts on livelihoods and nutrition; soil and water; cropping season; plant genetic resources; animal genetic resources; and agricultural production. The three main impacts of climate change on livelihoods in Rwanda are hunger/migration, chronic poverty and malnutrition. Land dryness is considered to be the main impact of climate change on soil. In case of long periods of drought, farmers sustain their crops by referring mainly to wetland cultivation and irrigation techniques, and constructing water tanks. In relation to cropping season, climate change has mainly resulted in a shift in the planting dates and a shorter growing season."},{"index":4,"size":177,"text":"Climate projections show increases in temperature and precipitation. Median projections of temperature indicate a rise of around 1 ºC by the 2020s, 1.5 -2 ºC by the 2050s and 2 -3 ºC by the 2050s. Median projections for precipitation show an increase of up to 7% by the 2080s (Conway, 2002). Changes in precipitation are less predictable than temperature. Although the intensity, frequency and spatial distribution of precipitation are unknown, all the climate model scenarios show that average rainfall regimes will increase, indicating a risk of flooding (Msaki, Tambi and Bangali, 2015). The projected changes will result in greater prevalence of disease and risks related to extreme weather events, such as drought and floods. The Rwandan economy relies on rain-fed agriculture. Climate change and its variability affect the agricultural sector, which is itself vulnerable. Loss in crop and livestock productivity; loss of agro-biodiversity; pest and disease incidence; land degradation; and loss of soil fertility due to soil erosion, increasing soil carbon decomposition and diminution of water resources, are alarming drivers of food insecurity, poverty and household vulnerability."}]},{"head":"Climate change impacts on agriculture in Rwanda","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Recent studies show that bananas, beans, maize, cassava, rice, and horticultural crops are the main crops and improved varieties being cultivated in Rwanda to ensure food security, as well as to improve farmers' capacity to cope with climate change impacts (Ngoga, Mutabazi and Thomas, 2013;Gishinge, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Important impacts on the sector, as emphasized by the survey respondents, are as follow: (i) food and nutrition insecurity (50%), i.e. cited by more than 50% of respondents); (ii) poverty (45.8%); (iii) decreased agricultural production (40.5%); (iv) new outbreaks of pests and diseases (more than 24%); (v) insufficient quantity of seed (18.9%); increase in flooding events (15.7%); decrease in water for irrigation (12.5%); shifting seasons i.e early starting dry season (10.8%); scarcity of livestock fodder (6%); and lack of information and insurance for farmers (5.9%)."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"On the issue of climate change impacting on plant genetic resources, Ngoga, Mutabazi and Thomas (2013) point out that sorghum, millet, groundnut and pigeon pea are being abandoned due to climate change mainly because they are longer maturing and do not perform well under current climate conditions where seasons have become shorter."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"The main reasons such crops are being neglected are (i) low productivity of the crop or variety, which is the central cause; (ii) late maturity of the crop or variety; (iii) scarcity of arable land; (iv) low pest resistance of the crop or variety; and (vi) an agricultural intensification policy that tends to promote ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda other crops such as maize and beans, which are considered as key food security crops. All these contribute to the neglect and underutilization of these crops, therefore contributing to the reduction and loss of species' diversity in general and agro-biodiversity in particular."}]},{"head":"Figure 1. Underutilized and neglected crops in Rwanda","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Source: Gishinge ( 2014)"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The above-mentioned study by Gishinge demonstrates that agricultural production has been mainly impacted by climate change, lack of soil fertility and land shortage, lack of fertilizers and lack of improved seed. Major causes of low crop production are drought, followed by scarcity of arable land, insufficient agricultural inputs and flooding (Gishinge, 2014). Changing climatic conditions have resulted in a significant decrease in agricultural productivity. Consequently, food insecurity and malnutrition are on the rise throughout the country, especially in the southern part of the country, which has been experiencing long dry spells and prolonged drought."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"The effects of future climate change on some of the crops that are significant for food and livelihood security are summarized in Table 1. According to findings from several studies (Schlenker and Lobell, 2010;Adhikari Nejadhashemi and Woznicki, 2015), climate change in Africa will lead to a reduction in yields of cereal crops such as maize, rice, sorghum and wheat, mainly due to a projected increase in Frequency ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda temperature (1 -2 ºC) and variable precipitation, coupled with flood risk, water and temperature stress, and the shortening of growing seasons. In Rwanda, all the different IPPC emissions scenarios projected 3 indicate a reduction in yields for maize, beans and coffee. Coffee would be more affected by these changes, specifically because of its sensitivity to temperature increases. Although a decrease in the yield of sorghum and millets is projected, the area suitable for sorghum and millet production would increase, suggesting that these two crops will in future be important for resilience and adaptation. Disease prevalence would also increase in all the crops resulting in lower productivity. Reduction in suitable areas 10% 3 The IPPC emissions scenarios -B1, A1B and B2 -are scenarios that characterize alternative developments of energy technologies: A1FI"},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"(fossil fuel intensive), A1B (balanced), and A1T (predominantly non-fossil fuel). The B1 storyline and scenario family describes a convergent world with the same global population that peaks in mid-century and declines thereafter, as in the A1 storyline, but with rapid changes in economic structures toward a service and information economy, with reductions in material intensity, and the introduction of clean and resource-efficient technologies. The B2 storyline and scenario family describes a world in which the emphasis is on local solutions to economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Source: Schlenker and Lobell (2010); Adhikari, Nejadhashemi and Woznicki (2015)"}]},{"head":"Strategies and programmes for climate change adaptation in Rwanda","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The aforementioned survey demonstrated that the Rwandan government is pursuing several strategies for climate change adaptation, such as breeding drought-tolerant varieties of maize, integrated pest and disease management, and irrigation schemes for vegetable and fruit production in particular (Figures 2 and 3 below).  Cultivation of drought-resistant crops or varieties. In relation to cassava and sorghum cultivation, cassava is more developed while sorghum is neglected. New cassava varieties are currently being cultivated and are also pest resistant, in comparison to the local varieties that have been almost abandoned. Furthermore, cassava is well processed and is an important staple food in the diet of people."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":" Processing of agricultural products. Processing crops contributes to the added value of the crop products and generates more income. Cassava processing, for example, has been developed for many reasons, including (i) it is the most drought-resistant crop; (ii) it grows in many agro-ecological zones; and (iii) its market is guaranteed and the demand for processed products is very high. Cassava flour, known locally as 'Ubugali', has been well incorporated into the diet of local people everywhere in the country."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":" Cultivation of early-maturing crops or varieties. Early-maturing varieties of crops such as beans and maize can be used to combat climate challenges, but such crops are often drought intolerant and in times of severe drought this may result in crop failure and loss of productivity."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":" Storage of crop yields. This strategy (i) provides food for households during prolonged periods of drought; (ii) provides seed for the next cultivation season; and (iii) generates income in periods when crop yields are in high demand."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":" Development of irrigation systems for rice production. Data from the National Institute of Statistics Rwanda (NISR, 2012) for the Bugesera district indicate that irrigated land represents 3% of the total cultivated area, and that over the last five years rice production has risen from 4 to 7.5 tonnes per hectare (t/ha) (Bugesera district, 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":" Early planting. This strategy is interesting when rain falls at the expected time, otherwise early planting is unsuccessful. Its efficiency can be improved if reliable data on weather forecasts are available for the short-, medium-and long-term."}]},{"head":"Availability of indigenous traditional knowledge on climate-smart seed varieties","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) is community-based knowledge that people have been using for years, and which is for the most part not documented or protected. The origin of ITK should be recognized as lying foremost with the ITK holders and their communities, and should be the basis of intellectual property rights (IPRs) and access and benefit-sharing (ABS) management frameworks. It is, therefore, necessary to identify, document and protect ITK from indiscriminate exploitation, in order to ensure effective access and profitable commercialization for the benefit of communities. It is estimated that between 25,000 and 75,000 plant species are used for traditional medicine. In Rwanda, ITK from local communities consists of strategies that farmers use for mixed cropping, dry planting, erosion-control mechanisms, seed selection and the saving of seed from previous seasons. Farmers are aware of the impact of climate change on their environment and have mechanisms to cope with this impact (Ngoga, Mutabazi and Thomas, 2013). They implement strategies based on ITK to prevent and control plant diseases and pests using organic methods, including the use of manure; the use of crop-specific planting techniques, such as planting mixed varieties of beans or maize in the same plot; the practice of cyclical planting and harvesting to prevent the spread of diseases; and the use of traditional and organic preservatives for post-harvest storage. Farmers also have indigenous knowledge that they use to predict weather and select suitable varieties for the coming season."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Although farmers routinely use and apply ITK in many farming activities, national legislation is still not clear on ABS issues or farmers' rights. The law is vague in relation to who owns the genetic resources and the land; and with regard to which rules the pharmaceutical companies, botanical gardens or other institutions should comply with in order to access resources and traditional knowledge."}]},{"head":"Materials held at the Rwanda National Genebank","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The Rwanda National Genebank (RNGB) in Rubona has developed an operational plan that focuses not only on the conservation of forestry and agro-forestry species, but also on cultivated crop and pasture species, which are currently informally conserved (RAB, 2013). The list of accessions held in the RNGB that are adapted to different agro-ecological zones includes:"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":" 119 bean accessions (including ten improved varieties released in 2010)  30 maize accessions  45 soybean accessions  33 pea accessions for low altitude agro-ecological zones  Four groundnut accessions for low altitude agro-ecological zones  240 sorghum accessions for low altitude agro-ecological zones (comprising 19 landraces and five improved accessions)"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":" 121 cowpea accessions for low altitude agro-ecological zones (all landraces)  Three rice accessions for low altitude agro-ecological zones (all landraces)  Eleven finger millet accessions  Seven wheat accessions  Three sunflower accessions  Eight sweet potato varieties, all of which are improved."}]},{"head":"Exchanges of PGRFA and information between different stakeholders","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Rwanda, like every other country, is not self-sufficient in plant genetic resources, and depends on genetic diversity in crops from other countries. Plant breeders in Rwanda continue to rely on diverse plant genetic resources to facilitate the exchange of desirable traits for the improvement of crops. ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The following cases highlight the achievements of research and breeding efforts in Rwanda 4 ."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":" For wheat, 192 lines were evaluated at Kinigi station, and 26 lines were evaluated at Rwerere station. Based on yield data, eight lines were selected in the first season of 2013 and advanced to the second season of 2013 for further testing."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":" In the sorghum programme, F1 seed was generated from an early-maturing farmerpreferred sorghum variety and a late-maturing farmer-preferred variety."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":" In the sweet potato research activities, eight varieties with a yield average of 22.5 t/ha were released; four clones, namely RW11-2560, RW11-2910, Gihingumukungu, and Ukerewe are orange or yellow-fleshed storage roots, while the remaining four clones -RW11-17, RW11-1860, RW11-2419 and RW11-4923 -are white-or cream-fleshed varieties."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":" New varieties of soybean, namely SB24, Sc. Saga, Sc. Squire and Sc. Sequel, with potential yield between 2.7 and 3.5 t/ha have also been released."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"In Source: ITPGRFA Secretariat (2015)"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"3.7 Crop improvements in Rwanda resulting from access to and exchange of PGRFA"}]},{"head":"Bean research programme","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The wild ancestor of the common bean was a climbing type of bean. The twining (climbing) ability, seeding, branching, rooting and tolerance to diseases and pests were features for survival in the thick tropical forests of Latin America, where the common bean was domesticated more than 10,000 years ago. It was very prolific (high seed production). The climbing beans grown in Rwanda have retained similar adaptive attributes of their progenitor. Beans came to Africa about 400 years ago, but they were not completely alien to Rwanda as demonstrated by the pockets of wild and semi-wild climbing beans that still exist in the northern highlands today."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Beans are the main staple food of the population of Rwanda, and provide a major source of protein and calories. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an important subsistence crop for smallholders; it is a major source of protein and provides other nutrients such as iron and zinc. In Rwanda, around 29 kg of beans are consumed per person, per year -the highest consumption in the world. Rwanda is a relative newcomer to the bean export market; the country traded up to 6,500 tonnes of dry beans per year between 2005 and 2010."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The RAB and the Rwanda Agricultural Research Institute (ISAR) have released more than 30 climbing bean varieties in the last five decades. Fifteen were released more recently in 2010 and 2012. Besides higher yields (3.5 -5.0 tonnes per hectare), the varieties had better resistance and tolerance to prevailing diseases and climatic stresses such as drought. Others, especially the navy-white, yellow, red kidney and red mottled seed types fetched premiums in local and regional markets, selling for as much as twice to four times more than ordinary prices."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"More recently, eight of the released varieties were found to have higher contents of micronutrients, particularly iron and/or zinc. These varieties were intensively promoted for better nutrition and for the alleviation of anaemia and other micro-nutrient nutritional deficiencies, especially among children and women. The varieties released are adapted to the major agro-ecologies in the country."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Better still, many of the Rwandan varieties have been adopted in many countries across Africa, where they had been introduced. With climbing beans, farmers are climbing out of poverty, and at the same time combating food and nutritional insecurity. The adoption of climbing beans is currently estimated at 65% in the country. It is close to 100% in many districts of the northern highlands. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 hectares in Rwanda are covered with climbing bean varieties (Table 3). ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda "},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Key: *B -second growing season (September to December); **A -First growing season (February -April) Source: RAB Annual Report ( 2013)"},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"The exchanges that resulted in the varieties listed above were facilitated mainly by CIAT, through the use of SMTAs, either as material under development or landraces from their collections. The Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) gave essential support by providing a platform to facilitate exchanges of these materials between member countries. PABRA is a breeders' network that works in conjunction with CIAT; breeders have exchanged varieties and improved lines of beans between 13 countries in sub-Saharan Africa through the network. Rwanda is part of this network. Over 550 new varieties of beans have been released through this network in the 13 member countries."}]},{"head":"Cassava breeding programme","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a staple food for approximately 500 -800 million people living in developing countries (Bull et al., 2011), and worldwide it is second only to maize (Zea mays L.) in the production of starch (Howeler, Lutaladio and Thomas, 2013). In the developing world, cassava is amongst the top four most important crops in terms of production. The potential yield of cassava is estimated at 90 tonnes of fresh roots per hectare under well-managed conditions (El-Sharkawy, 2004). Cassava plays a key role in food security and income generation for many smallholder farmers in developing countries (Ceballos et al., 2004;El-Sharkawy, 2004;Tumuhimbise, 2013). In East Africa, cassava is eaten after boiling, or processed into flour to make porridge, local brew, and bread; sweet varieties lacking cyanogenic glycosides can be eaten raw (Kamau, 2006;Mkumbira et al., 2003). ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda"},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"In Rwanda, cassava is an important staple food and is currently being promoted as a cash crop through the establishment of cassava processing plants. In addition to its tuberous root, its leaves are treated as a vegetable known as 'Isombe'. Cassava is consumed in various forms (as a paste, bread or flour, boiled for breakfast, mixed with beans, vegetables, etc); methods of cooking and preparation vary from one individual to another. It occupies the third place after banana and sweet potato for reducing hunger and poverty in the country (FAOSTAT, 2011). Although cassava is a major food crop, its production is threatened by the lack of good cultivars (early bulking, high yielding, and disease resistant); low soil fertility; poor agronomic practices, and postharvest losses."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Farmers and breeders prefer cassava varieties based on traits such as cookability; delayed postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD); dry matter content; early bulking; good colour of flesh (preferably white); pleasant odour; satisfactory flour produced (good quality, taste, colour); high yield; long storage in the field; the degree of acceptability at market); multiple cuttings produced; multiple uses; resistance to pest and diseases; sweetness; viscosity, and Vitamin A content."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"In the RAB, the development of new cassava varieties has been carried out to select clones that are resistant/tolerant to pests and diseases, and which are high-yielding and acceptable in taste and palatability to end users. An on-farm evaluation was carried out on four cassava clones (NASE3 0P/4, NASE3 0P/3, PDB/11, and PDB/13) during season A of 2012 in 17 sites countrywide. After an evaluation at harvesting time, three clones -NASE4 0P/4, PDB/11 and PDB/13 -were given preference by farmers."}]},{"head":"Maize breeding programme","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Maize was introduced in Rwanda in 1960 and has become a major crop for food security and income generation for small-scale farmers in Rwanda; it ranks first among pulse and grain crops in annual production. Maize cropping systems have experienced unprecedented development and radical changes over the past five years. Maize productivity increased from 1.2 tonnes per hectare (t/ha) in 2008 to 2.6 t/ha in 2012 as a result of the crop intensification programme, whose breeding objectives changed from the development of adapted open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) to hybrid varieties that are high yielding and stress tolerant. However, this level of productivity is still low and more crop improvement initiatives are being undertaken to achieve the potential for maize productivity in the country. The main varieties of maize planted in Rwanda include the following: M081, RHM102, M104, M102, Z607, KH500-46A, KH500-31A and RHM103. In 2013, twelve inbred lines, developed from ZM607 and Pool 32, were completed and are being used to generate hybrid varieties. In addition, twelve inbred lines were advanced from S5 to S6."}]},{"head":"Rice breeding programme","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Rice is a cereal crop that was introduced in Rwanda in the 1950s; its production has become a significant component of the agricultural sector in the country. Rice is grown in developed flood valleys or in marshland areas. Major varieties of rice available in Rwanda include the following: Basmati 370, Kigoli 370, Nerica 9, and WAT 9. These are improved varieties with pedigrees from India (Basmati) Rwanda (Kigoli 370) and the Africa Rice Center (Nerica 9)."}]},{"head":"Sorghum breeding programme","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Sorghum is a resilient crop, particularly in relation to changing climatic conditions and pests and diseases. The sorghum breeding programme conducts variety maintenance and develops new varieties. In total, 234 sorghum varieties are being maintained. Breeders' seed, pre-basic seed and basic seed of the following released varieties of sorghum were produced at Rubona, Karama, Mututu and Nyamagabe stations: Kigufi, Ikinyaruka, IS21219, IS8193, IS20983, IS25377, N9, BM1, BM33, BM 27, Kat 369, Mabereyingoma and Muhimpundu. In total, 120 kg of breeder seed, 570 kg of pre-basic seed and 5,180 kg of basic seed were produced and distributed in 2012/13. These new varieties are currently being used by farmers for both beer and food production."}]},{"head":"Sweetpotato breeding programme","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Rwanda is the third largest consumer of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) in Africa per capita; nine out of ten farming households in Rwanda cultivate sweet potato. Sweet potato is becoming an important crop for food security, forming a major part of the diet of both rural and urban communities in Rwanda."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The varieties of sweet potato grown in Rwanda include white sweet potatoes and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes. In February 2013, the National Plant Variety Release Committee of Rwanda approved the release of the following six dual-purpose cultivars of sweet potato: RW1117, RW111860, RW112419, RW112560, RW112910, and RW114923 (RAB, 2013). In addition, orangefleshed sweet potato (OFSP) vines from the International Potato Center have been distributed to farmers for trials through the Sweetpotato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA) project, which has been implemented by CIP in Rwanda. The project has reached 50,000 direct beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"Wheat and breeding programme","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Wheat (Triticum sativum L.) is an important cereal crop for small-scale farmers at highland altitudes (1,900 -2,500 metres above sea level) in Rwanda. The average national wheat yield increased from 900 kg/ha in 2007 to 2,100 kg/ha in 2012, while the potential mean wheat yields for Rwanda under low-, medium-and high-intensity production conditions should be 3,681 kg/ha, 3,986 kg/ha and 4,151 kg/ha respectively. One of the major factors constraining wheat productivity in Rwanda is the lack of high-yielding, pest-and disease-tolerant varieties. Selection for improved yield performance was carried out on three sets of wheat accessions from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Different germplasm evaluation trials were carried out at high elevation as an activity of the Africawide Rice Breeding Task Force, in collaboration with Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice). A total of 134 varieties from CIMMYT were evaluated in Cyabayaga, Nyagatare district, with 28 varieties being promoted to the next stages. One hundred varieties with tolerance to iron toxicity have been introduced in Rusuli and Rugeramigozi, in order to select parents to be used in breeding activities. In Rusuli and Rwamagana, 35 cold-tolerant varieties were advanced from multi-location environmental trials to participatory advanced trials (PAT), where farmers were invited to participate in selecting the best lines.  , 2014). Furthermore, it recommends that access to genebanks be improved to support the development of varieties with appropriate adaptive characteristics, and that ITK be used to identify adaptive strategies that contribute to food security for farming communities. Ensuring farmers have access to plant genetic resources and varieties of crops that are suitable, and which can withstand climate-related challenges through various channels -i.e. breeding and research, or the identification of potentially adaptable material from communities or from national, regional or international genebanks -depends on having the necessary access and benefit-sharing regulations and policies in place. This study uses two reference sites to demonstrate the changing climates and changing needs for genetic resources in these communities."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"The insights presented below correspond to climate analyses and participatory research conducted with farmers from the two study sites in Rwanda (Bugesera and Rubaya). To start with, reference sites and crops of interest were identified based on the relative importance of these crops for the communities' economies and for food security. For the selected sites already mentioned above, the common bean was selected as the reference crop based on farmers' preferences as well as the relative importance of beans as a source of protein and as an important contribution to smallholders' livelihoods. A participatory action research and learning approach was used to facilitate discussions with farmers from the two selected communities about changes observed in climate and weather patterns; their coping mechanisms; preferred varieties in terms of yield, drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases; and desirable traits for climate change adaptation."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"An analysis of climate change scenarios resulted in the identification of present and future climaterelated stresses in the selected reference sites. Thereafter, a combination of GIS and climate modelling, based on selected bioclimatic variables of minimum, maximum and average temperatures, as well as average precipitation for bean growth and development, was used to identify accessions suitable for the four sites under two scenarios: present and future projected (2050s) climate and weather patterns (Appendix 5). Three possible sources of these accessions were identified as i) material in farmers' fields found and conserved in situ through farmer-managed systems; ii) national genebank collections from the RNGB; and iii) materials held by different genebanks around the world including CGIAR genebanks, available through the database of Genesys."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"The first tranche of 20 accessions of beans was identified from farmers' fields and the RNGB, and a further 20 were identified from regional collections held by CIAT. These accessions were multiplied and distributed to farmers for testing."},{"index":6,"size":120,"text":"Following climate analysis, past climate trends indicate that in both the two sites minimum temperatures increased slightly between 2008 and 2015; precipitation also increased, albeit with a lot of variability. This is in line with the perceptions of farmers who have reported increased dry spells with erratic rainfall of increasing amounts and shifting planting/growing seasons in the two sites (Figures 4 and 5). ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda erratic rainfall in the reference sites. Based on the predicted increase in temperatures and precipitation, bean crop yields will be lower, while the excessive humidity resulting from an increase in precipitation will lead to a greater prevalence of fungal and bacterial diseases and pests. Source: Worldclim"},{"index":7,"size":243,"text":"An assessment of bean genetic materials potentially adapted to present climatic conditions of Rubaya revealed the existence of 28 accessions available in the RNGB. When the climatic conditions projected for the 2050s were considered, the number of potentially adaptable bean accessions from the RNGB decreased from 28 to 16. Twenty-eight accessions were identified in the regional collections held by CIAT as being potentially adaptable to the present climatic conditions of Rubaya, while 16 accessions, located in six countries (Ethiopia, Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) were identified as being potentially adaptable to the future projected climate of the 2050s. Currently, Rubaya's highland-type climate is suitable for climbing bean varieties, but as temperatures increase in the 2050s Rubaya will be more suitable for bush varieties of beans. For the Bugesera site, 29 out of 101 accessions held by the RNGB are suitable for present climatic conditions; while the number of genebank accessions potentially adaptable to the projected climatic conditions of the 2050s decreases to 21 (Figure 10). Looking at regional collections held by CIAT, 15 out of 65 accessions are suitable for present climatic conditions in Bugesera, while ten accessions are suitable for the projected climatic conditions of the 2050s (Figure 11). Therefore, there are fewer bean accessions in national and CIAT collections for the 2050's climate than there are for today's climate (see Figures 10 and 11). ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda  "}]},{"head":"Policy initiatives to meet the challenges of ABS in Rwanda","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Rwanda's policy of land consolidation and its programme of crop intensification have led to an evolution of the Rwandan agricultural sector. Under the programme, the government procures improved seed and fertilizers, which it distributes to farmers in selected zones chosen for their food crop production potential, focusing on a few priority crops. The programme has had a negative impact on the activities of the RNGB because local varieties of crops cannot be grown freely by farmers. This has led to a loss of genetic diversity and limited access to diverse seed."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"In 2010, Rwanda became a contracting party of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). In March 2012, Rwanda ratified the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from the Utilization of Genetic Resources of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Nagoya Protocol/CBD). These two ratifications then led to the development of an enabling regulatory framework for access and benefit sharing in the country. A ministerial order governing access to PGRFA and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization in Rwanda has been prepared, but there is a gap regarding the appropriate ABS mechanism for non-Annex 1 PGRFA. In a step towards implementing the Nagoya Protocol in Rwanda, a Nagoya Protocol Steering Committee was recently formed, and a task force on the mutual implementation of the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol has been established. The process has also involved the identification of relevant stakeholders for the implementation of ABS."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"In addition to the aforementioned activities, recent capacity-building initiatives targeted breeders and other researchers on the use of SMTAs for the transfer of materials, and on modalities for carrying-out collections from farmers' fields using prior informed consent (PIC). Awareness-raising activities, focused on the ITPGRFA and other ABS issues related to the Nagoya Protocol, have also been carried out. In 2013 and 2014, other capacity-building initiatives targeted breeders and researchers to use GIS and crops suitability modelling to identify PGRFA that are suitable for climate change adaptation."}]},{"head":"The role of community-based initiatives in access to and exchange of PGRFA","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Community-based initiatives have played a critical role in the access to and exchange of PGRFA. Although some are informal, or focus on the distribution of relief seed, several initiatives have not only helped to improve access to seed in times of disaster but they have also helped to restore lost seed varieties, and in some cases introduce new varieties of seed to farmers; these initiatives are further discussed below."}]},{"head":"The role of research institutions in seed-related disaster relief: Seeds of Hope in Rwanda","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"A coalition of agricultural research centres, Seeds of Hope (SOH), was involved in the rebuilding of Rwanda after the genocide of 1994. The involvement of research in emergency relief and rehabilitation was unusual at the time and SOH had to forge its unique complementary role."}]},{"head":"Finding the seeds of recovery close to home: Seed Systems Under Stress Program helps African farmers buy and use locally available seed","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Louise Sperling (2007) found that stressed communities usually need help in restoring the farmers' ability to buy and use locally available seed, more than they need seed imports. Improving the effectiveness of seed-related responses to disaster, seed systems are seen as central to smallholder ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda agriculture, and seed aid as key to supporting it. Through extensive collaborative efforts, Sperling notes that changes are the result of several mutually reinforcing synergies: research to polish technical and social insights; non-governmental organizations (NGOs) with wide experience on the ground to shape practice; and the United Nations' normative clout for promoting better practice. She describes the programme as having helped define the role of research organizations in restoring germplasm, seed systems and research capacity to countries that have suffered cataclysms. In terms of farmers' involvement, she realized that \"women bean farmers know a great deal about managing beans and targeting bean mixtures according to diverse growing conditions, whether poor soils, richer soils or sowing under stands of banana\" (Sperling, 2007). She noted that with about 1,500 phenotypes found throughout the country, a Rwandan woman may test perhaps 100 bean varieties during her life. Both the Rwanda research system and the CIAT team were highly geared towards impact. The programme focused on strengthening seed systems that are under stress, and on addressing the more urgent needs of drought-tolerant varieties."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"\"Likewise, the diversity of local varieties is often maintained during disasters, while new varieties may be lost, especially if supplies have not been sufficiently integrated into the routine functioning of local seed channels. The programme showed, in short, that seed-related problems in crises are not so much the lack of seed -be it grain, cuttings, tubers or other planting materials -but more the lack of access to that seed because farmers cannot afford it as a result of the crisis or the breakdown of social networks\" (Sperling, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"In conclusion, Sperling states that \"seed-aid providers need to appreciate that relief seed is not effectively used when it is treated as a logistic exercise, narrowly focusing on transporting seed as an input. Instead, seed security must be assessed, farmers' needs understood and strategies developed to strengthen seed systems\" (Sperling, 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Over the past decade, the CGIAR's post-crisis rebuilding approach has grown beyond technology transfer to emphasize strategic research that helps partners to:  diagnose and solve food security problems  rebuild human and institutional capacities for agricultural research; and  make relief aid more effective and efficient."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Agriculture in Rwanda has been rendered vulnerable due to climate change. Climate change is leading to biodiversity losses, increased incidences of pests and diseases, and ultimately low productivity and food insecurity. Subsequently, Rwanda has introduced several measures to integrate climate change in its agricultural policy and planning; these have included the restoration of lost PGRFA, breeding and crop improvement, conservation in situ and ex situ, irrigation, and sustainable use of natural resources such as forests and wetlands. Although these adaptation measures have been initiated to cope with climate extremes, more work needs to be done to ensure present and future food security and livelihoods are improved."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"The use of PGRFA has been identified as one of the most useful adaptation strategies. The cultivation of selected crops and varieties with traits such as high productivity, drought resistance, early maturity, and disease and pest resistance, will require a system of facilitated access to PGRFA that are potentially adaptable, and investment in breeding and crop improvement. Past trends in PGRFA exchange in Rwanda show that the CGIAR centres are the most important partners in facilitating access to and distribution of PGRFA for various breeding programmes. The RAB's breeding programmes have also played a critical role in crop improvement and in the dissemination of improved varieties to farmers. The RNGB is at the forefront of restoring varieties that were lost during the genocide in 1994, but it still needs to be strengthened to increase the number of collections in the genebank, conduct a characterization of the collections, and improve on information systems, maintaining records on exchanges and movement of PGRFA so that genebank materials are more accessible to breeders."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Although there are still no clear mechanisms in place for ABS, recent policy developments in Rwanda have seen an attempt by the main stakeholders to implement ABS according to the Nagoya Protocol and the ITPGRFA in a mutually supportive manner. The setting-up of committees to take care of ABS issues in both the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol is seen as a positive step towards ensuring that ABS mechanisms are in place. Capacity building and awareness raising among stakeholders, such as breeders and farmers, are also very important to ensure that ABS processes are inclusive, and that any mechanism that is put in place is consultative."}]},{"head":"REFERENCES","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Adger, W. N., Huq, S., Brown, K., Conway, D. and Hulme, M. (2003)   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................... 3.1 Demographics of the respondents ..................................................................................................... 3.2 Climate change in Rwanda and related effects .................................................................................. 3.3 Strategies and programmes for climate change adaptation in Rwanda ............................................ 3.4 Availability of indigenous traditional knowledge on climate-smart seed varieties ........................... 3.5 Materials held at the Rwanda National Genebank ............................................................................ 3.6 Exchanges of PGRFA and information between different stakeholders ............................................ 3.7 Crop improvements in Rwanda resulting from access to and exchange of PGRFA ......................... 3.8 Access and benefit sharing for climate change adaptation: results of climate/crop modelling to identify potentially adapted materials for present and future climate-related challenges in selected communities in Rwanda ........................................................................................................... "},{"text":" .................................................. Table 3. Selection of crosses and populations developed in 2012/2013 ....................................................... Table 4. Changes in temperature and precipitation ...................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Underutilized and neglected crops in Rwanda .................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Strategies and programmes for climate change adaptation in Rwanda ........................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Trends in temperature and precipitation for Bugesera, Rwanda ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Trends in temperature and precipitation for Rubaya, Rwanda ...................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Map showing the geographical distribution of collections of beans from the RNGB (109 accessions) ...................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Maps showing geographical spread of accessions of beans potentially adaptable to present and future climatic conditions of Rubaya ...................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Map of regional collections of beans from East Africa held by CIAT .............................................. "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Maps showing distribution of accessions of beans potentially adaptable to present and future climatic conditions of Rubaya ............................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Map showing the location of national collections of beans potentially adaptable to the climatic conditions of Bugesera at present and in the 2050s ........................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Map showing potentially adaptable collections of beans from CIAT for Bugesera under present and future climatic conditions .......................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Strategies and programmes for climate change adaptation in Rwanda "},{"text":" Only 1% is known to scientists and accepted for commercial purposes. It has been assessed that over 95% of the world's genetic resources originate and are concentrated in developing countries (Friends of the Earth, 1995). Local communities and indigenous peoples hold the traditional knowledge ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda associated with these genetic resources. It is difficult to separate access to genetic resources and knowledge, particularly because access to genetic resources very often coincides with knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities. "},{"text":"3. 8 Access and benefit sharing for climate change adaptation: results of climate/crop modelling to identify potentially adapted materials for present and future climate-related challenges in selected communities in Rwanda A report on global climate change scenarios, developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), shows that there will be shifts in patterns of rainy seasons (IPCC, 2007). These patterns interfere with cropping systems, impacting on yields and food security. The IPCC's fifth ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda assessment report recognized the importance of incorporating genetic diversity as one of the strategies for climate change adaptation and the improvement of crop tolerance to new conditions (IPCC "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 5 . Figure 4. Trends in temperature and precipitation for Bugesera, Rwanda "},{"text":"Figure 6 . 5 Figure 9 . Figure 6. Map showing geographical distribution of collections of beans from the RNGB (109 "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Map showing the location of national collections of beans potentially adaptable to the climatic conditions of Bugesera at present and in the 2050s "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Map showing potentially adaptable collections of beans from CIAT for Bugesera under present and future climatic conditions "},{"text":" 'Adaptation to climate change in the developing world', Progress in Development Studies, 3(3), pp. 179 -195. ISSD Africa Climate-resilient seed systems & access and benefit-sharing in Rwanda "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Effects of climate change on major crops in the 2050s (1 -1.5 ºC increase)  Crop Effects  CropEffects  Description Details (quantity or DescriptionDetails (quantity or   type) type) Maize Reduction in yield -6 -20 % MaizeReduction in yield-6 -20 %  Reduction in suitable areas -10 -15 % Reduction in suitable areas-10 -15 %  Diseases Aflatoxins, Maize Lethal DiseasesAflatoxins, Maize Lethal   Necrosis Necrosis Beans Reduction in yield -17% BeansReduction in yield-17%  Reduction in suitable areas 10 -20 % Reduction in suitable areas10 -20 %  Diseases Fusarium wilt DiseasesFusarium wilt Coffee Reduction in yield -40% CoffeeReduction in yield-40%  Reduction in suitable areas -40 -50 % Reduction in suitable areas-40 -50 %  Diseases Wilt, leaf rust DiseasesWilt, leaf rust  Reduction in yield 10 -15 % Reduction in yield10 -15 % Sorghum   Sorghum  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Inflows of PGRFA into Rwanda from CGIAR centres (2007 -2014) addition, CGIAR centres have played a critical role in the exchange of PGRFA in Rwanda. PGRFA inflows into Rwanda between 2007 and 2014 (inclusive) comprise 5,701 accessions of different crops sent by different CGIAR centres using Standard Material Transfer Agreements (SMTAs) (see Table2). Most notably, rice and wheat have the highest transfers with over 2,000 accessions for each crop. These transfers are mainly in the form of material under development or landraces, which are commonly sent to breeding programmes and research organizations. Crop Samples CropSamples Andean roots and tubers 44 Andean roots and tubers44 Bananas/plantain 6 Bananas/plantain6 Barley 37 Barley37 Canavalia 1 Canavalia1 Cassava 28 Cassava28 Coronilla 1 Coronilla1 Cowpea 5 Cowpea5 Dactylis 1 Dactylis1 Faba bean/vetch 4 Faba bean/vetch4 Forages 80 Forages80 Gliricidia sepium 1 Gliricidia sepium1 In-trust forage collection under the ITPGRFA 42 In-trust forage collection under the ITPGRFA42 Lotus 1 Lotus1 Lupinus 1 Lupinus1 Maize 417 Maize417 Medicago 5 Medicago5 Phleum 1 Phleum1  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Selection of crosses and populations developed in 2012/2013  2012B* 2013A** 2013A** 2012B*2013A**2013A** Cross Backcross Backcross CrossBackcrossBackcross  (anthracnose) (commercial (anthracnose)(commercial   parent) parent)  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Changes in temperature and precipitation  Site Average Average Temperature Average Average Difference in SiteAverageAverageTemperatureAverageAverageDifference in  temperatures - temperatures - difference - Precipitation precipitation precipitation temperatures -temperatures -difference-Precipitationprecipitationprecipitation  present (ºC) 2050s (ºC) present and - present -2050s (mm) -present and present (ºC)2050s (ºC)presentand-present-2050s (mm)-present and    2050s (ºC)  (mm)   2050s (mm) 2050s (ºC)(mm)2050s (mm) Bugesera 20.35 21.75 1.4  1184  1225 41 Bugesera20.3521.751.41184122541 Rubaya 16.35 17.75 1.4  1129  1254 130 Rubaya16.3517.751.411291254130  "},{"text":"Climate graph for Bugesera, Rwanda: Current climate and predicted future climate of the 2050s Bugesera: Current climate Bugesera: Future climate (2050s) 3. What are the five crops (and varieties) most affected by climate change in Rwanda? a. ……………………………………………… a. ……………………………………………… b. ………………………………………………… b. ………………………………………………… c. ……………………………………………… c. ……………………………………………… d. ………………………………………………… d. ………………………………………………… e. ……………………………………………… e. ……………………………………………… Explanation: ………………………………………………………………… Explanation: ………………………………………………………………… 4. Please describe in five lines the predicted changes in the country due to climate change? 4. Please describe in five lines the predicted changes in the country due to climate change? a. ……………………………… a. ……………………………… b. …………………………… b. …………………………… c. ……………………………………… c. ……………………………………… d. ………………………………… d. ………………………………… Explanation: ……………………………………………………………..…… Explanation: ……………………………………………………………..…… Please give at least 3 programmes being developed on climate resilient seed variety in Rwanda? Please give at least 3 programmes being developed on climate resilient seed variety in Rwanda? e. …………………………………….…………… e. …………………………………….…………… f. ……………………………………………… f. ……………………………………………… g. ………………………………………………… g. ………………………………………………… Explanation: ……………………………………………………………………………… Explanation: ……………………………………………………………………………… 5. Is there any indigenous knowledge available on Climate Smart Seed varieties? Enumerate 3 5. Is there any indigenous knowledge available on Climate Smart Seed varieties? Enumerate 3 cases: cases: a. .……………………………………………………… a. .……………………………………………………… b. ……………………………………………………… b. ……………………………………………………… c. ……………………………………………………… c. ………………………………………………………  "}],"sieverID":"c11e48cb-015d-452d-9347-48429653f6a8","abstract":"We also wish to acknowledge with appreciation the information received from stakeholders, breeding programmes, CGIAR centres, research projects and the various research institutes who contributed. The authors take responsibility for any omissions or errors."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a3b6841325799730a045f15741c825","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7e6547c-d61e-46b6-98e5-da8fd555ecd9/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"AL TER. \"'A TIVE SCEN o\\RIOS FOR A CGIAII VISION AND STIUTEGY IN 2010","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"• Goals The overarchmg goal of the CGI -\\R IS to allev1ate poverty and protect natural resources m order to achlt:Ve sustamable food secunty (T AC Report on Pnonlles and Strateg1es 1997) The mtermc:dJJte goals are to mcrease the producUv1ty of resources m agnculture forestry and tishenes and to 1mprove the sust.!mable m.m.1gement ol natural resources (T AC Report on Logtrames 1998) J U~tllil.itiOII"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• Agncultural gro,Hh through 1ts d1rect and md1rect ettects c..1n be one of the most etfecuve mstruments for poverty reducuon m both rural and urb.1n areJs of the dc:velopmg world \\ \\v DR 1999)"},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"• Agncultural rese.1rch (technolog•c..JI mno\\ ..Jtlon) 1s a necessary but not m 1tselt suffic1ent cond1110n for agncultur.II grO\\\\th The multldlmens10nal nature of po\\erty the heterogenelty ot the poor Jnd the muluphc1tv of poverty exll strateg•es mean that technologJcal soluuons mu;t be wmplemented by pohcv and mstllutlonal mnovat1ons that enhance sustamable agncultural growth m order to d1rectly and md1rectly reduce poverty"},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"• The CGIAR s currem porttoho ot outputs (germplasm 1mprovement germplasm collectJons sustamJblc: producuon systems 1mproved pohc1es and enhanced research mstltutes) JS potenuallv the nght lOmbmauon of research and research related approaches needed to bnng about the CG 1 -\\R s goals lssues • The CGIAR s goals must be: specl11ed m me.1surable preferably quanutat1ve terms both to ensure the1r plaus•bi!Jtv .md to tacll1tate momtonng and evaluat10n of progress toward ach1evmg them Elaborauon ot the CGIAR Logtrame to mclude performance md1cators at the Svstem leve! \"ould sen e to m.1ke rese.1rch more 1111p..1ct onented and strengthen aggregate accountabi!Jtv to v!embers"},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"• The contem b.1lance and degree ot mtegrauon ot the CGI -\\R s porttoho warrant rev1ew and as appropnate retmement to ensure that (a) outputs are congruent w1th ch.mges m the externa! env1ronment for >Cience technology pohcv and legallregulatory frameworks th,ll 10tluence CGIAR pnonttes .md (b¡ th.1t mecl1.1msms to m.lxtmt~e 10teract10n and synergy .1mong outputs produce the destred tmpacts Tlus could be done by mcludmg the tollowmg po,stble candtd.!tes to the CGIA.R s goals"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Mtttgatton of chrnate change specthcallv through enh.1nced carbon sequestratwn and reduced rnethane erntsstons"},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"• Prov t'ton of ecosvstem sen te es 1 e water punficauon tlood control coasthne stabthzatton waste treatment btOdtverstty conservatton sotl generauon dtsease regulauon mamtenance of atr quahtv .1nd aestheuc and cultural benefits and preservauon of the rural landscape"},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"Altemauvely the chotee could be to reaffirm the current goals but to constder chmate change ecosystern servtces conservauon ot culture and the preservauon ot rural landscape as demable by products (extem.ihll~s) or tangenUJI (second.~rv) goals These wtll be momtored and reponed on as addtttonal benefits from CGIAR prograrnmes to mercase sustamable food SCCUIIty"}]},{"head":"Jusllficatlon","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":273,"text":"The CGIAR currently produces mtermedtJte outputs relevant to sorne of the above goals pJrttcularly 10 the areas of rntttgauon!adaptauon to change ande\\ suu conservatton of geneuc resources for tood and .¡gnculture Treaung these (now IOCtdental) goals as ends rather than .1s by products may also help to attract resources from non tradlllonal sources such as the three UNCED assoctated convenuons the Global Envtronrnent Facthty (for collaborauon at nJ!IonJI leve!) and env tronment rniOtstnes/agenctes Such expanston would also necessanly mvolve the CGIAR 10 greater cooperauon wtth 10ter governrnent.1l bodtes (e g Cornrntsston on Sustamable Developrnent) responstble for momtonng and reportmg on 10temattonal acuvtues m sorne of the proposed areas Jnd tor recomrnendmg acuon plans affectmg the conservallon and sustamable use of n.1tural resources vttal to the agncultural sector lssues Fully addressmg the proposed goals would trnply that the curren! goal of protectmg the envtronrnent would no longer be hn'-.ed exclustvely to agncultural outputs and would be of relevance to both developed and develop10g countnes The tmphcattons of these changes for the CGI -\\R s capactty to contnbute to the goJls ol poverty allevtallon and food secunty would need to be carefully assessed as even tl addtllonal resources rnatenahzed the sctenufic profile of the Systern would requtre stgmficant rnodtficauon The CGIAR s comparauve advantage vts a vts other IOtemauonal actors already heavtly 10volved m the envtronment sector would Jlso need to be .1ssessed F10allv an expanston of the CGIAR s cJpJcttv m the domams ot poltcv Jnd IJw \"ould b~ ne~~ssJry assumm¡. tts advtce was >ought by the mtergovernmental bodte> noted S 3 Ltmttmg the goa1s or narrowmg the focus Smgle goal alternahves could mclude "}]},{"head":"Justlficatlon","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The CG!AR may be m1Ss111g out on umque opportumlles to ra1se 111comes and 1mprove lhe welfare of poor households vlany of lhese households could d1rectly and 111d1reclly benehl from research based producllviiV 1mprovements 111 labour 1111ens1ve h1gh value crops such as vegetables cash crops and non rum111an1 producls lhrough mcreased markel surplus or 1mproved famlly nulnllon <\\. pnmarv focus on !Jrgely subs1s1ence non tradable commodllles may nol besl serve lhe 111teres1s of poor household producers ldenlltv1ng prohtable c.1sh crop enlerpnses for small producers m.1y be essen11.1l 111 order lo ID.llllt.lln the1r competlll~eness and ulumately the1r surv1val"},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The CGIAR should be commodJty focussed but not commod!ly bound Th.1t 1s to sav that 11 should not focus on all crops of relevance to poor producers but focus on selected commodtues whtch could evolve 1n tmport.mt~ through nm~ The CGIAR should .Jdopt a commoditv focus that could eventu.JIIv mak~ poor produc~rs more wmpetlllve 111 the market pl.1ce .md e.1m ihem a hvehhood th.Jt e<¡u.Jls or betters thetr other .Jit~mattves"},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"A stronger focus on some of these commerctal Jndlor mche crops represents an opportumty to dtrectly enhance the welfare ot women as thev are otten responstble for grow111g vegetables home gardens b.JckyJrd Jmm.JI husb.Jndry (goals sheep rabblls chtcken fish) and collecung foresl producls It also opens up opportumues to dtrectly explott lucrauve opportumtles 111 urban and pen urb.Jn agnculture F111allv some non rum111ant ammal products (eggs poultry aquacullure) are e'lpected to ha\\e verv lugh rates of growth 111 demand 111 develop111g countnes both among urban and rurJI poor"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"The followmg could be taken 111to considerauon but note should be made that puttmg these 11110 effect wiii require muen greater efforts bv the CGIAR m povertv m.1ppmg"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Vegetable research contnbuuon to Improve nutntlon ot people"},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"• Tappmg burgeomng urban and pen urban agnculture \\vllh high rates ofretum • There 1s a need to 1mprove knowledge on how spec1fic ecosvstems respond to b1ophvs1cal changes develop torecasung tools to 1denttfy wm wm opportumttes for ecOS) stem management and develop mtegrated reg1onal models mcorporaung phys1cal econom1c and tec!molog1cal change to enh.1nce pollcy makers understandmg of the consequences of d1fferent ecosystem management opllons These obJectlves m cooper.Juon wllh other maJor mtemauonal sc1ence assessment enuues"},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"• lntem.ltlonal e o ordm.JUon 1s reqUired to link sil e spec1 he research to scallng up l'IIRlvl takmg mto cons1derat1on off s1te effects"},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"• CGI.\\R Centres possess greJt sc1enuhc and organ1Z.11lonal strengths have excellent llnks to mtemauonal world sc1ence .1nd to NARS and are posllloned strateg1¡_ally around the world m or near developmg trop1cal countnes Therefore the CGIAR h.1s a comparatlve advantage for anythmg that calls for work on the ground m the trop1cs (Tmker)"},{"index":9,"size":160,"text":"• Strateg1c research mto 1'-iR..'v! should take more mto cons1derat10n whether the farmmg systems th.Jt are be111g used 111 a g1ven reg10n are sustam.1ble and effic1ent Thts means that orgamc matter nutnent levels s01l structure eros1on and ease of root penetratlon are all at acceptable levels that cvcllng rates ot nutnents are acceptable and that thts 1s proven bv sust.1111able crop vtelds th.1t are fully sallsfactory as percentages of the y1eld potenual and by acceptable rates of off slle losses Thts can only be achteved ¡f CGIAR Centres become more closely 111volved wllh real farms on a long term basts The results w1ll determ111e whether the Centre 1tself knows how to farm sustamably and profitably m thts tarmmg system at say three d1tferent levels ofmput Ifth1s ts not the case the Centre should a1m to find out \"h\\ Th1s 1s the essence ot vteld vanauon research, whtch eventu.JIIy should lead to changes 111 farmmg systems to m.1ke them sustamable (Tmker)"},{"index":10,"size":231,"text":"• The net result of mcreased llvesto¡_k product1on IS th.1t .1 much larger amount ot leed and fodder IS needed-perhaps up to )Q%, more th.1n al pre>ent lt 1s unl1kely that s1gmticant amounts ofnew l.md \\~di be: .lhlll.!blc: .md land w11l be needed for three pnnc1pal reasons (1) .¡gncultunsts/food .ecunt\\ c:xpc:rts ~111 demand more tor agnculture (11) b10d1versny t!Xpc:rts/ecologists wdl dem.1nd more for wlidllfe preservauon (111) sc1enusts researchmg global change wdl demand more for carbon sequestrauon (.1nd w11l umte wtth the bwdl\\ers1ty communttv on the preservauon ot torest land) lncreased agncultural producuon can onlv come trom two sources a re mtenstficauon of agnculture m the temperale zone wnh re use of set as1de land and a stead1ly growmg mtens1ficauon of agnculture m trop1cal lands Th1s 1mplles that less suttable land w11l be explotted m the lrop1cs under chmates lhat Jre less predtctable lt follows that all the usual forms of environmental damage cau.ed bv agnculture w11l mcrease Th1s w11l not be true everv\\\\ here but wdl bne h.11dcst where populalwn growth 1s largest and spare land IS le.~>t poss1bly 111 Sub Sah.11.1n Ah 1c.1 lnd1.J or Chma lmports from temperate sources w11l ot course mcrease 1t tollows that to see any real phys1cal quantum change m the need tor NRM (as long .JS chmate change proceeds steaddy) a growmg number of senous problems wdl become progressl\\elv more d1fficult to salve (Tmker)"},{"index":11,"size":292,"text":"• Water wtll be a constderablv greater problem m l:> years ttme The most ob~tous path to mtens1fica11on 1s 1mgauon IWMI should ha~e the data to mform T -\\C as to where the mam shortages w11l emerge -one l1kely cand1date 1s Pak1stan The most pressmg lask mav be to stop the slitmg up of ex1st1ng dams that dem.1nds huge sums JUSI to keep thc: total area of tmgated t.md constan! so there wtll be .1 growmg pressure to control eroswn Some ot the s1lt \\~111 ongm.Jte m other countnes wh1ch w11l call tor the essenual sk11l ot cont11ct m.1nagement 1t the total foodstutfs produced mcrease by )Ü 0 \\, the total use ot plant nutnenls must mcreasc: by cons1derably more to ensure htgh v1elds Tht! nutnent cycle wtll speed up gre.1tly perhaps doublmg wnh mtrate and nutnent polluuon of ~ater greatly mcreasmg espec1allv where there IS much re use of water m 1mgated basms Water quallty w11l be a crucial problem that can only be sol ved by ¡..'R.\\1 on the so1ls of lhe nver basm (Tmker)  The CGl o\\R should ha ve 111 eJch regton J Centre ~tth spectfic responstbtltttes for that regton Thts tdea ts based on the presumed cost economtes that would result the capacttv tt would generate for CGIAR umts to sort out pnonttes better ~tth111 a reg10n and the gu.1rantees the reg10nal Centre \\~ould offer th.1t regton.¡l work would be truly trans regton.ll and sptll over to other world regtons <\\s .1n orgamzatton 111terested 111 produc111g 111temattonal publtc goods the challenge for the CGIAR w1ll cont111ue to be to engage trans reg10nal research agendas so that work tn Atnca (for enmple) sptlls over to Ast.l and to Lattn Amen ca <\\ regton.1l centre would Jlso allo\\\\ for"},{"index":12,"size":84,"text":"• Easter target111g of ecoregtons as the Centre would serve as the s111gle regiOnal focJl po111t tor the CGI '\\R -\\RS w1th wh1ch the decentrahzed umts are workmg The latter adv1ce and mtormat1on could be prov¡Jed for example through an annual meetmg of stal..eholders ~ome,\\hat hl..e the .1nnual meeungtassembly ot stocl..holders but managed perhaps through electromc conterencmg techn1ques bec.1use ot the d1stances hkely to be mvolved Stal..eholders \\\\Ould be expected to elect members to the execuuve bod1es ofthe decentrahzed umts (e g boards oftrustees)"},{"index":13,"size":34,"text":"The new CGIAR \\\\Ould become .1 consort1um of self standm,¡ J.nd mdependent enuues woven together by the ul!elleLtu.JI po\" er .1nd 1nfluence ot a central cross en!lty umt S 3 Use of tasi. forces"}]},{"head":"J ustJficatJon","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"The CGI A.R IS mcre.1smglv d1spersmg Its etforts Th1s IS of course svmptomauc ot the enormous demands tor pubhc sector 1esearch confirmmg the contmumg role of the CGIA.R system However due to d!spers1on the System 1s mcreasmglv at nsk ot not bemg able to reach the cn!lcal we1ght regardmg 1ts acluevements wh1ch 1s needed to mal..e a huge d1fference on any one 1ssue as occurred m the 1960s for the Green Re\\oluuon The System needs to sharpen 1ts strateg1c ch01ces .Jch1eve broJ.d mob¡hza!lon of 1ts research capacltv m support of these pnonues and secure long term hnanc1al support 111 order to see the results of 1ts research cometo frulllon and deh\\er other maJor achie\\ements ot the cahbre ofthe Green Revoluuon Th1s 1mphes rev1smg the processes through wh1ch pnonues are set research IS 1mplemented and resources are mob1hzed and commltted Th1s could be done bv  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Use of task forces S~ Co ordmator catalyst contractor model pursumg well-defined 13 pnont1es 4 WITH Vv HOI'vl SCEl'< -\\RIOS S 1 Typologv ot p.!rtnerslups S 2 Explore ~anous p.1rtnerslup arro~ngements 1~ 1~ .\\lternat1ve Scenanos for a CGI.\\R Y1s1on and Strategy m 2010 GO.\\L SCEN .\\RIOS S 1 Current CGI.\\R m1ss•on Jnd goals-rebJianced • MISSlOII To comnbute to tood secunty Jnd povertv erJdJCJtlon m developllll¡l countnes .md m coumnes m trans1Uon through research partnersh1p capJcl!v bUJidmg and pohcy support and promotmg sustamable agncultural development based on the env1ronmentally sound man..Jgement of n..1tural resources (.1grec:d at IC\\\\'98 followmg the System Rev1ew) "},{"text":" t broken don t fix tt Centres orgamzatton and mode of operatwn work well wnh little overlap between Centres m mandate or respons1bthty and excellent collaboratton between Centre D1rectors• The CG!AR 1s based on tht! concept of the mtemat1onal Centre as the orgamzauonal mechamsm for conducung the System s research and research related funcuons Each Centre 1s a centre of excellence has a problem solvmg approach bnngs together a cnucal m.Jss ot sc1enufic m.1npower .1nd resources has .1 mult1d1SC1phnarv rese.Jrch approach has 1he abthly lo calalyze Jnd coordmJte research on well tocused themes ts free from pohttcal constramls and hJs the abthty to mJtntam contmutty of dTort o~er the somettmes long ttme penods needed for succLss Tlus Centre concept ts complemented bv olher orgamzattonJl approaches such as network arrangements. collaborattve research programmes or partnershtps and outposttng of SlJ!T J ustlfication The mlemattonJl Centre concept remJms vJhd wtth the tmportant provtso 1hat Svstemwtde programmes to address cross sectoral/multt dtsctpltnarv probtems requtre dramattc tmprovement for eumple through the forrnJtton of tJsk forces Jround htgh pnonty themes defined 111 terrns ofpart1cular outputs (See al so be lo'~ Issues) fssues Reassessment of the content and balance of the CGIAR, portfolio should serve to more cleJrlv del111eate the role of Centres JI vanous levels tn the hterarchv of System obJecttves as spectfied 111 the CGI'\\R Logframe Pend111g forrnJl analvsts of changes 111 the e'<temal envtronments 111fluenc111g CGI '\\R pnonttes anttctpJled portfolto changes may 111clude e'<pJnston of capacttv m poltC\\ 111stttuttonal and legal/regulatory domams wtth forrnal representattonal andlor pohcy ad' tsory responstbtltttes at the 111tergovemmental level (e g CBD FCCC CCD F <\\0/CGRF .\\ WTO/TRIPS) asstgned lo Centres spectahzll1g 111 these JCltvtttes and contractton of technology related research JS responstbtltues for certatn commodtttes devol\\ e to NARS .\\Ris and/or n1e pnvate sector S 2 Redeline/clanf~ the reg10nal mandates oC sorne Centres "},{"text":" or a new centre to represen! the CGIAR m fora such as the CSD FCCC eco deahng WI!h pohcy ISSUes m the areas of NRM and envuonrnental protecuon Fmally a substanual broadenmg ofpartnerships with NGOs and pubhc sector agencies can be expected m the fields of educauon, health, nutnuon and other sectors that complement the CGIAR s efforts on poverty reducuon • The budget of the CGIAR represents about 4% of the total funds devoted to agncultural research for developmg countnes lf the Intemauonal Centres plan to remam unportant players m 2010 they must work more m partnerships consortiums or networks • To enhance the Global Forum for Agncultural Research (GF AR) mission which IS to mobihze the world s scienufic commumty m their efforts to alleviate poverty for food ~ecunty and sustamable agncultural development (GFAR) • To exploll the new global knowledge system for food ,ecunty which takes full advantage ot the revoluuon m commumcauon and mforrnauon technology (System Review) • A Significan! shift m emphasis IS needed m partnerships that go beyond a simple transfer ot technology extendmg from socioeconomic needs to technology and back agam (Conway) • Develop mechamsms (I e new partnerships) for the diffus10n and adopuon of altemauve technologies • Promote partiCipauon of NGOs nat10nal umvemues and farmers organisaUons m research pnonty settmg and Implementation • Decentrahze research programrnes and develop transparent-honzontal partnerships wllh regional nauonal and local NGOs "},{"text":" • The CGIAR s work on mtegrated progr.1mmes wluch combme suswmable producuon systems wlth 10tegrated 11.1tural re,ource m.ln.!Jement (NR.!\\1) and whtch have soctoeconomtc dtmenstons .1nd a rcgton.!l sc.1le requtres conceptu.!l mnovauon to ensure th.1t pov~rty .111d hum.1n .1sp~cts .1re 'uthLI~ntlv addressed S 2 Broadenmg the CGIAR s goals  "},{"text":" Jtlon lt 1s hkely that the pnvate sector \"'ll conunue to 111cre.1Se 1ts 111vestment 111 .Jgncultural research on sorne of the tr.Jdltlon.Jl CGlAR m.1ndate crops e 6 wheat nce and ma1ze Th1s offers the CGIAR an opportumtv to narrow lis commodlly focus and to strengthen 1ts 111vestment 111 neglected or orph.1n ~rops e g m1llet sorghum plantam and c.IJOntv of the world s fishenes .1re overexplo1ted Feedmg the world wlll also requ1re mamt.1mmg b10d1vers11y The rwso11 d etre of the CGIAR should be to develop producuon and resource management methods that can be used by the world s resource poor farmers so th.Jt thev c.1n obtJm secure llvellhoods wuhout degrJdmg the n.Jtural resources lt has been argued that the CGI .\\R cJn 111 atford to ha\\ e three ta1rly mdependent and maJor Jgend.Js ot reseJrch -povertv geneuc resource management and NRM lt can also be demonstrated that there are trade otfs Jnd costs Jsso~~ated w1th engagmg mulllple obJectlves Theretore resources should not be wasted on mdependent reseJrch Jgendas m poverty Jllev1at10n and natural resources m.1nagement 1ssava In 1ssava In add!tlon 11 w¡[[ also allo\\v the CGI -\\R to ach1eve cnucal we1ght 111 sorne prevwuslv under add!tlon 11 w¡[[ also allo\\v the CGI -\\R to ach1eve cnucal we1ght 111 sorne prevwuslv under rese.1rched reg1ons (margm.JI ell\\ 1ronments) or top1cs e g drought research chmate change rese.1rched reg1ons (margm.JI ell\\ 1ronments) or top1cs e g drought research chmate change etc etc • Work on non forest llmber products which can provide mcome and mche opportumlles for rural people • Quantttauvely esumate trade offs among ecosystem goods .1nd services so that utthzatton of resources for agncultural production can be understood m tenns of posstble Impacts on the supply of goods of Importance to e lean water timber biodiversllv flood control etc As proJeCted chmate change mav well eucerbate the problem of balanc111g supply and demand for resources parllcularly 111 developmg counlnes where adaplatlon WIII be The follow111g are sorne ofthe opuons open to the CGI A.R. • Focus on fewer crops and leave maJar staples 111 favoured areas to the pnvate sector NARS and agncultural research 111Stltutes • Focus on crops 111 d1sad,antaged .1re.1s .1nd 111 countnes w1th ''eal-.er NARS • Focus only on crops for wluch no pnv.lte research can be mob1hzed (market ta1Iures) e g mlllets sorghum • Focus on crops and croppmg S\\Stems/env•ronments th.Jt are less well researched and where ga111s through productl>llv research are sull h1gh (orphan crops orphan tarrn111g systems) • Focus on tra1ts of1mportance tor maJar crops (e g b1ot1c .1nd ab1ot1c stress res1stances) • FocuSII1J on one large and >lgmhcant ecosystem would sausfy these concems The trop1cs have {a) hnle help trom the pnvate sector (b) the weakest NARS (e) conunod1t1es and en>~ronments th.Jt h.J>e a more l1mlled research h1story ( d) frall and marg111al env1ronmental cond1t1ons (e) a large share ofthe rural poor (t) food 111secunty and (g) the largest future proJected 111creases 111 food demand It could be the CGIAR s mche 1t 1s a b1g one • Focus on genetlc resources management research as the most effic1ent and feas1ble veh1cle bv wh1ch agncultur..tl research can contnbute to the competluveness of the ecosvstem(s) and lis rural poor S~ Fo~us prmclp.JII\\ on 'IR\\1 Justalicauon • The CGIAR core competence has up to no\" been 111 genetlc 1mprovement of crops W1th greater 111vestment 111 crop b1otechnology be111g done by the pnvate sector and • lneffic1ent management of n.Jtural resources lim1lS explonauon of 1mproved gerrnplasm • Sust.Jm.Jble management ot terrestnal .1nd aquallc resources 1s requ1red that lmks hab1tat research to mtegrated diSCiplines of natural and soc1.1l sc1ences (for umm_proved advanced research 111sutut1ons Nonetheless 11 IS recogmzed that germpl.1sm) • Work on non forest llmber products which can provide mcome and mche opportumlles for rural people • Quantttauvely esumate trade offs among ecosystem goods .1nd services so that utthzatton of resources for agncultural production can be understood m tenns of posstble Impacts on the supply of goods of Importance to e lean water timber biodiversllv flood control etc As proJeCted chmate change mav well eucerbate the problem of balanc111g supply and demand for resources parllcularly 111 developmg counlnes where adaplatlon WIII be The follow111g are sorne ofthe opuons open to the CGI A.R. • Focus on fewer crops and leave maJar staples 111 favoured areas to the pnvate sector NARS and agncultural research 111Stltutes • Focus on crops 111 d1sad,antaged .1re.1s .1nd 111 countnes w1th ''eal-.er NARS • Focus only on crops for wluch no pnv.lte research can be mob1hzed (market ta1Iures) e g mlllets sorghum • Focus on crops and croppmg S\\Stems/env•ronments th.Jt are less well researched and where ga111s through productl>llv research are sull h1gh (orphan crops orphan tarrn111g systems) • Focus on tra1ts of1mportance tor maJar crops (e g b1ot1c .1nd ab1ot1c stress res1stances) • FocuSII1J on one large and >lgmhcant ecosystem would sausfy these concems The trop1cs have {a) hnle help trom the pnvate sector (b) the weakest NARS (e) conunod1t1es and en>~ronments th.Jt h.J>e a more l1mlled research h1story ( d) frall and marg111al env1ronmental cond1t1ons (e) a large share ofthe rural poor (t) food 111secunty and (g) the largest future proJected 111creases 111 food demand It could be the CGIAR s mche 1t 1s a b1g one • Focus on genetlc resources management research as the most effic1ent and feas1ble veh1cle bv wh1ch agncultur..tl research can contnbute to the competluveness of the ecosvstem(s) and lis rural poor S~ Fo~us prmclp.JII\\ on 'IR\\1 Justalicauon • The CGIAR core competence has up to no\" been 111 genetlc 1mprovement of crops W1th greater 111vestment 111 crop b1otechnology be111g done by the pnvate sector and • lneffic1ent management of n.Jtural resources lim1lS explonauon of 1mproved gerrnplasm • Sust.Jm.Jble management ot terrestnal .1nd aquallc resources 1s requ1red that lmks hab1tat research to mtegrated diSCiplines of natural and soc1.1l sc1ences (for umm_proved advanced research 111sutut1ons Nonetheless 11 IS recogmzed that germpl.1sm)  "},{"text":" JI Centres could b~ complcm<::nted by Centr~s w1th global commod1ty respons1b1htv (e g ~cre.Jis roots .1nd tubers legum<::s ll\\e;tock torestry and fishenes .1nd water)The CGIAR must be .1 decenti.Jhzed or,¡.Jmzanon to span effecuvelv a vast range of ccosystems In th1s scenano the CGI -\\R would ha\\e one Centre tor each of the regwns It 1s dlfficult to conce1ve of a ~electlon ot pnont1es thJ.t could be h.1ndled from a smgle central locauon Decentrahzed deCISIOn mal..mg .1nd go\\emance bv the md¡v¡dual decentrahsed umts should rece¡ ve J.dv1ce from t\\\\O m.1m sources (.¡)a centrahzed assessment and plannmg umt :md (b) representauves of stal..eholders trom the ['. • Fac1ht.1te mter regiOn.JI wllaborat1on • Fac1ht.1te mter regiOn.JI wllaborat1on • Much greater onent.J!Ion !0\\\\ards 1mp.1ct • Much greater onent.J!Ion !0\\\\ards 1mp.1ct • Reg10n. • Reg10n. • More effecttve NR.vt work • More effecttve NR.vt work • Multt commodttv multt sectoral and multtdtsctpltnary approaches • Multt commodttv multt sectoral and multtdtsctpltnary approaches • Better coord111atton wtth NARS and other partners • Better coord111atton wtth NARS and other partners • lntegratton ofefforts by dtfferent Centres • lntegratton ofefforts by dtfferent Centres  "},{"text":" Use formula matchmg bv the 111.1JOr donors pnnc1pallv the \\Vorld Bank where percentage matchmg 1~ not totallv pasSI\\e .15 und~r the current svstem but dnven by a few strate~Jc pnonues recommended bv T -\\C and bro.1dly agreed upon bv CGIAR manasement, sc¡enusts and stal,.eholders To do th1s mtellectual Ieadersh1p needs to exerc1sed by TAC and maJor donors coordm.!!lon ach¡e,ed between Centres m pursumg strateg1c pnon!Ies and consulta!Ions With stakeholders made effecuve .!nd cred1ble. Undertal,.m.gs that correspond to these pnon!les would be matched .11 .1 Sigmhcantly lugher leve! than other undert.¡I,.mgs with tunds rem.unmg unrestncted Logframe reportmg externa! rev¡ews and Imp.!ct an.¡lvsis 'WIII prov1de the mstruments to chec!,. th.1t proJects are mdeed pursumg .1s stated strateg1c pnontles• Use a task force approach to pursue a sm.1ll number ot u me bound 1mpact dnven maJor undertakmgs with the potenual tor cnucal mass ach1evements <\\s opposed to the current m.1tnx approach to mter Centre mi!I.ltl\\eS the~e ta~I,. torces \\\\Ould be managed mdependently from Centres e\\en though thev would be located m Centres and borrow current staff members Task force CE Os would ha\\ e full d1screuon to h1re needed staff seel,. partnersh1ps and outsource undertal,.mgs m p.1mcular w1th NARSs 1\\/GOs northem platforrns and the pr\\\\ ate sector These alhances \\vould mdeed be essenu.1l to reach the desir.lble cnucal mass ProJeCt honzons would be med1um tem1 say;, to !O years Go.1ls agamst wh1ch logframe progress and Impa<A anal\\ >IS can be assessed would be well spec1fied These undertakmgs would be recommended bv T AC and supported by a broad coa\\mon of donors Gmng bevond the recent CGIAR mandate strateg1c research could be exphcitly hnked w1th techmcal ass1stance mltlatives to seel,. measurable 1mpacts • lncrease the number ot Svstem w1de programmes to ensure close collabora!lon between Centres .md other partners m pursumg themes ot h1gh pnonty to the Svstem as a whole S -' Coordmator catai\\St con tractor model pursumg well defined pnonttes enhancmg the strength of NARS The CGIAR s >Uccess w¡ll requ1re strong NARS to fulfil successfully 1ts miSSion and mandate NARS should encompass rel.1ted seed mdustnes pohLv m~utut10ns 1nstitut10ilS of h1gher educat10n and pnvate sector (proht .md non pro!It) 111~tltllt1ons mcludmg those .uldmg v.liuc: to pnmary product1on though post h.uv~~t h.mdhn, .md process1ng Thc:retore the CGIAR should develop .1 me.1nmgful .1nd strong cap.1c1tv to ht.lp ~tudv .1dv1se .1nd strengthen NARS Broud plutform~ Sc:eJ... J.IIIJ.nces bJ.Sed on well defined common goals and mterests (e g ICRIS ..\\. T/VLS stud1es m the pJ.st) mamlv wlth umversltles and AR!s (mcludmg use ot S.!bb.!UC.!Is V1Sltll1g protessorsh1ps) but also w1th others • Nutwuul aud mtematwua/ or,Jtlllt-utlOill euguged 111 combatmg poverty \\vb1le \"'ARS have been the trad1t1onal CGP.R partners tor work on germplasm new partners need to be tound to mtegrate the CGI-\\R , research outputs on agncultural technology mto comprehens1ve strateg1es to reduce poverty Bu1ldmg these partnersh1ps wlil reqlllre workmg wl!h mternatlonal de\\ elopment agenc1es wlth broader mandates than the CG!-\\R such as UNDP IF -\\.0 FA. O WHO and the World Bank Ant1 poverty partnersh1ps w1\\l mclude nat1onal and local governments NGOs farmers and grassroots orgamzatlons and the pm ate sector As part of lts soc1al sc1ence and management research the CGI -\\R w11l be called to expenment w1th best practlces on developmg and workmg w1th these partnersh1ps The CGIAR cannot undertake adaptlve research m farmers fields but needs to be lmk.ed to other agenc1es to des1gn 1mplement and evaluare successfullv the fui! range ol1ts programmes 1-1 J ustllicatJOn • Shiltmg comparauve advantages m commodl!y researdt coupled wtth !be projedM mcreased demand for research based pohcy and legal/regulatory advice Implu:¡; correspondmg changes m the CGIARs collaboration. networkmg and partnerslup .1rrangements Upstream strategic research for staples IS expected to devolve mcreasmgly to N <\\RS m partnership wuh '\\Ris and the pnvate sector with certam CGIAR technolo¡y Centres playmg a brokerage role Certam CGIAR Centres can also be expected to play an advocacy role m mtergovemmental fora. such as IPGRI wl!h FAO/CGRFA the CBD, WTO/TRlPS deahng wnh geneuc resources Issues such as access benefit shanng, sustamable use and IFPRI • Usmg a participatorv pnontv >ettmg mechamsm wnh bro.ad consultatwn of stakeholders to amve u well detmed themes w1th >pecihc outputs that could be pnonuzed Ecoregional appro.1ches and human dunens1ons should be mcorporated mto pnonty settmg for technology development • Justtficatton The CGI-\\R accounts tor less than -'% ot the uw~siment m agncultural research tor developu¡g countnes The CG! -\\R > n1che IS to >erve .1s ..t c.nalvst and coordmator for rese..trch ot 1mportance to the poor Much ot the CGl-\\R s rese.1rch should be outsourced to ad\\ .1nced rese.1rch msututes and to m.1ture ~ -\\RS TlliS would .1lso reduce the current h1gh overheads ofthe CG!-\\R Th1s cou!d be ach1eved bv • A more VIrtual CGIAR drawmg more on sabbaucals and usmg mtemet to mteract wnh a network ofpubiic and pnvate sector scienusts located .11 the1r home msututes • The CGIAR bemg a knowledge base for agncultural research for the poor • Brol,.enng for the poor m technolog¡cal and pol1cy mtervenuons • Compe!l!lve grant approach WITH WHOM SCEN -\\RIOS S 1 Tvpologv of partnersh1ps Recogmze types ofpartnersh1ps b.1sed on purposes (Geha Casullo) ~uch as • Partnerslup for rese.1rch and technology generauon tocused on well defined research probkms • Partnersh1ps to enhance research 1mpacts (e g technology dehvery extens10n legJslauon nauon.1l pohc1es etc ) • PJ.11nerslups to develop rese.1rch Lap.!cltv (trammg 1nsutut10n bulidmg etc) • The J...md ot p.!rtners partnerslup ,trateg1es modalmes and sources of fundmg would d1ffer accordmg to the type ot partnerslup S 2 Explore vanous partnerslup arr.1ngements • NARS Where 1s the1r comp.1rauve ad\\ .1ntage, V!uch of the earher NARS -CGIAR partnersh1ps could be replJ.ced bv CGIAR-NGO-pnvate sector collaborauon because ot thc: mcenuves The defimt1on of NARS could be broadened to mclude NGOs and nat10n.1l umversltl<:s • lncreasmg and ~ • • Usmg a participatorv pnontv >ettmg mechamsm wnh bro.ad consultatwn of stakeholders to amve u well detmed themes w1th >pecihc outputs that could be pnonuzed Ecoregional appro.1ches and human dunens1ons should be mcorporated mto pnonty settmg for technology development • Justtficatton The CGI-\\R accounts tor less than -'% ot the uw~siment m agncultural research tor developu¡g countnes The CG! -\\R > n1che IS to >erve .1s ..t c.nalvst and coordmator for rese..trch ot 1mportance to the poor Much ot the CGl-\\R s rese.1rch should be outsourced to ad\\ .1nced rese.1rch msututes and to m.1ture ~ -\\RS TlliS would .1lso reduce the current h1gh overheads ofthe CG!-\\R Th1s cou!d be ach1eved bv • A more VIrtual CGIAR drawmg more on sabbaucals and usmg mtemet to mteract wnh a network ofpubiic and pnvate sector scienusts located .11 the1r home msututes • The CGIAR bemg a knowledge base for agncultural research for the poor • Brol,.enng for the poor m technolog¡cal and pol1cy mtervenuons • Compe!l!lve grant approach WITH WHOM SCEN -\\RIOS S 1 Tvpologv of partnersh1ps Recogmze types ofpartnersh1ps b.1sed on purposes (Geha Casullo) ~uch as • Partnerslup for rese.1rch and technology generauon tocused on well defined research probkms • Partnersh1ps to enhance research 1mpacts (e g technology dehvery extens10n legJslauon nauon.1l pohc1es etc ) • PJ.11nerslups to develop rese.1rch Lap.!cltv (trammg 1nsutut10n bulidmg etc) • The J...md ot p.!rtners partnerslup ,trateg1es modalmes and sources of fundmg would d1ffer accordmg to the type ot partnerslup S 2 Explore vanous partnerslup arr.1ngements • NARS Where 1s the1r comp.1rauve ad\\ .1ntage, V!uch of the earher NARS -CGIAR partnersh1ps could be replJ.ced bv CGIAR-NGO-pnvate sector collaborauon because ot thc: mcenuves The defimt1on of NARS could be broadened to mclude NGOs and nat10n.1l umversltl<:s • lncreasmg and ~ •  "}],"sieverID":"08519f90-5ef7-4ae9-b600-e3ccf34e4798","abstract":"For Comments Th1s p.1per W.lS prepared by the T AC Secretan.!! under the gu1dance of AIJ.m de Janvry Cha1r SCOPAS The paper should be cons1dered as .1n early draft and JS mtended to JmUate d•scuss1on bv T AC on .1 VISJon and strategy for the CGI-\\R m 201 O The T AC Cha1r wlll prov1de a sep.1rate note outhmng the context for dJscussJon of the attached paper TAC SECRETARIAT FOOD ANO AGRIClJL TlRE ORG-\\MZA TION OF THE UNITED NATIONS 1 .1n u.1rv 2 000 T -\\BLE OF CONTE!'ITS GOAL SCE!'IARIOS S 1 Curren! CG mission and goals -Rebalanced S 2 Broademng the CGI-\\R go.Jls S J Lunmng the goo~ls 01 n.1rro'~ mg the tocus S ~ NR.I'vl for tood secun1y 1 DO WHA T SCENARIOS S 1 Essenuallv no change S 2 lncrease the number ot commodltles and mstruments S 3 Decrease the number ot commoditlesiinstruments S 4 Focus pnnc1pallv on '\\IR.vl"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0410183df65573638a98b2ea0d5e0695","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ae3d9248-f579-411a-b190-34a15729d9a9/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Description of study sites per region Table 2. Women's and men's perspectives on what empowers women Table 3. Chicken traits preferred by women and men chicken producers in the Amhara region Table 4."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Ranking and scoring of chicken breeds against preferred traits by women and men in Amhara region Table 5. Preferred chicken traits by women in Tigray Table 6. Ranking of chicken breeds against the preferred traits by women in Tigray Table 7. Scores of chicken traits preferred by women and men in the Oromia region Table 8. Scores of chicken breeds against preferred traits by women and men in Oromia Table 9. Ranking of chicken traits by women and men in Ertu Mojo and Ketena 1 in Addis Ababa Table 10. Scoring of chicken breeds against the preferred traits by women and men in Addis Ababa Table 11. Desired and undesired chicken traits by women and men in the SNNP region"}]},{"head":"Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Figure 1."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Framework for women's empowerment through poultry Figure 2."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Chicken traits preferred by women and men in the Amhara region Ranking of breeds against the preferred traits by women and men in Oromia region Figure 6."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Ranking of preferred chicken traits by men and women in Addis Ababa Figure 7."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Ranking of chicken breeds against preferred traits by men and women in Addis Ababa"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The human population and urbanization are increasing and as a result, there will be a high demand for food. Poultry has an important role to play in increasing food security. Kryger et al. (2010) assert that 85% of the rural households in sub-Saharan Africa keep chickens or other types of poultry to supplement their main livelihood activities. Regardless of regional differences, the routine management of chickens is undertaken by women with assistance from children."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Although men may assist in the construction of housing and in some localities, bringing birds and eggs to the market, women and children are the ones who feed and water the birds, clean the housing and provide treatment to ailing birds (Dessie et al. 2003;Mapiye and Sibanda 2005;Mutombo 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"It is universally known that family poultry is an entry point to address the problems of malnutrition, food insecurity and poverty for the rural poor (Nchinda et al. 2011). Women play major and significant roles in agricultural development, contributing to income, food and nutritional security for their households. Empowerment of women is important for them to contribute to meeting this demand and foster economic development. Guèye (2009) notes that the promotion of indigenous chicken production economically empowers women and rural youth. Empowerment refers to the process of enhancing the capacity of individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. The empowerment of rural women involves expanding women's assets and capabilities to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control and hold accountable the institutions that affect their lives (Narayan 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":199,"text":"The African Chicken Genetic Gains (ACGG) multi-country project is testing a potentially effective strategy to empower women through chicken production. ACGG is an Africa-wide collaboration initiated in 2014 to provide better chickens to smallholder farmers in Africa. The ACGG project tests and makes available high producing, farmer-preferred genotypes that increase smallholder chicken productivity in Africa. The project works in partnership with rural communities to test the productivity of improved breeds and empower them economically. One of the objectives of the project is to identify the chicken breeds/strains preferred by smallholder farmers in terms of bird colour, body conformation and temperament, egg and meat productivity, overall tropical adaptability under semiscavenging production systems, and carcass and meat quality. The program aims to improve chicken genetics and the delivery of adapted chickens to support poverty reduction, productivity growth, increased household animal protein intake and the empowerment of women farmers in rural communities. 1   While gender equality and women's empowerment are major goals for the program, there is a limited understanding of what empowerment really means from the chicken producers' perspective, how it happens through chicken production and the preferred chicken traits that will empower women. The objectives of the study were to:"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"i. Generate an understanding of how women and men in the rural and peri-urban settings define empowerment;"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"ii. Develop a framework of how chickens empower women;"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"iii. Determine whether there are any differences in chicken trait preferences by gender and across agro-ecologies; iv. Determine how the tested chickens rank against the preferred traits; and v. Identify any changes in trait preference over time."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"The results of this study will inform the breeding program and ensure that the breeds meet the preferences of producers and consumers across different agro-ecologies."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"The qualitative study was conducted in 2018 in four regions of Ethiopia and two peri-urban districts of Addis Ababa (Table 1) using a step-by-step qualitative research guide (Mulema 2018). Separate focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with women and men in each selected village per district. The research team used different participatory tools to elicit discussions among women and men chicken producers on the local meaning of empowerment, chicken trait preferences and livelihoods. Each group was given a number of counts to score the preferred traits and rate the chicken breeds against the preferred traits. The number of scores varied based on the number of traits to rank. Each group constituted of about 8-12 participants. The study was conducted in selected villages within the ACGG intervention districts per region, based on the agro-ecology and culture, to determine whether trait preferences vary by agro-ecology and culture (Table 1). Annexe 1 provides the intervention districts and selected villages. Before the fieldwork, data collectors were trained on how to implement the data collection tools and the guide was later translated into the Amharic and Afaan Oromoo languages. Training included a one-day field piloting to revise the methodology and tools and to make them 'fit for purpose'. The note takers documented the interviews and discussions in field notebooks. After data collection, the handwritten notes were checked for accuracy and expanded into complete narratives."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Data analysis started at the end of each day. First, the research team reviewed and summarized the discussion from each FGD, categorizing the findings into the subthemes. Next, the findings of all FGDs conducted in each region were compiled into individual regional reports. The third and final step was to look across reports, summaries and transcripts to establish the emerging themes and key findings specific to the objectives, and to illustrate the themes and findings with quotes "}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Local meaning of empowerment","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Before defining the term 'empowerment', it is important to agree on the local terminology to inform the subsequent discussions. In this section, we present the local meaning of empowerment (as defined by our respondents) and the characteristics of an empowered woman and man, as defined by men and women chicken producers in the four regions."}]},{"head":"SNNP region","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The women elicited Mino, Durecha, Tenkaka, Aktilot and Ekitino as local terms for empowerment, which mean one who is 'strong' or excels. From the women's group discussion, an empowered woman is one who saves money and uses it wisely, cares for and educates her children, is knowledgeable and ingenious at what she does, works hard, cooperates with family and is responsible. On the other hand, a disempowered woman does not care for the health/wellbeing of her family members and the environment; she is not self-sufficient; she has bad character and has no working culture. Empowered women are respected and listened to and considered model women in the community by both men and women."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Similarly, the local terms for 'empowerment' as elicited by the men are Durecha, Tenkaka, Aktilot and Ekitino. According to the men, an empowered man is one who intensively participates in agricultural activities, uses new/improved technology such as compost and improved seed, saves money and uses it appropriately, educates his children and cares about their health, participates in other business activities, is not addicted to stimulants and is sociable with other people. A disempowered man is one who drinks alcohol, does not use money wisely and does save money, is jobless, does not respect rules and regulations, does not like to work, does not feed his family well and seeks aid from others."}]},{"head":"Oromia region","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The women's group elicited the terms Ga'oomtuu, Duree, Moodeela and Cimtuu, which mean one at the forefront in all aspects of life or a model. The women characterized an empowered woman as one who is hardworking/has a strong working culture, has a good understanding with her husband, is involved both in household and farm work, selfreliant, educates her children, saves money, performs her activities according to plan and uses family planning. Such women are well appreciated by other women and men in the community and looked up to."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"The local terms for empowerment as defined by the men are Ga'oomuu, Adda Duree, Goota Misoomaa and Moodeelaone who stands out from the crowd. The men's groups characterized an empowered man as one who works hard, manages and cares for his children and all family members, educates his children, is economically self-reliant year around, uses farm equipment (including traditional and modern), uses fertilizer and produces enough produce, uses his time properly, fattens his animals and earns good income, creates jobs for his children during their resting time (slack season), has good understanding with his wife, actively participates in training and works in groups with his friends to complete farm work. On the other hand, a disempowered man is one who does not educate his children, does not participate in any given training, does not agree with his wife, does not use important technology to produce enough produce and does not use his time properly."}]},{"head":"Amhara region","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The women's group used the term t'enikara which implies 'strong' to mean empowerment and described an empowered woman as one who is hardworking, has the ability to lead her family, participates in leadership and any social affairs, equally participates in agriculture with her husband, is able to make energy-saving cooking material, cleans her house and toilet daily, executes assigned duties, can decide by herself, makes arekie (local brew) and can sell cattle by herself. Characteristics of a disempowered woman include one who cannot clean her home and equipment, cannot care for her children, is lazy about doing household chores, cannot save money, can work but is not interested in work, does not participate in common social affairs, cannot work but rather walks to other people's homes to drink all day or sit and talk, and does not support her husband in terms of income. Women must seek permission to use family planning."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In this region, the men used the terms jegina-which means a hero-and iwik'eti yalewi which means knowledgeable. Traits that describe an empowered man are one who rears improved livestock breeds, is hardworking in crop production and intensively participates in agricultural activities, uses new/improved technology (such as compost, improved seed and irrigation), produces all crops according to season, produces and sells vegetables such as potatoes and carrots, carries out his activities by plan, educates his children, saves money, handles his property well, has a leadership position in the community, mediates conflicts, is listened to by the community, uses agricultural extension services and participates in social activities in the community. Other men want to do as he does and the wife of such a man is considered lucky."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"On the other hand, the characteristics of a disempowered man are one who does not carry out farming activities on time (e.g. plowing, sowing and harvesting animal feed among others), is careless in handling of his animals, is weak in decision-making in the home and society, loses his confidence, drinks alcohol during working days, actively participates in theft of property, has ability to work but not willing to work, does not educate his children and rents out his agricultural land."}]},{"head":"Tigray region","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The FGD with men used the term 'model' to mean empowerment and the characteristics that define a man who is a model include one who participates in conflict resolution and advises the community, is hardworking and improves his livelihood, manages his livestock properly, manages his agricultural activities timely, uses organic and/or inorganic fertilizer on his land, has good understanding with his wife and whole family, is not addicted to alcohol and engages in on-farm and off-farm activities. Such men are examples to the community and get respect and love from the community. A disempowered man is one who does not manage his animals, does not manage his agricultural activities like weeding, harvesting and plowing in a timely manner, does not agree with his neighbors, does not raise his children properly and is addicted to alcohol."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"Likewise, the women's group in Tigray region characterized an empowered woman as one who is involved in agricultural activities and is able to manage farm activities in the absence of the husband, practises weeding, soil and water conservation, and harvesting, manages her animals and also adopts different agricultural technologies which are introduced by government and other stakeholders in the community, saves money and manages her home properly, and is on good terms with her husband and whole family. The characteristics of a disempowered woman are one who does not carry out agricultural activities, does not save money, does not manage her home properly and does not manage her animals. The empowered women are considered 'model' farmers and have good acceptance in the community, serve as examples to the community and get respect and love from the community. The husbands of empowered women are very supportive."}]},{"head":"Addis Ababa","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"During the FGD with men in the city government of Addis Ababa, empowerment was referred to as Beku yehone sew, seketama which mean achiever or one who has excelled. Such men are active and productive, wealthy and fulfill all their livelihood needs, examples to others in the community and skilled to do something and succeed. An empowered man is educated, educates his children, works actively, has a good vision, uses important technology, has good behaviour, actively manages his family members, is honest to others, works according to plan, is free from any addiction, is knowledgeable about his life, does not oppose other people's ideas, creates jobs for other people, does any available work, is in agreement and good understanding with his wife and children, and always advises his children about education."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"On the other hand, a disempowered man is one who does not like to work, does not educate his children, spends his time in wrong places, does not agree with his wife, has bad manners, opposes other people's ideas, is unable to fulfill his household needs, depends on his wife's labour, does not want to work, is addicted to stimulants, steals other people's property and has no vision."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The women used the terms tatari and t'enikara which mean active and strong. An empowered woman is active and carries out her activities according to the plan and uses her time properly. She is an example to others, is active in household decision-making, has good behaviour, educates and respects her children, trades in the local market, saves money, respects her husband, solves problems/finds solutions for others and is a leader for others. The characteristics of a disempowered woman are does not have the culture to work, careless, depends on others, does not think of tomorrow, opposes other people's ideas and spends time in inappropriate places like the drinking house."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"What empowers women?"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Table 2 below shows what empowers women (process) at both household and community levels, from both women's and men's perspectives in the four regions."}]},{"head":"Developing women's entrepreneur skills","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"In all the regions, the development of women's entrepreneur skills stood out strongly as one of the mechanisms to empower women, mentioned by both women and men. This can be achieved through training, providing women with starter capital and giving equal chances to take advantage of available opportunities. Women's entrepreneurship can also be enhanced if women have equal access to resources, decision-making power over productive resources and an enhanced capacity to manage resources such as money saving skills. This reflects the importance of knowledge in economically empowering women-women's capabilities need to be enhanced for them to be empowered. Women chicken producers need capacities to manage chicken as a business."}]},{"head":"Developing self-confidence and self-efficacy","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"This is very critical as it encourages women to do 'things' that they have not done before. This can be achieved by encouraging women to share their ideas and listening to/accepting their ideas as well as developing their knowledge. Education of children is mentioned as a key aspect of women's empowerment as knowledge can be passed on from children to their mothers. Being knowledgeable enhances women's confidence which in turn builds their voice. This attribute emerged more among the men's groups compared to the women's groups across the regions."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"In all the regions, it is mostly men who participate in community meetings. It is men who speak up and lead the meetings, and they make decisions as well. Increasingly, women are being encouraged to attend meetings. In Tigray region, although men and women have equal chances to participate in decision-making during community meetings, men have more influential power and dominate decision-making."}]},{"head":"Reducing women's workload","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Reducing women's workload through social support to create more time for women to engage in productive activities and be more mobile was also elicited more by the men's groups. Additionally, the transformation of constraining culture was mentioned by men and women in Tigray region, although it is a challenge in all the regions. This implies that men are actually aware of women's workload-attributed to norms-and the need to overcome the challenge in order to help women act towards their desired goals."}]},{"head":"Mobility","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Mobility was not mentioned as an indicator of an empowered woman although listed as a requirement for empowerment and one of the factors that constrains women. In all the study sites, both women and men noted that women can move unaccompanied to places within close proximity to their homesteads such as market, funeral, idir, 2 wedding, searching for firewood, fetching water, visit the sick, church/mosque, village meeting places, grain milling house, grazing field to feed their livestock and farmlands. Both the men's and women's groups indicated that there is no place that women would like to go to but can't. However, there were conditions attributed to their mobility, e.g. a woman can go with her neighbors/ friends to attend any given training. If accompanied by their husbands, women can go to the places they want. By asking permission from their husbands or family members, they can go far from home, spend nights away from home, go to weddings and funerals and visit relatives. However, Muslim women never go to burial places."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Women never go to inappropriate places like drinking or dance houses. Young or unmarried women are not allowed to go alone to places far from home. They are protected by their families. Nobody sets the rules where women or girls can go. It is socio-cultural norms and that are respected by women (single or married) and young girls. Any woman who violates the norms is considered a social deviant and other women do not want to emulate her. There is no change in these norms because of the ACGG project. Lack of income, as well as workload, also constrain women's mobility."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"In Amhara, although women would like to go to recreational places and traditional doctors (spiritual house called Tenkway bet), they cannot. However, as a result of the ACGG project women's mobility has increased as they participate in training and are able to frequently go to marketplaces to sell eggs and/or purchase items for their households. In Tigray, women can go to a restaurant or hotel only with permission from their husbands and are restricted from going to the bar. According to the men and women in Addis Ababa, women would like to go to the recreation centre, swimming pool, historical places, zoo, parks and to visit higher government offices but cannot. They can go to the hotel, cinema and far places if accompanied by their husbands. The only change as a result of the ACGG project is that women are going to the marketplace to sell their eggs and chicken and also to buy chicken feed and other important inputs for chicken."}]},{"head":"Leadership","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Across the four regions, in recent years, women's participation in leadership and other areas of responsibility has increased due to government sector and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that have given attention and enhanced women's capacities and awareness through training. Both men and women in the Oromia, Addis Ababa and Tigray regions believe that holding a leadership position in the community is appropriate for women (such as administrator, village chair or leader of women's association). 'Now women are holding many leadership positions starting from village women affairs to higher positions.' -Men's group, Oromia"},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Yes, holding a leadership position in the community is appropriate for women, especially women holding leadership at each level starting from village to higher level like federal level. This is not only essential for women but also one mode of motivating or initiating young generations to pursue education particularly female students, as they look up to empowered women. Therefore, it is important to give women basic education."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Women do not get the opportunity to attend formal education so inviting them to all meetings and training is helpful. -Women's group, Oromia"},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"In the Amhara region, the male group participants stressed that it is not appropriate for women to hold leadership positions because they are involved in household chores. This trait did not emerge in the men's group as a characteristic of an empowered woman. On the other hand, women noted an increase in their participation in different leadership positions and training activities at different levels. However, their leadership was mostly in womanrelated organizations such as women's associations, women's league, women's federation forum and the like, and not community-based positions.  "}]},{"head":"Role of livestock in empowering women","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":317,"text":"Livestock is one of the main sources of income for households and its importance is even higher for households with land shortage. Both women and men in the FGDs agreed that livestock can empower women by giving them income (through selling eggs and chicken, fattening animals, selling milk and milk products) which is used to run other businesses, educate children and meet household needs with less dependence on their husbands. Livestock is also a source of food. Livestock helps women develop confidence and it is used as an asset to guarantee payments. Sheep and goat can generate money during crop failure, and this can empower women. The manure from livestock increases crop production for food and income. A participant in the women's group in Addis Ababa remarked: Livestock can empower women by being a source of income, source of food, used as an asset and livestock manure is used for backyard vegetable production. Sometimes animal dung is used as energy for preparing injera. -Women's group, Addis Ababa More specifically, chickens can empower women since it is mainly managed and controlled by women and the income (through the sale of chicken and their products) is controlled by them, using it to cover household needs and startup capital for other businesses without asking for money from their husbands. The eggs and chicken are consumed at home and women make the decisions regarding consumption. Chickens serve as women's assets. The local chickens are raised for brooding eggs of improved birds since their brooding trait is poorly developed. Women are in a better position to decide on the best traits, but such decisions tend to be made jointly by spouses and are sometimes dominated by men. Women can easily differentiate between productive and unproductive chickens. Since the rearing of chickens does not require a large space, women can keep large numbers of chickens and earn income to cover the household needs."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"By selling chicken and chicken products women can buy more chickens, other livestock like sheep, goats and heifers, purchase household assets and purchase quality food for the children. Chicken is also an important ingredient in the traditional Ethiopian dish (a woman's role) hence considered very important."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Chicken can empower women since chicken is the main and basic source of income for women, and a source of food (chicken egg is essential for breakfast, especially for the children). During the time of the festival/holiday, we do not buy chicken from the market to cook doro wet (traditional food). -Women's group, Addis Ababa A woman is the main person who takes chicken and chicken products to market and sells. They use any available market to sell chicken and chicken products like village market, district markets etc. -Men's group, Aneno Shisho"},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The income from selling chicken is controlled by women because in our village men do not ask us for income from the chicken so we use it to cover some home expenses. -Women's group, Aneno Shisho Figure 1 is a framework that shows how chicken can empower women. Although the process looks linear, in reality, it is not linear, showing the short, medium-and long-term gains."},{"index":5,"size":153,"text":"Typically, chicken production in Ethiopia is performed by adult women although adult men, young men and young women are also involved. Success in chicken as a business can be registered among people with good work ethic, visionary, interested and open to learning. Specifically, women are better at raising chickens as it can be done concurrently with the household caring roles. According to the men, women are the best at managing chickens because they spend most of their time around the homestead, which is ideal for protecting chickens from predation and cannibalism, provision of feed and water, and control of their movement while scavenging. Women are also more knowledgeable about chicken management and very active in that regard. The men in Dano (Oromia region) added that young men, young women and adult women who are not busy with farm work are better at raising chickens. In one of the men's group, the participants remarked:"},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"Women exceed in rearing chicken because they require a person who is always around the house to protect chickens from predators and give them water and feed and control where they are going for scavenging. People who keep around the home area also protect the chickens from cannibalism. -Men's group, Aneno Shino"},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"The prevailing constraints to chicken production make it difficult for smallholder women and men to profit from the enterprise. The major constraints, in order of importance, as mentioned by women and men are:"}]},{"head":"•","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Disease prevalence"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Lack of formulated feed, quality feed and high feed price"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• Poor veterinary services-poor access to drugs, vaccines and qualified vets • Predation due to lack of appropriate shelter. Irrespective of breed, chickens are raised under the free-range system were chickens scavenge any feed resource around the homestead during daytime and are sheltered during the night."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Figure 1. Framework for women's empowerment through poultry."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"Other constraints include lack of knowledge on poultry management, absence of a good market for products, lack of access to improved and productive breeds, cannibalism, poor infrastructure (including roads, lack of electricity and water), lack of adequate capital to expand the farm and poor biosecurity measures. Factors that were unique to women are lack of income/employment (dependence on husbands) and lack of awareness creation/training before chickens are attacked by disease. All these factors hinder chicken production, thereby undermining their potential to empower women economically, socially and politically. In one of the women's groups, participants remarked:"},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"When chickens are affected by the disease the probability of recovering is very low and therefore, we lose many birds due to that and when we lose birds that we have fed for a long time, one is economically affected. (women's group, Addis Ababa)"},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"If the government could provide us the knowledge of chicken production and management systems when they give us the chickens, it would be good for us to be able to successfully carry out chicken production. "}]},{"head":"Aspirations of women and men chicken producers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"In SNNP, women and men chicken producers' goal for the next 5-10 years is expanding chicken production and investing in other businesses (e.g. shops), and produce cattle, sheep and goats. In the next 5-10 years, the men chicken producers in Oromia and Amhara aspire to increase the number of chickens and expand their chicken farms because of increase in the price of eggs and chicken. Similarly, the women in the region aspire to expand their chicken farms from backyard production to commercial production by using improved chicken breeds, modern chicken farm equipment and building good chicken houses (if they obtain important inputs like capital, feed, vaccine, expert advice and good market). They also aspire to earn higher income from selling eggs and chickens. Getting additional income from chicken production allows families to educate their children in better schools and for the children to complete their education. The ACGG project can support women by providing improved poultry breeds, vegetables (for feed), formula feed, medicine and giving different practical training and credit services."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The men and women in Tigray aspire to have more than 50 chickens per household and improved poultry houses. Additionally, the women aspire to increase their income from the sale of chicken and chicken products and manage the chickens better to increase their production. The ACGG project can support them by increasing access to alternative chicken breeds and creating awareness on the importance and management of chicken to create demand."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"In the next 5-10 years, the men's groups in Addis Ababa envisioned expanding chicken production and increasing the number of chickens by improving chicken feeding, watering and overall management of chicken if they receive an adequate supply of vaccines. Through this, they will improve their livelihoods and balance their income and expenses. The women chicken producers in Addis Ababa envision expanding chicken production by adopting modern chicken production facilities and plan to live a better life by increasing daily income. This vision is challenged by fear due to lack of enough capital, chicken feed, vaccine, veterinary experts and chicken breeds."}]},{"head":"Indicators of change","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"For women chicken producers, indicators of change include: supply of many chickens to the market, improved household nutrition, increase in daily income, increased ability to meet daily household expenses/needs through sale of chicken and eggs, increase in purchasing power, fulfillment of all education needs for their children, quality education in good schools for their children, increased savings, building beautiful houses, knowledgeable community, availability of improved poultry breeds, more profitable businesses, shift from plan to action and creating jobs."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Men chicken producers include the following as indicators of change: increase in number of chickens raised, informed communities, availability of improved breeds, increased ability to meet household needs, ability to educate children to completion, selling of many eggs and live chicken, changes in individual lifestyle, modifying existing old poultry houses and building new extra poultry houses which can be rented out."}]},{"head":"What does this tell us?","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The results show some variations in how community members define an empowered woman or man. Aspects relating to the use of improved agricultural technologies and working intensively on the farm were more associated with empowered men. Women who are engaged in agriculture are considered very empowered since the trait is ideally attributed to men except in Tigray were both men and women elicited the trait in relation to a woman who manages agricultural activities even in the absence of the husband. Lack of confidence is disempowering to both men and women but more disempowering to men. Leadership was attributed to one's ability to resolve conflicts and manage others rather than membership to influential groups (an indicator commonly used to assess empowerment). Leadership traits for an empowered woman were cited strongly in the Amhara region by women. One's ability to use time effectively/productively is empowering to both men and women. One's ability to create jobs for others is also a trait for empowered men, which could imply leadership. Empowered women innovate technologies that fit within their ideal feminine roles and their accumulation of assets from poultry is limited to small household equipment to be able to fulfill their reproductive roles."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Mobility can be both a process and an outcome of empowerment in a manner that mobility increases women's ability to access important places like training venues, markets and health facilities among others. On the other hand, the realization of benefits from poultry production increases women's chances of mobility without being accompanied. Poultry has potential to empower women since it is managed and controlled by women. However, this can only happen if production constraints are addressed as well as structural and institutional challenges. Women aspire to increase chicken production alongside cattle, sheep and goat production to distribute risk. Chicken can be empowering if it becomes a business where women and men produce at least 50 chickens and more. Women still face challenges to profitably benefit from chicken and the relations between men and women may restrict their autonomy and freedom of mobility to important locations. For chickens to empower women, it is imperative that chicken production constraints and constraining power relations are addressed, and the structural system is transformed in which poultry production is embedded."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"Although governments and donors advocate for the economic empowerment of women, the indicators and means of empowerment above demonstrate that the economic empowerment of women by improving their 'self' alone is not enough. Social relations are still important for both women and men to be empowered such as being in good relationships with spouses and others, good social conduct, the fulfillment of social responsibilities and supporting others strongly emerged as indicators of empowered women and men. The ability to use birth control is mediated by good social relations. Additionally, the social structures, such as markets and government institutions, in which the roles of women and men poultry farmers are embedded influence their ability to achieve their aspirations. Chicken traits preferred by women and men in the Amhara region"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Women Men"}]},{"head":"Ranking of breeds against preferred traits","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Table 4 below shows the scoring and ranking of different breeds against the preferred traits. While the women's group ranked the breeds, the men's group scored the breeds. The men's group scored Kuroiler as the breed with the most preferred traits followed by Sasso RIR and the local breed in second place, then pure Sasso in third place, and Koekoek and Horro in fourth place. The men ranked Kuroiler first because it has relatively high disease resistance and high production in terms of eggs and meat, and the meat is tasty and accepted by the community."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The men have raised these breeds for about two years and indicated that they thrive better in a warm environment and mid-altitude. The men wanted the disease resistance trait to be improved and to increase the ratio of male to female chickens in a flock."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Unlike the men in the region, the women group ranked Sasso as the best poultry breed because of its good body weight gain, the quality and quantity of eggs they lay, relatively disease tolerant nature, and better test of meat and eggs. Sasso has better productivity and better weight gain which generates higher income for the household. This was followed by Kuroiler, Koekoek, then Horro and lastly the local breed. Similarly, the women indicated that they have raised the breeds for about two years. "},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Egg production (quality and quantity) In the Amhara region, the men have noticed changes in trait preference over the past 10 years, with an increase in preference for egg-laying birds because of the high price for eggs. Change in preference is driven by high market demand for chicken and eggs and the involvement of different organizations in the sector to improve poultry production. In the past three to five years, chicken production has changed with more farmer involvement in the production of exotic breeds (promoted by government and NGOs), an increase in flock size and implementation of better poultry management practices such as health management, feeding and housing."}]},{"head":"Tigray region","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Ranking of preferred traits"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In Tigray, the ranking of preferred traits was done by one women's group only because of the challenges faced in mobilizing the chicken producers. The study was conducted during the onset of rains and poultry producers were busy working in the crop fields. The preferred traits are presented in Table 5 below. Of all the preferred traits, using a total of 20 seeds, egg production ranked highly followed by body weight and disease resistance. Figure 3 shows a visual representation of the preference.  "}]},{"head":"Ranking of breeds against preferred traits","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Using a score of 5 to rate each breed, the women ranked the local breed first although it has a small body size and low egg production (Table 6). If these traits were improved, then the local breed would be the most preferred. The local breed and Horro have good broody behaviour resistant to disease and the feather colour is attractive to the market. Sasso and Kuroiler ranked highly as well because of their egg production, body weight and good feather colour. Changes in trait preference over the past 10 years Over 10 years, chicken production has received increased attention from government and donor agencies. There is an increase in the price of chicken and eggs due to increased demand. Community members have more awareness about chicken production although the preferred breeds like the local breed have reduced in number and some unwanted breeds have been introduced. The introduction of new breeds has introduced many new diseases that have affected the poultry production system. Currently, only specific types of chicken breeds are promoted with no support to improve the local breeds. Such changes have occurred as a result of increased population growth, lack of grazing land, government programs, climate change and awareness of the community."}]},{"head":"Oromia region","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Ranking of trait preferences Table 7 below shows the scores of the most preferred chicken traits by women and men in Oromia region. Each trait was evaluated using a high score of 10. Overall, the most preferred traits by the women and men poultry producers in the Oromia region are egg production potential, ability to feed on any available feed, market preference, fast growth rate and good behaviour (Figure 4). The men ranked high amount of meat (body weight), disease resistance and feather colour higher while the women ranked market preference, growth rate, good survival ability and tasty meat higher.  "}]},{"head":"Ranking of breeds against preferred traits","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Table 8 below shows the ranking of the chicken breeds against the preferred traits. Overall, Koekoek and Sasso had the highest scores but with variations among women and men (Figure 5). The men scored Koekoek slightly higher than Sasso RIR, while women ranked Sasso RIR higher than Koekoek. The local and Horro breeds received lower scores from women. Sasso RIR and Koekoek lay eggs daily, are of relatively large size and are preferred in the market."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Both men and women indicated having grown Sasso RIR for at least two years, thriving better in the temperate areas."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Sasso and Koekoek are, however, very suspectable to disease and poor at escaping from predators. On the other hand, Horro and the local breed have low growth rate, small body size and very low egg production but have high survival rates, tasty meat and are able to escape from predation. The traits to be improved as proposed by women and men in Oromia include egg production (since it is the main product), meat yield, disease resistance, ability to feed on any available feed, adaptability, survivability and growth rate."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Since our main target is to improve the production potential of chicken, without feed and good health services, we cannot improve production. -Men's group, Aneno Shisho  "}]},{"head":"Ranking of breed against traits","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Table 10 presents the scores given by women and men to different breeds. Overall, the results show that both women's and men's groups ranked the local and Horro as breeds that exhibited the most preferred traits, i.e. good brooding, high market demand, disease resistant, escape predation, good feather colour, the feathers do not fall off and good adaption to the environment (Figure 7). This was followed by Sasso RIR and Koekoek. Sasso and Koekoek are good at laying eggs and have good body weight but the mortality rates are high. Traits to improve according to the men and women in Addis Ababa include disease resistance, egg production, adaptability to environment and feed shortages, and meat yield.  Ranking of chicken breeds against the preferred traits by women and men in Addis Ababa"}]},{"head":"Changes in trait preferences and chicken production over the years","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"There is a change in chicken production by smallholder farmers due to increased farmer awareness about the importance of chicken. Producers have started selecting productive breeds, preferring chicken breeds with good traits like egg laying and meat yield. The market for chicken and chicken products is attractive when compared with the past although it fluctuates. The changes are attributed to the government promotion of poultry as well as NGOs."}]},{"head":"SNNP region Trait preference","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The research team in SNNP did not disaggregate data on trait preference by gender. However, we present the data to give some insights into the preferred traits by women and men poultry producers in SNNP. The preferred traits include fast growth, good feather colour, large body size, large number of eggs, disease resistance, good market for meat and eggs, low feed consumption, tasty meat and brooding. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3.Scoring of preferred chicken traits by women in Tigray "},{"text":" Given freedom of mobility and to decide Give them equal opportunities as men Given the freedom to access and own household resources Support to engage in income-generating activities Develop their capacities through training and education Give freedom of mobility and to decide Give them equal opportunities as men Give the freedom to access and own household resources Oromia Developing their entrepreneur skills to enable them to earn a good income. Training them about overall chicken management Capacity to save money Give them a chance to attend important training or meetings Give them equal opportunities with men Encourage them through sharing experiences from other knowledgeable women Develop their capacity to manage and use their property Facilitate initial capital Educate them well Give them support on all household activities to reduce workload Given a chance to take part in training Accept their ideas as this can improve their confidence Select them for leadership positions Advise women to educate their female children equally with their male children since a female child is the main teacher for her mother-she can learn from her children and can easily empower herself Amhara Provide different practical training Support them with different resources and money to engage in different livestock production activities Provide land for livestock production Provision of different practical training on different aspects e.g. chicken production and entrepreneurship Support them with resources and money to engage in different livestock production activities Tigray Give them the freedom to go anywhere Give women the opportunity to participate in different workshops and training Help women with home activities Change constraining cultural norms Equip women with chicken and home management skills Develop women's capacity by involving them in various workshops and training (short and long term) Support women to reduce their workload Change constraining cultural norms Addis Ababa Create jobs for women Facilitate credit services to enable them to invest in income-generating activities Increase access and availability of productive chicken types Give women equal opportunities as men in every community activity like meetings/training as they can share their ideas and learn from others Give women equal opportunities with men to obtain training Encourage women to share their ideas to improve confidence Husbands need to encourage their wives and give them advice Women and men role models share their experiences with other women and men Develop their business skills through short-term training "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Chicken traits preferred by women and men in the Amhara region "},{"text":" Ranking: 1-5, 1 being the best and 5 the least Changes in trait preference over the past 10 years "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Scoring of preferred chicken traits by women in Tigray "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Ranking of traits preferred by women and men in the Oromia region "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Ranking of preferred chicken traits by men and women in Addis Ababa "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Ranking of chicken breeds against preferred traits by men and women in Addis Ababa "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Description of study sites per region Agro- ecology  Very cold submoist mid highlands   Cool sub- humid mid highlands     Tepid peri- humid mid highlands     Very cold sub- moist mid highlands Subtropical highland Agro-ecologyVery coldsubmoistmidhighlandsCool sub-humid midhighlandsTepid peri-humid midhighlandsVerycold sub-moist midhighlandsSubtropicalhighland Agricultural production systems   Mixed crop-livestock but dominated by crops mostly wheat, faba bean, barley, teff and potato. Major livestock species are cattle, sheep, goats and poultry.  Mixed crop-livestock production system. It is a wheat dominated mono-cropping system. Other crops are barley, faba bean and field pea. Major livestock species are cattle, sheep and goat.  Mixed crop-livestock dominated by crops. Major crops are wheat, faba bean, teff and enset. Major livestock species are cattle, goat, sheep and poultry   Mixed crop-livestock. Major crops are wheat, barley, faba bean, potato and field pea. Major livestock species are sheep, cattle and poultry. City dwellers participate in animal husbandry and crop production. Agricultural production systemsMixed crop-livestock butdominated by crops mostly wheat,faba bean, barley, teff and potato.Major livestock species are cattle,sheep, goats and poultry.Mixed crop-livestock productionsystem. It is a wheat dominatedmono-cropping system. Othercrops are barley, faba bean andfield pea. Major livestock speciesare cattle, sheep and goat.Mixed crop-livestock dominatedby crops. Major crops are wheat,faba bean, teff and enset. Majorlivestock species are cattle, goat,sheep and poultryMixed crop-livestock. Major cropsare wheat, barley, faba bean, potatoand field pea. Major livestockspecies are sheep, cattle andpoultry.City dwellers participate in animalhusbandry and crop production. Ethnicity   Dominated by the Amhara speaking group. The Agaw/Awi, Oromo, Agaw/Kamyr and Argobba are minority groups.  Oromo (87.8%), Amhara (7.2%) and other ethnic groups     Diversity of ethnicity and languages       Tigrayan (96.55%), Amhara (1.63%) and others Dominant tribes are Amhara (47.0%), Oromo (39.5%), Gurage (16.3%) and others EthnicityDominated by theAmhara speaking group.The Agaw/Awi, Oromo,Agaw/Kamyr and Argobbaare minority groups.Oromo (87.8%), Amhara(7.2%) and other ethnicgroupsDiversity of ethnicity andlanguagesTigrayan (96.55%),Amhara (1.63%) andothersDominant tribes areAmhara (47.0%), Oromo(39.5%), Gurage (16.3%)and others Religion   Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (82.5%), Muslim (17.2%) and others    Muslim (47.6%), Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (30.4%), Protestant (17.5%) and others    Protestants (55.5%), Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (19.86%), Muslim (14.12%), Catholic (2.4%) and others   Ethiopian Orthodox Christians (95.6%), Muslim (4%), Catholic (0.4%) Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity (82%), Muslim (12.7%), Protestant (3.9%), Catholic (1%) and others ReligionEthiopian OrthodoxChristianity (82.5%), Muslim(17.2%) and othersMuslim (47.6%), EthiopianOrthodox Christianity(30.4%), Protestant (17.5%)and othersProtestants (55.5%),Ethiopian OrthodoxChristianity (19.86%),Muslim (14.12%), Catholic(2.4%) and othersEthiopian OrthodoxChristians (95.6%), Muslim(4%), Catholic (0.4%)Ethiopian OrthodoxChristianity (82%), Muslim(12.7%), Protestant (3.9%),Catholic (1%) and others Woreda Kebele District Average (district) (village) population* household surveyed size Females Males Kalu Addis Mender 91,994 94,187 4.5  South Lihudi 67,269 69,239 Achefer Gondar Tsion Teguaze 94,006 97,388 Zuria Adami Tulu Anao Shisho 70,238 71,167 4.8  Dano Bake Sirba 48,650 48,593  Haramaya Adele and 132,736 138,282 Biftu Geda Darolabu Odaluku 52,872 49,487 Dara Kumato 78,790 76,475 5.5 Bolosso Gido Homba 101,581 96,392 Sore Meskan Mekicho 79,386 76,396 Doyogena Gomora 40,029 38,605 Zawada Saharti Hayelom 62,472 61,868 4.6 Samre Tahtay Metkellimat 50,499 48,623 Machew Kolfe W.3 Ketene 01 221,254 207,641 5.3 Nefassilk Eritu Mojo 167,299 148,984 W.1 Woreda Kebele District Average(district) (village) population* householdsurveyed size Females MalesKalu Addis Mender 91,994 94,187 4.5South Lihudi 67,269 69,239AcheferGondar Tsion Teguaze 94,006 97,388ZuriaAdami Tulu Anao Shisho 70,238 71,167 4.8Dano Bake Sirba 48,650 48,593Haramaya Adele and 132,736 138,282Biftu GedaDarolabu Odaluku 52,872 49,487Dara Kumato 78,790 76,475 5.5Bolosso Gido Homba 101,581 96,392SoreMeskan Mekicho 79,386 76,396Doyogena Gomora 40,029 38,605ZawadaSaharti Hayelom 62,472 61,868 4.6SamreTahtay Metkellimat 50,499 48,623MachewKolfe W.3 Ketene 01 221,254 207,641 5.3Nefassilk Eritu Mojo 167,299 148,984W.1 Region   Amhara      Oromia       Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's (SNNP)     Tigray  Addis Ababa RegionAmharaOromiaSouthern Nations,Nationalities andPeople's (SNNP)TigrayAddis Ababa  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Women's and men's perspectives on what empowers women Region What would empower women? RegionWhat would empower women?  Women's perspectives Men's perspectives Women's perspectivesMen's perspectives SNNP Supported to engage in income-generating activities SNNPSupported to engage in income-generating activities  Develop their capacities through training and education Develop their capacities through training and education  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Ranking and scoring of chicken breeds against preferred traits by women and men in Amhara region Trait Local Sasso RIR Pure Sasso Kuroiler Koekoek Horro TraitLocalSasso RIRPure SassoKuroilerKoekoekHorro Men       Men (       (  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Preferred chicken traits by women in Tigray Trait or quality Score Rank Trait or qualityScoreRank Body weight 5 2 Body weight52 Broody behaviour 1 6 Broody behaviour16 Egg production 7 1 Egg production71 Disease resistance 3 3 Disease resistance33 Feather colour/ 2 4 Feather colour/24 market demand   market demand Scavenging behaviour 0.5 7 Scavenging behaviour 0.57 Egg weight 1.5 5 Egg weight1.55  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Ranking of chicken breeds against the preferred traits by women in Tigray  Horro Koekoek Sasso RIR Local Kuroiler HorroKoekoekSasso RIRLocalKuroiler Broody behaviour 3 1 0 5 0 Broody behaviour31050 Egg production 4 4 5 3 5 Egg production44535 Body weight 3 3.5 3 2 5 Body weight33.5325 Disease resistance 4 3 2 5 0 Disease resistance43250 Feather colour and 4 1 5 4 3 Feather colour and41543 market demand      market demand Total 18 12.5 15 19 13 Total1812.5151913  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Scores of chicken traits preferred by women and men in the Oromia region Trait Biftu Geda Adele  Anano Shisho Dano Bake Sirba Daro Labu district, TraitBiftu GedaAdeleAnano ShishoDano Bake SirbaDaro Labu district,        village  Oda Laku village villageOda Laku village  Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women MenWomen Laying many eggs/good layers/ 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 8 10 9 Laying many eggs/good layers/10101010109108109 daily egg laying           daily egg laying Big eggs - - - - 3 1 1 2 1 1 Big eggs----311211 Feeding any available feed - 7 6 3 4 6 6 - 6 4 Feeding any available feed-763466-64 High amount of meat 9 - 9 9 - - 9 4 9  High amount of meat9-99--949 Preferred in the market 8 9 7 8 5 5 - 7 - 5 Preferred in the market897855-7-5 Preferred by consumers - 9 - - - - - - - - Preferred by consumers-9-------- Disease resistance - - 8 - 8 - 7 - 7 - Disease resistance--8-8-7-7- Fast growth rate - 8 - - 7 8 8 6 8 8 Fast growth rate-8--788688  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Scores of chicken breeds against preferred traits by women and men in Oromia Village Preferred trait Koekoek Men Sasso RIR Women Men Women Men Horro Local Women Men Women Men Women Kuroiler Village Preferred traitKoekoek MenSasso RIR Women Men Women Men HorroLocal Women Men Women Men Women Kuroiler Biftu Daily egg eggs 8 8 9 9 5 4 5 - - 7 BiftuDaily egg eggs8899545--7 Geda            Geda  High amount of meat 10 10 9 9 4 5 4 4 - 5 High amount of meat 1010994544-5  Good at hatching egg 2 - 4 - 10 - 10 - - - Good at hatching egg 2-4-10-10---  Resistant to diseases 5 - 6 - 8 - 7 - - - Resistant to diseases 5-6-8-7---  Consume any 6 7 7 6 7 8 6 8 - 7 Consume any67767868-7  available feed           available feed  Preferred in the 8 5 7 7 8 7 10 6 - 5 Preferred in the857787106-5  market           market  Preferred by - 5 - 6 - 3 - 10 - 5 Preferred by-5-6-3-10-5  consumers           consumers  Knowing exiting and 4 - 5 - 9 - 7 - - - Knowing exiting and4-5-9-7---  entering time           entering time  Ability to escape 2 4 3 5 10 10 10 10 - 5 Ability to escape243510101010-5  predators           predators  Good feather colour 7 5 8 7 6 7 8 6 - 5 Good feather colour 75876786-5  Knowing owners 7 - 5 - 9 - 8 - - - Knowing owners7-5-9-8---  Overcoming scarcity 1 - 2 - 9 - 9 - - - Overcoming scarcity1-2-9-9---  of feed and water           of feed and water  Not go far from 2 - 4 - 8 - 9 - - - Not go far from2-4-8-9---  house compounds           house compounds  Fast growth - 10 - 10 - 6 - 7 - 6 Fast growth-10-10-6-7-6  Big body size - 10 - 8 - 4 - 5 - 7 Big body size-10-8-4-5-7  Tolerant of existing - 5 - 7 - 9 - 9 - 3 Tolerant of existing-5-7-9-9-3  challenges           challenges Adele Good egg layers - 9 - 9 - 5 - 5 - 5 AdeleGood egg layers-9-9-5-5-5  Tolerate or adapt 9 - 7 - 8 - 10 - - - Tolerate or adapt9-7-8-10---  to bad weather           to bad weather  conditions           conditions  Fast growth rate 10 - 10 - 5 - 5 - - - Fast growth rate10-10-5-5---  Good behaviour  -  -    - - - Good behaviour-----   7  8  8 - 10    788-10  Big body size 10 - 10 - 4 - 6 - - - Big body size10-10-4-6---  High amount of meat 10 9 10 8 5 5 4 5 - 6 High amount of meat 1091085545-6  Do not cannibalize 7 7 10 6 5 7 5 7 - 5 Do not cannibalize771065757-5  each other           each other  Preferred in the 7 8 8 9 10 5 10 6 - 5 Preferred in the7889105106-5  market           market  Good scavenging 5 4 8 5 8 10 10 10 - 4 Good scavenging54858101010-4  ability           ability  Eggs are preferred in 6 - 7 - 10 - 10 - - - Eggs are preferred in6-7-10-10---  the market           the market  Knowing their shelter           Knowing their shelter  and their feeding and           and their feeding and  watering place           watering place  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Scoring of chicken breeds against the preferred traits by women and men in Addis Ababa     Breed  Breed Village Preference Koekoek Sasso RIR Horro Local Kuroiler VillagePreferenceKoekoekSasso RIRHorroLocalKuroiler   Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women MenWomen Men Women MenWomen Men Women MenWomen Ertu Preferred in the      ErtuPreferred in the Mojo market      Mojomarket  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Desired and undesired chicken traits by women and men in the SNNP regionThe International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. ILRI is a CGIAR research centre. It works through a network of regional and country offices and projects in East, South and Southeast Asia, and Central, East, Southern and West Africa. ilri.org CGIAR is a global agricultural research partnership for a food-secure future. Its research is carried out by 15 research centres in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. District/village Chicken breed Good/desired traits Bad/less desired traits District/villageChicken breed Good/desired traitsBad/less desired traits Bolosso Sorre (Gido Kuroiler Fast growth, good colour, large size and a large Low disease resistance, swelling of the Bolosso Sorre (GidoKuroilerFast growth, good colour, large size and a largeLow disease resistance, swelling of the Homba kebele)  number of eggs, large body size, a good market eyes Homba kebele)number of eggs, large body size, a good marketeyes   for meat and eggs  for meat and eggs Meskan (Mekicho  Fast growth, doesn't require high labour Susceptible to predators, low resistance Meskan (MekichoFast growth, doesn't require high labourSusceptible to predators, low resistance kebele)   to diseases kebele)to diseases Hulbareg (Fuge  Fast growth, high production, fetch a good price Low disease resistance, predators, Hulbareg (FugeFast growth, high production, fetch a good priceLow disease resistance, predators, kebele)  in the market, does not require high labour cannot hatch (brood chicks) kebele)in the market, does not require high labourcannot hatch (brood chicks) Bolosso Sorre (Gido Sasso RIR No good traits Low disease resistance, slow growth, Bolosso Sorre (GidoSasso RIRNo good traitsLow disease resistance, slow growth, Homba kebele)   low egg production Homba kebele)low egg production Meskan (Mekicho  Does not require high inputs, uniform in colour Low disease resistance, low egg Meskan (MekichoDoes not require high inputs, uniform in colour Low disease resistance, low egg kebele)   production kebele)production Hulbareg (Fuge  Fast growth, high production, fetch a good price Low disease resistance, predators, Hulbareg (FugeFast growth, high production, fetch a good priceLow disease resistance, predators, kebele)  in the market cannot hatch (brood chicks) kebele)in the marketcannot hatch (brood chicks) Bolosso Sorre Sasso No good traits Low disease resistance, discontinue egg Bolosso SorreSassoNo good traitsLow disease resistance, discontinue egg  (Embrapha)  laying (Embrapha)laying Meskan (Mekicho  Fast growth, does not incur much cost (feeding) Meat is not tasty, susceptible to Meskan (MekichoFast growth, does not incur much cost (feeding) Meat is not tasty, susceptible to kebele)   predators kebele)predators Hulbareg (Fuge  Fast growth, high production, fetch a good price Low disease resistance, susceptible to Hulbareg (FugeFast growth, high production, fetch a good priceLow disease resistance, susceptible to kebele)  in the market predators, cannot hatch (brood chicks) kebele)in the marketpredators, cannot hatch (brood chicks)  "}],"sieverID":"6b00e8da-1696-4c78-a663-1fe854f8a508","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"043f1dc1f51992f05fb13931b993edaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/231/3845_CSISA-case-study-update.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Training of women farmers improves incomes, nutrition and equality","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"We were under some extreme hardship before, but with the help and guidance of CSISA-BD project, we overcame those adversities."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"-Urmila Shil, CSISA-BD, sh farmer  "}]},{"head":"Solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"One of the objectives of the CSISA-BD project is to build capacity of researchers, extension workers, farmers and others by enabling rapid dissemination and adoption of improved agricultural technologies and varieties with the aim of increasing family income by at least US$350 for 60,000 farming families. To achieve this objective, WorldFish has organized trainings, on the job learning and provided coaching on di erent activities of improved aquaculture technology."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"The project also focuses on increasing women's participation in agriculture to reduce the gender gap and enable women and men farmers to innovate and adopt improved technologies and varieties. In 2012, Urmila Shil joined one of the 25 women sh-farming group formed by CSISA-BD. Urmila lives in a remote village in West Kirthipasha, Jhalakathi upazilla, Southern Bangladesh with her husband, two daughters and a son. She engaged in a two-day participatory training workshop and other follow-up activities on household-based pond aquaculture and horticulture for income and nutrition organized by WorldFish."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"In 2013, Urmila harvested a total of 496 kg sh from a 20 dec. (247 dec. = 1hectare) homestead pond that was valued at BDT 67,456 (US$ 865). She earned another BDT 3,380 (US$ 43) from dike cropping."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"\"Before we could barely a ord to buy sh once a week. Now we can have fresh sh and vegetables every day, \" she states. Urmila was named 'Best Fish Farmer' during National Fish Week 2014 and is one of the 63 award-winning farmers working with CSISA-BD. Many women living in Urmila's village are inspired by her success. They have taken initiatives to improve their family income through aquaculture and homestead gardening. Urmila regularly shares her knowledge and experience with them so that they can easily replicate her success. In addition, these women groups are getting assistance from CSISA-BD project sta and local government o cials."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The CSISA-BD project is working to increase productivity by increasing women farmers' access to suitable technologies, information and markets. Women's groups have increased household sh pond production by 167% from 1,272 kg ha base production including Mola sh (small indigenous sh species) production. Approximately 70% of small sh and 20% of total sh produced were used for family consumption. Average earnings from household ponds were BDT 272,844 ha that includes a 7%-15% contribution from growing vegetables on dikes and in homestead gardens."}]},{"head":"Other results include","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"CSISA-BD's has also disseminated improved aquaculture technologies and varieties in fresh and brackish water ponds and ghers. The goal is to directly reach 25,000 farming households including 5000 women, and indirectly reach 60,000 households including 15,400 women by the end of the project in 2015. Technology dissemination process Urmila Shil's pre-and post intervention production "}]},{"head":"Analysis of current farmer practices and need identi cation","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farmers","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"US$ 530","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Small sh produced are consumed by the household 72%"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" farmers awarded as best sh farmer during national sh week 2014 63 Fish production increased per farming hh* from baseline 155 kg257%Gross margin increased per farming household from baseline US$154 "}],"sieverID":"53795259-2c44-41ea-829e-891efdbbf810","abstract":"The USAID-funded Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia in Bangladesh (CSISA-BD) project is a ve-year initiative implemented through a collaboration between three CGIAR member centers, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and WorldFish. The project aims to increase household income, food security and livelihoods in impoverished and agriculturally-dependent regions of Bangladesh."}

data/part_3/0484558c56f081815bf91cf8ff844c2c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0484558c56f081815bf91cf8ff844c2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b8845f5-4a4b-4a56-ab59-19b3d8018631/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Understanding gender roles in small ruminant health management in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"To help prioritize health interventions small ruminants, 24 veterinarians from 12 national research institutions and agricultural offices learned how to conduct gender-integrated research using participatory methods."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The trainees facilitated 92 focus group discussions across Ethiopia; separate discussions were held for men and women."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Discussions revealed ruminants are particularly important for women to generate income. Statements like 'sheep are like fast growing cabbage in the homestead' or 'sheep are like injera, ready to be eaten' confirmed this."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Men and women assigned highest scores to respiratory diseases. Men gave high scores to neurological diseases observed during herding. Women focused on respiratory diseases as they notice bad smells when cleaning the barns."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Differences in perceptions between men and women about who does how much in small ruminant management were apparent."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Both genders agreed that women are more severely affected by small ruminant diseases since they lack income-generation alternatives."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"Findings of the survey informed the design of a household survey to collect more in-depth data on gender differences in small ruminant health management."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"444 households were enrolled in the study; asking men and women to give their views on gender-related issues."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"This study provided important entry points to design gender-responsive interventions to improve productivity of small ruminants. It also offered an opportunity to collect baseline data to evaluate the impact of these interventions."}]},{"head":"Building capacity","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participatory research","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Household survey Conclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Barbara Wieland [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"16051e64-388e-460d-abac-6da2e7d95f5c","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0497953fb7046ac8cce444a2703d5b8e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0497953fb7046ac8cce444a2703d5b8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1634432-847a-429a-8fb9-ca7b4f4d1353/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Results","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Site Women Abergelle Amhara","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Men preferentially given high-quality cuts Women do not consume whole milk Women more likely to consume butter (which is also used externally for hair and skin)"}]},{"head":"Abergelle Tigray","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Men preferentially given high-quality cuts Women do not consume whole milk Women more likely to consume butter (which is also used externally for hair and skin) Pregnant women prefer liver and kidney"}]},{"head":"Atsbi","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Collection of small pieces from each part of the animal given to women for health Women use butter for cosmetics "}]},{"head":"Borena","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"74c8c0ab-1ba9-4ed0-a3e1-4c2b9e71ac2b","abstract":""}

data/part_3/051908f729690bccd139b5fdc06f46f2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"051908f729690bccd139b5fdc06f46f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3476893-91e9-414b-b19a-85d6b06d6750/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Advising the Central America Agricultural Council on Greenhouse Gas Inventories and the contribution of the agricultural sector to climate change","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Project Title: P1599 -Catalyzing farmer innovations and the adoption of promising management and technological options to facilitate the development of low-carbon cattle value chains in Latin America "}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• I1715 -Fertilization strategies that reduce emissions of nitrous oxide in forage grasses on farm in the low tropics (https://tinyurl.com/2pp33efp)"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• I2515 -Sustainable forage-based production systems in Colombia towards precision and remote livestock (https://tinyurl.com/2g34offy)"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• I1105 -Grazing management innovation to improve animal production and reduce GHG emissions (https://tinyurl.com/2kbovh52)"},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"• I1475 -CCAFS-validated animal nutrition model for methane emissions in Colombia: a tool to develop low-emission livestock options and strategy (https://tinyurl.com/2qqcsggz) Narrative of Evidence: The events were organized around themes interspersing climate change, GHG inventories and mitigation practices. Part 1 was about introducing climate change and measuring methane livestock emissions, IPCC National GHG Inventories and methodologies. Part 2 focused on IPCC National GHG Inventories and guidelines by IPCC. Part 3 was on main Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) in agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sectors. A practice exercise was held to calculate methane emissions from the AFOLU sector in accordance with the IPCC guidelines. Each student presented results with data from their own country and answered questions about results. This course took place November 16-18, 2021, via Zoom and students were officials from the ministries of agriculture and environment of seven countries in Central America and the Caribbean."}]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Review of existing policies and programs and synergies with other policy domains (e.g. animal health, food security, feed hygiene and safety, trade) to support scaling up of LED"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• 45 -Increased capacity for innovations in partner research organizations • 40 -Increased capacity of partner organizations, as evidenced by rate of investments in agricultural research Contributing Centers/PPA partners:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical)"}]},{"head":"Contributing CRPs/PTF:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • Livestock -Livestock"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Is new?: Yes Policy/Investment Type: Policy or Strategy Stage of Maturity of the Process: Stage 1 Amount: <Not Applicable> Geographic Scope: Multi-national Country(ies): Description: A series of training/advising sessions was offered to decision-makers from ministries of agriculture and environment from Central American countries on climate change, GHG accounting and mitigation practices. • El Salvador • El Salvador • Guatemala • Guatemala • Honduras • Honduras • Panama • Panama • Costa Rica • Costa Rica • Belize • Belize • Dominican Republic • Dominican Republic  "}],"sieverID":"be557178-931f-476f-acf2-78a9a76ab3d1","abstract":""}

data/part_3/058abfbefeadf0e0f8f7ac80c1062833.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"058abfbefeadf0e0f8f7ac80c1062833","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7492c039-ea1b-4210-9ced-770974db2b0f/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• Shocks and stresses (weather, environmental, diseases, conflict, economic, political) appear to be rising in frequency and/or intensity, and commonly cascade, with one triggering another."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Today's agri-food systems fail to ensure healthy diets for all -a necessary condition for food security."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• AFSs do not provide equitable and inclusive livelihoods for about half of the world's labor force à 1.3 billion people -who work in agri-food value chains."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Need for the agri-food system …identifying and bundling the right innovations for the right contexts is an intrinsically social process, one that demands cooperation that is in shorter supply than are brilliant scientific insights."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"What are STIBs?"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"HER+ WP2, 2023"},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"'The right combination for one specific objective -in the enlarged case of bundle 1, increasing women entrepreneurs in agricultural value chains will differ from the bundle needed in other cases (like bundle 2, 3).'"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( AFS) transformation Key features of the AFS in the changing context Barrett et al. 2022 essential role of scientific (S) research. decentralized individual and collective human (H) agency that drives systemic change the intrinsic heterogeneity (H) of AFSs locally and globally pervasive spillover (S) effects AFS objectives in the long-run (2045-70) Barrett et al. 2022 climate and environmental sustainability (S) healthy (H) and nutritious diets equitable (E) and inclusive value chains resilience (R) to shocks and stressors, and 'The key point is that science and engineering can design and adapt the raw materials, but ultimately stakeholders must work together to assemble the right bits into fitfor-purpose combinatorial innovations.' "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e752b3a4-f9e4-4d91-b9b0-136a8b462934","abstract":""}

data/part_3/060faff45ae0b11cf46d02bfc4220197.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"060faff45ae0b11cf46d02bfc4220197","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1e3fb7f6-ee5c-4ff7-8169-7064b2c7278a/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"Protocol for assessing bacterial wilt resistance in greenhouse and field conditions Protocol for assessing bacterial wilt resistance in greenhouse and field conditions","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum (Yabuuchi et al., 1995) is the second most important potato disease in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world after late blight (Champoiseau et al., 2010). Globally, the disease has been estimated to affect about 1.7 million hectares of potatoes in approximately 80 countries, with global damage estimates of over USD 950 million per annum (Champoiseau et al., 2009a). In addition to potatoes, the disease also affects over 200 plant species from more than 50 families (Hayward, 1991). The bacterium, which is often endemic in the soil, penetrates the plant through the root system and eventually causes irreversible wilting and death (Muthoni et al., 2012). The disease is also referred to as brown rot in potato."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"This protocol is an updated version of \"Assessing potato clone field resistance to bacterial wilt\" issued in The International Cooperators' Guide (CIP 2007). The first edition of the protocol presents a standard procedure for field assessment of resistance to bacterial wilt for documenting levels of resistance of advanced potato germplasm. The protocol aims at promoting uniform data sharing between institutions dedicated to potato breeding and selection."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"This second edition has included a standardized procedure for greenhouse screening of potato seedlings for bacterial wilt resistance useful for perform genetic studies, parental selection or identification of new sources of resistance in accessions of wild species propagated or maintained as true seed. In addition, it was updated with procedures for phylotype identification based on DNA sequence so far considered the best method for classifying strains."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Epidemiology: Direct yield losses caused by bacterial wilt vary widely according to host, cultivar, climate, soil type, cropping practices and pathogen strain. The disease affects central Himalayan countries in South Asia such as Nepal and Bangladesh, having more than 30% of potato crops affected by R. solanacearum with over 14% reduction in yield to up 100% due to poor cultural practices, such as keeping seed from infected crop (Elphinstone, 2005). In African countries as Uganda and Kenya, yield losses from 30 to 100% have been estimated and increased incidences reported due to the spread and build-up of the disease in the majority of the potato growing areas (Ateka et al., 2001;Kinyua et al., 2005)."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Transmission and spread: R. solanacearum survives in infected plants, plant debris, soil, water, seeds, vegetative propagation material and in the rooting system and rhizosphere of many other host crops and weed. Infected potato seed is the main cause of pathogen's dissemination to long distances. After infestation, R. solanacearum can survive in the soil for many years, period that depends on the pathogen strain and the crop rotation program. The pathogen spreads through irrigation with contaminated water, utilization of infected vegetative planting material, and infested soil adhered to tools, hooves and farmers' shoes. ). Epinasty of the petioles may occur."},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"As the disease develops, massive invasion of the cortex might result in the appearance of water-soaked lesions on the external surface of infected stems and streaky brown discolorations of the stem may be observed on stems above the soil line (Fig. 2) and the leaves may have a bronze tint (Gota, 1992). If an infected stem is cut crosswise (Fig. 3), tiny drops of dirty white or yellowish viscous ooze exude from several vascular bundles (Fig. 4) (Champoiseau et al., 2009b). This test denoted as \"the vascular flow test\" allows us to confirm the presence of the R. solanaceraum a in wilted plants. Under hot and humid conditions, complete wilting occurs, the plant becomes yellow and brown necrotic and eventually the plant dies."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Wilting by R. solanacearum can be confused with wilting caused by other pathogens such as Pectobacterium, Dickeya, Fusarium or Verticillium spp, as well  A plant infected with R. solanacearum may express all or none of the symptoms outlined above, even under environmental conditions that are ideal for the pathogen. If symptoms are not evident on an infected susceptible host, the condition is known as latency. This occurs usually in cool conditions, such as those found in the tropics at altitudes above 2500 MASL or in cool temperate regions."},{"index":8,"size":114,"text":"Warm climates favor multiplication of the bacteria and therefore the development of symptoms. However, symptomless plants may harbor the bacterium and transmit it to progeny tubers. This may lead to severe disease outbreaks or spread to bacterial wilt free areas (Hayward, 1991;French, 1994) Pathogen description: R. solanacearum is gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that grows well at 28 to 32°C strictly in aerobic conditions (Hayward, 1991;Schaad et al., 2001). Individual colonies of normal or virulent isolates are usually visible after 36 to 48 hours. These colonies are characterized by irregular shape, fluidal and entirely white or with a pink center on modified Kelman's medium (MKM) with 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TZC) (Fig. 7) (French et al.,1995)."},{"index":9,"size":96,"text":"Strains of R. solanacearum have previously been grouped into five pathogenic races based on susceptible host plants, and five biovars determined by utilization of a panel of five to eight carbohydrate substrates (Buddenhagen et al., 1962;Hayward, 1964). Most important in potatoes are race 1 and 3. The former occurs in the lowland tropics and warm temperate lands (French, 1994). It has a high temperature optimum (35-37°C). On the other hand, race 3 occurs at higher altitudes (in the tropics) and higher latitudes than race 1 (EPPO, 2004). This race and average temperatures of 20-22°C (French, 1994)."},{"index":10,"size":154,"text":"As for biovars, Biovar 2 (race 3) is known as the potato low temperature race and is found in high latitudes, and high altitudes (from 1,500 to 2,500 MASL) in the tropics (Seal et al., 1999;Hayward, 2000). Race 3/biovar 2A (R3bv2A) causes bacterial wilt of potato in over 90% of cases worldwide because potato is a cool season crop (French, 1994;EPPO, 2004). R3bv2A occurs in the cool tropical highlands and it is widespread in the higher latitudes as far as southern Sweden and southern Argentina (Champoiseau et al., 2009a). Although R3bv2A principally occurs in cool climates, it also occurs in potato plants grown in warmer locations from seed tubers harvested from cool climates (French, 1994). In warmer subtropical and tropical lands, race 1/biovars 1, 3 and 4 occur and bacterial wilt symptoms are severe. This race and their corresponding biovars are expected to spread and cause more severe symptoms under global warming (EPPO 2004)."},{"index":11,"size":117,"text":"Aforementioned classification has not resulted very useful as host ranges overlap and tests to define races are cumbersome. In addition, race determination is not possible, because R. solanacearum strains do not have race-cultivar specificity on plant hosts and with the exception of R3bv2A, the old \"races\" do not have phylogenetic unity (Fegan and Prior, 2005;Champoiseau et al., 2010). Molecular characterization focusing on the variation of selected marker genes resulting in the identification of Phylotypes and sequevars has been proposed as a classification scheme that adds more valuable information about the geographical origin and in some cases the pathogenicity of strains (Fegan and Prior, 2005;Prior and Fegan, 2005). Four Phylotypes and tens of different sequevars have been identified."},{"index":12,"size":97,"text":"Phylotype I includes all strains belonging to biovars 3, 4, and 5 and strains are isolated primarily from Asia. Phylotype II includes strains belonging to biovars 1, 2A and 2T isolated primarily from America. The strain most commonly infecting potato R3bv2A is Phylotype II and has sequevars 1 and 2, race 2 is also a member of Phylotype II. Phylotype III contains strains primarily isolated from Africa and surrounding islands. Strains in this group belong to biovars 1 and 2T. Phylotype IV contains strains isolated primarily from Indonesia belonging to biovars 1, 2 and 2T (Table 1)."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"Table 1. Equivalences among phylotypes, biovars, and races of R. solanacearum (Source: Prior & Fegan, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Species","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ralstonia solanacearum","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phylotype","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"R=Ralstonia syzygii; B= Pseudomonas celebense *This could be 2A (Lilian Gutarra, personal communication)"}]},{"head":"Resistance to bacterial wilt:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"No high level of resistance to bacterial wilt exists in potato cultivars, although some cultivars are less susceptible than others and can give high yields in the presence of the disease. Because race 3 strain belongs to a genetically homogeneous group, the resistance to this race is expected to be more stable than resistance to lowland strains (race 1) of R. solanacearum (French et al. 1998). Breeding for resistance at CIP has resulted in moderate to high levels of resistance to bacterial wilt; however, the high frequency of latent infection in tubers is still a problem (Priou et al. 2001(Priou et al. , 2005)). Latent infection is responsible for spread of the disease and overcoming of resistance (French et al., 1998). The possibility of latent infections demands seed production in areas free of R."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"solanacearum, independently on the level of resistance of the genotype to bacterial wilt. The advantage of the resistant cultivar would be their lower losses upon cultivation in infested commercial fields."}]},{"head":"II. GREENHOUSE SCREENING","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Screening for bacterial wilt resistance at greenhouse can be performed for several purposes, such as 1) to prove if resistance found in new sources is genetically inherited; 2) to identify parents with ability to transmit resistance in a breeding program; 3) to test the resistance of clones against races and/or biovars others than those present in the crop geographical area where the resistance study is conducted; 4) to search for extremely or highly resistant individuals in true seed accessions of wild species."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"It is recommended to develop tuber families from true seed segregating progenies to keep a healthy stock from each individual (see: \"Protocol Procedures for Generation of Potato Tuber Families from true (botanical) seed\" by Mihovilovich et al. 2015). In this case a stem cutting can be taken from each plant 60 days after planting, i.e. 40 days after transplanting to pots. However, when the objective is any of the first two aforementioned, plants derived from seedlings of TS segregating progenies can be directly inoculated."}]},{"head":"III. PROCEDURE:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Maintaining and culturing of R. solanacearum strains:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Pure cultures of R. solanacearum resulting from isolation procedures can be stored for many years at room temperature (15-20 C) in sterilized tap, distilled or deionized water, or at -80°C in liquid culture broth amended to 40% glycerol."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"To obtain fresh cultures, stock suspensions should be streaked on MKM with TZC (French et al. 1995)  "}]},{"head":"Inoculum preparation:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Bacterial suspensions are prepared by culturing strains on MKM without TZC at 30°C for 48 h. The cells are harvested in sterile distilled water and the bacterial concentration evaluated by measuring the optical density (OD) at 600 nm of a diluted aliquot."}]},{"head":"Screening true seed segregating progenies:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"True seed representing a progeny of individuals are sown after GA treatment (1500 ppm) directly in a small tray (Fig. 8) or plastic crates (Fig. 9) containing a soil substrate composed of soil, sand and peat moss in 2:1:1 proportions. Make rows or wholes of 0.  at the eyes or vascular oozing visible upon slicing rotten tubers. The number of symptomatic tubers is recorded for each plant scored as 1."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"The frequency of wilted plants/ progeny is calculated as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"Average for each segregating progeny can then be computed over replications if replicates of the progeny comprising 80 to 120 seedlings were grown at the beginning and randomized in the greenhouse. extracts are analyzed by NCM-ELISA, as described by Priou et al. (1999). The CIP kit to perform the post-enrichment enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on nitrocellulose membrane (NCM-ELISA) is available under request and used according to the protocol indicated in the kit manual (Priou et al. 1999). The presence of R. solanacearum in the tuber extract leads to the development of a purple coloration. All races and biovars of R. solanacearum can be detected with the polyclonal antibodies. The intensity of the coloration is proportional to the bacterial concentration. After enrichment (e.g., multiplication of the bacterial population in the extract), as few as 10 bacteria per ml of tuber extract (cells/ml) can be detected, whereas 10 7 cells/ml or more are necessary if enrichment is not practiced before conducting the immunoassay. Thus, enrichment increases sensitivity of the serological test by a million-fold, allowing the detection of R."}]},{"head":"Latent infection analysis: (","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"solanacearum in potato tubers (or stems) that are latently infected, e.g., with very low infection levels that produce no visible symptoms. Positive results in NCM-ELISA can be confirmed by isolating R. solanacearum on MKM with TZC and plates incubated at 30 ° C for 48 h or by PCR with primers 759/760 (Opina et al., 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Calculating the percentage of total infected tubers of an individual plant (genotype)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Calculate the mean percentage of total infected tubers of all plants (genotypes)"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"scored as 1"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Greenhouse screening can also be used for testing clones through stem cuttings or tuber sprouts. Both can be planted directly into 250 mL plastic cups for inoculation once rooted (see above)."}]},{"head":"Decisions:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Parental donor of a progeny with 20% or more of their individuals scored as 1, and 15%"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"or less of infected tubers can be selected and used in a breeding program."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Likewise, parental donor of a progeny with 20% or more individuals scored as 1, and 30%"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"or less of infected tubers can also be selected is breeder considers this can be a novel or complementary source of moderate levels of resistance"}]},{"head":"Selection of resistant genotypes within progenies:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Genotypes scored as 1 (apparently healthy plants) with 15% or less infected tubers can be considered as resistant while those that achieve 30% are considered moderately resistant."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Resistant genotypes from segregating progenies can be propagated for field trial evaluation from tuber stocks or from two asymptomatic tubers separated at harvest before samples for latent infection analysis were taken. Note that asymptomatic tubers unless rotted under storage due to latent infection can be used upon sprouting for propagation under greenhouse conditions, otherwise the genotype should be discarded."}]},{"head":"IV. FIELD EVALUATION","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Biotic conditions:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Screening potato for resistance to BW requires a field with a reasonably uniform and moderate level of infestation (between 30% to 50% wilt incidence in the previous potato crop) (Priou et al. 1999). Phylotype of the strain present in the field should be identified. Note that cultivars known to be resistant to strains of one phylotype of the bacteria may become susceptible to strains of other phylotype. In addition to the pathogenicity of the strain, phylotyping scheme adds information of the geographical origin."}]},{"head":"Abiotic conditions:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Optimum evaluation conditions depend on the environment under which the strain survive or persist and is more pathogenic to potato. Race 3 biovar 2 that belongs to phylotype II and is primarily pathogenic to potato occurs in the highland tropics and thus persist under cool humid conditions, whereas race 1 biovars 1, 3, 4 that belongs to Phylotype I and occurs in warm subtropical and tropical lowlands."}]},{"head":"Isolation of R. solanacerum from soil samples in semi-selective medium (SMSA):","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"(Taken from The International Plant Diagnostic Network (IPDN), 2014). Soil samples are weighed into 10 g quantities. Each sample is suspended in 100 ml of water or phosphate buffer (4.26 g Na2HPO4 and 2.72g KH2PO4 l-1; pH 7.2; PB) in a conical flask or a heavy gauge polythene bag. The sample is shaken vigorously for 2 minutes and the heavy soil particles were allowed to settle for about 2 minutes. Subsequently, the following steps are undertaken:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"− Draw out a 1.5 ml aliquot from the suspension using a sterile pipette tip and a micropipette, being careful to avoid soil or debris. Transfer the suspension to a sterile Eppendorf tube; this forms the stock suspension (10 0 )."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"− Draw out a 100 μl aliquot from the stock suspension and put it in 900 μl of sterile distilled water in a sterile Eppendorf tube; mix thoroughly by pipetting in and out, while stirring simultaneously with the micro-pipette. This forms the first dilution of the stock suspension (10 -1 )."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"− Dilute the 10 -1 suspension by adding a 100 μl aliquot to 900 μl of sterile distilled water in a flat-bottomed tube to get a 10 -2 suspension."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"− Continue the serial dilution procedure to get a 10 -4 suspension (or higher dilutions if the samples are suspected to have high populations of R. solanacerum."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"− Mix the 10 -4 suspension (or the highest dilution made) thoroughly using a pipette tip and draw out a 100 μl (0.1 ml) aliquot."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"− Place this suspension on a well-set agar plate containing SMSA (Appendix) and spread with a sterile bent glass rod to cover most of the surface of the medium (this is called 'lawn-plating'). Be careful not to splash the suspension to the edge of the medium because counting the colonies at the edges can be difficult or impossible. Note that spreading should be done as soon as the suspension is placed on the medium to avoid 'clumps' of colonies."}]},{"head":"Note:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Changing the pipette tip is not necessary between plating o of any two dilutions of the same sample, PROVIDED THAT YOU START WITH THE LEAST CONCENTRATED SUSPENSION per sample; however, a fresh sterile tip must be used for each separate sample."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Note: Whenever possible, it is advisable to prepare at least two plates for each dilution per sample, to cater for experimental error by using the mean of the counts in those plates − Incubate the plates at 30��C for 48-72 hrs."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"alternatively all solutions can be sterilized by boiling them in water bath for 20 minutes for three successive days (IPDN, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"After autoclaving the basal medium cool it to about 65 C and mix the 10 ml prepared sugar or alcohol solutions each with 90 ml basal medium. For the control, add 10 ml sterile water (without sugar/alcohol) to 90 ml basal medium. Dispensed The color of the medium turns from green to yellow except for sodium L(+) tartrate and L(-) tryptophan for which the medium changes to blue. "}]},{"head":"Phylotype determination:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"For DNA extraction, the bacteria are streaked on MKM without TZC and the plates incubated at 30 C for two days. One colony is suspended in 100 μl of sterile water free of ribonucleases (NFW), boiled for 10 min and kept at -20 C prior to use."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Phylotype specific multiplex PCR (Pmx-PCR) based on primers that amplify specific reference band that recognizes R. solanacearum plus specific amplicons from each phylotype have been developed previously (Fegan & Prior, 2005;Prior and Fegan, 2005). The Pmx-PCR amplifies the 280 bp universal R. solanacearum specific reference band with primers 759/760 (Opina et al., 1997) plus phylotype specific PCR products as follows: a 144 bp amplicon from phylotype I strains; a 372 bp amplicon from phylotype II strains; a 91 bp amplicon from phylotype III strains; and a 213 bp amplicon from phylotype IV strains (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Phylotype Pmx-PCR is carried out in 15 μl final volume of reaction mixture, containing 1 X of the buffer supplied by the manufacturer (Promega), 2.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM of each dNTP, 0.2 μM of each primer (Table 3), 0.3 U of GoTaq G2 Flexi DNA polymerase (PROMEGA) and 1μl DNA template. Amplifications are performed. in an Applied Biosystem Veriti thermocycler as follows: an initial denaturation step at 94ºC for 2 min, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 94ºC for 30 sec, annealing at 59ºC for 30 sec, extension at 72ºC for 23 sec, and a final extension step at 72ºC for 5 min. PCR products (10 μl) are subject to electrophoresis on 2% (w/v) agarose gels and visualized with 0.01 μl /ml GelRedTM 10,000X nucleic acid gel staining (Biotium) and photographed under UV light in The Chemidoc ™ MP Photodocumentation System (BIO-RAD). The size of the amplified fragments is estimated by comparison with a 1 Kb Plus marker ladder.  "}]},{"head":"Field experimental trial:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Assessment trials can be carried out in naturally infested or inoculated fields."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Screening potatoes in naturally infested field requires a reasonable uniform infested field with moderate levels of infestation (between 30 to 50% wilt incidence in the previous potato crop)."}]},{"head":"Inoculum:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Naturally infested fields with heterogeneous field infestation must be planted with a susceptible potato variety during the previous cropping season. At harvest, rotten tubers are uniformly spread on the field and buried to homogenize and enhance soil inoculum levels."}]},{"head":"Field inoculation:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"One month after potato plant emergence, all the individual plants of the trial, controls included, are inoculated by burying a piece of agar culture that contains approximately 3 x 10 9 bacteria at the root level (20 cm deep) using a medium size spade. Special care should be taken not to harm the roots of the young potato plants. A 9 cm diameter plate with a 48 h-culture of R. solanacearum (local isolate) on MKM without TZC will allow the inoculation of about 8 plants (French et al. 1995). Alternatively, the field can be inoculated before establishing the potato evaluation trial. Three or months before planting, rooted stem cuttings of a susceptible potato cultivar are planted into the fields and inoculated 8 weeks later by spraying or dropping a bacterial suspension (3 x 10 9 bacteria) at the base of the stem. Approximately 6 weeks after inoculation, when at least 80% of plants are wilted, the potato plants are buried in the soil."}]},{"head":"Controls:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Resistant controls:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Cruza 148 (CIP 720118): Also known as \"Ndinamagara\" in Africa, recommended as moderately resistant control. The variety can present high rates of latently infected tubers "}]},{"head":"Experimental design:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The plot size or experimental unit should be determined according to the number of tubers available for most of the clones while the experimental design will depend on the number of clones (treatments) to be tested and uniformity of infested field."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"A random complete block design (RCBD) can bear up to 30 clones per block when experimental units are in plots of one row. Other experimental designs such as lattice or alpha design should be considered when experimental units consists of plots of more than one row or otherwise when there are more than 30 clones for testing including controls when the experimental unit consist of one row/plot. At least 3 replications and a minimum of 3 to 5 plants /plot are acceptable, however it is advisable to use up to 5 replications to obtain more reliable results. If sufficient amounts of seed tubers are available, the number of plants can be increased to 10 or 20 per experimental unit in plots of two rows of 5 or 10 plants each, accordingly."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Blocks and sub-blocks within a block (replication) will be displaced with the soil water movement that follows rainfall or furrow irrigation. Inoculum movement can be minimized by building drainage ditches between blocks. Replications can be placed according to a field infestation map."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"If enough healthy seed available, a plot of a susceptible and resistant cultivar should be randomized in every sub-block within a block (replication) of a lattice or alpha design so that the control plots are spread throughout the field and false resistance, due to infection failure resulting from lack of pathogen populations, will be detected."}]},{"head":"Field management:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Agronomic practices are identical to those recommended for locally grown commercial potato crops. Additionally, the following sanitary precautions should be taken to avoid the spread of the pathogen:"}]},{"head":"•","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Workers' shoes and tools are washed and disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite when leaving the field."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Taking into account the field slopes, a 2 meter-deep well is built in the lowest corner of the field to collect run-off water. The well is regularly disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Rotten leftover tubers are removed from the field after harvest."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Harvested tubers that are not taken to the laboratory for evaluation are burned or used exclusively for food consumption."}]},{"head":"Disease assessment:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Plant wilt severity:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Plant emergence should be recorded 45 days after planting. The field should be observed regularly starting 45 days after planting in naturally infested fields to check for the appearance of the first symptoms in the susceptible control varieties."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The first evaluation will take place at 60, and then at 75 and 90 days after planting."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"In inoculated fields, the first evaluation will take place as soon as the first symptoms are observed in the susceptible control, that can be from 20 to 30 days after inoculation and then every 15 days until the susceptible control achieved 80% of plants with the greatest score or dead."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"For each plant, the wilt severity is evaluated using a three-point scale (Figure 12- . Average wilt severity scores for each clone/control can then be computed over replications."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Note: In case of plant death due to a cause other than bacterial wilt, the plant data should be registered in the data sheet and not included in further computation.  Following table 3 only clones with an average wilt score less than or equal to 1.3 are selected and will be evaluated again during the next season to confirm their resistance. Desirable selections are those with average wilt scores equal or smaller than resistant controls."}]},{"head":"Sample destruction:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"All materials (plant, soil or water) and/or cultures resulting from isolation and/or supplies used in the analyses involving Ralstonia solanacearum should be destroyed by autoclaving at a minimum of 121°C (15 psi) for at least 15 minutes before being disposed. All apparatus, equipment and tools should be sterilized appropriately soon after use to prevent any future contamination. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Potato plant showing wilted leaves "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Streak discoloration of the stem Figure. 3. Stem being cut crosswise "},{"text":"Figure. 5 . Figure.5. Oozing due to bacterial wilt "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Colonies of R. solanacearum in MKM with TZC "},{"text":" Figure 8. Seedlings from true seed three weeks after planting "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Inoculation of seedling with a suspension of the bacteria. "},{"text":" Taken fromGutarra et al., 2014) Healthy looking or asymptomatic tubers harvested from apparently healthy plants (score=1) are analyzed for latent infection. Tubers are washed in tap water and analyzed 2 weeks after harvest. Once in the laboratory, healthy looking tubers are disinfected with 70 % alcohol, rinsed with sterile water and checked again. At this stage, tubers exhibiting BW symptoms (visible oozing at tuber eye) are removed and the number recorded for that plant (individual genotype). Samples may consist of single or composite samples of two or three tubers depending on the total number of asymptomatic or healthy looking tubers/plant. Strips along the vascular ring are cut with a flame-sterilized cuticle remover. The samples are placed in a plastic bag, weighed and crushed and homogenized using two ml of sterile sterile citrate extraction buffer per gram of tuber tissue (0.1 M citric acid, 0.1 M sodium citrate, pH 5.6). Bacteria in the tuber extracts are enriched by incubating a mixture of 500 μl with same volume of modified SMSA broth(Elphinstone et al. 1996,   Appendix)  in sterile 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes for 48 h at 30 C. The enriched tuber "},{"text":" 150 μl of the media into the wells of a microtitration plate and seal the plate with sterile (UV-sterilized) plastic tape. The test is performed by adding 40 μl of bacterial suspension in each well of a column of the microtitration plate previously filled with a different alcohol or sugar to the wells, seal the plate with sterile (UV-sterilized) plastic tape and incubate it at 28 C. Results can be observed in 4-7 days. If an isolate utilizes a sugar or alcohol, the color of the medium changes to yellow, otherwise it remains blue-green. In order to differentiate between phenotypes 2A and 2T in biovar 2 prepare test tubes with the same basal medium (2 ml) without agar containing each 1% of D (+) trehalose, D (-) ribose, and L(-) tryptophan or L (+) tartrate. Phenotype 2T gives a positive result with all these carbon sources. "},{"text":"• CIP 394895.7 (BWH87.230R×C90.205): An advanced clone from CIP's bacterial wilt resistance potato breeding program. This clone was classified as resistant in trials against strains from Phylotypes I and II, and low frequency of latent infected tubers (7%) (Gutarra et al. 2014) Susceptibles: • Revolución (CIP 720043) (Naranja x (Katahdin x Mantaro). Available in CIP's genebank • Monalisa: (Bierma A 1 287 x Colmo) A variety from Netherlands. Not available in CIP's Genebank "},{"text":" Average wilt severity score for each tested clone is computed over the total number of plants evaluated in each experimental unit and evaluation dates. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 12. Grade 1 Healthy plant Fig. 13. Grade 2  50% wilted Fig. 14. Grade 3 > 50% wilted "},{"text":"The International Potato Center (known by its Spanish acronym CIP) is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato, and Andean roots and tubers. CIP is dedicated to delivering sustainable sczzience-based solutions to the pressing world issues of hunger, poverty, gender equity, climate change and the preservation of our Earth's fragile biodiversity and natural resources. www.cipotato.org CIP is a member of CGIAR. CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Differentiation of Ralstonia solanacearum biovars based on utilization of various carbon sources Test Test  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Primers used for multiplex PCR to determine phylotypes of the Ralstonia solanacearum species complex. Primer name Primer sequence Expected Remark Primer namePrimer sequenceExpectedRemark   band size  band size Nmult:21:1F    Nmult:21:1F  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Resistance levels to R. solanacearum of clones under field conditions Resistance level Average wilt Percent of visible infected Resistance levelAverage wiltPercent of visible infected  severity score and/or latent infected severity scoreand/or latent infected   tubers tubers Highly resistant 1.0 0 Highly resistant1.00 Resistant 1 1.0 15 Resistant 11.015 Moderately resistant 1.01-1.30 30 Moderately resistant1.01-1.3030 Moderately susceptible 1.31-1.60 Not evaluated Moderately susceptible1.31-1.60Not evaluated Susceptible 1.61-2.20- Not evaluated Susceptible1.61-2.20-Not evaluated Highly susceptible 2.21 Not evaluated Highly susceptible2.21Not evaluated  "}],"sieverID":"489bdeba-77b8-4cf4-ae13-332e7127d0b0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"061dfb12a6e21dba0fa0364fb26b1383","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da5f9d4e-c891-4681-8c8c-df8adb26709d/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"changes in conventional wisdom and practices, that lead to enhanced capacity within innovation systems."}]},{"head":"How can innovation platforms be embedded in different governance, cultural, and political contexts?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Innovation platforms are by nature democratic spaces for joint problem identification, analysis, prioritization, and the collective design and implementation of activities to overcome problems."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"They are part of agricultural systems, and only a very small number of the stakeholders will be represented in the innovation platforms. Many value chains and service providers are active in agricultural systems, and innovation platforms often function around a specific niche in the agricultural system in a specific geographical location (e.g. production of vegetables in Arusha for export)."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"These agricultural systems form part of broader livelihood systems such as agriculture, healthcare, education, industry and infrastructure. The sociopolitical systems govern the rules of the game, including not only formal policies, agreements and standards, but also informal norms and values related to the importance of agriculture in society."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"The implication is that an initiative to set up an innovation platform can draw unexpected responses from stakeholders in the systems within which it operates. The innovation platform may, for example, attract support from high-powered stakeholders, such as politicians. This could be positive, as it increases the chances of success, but could it also put the innovation platform at risk of being co-opted by one particular interest? The establishment could consider the innovation platform as a subversive activity that threatens its power position. How does one decide to proceed if the initiating group still considers it 'the right thing to do'? Generally, innovation platforms with a broad stakeholder support base run a lower risk of being co-opted, or of being seen as subversive."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"A political economy analysis can help to elucidate the power dynamics at play in specific agricultural, livelihood, and socio-political systems."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"In essence, innovation platforms facilitate interaction and collaboration within and between networks of farmers, governmental and non-governmental service providers, policymakers, researchers, private sector players, and other stakeholders in the agricultural system. An important question for development donors and funders of innovation platforms is the extent to which innovation platforms and their outcomes are sustainable. The sustainability issue requires us to consider the following two questions:"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• When can innovation platforms be considered successful?"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• How can innovation platforms be embedded in different governance, cultural and political contexts?"}]},{"head":"When can innovation platforms be considered successful?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Successful innovation platforms should not be sustained indefinitely and are temporary organizational structures. An innovation platform may cease to exist when it has addressed the initially identified challenge. It is thus no longer worth the investment -its contribution to innovation ceases to be significant or there are no funding sources available to support continuation. The three dimensions of sustainability should be carefully distinguished as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Sustainability of the changes that happened through the platform (the innovations);"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Sustainability of the innovation platform itself as a mechanism, niche, or entity for change and collective action;"},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"• Sustainability of stakeholders' capacity to innovate Whereas, the first relates to the outcomes desired and attained by an innovation platform, the second is a measure of organizational sustainability while the third relates to institutionalization of the innovation process, as tested by the platform, diffused through"}]},{"head":"M e m b e r s o f t h e M a p u t o , M oza m b i q u e b e s t p ra c t i c e h u b : a n a r ea f o r j o i n t l ea r n i n g , e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g o f v e g e t a b l e s , u s i n g a v a l u e c h a i n a p p r o a c h .","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"35","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"For the success and sustainability of innovation platforms, there are critical questions that should be asked and answered before deciding to embark on implementing one. These questions should include the following:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• What is the new innovation to be designed and tested (e.g. growing high-quality vegetables by unemployed youth in Arusha)?"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• How can we tailor the innovation to specific types of farmers or agro-ecological areas (e.g. training and other needs specifically for youth)?"},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"• How can the existing innovation be scaled, either through upscaling (e.g. have youth groups form dedicated market linkages with supermarkets or make them produce for export markets) or outscaling (e.g. making youth trainer-of-trainers In most countries, such as Tanzania, it is considered positive that rural actors organize themselves, sit down together around joint constraints, and selforganize interventions to overcome these constraints."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"In other countries, such processes may be viewed with suspicion by governments or other dominant parties, who may feel that these platforms are not needed, or undermining their role, mandate and function."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"The bottom line here is that project designers and implementers need to think critically about how to support innovation platforms in the governance or socio-political context in which they are being implemented."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"Members of the Maputo, Mozambique best practice hub: an area for joint learning, experimentation and marketing of vegetables, using a value chain approach (Photo: Hipolito Malia). "}]},{"head":"'Best practice hubs': linking unemployed youth to lucrative vegetable markets","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Best practice hubs are designed to address knowledge gaps among unemployed youth along the vegetable value chain and serve as centers for education, crop trials and experimentation. Training targets specific pre-identified market opportunities and is both technical as business-oriented; during 3-month training sessions, covering an entire growing season, youth is drawn into communities of practice, where they can learn, evaluate and adapt not only vegetable production technologies but also effective value chain analysis skills to support income-generating activities and build strong market relationships. BPHs are a model for bridging research practice by focusing interventions in targeted geographical areas, embedded within vegetable farming communities. Technologies have to be simple, affordable and available and include drip irrigation, cheap and locally available greenhouses and knowledge about seeds, fertilizers and biopesticides that are readily available. Young farmers were put in touch with markets, finance institutions and, most importantly, each other through an innovation platform. Such an approach was highly successful in Arusha, Tanzania where five youth groups were trained at a best practice hub, and linked with local supermarkets, such as Nakumatt and Soko Kuu Green Grocers Stalls Arusha, and export companies, such as HomeVeg and Serengeti Fresh. Some groups were able to produce vegetable crops according to production certification standards."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" and entice them to share their knowledge and expand their groups)?Overall, innovation platforms can fulfill an important function in the pathway leading to the scaling of agricultural innovations by bringing together different groups of stakeholders that all contribute to analyzing a complex problem or challenge. In that sense, they all bring a piece of the puzzle needed to overcome the problem. During the process of jointly analyzing problems, stakeholders become aware of how their problems are interrelated and how joint action is needed to address them. This is an important prerequisite for achieving impact at scale; realizing the needs and interests of different stakeholder groups and ensuring that the innovations developed are not only technically sound, but also affordable for farmers, and coherent with government policies and objectives.It is important for not only farmers, but also forpolicymakers and the private sector to be a part of the decision-making and innovation processes -a precondition for supporting the wider use and spread of validated technologies and other types of innovations developed in innovation platforms. The process and its participants provide legitimacy to the outputs for key scaling actors in upper levels of agricultural innovation systems, as these outputs are developed in a familiar location known and related to the key scaling actors. This goes to show that innovation platforms -through their inclusive, demand-driven, and participatory action research methods -can provide an important basis for impactful innovation processes. For more information: Schut, M., Andersson, J.A., Dror, I., Kamanda, J., Sartas, M., Mur, R., Kassam, S., Brouwer, H., Stoian, D., Devaux, A., Velasco, C., Gramzow, A., Dubois, T., Flor, R.J., Gummert, M., Buizer, D., McDougall, C., Davis, K., Homann-Kee Tui, S., Lundy, M., 2017. Guidelines for Innovation Platforms in Agricultural Research for Development. Decision support for research, development and funding agencies on how to design, budget and implement impactful Innovation Platforms. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and Wageningen University (WUR) under the CGIAR Research Program on Roots Tubers and Bananas (RTB), Kigali, Rwanda. Available online: http://www.rtb.cgiar.org/blog/publication/ guidelines-innovation-platforms-agriculturalresearch-development/. "}],"sieverID":"e25f6186-eb36-4aac-966e-62b033b0b8ec","abstract":"The sustainability and success of Innovation Platforms » Continued on Pg. 34 I nnovation platforms are fast becoming part of the mantra of agricultural research for development (AR4D) projects and programs. They have become an increasingly popular approach to enhancing multi-stakeholder collaboration in AR4D. Their basic tenet is that stakeholders in the agricultural sector (farmers, government, private sector) depend on one another to solve their problems, and hence need a space where they can learn, negotiate, and coordinate to overcome challenges and capture opportunities through a facilitated innovation process. It is however very important to look at innovation platforms critically in defining their features, key functions, and what they can and, as importantly, cannot do."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06334f79bb533aed9e71f9f4a101470a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9665c92f-6322-4bf6-a0da-a9d93cf7dd97/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Sources of Resistance to Tobacco streak virus in Wild Arachis (Fabaceae: Papilionoidae) Germplasm","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":304,"text":"Peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important oil, food, and forage legume grown on 6.72 million ha in India (5). Nearly 11% of the total peanut production in India comes from the Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh state, which has the distinction of being the world's largest peanut-producing region, with more than 70% of the cultivated area devoted to peanut production. The stem necrosis disease caused by Tobacco streak virus (TSV; genus Ilarvirus and family Bromoviridae) on peanut first was noticed in Anantapur district in 2000 (19,23). The virus epidemic that year affected 225,000 ha, resulting in yield losses valued at US$65 million (23). Since then, the TSV incidence has been monitored regularly in Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining regions in Karnataka state, with incidence ranging from 0 to 15% in 2002 to 0 to 3% in 2003 and 1 to 80% in 2004 (12,20). TSV infection at early stages of plant growth results in severe necrotic symptoms on leaves, petioles, and stems leading to premature death of the plant. Virus infection at later stages of plant growth (>40 days old) results in partial necrosis on leaves and main stem, proliferation of axillary buds, and drastic reductions in pod yield. Some plants may not become necrotic, but are severely stunted, having small leaves with or without chlorosis (23). The TSV isolate from peanut is serologically related to the TSV-WC strain, and shares high levels of nucleotide sequence identity (85 to 90%) with this strain in the movement and coat protein gene sequences (1,23). Three species of thrips, Megalurothrips usitatus, Frankliniella schultzei, and Scirtothrips dorsalis, transmitted the virus to peanut, apparently by mechanical inoculation in the presence of infected pollen rather than as direct vectors (20,25). The virus is not seedborne in peanut, and cleistogamous flowering prevents further spread of virus from peanut."},{"index":2,"size":297,"text":"Since the first identification of TSV in 2000, the virus has been found on several vegetable and oilseed crops in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu states in India (7,11,12). The virus causes asymptomatic infections in several common weed species, including Parthenium hysterophorus, Ageratum conyzoides, and Corchorus trilocularis, whose pollen is a major source of TSV, and these plants also harbor thrips (20,21). Disease incidence in peanut and other susceptible crops is increasing at an alarming rate and is very high during lowrainfall and drought years. None of the peanut cultivars currently grown in India has resistance to TSV infection. Management strategies based on cultural practices, such as seed treatment with imidacloprid to control the thrips vector, barrier crops with fast-growing tall cereals to prevent insect movement, removal of TSVsusceptible weed hosts, and maintaining optimal plant density were shown to reduce disease incidence, but are seldom practiced under subsistence agriculture systems (21). In our earlier studies, none of the 150 peanut cultivars and advanced breeding lines evaluated for TSV resistance by sap inoculation were resistant (8,21). Symptom expression was delayed in three breeding lines, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) groundnut variety (ICGV) nos. 92267, 99029, and 01276, but they succumbed under high disease pressure (21). This situation necessitated a search for sources of durable resistance in wild Arachis germplasms, which are reported to carry genes for many agronomic traits as well as resistance genes against several pathogens and insect pests (9,14). Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate 56 germplasm accessions from 20 wild Arachis spp. in four sections for TSV resistance under greenhouse conditions, and reports the occurrence of resistance to TSV in some accessions of the section Arachis that can be introgressed into elite peanut cultivars through interspecific breeding programs."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Seed material and plant growth conditions. Fifty-six wild Arachis accessions were obtained from the R. S. Paroda Gene Bank at ICRISAT, Patancheru, India (Table 1). Peanut cvs. JL 24 and K 1375 were used as susceptible controls. The 56 wild Arachis accessions were tested in batches from June to November 2004, along with susceptible controls. Promising accessions selected from this trial were reevaluated from September to November 2005, and again from May to July 2006, under similar plant growth conditions. Seed of each accession were treated with thiram (Chemet Chemicals Ltd., Gujarat, India) (3 mg g -1 of seed), sown in 22-cm-diameter plastic pots filled with sterilized Alfisols, and maintained in an insect-proof greenhouse (80% humidity and 25 to 30°C under natural light). The experiments were arranged in a randomized block design with two replications, with each pot containing three to seven seedlings considered as a replication."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Virus culture and inoculation. The TSV culture used in the study was isolated from diseased peanut plants collected in Anantapur during 2000, and subsequently established on Phaseolus vulgaris cv. French bean, which was lyophilized and preserved at -70°C (20). A week before inoculation, sap extracts from the lyophilized leaf material were inoculated onto cotyledons of French bean as described by Reddy et al. (23). Symptomatic leaves of these plants were ground in 0.05 M phosphate buffer (1:10 wt/vol) containing 0.15% monothioglycerol and the inoculum was applied onto Carborundum-dusted upper leaf surfaces of all the three quadrifoliate leaves of wild Arachis and control plants at a three-leaf growth stage. Inoculated leaves were washed with distilled water and kept in the dark for 12 to 14 h. Plants were monitored for TSV infection at 2-week intervals until the plants were 3 months old."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Detection of TSV. Polyclonal antibodies raised to TSV were used to assay all the inoculated and subsequently emerged leaves of all test plants by direct-antigen coating enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAC-ELISA) as described by Hobbs et al. (6). Briefly, test leaves were extracted in 0.1 M carbonate buffer, pH 9.5, (1:20 wt/vol), and 100 µl were loaded into wells of ELISA plates. TSV antiserum was used at a 1:15,000 dilution after crossadsorption with healthy peanut leaf extract (1:20 wt/vol). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-labeled goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin Gs (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis) at 1:5,000 dilution and paranitrophenyl phosphate at 0.5 mg ml -1 in 10% (vol/vol) diethanolamine buffer, pH 9.8, were used to detect antigen-antibody complexes. Optical density at 405 nm was measured in a Titertek Multiskan ELISA reader after 60 min. Readings were considered virus positive if the absorbance values of samples  were threefold higher than those of the healthy control samples. ELISA tests for TSV in inoculated leaves were done a week after inoculation, and tests were repeated at 2-week intervals in newly emerged leaves until the plants were 3 months old. Individual replicated observations were converted to percentages and subjected to angular transformation by substituting 0% by 1/4n and 100% by 100 -1/4n, where n is the plant number. Data were subjected to analysis of variance using the GenStat 9.1 statistical package (Lawes Agricultural Trust, Rothamsted Experimental Station, England). Least significant differences at a 5% level of significance were used to test the differences among accessions."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"The inoculated leaves of the 56 Arachis accessions developed chlorotic or necrotic patches and tested positive to TSV in ELISA (data not shown). The susceptible wild Arachis accessions developed systemic symptoms within 20 to 30 days post inoculation. Symptoms on these accessions were similar to those in cultivated peanut, such as leaf chlorosis followed by necrosis of leaves, petioles, and stems, and premature death of plants within 6 weeks post inoculation. Asymptomatic infection, delayed symptom expression, or symptom remission was not observed in the tested wild Arachis accessions. Percent infection in controls as well as test accessions reached a maximum level by 60 days after inoculation. In ELISA, only symptomatic plants were positive for TSV and all the asymptomatic plants were negative. The susceptible controls (peanut cvs. JL 24 and K 1375) had 50 to 100% infection, and typical TSV symptoms developed 12 to 20 days post inoculation (Tables 1, 2, and 3). The absorbance at 405 nm values of TSVpositive samples ranged between 1.5 and 3.0 and were less than 0.3 for uninfected and healthy control plants (data not shown)."},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"Of the 56 accessions initially evaluated, 12 had no systemic infection (Table 1). Eight of these accessions (ICRISAT groundnut accession [ICG] nos. 8195, 8200, 8205, 8209, 11550, 11552, 12165, and 13210) were completely free from infection in both inoculated and subsequently emerged leaves. Virus was detected in inoculated leaves of four accessions (ICG nos. 8144, 8139, 13171, and 13168), but not in subsequently emerged leaves (Table 1). Among the remaining 44 accessions, infection in inoculated and systemic leaves ranged between 0 and 100% (Table 1). In four accessions (ICG nos. 8123, 8124, 8137, and 8203) virus was not detected in inoculated leaves; however, systemic infection was observed in 10 to 30% of these plants. This indicates a lack of correlation between virus in inoculated leaves and systemic infection. Moreover, the reactions of some genotypes were not consistent during reevaluations despite using similar plant growth and inoculation conditions (Table 2). For instance, during the first trial, ICG nos. 8124, 8137, and 12165 had less than 16% systemic infection whereas, in the second trial, the infection rate was greater than 70%, (Tables 1 and 2). Because of this situation, emphasis was placed on repeated testing of promising accessions in order to select accessions that had consistent resistance to systemic TSV infection."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"All the accessions that had less than 35% systemically infected plants in the 2004 experiment were reevaluated during 2005; however, ICG nos. 8186, 13257, and 11552 were not retested due to nonavailability of seed (Table 2). All the resistant accessions belong to section Arachis. Between 0 and 100% of the plants in each of the 21 accessions that were evaluated during 2005 became systemically infected (Table 2). None of the plants of ICG nos. 8139, 8144, 8195, 8200, 11550, and 13210 had systemic infections in either 2004 or 2005 (Tables 1 and 2). In addition, systemic infection was not observed in ICG nos. 8203 and 13233, which had 30 to 33% systemically infected plants in 2004. In the 2005 trial, only ICG no. 8144 was free of TSV infection in both inoculated and subsequently emerged leaves. Surprisingly, accessions ICG nos. 8209, 12165, 13171, and 13168, which had no systemic infection during the earlier trial, had 50 to 87.5% systemically infected plants in the second screening (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"Seven accessions (ICG nos. 8139, 8195, 8200, 8203, 8205, 11550, and 13210) that had 0 to 35% infection in the first two trials were evaluated during 2006 (Table 3). ICG 8144 and ICG 13233, which had 0 to 33% systemic infection during the first two trials, were not tested due to seed limitation. TSV was not detected in the systemic leaves of any of these accessions even though TSV was detected in 24 to 81% of inoculated leaves. The lack of systemic infection in repeated trials, despite the fact that some of these plants were positive to TSV infection in inoculated leaves, demonstrated consistent systemic resistance reactions to TSV (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The viruses that have been recognized as economically important on peanut worldwide are Cucumber mosaic virus, Cowpea mild mottle virus, Groundnut ringspot virus, Peanut bud necrosis virus (PBNV), Peanut stripe virus, Peanut clump virus, Indian peanut clump virus, Peanut mottle virus, Peanut stunt virus, Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), and groundnut rosette disease virus complex (22). Although TSV occurrence on peanut has been reported from Brazil (4) and South Africa (2), the virus was less prevalent and less important in Brazil, and was detected on only two peanut plants in South Africa, where it was described to cause chlorosis and malformed growth of young leaves (2). In contrast, TSV has emerged as a major production constraint on peanut in India. Reasons for such severe TSV epidemics are not known. Due to lack of effective TSV resistance in peanut cultivars, wild Arachis spp. were evaluated to identify sources of resistance that could be used in breeding programs."},{"index":2,"size":354,"text":"The genus Arachis consists of 69 species placed under nine sections (10). The ICRISAT gene bank holds 452 accessions of 42 wild Arachis spp. representing eight sections (9,14). In the present study, 56 wild accessions were evaluated for TSV resistance (Table 1), followed by reevaluation of accessions that had lower incidence of systemic infection. Eight TSV resistant accessions were identified: ICG nos. 8139, 8200, 11550, 8195, 8203, and 8205 belonging to A. duranensis; ICG 13210 belonging to A. stenosperma; and ICG 8144 belonging to A. villosa. Although these genotypes are yet to be evaluated under field conditions in TSVendemic areas, we hypothesize that the resistance will be effective against natural infection because the accessions were challenged with a high dosage of virus inoculum. Moreover, selection of genotypes with TSV resistance based on the genotype performance under natural occurrence of the disease in the field was precluded by the fact that TSV occurrence is sporadic and difficult to predict under the field situations. Our previous field trials to identify TSV resistance in peanut varieties, conducted during the 2001-03 rainy seasons (June to November) at Kadiri and Raichur, Andhra Pradesh, were inconclusive due to low natural incidence in the experimental plots (R. D. V. J. Prasadarao, unpublished data). Under such conditions, all plants may not be exposed to TSV inoculum; therefore, the level of true resistance cannot be assessed based on field observations only. Several studies have shown that experimental transmission of virus by mechanical sap inoculation or using viruliferous vectors under greenhouse conditions is effective to evaluate the level of resistance in a genotype by ensuring uniform inoculum pressure and growth conditions (13,16,24). In addition, Mandal et al. (16) reported that genotypes such as Georgia Green that are susceptible to TSWV by mechanical inoculation showed effective resistance against thripsborne inoculum under field conditions. Reddy et al. (24) reported that, of seven wild Arachis accessions that were field resistant to thrips-borne PBNV inoculum, only three accessions were resistant to PBNV when tested by mechanical sap inoculations under greenhouse conditions. These examples indicate the robustness of the mechanical inoculation method for evaluating virus resistance in peanut genotypes."},{"index":3,"size":314,"text":"We found that mechanical transmission of TSV from peanut to peanut was relatively difficult and often resulted in a significant number of escapes. A similar situation was reported with TSWV transmission from peanut to peanut (15). To enhance the transmission efficiency, we investigated the factors influencing the mechanical transmission of TSV to peanut and found that (i) serial passage of virus by mechanical transmission onto peanut or other susceptible herbaceous hosts resulted in attenuation of symptoms; (ii) transmission of TSV from peanut to peanut resulted in less than 60% infection, but 70 to 100% infection was obtained when the virus was transmitted from French bean to peanut; (iii) use of various combinations of antioxidants, abrasives, and inoculation methods did not significantly affect infectivity; and (iv) day temperatures of greater than 40°C (April to May) and night temperatures of less than 15°C (December) significantly reduced infectivity and symptom expression (data not presented). Based on these observations, the mechanical sap inoculation conditions (described in this study) were optimized for evaluation of TSV resistance in the Arachis germplasm by administering a large dosage of virus inoculum under greenhouse conditions. This procedure usually resulted in more than 80% transmission rate in highly susceptible cultivars such as JL 24 (Tables 1,  2, and 3). In the susceptible cv. K 1375, only 50 and 70% of the plants were infected in two experiments (Tables 1 and 2). However, this accession was regarded as highly susceptible to TSV as per the criteria set in this study (>35% infected plants). The most likely explanation for the variability in TSV transmission rates of highly susceptible cultivars such as JL 24 and K 1375, and even in wild Arachis accessions could be escapes. For this reason, emphasis has been placed on repeated testing of promising accessions to assess the virus resistance. All eight resistant accession selected had consistent resistant responses across all three trials."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"Differences in virus infection in the inoculated leaves and subsequently emerged leaves was observed in susceptible controls and test plants. On a few occasions, higher incidence of systemic infection compared with the inoculated leaves was observed. For instance, virus was detected in the inoculated leaves of 40 and 50% of the systemically infected JL 24 and ICG 8208, respectively (Table 1). This could be due to low virus concentration in the inoculated leaves that were undetectable by ELISA at 1 week post inoculation. This is likely because virus was detected in such leaves when retested 2 weeks after inoculation (data not presented). However, at 2 weeks post inoculation, inoculated leaves of most of the test plants were senesced or damaged due to necrosis, precluding routine testing. In most cases, the incidence of infection in inoculated and systemic leaves was similar (100% infection in ICG nos. 8135, 8198, and 11563; 16.5% in 11564; and 80% in 11563; Table 1) or higher in inoculated leaves (ICG nos. 8206 and 8199; Table 1); therefore, the data suggest that virus reaches adequate concentration in inoculated leaves by 1 week post inoculation to provide for systemic movement in susceptible accessions."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"Accessions from the same species varied in their reactions to TSV. For instance, 6 of 16 A. duranensis accessions evaluated were resistant to TSV (Table 1). These differences in disease reaction may be due to genetic variation within the species, as has been observed earlier in wild Arachis spp. (18,24,27). In most of the resistant accessions, virus multiplication was detected in inoculated leaves, suggesting that the resistance mechanism results from a block to systemic spread of the virus. Grafting experiments, which were not done in this study, could provide information on whether any of these genotypes were immune to TSV infection (3). A similar mechanism (that is, lack of systemic spread of virus from inoculated leaves in spite of repeated mechanical sap inoculations) was reported for PBNV resistance in wild Arachis germplasm (24)."},{"index":6,"size":174,"text":"The resistant accessions ICG nos. 8139 and 11550 also possess high levels of resistance to rust (Puccinia arachidis) and late leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis personata) (18) and ICG no. 8144 to Peanut bud necrosis virus (24) Thus, these accessions possess resistance to multiple pathogens and might be used to develop multiple disease-resistant peanut cultivars through interspecific breeding programs. All the TSV-resistant accessions are in section Arachis, have an 'A-genome' in common with the cultivated peanut, and are cross compatible with A. hypogaea. Seed of resistant accessions are available at the ICRISAT gene bank for utilization in breeding programs. Earlier studies have used accessions from section Arachis in conventional breeding programs to transfer resistance to rust and late leaf spot into agronomically elite cultivars (17,26). Therefore, there is a potential to transfer TSV resistance into widely adapted peanut cultivars. Work has been initiated at ICRI-SAT to develop interspecific hybrids using ICG nos. 8139 and 8144 for TSV resistance. To our knowledge, this is the first report of identification of resistance to TSV in wild Arachis germplasm."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"a Percent infection based on virus detection in enzyme linked-immunosorbent assay. Numbers in parenthesis = angular transformed values. b ICG = International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics groundnut accession number. c SEM = standard error of the mean. d LSD = least significant difference. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Responses of accessions of wild Arachis inoculated with Tobacco streak virus (TSV) under greenhouse conditions during June to November 2004  "},{"text":"Mean percent infection a Section, species (ICG no.) b No. of plants tested Inoculated leaves Subsequently produced leaves  Arachis batizocoi    Arachis batizocoi 8124 6 0 (0.01) 16.5 (0.17) 812460 (0.01)16.5 (0.17) 8209 9 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 820990 (0.01)0 (0.01) 8210 7 100 (1.38) 100 (1.38) 82107100 (1.38)100 (1.38) 13160 11 91 (1.14) 100 (1.34) 131601191 (1.14)100 (1.34) A. benensis    A. benensis 13257 15 13 (0.13) 13 (0.13) 132571513 (0.13)13 (0.13) A. cardenasii    A. cardenasii 11559 8 75 (0.85) 75 (0.85) 11559875 (0.85)75 (0.85) 11561 7 71 (0.79) 71 (0.79) 11561771 (0.79)71 (0.79) 11562 5 25 (0.27) 25 (0.27) 11562525 (0.27)25 (0.27) 11563 12 83 (0.98) 83 (0.98) 115631283 (0.98)83 (0.98) 11564 6 16.5 (0.17) 16.5 (0.17) 11564616.5 (0.17)16.5 (0.17) 11566 10 20 (0.2) 10 (0.11) 115661020 (0.2)10 (0.11) 12165 10 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 12165100 (0.01)0 (0.01) A. correntina    A. correntina 8132 14 79 (0.91) 79 (0.91) 81321479 (0.91)79 (0.91) A. duranensis    A. duranensis 8123 10 0 (0.01) 10 (0.11) 8123100 (0.01)10 (0.11) 8139 10 10 (0.11) 0 (0.01) 81391010 (0.11)0 (0.01) 8195 8 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 819580 (0.01)0 (0.01) 8196 8 88 (1.08) 88 (1.08) 8196888 (1.08)88 (1.08) 8199 10 100 (1.35) 70 (0.78) 819910100 (1.35)70 (0.78) 8200 10 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 8200100 (0.01)0 (0.01) 8201 9 89 (1.10) 89 (1.10) 8201989 (1.10)89 (1.10) 8202 6 100 (1.40) 83 (098) 82026100 (1.40)83 (098) 8203 10 0 (0.01) 30 (0.31) 8203100 (0.01)30 (0.31) 8204 5 100 (1.41) 100 (1.41) 82045100 (1.41)100 (1.41) 8205 10 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 8205100 (0.01)0 (0.01) 8208 6 50 (0.52) 100 (1.40) 8208650 (0.52)100 (1.40) 11550 10 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 11550100 (0.01)0 (0.01) 11552 5 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 1155250 (0.01)0 (0.01) 11554 8 63 (0.68) 38 (0.39) 11554863 (0.68)38 (0.39) 13200 7 46 (0.49) 46 (0.49) 13200746 (0.49)46 (0.49) A. helodes    A. helodes 8952 6 83 (0.98) 67 (0.73) 8952683 (0.98)67 (0.73) A. kempff-mercadoi    A. kempff-mercadoi 8959 5 100 (1.41) 80 (0.93) 89595100 (1.41)80 (0.93) A. kuhlmannii    A. kuhlmannii 8192 5 80 (0.93) 100 (1.41) 8192580 (0.93)100 (1.41) A. ipaensis    A. ipaensis 8206 7 100 (1.38) 71 (0.79) 82067100 (1.38)71 (0.79) A. monticola    A. monticola 8135 13 100 (1.32) 85 (1.02) 813513100 (1.32)85 (1.02) 8197 6 100 (1.40) 100 (1.40) 81976100 (1.40)100 (1.40) 8198 11 100 (1.34) 100 (1.34) 819811100 (1.34)100 (1.34) A. stenosperma    A. stenosperma 8126 5 80 (0.93) 40 (0.41) 8126580 (0.93)40 (0.41) 8137 6 0 (0.01) 16.5 (0.17) 813760 (0.01)16.5 (0.17) 13171 7 16.5 (0.17) 0 (0.01) 13171716.5 (0.17)0 (0.01) 13172 9 45 (0.47) 12.5 (0.13) 13172945 (0.47)12.5 (0.13) 13188 7 86 (1.04) 86 (1.04) 13188786 (1.04)86 (1.04) 13210 6 0 (0.01) 0 (0.01) 1321060 (0.01)0 (0.01) 13223 10 33.5 (0.37) 33.5 (0.37) 132231033.5 (0.37)33.5 (0.37) 13233 6 16.5 (0.17) 33 (0.34) 13233616.5 (0.17)33 (0.34) A. villosa    A. villosa 8144 7 54 (0.59) 0 (0.01) 8144754 (0.59)0 (0.01) 13168 7 12.5 (0.13) 0 (0.01) 13168712.5 (0.13)0 (0.01) 13259 8 25 (0.25) 38 (0.39) 13259825 (0.25)38 (0.39) A. rigonii    A. rigonii 8186 9 56 (0.59) 22 (0.22) 8186956 (0.59)22 (0.22) Arachis (species unknown)    Arachis (species unknown) 4982 12 100 (1.39) 58 (0.62) 498212100 (1.39)58 (0.62) Procumbentes appressipila    Procumbentes appressipila 8128 12 100 (1.33) 92 (1.12) 812812100 (1.33)92 (1.12)    (continued on next page) (continued on next page)  "},{"text":"Table 1 . (continued from preceding page)  "},{"text":"Mean percent infection a Section, species (ICG no.) b No. of plants tested Inoculated leaves     Subsequently produced Subsequently produced    leaves leaves 8129 5 40 (0.41) 40 (0.41) 8129540 (0.41)40 (0.41) P. rigonii    P. rigonii 8904 5 60 (0.64) 100 (1.41) 8904560 (0.64)100 (1.41) P. kretschmeri    P. kretschmeri 8191 8 100 (1.37) 88 (1.08) 81918100 (1.37)88 (1.08) Erectoides paraguariensis    Erectoides paraguariensis 8141 14 100 (1.31) 86 (1.04) 814114100 (1.31)86 (1.04) E. stenophylla    E. stenophylla 8215 10 100 (1.35) 100 (1.35) 821510100 (1.35)100 (1.35) Rhizomatosae glabrata    Rhizomatosae glabrata 8937 9 100 (1.36) 100 (1.36) 89379100 (1.36)100 (1.36) Control (A. hypogaea)    Control (A. hypogaea) JL 24 10 40 (0.41) 100 (1.41) JL 241040 (0.41)100 (1.41) K 1375 10 50 (0.53) 70 (0.79) K 13751050 (0.53)70 (0.79) SEM (±) c … -0.0624 -0.0582 SEM (±) c…-0.0624-0.0582 LSD (P = 5%) d … -0.175 -0.163 LSD (P = 5%) d…-0.175-0.163  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Response of selected wild Arachis accessions for resistance to Tobacco streak virus (TSV) under greenhouse conditions during September to November 2005 Mean percent infection a Mean percent infection a  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Response of Tobacco streak virus (TSV)-resistant wild Arachis accessions to artificial inoculation with TSV under greenhouse conditions during May to July 2006 Percent infection based on virus detection in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, n = number of plants tested, number in parenthesis = angular transformed values, and NT = not tested. b ICG = International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics groundnut accession number.   Trial I a   Trial II a  Trial I aTrial II a   Mean percent infection  Mean percent infection Mean percent infectionMean percent infection Section, species (ICG no.) b n Inoculated leaves Subsequently produced leaves n Inoculated leaves Subsequently produced leaves Section, species (ICG no.) bnInoculated leaves Subsequently produced leavesnInoculated leaves Subsequently produced leaves Arachis duranensis       Arachis duranensis 8139 10 72 (0.88) 0 (0.009) 8 0 (0) 0 (0) 81391072 (0.88)0 (0.009)80 (0)0 (0) 8195 17 36 (0.37) 0 (0.003) NT NT NT 81951736 (0.37)0 (0.003)NTNTNT 8200 19 29 (0.3) 0 (0.003) 9 55 (0.58) 0 (0) 82001929 (0.3)0 (0.003)955 (0.58)0 (0) 8203 10 23.75 (0.25) 0 (0.002) NT NT NT 82031023.75 (0.25)0 (0.002)NTNTNT 8205 16 23.5 (0.24) 0 (0.002) NT NT NT 82051623.5 (0.24)0 (0.002)NTNTNT 11550 17 43.75 (0.46) 0 (0.004) 6 0 (0) 0 (0) 115501743.75 (0.46)0 (0.004)60 (0)0 (0) A. stenosperma       A. stenosperma 13210 16 81 (1) 0 (0.009) NT NT NT 132101681 (1)0 (0.009)NTNTNT A. hypogaea       A. hypogaea JL 24 20 67.5 (0.75) 60 (0.007) 20 40 (0.416) 80 (0.937) JL 242067.5 (0.75)60 (0.007)2040 (0.416)80 (0.937) SEM (±) c … (0.12) (0.001) … (0.0432) (0.0353) SEM (±) c…(0.12)(0.001)…(0.0432)(0.0353) LSD (P = 5%) d … (0.35) (0.003) … (0.1381) (0.1128) LSD (P = 5%) d…(0.35)(0.003)…(0.1381)(0.1128)  "}],"sieverID":"e12fd1d9-dcda-4040-8945-88e7800b09e0","abstract":"Stem necrosis disease caused by Tobacco streak virus (TSV), first recognized in 2000, has emerged as a potential threat to peanut (Arachis hypogaea) in southern states of India. The virus induces severe necrosis of shoots leading to death of the plant, and plants that survive are malformed, with severe reduction in pod yield. All the currently grown peanut cultivars in India are highly susceptible to the virus. Therefore, wild relatives of peanut were evaluated to identify potential sources of resistance to TSV infection. In all, 56 germplasm accessions from 20 wild Arachis spp. in four sections (Arachis, Erectoides, Procumbente, and Rhizomatosae), along with susceptible peanut cultivars (JL 24 and K 1375), were evaluated for resistance to TSV under greenhouse conditions using mechanical sap inoculations. Systemic virus infection, determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in the test accessions ranged between 0 and 100%. Twenty-four accessions in section Arachis that had 0 to 35% systemically infected plants were retested, and systemic infection was not detected in eight of these accessions in repeated trials in the greenhouse. These are International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics groundnut (ICG) accession nos. 8139, 8195, 8200, 8203, 8205, and 11550 belonging to  A. duranensis; ICG 8144 belonging to A. villosa; and ICG 13210 belonging to A. stenosperma.   Even though the resistant accessions had 0 to 100% TSV infection in inoculated leaves, TSV was not detected in the subsequently emerged leaves. This is the first report of TSV resistance in Arachis spp. The eight TSV resistant accessions are cross compatible with A. hypogaea for utilization in breeding for stem necrosis disease resistance."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0681a9978e4b287e179c224520925deb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6a69149-c31d-4c82-a1a2-03acdd89d89a/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Unlocking the Potential of Agribusiness in Africa through Youth Participation: An Impact Evaluation of N-Power Agro Empowerment Program in Nigeria","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Africa's young people are faced with a major socioeconomic problem of unemployment [1] despite being home to the youngest and most quickly growing population in the world. There are over 330 million people aged between 15 and 30 years, with about 195 million currently living in the rural areas [2], and 60%-70% of the population is below 30 years [3]. According to the United Nations, the youth are individuals within the age group of 15 to 24 years [4]. However, the National Policy on Youth Development in Nigeria defines the youth as individuals within the age group of 18 and 35 years [5]. Since many of these young African men and women resides in rural areas, they tend to have limited opportunities for gainful employment [6]. Nevertheless, they have unexploited potentials to transform the agricultural sector through their youthfulness, innovation, and entrepreneurship [7]."},{"index":2,"size":289,"text":"Nigeria is a paradigm of widespread youth unemployment which has been a central issue to the economy, particularly as it relates to policies in agricultural transformation. The youth unemployment poses grave economic and social problems and requires urgent attention since the youth are the engine room that propels any society to greater heights [8]. This worrisome situation has led to several debates that have focused on the impacts of various patterns of structural changes in economies on the creation of jobs. Despite the various interventions by successive governments' in reducing the unemployment rate, the percentage remains high [9] and as at the third quarter of 2018, the unemployment rate rose to 23.13%, up from 21.1% in 2010; while the youth unemployment rate stood at 55.4% [10]. Since about 60% of the 200 million population being youth, and of which 55.4% of them are unemployed/underemployed; youth unemployment remains a challenge up until today [11]. Against this backdrop, agribusiness is seen as a good strategy out of this problem, since with increased investment and adequate policies, agribusiness and agricultural programs hold considerable potential to provide opportunities for gainful employment for the teeming Nigerian youth [12], and a few studies, such as Abioye and Ogunniyi; Lyocks et al.; Muhammad-Lawal et al.; Yunusa and Giroh [12][13][14][15] have investigated the role of agribusiness in employment generation for the youth. Although they all assert that the participation of the youth in agribusiness would create more employment and reduce poverty among them, none has been able to evaluate the impact of existing agricultural programs on employment creation among young people in Nigeria. Surprisingly, there is a dearth of evidence on what worked and what did not work well, making it difficult to make informed evidence-based policies."},{"index":3,"size":440,"text":"To improve rural livelihood, provide employment (including youths) and ensure food security, the Nigerian government has over the years came up with different initiatives for agricultural development. Between 1985 and 2019, they introduced the small-scale industry and youth employment schemes under the Directorate of Food, Road, and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Directorate of Employment (NDE), [16], and Youth Enterprise with Innovation in Nigeria referred to as YouWIN. DFRRI was established in 1985 to reduce rural-urban migration and poverty among the youth, but inconsistency in policy and inadequate involvement of rural farmers and young adults hampered the program [17,18]. While certain achievements were visible, others are contestable, depicting that DFRRI was a mixed bag of failure [17]. According to Ejue [17], DFRRI eventually collapsed and died a natural death from the lack of a culture of continuity in government policies and programs. The NDE established in 1986 provided micro-credit to participants to start a project of their choice as well as to become self-employed [16]. Similarly, in 2001, the New Nigeria Agricultural Policy was enacted. The main aims of this program were self-sufficiency in the basic food supply, attainment of food security by introducing improved seeds and recognition of the potentials of youth and small-scale farmers as the main food producers [19]. Although a major part of this policy was in favor of the youth and smallholders, there is no literature capturing the evaluation after the expiration of the policy. Also, the subsequent introduction of the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) policy in 2011 to address the problems not tackled by past policies shows that the problems are still in existence and there is still much more to be achieved. Despite the restructuring objectives of the ATA policies, a high rate of youth unemployment still exists. There is a high level of importation of agricultural products, with food insecurity still at its peak [20]. Some other programs were the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS), National Special Program for Food Security (NSPFS), and Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS) [21,22]. While Yami et al. [23] opine that governments and development partners have implemented various interventions to inspire the youth to engage in agribusiness, agriculture in Nigeria has not received substantial support from the government because the country has failed to achieve the 10% minimum budgetary allocation to agriculture following the Mozambique Maputo declaration in 2014 [12]. This hints at the lack of support for young people since they are the drivers of the economy. To reverse this trend, the federal government of Nigeria (FGN) introduced N-Power as one of the National Social Investment Programs (NSIP) in 2016 which is currently still running."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"This study, therefore, attempts to examine the impacts of the N-Power Agro Program on creating employment and improving income through agribusiness for the Nigerian youth. The program focused on improving the economy through training and creating employment opportunities for youth in Nigeria [24]. In this paper, after the introductory section, the next section discusses the empirical review of the N-power program. It is followed by the section on materials and methods. The fourth section is on results and their discussion. The article ends with the last section on the conclusion."}]},{"head":"Empirical Review","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"N-Power Program","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":518,"text":"N-Power program or N-Power, in short, is a part of the federal government of Nigeria's (FGN) Development Plan 2015-2020. N-Power is the largest post-tertiary jobs program in Africa which is coordinated by the Office of the Vice President [25]. As an arm of the NSIP, it is designed to create jobs and empower Nigerians between the ages of 18 and 35 years. With the average age of farmers in Nigeria placed at 50-60 years, the government strategically targets young people with this initiative to encourage their participation in agriculture and agribusiness; this is because the present state of decline in agriculture production is dimming the hope of attaining the vision of food security by 2050. This program, therefore, aims at equipping young men and women with the skills and experience necessary to improve their employability and entrepreneurial potentials. Its modus operandi is based on learn-work-entrepreneurship (LWE) [24]. This is created to helping them in acquiring and developing a life-long skill needed to become solution providers in their communities and vital players in the National and International markets. The core policy thrust of the N-Power Program is large-scale skill development. This program is linked to the government's policies in the economic, employment and social development arenas. It is aimed at addressing the challenges of youth unemployment by providing a structure for large-scale and relevant acquisition and development of work skills while linking its core and outcomes to fixing inadequate public services and stimulating the larger economy [24]. With the empowerment program, the Nigerian government desires to tackle the unemployment challenge while also integrating the youths in agricultural activities. The modular programs under N-Power ensured that each participant learned and practiced most of what is necessary to find or create work. The N-Power volunteer corps involved a wide-scale deployment of 500,000 trained graduates who are assisting in improving the inadequacies in the public services in agriculture, education, health, and civic education. Some of these graduates have been helping in bringing to action Nigeria's economic and strategic aspirations of achieving food security and selfsufficiency and also working as a platform for diversifying the economy. N-Power is preparing young Nigerians for a knowledge economy where equipped with world-class skills and certification, they become innovators and movers in the domestic and global markets. Nigeria will have a pool of software developers, hardware service professionals, animators, graphic artists, building services professionals, artisans and others [26]. It also focuses on providing non-graduates with relevant technical and business skills that enhance their outlook for work and livelihood. Following the wide acceptance of the program, it currently runs across Nigeria's 36 States and the FCT. By the last quarter of 2018, the N-Power program had successfully empowered over 500,000 young men and women nationwide and also currently rolled out applications to empower another 400,000 youth by July 2020. This success was largely attributed to efficient coordination [27]. Operationally, these N-Power volunteers are paid a monthly stipend of N30,000 and given mobile devices with relevant content for continuous learning to facilitate their ability to successfully implement their selected vocation while enabling them to take ownership of their lives."}]},{"head":"N-Power Agro Program","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"N-Agro volunteers who form part of the 500,000 N-Power Corps participants are trained to provide support and advisory service to farmers across the country by way of disseminating the required knowledge in the area of extension services as well as gathering data of Nigeria's agricultural assets. They have been acting as intermediaries between the farmers and the Research Institutions. They operate as facilitators and communicators, helping farmers in their decisionmaking and ensuring that appropriate knowledge is implemented to obtain the best results on farms [28]. N-Power Agro program is vital to empowering the youth since many of the youths involved in agriculture during the production season often tend to take non-farm jobs to ensure stable income during the off-season, hence the need for an intervention program that will ensure that youths are actively involved in agriculture all year round in order to achieve food security [18]. Therefore, it is one of the ways that the FGN planned to diversify the economy towards attaining self-sufficiency in continuous food production for the country. Furthermore, an effective and well-coordinated agricultural extension system is seen as vital to the attainment of sustainable national food selfsufficiency. To establish this system, FGN engaged qualified young Nigerians through the N-Power Agro program in December 2016. N-Agro relies on the use of technology as the country aspires to identify soil types, farm sizes, and irrigation data, and ensure that our farmers are operating optimally. By March 2017, N-Power Agro volunteers started to function as intermediaries between research and farmers after they had undergone induction training before deployment. Moreover, participants also benefited from a compulsory development program for employability and entrepreneurship skills. Although the government aimed at the attainment of sustainable national food self-sufficiency through the N-Agro volunteers, they also will build the participants for a longlife career around agriculture or in allied fields with destinations such as Agricultural extension services consultant, seeds, fertilizers, and other input aggregators, farm managers, public sector jobs in agriculture, various industries and manufacturers of agricultural products, farming cooperatives management, pest control companies, self-employment or working as a farming consultant [28]."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The study was conducted in southwestern Nigeria. Our targeted population was the N-Power Agro applicants from southwestern Nigeria (Oyo, Ogun, and Lagos States). These states were selected based on their similarities in terms of regional agricultural engagements and also have a fair representation of larger youth covered by the program."}]},{"head":"Sampling Procedures and Types of Data/Analytical Techniques","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":339,"text":"The data for this study were collected using a well-structured pre-tested questionnaire and the N-Power administrative dataset (which contains contact details of applicants and the sampling frame of participants and non-participants). Data were collected on socio-economic characteristics of the youth, mobilization strategies using ICT, incomes, benefits and constraints on mobilization under the N-Power Program. Our targeted population was N-Power Agro applicants from southwestern Nigeria (Oyo, Ogun and Lagos States). Two-stage cluster sampling techniques were employed for data collection for this study. The first stage involved dividing each State into three agricultural zones/clusters. The second stage involved a random selection of N-Power participants and nonparticipants from the nine clusters/villages using probability proportional to size (i.e., more individuals were selected in larger villages). This sampling procedure resulted in a sample size of 645 individuals, 345 participants and 300 nonparticipants. It is important to note that to ensure uniformity, we sampled both participants and nonparticipants that share similar characteristics in terms of sex, age, educational level and income. The survey was carried out using face-to-face interviews with questionnaires by trained enumerators. The questionnaires (See Supplementary Materials for full detail) were administered to the participants during their monthly group meetings at the local government area offices while for the nonparticipants, we visited them individually across the study areas which was very difficult to achieve. The difficulty in obtaining data from the nonparticipants is due to their dispersed nature, therefore, leading to unequal representation from both groups. The data collected from the field were analyzed with the STATA ® 14 software using descriptive techniques (frequency counts, percentages, standard deviation and means) and inferential techniques (logistic regression model and sharp regression discontinuity). Information obtained using the questionnaires include youth perception to agribusiness; factors influencing their decision to engage in agribusiness; the potential of N-Agro to generate employment; online test score during registration; perception about the N-Power in reducing unemployment among the youths; the willingness of the respondent to take up agribusiness as an occupation and the aspiration of the youth after the N-Power Agro program."}]},{"head":"Descriptive Analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, tables, percentages, mean and standard deviation were used to describe the unique characteristics possessed by young people which are vital for agribusiness development in Nigeria and the perceived benefits for youth involvement in N-Power Agro."}]},{"head":"Logistic Regression Models","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":374,"text":"Logistic regression was developed by a statistician named David Cox in 1958 [29]. The logistic model (or logit model) is a widely used statistical model that, in its basic form, uses a logistic function to model a binary dependent variable, many more complex extensions exist. Logistic regression (or logit regression) involves estimating the parameters of a logistic model; which is a form of binomial regression. The advantages of using the logistic regression model are; the output is more informative than any other classification algorithms, and it expresses the relationship between an outcome variable and each of its predictors. To analyze the factors influencing the decision to create employment through agribusiness, following Anila and Kiani [30], the logit model was employed to predict the probability of willingness, since the dependent variable is binary. To choose whether to use the Logit or Probit model, we checked the data distribution through \"xy\" scatter plot and calculated the value of kurtosis. Since the kurtosis value was positive, we then settled to choose Logistic regression to analyze the factors influencing the decision or choice of young people to be self-employed through agribusiness. Like in linear regression we assume that some sets of independent variables are useful for predicting the dependent values. The model is specified thus; RDD is an important model in the toolkit of any applied researcher interested in unveiling the causal effects of policies. Thistlethwaite and Campbell [31] were the ones to first introduce the concept regression discontinuity design (RDD), which is an alternative method for evaluating social programs. They were interested in identifying the causal impacts of merit awards, assigned based on observed test scores, on future academic outcomes. Their approach created much criticism which later died down. This approach was later revived by some economists [32][33][34]; Hahn, Todd and van der Klaauw [32] formalized it; Imbens and Wooldridge [35] reinforced its estimation approaches which enables it to be applicable to answer various research questions. Over the last twenty years, the use of RDD has increased exponentially as researchers have used it to evaluate including, antidiscrimination laws; electoral accountability; the impact of unionization; SME policies; social assistance programs (conditional cash transfers program) and educational programs such as delayed school enrolment, school grants and financial aids [32,33,[36][37][38]."}]},{"head":"Sharp Regression Discontinuity","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":393,"text":"To evaluate the potential of the N-Power Agro Program to generate income for the youth, the Sharp RD method was employed. We used a ''sharp'' RD design instead of ''fuzzy'' RD design since the treatment variable is a deterministic function of the regression variable (test score). In the sharp version of the RD design, every subject (respondent) is assigned a score and a treatment is given to all units whose score is above the cutoff and withheld from all units whose score is below it. The probability of treatment changes from 0 to 1 at the cutoff. If there are no crossovers and no no-shows, the design is then said to be sharp. Following Rubin; Imbens and Lemieux [39,40], the sharp regression discontinuity (RD) design was employed to estimate the causal effects and treatment effects on the potential outcomes. It is used when treatment status is a deterministic and discontinuous function of a covariate, xi. In the basic setting for the sharp RD design, there are three fundamental components in the RD design which are (i) the score is continuously distributed and has only one dimension, (ii) there is only one cut off, and (iii) compliance with treatment assignment is perfect, i.e., all units with scores equal to or greater than the cutoff actually received the treatment, and all units with scores below the cutoff failed to receive the treatment and instead received the control condition. This setup is known as the Sharp RD design. The effect of the treatment is potentially heterogeneous across units. Let Yi0 and Yi1 denote the pair of potential outcomes for unit i. Yi0 is the outcome without exposure to the treatment and Yi1 is the outcome given exposure to the treatment. Interest is in some comparison of Yi0 and Yi1. Typically, the focus of this study is on the differences Yi1-Yi0. The fundamental problem of causal inference is that we never observe the pair Yi0 and Yi1 together. We therefore typically focus on the average effects of the treatment, that is, averages of Yi1-Yi0 over (sub)populations, rather than on unit-level effects. For unit i is the outcome corresponding to the treatment received and Ti0,1 denotes the treatment received with Ti=0 if unit i was not exposed to the treatment and Ti = 1 if otherwise, Porter [33] states that the outcome observed can then be written as"},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"In the sharp RD design, the treatment assignment (Ti) rule implies that if we know the unit's score, we know with certainty whether that unit was assigned to the treatment or the control condition. This is a key defining feature of any RD design: the probability of treatment assignment as a function of the score changes discontinuously at the cutoff. Sharp RD setup was employed because compliance with treatment is perfect against fuzzy where treatment is imperfect. Thus, in the sharp RD design, the assignment is a deterministic function of one of the covariates, the forcing (or treatment-determining) variable Ti = fXi≥c"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"(3)"},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"All units with a covariate value of at least c are assigned to the treatment group (and participation is mandatory for these individuals). All units with a covariate value less than c are assigned to the control group (members of this group are not eligible for the treatment). In the sharp RD design, the focus is on the discontinuity in the conditional expectation of the outcome given the covariate to uncover an average causal effect of the treatment:"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"which is interpreted as the average causal effect of the treatment at the discontinuity point"},{"index":6,"size":351,"text":"There is a possibility of encountering a sharp turn in [ | ] which may be mistaken for a jump from one regression line to another. To reduce the likelihood of such mistakes, we looked only at data in a neighborhood around the discontinuity. Therefore, a nonparametric approach to RD requires good estimates of the mean of yi in small neighborhoods to the right and left of x0. Obtaining such estimates is tricky. The first problem is that working in a small neighborhood of the cutoff means that we do not have much data. In addition, the sample average is biased for the population average in the neighborhood of a boundary (N-Power cutoff score). A solution to this problem is the use of a nonparametric version of regression called local linear regression [34]. The estimation procedure employed in this study is the local linear regression. In the RD context, the straightforward way to estimate treatment effects is to take the difference between mean outcomes for the treatment and control bins immediately next to the cutoff point. However, this approach of comparing means in the two bins adjacent to the cut-point is generally biased about the cutoff point [41]. Using the means for the two bins with bandwidth h immediately to the right and left of the cut-point produces a biased estimator. As the bandwidth decreases, the bias decreases, but it can still be substantial. To reduce this boundary bias, it is recommended that instead of using a simple difference of means, local linear regression should be used [32]. The local linear regression can simply be thought of as estimating a linear regression on the two bins adjacent to the cut-point, allowing the slope and intercept to differ on either side of the cutoff point. Another advantage of the local linear regression is that it does not require functional forms assumption and put more weight on observation closest to the cutoff [35]. This is equivalent to estimating impacts on a subset of the data within a chosen bandwidth h to the left and right of the cut-point, using the following regression model:"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"=the average value of the outcome for those in the treatment group after controlling for the rating variable;"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"=the outcome measure for observation i;"},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"=1 if observation i is assigned to the treatment group and 0 otherwise; =the coefficient, for treatment assignment, represents the marginal impact of the program at the cutoff point."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socioeconomic Characteristics","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of respondents according to their socioeconomic characteristics. The majority (76%) of respondents were male, similar to the findings by Enimola et. al.; Ayanwuyi et. al, Ogunremi et al. [42][43][44]. This reveals that males are more inclined to farming (physical strength) and entrepreneurship and also have a higher tendency to utilize ICT better thereby favoring their selection during the application."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Most (53.57%) of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro fall within the age bracket of 26 to 31 years with a mean age of 30 years and a standard deviation of 3.86. This agrees with the definition of youth by FGN, but in contrast to the findings of Enimola et. al.; Ayanwuyi et al. [42,43] that found out that most the participants fell within the age range 21 to 25 years; about 38.74% of those that did not participate in N-Power Agro fall between the ages of 26 and 31 years. About 60% of both groups of respondents (participants and non-participants) were single. This conforms with the findings of Ogunremi et al. [44] who opine that since a high percentage of the youth are single and young; they had latent energy in them to go into entrepreneurship training without distraction from family members. Similarly, the youth do not marry early due to lack of job or just starting on a job which is in contrast with the findings of Ayanwuyi et al. [43] who argue that youth tend to get married early."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"About 52.50% of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro attained a BSc degree which is in contrast to the findings of Enimola et al. [42] while about 66.48% of those that did not participate in N-Power Agro also attained BSc degree. The high level of literacy observed among the respondents supports FAO [45], which argued that the youth literacy rate in Nigeria has been on the rise since 1991, it grew from 66.4% in 2008 to about 80% in 2015. It also implies that education is accorded higher importance in Southwestern Nigeria."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Most (53.57%) of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro have the household size that ranges between 4 and 6 people while about 54.95% of those that did not participate in N-Power Agro has the same household size corroborating the result obtained by Hyeladi et al. [46]."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Most (72.14%) of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro have agribusiness experience that ranges between 1 and 5 years while about 76.37% of those that did not participate in N-Power Agro also have the same length of agribusiness experience. This result is similar to the findings of Muhammad-Lawal et al. [15]."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"Above 51% of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro own an agribusiness while about 60% of those that did not participate in N-Power Agro do not own an agribusiness. This result is similar to the findings of Muhammad-Lawal et al. [15]. The high percentage of not owning an agribusiness among the nonparticipants may likely be a result of not benefiting from the program. This shows that N-Power Agro has led to the creation of more employment among the beneficiaries."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"The majority (87.14%) of the respondents that participated in N-Power Agro had gained various agricultural skills from their higher education institution while about 75% of those that did not participate in N-Power had also gained various agricultural skills. This, therefore, implies that most of them will be willing to invest their savings into various agribusiness ventures. "}]},{"head":"Factors Influencing the Decision or Choice of Young Adults to Create Employment through Agribusiness","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Table 2 presents the results from the logistic regression about the factors influencing the decision or choice of young people to create employment through agribusiness. The model fitted the data well since the LR chi 2 (8) = (21.77) and the corresponding Prob > chi 2 = 0.0034, indicating that all the independent variables taking together statistically and significantly explained the variation in the probability of willingness to create employment through agribusiness by respondents. The age significantly (positive) affected the willingness to create employment by respondents at a 1% level. The sign on the age coefficient implies that a 1% increase in age will increase by 29% the probability of choosing to create employment through agribusiness. This means that the younger the participants, the higher their probability of creating employment. According to Jibowu [47], people in this age category possess some characteristics such as innovation proneness, minimal risk aversion, faster reaction rate, less fear of failure, greater physical strength, greater knowledge acquisition propensity, love for adventure and faster rate of learning among others. This indicated that most of the participants were in their active productive years, which revealed that N-Power trains youth who could be regarded as productive assets to the society and vital sources of employment creation. Therefore, the age variable has helped in creating employment for the participants."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"The level of education significantly (negative) affected the willingness to create employment by respondents at a 1% level. The sign on the coefficient implies that a 1% increase in the level of education will reduce by 53% the probability of choosing to create employment through agribusiness, meaning the higher the youth become educated beyond a bachelor degree, the lower the likelihood of creating self-employment. The negative significant impact of increasing level of education on influencing the decision of young people to create jobs through agribusiness was expected as many youths see agriculture as unattractive. With most participants having at least a bachelor's degree, their probability of choosing to be self-employed through agribusiness tended to decline especially when they have the opportunity of white-collar jobs and further studies."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Years of agribusiness experience were found to be positive and significant at the 10% level. The sign on the coefficient implies that a 1% increase in years of agribusiness experience will increase the probability of choosing to be self-employed through agribusiness by 100.8%."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Employment status was found to be negative and significant at the 10% level. The sign on the coefficient implies that a 1% increase in employed respondents will reduce the probability of choosing to be self-employed through agribusiness by in fact 100.7%. The factors influencing the decision or choice of young people to create employment through agribusiness are similar to existing findings Ayinde et al.; Sudarshanie; Ayanwuyi et al. [43,48,49]."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"From the results discussed above, the level of education, employment status, years of agribusiness experience, and age were all significant at 10%, 5%, and 1% probability level with different signs. This implied that the predictors included in the model are jointly capable of predicting the choice to create employment through agribusiness. "}]},{"head":"Regression Discontinuity Plots","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":337,"text":"N-Power participants were selected based on the test score; an online test taken by unemployed graduate youth. RDD was used to determine whether the selected participants for the program can increase their income due to their participation. Sharp RD compares the income of applicants just above and just below the cutoff point (80 marks). It is generally expected that applicants with higher scores to be more likely to earn a higher income by been selected for the program, but this effect was be controlled by fitting a regression to the relationship between income and scores, at least in the neighborhood of the test cutoff. It is this jump in regression lines that gives RD its name [50]. The applicants who scored just below and above 80 (score ranges from 71-89) have similar characteristics such as age, education, and being youth, but the applicants who scored 80 and above got been selected and those below were not., i.e., RDD was used to compare the applicants below and above the 80 marks and consider the differences in outcomes to give the program effect. We now formally exploit the discontinuity in income by estimating the RD models discussed in Section 3.2 above. After some experiments, we decided to limit our analysis to test scores 71-89 because the data outside this range are of little use for helping to fit the model around the discontinuity point. In any case, we showed through RD plots below (Figures 1-4) that our results are very robust to the choice of the test score range. The plots give an idea of the overall fit while also exhibiting graphically the sharp RD estimate. To get the RD plot, we constructed figure using the local sample means over nonoverlapping bins partitioning restricted support of Xi, together with polynomial regression curve estimates for control and treatment units separately. We also included the binned means to capture the behavior of the cloud of points and to show whether there are other discontinuities in the data away from the cutoff."},{"index":2,"size":298,"text":"Figures 1-4 illustrate the identification strategy in the sharp RD setup based on the population values, the conditional probability of receiving the treatment, PrTi = 1|X = x against the covariate x. At x = 80 the probability jumps from 0 to 1. There were no crossovers or no no-show and there is a jump in density of observation at the cutoff. Thus, the design is sharp. However, the idea of focusing on observations near the cutoff value-what Angrist and Lavy [33] called a \"discontinuity sample\"suggests valuable robustness. In Figure 1 above, a linear regression line was fitted, and this shows that there is a discontinuity between the regression lines at the cutoff, which leads to the conclusion that the treatment (N-Power program) was effective and there was no manipulation of the assignment variable. In this case, the relationship between the income, test score, and outcome is approximately linear. This is the best-case scenario as we used the data from the whole distribution to identify the slope of the line on either side.  To further test the validity of the underlying relationship, a higher-order polynomial fit was imposed on the data in Figures 2-4. The higher-order polynomial regression curves were estimated using the sample means and constructed over nonoverlapping regions of the support of the running variable Xi, for control and treatment units separately. This sample means provided us with an approximation of the population regression functions, but they also help to visualize the dispersion of the data, which was used to detect other potential discontinuities away from the cutoff (80, as a form of a validation test). The graphic illustration in Figures 2-4 reveals that there is a discontinuity in the design and concludes that the treatment had an effect and the interaction term was correctly modeled.  "}]},{"head":"Sharp Regression Discontinuity Design for Average Treatment Effects (ATE) on the Treated","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":284,"text":"Table 3 below shows the estimate of the ATE on the treated. The ATE shows that participation in the N-Power program increased the income of participants on average by N30,191.46 compared to non-N-Power participants and this estimate is statistically significant at 1%. Thus, the N-Power program had a positive impact on the participant's income generation. The diagnostics revealed that the prob > F was significant at 1% which shows that the model is a good fit. Post-estimation tests to validate the ATE shows that the optimal bandwidths of 9.75 at the left and right of the cutoff estimated using the uniform kernel approach and samples nearest to the cutoff were valid. This was revealed in the conventional, bias-correction, and robustness values which were all statistically significant at 1% in Table 3 below. This, therefore, implies that the participants are more likely to engage in agribusiness as a result of their participation in the N-Power Agro program than would be the case among youths not selected for the program. This further implies that participation in the program had a positive and significant impact on their income and on the decision to engage in agribusiness. Table 4 shows the results of the distribution of the perceived benefits by N-Power Agro participants. It shows that respondents selected multiple choices and it was shown that a majority, 48.10% of the participants opted for monthly stipends while a minority, about 5.19%, choose monthly stipends & Extension services. This shows that most of the participants depended on the program due to the monthly incentives (stipends) they are getting from it and not really because of the skills and training. This is similar to the findings of Ogunremi et al. [44]. "}]},{"head":"Saving Potentials of the Youth in the N-Power Agro Program","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Figure 5 below shows the results of the savings potentials of participants from their stipends to start an agribusiness venture. It shows that about 80% of the participants cannot start any new agribusiness venture as they do not make enough savings from their monthly stipends. This implies that the government needs to move away from incentivizing youths, but rather empower them to have enough capital to start agribusiness. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"The centrality of agribusiness as the interface between the youth, agriculture, and the rural sector cannot be easily rejected. Africa needs a vibrant agribusiness sector to create jobs and wealth and that will not be possible without capable and ambitious youth entrepreneurs. This is because agribusiness can create vast employment opportunities, higher incomes, and the poverty reduction mechanism for the crowds of unemployed young people in Africa. Therefore, engaging the youth especially those living in the rural areas in agribusiness has become an important strategy to create employment opportunities globally and Africa in particular. To achieve this, various African governments and organizations have implemented various interventions that facilitate youth engagement in agribusiness for several years. Surprisingly, there is a dearth of evidence on what worked and what did not work well, making it difficult make informed evidence-based policy. Therefore, in this context, this paper evaluated the impacts of the N-Power Agro Program in creating employment and improving income through agribusiness for the youth. The program aimed to improve the economy through training and creating employment opportunities for youth in Nigeria."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Following the completion of conclusive research, descriptive statistics were used to show the unique characteristics possessed by youths which are vital in agribusiness development. Factors such as age, marital status, agricultural skill, agricultural graduate, and employment status significantly influenced the choice of participating in the N-Power Agro program. More than 50% of the participants have attained a Higher Educational qualification at the university level. This implies that education is accorded higher importance in Southwestern Nigeria. Most of the respondents have also gained entrepreneurship skills from their higher educational institutions. This shows the significant role higher educational institutions in Nigeria are playing to enshrine entrepreneurial skills into the lives of their graduates. Similarly, more than 50% of the participants own or have created employment than nonparticipants. This implies that the N-Power empowerment program has been able to create employment and agribusinesses for the participants of this program than nonparticipants through their monthly stipends. Therefore, the N-Power empowerment program implemented to inspire the engagement of the youth in agriculture has succeeded in influencing their willingness towards agribusiness. Finally, the collective entrepreneurial training and skills (gained before or after participation) were paramount to enhancing the self-employment of the youth in agribusiness."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"In the final stage of the study, findings from RDD established that the impact of the N-Power Agro program on income generation of Nigeria's youth was positive with the regression discontinuity design analysis recording an increase in the participants' income than for nonparticipants. The ATE shows that participation in the N-Power program increased the income of participants on average by N30,191.46 compared to non-N-Power participants and this estimate is statistically significant at 1%. Thus, the N-Power program had a slightly positive impact above their monthly stipends on the participant's income generation."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"Nevertheless, despite the many positive outcomes of this intervention, with most participants being older in the youth bracket and having at least a bachelor's degree, their probability of choosing to be self-employed through agribusiness tended to decline especially when they have the opportunity of white-collar jobs and further studies. Nevertheless, the majority are willing to venture into agribusiness but are hampered by a lack of startup capital as they are unable to make considerable savings from their N30,000 monthly stipend. Similarly, the requirement of strength demanded by agriculture hindered the females from benefiting much from this program as shown by the large participation by the males."},{"index":5,"size":182,"text":"Finally, for Nigeria's and African agriculture to regain its lost glory of ensuring food security and relevance in the world economy through exportation, the aging farmers need to be replaced by vibrant young men and women who can meet up with global technological development that will lead to increased agricultural productivity. In addition, wider implementation of the N-Power Agro program in other countries could help improve incomes, transform employment economies and develop agricultural markets in Africa, but that will require not just innovative thinking and willingness to change within governments and higher education institutions, but also the support of development partners and other key stakeholders. Young people can develop the African agribusiness sector to create youth employment, promote food security, increase consumption, and improve agricultural export earnings. With the multiplier effect, this will raise the standards of living and community welfare, and ultimately stimulate socio-economic transformation in Africa to achieve the African Development Bank's vision of the Feed Africa Strategy which is to transform African Agriculture into a competitive and inclusive agribusiness sector that creates wealth, improves lives and secures the environment."}]},{"head":"Policy Recommendations","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Consequent upon the findings of the study, this study makes the following policy recommendations."},{"index":2,"size":269,"text":"1. The government and policymakers should upscale this program by strengthening, monitoring and encouraging measures that would promote more female participation (especially in the input and processing sector) in the N-Power Agro program to provide more employment, job creation, and at the same time increase income generation, hence improving the standard of living of female youth; 2. Rather than scrap or lay-off current participants, the FGN should engage them to grow and supply the necessary agricultural products needed for the Home-grown School Feeding Program initiated by the government. This will surely boost the confidence of the youth to do more and boost food production in the country towards ensuring attainment of the sustainable development goals on food security rather than incentivizing them monthly; 3. Intervention programs that particularly focus on younger people between 20 and 35 years who have much passion for agribusiness should be established; 4. Incentivizing youth through empowerment programs should be discouraged, but rather to empower the youths into active participation by taking ownership of their business venture. The government should rather empower the youth into venturing into agribusiness by supporting them with capital, land, training, and also ensuring proper monitoring; 5. Nigeria's agricultural value chain is slowly evolving with limited diversification in an environment that yet undermines the progress, therefore, there is a need for policy interventions that will address the constraints inherent in the space; 6. The policymakers must know that the central part of policies should target youth as partners and leaders in development. It should be a collaborative intervention that will ensure youths are fully consulted and integrated into the decision-making process."}]},{"head":"Limitation of the study:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the impact evaluation of the N-Power program on income and employment creation through agribusiness among the youth in Nigeria using regression discontinuity design. Despite the above important contributions, our study relies on cross-sectional data which limits the generalizability of the results beyond one year. As a result, we could not estimate income changes over time. Moreover, since our data are not nationally representative, the results and policy implications should be interpreted with caution. We hope our approach could be replicated in future studies based on a longitudinal survey that will fill the above gaps. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Polynomial fit of order 1. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Polynomial fit of order 2. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Polynomial fit of order 3. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Polynomial fit of order 4. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Savings potentials from N-Agro stipends to start an agribusiness venture. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Distribution of respondents according to their socioeconomic characteristics. Variable Participants% (n=345) Nonparticipants% (n = 300) VariableParticipants% (n=345)Nonparticipants% (n = 300) Sex   Sex Male 76.79 75.00 Male76.7975.00 Age   Age 20-25 years 7.50 23.35 20-25 years7.5023.35 26-31 years 53.57 38.74 26-31 years53.5738.74 32-37 years 38.21 37.64 32-37 years38.2137.64 Above 37 years 0.71 0.27 Above 37 years0.710.27 Marital status   Marital status Single 60.00 59.07 Single60.0059.07 Educational   Educational Background   Background NCE 20.36 19.23 NCE20.3619.23 B.Sc. 52.50 66.48 B.Sc.52.5066.48 M.Sc. 27.14 12.91 M.Sc.27.1412.91 PhD  1.37 PhD1.37 Household size   Household size 1-3 persons 18.57 20.60 1-3 persons18.5720.60 4-6 persons 53.57 54.95 4-6 persons53.5754.95 ≥ 7 persons 27.86 24.45 ≥ 7 persons27.8624.45 Agribusiness Farming   Agribusiness Farming experience   experience 1-5 years 72.14 76.37 1-5 years72.1476.37 6-10 years 21.07 17.03 6-10 years21.0717.03  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Logistic regression estimates of the factors influencing the decision of young people to be self-employed through agribusiness. Willingness/choice Coef. Std. Err. z P > z Willingness/choiceCoef.Std. Err.zP > z Cons −4.470734 3.38232 −1.32 0.186 Cons−4.4707343.38232−1.32 0.186 Age 0.2991807 *** 0.1046157 2.86 0.004 Age0.2991807 *** 0.1046157 2.86 0.004 Sex (1=male, 0=female) −0.8212896 0.6763278 −1.21 0.225 Sex (1=male, 0=female)−0.82128960.6763278 −1.21 0.225 Locality −0.1069604 0.7514916 −0.14 0.887 Locality−0.10696040.7514916 −0.14 0.887  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Sharp regression discontinuity (RD) and treatment effects estimate outcome using local polynomial regression. Method Coef. Std. Err. Z P > |z| [95% Conf. Interval] MethodCoef.Std. Err.ZP > |z|[95% Conf. Interval]  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Distribution of participant respondents by perceived benefits in N-Power Agro. Perceived Benefits Percentage (n = 345) Perceived BenefitsPercentage (n = 345) Extension services 12.11 Extension services12.11 Monthly stipends 48.10 Monthly stipends48.10 Training and skills development 13.84 Training and skills development13.84 Monthly stipends & training and skills development 20.76 Monthly stipends & training and skills development20.76 Monthly stipends & extension services 5.19 Monthly stipends & extension services5.19 Total 100.00 Total100.00  "},{"text":" \"Enhancing Capacity to Apply Research Evidence (CARE) in Policy for Youth Engagement in Agribusiness and Rural Economic Activities in Africa\".  "}],"sieverID":"17561aa7-4151-4eb4-9209-bf2d91747f00","abstract":"In a country of about 200million people, the government has over the years constituted various initiatives to address the issue of unemployment, food security, and youth involvement in agriculture. However, the impact of these initiatives has been minimal due to the inconsistency in government policies, changes in government, inadequate implementation mechanism amongst others. This study, therefore, evaluated the impact of the N-power Agro Program on youth employment and income generation through agribusiness in Nigeria. Six hundred and forty-five respondents were randomly selected from the database of N-Power. Structured questionnaires were used in obtaining the data. The statistical analysis of collected data applied descriptive methods, logistic regression model, and regression discontinuity design. The value of ATE of the regression discontinuity design of the income of the participants of N-Power Agro is greater by N30,191.46   than for the nonparticipants. The result of the logistic regression model shows that age, level of education, years of agribusiness experience, and employment status significantly influenced the choice of creating employment through agribusiness and of participating in the N-Power Agro program. The impact of the N-Power Agro program for Nigeria's young men and women on employment and income generation for participants was shown to be effective and positive with the RDD recording an increase in the beneficiaries' income and a discontinuity in the design. Upscaling this program and wider implementation in other countries in collaborations with youth, rural communities and private sectors will ensure that the government can bridge the skills deficit in Africa's youth, develop their capacities for entrepreneurship, and hence, increase jobs creation."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06ca100ae4eca71c9b9b5a5845ea316d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d49a416b-fb2c-4b4f-b4b8-949dc0d0de78/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Through the Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory for Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI), the Small-Scale Irrigation (SSI) Multi-stakeholder Dialogue Space was established in 2019 as a unique strategy to bring stakeholders together to encourage collective thinking across sectors and explore new opportunities and solutions to scaling SSI in Ghana. This meetingthe 3 rd Multi Stakeholder Dialogue (MSD) -is organized by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) through ILSSI and Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) -two projects funded by the US Agency for International Development (USAID). The meeting was the first one in a series of dialogues on market systems and value chain approaches to support farmer-led irrigation (FLI) development. It zoomed into the data-driven tools to open opportunities for growth, inform private sector's product development to improve customer retention and facilitate sustainability of solar-powered irrigation. The aim of this meeting was to:"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• Explore the customization of solar suitability maps to geographical areas and pump characteristics, • share insights into market segment for potential clients of solar-powered irrigation pumps and how segmenting the market can support client acquisition, and • discuss ways to customize solar suitability maps and visualize market segmentation for solar-powered irrigation technologies in Ghana (Annex 1)."},{"index":3,"size":166,"text":"The meeting was held on 4 May 2021 at Mensvic Grand Hotel in East Legon, Accra, Ghana. A total of 55 invitations were sent via email to individuals representing government agencies and departments, development partners and donors, irrigation technology and equipment supply, private sector actors, research institutions and farmer organizations. A total number of 44 people registered to attend the meeting (Figure 1a). Actual attendance was 36 (Annex 2), out of which six joined virtually through Zoom (Figure 1b). The highest attendance was from research organizations (28%). Government agencies and departments and irrigation technology and equipment supply formed the second highest groups of attendees (19% each). This shows a growing interest to drive investment into renewable energy-based irrigation technology among equipment suppliers and government agencies and departments. Development partners and donors and private sector participants each accounted for 14% of the attendance. The lowest attendance was recorded from farmer organizations (6%). This was because of the low number of farmer organizations invited to attend this event."},{"index":4,"size":260,"text":"The meeting started with the welcome speech from Olufunke Cofie, country representative, IWMI Ghana. She pointed out that the MSDs have been organized since 2019 to discuss with participants on how to encourage farmer-led irrigation (FLI) by addressing the challenges with FLI scaling. This is because evidence has shown that there is a high potential for expanding FLI activities in Ghana. The use of motorized pumps is high among farmers, especially among those involved in cultivation of high value vegetables. The first presentation was by Mansoor Leh, researcher -spatial hydrology and hydro informatics at IWMI. He explained how the online tool may be used to guide decision makers on the best locations for investing in solar-powered pump infrastructure, considering the source of water and pump characteristics. This was followed by a presentation by Joseph Mensah from PEG Africa, highlighting the benefits PEG has derived from utilizing solar suitability maps customized by IWMI for their products and sales locations. It continued with plenary discussions on the need and potential to customizing solar suitability maps for business sustainability. The final presentation for the meeting was done by Osman Sahanoon Kulendi, managing director for Pumptech Ghana, highlighting the benefits of the PS2-100 solar-powered irrigation pump and explained various market segments that IWMI has helped to identify in the Upper East Region for Pumptech products. The breakout group discussions focused on the importance of understanding market segments, outcomes of a better understanding of these segments and innovative ways of market segmentation from the perspectives of gender inclusion, government and practitioners and the private sector."}]},{"head":"Highlights from customization of solar suitability maps","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Solar suitability mapping tool for enhancing sustainability of solar-powered irrigation scaling IWMI has developed an interactive solar suitability online mapping tool (http://sip.africa.iwmi.org/) that is used to assess land suitability for photovoltaic-based irrigation, using solar energy (Figure 2a). The tool supports users to identify suitable areas for solar-based irrigation depending on water sources and pump characteristics. 1 This solar suitability mapping framework was developed using a GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation technique."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"The multi-criteria evaluation was implemented by combining spatial information from a number of geospatial drivers for solar-based irrigation sourced from a variety of national and international databases. Data used include solar irradiation, slope, underground water levels and sustainability, water storage, proximity to rivers, proximity to small dams and inland valleys, soil characteristics, crop and land suitability, aquifer productivity, population, roads and travel time to markets. Slope gradient has a major effect on agricultural productivity where steeper gradients facilitate increased runoff and hence accelerated risk of soil erosion and slopes greater than 8% are not typically recommended for agriculture. In addition, a constraint layer is developed to differentiate areas that would be suitable for solar-based irrigation from those that cannot be suitable under any condition. Protected zones, forested and urban areas and areas with extreme droughts identified as unsuitable for agricultural production are excluded. Weights are applied to available data to create data layers. Using the data layers and the water source within a particular region, the online tool may be used to determine how suitable a location is for solar-powered irrigation. The water source may be surface water, underground water at different depths or both surface and underground water (Figure 2b). "}]},{"head":"Customizing the solar suitability map for PEG Africa's solarpowered irrigation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"The customized solar suitability maps for PEG Ghana guides the field team in identifying potential opportunity areas for selling solar technology (Figure 3a). The maps have made it easier for PEG to identify water resources within a particular geographical area so that the most suitable pumps may be recommended for potential clients within that geographical area in terms of water resource type and depth suitability. PEG has also used the information to suggest new product lines that may be piloted in particular geographical zones (Figure 3b). Marketing initiatives and interactions with other actors within the irrigation supply chain have also been guided by the maps. This has helped PEG to establish a sales agent network within the high potential geographical areas. Partnerships have been formed with agro-input dealers and other actors to stock PEG products, lowering transportation cost per unit for the end users. New business opportunities have opened for PEG especially in the Ashanti, Bono, Bono East and Ahafo regions. Sales have also been recorded in the Eastern, Volta and Central regions in this regard."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"PEG has recognized the impact that the solar suitability maps have had on its business development drive. In this regard, PEG recommends that IWMI develops solar suitability maps at a more granular level, going beyond the current district-level information. PEG recommends a mobile app that can help PEG staff to identify water resources within each district. The current practice is for the technical team to contact local Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) offices or extension agents to help identify water resources within each district. "}]},{"head":"Needs and potential to customize the solar suitability map for business sustainability","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The plenary group discussion highlighted the needs and potential to customize the solar suitability map for business sustainability. There is a growing interest around Africa for solar suitability maps. This is evident in countries such as Nigeria, Togo and Mozambique. Also, generating more granular information within the maps is possible, if the right data sets are available. Accessibility to data is therefore important for both IWMI and the user of the solar suitability tool. It was mentioned that IWMI should explore the possibility of accessing more granular data from the Ghana Geological Service."},{"index":2,"size":250,"text":"Challenges to the solar suitability map customization for business sustainability are however numerous. Business-related challenges show that solar-powered irrigation pumps are very demand-specific and expensive for farmers to afford. PEG's distributed pumps, for example, have a wide range of pumps up to 5.5 hp and the company currently has few customers in the northern region because many of the farmers cannot afford PEG pumps even on a payas-you-go basis. Moreover, matching solar-powered irrigation pump, irrigation system (e.g. drip, sprinkler and spray tube) and the water requirements for a variety of crops requires big and consistent data to integrate into the mapping tool. Contextual conditions such as flood and drought can destruct permanent solar infrastructure, especially in the Upper East Region. Some farms and irrigation infrastructures have also experienced destruction from animals including cattle and elephants. Herders from neighbouring countries sometimes pose challenges by destroying farms with their animals and making farmers insecure including murders and rape. In case of underground water extraction, both pump sellers and farmers often overlook borehole/aquifer characteristics. Clients often have inadequate access to information on affordability for solar-powered irrigation pumps, security of solar panels, unsuitability of crops they grow and the type of irrigation method they practice. Women clients face challenges of limited access to gender-sensitive solar technology, irrigable land and the maximum depth of underground water that PEG solar-powered pumps can reach. In the PEG's current business, only about 1% of PEG's clients are women and these women acquired the solar technology through their husbands."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Participants suggested that large-scale farmers should also be targeted because they have the financial ability to purchase solar technology to provide service or share with smallholder farmers they employ to work within the commercial farms. Commercial farms may also offer assistance to the smallholder farmers or act as a collateral during repayment under the pay-as-you-go model. Solar distributors should advocate for products that cannot be re-used once they have been removed from particular units. Farmer-to-farmer recommendation approach could be used to promote sales. Working towards women farmers' access to solar technology can be achieved with gender-sensitive credit scorecard and inclusive business model."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Market segments for Pumptech's supply of solarpowered irrigation pump"}]},{"head":"PS2 solar-powered irrigation pumps and pay-as-you-own financing","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Pumptech is a water infrastructure company in Ghana established for the last 13 years."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Pumptech has installed over 2,000 solar-powered pumping systems for community water supply, irrigation and for responsible leisure. The abundance of sunlight in Ghana provides an opportunity for using renewable energy products like Lorentz solar-powered pumps for cropping, human consumption and animals. With the technological advantages, solarpowered pumps now have the ability to pump as much water as grid pumps and may even exceed the capacity of grid pumps. Current solar-powered pumps have the capacity to provide water as low as 5 m 3 a day and as high as 800 m 3 an hour. Solar-powered pumps may be classified according to how they lift water (submersible or surface pumps) or how they deliver water (mechanical or centrifugal)."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Lorentz pumps 4 have special features that make them ideal for irrigation purposes. The pumps are adaptive and have features that allow the user to communicate with the pump. They serve the purpose of varied methods of irrigation including sprinklers, drip and centre pivot unlike previous solar technology. They can be regulated to give differential pressures, constant pressures and a number of variations in the flow to serve the needs of the farmer."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Communication with Lorentz pumps may be from a distance using an app or from close range using android Bluetooth technology. This helps to reduce downtime for the pump. Pumptech carries a wide range of pumps as part of its portfolio from 100 watts to 500 kilowatts and offers a complete solution when it comes to pumps. No third-party components are integrated into the systems. The farmer is guaranteed of harmony in functioning the pump. Pumptech also employs a sizing tool to help decide the best pump for a farmer's needs."},{"index":5,"size":161,"text":"The smallest pump within the Pumptech range is the PS2-100 which has been labelled as 'the farmer's friend' because of its portability. All components and panels fit into one box, making it easy to carry and transport using motorbikes, bicycles or other means of transportation. The PS2-100 pump has three models of pump heads that may be fitted depending on the water source and the daily water requirements of the farm. Pump heads are suitable for a variety of water depths, ranging from 10-100 m. The advantage of such a system to the farmer is that a change in water source may not require a change in the pump used. The controller of the PS2-100 pump is 100% water resistant, making it very durable, even within water. It is also plug-and-play and does not require any form of wiring, therefore making it easy for self-installation. This puts the farmer in charge, eliminating the need for frequent visits of solar technology experts."},{"index":6,"size":124,"text":"The pay-as-you-own 5 financing model from Pumptech is a flexible credit system that allows farmers using solar-powered irrigation pumps while paying in installments to acquire it. It is customized to the needs of each farmer and involves the payment of an initial deposit and regular subsequent payments as agreed with Pumptech. The payment may be weekly, monthly, quarterly or scheduled around the farmer's harvest times. The initial deposit is equated to an amount of water which is programmed into chip of the pump. The pump automatically stops working once that amount of water has been used by the farmer unless he/she makes payment as per the agreed installment payment schedule. The pump becomes the property of the farmer after all installments have been paid."}]},{"head":"Market segments for PS2 pumps bundled with pay-as-youown financing in the Upper East Region","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"Since 2020, Pumptech has partnered with IWMI to segment the market for the various products in the Upper East Region. Pumptech has been able to segment its market for a range of PS2 solar-powered irrigation pumps within the Upper East Region. The segmentation was done based on land and water access, irrigation and production arrangement, financial capital and potential and farmer preferences (Table 1). The resource-rich farmers understand the economic reasons why they farm. They can afford their own land, water source and mechanism for pumping water. They have the financial muscle to buy pumps even without credit. The mobile farmers do not own the land they cultivate during the dry season. They move from their residential area to irrigate fields close to publicly funded irrigation schemes where they can access to cultivated land and surface water sources. Motor pumps is commonly used despite the high running costs. Their farming is seasonal and they move from place to place, making it unattractive for them to invest in permanent solar-powered pump infrastructure. Resource-limited individual farmers have access to land within their communities and the natural resources around them but they don't understand farming as a business. They usually do farming for survival or because they grew up seeing their fathers farming. As a result, they have the potential but cannot make upfront payment for the pumps. They are often limited by access to water and capital. The pay-as-you-own is possible options for some resource-limited farmers. The farmer groups have to pool their strengths together to purchase shared solar infrastructure, especially when bundling with the pay-as-you-own option."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Challenges encountered by Pumptech include the perception that solar technology is expensive. This is because of a direct comparison between the initial cost of grid or motor pumps and solar-powered pumps. While the value of solar-powered irrigation pump is best seen in the life span of the pump which is often much longer than the grid pumps. Solar devices can be controlled in terms of the power they produce unlike grid pumps that are prone to damage from power fluctuations. Theft of solar panels and pumps may sometimes occur, especially in communities close to the country's borders. Structures for holding solar panels are fixed in such a way that the panels will be damaged if anyone attempts to remove them. This is to minimize theft of solar infrastructure."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"The market segmentation presentation brought up concerns on gender inclusion within the various market segments. Emphasis was on the number of women identified in the various market segments. The PS2-100 pump, which is light weight (14kg pump head and 5kg panel) easy to assemble, is a gender-friendly pump. The PS2-100 is a full package that includes the pump, cables and solar panels, making it relatively affordable to women farmers or group of farmers at a price of GHS7,000. Pumptech also acknowledges the need to reach more female clients. Poor access of women to productive resources such as land and water serves as a disincentive for them to invest in solar technology."}]},{"head":"Reflecting market segmentation with different practical implications","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"Market segmentation is the process of dividing a target market into smaller, more defined categories. Each segment or group shares similar characteristics such as demographics, interests, needs, location or preferences amongst others 6 . There are several advantages for segmenting markets. These include improved campaign performance; better product development; improved business focus and informed business decisions. There are different types of market segmentations with different measures. The demographic one considers details such as age, occupation, education, family size and income. The geography splits up markets based on location. Customer behavior such as likes and dislikes when interacting with a product or service may also be used to split markets. Psychographic segmentation considers customer personalities and characteristics such as lifestyle, attitude and motivations. Market segmentation cannot and should not be generalized. It must be tailormade taking into account the particular needs on the actors such as gender inclusion, types of crops grown, water resources available and so on. Therefore, there is the need to identify the segmentation basis that will be a best fit for solar-powered irrigation pumps. From this basis, the participants discussed market segmentation from gender inclusion, government/practitioners and private sector business implication. For government and practitioners, market segmentation helps to identify the needs of the various actors within the market to design and offer the right solutions to the right target groups. It also helps to allocate resources in a more appropriated way. Market segmentation also helps to enhance impact when target groups are better specified, their potential involvement is identified and innovative ideas/interventions are offered to meet their needs."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"For private sector, market segmentation helps to identify the needs and interests of various groups within the target market such as women, youth and persons with disabilities. With better market segmentation, companies can save time, while reducing cost and effort, when attempting to reach new customers in target markets. In this way, market segmentation indirectly contributes to business growth in the agricultural sector."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"For gender inclusion implication, market segmentation highlights various aspects. First, gender-sensitive product could be simple to assemble and a lightweight to attract women. A well segmented market will recognize the need to design products that are within the income levels of its women targets as many women are at the bottom of the pyramid. Product design must also fit the time schedules of the intended women farmers as they may not have opportunity to water their farms when sunlight is at its peak due to work and house chores. The solar-powered irrigation products that can still be used after the sun peak hours allow women farmers to participate in solar irrigated agriculture. Second, pump capacity needs to reflect women farmers' resource availability. Women generally have smaller farm sizes compared to men. Manufacturers can therefore make lower capacity pumps with lower prices that will meet the needs of women farmers and men farmers with small plot sizes. Some women farms are far away from their homes, requiring a portable technology or a secured technology that will not be stolen if left on the farm. With this understanding, the manufacturer will invest in technology that addresses this need for both men and women."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Gender-sensitive market segmentation will benefit women farmers in various ways. It has both social and economic benefits. With access to appropriate technology, women's farm productivity will improve, contributing to food and nutrition security for the family. The women farmers will save time in doing farm activities with the right technology, thereby, having more time with their families and for other income generating activities that can improve the family's livelihood. Appropriate technology will also help in increasing their onfarm income. Additional income from farm activities may depend on the type of crops."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Women have access to incomes from 'female crops' such as tomatoes, onions and green leafy vegetables. They may not have access to income from crops such as maize, eggplant and chili which are often seen as 'male crops' and so have a trade dominated by men. A woman growing such crops may have to use output for home consumption or sell through her spouse or other male relative. Total income from the improved cropping may therefore not come to the woman."},{"index":6,"size":226,"text":"Market segmentation basis includes various groups of factors. First, land ownership and land tenure systems are critical factors determining irrigation preference and investment. Different regions in Ghana have different land tenure systems that affect women farmers differently. Segmentation may be useful to look at freehold or leasehold access to land, especially for women. Some women also offer services like weeding, planting and protecting the land from animals and harvesting for men in exchange for irrigable land to farm. Such women may have multiple farms based on the service-for-land arrangement. Second, irrigation water source could be surface, underground, both surface and underground water or harvested water. Needs may differ depending on the type of water source. For instance, someone using running water may need a pump that can withstand gravity compared to another farmer using still water from water harvested in a dam. The depth of the water source is also of importance in developing appropriate technology. Third, structure of irrigation scheme should look into different irrigation typologies. A formalized irrigation scheme has the potential to regulate irrigation and ensure participation of minorities like women and youth. Informal schemes may not be as inclusive because cultural bias may give preferential access to men over women and other interest groups. Small and large irrigation schemes may also have different dynamics that have to be factored into the segmentation."},{"index":7,"size":180,"text":"Fourth, access to credit/finance, inputs, extension services and intelligent communication technologies (ICT) and market infrastructure should be considered. Identifying these accesses help to know farmer's ability to afford technology being offered as well as potential to capitalize their investment into irrigation products. The whole value chain should also be considered since the activities of one actor within the value chain affects the activities of other actors in the chain, thereby ensuring collaboration and connections among the chain actors. Fifth, needs of special groups should be part of segmentation to ensure inclusion of women, youth or other groups of interest such as female-headed households, male-headed households and persons with disabilities (vulnerability assessment). This is because a general classification of farmers may exclude some groups if they are not directly targeted by the segmentation. Finally, climate change and its impact differs from place to place. This may be extended to include rainfall patterns. Southern Ghana for instance has two rainfall seasons while northern Ghana has one rainfall season. Communications should also be intensified especially using radio because it reaches a wide audience."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Ways to segment the market include use of existing data from government agencies such as demographic data, focus group discussions, field surveys and analysis of past projects and interventions. Innovative ways to segment the market include the use of digital innovation and appropriate technology in terms of ease of use, considering educational level of users."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"There is need to consider the resource-potential of target market and the time or season to conduct market segmentation. For instance, if a face-to-face survey is to be conducted, it will not be appropriate to do it during the farming season as most respondents will be away on their farms. Other factors to consider are the security within the target area and how accessible the location of the target market is. Accessibility for instance may inform the tool to use."}]},{"head":"Reflection and conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Participants reflected on solar suitability mapping and market segmentation for solarpowered pump for irrigation and highlighted some key messages. First, participants stressed the need for equality in irrigation equipment supply. Manufacturers, importers, and distributors should make a conscious effort to supply and promote irrigation equipment that are gender-friendly in terms of weight, price, complexity and functionality. Efforts should also be made to include vulnerable populations including persons with disabilities. Market segmentation benefits for both the equipment suppliers and the target market. The suppliers benefit from improved sales and cost savings from focusing marketing activities while the target market benefits from products that meet their particular needs. Market segmentation is still a developing area for MSD participants. It is also an area of high interest. This is demonstrated in the request from PEG to IWMI to conduct a market segmentation on their behalf, after the segmentation presentation from Pumptech."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Second, encouraging solar-powered irrigation adoption needs government subsidies, provision of financial services to fund purchase and public education on the long-term benefits of using renewable energy. Government was specifically urged to ensure financial accessibility for addressing the challenges to financial access. Also, although smallholder farmers need attention when it comes to adoption, attention should also be given to largescale farmers who have a high ability to adopt solar technology and introduce smallholder farmers to it through out-grower schemes."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Third, regular meetings of various stakeholders are needed to address several issues including renewable energy to find workable solutions to adoption. Key stakeholders including regulators such as Water Resources Commission should be present in such meetings. One such meeting could explore the possibility of comparing the Pumptech payas-you-own model with the government initiated 'One Village, One Dam' initiative to identify which model holds better opportunities for farmers. Suggestions for future MSD meetings include inviting more farmers to be part of the discussions. This is because they are the end users and have the best ideas of what they need from equipment suppliers. Further, future MSD meetings should have end users of particular products sharing their experiences on usage, benefits and challenges. Finally, efforts should be made to include the youth in future meetings. This will ensure that ideas are sought from people from all age brackets."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1a . Figure 1a. Different group of registrants.Figure 1b. Different groups of attendees. "},{"text":"Figure 2a .Figure 2b . Figure 2a. Solar suitability mapping process. 2 "},{"text":"Figure 3a . Figure 3a. Opportunity identification. 3 Figure 3b. Solar suitability utilization. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Bases for segmenting consumer markets. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Different market segments for Pumptech's distributed solar-powered irrigation pumps Characteristics Resource-rich farmers Mobile farmers Resource-limited individual farmers Farmer Groups CharacteristicsResource-rich farmersMobile farmersResource-limited individual farmersFarmer Groups Land and -Owning relatively -No ownership to -Permanent access to -Individual ownership to Land and-Owning relatively-No ownership to-Permanent access to-Individual ownership to water access large land area irrigated land cultivated land cultivated land with water accesslarge land areairrigated landcultivated landcultivated land with  -Being able to area -Access mainly to possible access to -Being able toarea-Access mainly topossible access to  control water -Access mainly to underground water common land control water-Access mainly tounderground watercommon land  sources surface water  -Access mainly to sourcessurface water-Access mainly to     underground water underground water Arrangement -Advanced -Individual and/or -Individual/group -Individual and/or Arrangement-Advanced-Individual and/or-Individual/group-Individual and/or of irrigation irrigation system informal group management collective management of irrigationirrigation systeminformal groupmanagementcollective management and managed by management -Potential to expand of irrigation andmanaged bymanagement-Potential to expandof irrigation production individual farmers -Flexible production  productionindividual farmers-Flexibleproduction Financial -Financial potential -Relatively high -Very limited financial -Limited financial Financial-Financial potential-Relatively high-Very limited financial-Limited financial capital and to invest into potential to invest capital, especially capacity to invest capital andto invest intopotential to investcapital, especiallycapacity to invest potential solar-power into solar-power female farmers -Potential to collectively potentialsolar-powerinto solar-powerfemale farmers-Potential to collectively  pump for pump -Relatively high invest into relatively pump forpump-Relatively highinvest into relatively  irrigation as an -An individual or potential to invest high capacity of solar- irrigation as an-An individual orpotential to investhigh capacity of solar-  individual group investment into solar-powered powered pump individualgroup investmentinto solar-poweredpowered pump    pump  pump Pump product -High capacity of -Low capacity and -Low/medium -Medium/high capacity Pump product-High capacity of-Low capacity and-Low/medium-Medium/high capacity preferences solar-power moveable solar capacity of solar- of solar-powered pump preferencessolar-powermoveable solarcapacity of solar-of solar-powered pump  pump -Solar-power powered pump for for irrigation and/or pump-Solar-powerpowered pump forfor irrigation and/or  accompanying pump with or irrigation and/or multiple uses when accompanyingpump with orirrigation and/ormultiple uses when  with payment without multiple uses collective financial with paymentwithoutmultiple usescollective financial  schedule payment schedule  management and schedulepayment schedulemanagement and     mobilization are mobilization are     mobilized mobilized  "}],"sieverID":"701ef3c0-7478-4313-a101-0640f77a1764","abstract":"Reflecting market segmentation with different practical implications ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d8accf043d37de69c2edab6d3279a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b4f8274-3d2c-44f1-86b0-a01c8c758333/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Fishing in the Forum: research, development and policy implications for the CPWF","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The First International Forum on Water and Food of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) was held in Vientiane, Laos from November 12 to 17, 2006. The Forum had two overarching objectives:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• to link people together to discover what they are doing within the CPWF and in the world of water and food beyond the Program; • to articulate the links between research, policy and practice."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"The Forum was designed to maximize the opportunities for people who usually work far away from one another to come together for a meaningful exchange of ideas, experiences, and techniques for improving water productivity. The core of the Forum's program was made up of 18 (6x3 parallel) working sessions, where short introductions on topics of relevance to the CPWF were followed by structured and facilitated debate. Reports of the workings sessions were afterwards shared and discussed among all participants in 'Open Forum' sessions."},{"index":4,"size":257,"text":"The 'Policy and Practice Panel' (PPP) comprised policy-makers from developing countries, development specialists, members of donor agencies and researchers closely connected to policy. Its key role was to contribute to the discussion, and in particular to draw out the practical consequences of the research being discussed. Panel members attended all parallel sessions. Each evening the members met to discuss and distil key issues raised during the day. The Panel had 10 members. 1 Since for many of the Panel members exposure to the CPWF was limited to the Forum itself, the PPP can only reflect and provide feedback on the CPWF by using the knowledge that was shared with its members during the Forum. It should be noted that the PPP did not attempt to review the CPWF or provide advice based on a through examination of all its thematic and basin focal research. Rather it drew lessons and implications from the discussion and knowledge that was shared and gained during the various sessions. These did not provide comprehensive coverage of the CPWF's activities; moreover, they did often address broader themes. The PPP does not aim to provide an inclusive summary of all ideas generated during the Forum regarding Policy, Innovation and Development or Research, but focuses on a number of key issues as they transpired over the days. These key issues are discussed here with the aim to contribute constructively to the track record and achievements of the CPWF and to provide strategic support and guidance to CPWF management and governing bodies in their way forward."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"The following main issues will be discussed: the evolving research agenda and research approaches of the CPWF; the opportunities for the CPWF in transnational water management; the need for strong communication, information and knowledge sharing approaches; the importance of capacity building approaches that complement the ongoing research activities; and suggestions for making its research more relevant to policy makers and development agencies. The paper will conclude with an assessment of the evolution of the challenge program as could be gauged from the Forum. The panel hopes that its report further energizes the CPWF community in its many activities."}]},{"head":"Research issues","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Based on the discussions throughout the Forum, the PPP concluded that certain issues regarding the way research is conducted can be further improved for the sake of effectiveness and synergy. These suggestions address both generic/holistic issues and recommendations for specific future strategic research areas."}]},{"head":"Generic/holistic issues:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"A general observation by the PPP is that many of the sessions were closely linked to each other and that it can be of advantage to the CPWF to build a more coherent research portfolio based on integrating the outcomes of the different sessions. This research portfolio should be realistic and achievable and should strive to improve water and food issues within a framework of integrated resource management. Another general observation is the need to improve the linkages between the outcome of the Comprehensive Assessment and the CPWF research agenda. This was clearly evident in the sessions addressing trade, capacity building and other global factors but could be of value in other areas of research."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"Studies reported in the Forum have demonstrated multi-disciplinary research to a varied extent. However, it was agreed that more emphasis should be given in order to accelerate the existing momentum and improve the effectiveness of such integration. The PPP maintains that research on water and food touches many natural and social scientific disciplines. This is especially important where institutional arrangements are of concern. Therefore improved integration will enhance synergy and result in outcomes with more positive impact. This can be achieved through dedicated funding mechanisms that will support such integration as a prerequisite for any research proposal. In addition, certain research areas are core to all CPWF research activities and should also be included as a prerequisite. Examples are gender and cultural issues, inclusion of economics, political ecology and other elements of social sciences. Another related suggestion is that the CPWF should invest in policy research, understanding the formulation of policies and processes related to implementation of policies (see also below)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"The PPP strongly support the partnership that the CPWF has built between CGIAR institutions and many national and regional players, including the NARES, ARIs and academic institutions. It is suggested that this could be improved further by better understanding the role of CGIAR in relation to national and local research institutions when designing the research agenda as well as conducting the actual research and its dissemination. This will allow improvement in the production of both national and international public goods, i.e. knowledge."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Many of the Forum sessions addressed the issue of scale, be it scaling up from local to basin level, or from basin to global level. The PPP recommends that this issue should be researched further. There is a need to better understand the tension between different scales and improved outcomes of both local/downstream and upstream scale studies and their integration. It is suggested that the CPWF should develop generic frameworks for various topics related to water management (utilisation of water in agriculture)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"It is suggested that the CPWP should establish a database of best practices and case studies to be used by researchers and for developing an impact framework across the CGIAR."}]},{"head":"Special issues:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"It is suggested that the CPWF should consider the following strategic research areas:"},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"• Clarify the term 'water poverty', which is often interpreted differently by various researchers. This may lead to confused information within and across the basins. • Biofuel production has importance both for water productivity and energy production. It can provide alternatives to fossil fuel and create employment for many in cultivation and processing. At the same time, the cultivation of the raw plant matter for biofuel production requires large amount of water and the production processes result in further water consumption and highly polluted waste-water that may pollute the environment. The links between trade and biofuel production should also be addressed, along with the relationship between trade, water and poverty current and future implications. • The CPWF is currently addressing livestock production but there is a need to integrate livestock closely with water for crop production • Research into free trade agreements, investment agreements and local water rights will greatly add value to the CPWF as it will allow other thematic and basin focal projects to be better informed as for the macro environment. Other global issues to be addressed are issues related to climate change, WTO, globalisation and virtual water trade. Trade in virtual water can be also researched in relation to ecosystem resilience and poverty alleviation. • A key issue raised by the PPP is the need for research to understand \"what water means?\" Is it an economic good or a human right and how should this issue be resolved? • It is necessary to address the significance of the CPWF programme in policy terms."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"Numerous linked issues regarding water and food were discussed in separate sessions. The question arises as to how we can clarify the focal points to be the priorities for the CPWF second phase? • It is necessary to consider integrating the policy issues for CPWF. It might be necessary to address the following focal aspects: 1) security of drinking water quality and quantity in rural areas and for animals; 2) food security in terms of water quality and quantity for irrigation, and 3) the environmental flows policies for maintaining ecological functions which provide the goods and service for human being must be stressed as a critical and strategic target. • For synthesis of policy components, further research is necessary. In order to do this I think that scientifically better understanding of the concept/ terms might need study on lexicon for CPWF."}]},{"head":"International Collaboration on Water and Trade","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Additional Negotiations over river waters between countries at the governmental level often reach deadlock either because of bureaucratic woodenness and absence of flexibility, or because of other irritants in the relationship between the two countries. Non-official dialogues between NGOs or academic institutions on either side, or at the people-topeople level, can play a significant role in bringing the governments together. Success stories and failures of this kind could be useful subjects of research in order to seek to persuade governments (a) to look beyond boundaries, and (b) to actively enlist the cooperation of NGOs."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Whatever principles or methods are evolved in the context of inter-country disputes will have a degree of applicability even in water-related conflicts between political or administrative units within a country. Case studies of such instances could be valuable."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Inter-use disputes, such as agriculture-industry, rural-urban or irrigation-drinking water, tend to become intractable in the absence of a clear set of priorities and principles. The priorities and principles that could lead to equitable resolutions in such cases might be a valuable subject of study."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"It is important to move beyond conflict resolution towards positive bilateral or multilateral co-operation, and a project examining successful and failed case studies would make a valuable contribution."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Very few water researchers and policy makers are aware that water resources and water services may be subjected to the terms of investment and trade agreements, the circumstances and conditions of trade accords change perceptions about national jurisdiction and control of water resources and public utilities in ways that are often not anticipated and can have negative social and economic impacts on water."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Many countries are currently being sued under the terms of investment and trade agreements for conflicts resulting from water utilities and control of water resources. These cases are not heard by national courts but by arbitration tribunals, which apply international investment law and procedure."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"There is a connection between local water management, and trade and investment agreements. Trade and investment agreements can seriously affect local water rights and management, unless appropriate caveats are built into agreements and legislation."},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"Domestic institutional capacities that guarantee the quality of domestic decision making on most countries are not sufficiently well developed. Therefore, there is a need to upgrade national capabilities, this includes monitoring and controlling basic water resources as well as regulating the services associated to water."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"The Challenge Program by means of research, capacity building and international lobbying may help countries to establish a better balance to guarantee citizen and national rights, including the duties and obligations of investors vis-à-vis in countries where investments take place."}]},{"head":"Communication, information & knowledge management in the CPWF","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"An important issue that has been observed is the need for satisfying communication needs and for developing information tools related to basin management. The CP's ability to communicate and share accumulated knowledge, including traditional knowledge, is of great importance."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Regarding information sharing with development practitioners and policy makers, the CPWF should consider the development of an online database that shares best practices."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Another opportunity for the CPWF is to develop concise formats for sharing the information essential to allow improved user participation and policy dialogue, and matrixes where, for example, mapping of water and water related issues is the entry point to help solve poverty."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The use of proper language among stakeholders is necessary. Policy makers probably have different codes than, lets say, mountain livelihoods. The CP already has accumulated valuable information on themes and regions where language and culture are quite different. In the near future, even more information will be available. So the efforts to communicate effectively and share data with different stakeholders will require a team of communication specialists that can make this information available in the best presentation possible to different audiences."}]},{"head":"Capacity building at (sub) basin level","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The definition of capacity building may vary, depending on the context. This was demonstrated in Session 15 where numerous key words were attributed to it. Capacity building is simply the creation of an enabling environment for an individual or institution to deliver the mandate effectively. This can be achieved by training, professional exchange programmes and by providing the necessary infrastructure."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Hydrological basins are ecologically diverse and complex in nature and often cut across national boundaries. Understanding their ecology requires a multi-disciplinary and multinational research and syntheses. It is therefore, very important that basin countries should share a common vision of sustainable management of basin resources, so that environmental and livelihoods gains may be realised. This can be achieved through the capacity building of principally the resource scientists, researchers and the resource users. Therefore, the Panel recommends:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• developing a Capacity Development Policy or Strategy at national and / or regional level."}]},{"head":"• promoting collaboration on capacity development between the North -South","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"and South -South countries and regions. • integrating capacity development across disciplines and devise complimentary strategies on data generation, integration and application. • exchanging national scientists across basins."}]},{"head":"Research -Policy -Practice Relationships","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"This section reflects on the relationships between research, policy and practice as aired at the Forum and offers recommendations for enhancing them in line with current best practice. These suggestions apply equally well to research under the aegis of the CPWF and independent of it."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Most research reported and discussed at the Forum has been applied rather than pure, in that it was designed to influence policy and practice on water and food in pursuit of the relevant Millennium Development Goals. However, undertaking and publishing the results of applied policy-relevant research will not, in itself, get the research into the policy process. There is no guarantee that ideas will be adopted; however, these best practice guidelines will greatly enhance the prospects for having an impact on practice."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Traditionally, the dissemination and uptake of research results were often thought to be the separate responsibility of others (communications and media liaison officers, or even the actual or potential users themselves); indeed such views have been heard this week. Nowadays, however, most researchers and research organisations understand that this is inadequate. Researchers themselves must be in direct communication with research users, and not just as an afterthought at the end of a project but as part of a coherent strategy. After all, the measure of success of applied research is not the completion of the research as such but its assimilation and application by users."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"Very widespread this week has been vague reference to 'policy' and/or 'policy-makers' as if these are homogeneous and clearly defined concepts. However, research needs to be carefully targeted at influencing particular policies and the specific relevant actors who formulate, modify, apply and enforce those policies."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"Identification of the users (or 'audiences') of particular research results and what specific problem, prolicy or legal instrument to target is therefore the starting or entry point of what is now often called an uptake pathway."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"There are many different categories of research users, e.g. particular categories of local actors, community-based organisations, private firms, NGOs (local, national, international), government departments, parastatal organisations, and intergovernmental and international organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UN agencies, regional development banks, World Trade Organisation and International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives. They are diverse -both within and between categories and spatial scales of operation -and hence are often referred to collectively as community/ies of practice rather than 'users'. Ultimately, any person or organisation affected by, or with an interest in, the research and its results is a stakeholder; users are important stakeholders and the suggestions here are a key form of stakeholder engagement."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Users/practitioners have different information requirements, while the most appropriate ways to engage them also vary. These need to be ascertained early on -ideally before the start of a project and certainly long before its completion. This requires reconnaissance to liaise and understand the priorities, needs, institutional or corporate processes (including decision-making, policy development, legislative and/or budgetary cycles) of the respective research users. Such needs include the appropriate form (including the degree of technical detail, layperson's language and style) in which results are presented. In a nutshell, researchers must understand and fit in with these requirements."},{"index":8,"size":87,"text":"Sometimes it is possible -even appropriate -to address research users at the end of a project or even afterwards, provided that this is done effectively and meets a particular need. This then becomes an effective entry point. Good examples of this are crises (e.g. flood, drought, hurricane, conflict, pollution accident) when a user is required to respond quickly but lacks the information, tools and/or policy advice to do so. Such users will then be particularly receptive and this could be the start of a more enduring relationship."},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"Generally, however, applied research is most effective when the users are engaged and involved from inception. This is as true of a local community group as an official body or company. The most appropriate form of engagement will vary according to specific circumstances but as a rule, the greater the consultation, collaboration, participation and other forms of active engagement, the greater will be the 'buy-in' or sense of 'ownership' by the users and hence the greater the likelihood of results being in appropriate forms, fed in at appropriate times and to the right people in the institution, and hence being understood, assimilated and acted upon."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"Large organisations may not wish to be directly involved in the actual research but representatives may readily agree to serve on a reference or review group, or to hold periodic briefing meetings."},{"index":11,"size":67,"text":"In other circumstances, where active engagement is desirable and desired, action research may be an effective form of engagement. This is where an intervention or innovation (e.g., a well or borehole, sanitation improvement, new farming technique, new crop or livestock variety, introduction of aquaculture, or a new institutional policy) is introduced as part of the research project and its impacts are then studied collaboratively with the beneficiaries."},{"index":12,"size":95,"text":"It is always helpful, even essential, to identify particular 'champions' in the user group or institution and to embed them firmly in the research process. This is particularly so with local community groups which may have very different identities and social / economic / political positions from the outside researchers. Such champions greatly increase the prospects for project success during its lifetime but also its longer term sustainability, once funding and support end. Even after the end of a project, follow-up and monitoring should continue, in order to maintain relationships and keep the doors open."},{"index":13,"size":48,"text":"There is now a growing literature on these issues, while organisations like the Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI) and the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) have considerable relevant experience. The current issue of IHDP Update (3/4.2006) is devoted specifically to this subject (downloadable from www.ihdp.org)."}]},{"head":"Assessing the evolution of the CPWF through the Forum","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The Forum proved to be an excellent venue to generate ideas and to encourage creativity. In this respect it is very important that the session convenors digest the many ideas that were brought up towards a synthesis that may be shared with their colleagues and with CPWF management. The Forum was less effective for sharing progress within the CP. The format did not allow the detailed presentations that this requires. It could not do justice to the many activities of the CPWF community."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"At present, harvesting ideas and generating a sense of belonging may be more important than assessing results, but one would expect that over time this will change. The Panel would recommend that in future the creativity-focused approaches be combined with approaches for taking stock of the progress that the CPWF has achieved."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Fuzziness: In many sessions, the Panel came away with the impression that there was considerable fuzziness in the underlying concepts. The session on 'water poverty' was on the link between water management, availability and productivity on the one hand and poverty on the other; while the concept of landscapes was not clearly defined. The content of several sessions was hard to guess from their titles."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"The conceptual fuzziness then combined with loose ends, making it difficult to conclude sessions and draw up clear implications for future actions. At this stage the fuzziness may be effective (e.g., the \"water poverty\" session was delightful) to generate further ideas, and to think outside the box. For future communication and knowledge exchange purposes, it is, however, important that the guiding concepts of the CPWF be gradually approximated towards clearly defined terms. This is all the more important to avoid miscommunication among the many nationalities, disciplines and approaches participating in the CPWF."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"The CPWF as a learning organism: The Panel was delighted to find several sessions where the main intention was to learn and to think about ways for increasing future effectiveness. The session on Political Ecology, for example, was included in order to address a perceived weakness (the difficulty to engage with policy makers), and to develop ideas on how to overcome those. As we all know, one is never too old to start learning. However, for such sessions to be effective, the presentational and organisational issues mentioned above must be addressed."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"The Panel was also pleased with the focus in several of the sessions on 'factors for success-obstacles -strategies'. Science for development needs to take social, economic, political and any other type of constraint into consideration from the start and cannot start thinking about strategies for impact once the research is concluded."}]},{"head":"Relationships on a basis of equality:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The CPWF is built on a partnership of NARES, CGIAR centres, Advanced Research Institutes and other institutions. When the Challenge Programs were conceived, one of the considerations of this design was that it would be better able to take advantage of the capacities that nowadays exist in many developing countries. In the Forum the collaboration between the different partners is taken forward to a very equal level, where NARES fully participate in the development of the priorities, the management and the governance of the main activities, and the intellectual leadership of the program. The Panel recommends that the leadership of national partners be further consolidated and reflected in future events. One concrete suggestion is to explore the possibility of exchanging scientists, between countries in basins, or between basins, in order to take advantage of specific expertise."}]},{"head":"Millennium Development Goals:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The CPWF was launched with a clear focus to contribute to the Millennium Development Goals. However, in the Forum programme, attention to the Millennium Goals was more implicit than explicit. The Panel suggest that the CPWF maintains a clear focus in all of its activities on how they will contribute to the MDGs. As one participant in the Open Forum observed, relating to policy makers requires that we speak their language, of which the MDGs are an important part."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Nurture the blossom, let the fruit set: A final impression of the Panel is that the CPWF is starting to blossom, with many interesting activities taking place and much enthusiasm being generated. However, in most cases the fruit is only just starting to be formed. A key challenge for the Program management is to now ensure that the fruit grows and matures. While the Panel has not assessed the design of the CPWF in great details, its impression is that the design, if not somewhat scientific (e.g., little explicit attention to knowledge management), is sound. The Panel encourages the CPWF to pursue the direction that is has taken, before considering any major re-orientation in subsequent phases. Meanwhile, certain activities may be modified for managerial or operational reasons, and some activities may be added to take account of new perspectives, but the principal design should remain as it is."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The way forward for the CPWF will occasionally be bumpy, as it apparently has been over recent months. That is only to be expected for a programme with such novel design, focus and management principles. The Panel therefore wishes the CPWF, its participating organizations and all the individual members of its community good luck."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Possible Research Topics on Conflict / Co-operation Over Water Internationally, Intranationally and Between Uses: Session   "}],"sieverID":"5a9049be-604f-4b7e-a84e-36733ad3a7a7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07394cf4827e342a77251d28d0598726","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4bda4da4-1990-4046-b968-6b58582ff52f/retrieve"},"pageCount":41,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Tables Table 1: Proportion of livestock routes classes identified   "}]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Pastoralism is a way of life and livelihood strategy for millions of people around the world and it is characterized by mobility. In Ethiopia, pastoralism is an important means of livelihood for more than four million people, with most pastoralists living in the Somali, Afar, Oromia and Southern Nations regions."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Although it is understood that engaging with pastoralism has strong relevance to virtually all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and food security (FAO 2013), pastoralists have remained vulnerable, poor and marginalized from development due to various factors, including conflict, inappropriate government policies, inappropriate government large-scale project planning and climate change that exacerbates the intensity of droughts. Livestock route mapping, understanding their status and better protecting the routes in the pastoral areas are the first steps towards the development of the areas."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"As a part of the national veterinary service rationalization roadmap, livestock route mapping in pastoral areas was indicated as an important task. In view of this, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Ethiopian Veterinary Association (EVA) are engaged with other partners in a newly designed EU-funded new project, namely Health of Ethiopian Animals for Rural Development (HEARD), which envisages enhancing sustainable livestock productivity and improving the marketing of livestock products across selected regions of Ethiopia. Among the three results expected from the HEARD project, EVA and ILRI have been at the forefront in implementing the project's Result 2: Technical competences (knowledge, attitude and skills) and incentives for veterinary service providers improved to deliver better and rationalized services."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Accordingly, ILRI, in collaboration with other partners, conducted participatory livestock route mapping with the current livestock movement routes mapping activity, several livestock routes and related resources have been identified and mapped in selected places of the Somali region and Oromia region and the final map products were successfully disseminated to the end users (project activity 2.1.2. Identify and map two traditional livestock movement corridors) and the mapping processes, results and the final map products are indicated in this paper."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"A recent foresight exercise conducted by FAO warns that \"'business as usual' is no longer an option for a food secure future. If food and agricultural systems remain on their current path, the evidence points to a future characterized by persistent food insecurity and unsustainable economic growth\" (FAO 2018a). The report concludes that 'high-input, resource-intensive farming systems that have caused massive deforestation, water scarcity, soil depletion, the loss of biodiversity, antimicrobial resistance of pests and diseases and high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cannot guarantee the sustainability of food and agricultural systems. Innovative systems are needed to increase productivity without compromising the natural resource base' (FAO 2018b). Recently, innovative and nature based approaches have been receiving increased attention from many stakeholders as they consider ecological concepts and principles that optimize interactions among plants, animals, humans and the environment, while taking into account the social aspects that need to be addressed for sustainable food systems. Pastoralism is such an innovative system: a time-tested, undervalued alternative path to food production that provides valuable lessons for the much needed evolution towards 'farming with nature' and has largely untapped potential for income growth and employment in marginal areas, such as drylands and mountain areas (FAO 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Pastoralism is a livelihood strategy and a system of mobile livestock production that makes wide ranging use of grazing lands in arid and semi-arid environment that does not uphold sustainable crop cultivation. The freedom of mobility over outsized land is indispensable to pastoralist production. The people and livestock in pastoral communities may move to avoid various natural and/or social hazards, to avert competition with others or to seek more favourable conditions (Dong et al. 2016). Estimates of the number of people involved in pastoral systems and agropastoral systems exceeds 180 million, living in approximately 75% of countries (Kieta et al. 2016). Pastoral livestock production systems are mostly found in Africa's vast arid and semi-arid areas. All countries of the Horn of Africa host a large population of pastoral communities. Ethiopia, arid and semi-arid pastoral areas comprise approximately 60% of its total land area, mainly peripheral, where no alternative production takes place (Homann et al. 2004 cited in Yohannes andMahmmud 2015). This way of life sustains the livelihood of some 14% of the population (Yohannes and Mahmmud 2015) and makes the country among the top ranked in Africa in its livestock populations (CSA 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Although it is understood that engaging with pastoralism has strong relevance to virtually all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and food security (FAO 2013), the pastoralists have remained vulnerable, poor and marginalized from development due to various factors including conflict, inappropriate government policies, inappropriate government large-scale project planning and climate change that exacerbates the intensity of droughts (Yohannes and Mahmmud 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":159,"text":"Understanding the pastoral setup and planning development activities fitted to the pastoral community is important task to alleviate the existing problems. As the pastoralism is characterized by mobility, all development activities should consider the routes through which the pastoralist frequently travels for various reasons, because easy and safe movements are vital for marketing of livestock, find resources undertaken without risking conflicts with other land users and for supporting the pastoralists development agendas through servicing and protecting of the major mobility routes. Therefore, mapping, servicing and protecting livestock routes and livestock resources in pastoralist areas is key for managing and developing pastoral areas and contributes to a way out of poverty for pastoralist communities (Ministry of Agriculture 2015). A team of experts participated in international workshop held by Ministry of Agriculture (2015) recommended that there is a need to map livestock routes in Ethiopia to understand their location and status as a first step in supporting, servicing and protecting them."}]},{"head":"Objectives of the exercises","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The mapping activities were conducted for the following reasons:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• to produce a digitized and validated livestock routes map in the study areas."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• to produce a digitized and validated livestock facilities map alongside the mapped routes in the study areas."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• to produce a digitized and validated human health facilities map alongside the mapped routes in the study areas."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• to make available mapping activities outputs (maps) for uptake by the end users."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"2 Outlines of methods used to map livestock routes"}]},{"head":"Describing areas under mapping activity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The mapping of livestock routes in Ethiopia was initiated and implemented by the One Health for Humans, Environment, Animals and Livelihoods (HEAL) project in collaboration with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)-Health of Ethiopian Animals for Rural Development (HEARD) project. The mapping activities were conducted in the southern part of Ethiopia, in two HEAL target districts of two regions, Oromia region (Miyo district which includes Moyale district and Dirre district) and Somali region (Moyale district, Filtu district and other adjacent woredas) (Figure 1). Credit: Yasin Getahun."}]},{"head":"Participatory approach","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"A consecutive participatory mapping workshops were held in Mega, Moyale and Filtu towns with the stakeholders from the pastoralists, with good knowledge of livestock movements, community elders, traders and experts from zonal and district level offices to produce and validate livestock route maps and facilities. The first consecutive workshops were conducted to produce analogue maps and after digitization was completed the second consecutive workshops were conducted to validate the digitized maps. Generally, the mapping process followed in Tanzania to map livestock migratory routes and in Kenya to map livestock routes in Samburu County was used in the current activity (Kifugo et al. 2015) (Figure 2). "}]},{"head":"Primary mapping activity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Three separate participatory mapping workshops were held in Mega, Moyale and Filtu towns in the firs consecutive mapping activity to produce the analogue map of livestock routes and facilities on the provided topographic maps and in each of the three workshops the same procedures were followed."}]},{"head":"Accessing official topographical maps","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Official topographic map depicting the topographic maps of the areas under investigation were requested and accessed from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA), Addis Ababa, that was published in 1994, which is the most recent version available. The topographic map was printed on 61 sheets at a scale of 1:50,000 m and arranged into three parts (Miyo and Moyale (Oromia) part that covers 13 sheets of maps, Moyale (Somali part) that covers 25 sheets and Filtu area that also covers 23 sheets."}]},{"head":"Defining map attributes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The map attributes expected to be mapped on the mapping activity were defined at the beginning and specific legendry signed were allocated for each feature. Accordingly, four livestock and social themes were identified and defined to be marked with different symbols and colours:"},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"• Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures Livestock route: Livestock volume in the route, seasonality and status were considered to classify the existing livestock routes in the areas. Where the volume of stock was identified as high, it qualified to be a major route, routes used by the pastoralist only during dry season were identified as seasonal and those working at the time of mapping were denoted as functional. Accordingly, five class of routes were identified and denoted by different types of lines and colours. Big volumes, high prices, more external players than local and 1 or 2 market days per week qualified for major market. Minor markets are characterized by low volumes, low prices, local traders and are mostly daily. Marketplaces those are found on international borders are classified as border markets and all market classes were denoted by small rectangles and separate colour."}]},{"head":"Market class","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Symbol and colour Major Minor Border Nonfunctional"},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Water points: The water resources for the pastoralists are grouped into four class based on the intention of use, source and mechanism of accessing the water. Deep ground water sources accessed by machine (pump) are classified as borehole, while ground water source accessed by human power are classified as well. Surface water accumulated at one low altitude place or manmade wide superficial hole and easily accessed by animals are classified as pond. A places or water points where animals travel for the purpose of mineral feeding are classified as salt licks. All water points are denoted by star symbol and separate colour. "}]},{"head":"Water points class","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Organizing the mapping activity","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The mapping activities were organized at three different places, Mega, Moyale and Filtu town by ILRI-HEARD project and HEAL project in collaboration with Vétérinaires Sans Frontières Suisse (VSF) and Comitato Collaborazione Medica (CCM). More than 80 participants were invited and participated on the participatory mapping activity and they represented the pastoral community elders, zonal and woreda level experts from livestock resource development offices of respective districts and livestock traders. The workshops were organized with a predefined agenda and similar activities were conducted by organizing team in all places:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Inviting the participants for the workshop."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Holding the workshop on the predefined venue and date."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Welcoming the participant and explaining the objectives (Figure 3)."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Explaining basic concepts, importance and methodology of participatory mapping activity and map attributes to the participants by GIS expert (Figure 3)."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Providing mapping resources and logistics (printed topographic maps, different colour markers and other logistics). "}]},{"head":"Mapping exercise","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Each group could work on the mosaic map and to track the main routes through which livestock moves to water points, markets, animal health posts and rangeland fields. In addition, Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures, waterpoints and marketplace were mapped alongside the routes of movement (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Feedback and consultation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Once all groups were completed mapping activity, edge matching was done to produce a single mosaic analogue map and each group were invited to present their work. All groups were engaged in discussion on the mosaic map to make information flow from one division to another, to adjust on missed points and to make sure that all group agree on the produced map. Finally, the analogue map produced by all groups were voted on for its correctness and ratified and collected for further digitization (Figure 5). "}]},{"head":"Digitization","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Once the participatory mapping was completed on field, the next step was to digitize the maps at ILRI Addis Ababa campus by ILRI-GIS expert. This step involves rescanning of drawn topographical maps at EMA, georeferencing and screen digitizing the maps using Arc-GIS software. Each of the attributes including the livestock routes, market centres, water points and infrastructure were coded and a database developed. Each of the 56 maps were edge matched to join the map sheets. And further cleaning of the information was undertaken. After this process, the digital maps of all districts were mosaicked and for each the four parts (i.e. livestock and human related infrastructure, livestock routes, market and water points) digital maps were produced."}]},{"head":"Map validation activity","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Similar to the primary mapping activity, three separate participatory validation workshops were held in Mega, Moyale and Filtu towns in the second consecutive mapping activity to make correction (changes of names, change of route type, length extending and completing full path information), add new information that was missed in the previous mapping exercise and maintain rightly located features (no change). The same procedure with the primary mapping workshop was used in validation workshop. After finalizing the digitized map validation activity, the consent form was signed by each participant to proof the mapping and validation activity was conducted by a participatory approach via active participation of the pastoral community and other stakeholders, entirely depending on their indigenous knowledge of the areas without any interference and pressure from the organizers (ILRI) (Annex I). Finally, validated map sheets were collected for further digitization and map finalizing process. "}]},{"head":"Finalizing mapping","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"All produced validated map sheets in the field were rescanned at EMA, digitized all corrections and newly added once or deleted any erroneous information and update both the digital and hardcopy maps at ILRI compound by ILRI-GIS expert Arc-GIS software. Finally, four separate layers of digital maps and one digital map containing all layers in one is produced."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"3 Results From the overall mapped livestock routes 9.37% (no. = 9) of them are nonfunctional at the time of mapping because of varies reasons. Opening of alternative routes, blockage of routes because of conflicts on rangeland with neighbouring districts, constructing and establishing new livestock facilities, marketplaces and water points in nearest locations, depleting livestock resource from some livestock destination points (drying of water points) were a reason listed by the participants for livestock routes to become nonfunctional."}]},{"head":"Livestock routes","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Grazing places (rangelands), watering points, salt licking points, livestock markets and animal health post were found as the major destination points of the livestock routes mapped in the study areas. From the total 96 destination places, about 90 livestock routes were destined at grazing areas, watering points and other destination points including marketplaces and animal health facilities, 3 of them destined at salt liking places and 3 of them are at marketplaces only. The final map on traditional livestock corridors (routes) from the participatory mapping is presented below (Figure 7) and the detail information on the starting point, destination and additional description on the routes are presented in Annex II. "}]},{"head":"Livestock markets","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"About 14 livestock markets were identified by the participants and they are grouped in 4 classes: major livestock markets, minor livestock markets, border livestock markets and nonfunctional livestock markets (Table 2). The final map on livestock market from the mapping activity is presented below (Figure 8) and the detail information on their names and locations are presented in Annex III. "}]},{"head":"Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"One hundred livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures were identified by the participants and from these animal health posts and human health posts accounts for 49% and 44%, respectively (Table 3). The final map on livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures from the mapping activity is presented below (Figure 9) and the detail information on their names and locations are presented in Annex IV. "}]},{"head":"Livestock watering points","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The participants also mapped 142 livestock watering and salt lick points. Accordingly, they had pointed out boreholes, wells and ponds as the different source of water and ponds (64.08%) were identified as the major source of water in the areas (Table 4). The final map on livestock watering points and salt licks from the mapping activity is presented below (Figure 10) and the detail information on their names and locations are presented in Annex V. "}]},{"head":"Disseminating the final maps to the end users","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Disseminating the produced map products is essential for the uptake of the products by the government, development partners and other stakeholders working in the areas and using the maps in planning and implementing development activities tailored to the pastoral communities, which ensure sustainable development of livestock and pastoral areas and contribute to a way out of poverty. See the 'Report for dissemination workshop on livestock routes and resources maps in the southern Oromia and Somali regions, southern Ethiopia' for more information."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Different dissemination mechanisms were used to disseminate the map produced by this activity are:"}]},{"head":"Organizing a dissemination workshop","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"After completing the mapping and validation activities successfully, the dissemination workshop was organized by the ILRI HEARD project on 23 October 2023, in Hawassa town to share the livestock routes and resource mapping process and outputs and to discuss the way forward on the issue of capitalizing on such activity and regular validation of the map with the invited stakeholders. A total of 39 (38 male and 1 female) participants from ILRI, governmental offices at different levels, universities, research centres, pastoral community elders, development partners and professional associations attended the dissemination workshop. The workshop was fruitful in delivering its objective."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Generally, the participants were satisfied with the overall mapping process and outputs and vowed to own and follow future supporting, servicing and protection activities of the routes and resources mapped in the study areas. Upon handing over the paper maps, notice is given to own and follow future supporting, servicing and protection activities of the routes to the Ministry of Agriculture animal health and veterinary public health unit leader, Wubishet Zewdie, at the federal level and to the Oromia region bureau of agriculture livestock health directorate, Getachew Gutema and the Somali region pastoral development bureau animal health directorate, Muhamed Mohamud, at the regional level."}]},{"head":"Handing over the maps to the Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"To facilitate access to the produced livestock routes and related resources map, eight copies of a waterproof paper based map printed by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA) at a scale of 1:80 km were handed over by Theodore Knight-Jones (ILRI Addis Animal and Human Health Unit leader and HEARD project principal investigator) to the Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders on the final session of the dissemination workshop. Additionally, PDF files containing the produced maps were shared with the participants."}]},{"head":"Map publishing on CGSpace","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"To ensure easy access to the produced livestock routes and resource maps by all interested parties, the maps are published on CGSpace and made freely accessible. Permanent links to share the map products were shared with the participants in the dissemination workshop and presented as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Livestock routes in Miyo, Moyale and Filtu districts of Ethiopia (cgiar.org)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Livestock markets in Miyo, Moyale and Filtu districts of Ethiopia (cgiar.org)"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Livestock infrastructure in Miyo, Moyale and Filtu districts of Ethiopia (cgiar.org)"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Livestock water points in Miyo, Moyale and Filtu districts of Ethiopia (cgiar.org)"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Livestock resources in Miyo, Moyale and Filtu districts of Ethiopia (cgiar.org)"}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"It is believed that mapping, servicing and protecting livestock routes and livestock resources in pastoralist areas is the foundation stone for understanding the pastoral setup and planning development activities tailored to the pastoral community. In this regard, livestock route and infrastructure mapping activities were conducted in the Somali region and in pastoral areas of Oromia region, Ethiopia, to understand their location and status. With this activity, livestock routes, livestock markets, livestock facilities and human health infrastructures and livestock watering points were identified and mapped by the participatory approach."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The maps for the livestock routes in the study areas show that the majority (90.63%, no. = 87) of the livestock routes are functional, of which 19.79% (no. = 19) are seasonal routes and 9.37% (no. = 9) of the livestock routes are destined for rangelands and watering points are nonfunctional at the time of mapping because of a variety of reasons, of which blockage of routes because of conflicts on rangeland with neighbouring districts is mentioned the most."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The map for watering points in the study areas indicated pond water (64.08%, no. = 91) as a major water source for the pastoralist community, even if pond waters are not a clean source of water for humans and livestock. Boreholes and wells, which are relatively clean and quality water sources, are few and scattered over vast rangeland areas. Ponds, wells and boreholes are more accumulated around the residences and roadsides and remote rangelands where pastoralists used to travel to found fewer watering points."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"The livestock market map indicates a low density of livestock markets over vast areas, especially major livestock markets, which are few. From this, one can understand that the pastoralists are expected to track their animals one foot over a long distance to sell them and buy household commodities. The maps in the study areas also clearly show the low density of animal health posts and human health posts over the vast rangeland areas. The maps in the study areas also clearly show a low density of animal health posts and human health posts and some areas have predominantly constant major livestock routes and areas frequented through major seasonal routes."},{"index":5,"size":224,"text":"In conclusion, with the current mapping activity, several livestock routes and infrastructures have been identified and mapped. Thus, the maps produced will provide basic information on the location and the status of livestock routes and infrastructure to the government and other stakeholders (NGOs) for better decision-making in supporting, servicing and protecting them. The government and other interested development NGOs could use watering point maps to support the pastoral community and intervene in establishing and rehabilitating the water resources. The government and other interested development NGOs could take up livestock market maps to support the pastoral community by establishing new markets and rehabilitating the existing ones. The map showing animal health posts and human health posts is crucial for the HEAL project to define where mobile or static One Health units are most suitable. Thus, the maps produced will provide a basis for discussing the One Health Unit option with local and regional stakeholders and for mobile units, they will help to plan routes and timing of areas served. Areas with a low density of animal and human health posts but located along major livestock routes and markets would be obvious priorities for mobile One Health units. Whereas in locations where there is already a relatively high density of animal and human health posts, strengthening these existing infrastructures towards static One Health units seems sensible."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"In line with the above conclusions, the following recommendations are forwarded:"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• The local, regional and federal governments should recognize and protect the livestock routes and infrastructure mapped in the study areas."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"• The government and other stakeholders should work towards supporting, servicing and protecting the identified livestock routes in the study areas."},{"index":9,"size":46,"text":"• The local governments and the community should consider an early, rapid and holistic conflict management system whenever conflicts exist between adjacent pastoral kebeles and the community should work towards improving peace and harmony with neighbours to avoid livestock route obstruction and make available livestock resources."},{"index":10,"size":97,"text":"• Livestock routes change overtime and thus it needs to be recognized that the produced maps reflect the status, but this may change year to year for seasonal routes. Changes during the major routes may not occur quickly, but conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies may change the current patterns. Other changes relate to ongoing or planned investments and constructions in the livestock and health sectors, which need to be considered in decision-making and keeping the maps up to date. It is thus important to revalidate the current maps overtime and to keep track of major changes."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"Annex III: Detail information on livestock marketing identified by the participants on the mapping activity "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figures Figures "},{"text":"Figure 1 :FigureFigure 9 : Figure 1: Districts included in mapping activity Figure 2: Mapping process followed in participatory mapping activity Figure 3: Welcoming the participants and explaining the objectives and explaining basics of mapping Figure 4: Group working on the mosaic map Figure 5: Group presentation, discussion and voting on the produced analogue mosaic map Figure 6: Validating workshop participants Figure 7: Livestock routes Figure 8: Livestock markets Figure 9: Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures Figure 10: Livestock watering points and salt licks Figure 11: Traditional livestock movement corridors, livestock and human health facilities and infrastructures map "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Districts included in mapping activity. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Mapping process followed in participatory mapping activity "},{"text":" Livestock markets: Three market types (minor, major and border) were defined based on the following characteristics:• Volume of livestock• Prices • Number and kinds of players (external traders, local traders, middlemen) • Market days per week • Location "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Welcoming the participants and explaining the objectives and explaining basics of mapping "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Group working on the mosaic map "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Group presentation, discussion and voting on the produced analogue mosaic map "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Validating workshop participants "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Livestock routes "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Livestock markets "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Livestock watering points and salt licks "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Proportion of livestock markets classes identified  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Proportion of livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures identified  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Proportion of water point types identified  "},{"text":" Totally 96 livestock routes were identified and mapped by the participants in the study areas. The livestock routes mapped are grouped in five separate classes: major functional routes, major functional seasonal routes, major nonfunctional routes, minor functional routes and minor nonfunctional routes (Table1). Over 2,952 km of livestock routes were mapped of which2,197.39 km, 346.65 km, 146.74 km, 82.18 km and 179.21 km accounts for major functional routes, major functional seasonal routes, major nonfunctional routes, minor functional routes and minor nonfunctional routes, respectively. Table 1: Proportion of livestock routes classes identified Table 1: Proportion of livestock routes classes identified Route type Proportions % (No.) Route typeProportions % (No.) Major functional 66.67 (64) Major functional66.67 (64) Major functional seasonal 19.79 (19) Major functional seasonal19.79 (19) Major Nonfunctional 5.20 (5) Major Nonfunctional5.20 (5) Minor functional 4.17 (4) Minor functional4.17 (4) Minor nonfunctional 4.17 (4) Minor nonfunctional4.17 (4) Total 100 (96) Total100 (96)  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Proportion of livestock markets classes identified Market type Proportion % (No.) Market typeProportion % (No.) Border 7.14 (1) Border7.14 (1) Major 14.29 (2) Major14.29 (2) Minor 71.43 (10) Minor71.43 (10) Nonfunctional 7.14 (1) Nonfunctional7.14 (1) Total 14 (100) Total14 (100)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Proportion of livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures identified Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructures Proportion Livestock facilities and human health related infrastructuresProportion  % (No.) % (No.) Animal health post 49 (49) Animal health post49 (49) Check point 1 (1) Check point1 (1) Holding ground 1 (1) Holding ground1 (1) Loading and offloading facility 2 (2) Loading and offloading facility2 (2) Slaughterhouse 3 (3) Slaughterhouse3 (3) Human health post 44 (44) Human health post44 (44) Total 100 (100) Total100 (100)  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Proportion of water point types identified Water point types Proportion % (No.) Water point typesProportion % (No.) Boreholes 14.08 (20) Boreholes14.08 (20) Ponds 64.08 (91) Ponds64.08 (91) Wells 15.5 (22) Wells15.5 (22) Salt licks 6.34 (9) Salt licks6.34 (9) Total 100 (142) Total100 (142)  "}],"sieverID":"cd3a0e03-2ea8-4cec-81e3-5b5a9f1906fd","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0745b49befe5e15ab5faf2d83fd2c2d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/025cd927-52c2-43d5-a000-f7ecad0b487f/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Children Consuming Cassava as a Staple Food are at Risk for Inadequate Zinc, Iron, and Vitamin A Intake","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Micronutrient deficiencies afflict millions of children in sub-Saharan Africa, increasing their susceptibility to common infections and limiting their cognitive and physical development. Vitamin A and zinc deficiencies are estimated to cause 600,000 and 400,000 deaths annually, respectively [1]. These deficiencies account for 9% of global childhood disability adjusted life years, a measure which economists and policy makers use to assess health impact [1]. Subclinical vitamin A deficiency renders 250,000-500,000 children blind annually, while zinc deficiency increases the risk of death from diarrhea, malaria, and respiratory disease [2]. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional problem worldwide, and contributes to maternal deaths in pregnancy and parturition [1]. The principle manifestation of iron deficiency is anemia; iron deficiency also compromises the immune system and is associated with limited cognitive development in children. Among pre-school aged children worldwide, 23% suffer from iron deficiency anemia [1]."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"In the developing world, vitamin A is usually consumed in the form of β-carotene, which is present in orange and dark green leafy vegetables such as sweet potatoes, squash, orange fruits, and plant leaves. Availability of such foods is often seasonal and their consumption is sporadic in foodinsecure environments. The primary sources of zinc in the diets of the poor are whole-grain cereals and legumes. These foods have a high concentration of phytates, which form insoluble complexes with zinc and, consequently, reduce its bioavailability [3]. As a result, typical diets often do not provide adequate zinc. Iron is primarily obtained from legumes in the developing world, but the quantity and bioavailability of iron in these sources is often insufficient to prevent iron deficiency [4]."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Cassava is the staple food of 250 million of the poorest Africans [5]. Cassava has a relatively high tolerance to drought. The cyanide-rich peel of the cassava tuber protects it from boring pests. Once cassava matures as a crop, it remains viable and edible in the ground for up to 3 years. These characteristics make cassava a preferred crop to afford food security to vulnerable subsistence farming communities in Africa [6,7]. While cassava is an excellent energy source, it contains <1 μg/100 g β-carotene, ≈3 μg/ 100 g zinc, and ≈4 μg/100 g iron [8]."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Children whose diets consist largely of cassava may be vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies. This study tested the hypothesis that among children in Nigeria and Kenya who consume cassava as a staple food, the fraction of cassava consumption is inversely correlated with dietary intake of zinc, iron, and vitamin A. Dietary and cost data were used to estimate the cost of a diet with an adequate micronutrient intake, as well as the cost savings if cassava was biofortified with β-carotene, iron or zinc."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Subjects","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Subjects were healthy children aged 2-5 years living in southeast Nigeria and around Lake Victoria in Kenya, areas where cassava is consumed as a staple food. In Kenya, 449 healthy children were recruited for this study during April 2009. Children were excluded from participation if they had a chronic illness or disability, were breastfeeding, or were not permanent residents of the study area. If more than one child in a family was eligible, the younger was chosen to participate. This study was approved by the Human Research Protection Office of Washington University and by the National Ethics Review Committee of the Kenya Medical Research Institute."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Data collected in 2001-2003 for the purposes of assessing the national nutritional status of Nigeria were used for this study [9]. Each state in Nigeria was assigned to one of three agro-ecological zones; all 793 children surveyed who lived in the humid-forest zone, the area where cassava consump-tion is greatest, were included in this study. All children from the other two agro-ecological zones were excluded because <1% of these children consumed >25% of daily energy as cassava. A child-mother pair was chosen from each randomly sampled house. If more than one child in a household was eligible, the youngest child was selected. Ethical clearance was granted to the survey from the Federal Ministry of Health through the Nutrition Division of the Ministry."}]},{"head":"Study Design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Purposive sampling of Kenyan and Nigerian individuals was used. Furthermore, children aged 2-5 years were chosen as the study population because they are no longer breast feeding, quantification of macronutrient intake by survey methods has been shown to be accurate, and they are a vulnerable group for whom dietary diversity is limited. In Kenya, children were recruited from 15 villages in Kuria, Teso and Samia districts. From each village, a random sample of 30 children was chosen. A sample size of 450 was determined using estimates of iron intake data to achieve a precision of 10%. Considering each of the three districts to be independent and unrelated, a sample size of 144 per district was calculated."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"In Nigeria, the states were selected based on their high reliance on cassava. The survey method has been described previously [9,10]. Within each state, a listing of all local government areas was obtained and these areas were then separated by degree of urbanization (rural, medium, and urban) [11]. The survey areas were selected with the goals of ensuring a range of rural/urban conditions. Local government areas were then divided into smaller demographic units. Three of these smaller demographic units were randomly selected for the survey. For each of these small units, 30 households were randomly chosen, for a total of 793 children recruited."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The primary outcomes of this study were the Spearman's correlation coefficients relating the fraction of dietary energy obtained from cassava and zinc, iron and vitamin A intake."}]},{"head":"Dietary Recall","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"In Kenya, a 24-hour recall method was used to estimate dietary intake [12,13]. Two days before the food recall, caregivers were asked to observe the quantities and types of food that their children consumed on a designated day. Each caregiver was given a graduated cup to help standardize quantities when cooking and feeding on that day. Caregivers were also asked to note any food or meals given to the child outside of the home or any special circumstances (e.g. visitors in the home, special celebration). Approximately 10% of children were surveyed twice using the same method to determine the variation in micronutrient intake for the population. Caregivers also answered a questionnaire providing basic demographic and household information. Each child's weight was measured to the nearest 10 g and height was measured in triplicate to the nearest mm."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In Nigeria, a similar 24-hour recall method was used to estimate dietary intake [13]. Interviewers were provided with a food instruction booklet to collect descriptions of the foods consumed by respondents and their respective amounts. Each reported food description was compared to relevant food probes in the food instruction booklet. The respondents used measurement guides to approximate the amount of food eaten. Measurements consisted of: food models, prices, volumes, and sizes. The questionnaire also included information about household composition, socioeconomic status of the household, trends in food availability/frequency of food consumption, and household food expenditures. All interviews were conducted in person with the child's caregiver, usually his/her mother. Samples of Nigerian food prepared and eaten by household members were sent for compositional analysis whenever possible [9]."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Each subject was assigned a study number unlinked to identifiers. Data were entered in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Vitamin A, zinc and iron intake for each Kenyan subject was calculated using two East African food composition tables [14,15]. For the Nigerian subjects, original data collection sheets were not available, but instead an aggregate spreadsheet without identifiers was the primary data source."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Adequate zinc, iron and vitamin A intake were assumed to be the Dietary Reference Intakes determined by the Institute of Medicine [16]. Anthropometric indices were calculated using the WHO 2005 growth standards [17]. Spearman's correlation coefficients were determined for fraction of energy consumed obtained from cassava and zinc, iron, and vitamin A intake (SPSS 17.0, Chicago, IL, USA). A non-parametric measure of correlation was chosen because the nutrient intake data are unlikely to be normally distributed. A P<0.05 was considered statistically significant."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Dietary diversity was scored by three methods. First, all foods were categorized into one of 12 general types, such as cereals, fish, sugar, and fats, and children were given a 12 point score [18]. The second method defined whether animal-source foods were consumed on the survey day, and the final method used a numerical count of the number of different foods eaten on the survey day [19]."}]},{"head":"Cost Analysis of Diets and Impact of Biofortification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Market surveys of all food prices per unit weight were conducted in Busia, Kenya and Umudike, Nigeria, repre-sentative small towns in the cassava consuming areas in proximity to where the dietary recalls were conducted. For the foods that are exclusively grown and then consumed by farm families without passing through a market, a cost of production was assigned. These foods included cassava, millet and sorghum; their prices were much lower than the market prices of other staple foods. Excel spreadsheets of all foods, nutrient contents, and prices were prepared. Solver, a linear programming tool in Excel, was used to estimate the minimum cost of providing a diet with adequate amounts of vitamin A, zinc, and iron for 2-5 year old children [20], assuming that these children could not consume more than twice as much of any broad category of food as they did habitually in the 24-hour dietary recall surveys."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Additionally, to estimate the impact that biofortified cassava would have on micronutrient intake in this population, the micronutrient content of cassava was arbitrarily increased 20-fold for β-carotene and 4-fold for iron and zinc, and the nutrient intake and dietary cost estimates recalculated."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The survey included 449 Kenyan and 793 Nigerian children aged 2-5 years (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Kenyans derived 59% of their energy from cassava, while 15% of dietary energy of Nigerian children was derived from cassava (Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Micronutrient intakes were inadequate in a large fraction of the children (Table 3), and 89% of Kenyan children and 31% of Nigerian children obtained >25% of their dietary energy from cassava. The dietary diversity score was 4.0± 1.4 for Nigerian children and 4.5±1.3 for Kenyan children (Table 3)."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"54 Kenyan children were surveyed twice. On the first survey day vitamin A, zinc and iron intakes were 420± 550 μg/d, 3.4±4.7 mg/d and 6.1±2.5 mg/d, respectively (mean ± SD), and on the second survey day vitamin A, zinc and iron intakes were 450±420 μg/d, 3.1±1.3 mg/d and 6.6±2.8 mg/d. The intraindividual SDs, calculated from the second measurement, for vitamin A, zinc and iron were 310 μg/d, 1.4 mg/d and 2.0 mg/d, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The fraction of dietary energy provided by cassava was negatively correlated with vitamin A intake (r=−0.15, P< 0.0001), with zinc intake (r=−0.11, P<0.0001) and with iron intake (r=−0.36, P<0.0001)."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Considering both populations together, 33% of children had an adequate intake of vitamin A, 45% had an adequate intake of iron, and 37% had an adequate intake of zinc. If the micronutrient content of cassava was to be increased 20-fold for β-carotene, and 4 -fold for iron and zinc, the fraction of this population that would have an adequate vitamin A intake would be 61%, for iron it would be 86%, and for zinc it would be 67%."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"Results of the cost analysis in Kenya indicate that adequate dietary β-carotene can be provided for $0.22/d, adequate dietary iron for $0.25/d, adequate dietary zinc for $0.74/d, and adequate amounts of vitamin A, zinc and iron for $0.74/d. For a Kenyan child consuming cassava as a staple, if the β-carotene content is increased 20-fold, zinc content increased 4-fold and iron content 4-fold, the cost of providing all of these micronutrients and adequate daily macronutrients falls to $0.16/d."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"Results of the cost analysis in Nigeria indicate that adequate dietary β-carotene can be provided for $0.59/d, adequate dietary iron for $0.64/d, adequate dietary zinc for $0.59/d and adequate amounts of vitamin A, iron and zinc for $0.64/d. For a Nigerian child consuming cassava as a staple, if the β-carotene content is increased 20-fold, zinc content increased 4-fold and iron content 4-fold, the cost of providing all of these micronutrients and adequate daily macronutrients falls to $0.53/d."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":302,"text":"The rates of inadequate vitamin A, zinc and iron intake were very high in rural 2-5 year old children who consume cassava as a staple food. Cassava consumption was negatively correlated with vitamin A, zinc and iron intake, A limitation of this study is the uncertainty associated with a single 24-hour recall to determine dietary intake, as dietary intake is known to vary substantially day-to-day [12,13]. A series of consecutive recalls is more accurate than a single one for determination of an individual's dietary intake. Repeating the recall in 54 children showed that the populations estimates of micronutrient intake were likely to be accurate within 10%, since mean intake values varied by 10% or less. It is established, however, that when considering a population, a single dietary recall provides an accurate estimate of the nutrient intake and nutrient deficits of the population as a whole [13,21]. The dietary recall method used in this study alerted participants of the survey date in advance. This has been shown to improve the accuracy of the recall, but it also offers participants the opportunity to change their dietary intake in anticipation of the survey. This has been noted to a source of bias in developed world dietary surveys, but is thought to be less of a problem in populations that consume a monotonous diet in the developing world. The study population was predominantly Africans, who, either, grow their own crops, or obtain their food from extended family members who grow crops. Thus, our findings should not be extended to populations with more dietary diversity, such as wage earners or urban dwellers who primarily purchase food. Thirdly, this assessment was restricted to 2-5 year old children and therefore it might not be applicable to other age groups who obtain more of their food prepared outside the home."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Since vitamin A supplements are routinely given to children in the developing world [22], vitamin A intake may be low while vitamin A status may not be. Among the individuals surveyed in Kenya, 33% reported receiving vitamin A supplements in the 6 months prior to the survey. National coverage figures for Nigeria indicate that 55% of children receive annual vitamin A supplements [23]. However, our survey was designed to identify children with inadequate vitamin A intake, not poor vitamin A status. It is acknowledged that food is the preferred vehicle to receive micronutrients, and these surveys do accurately report what micronutrients were received from food sources [24]."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"The diets in both Kenya and Nigeria lacked diversity when assessed by a standardized scoring system (Table 3). While many of the cereals and tubers consumed by these populations had a low content of vitamin A, zinc and iron, cassava provided the smallest quantities of these micronutrients when expressed per unit energy (Table 2). Nigerian children received more iron and zinc in their diets, probably because they consumed a more diverse group of cereals, most of which contained more zinc and iron than cassava. Cassava has the reputation of being a staple food of individuals living with food insecurity. In this study, cassava consumption correlated with inadequate micronutrient intake, this is certainly a consequence of its low micronutrient content, but also may be determined by factors such as socio-economic status, which were not included in the regression modeling."},{"index":4,"size":228,"text":"In Kenya, the dietary cost analyses indicated a 4.6-fold increase in spending (relative to the cost of simply meeting macronutrient requirements) is needed to provide adequate amounts of zinc, iron and vitamin A. In Nigeria, only a 1.2fold increase in spending (relative to the cost of simply  meeting macronutrient requirements) is needed to provide adequate amounts of zinc, iron and vitamin A. Due to the high cost of these micronutrient-rich foods, it may well be more difficult for rural Kenyans to choose to increase the micronutrient content of their diet than Nigerians. The proportions of children with inadequate micronutrient intakes were quite high in both populations surveyed. Inadequate dietary intake of a micronutrient does not correspond to clinical nutrient deficiency, although it does correlate with this health parameter. Assessment of clinical nutrient deficiency includes the biochemical measurement of a biological sample from the child. For zinc, iron and vitamin A, methods of biochemical assessment have limitations that prevent their widespread use [25][26][27]. Unfortunately, published rates of nutrient deficiency are also very high in Nigerian and Kenyan children. In a sample of 555 rural Kenyan children, 52% of children were iron deficient, 66% were zinc deficient, and 89% were vitamin A deficient [28]. In Nigeria, one survey found that 37% of pre-school aged children were iron deficient [29], and 26-75% of pre-school aged children were vitamin A deficient [30,31]."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Supplementation/fortification research to reduce micronutrient deficiency has been very successful. A meta-analyses of eight studies of vitamin A supplementation found that supplementation resulted in a 23% reduction in child mortality [32]. Zinc supplementation reduced the incidence and duration of diarrhea by 15-24%, as well as reducing the rate of lower respiratory infection and death [33]. The use of iron fortified maize flour resulted in an 89% reduction in iron-deficiency anemia in children [34]."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"Translating the research about supplementation into effective public health programs has been challenging. The most successful program is UNICEF's biannual administration of vitamin A capsules [22]. This program has a 68% global coverage and saves hundreds of thousands of lives annually. However, supplementation has the lowest coverage among rural communities in Africa, where children are most likely to die as a result of vitamin A deficiency, and requires billions of dollars to sustain. There have not been widespread public health programs that have increased zinc and iron intake."},{"index":7,"size":90,"text":"Given that public health micronutrient supplementation programs are expensive and leave gaps in the coverage of vulnerable populations, alternatives which incorporate more micronutrients into staple crops are being explored. Staple crops have been bred to increase essential mineral and βcarotene content [34]. However, the degree of nutrient enhancement that can be achieved by breeding is typically less than 2-fold for minerals and 10-fold for carotenoids. Yellow cassava roots, for example, have a 10-fold increase in ß-carotene, but no varieties of cassava have been identified with substantial zinc or iron content."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Another strategy to improve micronutrient intake is through biotechnology, genetic modification of staple crops [35]. A novel cassava biotechnology project has developed cassavas with increased vitamin A, zinc and iron content in model cultivars that exceed the ranges found in natural germplasm [36]. We speculate that if β-carotene content of cassava is increased 20-fold or if zinc and iron content are increased 4-fold, adoption of these cassavas by farmers would have the potential to significantly increase micronutrient dietary intake. Use of biotechnology would not require the adoption of new varieties of staple foods if these traits could be introduced in crop varieties that farmers already prefer."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Cassava consumers are at high risk for inadequate vitamin A, zinc and iron intake. Efforts to ameliorate this risk via supplementation programs and the introduction of micronutrient-fortified crops should be directed toward cassava consuming communities."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 2 Sources of energy in the diets of cassava consuming children and typical micronutrient density of the staple foods Food or food group Nigeria Kenya Representative Vitamin A Zinc content Iron content Food or food groupNigeriaKenyaRepresentativeVitamin AZinc contentIron content  n=793 n=449 food from group content μg/kcal μg/kcal μg/kcal n=793n=449food from groupcontent μg/kcalμg/kcalμg/kcal Cassava 15% 59% Cassava 0 0.2 1.6 Cassava15%59%Cassava00.21.6 Maize 22% 7% Maize 0 0.2 3.3 Maize22%7%Maize00.23.3 Rice 14% 1% Rice 0 3.3 11.4 Rice14%1%Rice03.311.4 Sorghum 1% 10% Sorghum 0.1 0.2 30 Sorghum1%10%Sorghum0.10.230 Wheat 8% 1% Wheat 0.2 1.8 3.2 Wheat8%1%Wheat0.21.83.2 Animal source foods 3% 7% Egg 1.1 6.8 7.7 Animal source foods3%7%Egg1.16.87.7 Legumes 9% 3% Cowpea 0 9.4 22.3 Legumes9%3%Cowpea09.422.3 Fruits 4% 3% Papaya 1.4 1.8 2.7 Fruits4%3%Papaya1.41.82.7 Green leafy vegetables 10% 4% Okra 2.0 4.3 15.3 Green leafy vegetables10%4%Okra2.04.315.3 Yams 11% 0% Yams 0 0.1 6.4 Yams11%0%Yams00.16.4 Banana 2% 1% Banana 0.2 1.7 3.3 Banana2%1%Banana0.21.73.3 Sweet potato 0% 3% Sweet potato 32 2.6 5.3 Sweet potato0%3%Sweet potato322.65.3  "},{"text":"Table 3  Cassava, vitamin A, Cassava, vitamin A, zinc and iron intake of children zinc and iron intake of children aged 2-5 years aged 2-5 years Values expressed as mean SD Values expressed as mean SD for continuous parameters, n (%) for continuous parameters, n (%) or dichotomous parameters. or dichotomous parameters. DRI, Dietary Reference Intake, DRI, Dietary Reference Intake, is the \"lowest continuing intake is the \"lowest continuing intake level of a nutrient that will level of a nutrient that will maintain a defined level of maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual\". For nutriture in an individual\". For Vitamin A, DRI=300 μg/d Vitamin A, DRI=300 μg/d for 2-4 year old children and for 2-4 year old children and 400 μg/d for 4-5 year old 400 μg/d for 4-5 year old children. For zinc, DRI=3 mg/d children. For zinc, DRI=3 mg/d for 2-4 year old children and for 2-4 year old children and 5 mg/d for 4-5 year old chil- 5 mg/d for 4-5 year old chil- dren. For iron, DRI=7 mg/d dren. For iron, DRI=7 mg/d for 2-4 year old children and for 2-4 year old children and 10 mg/d for 4-5 year old 10 mg/d for 4-5 year old children [17]. children [17].  "}],"sieverID":"077b4e6f-2e95-4e04-82dc-adf7819163d0","abstract":"Cassava contains little zinc, iron, and β-carotene, yet it is the primary staple crop of over 250 million Africans. This study used a 24-hour dietary recall to test the hypothesis that among healthy children aged 2-5 years in Nigeria and Kenya, cassava's contribution to the childrens' daily diets is inversely related to intakes of zinc, iron, and vitamin A. Dietary and demographic data and anthropometric measurements were collected from 449 Kenyan and 793 Nigerian children. Among Kenyan children 89% derived at least 25% of their dietary energy from cassava, while among the Nigerian children 31% derived at least 25% of energy from cassava. Spearman's correlation coefficient between the fraction of dietary energy obtained from cassava and vitamin A intake was r=−0.15, P<0.0001, zinc intake was r=−0.11, P<0.0001 and iron intake was r=−0.36, P<0.0001. In Kenya, 59% of children consumed adequate vitamin A, 22% iron, and 31% zinc. In Nigeria, 17% of children had adequate intake of vitamin A, 57% iron, and 41% zinc.Consumption of cassava is a risk factor for inadequate vitamin A, zinc and/or iron intake."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07a64b4c7577afb1d0b2bef7836e6c94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/34b18cad-c6bb-417a-980d-f8d2a1b14635/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Diversificaci-n del uso del bosque","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Resumen Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"Se evalu-la rentabilidad financiera del aprovechamiento forestal en el bosque comunal Toncont'n, Honduras y se compar-con un escenario de uso diversificado. Este escenario incluy-el aprovechamiento de seis productos no maderables, el ecoturismo como actividad comercial y la venta del servicio de regulaci-n h'drica, para el cual se proyecta el pago de una tarifa anual. Bajo el escenario de manejo diversificado, la rentabilidad de la actividad forestal en Toncont'n aumenta en m ‡s de 50%. El inventario de productos no maderables mostr-que existen diferencias entre el bosque primario y el bosque intervenido, en cantidad y abundancia de las especies evaluadas. Brahea dulcis, Machaerium cirrhiferum, Smilax spinosa y orqu'deas son los PNMB que reportar'an un mayor beneficio monetario. La evaluaci-n de la demanda tur'stica mostr-que existe una amplia aceptaci-n por la combinaci-n de actividades tur'sticas y de aprovechamiento forestal en el mismo lugar de visita. Los patrones de preferencias de los turistas nacionales y extranjeros fueron similares; siendo los atributos de mayor influencia, el tipo de infraestructura, el servicio de gu'a y la opci-n de compra de artesan'as y productos t'picos en el lugar visitado. El mŽtodo de costo de oportunidad determin-un valor de $27,4/ha/a-o para el servicio de regulaci-n h'drica; la segunda opci-n de mayor rentabilidad para el uso de la tierra fue la actividad ganadera."}]},{"head":"Palabras claves:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Bosque comunal; aprovechamiento forestal; productos forestales no maderables, ecoturismo, rentabilidad, To n c o n t ' n , H o n d u r a s ."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"F o rest use diversification; a proposal to increment forest activities in a community f o rest in Toncont'n, Honduras. F o r e s t management financial profitability in To n c o n t ' n , Honduras was evaluated and compared against a diversified management scenario that included three options: extraction of six non-wood forest products, ecotourism as a commercial activity, and a payment for water regulation. Returns obtained with the scenario proposed are 50% higher than present use. The forest inventory for non-wood forest products shows severe differences between p r i m a ry and intervened forests, in number of species and abundance. Brahea dulcis, Machaerium cirrhiferum, Smilax spinosa a n d orchids were the non-wood forest products which generate higher monetary returns. The evaluation of tourist activities shows a wide acceptance of a program that combines tourism and forest management. National and foreign touristsÕ preferences are similar; the options evaluated included infrastructure, the utilization of tourist guides and the availability of typical products and handcrafts. Opportunity cost method determined a value of $27,4/ha/yearfor water regulation, with cattle ranching the second most profitable option for land use. Keywords: Communal forest; logging; non wood products; ecoturism; profitability; To n c o n t i n ; Honduras."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"M uchos son los factores que han contribuido a la sobreexplotaci-n de los bosques en los pa'ses en desarrollo. En CentroamŽrica, el extractivismo m i n e r o, el crecimiento demogr ‡fic o, la falta de transparencia del m e r c a d o, las tendencias de consum o, el avance de la frontera agr'cola y las pol'ticas forestales contra-dictorias son factores que han definido y siguen definiendo la forma de explotaci-n de los bosques (Faris 1999, FRP 2000). El elemento comoen de esta problem ‡tica son los altos niveles de pobreza en la reg i -n . Es evidente que bajo las actuales condiciones de comercializaci-n (precios bajos, impuestos altos, mecanismos de competencia des-l e a l ) , los beneficios obtenidos oenicamente de la extracci-n de madera no son incentivo suficiente para asegurar la conservaci-n del bosq u e. Esto provoca que, en general, muchas comunidades aleda-as a los bosques carezcan del est'mulo econ-mico necesario que evite la conversi-n del suelo forestal a otros usos productivos."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Ante esta problem ‡tica, se ha considerado que el concepto de diversificaci-n puede contribuir a fortalecer la base econ-mica y financiera del aprovechamiento forestal. En particular, el ecoturismo, la extracci-n de productos forestales no maderables (PFNM), el pago por servicios ambientales y la producci-n ecol-gicamente racional de madera se han perfilado como actividades lucrativas y compatibles con la protecci-n de los h ‡bitats naturales (Southgate 1997).A estos esfuerzos se suman estrategias encaminadas a dar un mayor valor agregado a los productos, abrir nuevos mercados y mejorar la eficiencia de la cadena de comercializaci-n (FAO 1 9 9 5 ) ."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Varios estudios han demostrado que la generaci-n de ingresos adicionales, tanto para los aserradores organizados como para la comunidad en general, contribuye a la conservaci-n del bosque (Mollinedo 2000, Neumann y Hirsch 2000, Ruiz y Byron 1999). En este sentido, el presente estudio procur-identificar y valorar bienes directos que pudieran ser comercializados localmente, as' como identificar actividades comerciales complementarias (ecoturismo y venta de servicios ambientales) a la actividad forestal en Toncont'n, Honduras."}]},{"head":"Metodolog'a","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"El estudio se desarroll-en el ‡rea denominada bosque comunal Toncont'n,ubicado en la parte alta de la cuenca del r'o Cangrejal (15¡35Õ a 15¡40Õ latitud norte y 86¡34Õ a 86¡39Õ longitud oeste), 30 km al este de la ciudad de La Ceiba, Departamento de Atl ‡ntida, Honduras. La altitud oscila entre 700 y 1200 msnm, con pendientes promedio de 50 a 75%. Los suelos corresponden a la serie Yaruca (Tropohumults). Segoen Holdridge (1987) Este grupo fue creado en 1978 y desde sus inicios los hombres y mujeres que lo integran se dedican a la conservaci-n y uso racional del bosq u e. El GAT ha participado en un gran noemero de actividades de cap a c i t a c i -n , asistencia tŽcnica e investigaci-n con diferentes proyectos y programas forestales.Varios de sus integrantes se han formado como capacitadores,y entre las gestiones m ‡s notables del grupo est ‡n la construcci-n de un campamento for e s t a l , un orquidiario, un taller de ebanister'a y la conformaci-n de un comitŽ de turismo."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Para analizar el efecto de la diversificaci-n en la rentabilidad de la actividad forestal, se realiz-un an ‡lisis comparativo entre diferentes escenarios de manejo. La producci-n maderera fue considerada como el escenario base a partir del cual se evalu-el efecto de la generaci-n de ingresos por transformaci-n de la madera, venta de servicios ambientales, a p r o v e c h a m i e n t o de productos no maderables, e c o t urismo y pago del servicio de regulaci-n h'drica. El valor actual neto ( VAN) y la relaci-n beneficio-costo (B/C) fueron los principales indicadores de rentabilidad utilizados para evaluar las situaciones p l a n t e a d a s."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"Para evaluar los productos no maderables, se seleccionaron, cuantificaron y valoraron las existencias y flujos aprovechables de especies importantes a precios de mercado. La selecci-n de especies fue resultado de un taller participativo con di-ferentes miembros de la comunidad. Los criterios de selecci-n utilizados fueron:abundancia en el bosque, importancia en la econom'a familiar y existencia de mercado para el producto elegido. Para definir el tipo de muestreo a utilizar en la fase de cuantificaci-n, se realiz-un sondeo de presencia en el campo para determinar el patr-n de distribuci-n espacial de cada especie seleccionada. El inventario de existencias se hizo por medio de un muestreo estratificado. El ‡rea de bosque productivo se dividi-en estrato de bosque primario (540 ha) y estrato de bosque primario intervenido (510 ha). Dentro de cada estrato se realiz-un muestreo sistem ‡tico, donde se trazaron fajas alternas y perpendiculares a una l'nea base, a una distancia de 200 m entre fajas. Dentro de cada faja se establecieron las parcelas de medici-n cada 40 m;con una dimensi-n de 20 m x 5 m.La intensidad de muestreo fue de 0,3 y 0,2% para bosque primario e intervenido, respectivamente."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"Para cuantificar las especies de p a l m a s, se midieron las variables dasomŽtricas altura y dap de cada i n d i v i d u o ; para Euterpe precatoria (palmiche) se midi-el largo del tallo aprovechable, mientras que en Brahea dulcis (suyate) se midi-la cantidad de hojas y fibra cosechab l e. En el caso de Alsophila s p. ( h elecho arborescente) se cuantificaron los individuos con un tama-o adecuado para su aprovechamiento y el noemero de individuos muertos por parcela.En Smilax spinosa ( c uculmeca) se midi-el di ‡metro del tallo a 30 cm del suelo y se estim-la cantidad de producto por individ u o. Para M a chaerium cirrhiferum (Sangre drago) se midi-el dap y el largo del tallo aprovechable. L a s existencias de orqu'deas se estimaron a partir del promedio de individuos presentes en ‡rboles aprovec h a d o s, debido que estos productos se extraen solamente de los ‡rboles d e r r i b a d o s."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"Las existencias aprovechables estimadas fueron valoradas con base en el ingreso bruto que reportar'a su c o m e r c i a l i z a c i -n . Los flujos anuales se estimaron definiendo ‡reas de corta anual (ACA) de 35 ha. L o s porcentajes de cosecha anual fueron definidos arbitrariamente. Se estimque la cosecha del 40% de las especies de palmas y 20% de las medicinales garantizar'a la regeneraci-n de las existencias. Los indicadores financieros utilizados para valorar los flujos anuales de cada producto fueron el VAN y la raz-n B/C. Para las proyecciones de los flujos,se calculuna tasa de descuento real con base en el promedio de las tasas de interŽs pasivas (11,1%) y la tasa de inflaci-n del pa's (7,7%).Tanto las existencias como los flujos anuales se valoraron a precios del mercado local."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"Para evaluar la demanda tur'stica del lugar se listaron las preferencias de turistas nacionales y extranjeros mediante un experimento de selecci-n. Se evaluaron seis atributos genŽricos: zonificaci-n de actividades, apreciaci-n de la biodiversidad, venta de artesan'as y otros, infraestructura, transporte en la zona y precio de entrada. El factorial completo (2 4 x3 2 x4) se fraccion-en doceavos para obtener 24 combinaciones finales arregladas en seis bloques de acuerdo a un dise-o c'clico -ptimo. La muestra total correspondi-a 288 encuestas equivalentes a 3456 observaciones."},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"El valor del servicio ambiental de regulaci-n h'drica fue derivado del costo de oportunidad de la tierra, en tŽrminos de la ganancia neta reportada por la ganader'a extensiva (doble prop-sito) en las zonas aleda-as. Los costos e ingresos de la actividad fueron estimados por medio de entrevistas con productores de Yaruca. Se realiz-adem ‡s un an ‡lisis de car ‡cter exploratorio del contexto institucional y del marco legal en materia de recursos naturales, para sustentar futuros acuerdos de pago por servicios ambientales."}]},{"head":"Resultados y discusi-n","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Producci-n maderera en Toncont'n La capacidad productiva del GAT oscila entre 750-1400 m 3 ; sin embargo, en los oeltimos a-os el volumen de producci-n no supera los 250 m 3 /a-o debido a dificultades en la comercializaci-n del producto y problemas en el suministro de repuestos para las motosierras. La es-pecie maderable de mayor importancia comercial y tradicionalmente aprovechada es la endŽmica Magnolia yoroconte, pues en el mercado hay poca aceptaci-n para otras especies; no obstante, actualmente se comercializan 12 especies no tradicionales (Cuadro 1)."},{"index":2,"size":275,"text":"En tŽrminos financieros, la producci-n de madera en Toncont'n tiene m ‡rgenes de ganancia bajos. La construcci-n del orquidario ha permitido la integraci-n de las mujeres de la comunidad a la actividad forestal. Las mujeres se encargan de la propagaci-n y comercializaci-n de orqu'deas y otras plantas ornamentales procedentes del bosque pesar que en los oeltimos tres a-os se ha registrado un crecimiento lineal (cerca de 50%) en los voloemenes anuales de venta, en promedio los ingresos netos no superan el equivalente de $23,7 /ha/a-o. En promedio, el 70% de los costos totales corresponden a costos operativos (Cuadro 2).El costo de la mano de obra y del transporte de la madera al patio de acopio representa el 75% de los costos de producci-n. Entre las causas de los bajos retornos obtenidos por los aserradores organizados de To n c o n t ' n , se encuentran la venta de madera ilegal,los altos impuestos y la falta de diferenciaci-n de la calidad del producto. L a venta de madera ilegal, adem ‡s de causar un efecto negativo en los precios de mercado, ha agravado los conflictos entre los productores organizados y los taladores de comunida-des aleda-as. Los precios obtenidos por los aserradores ilegales son m ‡s bajos aoen que los obtenidos por los organizados (Cuadro 3);no obstante, su margen de ganancia es mayor pues no pagan ningoen tipo de impuesto, n i incurren en gastos por tramitaci-n de permisos y manejo forestal (inventarios generales y censos comerciales, elaboraci-n de planes generales de manejo y planes operativos, u t i l i z aci-n de tŽcnicas de aprovechamiento de impacto reducido, e t c. ) ."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"El impuesto cobrado por AFE-COHDEFOR hace que el costo de producci-n de M. yoroconte aumente en $0,12/pie tablar con respecto a las especies no tradicionales. Po r otro lado, aunque los productores organizados han adoptado la tecnolog'a de motosierra con marco, el mercado no hace una diferenciaci-n entre la calidad de la madera aserrada con esta y la aserrada con motosierra a ÒpulsoÓ, a pesar que en el proceso de transformaci-n, el porcentaje de desperdicios con la primera es significativamente menor. Hasta ahora, el grupo no ha percibido ningoen tipo de ingreso adicional por la certificaci-n del buen manejo forestal, otorgada por el programa SmartWood."}]},{"head":"Productos no maderables del bosque","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Aunque en Honduras existen registros de productos no maderables (PNMB) de alto valor comercial, como Polypodium aureum que alcanza un valor de exportaci-n de US$110 000/a-o (FAO 2002), la importancia de la mayor'a de los PNMB radica en su valor local. Al igual que en otras comunidades, los pobladores de Toncont'n poseen un amplio conocimiento del uso y de aspectos ecol-gicos de una gran diversidad de especies no maderables. De acuerdo con los indicadores formulados para la selecci-n de especies, los productores identificaron 20 PNMB de mayor relevancia (Cuadro 4), de entre los cuales se eligieron los seis productos evaluados en este estudio."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Las especies seleccionadas, especialmente por el alto potencial de sus productos en el mercado local, fueron Euterpe precatoria como alimento, Brahea dulcis para confecci-n de techos y escobas, Machaerium cirrhiferum y Smilax spinosa como medicinales, varias orqu'deas como ornamentales y Alsophila sp. como sustrato para las orqu'deas."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"De acuerdo a los resultados del inventario de existencias, en el estrato de bosque primario la especie que present-mayor abundancia fue E. p r e c a t o r i a, seguida de B. d u l c i s (Cuadro 5). En el estrato de bosque i n t e r v e n i d o, la especie de mayor abundancia fue Alsophila sp. (individuos maduros) seguida por Machaerium cirrhiferum, sin embargo en este estrato no se encontraron individuos de S. spinosa ni de B. dulcis."},{"index":4,"size":244,"text":"Como resultado de un sondeo de existencias, se logr-identificar 37 especies de orqu'deas, la mayor'a pertenecientes a los gŽneros Epidendrum y Maxillaria. La especie de mayor abundancia en el bosque primario es la conocida por los productores como orqu'dea de tierra (Sobralia candida). Las especies maderables que mostraron en promedio un mayor noemero de orqu'deas asociadas a su estructura fueron: M. yor o c o n t e ( 1 1 0 ) , Calophyllum brasiliense (85) y Hyeronima alchorneoides (50).Estos maderables tienen en comoen cortezas ‡speras, con un bisel promedio de 1 a 1,5 cm de grueso (Thirakul 1991). A pesar de la gran abundancia de ep'fitas en el bosque (Cuadro 5),las productoras han em- prendido iniciativas de propagaci-n vegetativa de los espec'menes (micropropagaci-n, con apoyo del Jard'n Bot ‡nico Lancetilla). El ingreso bruto estimado de las existencias totales de palmiche en el bosque Toncont'n asciende a US$223 206, mientras que la fibra y hojas de suyate alcanzan un valor de US$59 911. El valor estimado de las existencias de cuculmeca y sangre drago ascienden a US$60 366 y US$77 711, r e s p e c t i v a m e n t e. L a s existencias de orqu'deas vendidas a un precio equivalente a US$2,13/unidad reportar'an un ingreso bruto de US$1711/ha (Cuadro 5). Sin embargo,el precio pagado al orquidiario de Toncont'n oscila entre 25 y 50% menos que el precio de cada espŽcimen en la ciudad de La Ceiba."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"La estimaci-n de los flujos anuales de cada PNMB mostr-que el aprovechamiento de orqu'deas y medicinales son las actividades m ‡s rentables (B/C >2,54). Sin embargo, en tŽrminos de ingreso neto anual,la extracci-n de palmiche y suyate (fibra y hojas) retribuyen U S$26,06 y U S$25,85 /ha/a-o, a diferencia de los U S$21,32 y U S$11,5 /ha/a-o que reportar'an la venta de ep'fitas y medicinales (Cuadro 6)."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"Evaluaci-n de la demanda tur'stica La evaluaci-n de las preferencias de los turistas mostr-que existe una amplia aceptaci-n en cuanto a la combinaci-n de actividades tur'sticas y de aprovechamiento forestal en el mismo sitio de visita,esto debido al reconocimiento de que las comunidades tienen derecho de usar el bosque para su sustento (Figura 1). Por otro lado, los turistas expresaron estar dispuestos a pagar una cantidad de dinero por concepto de tarifa de entrada (U S$ 1 , 8 -n a c i o n al e s /U S$ 4 -e x t r a n j e r o s ) , como un aporte para el manejo de las ‡reas."},{"index":7,"size":155,"text":"Ambas poblaciones de turistas tienen un comportamiento similar Cuadro 4. Principales PNMB identificados en el taller participativo realizado con productores de Toncontín, Honduras en cuanto a sus preferencias; las diferencias encontradas radican en la preferencia de los nacionales por medios de transporte y una demanda positiva por productos que puedan ser adquiridos en el sitio de visita (Cuadro 7).Para los turistas ext r a n j e r o s, el tipo de infraestructura tiene una influencia directa en la decisi-n de visita,y manifiestan mayor preferencia por instalaciones r oe s t i c a s. En ambos grupos, el atributo apreciaci-n de la biodiversidad fue altamente significativo ( P < 0 , 0 1 ) , indicando que existe una demanda por el servicio de gu'a tur ' s t i c o. La disposici-n espacial de las actividades tur'sticas y de aprovechamiento (zonificaci-n) no tiene influencia sobre la elecci-n de las alternativas presentadas."}]},{"head":"Servicio de regulaci-n h'drica","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"El bosque de Toncont'n se sitoea en la parte alta de la cuenca del r'o Cangrejal; donde nacen varias quebradas o riachuelos que alimentan el caudal del r'o Ya r u c a , p r i n c i p a l afluente del r'o Cangrejal.Se encontr-una correlaci-n positiva de 0,7479 (P<0,0006) entre la distribuci-n en el tiempo del caudal del r'o Cangrejal y el patr-n de precipitaci-n en Toncont'n (Figura 2). De acuerdo con la metodolog'a de valoraci-n utilizada, se estimque el costo de oportunidad de la tierra en Toncont'n asciende a US$87,3/ha. Mediante una consulta Cuadro 6. Estimación de costos e ingresos anuales del aprovechamiento de PNMB en Toncontín, Honduras  a expertos, se obtuvo el peso ponderado del servicio de regulaci-n h'drica (31,4%), con un valor de $27,4 /ha/a-o para esta funci-n ecol-gica. Un estudio desarrollado en Costa Rica (Campos et al. 2001) muestra que el servicio mejor valorado por la poblaci-n es la protecci-n del recurso agua (35%), considerada un beneficio directo, seguido por la protecci-n de la biodiversidad (25%),la mitigaci-n de gases y la belleza escŽnica (20% para ambos servicios). Para fines de este estudio, se asumique la gesti-n del pago por este servicio debe hacerse solamente para el ‡rea destinada a bosques de protecci-n (749,27 ha),la cual tiene una influencia directa en la protecci-n de las microcuencas."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"En Honduras se necesita aoen definir la normativa y fijar la legislaci-n que respalde tanto la creaci-n como el funcionamiento de mercados ambientales. El eje central para establecer cualquier mecanismo de pago es la naturaleza de los espacios de negociaci-n entre los usuarios de los servicios y los propietarios de los bosques. Debido a esto, es necesario definir la extensi-n de los derechos de propiedad sobre los recursos naturales, especialmente en ‡reas manejadas bajo contratos de usufructo."},{"index":3,"size":166,"text":"Comparaci-n de escenarios: Manejo actual vs. Manejo diversificado El an ‡lisis comparativo entre escenarios mostr-que la diversificaci-n de la actividad forestal resulta ser el escenario m ‡s atractivo. La inclusi-n de los ingresos provenientes de otros componentes productivos (PNMB, ecoturismo y venta de servicio ambientales) incrementa la rentabilidad en m ‡s de un 50% (Cuadro 8). Como se esperaba, el aporte de los ingresos provenientes del ecoturismo y la venta del servicio de regulaci-n h'drica ser'an significativos (US$173,88 /ha). Los beneficios derivados del aprovechamiento de productos no maderables producir'an un aumento de m ‡s de 9% en los retornos. Debido que el Ôbosque primarioÕ est ‡ en proceso de convertirse en Ôbosque interveni-doÕ, la abundancia y noemero de especies no maderables pueden variar en este estrato, lo cual causar'a un efecto negativo en el aporte que tendr'an los PNMB en la rentabilidad financiera de la actividad. Por consiguiente, es recomendable estudiar c-mo asegurar la presencia de estas especies en los bosques en proceso de ser intervenidos."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"El an ‡lisis de las situaciones evaluadas para el escenario 1 muestra que la situaci-n m ‡s deseable es la venta de muebles en la ciudad de La Ceiba (situaci-n 4). Los precios de los productos se incrementan entre 25 y 50% en esta localidad con respecto a los obtenidos en To n c o n t ' n . Sin embargo, el an ‡lisis no considera la demanda de los productos a nivel local, ni otros aspectos de mercado que influyen directamente en la viabilidad de la situaci-n propuesta."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Figura 2. Relación de la precipitación promedio anual en Toncontín y el caudal promedio anual del río Cangrejal En Toncont'n, el aprovechamiento se realiza mediante tŽcnicas de tala dirigida y motosierra con marco para la obtenci-n de madera en bloques"}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"<A pesar que la actividad forestal en Toncont'n presenta una baja rentabilidad financiera, a nivel social contribuye positivamente pues genera empleos y, por ende, un mayor flujo de ingresos a nivel local. Por otro lado, la transformaci-n de la madera a muebles, adem ‡s de dar un valor agregado a la misma, permite la inserci-n de un mayor noemero de comunitarios en la actividad forestal. <La integraci-n de otros componentes productivos aumentar'a la rentabilidad financiera de la actividad forestal, al mismo tiempo que fortalecer'a su base social y econ-mica mediante la creaci-n de nuevas fuentes de empleo. <Existe una dependencia directa entre la din ‡mica poblacional de las especies no maderables y la integridad del componente forestal; d e b ido a esto es preciso dise-ar una propuesta de manejo silvicultural que integre ambos componentes. <El factor m ‡s limitante es la comercializaci-n de los productos;es en este punto en el que deben en-caminarse mayores esfuerzos. Es necesario desarrollar la capacidad negociadora de los productores, definiendo una clara orientaci-n de mercado y est ‡ndares de calidad para cada producto. <Los costos derivados del mantenimiento de las instalaciones y de la protecci-n de las ‡reas naturales expuestas a los turistas no deben exceder los beneficios aportados por el ecoturismo. El conocimiento de las preferencias de la poblaci-n meta es de vital importancia a la hora de dise-ar la actividad."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Cuando se conoce la percepci-n y las preferencias de los turistas, los recursos pueden ser canalizados hacia inversiones que aseguren la satisfacci-n de los visitantes. <La creaci-n de mercados alrededor de los servicios ambientales requiere de una clara definici-n de los derechos de propiedad sobre los recursos naturales.  "}]},{"head":"Agradecimientos","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Viabilidad de combinar actividades turísticas con actividades de aprovechamiento forestal, opinión de turistas extranjeros (a) y nacionales (b) "},{"text":" El primer autor agradece a Manuel G-mez y Tania Ammour por sus valiosos aportes, a todos los productores de Toncont'n y al equipo tŽcnico de TRANSFORMA-Honduras por el apoyo brindado en la fase de campo. Asimismo a la Oficina de Cooperaci-n Canadiense/Proyecto Pro-Mesas por el apoyo financiero otorgado para la realizaci-n del presente trabajo. Finegan,B; Villalobos, R.2001.Manejo diversificado del bosque:aprovechamiento de bienes y servicios de la biodiversidad del bosque neotropical.Revista Forestal Centroamericana 36:6-13. FAO (Organizaci-n de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentaci-n,IT).1995.Report of the international expert consultation on non-wood forest products. Roma,Italia.457 p. (Non-Wood forest products, Serie No 3). FAO (Organizaci-n de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentaci-n,IT).2002.Evaluaci-n de los recursos forestales mundiales 2000.Roma, FAO. 468 p. (Estudio Montes no. 140). Faris, R.1999.Deforestation and land use on the evolving frontier:an empirical assessment.Harvard Institute for International Development.20 p. (Discusi-n paper No. 678). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" A Cuadro 1.  Cuadro 1. Especies maderables aprovechadas en el bosque Especies maderables aprovechadas en el bosque Toncontín, Honduras  Toncontín, Honduras Especies tradicionales Especies no tradicionales Especies tradicionalesEspecies no tradicionales Magnolia yoroconte Macrohasseltia macroterantha Magnolia yoroconteMacrohasseltia macroterantha Cedrela odorata Calophyllum brasiliense Cedrela odorataCalophyllum brasiliense  Hyeronima alchorneoides Hyeronima alchorneoides  Ilex tectonica Ilex tectonica  Byrsonima spicata Byrsonima spicata  Tapirira guianensis Tapirira guianensis  Symphonia globulifera Symphonia globulifera  Guarea grandifolia Guarea grandifolia  Nectandra sp. Nectandra sp.  Cojoba arborea Cojoba arborea  Mosquitoxylum brasiliense Mosquitoxylum brasiliense  Terminalia amazonia Terminalia amazonia  "},{"text":"Bosque primario Bosque primario intervenido (540 ha) (510 ha) Especies Individuos Existencias Ingreso Individuos Existencias Ingreso /ha aprovechables /ha aprovechables  Nombre comoen Nombre cient'fico  Uso   Nombre comoenNombre cient'ficoUso Palmiche Euterpe precatoria  Comestible   PalmicheEuterpe precatoriaComestible Pacaya Chamaedorea tepejilote Comestible   PacayaChamaedorea tepejiloteComestible Suyate Brahea dulcis  Material de construcción/artesanías SuyateBrahea dulcisMaterial de construcción/artesanías Cuculmeca Smilax spinosa  Medicinal   CuculmecaSmilax spinosaMedicinal Sangre drago Machaerium cirrhiferum Medicinal   Sangre dragoMachaerium cirrhiferumMedicinal Guaco de cruz* Mikania scandens  Medicinal   Guaco de cruz*Mikania scandensMedicinal Capuca Geonoma sp.  Comestible   CapucaGeonoma sp.Comestible Escalera de mico Bauhinia guianensis  Medicinal   Escalera de micoBauhinia guianensisMedicinal Hierba mora Solanum americanum  Comestible   Hierba moraSolanum americanumComestible Vara negra* Ecalipha diversifolia  Medicinal   Vara negra*Ecalipha diversifoliaMedicinal Preñada* No identificada  Medicinal   Preñada*No identificadaMedicinal Caña santa* Costus sp.  Medicinal   Caña santa*Costus sp.Medicinal Hoja de piedra No identificada  Ornamental   Hoja de piedraNo identificadaOrnamental Calaguala Polipodium aureum  Medicinal   CalagualaPolipodium aureumMedicinal Cancerina No identificada  Medicinal   CancerinaNo identificadaMedicinal Balaire Desmoncus orthacantos Artesanías   BalaireDesmoncus orthacantosArtesanías Helecho arborescente Alsophila sp.  Ornamental y sustrato de orquídeas Helecho arborescenteAlsophila sp.Ornamental y sustrato de orquídeas Indio desnudo* Bursera simaruba  Medicinal   Indio desnudo*Bursera simarubaMedicinal Liquidambar Liquidambar styraciflua Medicinal   LiquidambarLiquidambar styracifluaMedicinal Guarumo Cecropia sp.  Medicinal/material de construcción GuarumoCecropia sp.Medicinal/material de construcción * Para tratar mordeduras de serpientes     * Para tratar mordeduras de serpientes Cuadro 5.       Cuadro 5. Abundancia, cantidad e ingreso bruto* de las existencias   Abundancia, cantidad e ingreso bruto* de las existencias aprovechables de especies no maderables encontradas   aprovechables de especies no maderables encontradas en el bosque comunal Toncontín, Honduras    en el bosque comunal Toncontín, Honduras      /ha /ha /ha/ha   /ha (US$) /ha  (US$) /ha(US$)/ha(US$) Palmiche 72,6 33,4 m 325,9 20 9,5 92,6 Palmiche72,633,4 m325,9209,592,6 Helecho arb. maduro 28,6 28,6 - 23 23 - Helecho arb. maduro28,628,6-2323- Helecho arb. muerto 10,7 10,7 - 7 7 - Helecho arb. muerto10,710,7-77- Orquídeas 802 802 1710,7 - - - Orquídeas8028021710,7---   418,6 hojas     418,6 hojas Suyate 35,1 75,2 lb. fibra 110,9 0 - - Suyate35,175,2 lb. fibra 110,90-- Sangre drago 1,8 19,1 m 77,5 4 17,3 70,4 Sangre drago1,819,1 m77,5417,370,4 Cuculmeca 6,5 45,8 lb. 111,8 0 - - Cuculmeca6,545,8 lb.111,80-- Total de ingreso   2336,8   163 Total de ingreso2336,8163  "},{"text":" FRP. 2000.A demand study of the priority researchable constraints for four groups of forest-dependent poor people in the management of forest and tree resources in Central America. Forestry Research Programme. Project No. ZF0143-Natural Resources International Limited.44 p. Holdridge, L.R.1987.Ecolog'a basada en zonas de vida.San JosŽ,Costa Rica,IICA.216 p. Mollinedo, A.del C. 2000.Beneficios sociales y rentabilidad financiera del manejo forestal comunitario en dos ‡reas de la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya.PetŽn, Guatemala. Tesis Mag. Sc.Turrialba,Costa Rica, CATIE. 100 p. Escenario Situaci-n Descripci-n VAN VAN/ha B/C EscenarioSituaci-n Descripci-nVANVAN/ha B/C 1.Manejo 1 Situación actual -29899,35 -28,18 0,96 1.Manejo1Situación actual-29899,35 -28,18 0,96 actual      actual  2 Utilizando el precio de la 98800,50 93,11 1,14 2Utilizando el precio de la98800,5093,111,14   madera al consumidor final    madera al consumidor final  3 Transformación de la madera 32962,38 31,06 1,05 3Transformación de la madera32962,3831,061,05   (precios en Toncontín)    (precios en Toncontín)  4 Transformación de la madera 407710,08 384,24 1,59 4Transformación de la madera407710,08 384,24 1,59   (precios en La Ceiba)    (precios en La Ceiba) 2.Manejo 1 Situación 1 del manejo actual 37257,68 35,11 1,05 2.Manejo1Situación 1 del manejo actual37257,6835,111,05 diversificado  + PNMB    diversificado+ PNMB  2 Situación 1 del manejo actual 314783,62 173,88 1,41 2Situación 1 del manejo actual314783,62 173,88 1,41   + servicios    + servicios  3 Actual + Beneficios de PNMB 459989,05 254,09 1,63 3Actual + Beneficios de PNMB459989,05 254,09 1,63   y servicios    y servicios  4 Situación 3, utilizando precio 550774,12 304,23 1,75 4Situación 3, utilizando precio550774,12 304,23 1,75   final de PNMB    final de PNMB VAN: Valor Actual Neto     VAN: Valor Actual Neto B/C: Relación Beneficio/Costo     B/C: Relación Beneficio/Costo  "}],"sieverID":"b2ee3338-4f53-4b7d-8ea7-d17be818ae2f","abstract":"Propuesta para aumentar la rentabilidad de la actividad forestal en el bosque comunitario de Toncont'n, Honduras La producción maderera, los productos no maderables, el ecoturismo y la regulación hídrica como servicio ambiental, constituyen diferentes usos del bosque considerados para evaluar la rentabilidad de la actividad forestal en Toncontín."}

data/part_3/07c3db1cec99cb558366033c2a615e6f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07c3db1cec99cb558366033c2a615e6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37b3d5c0-4422-499d-bbd3-213305604ea9/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Gender Equality: Beyond business as usual","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"THE OBSTACLE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Data shows that women farmers have similar production yields to men when provided equitable access to resources. Currently, however, there is a wide gender gap: Studies show that male farmers generate 20 to 30"}]},{"head":"A focus area within the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WLE's gender goals include:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":" Give women better access to water, land and ecosystems.  Enable women to have greater decision-making power.  Help women re-invest and revitalize land, water and ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"percent higher crop yields than women farmers. That's primarily because women farmers don't have equal access to land, water and agricultural inputs such as credit, irrigation technologies and technical information."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Women often are relegated to farming degraded land and if they own land, their plots are smaller than those controlled by men. Cultural and social norms, rules, policies and laws at all levels -household, community, private sector and public sector --limit access."}]},{"head":"TO ACHIEVE ITS GOALS, WLE WILL","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":" Examine the social relations, structures, organizing principles within households, communities, government and the private sector that limit equal access to resources."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":" Engage with men and women to understand their different needs, priorities and constraints. What are the gender inequality gaps? What are the implications for irrigation, land management and ecosystem services?"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":" Promote good science that answers gender-relevant questions, and provide the appropriate data and information to help influence and develop a more inclusive environment."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":" Incorporate gender into each research project and geographical area, and conduct gender \"audits\" within WLE's themes and working group areas to ensure gender is being appropriately considered."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":" Monitor and evaluate projects to determine which approaches can be scaled, and to mitigate potential negative impacts or unintended consequences."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":" Propose specific ways donors and governments can invest in women farmers so they have equal access to financing markets, equipment and other agricultural inputs."}]},{"head":"Learn More","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Nicoline de Haan, Coordinator of Gender, Poverty and Institutions, [email protected] http://wle.cgiar.org/researchprograms/gender-poverty-and-institutions/ Image: Giriraj Amarnath/IWMI"}]},{"head":"EXAMPLES OF GENDER-SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":" Do gender equitable property laws exist in WLE regions? Do social and cultural norms allow for both men and women to own land? Is it possible for them to access information about these laws or legal support services?"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":" Do processes exist for men and women to engage in joint decision making and collaboration, such as in the creation of water associations, land stewardship committees, and irrigation revitalization efforts?"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":" Does gender equity promote sustainable agriculture and ecosystem preservation?"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":" In what ways do women and men differ in their stewardship of natural resources?"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":" What broader gender-related issues need to be identified, such as population pressure and climate change, to ensure food security and safeguard the planet?"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"7e48ab6a-b577-4c84-8575-c626a54bf1c9","abstract":"The world needs to feed 9 billion people by 2050 using roughly the same amount of land as today. Production on those lands will need to increase by as much as 40 percent while maintaining fragile ecosystems."}

data/part_3/07dbb85e9ddd470f12f2b0f5c982b7f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07dbb85e9ddd470f12f2b0f5c982b7f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2cbe89cf-a137-482a-8084-482fc410495d/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Revised CRP 3.5: ISPC Commentary","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Initial proposal -many positives, integrated program on GL research, GLs' dietary, income and diversity importance, etc."}]},{"head":"2.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Good potential, but seemed mostly 'status quo', 'business as usual' 3."}]},{"head":"Proposal needed considerable strengthening:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":" value of GL research investment in relation to developmental and research constraints  prioritization, across crop species, regions and numerous constraints based on potential impact on SLOs;"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":" role of GLs in terms of growth in demand over time and contribution to human protein;  focus of the CRP effort -> need for fewer product lines;  elaborating the impact pathways;  closer alignment with CRP 1.1;  elaborating and highlighting the most promising areas of research; and  providing a more streamlined management and governance structure  Recommended CRP 3.5 proposal be substantially revised paying particular attention to six key areas (Must Haves)."}]},{"head":"ISPC Must-Have 1.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"[Provide] a stronger description of the potential of research on GLs to decrease poverty and hunger as a basis for prioritizing crop-region-constraint combinations."}]},{"head":"Not sufficiently addressed.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Falls short in providing a strong justification for a CRP focused on GL research in terms of potential for achieving SLOs vis-a-vis:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":" Relative importance of GLs in the CG portfolio, in terms of value, producer incomes, consumption, protein source, etc. ISPC Must-Have 5. Highlight the new and most promising areas of research … with an explanation of the value generated by succeeding in each initiative."}]},{"head":"Met.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":" Chapter 8 (Innovations) has been revised, and elaborated on."}]},{"head":"ISPC Must-Have 6.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A more streamlined governance and management structure needed that provides for independence in decision making, monitoring and evaluation."}]},{"head":"Met.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":" Revised structure is much improved, e.g., CRP Director role and authority have been strengthened."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"FC Must-Haves (not covered by ISPC Must-Haves) have mostly been met, with some qualifiers, e.g.,"}]},{"head":"FC Must-Have 2. Further attention to M&E System","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":" Waiting for Consortium Report on M&E so CRP 3.5 first annual report should reflect how M&E will be built into the operational plan."}]},{"head":"FC Must-have 7. Need better integration of the crop improvement aspects with resource management","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":" Appendix 16 highlights ways in which genetic improvement of GL crops might lead to improved NRM. Mostly these are indirect outcomes from crop improvement without explicit research to validate the indirect NRM impacts. Close collaboration is needed with other CRPs to ensure that the assumed benefits on the environment as a result of genetic improvement of GL crops and their inclusion in crop rotations actually occur in practice."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Past research efforts and current barriers to adoption of technology -> identifying key constraints & opportunities for research  Establishing targets for outcomes in a specific crop x region matrix as a basis for prioritization and allocation of resources. Revised CRP 3.5: ISPC Recommendations ISPC CGIAR ISPC Must-Have 2. A work plan with more focus and fewer product lines … moving from individual programs to a global program within a CRP. Not sufficiently addressed. Neither revised narrative nor workplan (Appendix 11) suggests the proposal now has more focus with fewer traits for genetic improvement. CRP lists 24 major output sets over the 6 strategic objectives, and comprises 198 major activities across the 8 GL crops with 133 key milestones identified. While continuing the work of on-going special projects is expected and justified, the transition to a well conceived set of activities with a narrower focus over the next three years is not yet evident. Revised CRP 3.5: ISPC Recommendations ISPC CGIAR ISPC Must-have 3. Given limited success to date in the adoption of improved GL technologies, demonstrate feasible impact pathways, citing relevant references and documentation Not sufficiently addressed.  Evidence of impact of improved legume varieties and management has been relatively sparse (Tripp, 2011)  Need for analytical study of GL adoption constraints -where are the key binding constraints and what mechanisms/strategies are necessary to overcome them?  Impact pathways (how research outputs are translated into real impacts) still too generic. Simply emphasizing use of \"partners, policies and capacity building\" isn't enough. How to achieve impacts in systems with poor extension, high risks and marginal growing conditions? Revised CRP 3.5: ISPC Recommendations ISPC CGIAR Revised CRP 3.5: ISPC Recommendations ISPC Must-Have 4. This CRP should be closely allied to and integrated into the system CRPs, and particularly CRP 1.1. Not sufficiently addressed.  Not apparent adequate discussion has taken place.  Appendix 12 mentions potential mechanisms to ensure interactions but should have been possible to outline a set of principles such as joint participatory processes to identify priority research questions and understand context and constraints, participation in each other's planning meetings. "}],"sieverID":"ce9d2453-34f3-42ff-bf79-3010cebb7125","abstract":""}

data/part_3/07e018362faee392a7d3eac4d436bea8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07e018362faee392a7d3eac4d436bea8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1369/WF_2512.pdf"},"pageCount":28,"title":"List of acronyms AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ART Anti Retroviral Treatment BMI Body Mass Index CD4 Cluster of Differentiation 4 (glycoprotein) CRS Catholic Relief Services CSO Central Statistics Office (Zambia) E-pap Energy protein porridge DHA Docosahexaenioc Acid (omega-3 fatty acids in fish tissue) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GTZ Germany Technical Aid to Zambia HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus KKCAF Kenneth Kaunda Children of Africa Foundation LDL Low Density Lipoprotein MUAC Mid Upper Arm Circumference NAC National HIV/AIDS/STI/TB Council of Zambia NEPAD New Economic Programme for African Development NFNC National Food and Nutrition Commission (Zambia) NZP+ Network of Zambian People Living with HIV/AIDS (Zambia) PLHIV People Living with HIV PUFA Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids RDA Recommended Daily Allowance RNA Ribonucleic Acid RUTF Ready to Use Therapeutic Food TB Tuberculosis UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS USA United States of America WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Nutrition is the study of how food nourishes the body. The human body is in a dynamic state; it renews its structures continuously, building muscle, bone, skin, blood, and replacing old tissues with new. The body needs food that provides energy and sufficient nutrients such as enough good quality water, carbohydrates, fats, protein, vitamins and minerals. Too little or too much food leads to disease. The best food for the body is the one that supports growth and maintenance of strong muscles, sound bones, healthy skin, and sufficient blood to cleanse and nourish all parts of the body (Sizer and Whitney, 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Availability and intake of adequate amounts of nutritious foods is essential for people living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) to keep them healthy for a longer period. A stronger, healthier body can better resist opportunistic infections, especially for People Living with HIV (PLHIV) and particularly in resource poor communities. Lack of food security and poor nutritional status may hasten progression to AIDS-related illnesses. It may also undermine adherence and response to ART and exacerbate socio-economic impacts of HIV (UNAIDS, 2008). Nutrition is therefore an important component of comprehensive care of PLHIV. It is particularly imperative in resource limited settings where malnutrition and food insecurity are chronic or endemic, as pre-existing malnutrition exacerbates effects of HIV (Piwoz et. al., 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"A balanced intake of nutritious food is an important parameter in the progression and manifestation of HIV and AIDS. There is however a lack of research evidence on the best ways to test the extent of an individual's malnourishment regarding macro-nutrients (energy and protein) and micro-nutrients (vitamins and minerals). Different foods contain varying quantities of the nutrients required for normal health, growth and body repair in sickness. In addition, the quality of food is determined by the quantity and quality of nutrients the food provides. Not all the required nutrients can be found in one food type only, but some foods can provide a major part of the needed nutrients. Fish is such a food that contains high quantity and quality nutrients; it contains high biological availability of nutrients such as proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"In Sub Sahara Africa, there is a demand for well-designed studies on nutritional interventions for people living with HIV/AIDS and/or tuberculosis (TB), especially in poor communities where there is both high prevalence of the disease and food insecurity (Science Academy of South Africa panel, 2007). In Zambia, as in many African countries, knowledge is limited on which and how many nutrients are required at various stages of progression to mitigate the disease and how the immune system becomes dysfunctional. This has demanded the need to run statistically designed and controlled trials that are reliable, repeatable, and accurate, in order to increase our understanding of the interactions between HIV/AIDS and nutrition in the Zambian context."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"The Kenneth Kaunda Children of Africa Foundation (KKCAF) has felt that a well designed evidence-based nutrition intervention trial is important to establish the significance of food supplementation in the care for people living with HIV and AIDS, and how it slows down the progression of HIV and AIDS in the human body. KKCAF's St Clare Center for Applied Nutrition has reported positive responses to drug interventions when nutritional supplements are provided during treatment and wound healing of chronically malnourished HIV patients. The KKCAF has been providing nutritional supplementation support in their HIV/AIDS Care Centers in Zambia. This nutritional support includes distribution during clinic hours of fish powder (from Norway), Energy Protein porridge (E-pap), kapenta (small dried whole fish), cooking oil, juice and biscuits as energy supplements (Kaunda et. al., 2008)."},{"index":6,"size":220,"text":"In order to validate the KKCAF findings, a statistically controlled fish supplementation research is being undertaken by KKCAF in partnership with the University of Zambia. This work is part of the Regional Programme Fisheries and HIV/AIDS in Africa: Investing in Sustainable Solutions, implemented by the WorldFish Center and funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The research study analyses the effects of a fish supplemented diet on HIV/AIDS patients' response to Anti Retroviral Treatment (ART). This literature review forms the background and basis for the clinical research to be undertaken in selected KKCAF centers in Zambia. Barnett and Grellier (2003) define food security as the adequate supply of and economic access to good quality food in a socially and culturally acceptable manner. Nutrition security is conceptualised in broader terms as \"combining secure access to highly nutritive and quality food within a sanitary environment, adequate health services, and knowledgeable care to ensure a healthy life for all household members across time and space (Gillespie, 2006;Greenblott, 2007). This distinction highlights that food security may not necessarily lead to nutrition security, for instance due to poor health, improper care, ignorance, stigma, gender imbalances, personal or cultural preferences, or that food is not being used in a nutritionally effective and efficient manner (Te Lintelo, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Nutrition and food security in the context of HIV/AIDS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Food and nutrition security are fundamental to HIV treatment. Emerging evidence shows that patients who start ART without adequate nutrition have lower survival rates (Paton et al., 2006). Early nutrition intervention and attention to nutritional needs have long term benefits for people living with HIV. As early as 1998, studies report that proactive nutrition interventions delay HIV progression, reduce cost of medical care, and reduce cases of complications and hospitalization (Fenton and Meyer, 1998). Good nutrition improves effectiveness and tolerance to treatments while increasing the patient's productivity, independence and ability to stay out of hospital. In most countries, including Zambia, governments and civil society are increasingly recognising the important role of nutrition and food security in the national response to HIV/AIDS and overall in national development."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"In Zambia, like in most Sub-Saharan African countries, poverty levels are very high, affecting up to 70% of rural and 60% of urban populations. Poverty in Zambia is synonymous to poor health, food insecurity and malnutrition (Stillwaggon, 2002). Nutrition indicators in under-five children, such as stunting, wasting and severe malnutrition, have been unacceptably high and have shown little improvement in the last two decades, although stunting is beginning to show a slight upward trend, as shown in Table 1. "}]},{"head":"Food insecurity and HIV/AIDS at household level","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"While malnutrition and hunger in both children and adults particularly in rural areas has been devastating, HIV/AIDS has exacerbated the situation in Sub Saharan Africa. In 1997, in the most-affected countries, up to 11 percent of children were orphans. By 1999, there were 13.2 million AIDS-orphans in the world, 95 percent of them in Sub Saharan Africa. Orphans in the most-affected areas are exposed to severe food insecurity, compounded by the fact that many have lost their parents before learning basic agricultural skills and nutrition or health knowledge. This implies that the elderly, who often take over the care for orphans, have an important role to play in ensuring food security at household level (Drimie, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"In households affected by AIDS mortality or morbidity, women often face a double burden: gaining income and caring for sick relatives (Drimie, 2002). Female-headed households often have a higher dependency ratio than male-headed households (Baylies, 2002). Whether male-or female-headed, a household's labor availability is restricted by HIV/AIDS. Heavier workloads may induce women to plant less labor-intensive and sometimes nutritionally inferior crops. These shifts may increase household food insecurity and malnutrition (Baylies, 2002;Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003). The same applies to Zambia, where female-headed households are more vulnerable, especially when there are terminally ill family members in the household. Increasing numbers of elderly women are looking after orphans and are unable to engage in productive work to support themselves and the orphans (Schubert, 2005). This renders such households more vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutrition."}]},{"head":"Nutritional status of women in the context of HIV/AIDS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"In many Zambian households, women tend to be less food secure than men, as a result of unequal intra-household food allocation (Prospectus for Sustainable Human Development in Zambia, 1996). This is the case in various parts of Sub Saharan Africa and it can start from an early age, but is often exacerbated by women's lack of control over decisions related to food production, consumption, and sale. Traditionally, men are often served larger quantities as well as better quality of food. The resulting malnutrition makes women more vulnerable to HIV infection (Allison and Seeley, 2004). Hence, in places where women are in charge of food production, animal tending, crop planting and harvesting, illness and death of a female head of household particularly threatens household food security. A range of social factors and practices also impoverish women and weaken their food security, enhancing their likelihood of resorting to transactional sex or other risky strategies to secure a livelihood for the household (Grellier and Omuru, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Women living with HIV who are resource poor are facing increased challenges in making daily decisions about their own and their children's health and nutrition. Women also grapple with issues of infant feeding, whether or not to breastfeed, and implications of stopping breast feeding early on the survival of the HIV-exposed children (Piwoz and Bentley, 2005). Pregnancy requires additional nutrients for adequate gestational weight gain to support growth and development of the fetus. During and after pregnancy, the nutritional status of a woman living with HIV influences her health and that of her fetus or new born child (National Academy of Science, 1989). The Body Mass Index (BMI) and Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) and or weight loss, are important predictor of mortality during postnatal period (Lindan et al, 1992;Nduati et al, 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Some 90% of children living with HIV contracted the virus from their mother during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding (World Food Programme, 2006). Inadequate nutritional status may increase the risk of vertical HIV transmission by influencing maternal and child factors related to transmission (Gillespie, 2005;UNAIDS, 2008). Fetal low nutrient stores impair the immune function and fetal growth and make them more vulnerable to HIV when the mother is malnourished during pregnancy. Poor nutrition may also impair the integrity of the placenta, the genital mucosa barrier and the gastrointestinal tract leading to mother to child transmission of the virus (Coley, et. al., 2001)."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"A woman's survival determines the child's escape of HIV, growth and appropriate growth milestones. In the choice of breastfeeding a newborn, the mother has to weigh the implications of not breast-feeding at all or stopping breast feeding early on the nutritional well being of her child, against the positive contributions of breast feeding on nutrition and survival of the child (Piwoz, et. al., 2005). Nutrition education should therefore be part of the comprehensive care for people living with HIV, especially pregnant and lactating women."}]},{"head":"Food Consumption and HIV/AIDS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Several studies have shown that the consumption of high quality animal foods in rural and poor households in Sub Sahara Africa in general is very low (Kikafunda et al., 2003;Nyambose et. al., 2003;FAO, 2007). In Zambia, body building nutrients such as proteins, vitamins and minerals are expensive and hence usually deficient in the regular diet of the poor. Understandably, HIV/AIDS affected households are worse off due to the vicious cycle of low productivity due to ill health or care giving, causing poor production, leading to food insecurity and increased vulnerability to disease and infection, which in turn leads to lower productivity again."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Once the human body develops AIDS, rapid loss of weight combined with loss of appetite exert a heavy toll on an already weak body. The efficacy of drugs on such a challenged body is lowered and may even be detrimental to the survival of the patient. Supplementing a patient living with HIV or AIDS with nutrient dense Ready to Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) showed positive responses to antiretroviral drugs by hospitalized an out-patient patients, leading to improved health and return to a more functional life (CRS, 2007). Supplementing such patients' diet with nutrient dense food such as fish, should improve the efficiency of the patient's response to drugs and increase his/her survival rate. Fish is cheaper than meat, hence more accessible to poor households, and can contribute significantly to readily available high quality nutrients to complement cereal based diets (Chilima, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Fish consumption in target communities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Fish makes a vital contribution to the survival and health of a significant portion of the world's population. Fish is especially important in the developing world (WorldFish Center, 2008). Fish provides income and is also an important source of food for poor fish farming families (Chilima, 2008). Fish supply in Africa has been declining for a number of reasons while the demand has increased due to the rise in population. Sub Saharan Africa is the only region of the world where scarcity of fish cannot keep up with growing demand, as shown by the decrease in per capita fish consumption from 9kgs to 7kgs less than world average between 1971 and 1997."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Fish capture from both sea and fresh water systems is done by fishing communities that have access to rivers, lakes and sea shores for making a living. It is assumed that availability of fish increases the possibility of high fish protein consumption by such communities, and it is further assumed that fish at varying levels of consumption maybe more affordable to poorer rural communities \"as one fish can be shared by the whole family\" (FAO, 2007). This assumption is supported by the analysis made by Te Lintelo (2008) of survey data showing less malnutrition in fishing communities around Lake Victoria than in surrounding non-fishing rural communities. This indicates that meeting the daily nutrient requirements may prove to be less of a challenge by individuals in households with fishing as main source of food."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"This is why the planned clinical trials in communities in Central Province, where KKCAF provides care, will include a fishing area as study site; Nasenga community in Kafue District, on the banks of the Kafue river. The planned baseline survey will provide the research with information on how much fish the patients consume from their catch. Insights into the nutritional status of patients in this study area (with access to fish) will be gained, and a comparison made with the nutritional status of patients in the other study site (without direct access to fish); Moomba community in Chibombo District."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"The pilot clinical trial will include 30 patients in a factorial design with three categories; patients from a fishing community, patients from a fishing community but without direct access to fish, and patients from a non-fishing community. The trial will include food supplementation with kapenta (small dried whole fish) to meet the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of protein in the diet (50g Nitrogen per day) and oil as energy supplement. All patients participating in the study will be on Anti Retroviral Therapy (ART) and their inclusion in the study will be based on baseline information that will be collected to establish food in/security, nutritional status (through determination of Body Mass Index (BMI)), viral load, and CD4 counts. Due to difficulties of comparison, smokers and excessive alcohol consumers will be excluded from the clinical trial."}]},{"head":"Nutrition policy and interventions","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nutrition policy and guidelines in Zambia","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"In many countries hit by the AIDS epidemic, information on nutrition is being circulated, whether this information is correct, incorrect or questionable. Chapman et al (1994) found that the importance of good nutrition in people living with HIV or AIDS facing immune deficiencies was prominent in literature and in the minds of medical practitioners in HIV care. But the lack of accuracy and consistency in nutrition information being spread is particularly worrying; hence efforts have been made by a number of institutions and countries, including Zambia, to develop nutritional guidelines for PLHIV."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"National nutrition guidelines generally provide information on nutritional care practices, management of wasting in patients, HIV care and treatment standards based on the national context, treatment philosophy and patient population. People nowadays are more aware of the important role of nutrition in disease than they did in the early 1990s. PLHIV would benefit from early nutrition education and intervention (Meyer, 1993) if policy guidelines existed and were being followed by care givers."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"One of the first published guides on nutritional support for PLHIV appeared in Zimbabwe, through the booklet 'Living positively: a nutrition guide for people with HIV/AIDS' (Bijlsma, 1996), produced in English and three local languages. Due to pressure on the UN system to respond to the pandemic, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) took the lead and supported a participatory process to develop nutrition guidelines for PLHIV around the world.  , 2005), while at implementation level, several national and international institutions have included nutrition aspects in their HIV/AIDS care, treatment and awareness activities. A variety of nutrition trainings for health personnel and other care givers has been implemented, yet knowledge and skills on nutritional care and support for PLHIV remain limited among health care providers and the general population. This study therefore underscores the importance of the use of nutrition guidelines."}]},{"head":"Nutrition intervention studies","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"There is a dearth of research information on well controlled nutrition studies on the impact of nutrition on the response of HIV/AIDS patients to ART. Most information is based on ad hoc observations when nutritional supplementary support is provided to patients. An HIV/AIDS clinical study of 50 patients living with HIV in Muhimbili National Hospital, Tanzania, who were given nutrition counselling and treated for opportunistic infections showed that 30 of them [60%], who strictly followed the counselling on diet, were found to be healthy and resumed their normal daily activities and were free from opportunistic infections. Great improvement was noted to those 30 patients after taking more than 10 fresh oranges, one egg and salads each day, and one glass of undiluted fresh carrot juice every evening before bed time. Out of the 20 clients who were not able to follow the dietary advice, 15 [75%] died and 5 clients were still surviving with poor prognosis regardless of the treatment they received for the opportunistic infections at time of reporting (Malakasuka, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The Catholic Relief Services (CRS) pilot project of supplementing Zambian Catholic hospice HIV/AIDS patients with Ready to Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) reported positive responses in which bed ridden patients recovered and some even reported for work after three weeks of feeding the nutrient dense premixed solution (CRS, 2007). This further strengthens the outlook of improved prognosis when good nutrition is provided in a timely manner as co-treatment of HIV/AIDS patients."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"There is however need for more statistically controlled scientific studies with specific nutrition interventions to establish the dietary requirement for specific foods and nutrients for improved drug response by PLHIV. There is also need to study the critical levels of nutrients in body pools of people living with HIV/AIDS in order to ascertain and compare critical levels of daily nutrient requirement levels for survival. This would help establish the most critical nutrients and their minimal levels required for survival in patients."}]},{"head":"Impact of nutrition on HIV/AIDS progression","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Malnutrition and HIV/AIDS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"When analyzing how HIV/AIDS is being impacted by malnutrition and food insecurity, we first need to define malnutrition. Malnutrition includes deficiencies of nutrients, imbalances, and excesses, which can take a toll on the body (Sizer and Whitney, 2000). Chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS put a heavy toll on the nutrient demand by the body due to opportunistic infections that drain body nutrients (diarrhea, vomiting), and/or reduce dietary nutrient intake (mouth and throat sores and poor appetite) and thereby contribute to reduced response to treatment. On a global scale, probably the leading cause of increased host susceptibility to infection is malnutrition (Morris and Potter, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Poverty and poor nutrition, are closely linked; poverty leads to reduced access to health services and exposes people to nutritional deficiencies, parasitic diseases, and increased susceptibility to infections (Stillwaggon, 2002) and increased length of infection (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). Food insecure, underfed and ill health individuals have weakened immune systems and are more vulnerable to HIV infection and the eventual development of AIDS (Drimie, 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Certain environmental health conditions prevalent in Africa are also implicated in the poor nutritional status of food insecure individuals, and are important co-factors for increased HIV transmission (Stillwaggon, 2002). For example, malnutrition makes one more susceptible to endemic parasitic diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, sleeping sickness and intestinal parasites. These, in turn, exhaust the body's immune system and further aggravate the weak nutritional and epidemiological status. People become increasingly susceptible to opportunistic infections after HIV infection."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Malnutrition is a serious morbidity syndrome and disease complication that affects the functioning of the immune system and consequently impacts on the survivability and quality of life (Meyer, 1997). Daily intake of a balanced diet rich in both macro-and micro-nutrients (including fruit and vegetables) are important to develop body resistance to diseases and thereby maintain good health . This issue is extremely important for the socioeconomic development of developing countries in Africa, where nutritional deficiencies are very high (Science Academy of South Africa panel, 2007), and in poor resource limited communities, where malnutrition and food insecurity are endemic."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Nutritional status is affected by HIV infection through increased resting energy expenditure, reduced dietary intake, nutrient mal-absorption and loss; and complex metabolic changes that result in weight loss associated with HIV/AIDS (Melchior et al, 1991;Grunfeld et al, 1992). The effects of HIV on the nutritional status begin early in the infection, even before individuals are aware that they are infected (Beach et. al., 1992;Bogden et. al., 2000)."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"It is important that people living with HIV avoid nutrient deficiencies and maintains a healthy body weight in order to improve medicine response (Meyer, 2000). However, due to the controversy over the use of nutritional supplements in tackling HIV and tuberculosis, there is need for scientific studies. It is also important to note that there is no evidence to show that nutritional interventions are an alternative to using the correct medication at the correct times (Wieland, 2007). Good nutrition may however slow down the development of AIDS and stave off the time when drugs are absolutely required to treat HIV related infections."}]},{"head":"Macronutrients in HIV infection","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"HIV/AIDS puts increased macronutrient (protein and energy requirements) and micronutrient requirements on the patient due to the vicious cycle of reduced intake due to appetite loss and mouth sores, diarrhea, side effects of medication and opportunistic infections, and reduced absorption of nutrients (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). This may result in malnutrition if proper nutrition care is not provided. Table 2 shows the increases in macronutrients needed in the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) of nutritional intake in case of HIV infection.  Grellier and Omuru (2008)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Daily energy-protein supplementation to malnourished pregnant women has been shown to improve maternal weight gain, infant birth weight, and reduced stillbirth risk and perinatal mortality (Ceasay et al, 1997). Energy requirements are increased in HIV infection (WHO, 2003) and are compounded by common HIV-related illnesses and infections such as diarrhea, TB, and appetite loss. This places HIV-infected pregnant and lactating women at greater nutritional risk leading to intrauterine growth retardation, preterm delivery (<37 weeks) and low birth weight (2500g or less) (Brocklehurst, 1998)."}]},{"head":"Micronutrients in HIV infection","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Micronutrient deficiencies such as vitamins A, B-complex, C, and E, and selenium and zinc are exhibited in people living with HIV (Kupka, 2002;Semba, 1999;Friis et al, 2001 a&b)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Although the actual changes in micronutrient requirements are not well known yet (see also table 3 below), it has been reported that antioxidant vitamin and mineral deficiencies lead to oxidative stress which may increase immune cell death (Banki et al, 1998;Romero-Alvira, 1998) and increase HIV replication (Allard et al, 1998;Rosenberg, 1990;Schwarz, 1996). Further research in this area is still needed to quantify the changes in order to justify the supplementation levels."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Currently in Zambia, vitamins and minerals are recommended without real understanding of efficient levels for proper immune response.  Grellier and Omuru (2008)."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"Several studies have shown that micronutrient supplementation in the short-term has resulted in improved body weight and body cell mass (Shabert et al, 1999) decreased HIV-Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) levels, improved CD4 cell counts (Muller et al, 2000), reduced incidents of opportunistic infection (Mocchegiani, 2000) and reduced hospitalization (Burbano et al, 2002) in male and female adults living with AIDS, including those on Anti Retroviral Treatment (ART). Jiamton et al (2003) reported reduced mortality in low CD4 Count (<200x10 6 /L) patients on daily micronutrient supplementation, despite having no effect on CD4 count or plasma viral load counts."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"Fawzi et al reported in several studies that multivitamin (B, C and E) supplementation during pregnancy and breast-feeding decreased the incidence of foetal death, severe premature delivery (before 34 weeks), small size baby for gestational age, and low birth weight (Fawzi et al, 1998), improved infant immune status (Fawzi et al, 2003), prevented HIV transmission in nutritionally and immunologically vulnerable women (Fawzi et al, 2002), increased CD4 cell count and delayed progression of HIV (Fawzi et al, 2004). Oosthuizen et al (2006) observed that Polyunsaturated Fat Acids (PUFA) intake, from heavily oxidized vegetable oils given to poor black South Africans by frying establishments, had an adverse effect to liver function in HIVinfected asymptomatic people. It was also hypothesized (Kock et al, 2002) that these oxidized PUFA may lead to oxidative stress and the quick progression of HIV and AIDS."}]},{"head":"The vicious cycle of HIV/AIDS progression","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Before they even know their status, the nutritional status of PLHIV is being affected by a reduced ability of the body to absorb nutrients. As the infection progresses, people's appetite is being affected due to nausea, mouth sores, diarrhea, and other illnesses. At the same time, metabolic requirements for energy, protein and micronutrients increase in order to fight infection and compensate for reduced absorption of nutrients (Grellier and Omuru, 2008). Malnutrition and HIV/AIDS progression sustain a vicious cycle, depicted in Figure 1 below."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: HIV/AIDS Vicious Cycle","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Source: Te Lintelo ( 2008), by Semba and Tang (1999), cited in Gillespie and Kadiyala (2005)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"As people living with HIV may have to take several medications, drugs may interact with each other and further reduce food intake or affect nutrient absorption and metabolism (Regional Centre for Quality of Health Care, 2003) leading to deficiencies, reduced immunity and increased disease progression. However, the impact of medication still needs to be better understood, particularly for patients on life-long ART (FANTA, 2007, Grellier andOmuru, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Weight loss and nutritional risk factors in People Living with HIV","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Energy and protein requirements are increasing in a Person Living with HIV (PLHIV), due to depressed immune system integrity, causing early weight loss in the absence of good nutrition."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"HIV affects nutrition through increased resting energy expenditure, decreased feed intake, presence of nutritional mal absorption, and loss and complex metabolic alterations which all lead to accelerated weight loss (Piwoz et. al., 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"People living with HIV or AIDS suffer significant loss of body cell mass and depletion of nonadipose tissue cell mass occur in early stages of HIV. This has lead physicians to add 10% to the desirable weight for an adult person living with HIV (Meyer, 1997). A food bank client study reported in the 1990s showed that men living with HIV weighed further below the usual body weight than women, and women were more likely to weigh above the desirable body weight for HIV positive status, meaning that men living with HIV may start out with weights that put them at higher nutrition risk. Alcohol abuse would negatively influence this weight loss further (Meyer, 1997)."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Another study by Meyer identified some nutritional risk factors occurring in PLHIV. These included; eating alone most of the time, eating few fruits and vegetables, low consumption of milk, not eating enough proteins daily, loosing 5kg or more in last six months, tooth or mouth problems that made it hard to eat, being physically unable to care for themselves, facing limited financial resources, and decreased meal times. Since a large proportion of PLHIV face one or more of the above risk factors, they are at increased nutrition risk (Meyer, 1996). These risk factors need to be verified at the onset of disease diagnosis and efforts made to minimize them."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Proactive nutrition intervention and education at initial HIV diagnosis can reduce complications due to drug side effects and metabolic abnormalities. This will reduce the costs of care and enhance the quality of life by restoring lean body mass and decreasing the incidence of secondary infection and immune depletion (Meyer, 2000)."}]},{"head":"The importance of fish as a nutrient source","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nutrient composition of fish","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The previous chapter has shown that HIV/AIDS challenged people need are in constant need of body building and nourishing food nutrients for repair and maintenance and sustaining healthy weight. Fish is a food rich in both macro and micro-nutrients, with good quality proteins and fats (macro), vitamins and minerals (micro), necessary for repair and maintenance of the human body. The nutrient composition varies between fish species and depends on the age, sex and physiological activity of the fish before capture. On average, fish contains 16-28% good quality proteins and 0.25-25% essential vitamins, minerals and lipids. The essential micronutrients include minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium and selenium; and vitamins including B-complex, vitamin A and D, and essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (Murray, 2001, www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12318, 2008). These nutrients are particularly essential for people with ill health such as HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria, but are deficient in most cereal based diets that are regularly consumed by the poor."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Major components of fish are proteins and lipids, while carbohydrates are in trace or limited amounts (<0.5%). Vitamin content is comparable to that of red meat, except for vitamin A and D which are found in large quantity in fatty species of fish such as liver of cod and halibut. Fish is also rich in B-complex vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin and niacin (vitamins B 1 , B 2 and B 3 ). Fish lipids are very high in Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA); up to 40% of long chain highly unsaturated fatty acids, containing 5-6 double bonds (www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12318). Fresh water fish are slightly lower in PUFA than marine fish, containing four, five or six double bonds (www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14826)."}]},{"head":"5.2.","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Nutritional benefits of fish nutrients"}]},{"head":"Omega-3 fatty acids","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"There is a large volume of evidence relating to the benefits of fish oil to human health, the actual benefit stemming from the omega-3 fatty acid content of fish oil. While these omega-3 fatty acids are present in vegetable oils, these acids are less effective in relation to human health. This makes fish, especially marine fish, one of the richest sources of these vitally important fatty acids (WorldFish Center, 2008). One of the main features of the fatty acids in fish is the contribution they make to the body's energy production. These fatty acids carry out electron transfers by attaching themselves to oxygen in the body and permit energy to be produced for various chemical processes within it. There is therefore considerable evidence that a diet rich in fish oil helps combat fatigue and increases mental and physical capacity."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Omega-3 increases the individual's powers of concentration and his or her energy levels which leads to the saying \"fish is good for the brain\". The main compound in brain fat is Docosahexaenioc Acid (DHA), an essential Omega-3 fatty acid found in fish tissue (Archives of General Psychiatry, 2002). The omega-3 fatty acids in fish play a role in protecting against cardiovascular disease by reducing blood pressure, cholesterol and triglyceride in the blood."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Triglyceride is a form of fat and resembles Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL, or bad cholesterol), which is high in fat and low in protein content. A raised triglyceride level, especially together with high cholesterol, increases the risk of heart disease. In addition, fish oils reduce lifethreatening post-heart attack abnormal heart rhythms (Angerer, 2000;Holub, 1989)."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Fish oils are also effective in reducing blood clotting by preventing the thrombocytis in the blood (blood platelets that concentrate or coagulate the blood in the event of bleeding) from adhering to one another. Omega-3 fatty acids play an important role in the production of the molecule haemoglobin, that carries oxygen in the red blood cells, and in controlling the nutrients passing through the cell membrane. They also prevent the damaging effects of fats harmful to the body such as heavily oxidized vegetables oils, which can increase oxidative stress in an already immune compromised body (Connor, 2000;Oosthuizen, 2006)."}]},{"head":"Fish proteins and minerals","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Fish proteins are highly digestible (85 -95% digestibility) and have a favourable taste (Hassan, 2008). They also contain all the essential amino acids, are comparable to milk and eggs, and are of high biological value. They are an excellent source of lysine, methionine and cysteine which are limited in cereal based diets. They also contain appreciable amounts of non protein nitrogen which plays a role in protein quality (Murray, 2001). This makes fish protein ideal for ill and food insecure patients. Fish meat is rich in minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, copper and selenium. Salt water fish (marine fish) contains high levels of iodine and fluorine (Murray, 2001;WorldFish Center, 2008). These minerals are highly 'bio-available' meaning that they are easily absorbed by the body."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Iron is important in the synthesis of haemoglobin in red blood cells which is important for transporting oxygen to all parts of the body. Iron deficiency is associated with anaemia, impaired brain function and in infants it is associated with poor learning ability and behavioural problems."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Due to its role in the immune system, its deficiency may also be associated with increased risk of infection, particularly, in people living with HIV."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Calcium is required for strong bones (formation and mineralization) and for the normal functioning of muscles and the nervous system. Calcium is also important in the blood clotting process. Vitamin D is required for its proper absorption. The intake of calcium, phosphorus and fluorine is higher when small fish are eaten with their bones rather than when the fish bones are discarded. Deficiency of calcium may be associated with rickets in young children and osteomalacia (softening of bones) in adults and older people. Fluorine is also important for strong bones and teeth."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Zinc is required for most body processes as it occurs together with proteins in essential enzymes required for metabolism. Zinc plays an important role in growth, development and healthy skin, as well as in the proper functioning of the immune system. Zinc deficiency is associated with poor growth, skin problems and loss of hair."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Iodine, present in seafood, is important for hormones that regulate body metabolism. In children it is required for growth and normal mental development. A deficiency of iodine may lead to goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) and mental retardation in children."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"Fish is soft, easy to cook and more easily digested than meat, so even young children and sick people can be fed fish, contributing to improved nutrient intake. Fish can also be used as complementary foods especially in paste or powder form. These products can be used to enrich the maize and cassava based porridges that are normally consumed by young children and the sick in poor households and in rural communities, especially in Africa (WorldFish Center, 2008)."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"It is evident that fish contributes more to people's diets than just the high quality protein they are known for. Fish should therefore be an integral component of the diet, preventing malnutrition by making these macro and micro nutrients readily available to the body (WorldFish Center, 2008)."}]},{"head":"Fish as a source of nutrients for People Living with HIV","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Fish makes up an important part of household diets and is a cheap source of protein and other nutrients compared to other sources, especially important for infants, young children and pregnant women (NEPAD, 2003;Grellier, 2004;Gordon, 2005;WorldFish Center, 2005). Smaller fish species are especially important for poor consumers as they can be purchased in small quantities and are consumed whole, providing both protein and in particularly, minerals (calcium and phosphorus). Protein deficiencies are likely to occur in African populations that are highly dependent on cereals, roots, tubers, and bananas/plantain (Williams and Ayemon, 1998). Such diets could be complemented by fish, providing important protein and essential nutrients that are not or insufficiently present in these staples (WorldFish Center, 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Little is yet known about household consumption, the role of fresh and processed fish in food consumption baskets, and the intra-household allocation of fish to individual members. For people living with HIV, who particularly require additional energy, fish may contribute indirectly to energy needs also if given in excess of protein requirements. However, as the needs of poor households are diverse, priority lies often with cash rather than fish, which means that in the majority of households, nutritious fish is being sold rather than consumed, causing the household to miss out on the source of nutrients the fish could have provided. High prices offered may also motivate fishing families to sell most of the catch (Te Lintelo, 2008). Price fluctuations may also have distinct effects on the access of the poor to fish products in nonfishing communities."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"While micro-level data on fish consumption in fishing communities is sparse, FAO publishes national production level data for countries around the world, which present total fish supply per capita, and indicate the share of fish in total animal protein intake, as shown in Table 4. These figures give some indicative comparison between countries, but are likely underreporting supply for inland and coastal fishing communities, as they present averages. Differentiations between rich and poorer groups in society cannot be made based on these figures, nor do they provide an insight into intra-household allocation of fish and other animal protein intake. Some studies note that fish, unlike other high protein foods, is distributed more equally among household members in many parts of the world (WorldFish Center, 2005). This is particularly important in research on intra-household allocation of food, to analyse if the high divisibility of fish contributes to improved nutritional status of women, children and sick people within the household. So far, no such data is available from Zambia."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"In Zambia, preliminary studies at KKCAF by Kaunda et al (2008) have demonstrated positive effects of supplementing patients on clinical treatment with food (kapenta, E-pap porridge, fish powder, mushrooms) in reducing opportunistic infections and chronic wound healing in PLHIV. These results are in line with above mentioned studies, and underscore the importance of improved nutrition in the treatment of PLHIV. KKCAF is using fish powder as nutritional support for PLHIV who are on ART, and this supplementation has received varying responses by patients, as the particular smell and taste causes some patients to have difficulties in consuming it (Kaunda et al, 2008). Kapenta is the most readily available fish to most vulnerable households in Zambia and it is eaten as a whole fish. Tilapia fish is readily available to most vulnerable people near rivers and lakes. The nutrient composition and utilization of fish powder, kapenta and tilapia in diets of PLHIV needs further study through comparative performance of patients on ART receiving these food supplements. KKCAF in collaboration with the University of Zambia, School of Agricultural Sciences, is currently undertaking clinical trials with selected patients from KKCAF centers, to determine the impact of fish supplementation on the response to ART."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"While malnutrition and hunger in both children and adults particularly in rural areas of Sub Sahara Africa has been devastating, HIV/AIDS has exacerbated the situation. Rapid loss of weight through opportunistic infections exerts a heavy toll on an already weak and immune reduced body. The efficacy of drugs on such challenged bodies is lowered and may even be detrimental to the survival of the patient."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Several studies have shown that People Living with HIV would benefit from early and effective nutrition education to decrease their potential for malnutrition. Although nutrition is increasingly being acknowledged as important in preventive care and management of HIV/AIDS, many health practitioners and care givers in Zambia are still not using nutritional guidelines for the management of HIV/AIDS. The correct use of nutrition guidelines is crucial and should be integrated as co-treatment in HIV care and management. Supplementing patients living with HIV/AIDS with nutrient dense foods such as fish (KKCAF, 2008) and Ready to Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) (CRS, 2007) showed positive responses to treatment, including ART. Nutrition support facilitates improved intake and uptake of medication, leading to improved health and return to normal daily life by hospitalized patients."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"This literature review has elaborated on the impacts of nutrition on PLHIV. In view of the high nutritious value of fish, the role of fresh, processed fish and small whole fish in people's diets, especially PLHIV, is potentially large and needs to be studied further. While studies and initial trials indicate positive results, more scientific research is needed on the impact of nutrition and specific foods, such as fish, on PLHIV and their response to ART. The information outlined in this literature review will provide the background to and enable improved strategy for the design and implementation of the clinical research trials by KKCAF in Zambia. These clinical trials seek to establish the importance of fish supplementation to ART response by patients, in order to make scientifically proven recommendations on fish supplementation and providing policy guidelines on the importance of fish the in the diets of PLHIV."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This literature review has indicated that there are areas in the understanding of nutrition and HIV/AIDS that require further research, specifically on the impacts of fish in the diets of PLHIV."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Areas for further study and analysis include:"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"1. Households affected by HIV/AIDS; there is need to gain insights into in-depth food consumption patterns in general, the role of fresh and processed fish in food consumption baskets, and intra-household food allocation, including food allocation to sick household members. 2. There is need to further analyze (a) nutritional changes in the etiology of HIV/AIDS, (b) dietary requirements, and (c) reflected minimal body nutrient pools in the survival of the patients."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"3. Fishing communities; there is need for more baseline information on the nutritional and food security status of fisher folk and fish traders, specifically those living with HIV/AIDS. Further insights are needed on seasonal food insecurity in fish-dependent communities and to assess the potentials for livelihood diversification in such communities. 4. Fish consumption promotion; further analysis is needed to compare fish with alternative food sources in terms of its availability, affordability (e.g. number of nutritional units as % of recommended daily intake per price unit) and cultural acceptability to poor communities. Additionally, more insights are needed into the nutritional benefits of fish and fish products (kapenta in particular, as it is consumed as a whole), specifically looking at PLHIV's need for specific nutrients."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Nutrition indicators -children under 5 (Zambia)  Nutrition indicator: 1996* 2000** 2007** Nutrition indicator:1996* 2000**2007** Stunting 40% 53 % 45 % Stunting40%53 %45 % Wasting 25% 28% 28 % Wasting25%28%28 % Severe malnutrition 5% 7% 5 % Severe malnutrition5%7%5 % *Adapted from: Prospectus for Sustainable Human Development in Zambia, Zambia Human Development *Adapted from: Prospectus for Sustainable Human Development in Zambia, Zambia Human Development Report, 1996.    Report, 1996. ** Adapted from: Living Conditions, Zambia, Central Statistical Office (CSO), 2000 and 2007 ** Adapted from: Living Conditions, Zambia, Central Statistical Office (CSO), 2000 and 2007 respectively.    respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Macronutrient requirements in HIV infection Nutrient % increase above RDA needed due to HIV Main food sources  Macronutrients   Macronutrients Carbohydrates -starches 10% -30% Cereals, starchy roots, fruits, fats, oils, sugars Carbohydrates -starches10% -30%Cereals, starchy roots, fruits, fats, oils, sugars and sugars   and sugars Carbohydrates -dietary fibre No change Vegetables, fruits Carbohydrates -dietary fibreNo changeVegetables, fruits Fats No change Milk, eggs, meat, offal, poultry, fish, fats, oils, FatsNo changeMilk, eggs, meat, offal, poultry, fish, fats, oils,   sugars sugars Proteins No change Low fat legumes, high fat legumes, oilseeds, ProteinsNo changeLow fat legumes, high fat legumes, oilseeds,   milk, eggs, meat, offal, poultry, fish milk, eggs, meat, offal, poultry, fish Adapted from FANTA (2007); cited in   Adapted from FANTA (2007); cited in  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Changes in micronutrient requirements above normal RDA due to HIV Infection Micronutrient % increase above RDA needed due to HIV Main food sources  Iron Unclear Meat, offal, poultry, fish IronUnclearMeat, offal, poultry, fish Iodine Not known Iodized salt IodineNot knownIodized salt Zinc Not known Meat, offal, poultry, fish ZincNot knownMeat, offal, poultry, fish Vitamin A Not known Meat, offal, poultry, fish, fats, oils, sugars, orange vegetables, Vitamin ANot knownMeat, offal, poultry, fish, fats, oils, sugars, orange vegetables,   fruit fruit B-group Vitamins Not known Meat, offal, poultry, fish B-group VitaminsNot knownMeat, offal, poultry, fish Folate Not known Dark green vegetables FolateNot knownDark green vegetables Vitamin C Not known Vegetables, fruits Vitamin CNot knownVegetables, fruits Calcium Not known Milk and eggs CalciumNot knownMilk and eggs Adapted from FANTA (2007); cited in  Adapted from FANTA (2007); cited in  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Fish supplies and share of fish protein in animal protein consumption  Country Per capita fish supply Contribution of fish in total CountryPer capita fish supplyContribution of fish in total  (kg/year) animal protein (%) (kg/year)animal protein (%) Angola 6.6 27.1 Angola6.627.1 Burundi 3.2 29.6 Burundi3.229.6 Congo Dem. Rep. 5.7 31.0 Congo Dem. Rep.5.731.0 Equatorial Guinea 22.6 61.9 Equatorial Guinea22.661.9 Ghana 22.5 63.2 Ghana22.563.2 Malawi 5.7 37.7 Malawi5.737.7 Senegal 36.3 47.4 Senegal36.347.4 Tanzania 10.3 33.6 Tanzania10.333.6 Uganda 9.8 30.0 Uganda9.830.0 Adapted from the WorldFish Center (2005).  Adapted from the WorldFish Center (2005).  "}],"sieverID":"4104cfc5-687a-41dc-b785-f387f04ef520","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0819651b5dc1261aba7a90a5f931c78e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/02dc35ea-0b06-465e-bd4d-2cf63cf5259c/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"A new method for genome manipulation of African swine fever virus using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR associated protein (Cas) method","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7cac2c89-8ec8-4131-b875-a8c925efa865","abstract":""}

data/part_3/081e763611271b586bd93e4a40707640.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"081e763611271b586bd93e4a40707640","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4fcae0c0-5622-4765-94d2-442e65458459/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Potato production, because of its dual purpose, is still an important source of income and food security for most of small-scale farmers in the Andes. Food security in the Andean region depends largely on small family farming representing around 70% of food resources. The COVID-19 pandemic, that has spread rapidly since early 2020, had profound implications for food security and nutrition, especially in the most vulnerable segments of the population."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"analyze the effects of COVID-19 on the potato value chains and the consequences for its actors and on food security."}]},{"head":"How:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"• a mixed methodology combining literature review, statistical information, and interviews with key actors of the potato value chains in the Andean countries, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. • Two surveys were conducted in July 2020 and in September 2021 with small-scale potato producers in the highlands of Peru to analyze the effects on livelihoods. The sample size included 214 and 74 families in 2020 and 2021, respectively."}]},{"head":"Effects of COVID-19 on potato value chains.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Statistical data from the countries show that, on average, there was no significant decrease in potato production due to COVID-19 in 2020 because it started at harvesting time. There were problems for marketing the harvest due to difficulties in transporting the production and a drop in demand for food caused by the restrictions which led to lower selling prices and a decrease of producer incomes."}]},{"head":"Challenges and opportunities for the potato sector in the Andean region in the face of COVID-19","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Alternative purchasing strategies were temporarily generated, such as mobile markets in Bolivia and Peru and direct sales channels of producers in Ecuador."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The significant price reduction in the main Lima wholesale market is illustrated with the Unica variety (fig. 1). The prices were well below the average prices of the 2016-2019 period. Similar trends were observed in the other countries. In 2021, with the opening of the markets, the prices were above the average of 2016-2019."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Effects of COVID-19 on food and nutrition security. The surveys carried out in 2020 and 2021 highlighted the effects of COVID-19 on producers' livelihoods."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"• The households' incomes and consumption patterns were affected reducing dietary diversity and families' food and nutrition security. • Potato producers were economically impacted due to disruptions in the marketing channels and a decapitalization process was observed for many of them. They faced financial challenges to invest in the following cropping season reducing the potato area and limiting quantity and quantity of inputs such as seed and fertilizers. • In 2021, producers' families had also to use part of their savings to cover their living costs (Fig. 2). • State support measures were limited and provided only temporary relief."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"The COVID-19 crisis highlighted the problems of family farming and its high vulnerability because of the reduced distribution infrastructure and some of its products, such as potatoes, are perishable. They also lack storage capacity and they do not have alternative marketing circuits. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Potato prices in the Lima wholesale market (soles/kg) of a processing potato variety -Var. Unica "}],"sieverID":"73786c31-29bf-422c-bcfa-68c78b4768cc","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0843e24056792023f913fabf43fdde1e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Water_Policy_Briefs/PDF/wpb17.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"This Water Policy Briefing was produced by IWMI in partnership with the Global Water Partnership (GWP) Advisory Center at IWMI and the GWP Technical Committee. It is based on the book Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities, edited by C.A. Scott, N.I. Faruqui, and L.Raschid-Sally (CABI/IWMI/IDRC, 2004), and the revised WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater (2006, In Press). The brief complements Catalyzing Change, the GWP handbook for developing IWRM and water efficiency strategies and plans, and the associated policy and technical briefs."}]},{"head":"Recycling Realities: Managing health risks to make wastewater an asset","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"In developing countries, fast-growing urban populations are demanding more fresh water and food, while generating greater volumes of domestic wastewater. Due to the lack of comprehensive wastewater management, a major portion of the wastewater pollutes natural water bodies."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"These polluted sources are used in and around the cities for agriculture and other purposes. In drier climates, farmers often use the wastewater itself from drains and sewers because it is the only (reliable) source of water. Although municipalities increasingly recognize the importance of this sector in supplying cities, amongs other things with vitamin rich vegetables, they are also aware of the associated health risks through microbial crop contamination 1 , especially when it concerns food consumed uncooked. Among wastewater-related infections, diarrhoeal diseases are the top cause of death among children in the developing world."}]},{"head":"Fragmented attempts have been made to address this problem, by relying on technical solutions (wastewater treatment) or regulatory measures (such as banning wastewater irrigation or restricting the types of crops irrigated). Both approaches have failed in the context of low-income countries.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"What's required is an integrated water resources management (IWRM) approach which looks at the whole urban water cycle and across the urban-rural continuum at environmental consequences downstream, as well as socio-economic benefits of resource recovery. This has to be combined with locally appropriate and sustainable risk reduction measures. It should also recognize that solutions require the active involvement of stakeholders from different sectors. This is a vital point in a sensitive and multi-sectoral issue like \"peri-urban wastewater irrigation\", which commonly concerns different ministries and municipal departments."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"IWRM is a problem-solving approach to meet key water challenges in ways that are economically efficient, socially equitable, and environmentally sustainable. It is thus ideally suited to addressing the critical-and interconnectedwater issues experienced by many developing countries in their efforts to achieve water supply and food security; health and sanitation."}]},{"head":"Wastewater use is a common reality with multiple benefits","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Recent surveys across 50 cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America show that wastewater irrigation is a common reality in three-fourths of the cities. In Vietnam and Pakistan alone, between 10,000 and 30,000 hectares are cultivated with undiluted wastewater. This does not reflect large areas using diluted wastewater or polluted water. In Ghana, in and around the city of Kumasi alone, farmers use polluted water sources on about 12,000 hectares-more than twice the area covered by the country's formal irrigation schemes. The Mezquital valley in Mexico, which is probably the largest irrigation area using raw wastewater, covers more than 90,000 hectares. Mexico accounts in total for about half of the 500,000 hectares irrigated with wastewater in Latin America. Global estimates of the total area under raw and diluted wastewater irrigation are still fragmentary, but might range from around 3 to 3.5 million hectares, with the largest share probably in China. This is twice the area under formal vegetable irrigation in the whole of Africa."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Many of these farms grow perishable vegetables, which are an important cash crop in urban and periurban areas. These vegetables have to be grown in proximity to markets due to the common lack of cold transport and storage facilities in developing countries. But close to cities, clean water sources are hard to find, and farmers often have no alternative to polluted water. Sometimes farmers choose raw wastewater for its nutrient value or, as in drier climates, for its water value and as a reliable supply. In all these cases, cash crop production provides tremendous livelihood opportunities. In Pakistan, for example, wastewater farmers typically earn 30-40 percent more per year than farmers using conventional irrigation water, while in Ghana, dry-season irrigation with wastewater allows an average extra income of 40-50 percent. Around Kumasi more than 60,000 people depend on these sources for their living while in the Mezquital Valley in Mexico, the area irrigated with wastewater supports more than 450,000 people."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Wastewater irrigation also provides jobs and incomes for the traders who market the produce, input suppliers, and other service providers. In Sub-Saharan Africa, women particularly benefit, as in many countries more than 95 percent of vegetable vendors are women."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"Wastewater irrigation provides a quarter of all vegetables produced in Pakistan, and, in most parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, irrigated urban and peri-urban farming with highly polluted water sources contributes 60-100 percent of the perishable vegetables needed in most cities. Domestic wastewater is often used for producing rice and fish. In India, as well as in many other countries, it is also used to grow fodder for livestock, and thus contributes to thriving small-scale enterprises based on providing milk to city dwellers."}]},{"head":"The challenge: maintaining benefits while minimizing risks","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Using wastewater or polluted water sources without adequate safeguards raises obvious potential health risks for farmers and consumers while the actual risks depend on many factors like the living conditions of the exposed population. Most studies show clear links between wastewater irrigation and the health of exposed farming households. There is also considerable evidence showing the impact on soil and groundwater through high nutrient levels, salts, or heavy metals. But not all environmental impacts have to be negative. Where largescale wastewater irrigation takes place, like in Mexico the groundwater table has risen by more than 50 meters. This shows that resource recovery is possible through water recycling, and treatment costs are also lower. What's necessary then is a holistic and integrated assessment following IWRM principles."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The complex mix of possible benefits and risks associated with wastewater use in agriculture calls for a balanced approach as outlined by researchers and water professionals in the 'Hyderabad Declaration on Wastewater use in Agriculture' (http:// www.iwmi.cgiar.org/home/wastewater.htm). This approach has been recognized in the new WHO guidelines."}]},{"head":"Developing and applying safety guidelines based on the combination of intermediate options appropriate to the local context","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The WHO's previous wastewater-treatment guidelines set stringent water quality standards for irrigation application, which most developing countries could not apply because they do not have the resources or capacity to meet them. Subsequently, the WHO produced new guidelines, which are more flexible and consider wastewater treatment as only one component of an integrated risk management strategy. To reduce risk from pathogens, the components focus on health-based targets, and offer various combinations of risk management options for meeting them (Box 1). The guidelines are based on the Stockholm Framework, which suggests that countries should adapt guidelines to their own social, technical, economic, and environmental circumstances, as done, for example, in Mexico."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"The Stockholm Framework refers to the concept of \"relative risk\" , which requires that one considers all possible sources of risk and exposure when setting guidelines. These would include risks related to poor water supply, hygiene and sanitation, and other sources of (e.g. post-harvest) food contamination. For example, if contaminated drinking water or lack of toilets is causing high background levels of illness in the population, then a costly treatment of wastewater for crop application is not likely to improve public health, and should not be the priority investment in countries where funds are limited. Wastewater use guidelines can be made more stringent when the relative risk factors change, i.e. when water supply and sanitation improve, for example. Decision-makers are thus encouraged to look at the larger nexus of water-sanitation and health and their interconnections: an example of IWRM in practice. "}]},{"head":"Prioritizing risk management strategies for the short, medium and long terms","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The long-term goal of integrated wastewater management will always be to move from the unregulated use of untreated wastewater to the regulated use of treated wastewater. Depending on local possibilities, the level of treatment, however, can vary if a complementary health risk reduction strategy is in place as explained in the new WHO guidelines. This flexibility will be necessary in low-income countries so long as the provision of sanitation infrastructure lags behind urbanisation rates."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"But even where no wastewater treatment is available, health risks can still be reduced. A simplified decision making process that can be used for identifying locally appropriate health protection measures and entry points for action along the \"farm to fork\" pathway is shown in Figure 1. The different options have different timeframes for implementation (Box 2). The highest priority in the short-term should be to minimize the daily risk to consumers and the potential of epidemics, which is possible also with modest investments, like through awareness creation for appropriate vegetable washing and hygiene. In the case of Accra's lettuce supply, for example, less than 1000 urban farmers produce the salad consumed each day by 200,000 urban dwellers. In other words, over a period of two to three days, at least one of four urban citizens benefits from urban and peri-urban irrigation, but at the same time, they are at direct risk from crop contamination with pathogens."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"To ensure that the challenge is tackled efficiently, in the medium term a combination of different intermediate options is recommended. Examples are provided in the WHO guidelines and will largely depend on local conditions and opportunities."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"The medium-term strategy should be to apply the most effective intermediate solutions while making gradual progression towards the long-term goal of wastewater treatment before use. Helping farmers to reduce crop contamination or improve water quality before application through on-site treatment is a possible medium term goal. In addition, simple interventions like enforcing existing pollution control legislation to control contaminants at source, and to prevent the mixing of industrial and domestic wastewaters can be very effective in reducing health risks. Countries such as Tunisia, Jordan and Mexico offer valuable lessons of advanced strategies. In Tunisia and Jordan, for example, inter-agency coordination, public awareness campaigns, and emergency responses to disease outbreaks have The revised WHO guidelines for wastewater quality now include health-based targets, which correspond to the 'tolerable' burden of disease that would result from wastewater use in agriculture. Models were used to calculate the levels of pathogen reduction that would be needed to meet the targets in different types of agriculture and with different degrees of wastewater treatment."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"The guidelines now give decision-makers greater flexibility, allowing them to better plan how to achieve the required levels of pathogen reduction. They do this by allowing planners to choose a number of different options depending on what is feasible locally. These options should be used in combination, as their impact, for example on pathogen die-off varies (  Source: Scott et al., 2004;modified Water Policy Briefing been crucial in mitigating risk. To reduce farmers' exposure is another objective. Surveys in Asia and Africa show that farmers often face many other health risks as well from other sources besides exposure to wastewater. Protective clothing or other means to reduce exposure seldom finds users, thus more attention must be paid to perception studies to understand farmer needs and design interventions for awareness creation accordingly."}]},{"head":"Intermediate options for risk management","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The philosophy behind the intermediate options is:"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• In cases where comprehensive wastewater treatment is not a feasible option in the near future, intermediate, less-expensive options aimed at reducing risks can save lives and money."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Related costs are likely to be low in comparison with the construction and operation of conventional wastewater treatment plants, not to mention the costs of mitigating or recovering from any wastewater related epidemic."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Water and food related health risks require, in any case, a comprehensive approach, as wastewater is not the only source of food contamination."}]},{"head":"Providing safer water sources for irrigation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Authorities could reduce farmers' and consumers' health risks easily if they provide the concerned farmers in urban and peri-urban areas with safer water sources. In Cotonou, Benin, for example, the authorities recognized the contribution of urban agriculture for the city and allocated new land to urban farmers outside the city with unpolluted shallow groundwater, while in Accra, Ghana, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture is exploring options for groundwater use in urban agriculture areas currently irrigated with water from city drains."}]},{"head":"Promote incentives for adoption of on farm risk reduction measures","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Secure land tenure encourages farmers to invest in mitigation measures at the farm level. A majority of urban and peri-urban farmers in many countries occupy/squat on public lands or are tenants on land owned by others and have no tenure security. Where policy reforms can provide greater (formal or informal) tenure security, farmers are more likely to invest labour and capital in irrigation infrastructure, such as drip or furrow irrigation, which reduce crop contact with wastewater. Improved tenure contracts would allow for such investments, while credit systems could facilitate them. A certification program for \"safer crops\" and awards for innovative farmers, are other possible incentives."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"More tenure security would also allow simple water storage reservoirs to be built on farmers' land. Storage reservoirs provide basic treatment by supporting pathogen die-off and help to balance irrigation water supply with demand."}]},{"head":"Promote safer irrigation methods","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In many parts of the world, and Sub-Saharan Africa in particular, most farmers use watering cans, which require only little investment. However, this method increases crop contamination especially of leafy vegetables through spraying of droplets on the leaves. Irrigation techniques that apply water to the root zone (such as wastewater adapted drip irrigation) are much safer and use less water. Reducing crop contamination by ceasing irrigation a few days before harvest to allow for pathogen dieoff is a recommendation that can be applied only in the case of vegetables which are less sensitive to water loss."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Ongoing research shows that with simple changes in shallow well construction and in water collection and application methods (even when watering cans are used), the amount of suspended material and number of worm eggs in irrigation water can be reduced sig nificantly. Similar possibilities exist to reduce crop contamination from other sources, like fresh poultry manure or already contaminated soil. Studying farmer perceptions of such innovations and related changes in labour allocation is thus critical for understanding which 'best pract ices' and corresponding risk reduction rates have the highest adoption potential in a given context. This requires functional research-extension linkages supported, for example, by Farmer Field Schools. Influence the choice of crops grown"},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"When irrigation projects are centrally managed, and when laws are strongly enforced, it is possible to introduce restrictions to ensure that wastewater is not used to irrigate high-risk crops, such as leafy vegetables that are eaten raw. Research in Mexico, Chile and Peru has shown that this is most likely to be successful when the crops allowed under the restrictions are of similar profitability and in high demand. If restrictions cannot be enforced, then public-awareness campaigns might reduce consumer demand for crops that pose a health risk, and thus indirectly influence farmers' choice of crops."}]},{"head":"Avoid post-harvest contamination","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Health risk reduction measures should not only focus on improving irrigation water quality. Post harvest contamination might occur during transport or at markets. This is due to poor sanitation facilities and lack of water supply for personal hygiene as well as washing and \"refreshing\" of vegetables. Displaying vegetables on the ground instead of on tables is an additional source of contamination. It is important that authorities do not overlook well-established, but often officially ignored, informal vegetable markets in their efforts to improve cleanliness in markets."}]},{"head":"Increase public awareness for vegetable washing at the point of consumption","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"An important option for complementary risk reduction is vegetable washing and disinfecting at home and at food outlets, which is common practice in developed and developing countries. Well-designed awareness programs can have a significant impact on safeguarding public health where treatment technologies cannot be put in place. It does not require large financial outlays at the consumer level and has a high potential for large-scale risk reduction where pathogen contamination is likely, be it from wastewater irrigation or post-harvest handling. However, washing methods vary between households and countries, and can be very ineffective if not carried out properly. Awareness programs, like the WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All) 2 campaigns of the water and sanitation sector, should be based on a good understanding of local customs and perceptions of risk and risk mitigation. Programs might involve mass media, but also target school curricula."}]},{"head":"Improve institutional coordination and develop integrated policies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Case studies from around the world show that sanitation, agricultural, environmental and health guidelines are usually the responsibility of different agencies and, because of this, they often overlap or conflict. Furthermore urban and peri-urban agriculture has no official recognition in many countries. Multi-stakeholder platforms are vital to find mutually satisfactory guidelines with a high potential for institutionalization."}]},{"head":"Action research to sustain riskreduction methods and approaches","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"For sustainable risk mitigation it will be necessary to encourage research to improve our understanding of the opportunities and constraints involved in adopting locally applied safety measures, with special reference to their feasibility and sustainability. This includes the perceptions of risks and risk mitigation of the concerned stakeholders, and the relative and absolute risk of wastewater use in the local context of developing countries from both farmers' and consumers' perspectives."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"From the treatment perspective emphasis should be placed on options to treat chemically polluted wastewater before it enters the domestic wastewater stream that is used for irrigation. Low-cost and farm-based systems, which conserve nutrients of value for agriculture while removing pathogens should get more attention."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"One uncharted area of research is a comprehensive assessment of the positive and negative economic impacts of (raw or diluted) wastewater use on agriculture, health and the environment. The results of such and other analyses could potentially impact the way in which wastewater agriculture is viewed."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Simple modifications have the highest chance of adoption PHOTO CREDIT: IWMI"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" PHOTO CREDIT: IWMI "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. An example of a decision-making process that can be used to identify locally appropriate entry points to protect consumers' health, where municipal wastewater treatment is not a realistic option in the short or medium term, and polluted water is used to irrigate crops in and around cities (Adapted from Drechsel et al., 2002). "},{"text":" PHOTO CREDIT: IWMI "},{"text":"Table 1 . The effectiveness of various health- protection measures that can be used to remove pathogens from wastewater (WHO, modified).  Protection measure Pathogen reduction Protection measurePathogen reduction (examples) (log units) (examples)(log units) Wastewater treatment 1-6 Wastewater treatment1-6 (to different degrees)  (to different degrees) Localized (drip) irrigation  Localized (drip) irrigation (with 'low-growing' crops, 2 (with 'low-growing' crops,2 e.g. lettuce)  e.g. lettuce) Localized (drip) irrigation  Localized (drip) irrigation (with 'high-growing' crops, 4 (with 'high-growing' crops,4 e.g. tomatoes)  e.g. tomatoes) Pathogen die-off on the surface  Pathogen die-off on the surface of crops after the last irrigation 0.5-2 per day of crops after the last irrigation 0.5-2 per day Washing of produce with 1 Washing of produce with1 clean water  clean water Disinfection of produce (using a 2 Disinfection of produce (using a2 weak disinfectant solution)  weak disinfectant solution) Disinfection of produce (using  Disinfection of produce (using one part vinegar on two 5 one part vinegar on two5 parts water)  parts water) Peeling of produce (fruits, 2 Peeling of produce (fruits,2 root crops)  root crops) Cooking of produce 6-7 Cooking of produce6-7  "},{"text":"Box 1. New risk-reducing guidelines on wastewater irrigation from the World Health Organization (WHO)   "},{"text":"An integrated approach to health risk reduction for less developed countries: components and associated implementation timeframes  Recommendation Timeframe RecommendationTimeframe 1. Treat produced wastewater and control volumes and contaminants  1. Treat produced wastewater and control volumes and contaminants at source and monitor water quality Long term at source and monitor water qualityLong term 2. Develop local strategies and guidelines based on a combination of  2. Develop local strategies and guidelines based on a combination of appropriate alternative risk management options, such as:  appropriate alternative risk management options, such as: • Increase public awareness • Promote hygiene and safer vegetable washing in kitchen • Allocate new land with access to safer water sources to Short to medium term Short term • Increase public awareness • Promote hygiene and safer vegetable washing in kitchen • Allocate new land with access to safer water sources toShort to medium term Short term urban/peri-urban farmers Short to medium term urban/peri-urban farmersShort to medium term • Provide incentives for on-farm risk reduction • Use safer irrigation methods • Restrict the types of crops grown • Reduce risk of post-harvest contamination • Minimize farmers' exposure • Prevent and treat infections (e.g. anti-worm campaigns) • Improve institutional coordination • Increase donor and state funding to support sanitation and introduce Short term Short to medium term Short term Short to medium term Short to medium term Short to medium term Medium to long term • Provide incentives for on-farm risk reduction • Use safer irrigation methods • Restrict the types of crops grown • Reduce risk of post-harvest contamination • Minimize farmers' exposure • Prevent and treat infections (e.g. anti-worm campaigns) • Improve institutional coordination • Increase donor and state funding to support sanitation and introduceShort term Short to medium term Short term Short to medium term Short to medium term Short to medium term Medium to long term applied cost-sharing models Short, medium and long term applied cost-sharing modelsShort, medium and long term 3. Conduct accompanying research on local food safety and the relative  3. Conduct accompanying research on local food safety and the relative and absolute risks of wastewater use, on related stakeholder perceptions, Short to medium term and absolute risks of wastewater use, on related stakeholder perceptions,Short to medium term and identify opportunities and constraints for the adoption of locally  and identify opportunities and constraints for the adoption of locally applied recommendations.  applied recommendations.  "}],"sieverID":"33a6bfc1-f2c1-4cfb-b9f4-fcf16abde0ff","abstract":"Irrigation with polluted water or wastewater is a widespread reality, especially in low-income countries where it is popularly used for vegetable cultivation. Yet many policymakers are unaware of the significance of the practice and the benefits it can bring. Nor do they know that practical recommendations are now available to make wastewater use safer and more sustainable without relying on non-affordable treatment technologies alone. These recommendations tackle the problem from many angles, over the short, medium and long term, and harmonize with new World Health Organization guidelines."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"084d15a507fe8ae112e38ccc1cb2c38e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1693abf2-5842-461d-a330-f0ea49743f6e/retrieve"},"pageCount":77,"title":"8 Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acronyms","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The importance of yam and constraints of production Yams (Dioscorea spp) are a primary source of income and starchy staples in West Africa, where 92% of global yam production emanates (FAO 2020). Nigeria alone produces 68% of global yam, equivalent to 48 million tonnes."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"In traditional yam propagation, the seed system is informal. Farmers save planting materials from the previous year's harvest and plant whole tubers, or tubers cut into about 250 g setts (Aighewi et al. 2015). Few new plants are therefore grown from one tuber per season. This traditional vegetative propagation using unclean, farmer-saved planting materials leads to further build-up of diseases such as viruses, anthracnose, and nematodes, either singly or in combination, causing up to 25% yield reduction (Degras 1993). The slow rate of propagation (less than 1:10 each season) and the conflict between the use of tubers for consumption and planting causes scarcity of seed yam, such that planting materials alone account for up to 63% of production costs (Agbaje et al. 2005; Ironkwe et al. 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"In addition, farmers can scarcely plant the whole of their field due to the nonavailability of seed yam in sufficient quantities. Using poor quality seed yam (Plate 1) causes a steady decline in yield and loss of valuable varieties over time (Balogun and Gueye 2013). Quality control and certification are only assured in a formal seed yam production system where regulatory rules are functional."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"The need for a formal seed system for yam"},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"Overcoming the menace of poor-quality seed yam requires an efficient technology for cleaning the existing seed yam, confirming its health status, rapidly multiplying the cleaned materials in the system, and disseminating it efficiently to farmers. This necessitates the development of a formal seed yam system where regulatory rules are functional, including genetic purity and physiological quality (Balogun et al. 2014) of all categories of seed yam, from breeder (breeder) through foundation (basic) to commercial (certified) seed. In a formal seed system, breeder seeds are of the highest quality (Balogun et al. 2017), and purity, foundation, and commercial seeds are produced from them. The project \"Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA),\" funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), was envisioned in the first phase to increase yam productivity by 40% for 200,000 smallholder yam farmers in Ghana and Nigeria. It was to deliver key global good research products towards a 10-year vision to sustainably double incomes from yams for 3 million smallholder yam farming families in West Africa and contribute to food security for producers and consumers."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"In achieving this goal, YIIFSWA has developed novel technologies for high ratio propagation of high-quality breeder (PB) and basic seed yam, among which is the use of the Temporary Immersion Bioreactor System (TIBS). TIBS is an advanced tissue culture (TC) technology, where plants are intermittently immersed in nutrient solution compared to the conventional TC with continuous immersion. Technologies for using the 128 units of the SETIS type TIBS installed by YIIFSWA were developed, ranging from establishing in vitro cultures through the generation of pathogen-free stocks and rapid propagation to post-flask management."},{"index":7,"size":105,"text":"Tissue culture as a method of healthy seed yam production Initial stock from tissue culture is the singular preferred starting material for breeder or breeder (PB) seed yam production. This is because the quality is assured due to production in a controlled environment using the smallest size of explants with no risk of reinfection. Producing breeder seed yam involves the establishment of in vitro cultures from previously unclean materials; elimination of viruses; identification of pathogen-free stock plantlets; multiplication in conventional tissue culture (CTC) or Temporary Immersion Bioreactors (TIB); hardening of plantlets, and postlaboratory management of hardened plantlets to produce breeder tubers (BT) or vines (BV)."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"The use of tissue culture takes some time initially to generate clean stocks, but more can be potentially nu produced and the quality is high. Plantlets generated through meristem culture combined with heat therapy and indexed as free from pathogens, including viruses, constitute stocks for rapid multiplication (Balogun et al. 2017). This conventional tissue culture system ensures that the viral agents are not passed onto subsequent clonal generations. The YIIFSWA project has established virus-free plantlets of 20 popular yam genotypes in Nigeria by this means. "}]},{"head":"Steps to producing the initial stock of breeder seed yam","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Establishment of in vitro cultures","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"This step usually starts with an uncertified or unclean tuber (Plate 1). A tuber showing signs of sprouting should be cut into minisetts of 30-50 g each (Plate 2) and treated (Plate 4) with a mixture of insecticide and fungicide. The infected tuber should be planted using good and sterilized topsoil, preferably in pots in a screenhouse so as not to further accumulate or spread disease if planted on the field."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"The soil should be sterilized to avoid introducing more soilborne diseases to the tubers. Soil can be sterilized by solar heating, oven drying, dry heat, cobalt-60 irradiation, microwave, chloroform, antibiotics, steam sterilization, among others (Wolf et al. 1989). However, steam sterilization (e.g., by autoclaving) removes both living microorganisms and resting fungal spores in the soil. The sterilized soil should be left in the pot for one week before planting to check for weed or fungal growth. This will confirm soil sterility before planting. Before planting, the screenhouse should be sprayed with a fungicide/insecticide mixture (Plate 4). The plants that emerge should be sprayed with the same mixture every two weeks, especially in highly humid environments, to reduce the surface microbes that can cause contamination in tissue culture."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Leaves of 2-3-month-old plants should be indexed for viruses. This will serve as a baseline reference to confirm the disease status of the plants. Single node cuttings (1-2 cm long) from the mother plant (Plate 6) should be surface sterilized using insecticide and fungicide solution followed by sodium hypochlorite (Appendix 3). Our findings showed that contamination was up to 100% when sodium hypochlorite treatment was not preceded with treatment in fungicide + insecticide solution. "}]},{"head":"Elimination of virus and other pathogens","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"After eight weeks, plantlets should be subcultured into two-node cuttings (Plate 9) onto the same multiplication medium and incubation condition as described earlier (Ng 1992) for one week. They should then be transferred to a growth cabinet (Plate 10) set at 36 + 0.5 °C and 16 h photoperiod for 21 days. Using a dissecting microscope, the meristems (about 0.5-1.0 mm long) should be excised and cultured on modified MS medium containing reagents. Petri plates are easier to handle for meristem culture due to the ease of introduction, observation, and transfer into other vessels. However, test tubes can also be used. Plantlets are regenerated from the meristem (Plate 11) and transferred into the yam multiplication medium described above, preferably agar-free, liquid medium for further growth. Regeneration from meristem takes up to 16 weeks depending on the genotype, and significantly lower than the six months to two years recorded before YIIFSWA (Balogun et al. 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Using this method, yam mosaic virus (YMV) was eliminated in 73% of the plantlets (Balogun et al. 2017). In some samples of water yam, no Badnavirus (BV) was detected before treatment, but detected after treatment, suggesting that BV is integrated into the yam genome (Seal et al. 2014). As YMV is most economically important for yam, establishing about 73% of YMV-free plants is assuring. More than 3000 virus-free plants can be generated from 1 kg of infected tubers."}]},{"head":"Identifying pathogen-free plantlets","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Leaf samples from the regenerated, heat-treated plantlets and those of the virus-positive mother plants (controls) should be retested for Yam mosaic virus (YMV), Yam mild mosaic virus (YMMV), Badnavirus (BV), and Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Nkere 2016; Plate 12) to confirm their health status. Regenerated plantlets should be checked for endophytes before micropropagation to avoid the build-up of contaminants. Some roots, stems, and leaves of 8-week-old meristem-derived plantlets are chopped onto a bacteria indexing medium (Plate 13) containing (per liter)10 g sucrose, 8 g casein hydrolysate, 4 g yeast extract, 2 g potassium hydrogen phosphate, 0.15 g magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, and 10 g agar in sterile petri plates and incubated at 27 + 2 °C for seven days in darkness (Thomas 2004) (Plate 13). Some companies, however, sell already prepared bacteriological indexing media. The incidence of microbial growth around the chopped explants should be observed daily. Only non-endophytic stocks (Plate 14, top) should be used for rapid propagation. The use of clean stocks reduces losses from culture contamination in large, commercial micropropagation schemes. We found up to 32% endophytic cultures from plantlets derived from nodes while it was 0% in the meristem-derived plantlets."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors This endophyte indexing system is more efficient, as using a combination of five antibiotics had only 33% success in getting rid of the endophytes, being also genotype dependent (Mbah & Wakil 2012). Although some endophytic associations were reported to increase the adaptive response of plants to stress through plant growth stimulation (nitrogen fixation, and auxin and cytokinin production) and disease protective properties (Jasim et al. 2015), it is safer to avoid them in micropropagation schemes pending determination of the effect of specific endophytes on the field performance of yam."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Deciding which plantlets to retain as clean is the most critical step in the breeder seed production chain, and proper documentation is a major prerequisite. An internal record sheet (Appendix 5) of materials to be sent for virus indexing should be maintained by the laboratory staff. In contrast, an external record sheet (Appendix 6) should be given to the Plant Health Diagnostics Unit when sending the plant for indexing. Samples should be replicated on the internal record sheet, unknown to the virus indexing laboratory to serve as checks when results are received. The serial numbers on the internal record sheet should be used to track the serial number on the outbound sheet and the two must match. Appendix 7 shows a decision-making sheet that enhances the selection of clean stock plantlets upon receipt of the plant health results."}]},{"head":"Scale-up propagation of clean stocks","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"This can be done using conventional solid/liquid culture medium or automated systems like Temporary Immersion Bioreactors. The same medium as described for nodal culture is used, but each laboratory can modify this, especially plant growth regulator combinations, to suit the genotype and prevailing conditions."}]},{"head":"Multiplication in conventional tissue culture","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The components for one liter of the medium are dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water in a beaker and stirred. The pH is adjusted to 5.7 by adding 1 M NaOH (to increase) or 1 M HCl (to reduce) the pH. Agar is added (if solid medium) and the solution is heated gently on a hot plate while stirring until all the agar has dissolved. Alternatively, a microwave oven can be used to melt the medium for 10 minutes. The medium is then dispensed into culture vessels (test tubes, plastics, baby food jars, etc.) and autoclaved at 103.4 KPa and 121 °C for 15-20 minutes. Single node cuttings from pathogen-free plantlets are introduced into medium repeatedly using full-grown plantlets (Plate 15) after about ten weeks to multiply them further using autoclaved dissecting instruments (Plate 16) and incubated in culture rooms."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Using six genotypes and plantlets from nodal explants, we found that the propagation ratio decreased from 7.2 + 0.4 at first introduction (cycle 1) to 3.9 + 0.2 in the 5th cycle when sub-cultured at 10 weekly intervals."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Regularly replenishing tissue cultures with new mother stocks is necessary to maintain vigorous plantlets. Aeration also increased plantlet growth as the propagation ratio increased in vented plastic vessels with lids with 4 mm air filters compared to non-vented vessels."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Plate 15. Yam plantlets in test tubes with agar-solidified conventional tissue culture."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Different designs of TIBS exist, some using compressed air pressure and others using gravitational pressure or a combination of both to save costs. Improved culture aeration and gas contacting combined with automation are associated with bioreactor systems causing increased productivity and reduced labor cost associated with CTC."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Simple activities like labeling and sealing the vessels take significantly less time when using TIBS than CTC."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Culture starts in CTC for 1 to 3 cycles before introduction into TIBS. Figure 1 shows that triple the number of plantlets produced in CTC is produced in TIBS assuming a 1 : 2.3 and a 1 : 3 propagation ratio every 14-and 8-week cycle, respectively). This, however, varies with genotype."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Plant materials produced in TIBS are also more vigorous. YIIFSWA installed 128 units of the SETISTM type twin flask TIBS with each TIBS having one container for the nutrient and another for the plant in the first phase of the project. Details on this can be found in the 2017 edition of this manual. However, due to lower electricity requirements, the Plant Form TIBS was standardized and outscaled to the NARIS. The Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor system (PF TIBS)"},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"To enhance the outscaling of the bioreactor technology, YIIFSWA tested the Plant Form type bioreactor system (Plate 17). The PF TIBS has been designed for easy handling, while the air exchange can be controlled using air pumps and timers. One full setup is made of 12 units of bioreactors, working like a kit that can be disseminated to partners as one package."},{"index":10,"size":60,"text":"The parts are shown in Plate 18. It does not require compressors, dryers, etc needed for big production facilities using SETIS. As more plantlets are needed, more units of PF TIBS can be purchased to increase production volume. It requires lower electricity while the timers, filters, and tubing can be locally sourced. Plantlets have been successfully hardened from PF TIBS."},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"The steps involved in the setting up the medium and culture vessels for PF TIBS are shown in plates 18-24. Three filters are attached to vessels and all are autoclaved together."},{"index":12,"size":128,"text":"1: Assembled Plant Form TIBS vessel; 2: Outer container having three inlets for gas exchange. The middle outlet is connected to a plastic tube on the inner chamber; 3: Filters, plastic tubes, nuts, clamps, and silicon rings for connection to the three inlets on the outer container,  The medium should be changed every 4 weeks and the vessel cleaned before the next use (Table 1). This is because the pH reduces over time and the plants stop growing vigorously. The basket containing the plantlets should be lifted and transferred into a freshly prepared medium in TIBS inside the laminar flow hood. Mark each air filter with a single stroke using a permanent marker after each use. Change the filters after six uses to prevent clogging and contamination outbreak."}]},{"head":"Maintaining sterile conditions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Sterile conditions must be maintained within the culture vessel and in the laboratory environment (Appendix 11). This is because a single fungal spore or bacteria cell in the growth media will reproduce rapidly, outgrow, and eventually kill the plantlet. The contamination will then spread to all the plantlets within a culture container. Therefore, regular checks for functionality of the laminar flow hood and autoclave, regular cleaning of the laboratory floor with disinfectant solutions, and fumigation when the microbial load is high should be adhered to. Fumigating solutions are commercially available, and the regular use will depend on air cleanliness in each environment. In some cases, simple household insecticide is sprayed every week and surfaces wiped with sodium hypochlorite. It can be weekly, monthly, quarterly, or biennially. Laboratory overalls and indoor footwear should be used by workers always in the laboratory, while nose masks, head covers, and gloves should be used when working at the laminar flow hood."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"The cultures should be sealed with parafilm or kitchen cling film, labeled with the date and name of sample, and incubated in the culture room set at 25 + 2 °C, 14-16 hours photoperiod, and 4000 lux of light. These days, energy saving, light-emitting diode (LED) bulbs are available to save on power. The cultures should be checked daily to discard contaminated ones. At about 7-9 weeks after culturing, depending on variety, if the plantlet vigor is high and there are no signs of senescence, they should either be subcultured into new vessels using about 1 cm single node cuttings or hardened for breeder seed yam production. Plate 25 summarizes how decisons are made on breeder seed production. "}]},{"head":"Plate 25. Decision making guide for generation and propagation of clean stock of Breeder yam planting materials","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Post-flask management of plantlets","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hardening plantlets","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Good root development is fundamental to successful hardening. Old plantlets should not be acclimatized as they die in large numbers, while also having a short time to express good vigor before completing their growth cycle."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Well-controlled relative humidity (RH) is key in reducing wilting due to water stress in hardening TC plantlets. In TC, RH is higher than 95%, and the waxy cuticle on the leaves of plantlets is not as high as screenhouse plants (Gilly et al., 1997;Zaid and Hughes, 1995). In an outside environment, however, humidity varies with season, especially in the tropics where yam is mostly grown; the temperature can be as high as 40 °C in February in the West African yam belt. Consequently, reducing RH in TC vessels before transplanting will reduce the shock due to water stress that causes wilting in the TC plants at hardening."}]},{"head":"Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Using vented vessels or loosely fitting closures or even bottom cooling of culture can be used to achieve this, causing higher transpiration and development of more functional stomata to control water loss while improving nutrient uptake (Cassells and Walsh, 1994). Hardening is less demanding of a technician's time in bioreactor-grown plantlets because gas contacting is improved in bioreactor systems. At the same time, medium change (nutrient replenishment) is possible without plantlet manipulation (otherwise impossible in CTC). Standard procedures should be followed (Appendix 12). The optimum growth rate of de-flasked plantlets frequently does not occur until new leaves and roots develop in the greenhouse environment. However, as species differ greatly in their requirements, so do yam genotypes due to evapotranspiration rates and tolerance to water stress. The acclimatizing protocol will have to be customized for specific genotypes. In hardening, plantlets should not be exposed to direct sunlight. Nets with 75% shading or reflective sheets or aluminum shade nets should be used to achieve this. The optimum temperature is between 25 and 28 °C."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The system can be adapted in different ways. The plantlets can be arranged on wooden or plastic trays and enclosed in plastic sheets. When condensation is visible (usually about two weeks after de-flasking, depending on ambient weather), the sheets are punctured at a few points. The number of punctures should be increased with time."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"The location also affects transplanting success because of varying weather (temperature and humidity) conditions. It is very important that the breeder seed producer understands these fluctuations to adjust post-flask management strategies. For example, February is usually hottest (34 °C) in Ibadan, Nigeria, while June/July is coldest (28/26 °C). Relative humidity is about 73% and 93/94%, respectively, in the same months. As June/July is closer to the in vitro temperature and relative humidity in tissue culture, a higher success rate is expected. In hot situations, foggers are preferred as they control the relative humidity around the plants being hardened. Consequently, handling and management will differ at the two periods. Options for hardening TIBS plantlets are detailed below."}]},{"head":"Multiplication medium to hardening","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Plantlets with good root development should be transferred into containers with perforated bottoms or customized transplanting trays containing sterile topsoil (after 60 minutes of steam sterilization at 100 degrees Celsius) mixed with carbonized rice husk (Plates 26-27) in equal volumes or other commercial substrates.)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Plate 26. Making carbonized rice husk. Top row: Make a fire on a metal sheet using charcoal and allow the fire to go out but keep the glowing hot coals. Down, left: Cover with carbonizer; pour rice husk and allow to burn. Down, right: Incomplete burning will give black carbonized husk while complete burning will give whitish ash rice husk. The hotter the carbonizer, the closer to becoming ash. Both are sterile and work well for yam."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Plantlets should be immersed in a solution of 7 g/l Team (4 g/l mancozeb + 0.8 g/l carbendazim) followed by transfer into the prepared substrate and covering with a transparent plastic sheet (Plate 28). Vessels that are vented also perform well for hardening well-rooted plantlets (Plate 29). After 14-21 days (depending on prevailing humidity and temperature) when using plastic sheets, the sheet is punctured or opened slightly. The number of punctures should be increased every 2-3 days until the sheets are torn or removed completely (about 3rd-4th week after transplanting). In the case of vented vessels, there are five vents on the cover at the top."}]},{"head":"Plate 28. Hardening TIBS plantlets in basket humidity chambers.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The first vent is opened on the third day after de-flasking while other vents are opened at one-day intervals until all the five vents are completely opened. However, the cover is completely removed after about 3 weeks."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"In some cases, when plantlets are planned for planting in aeroponics, the height is not enough in the third week. The plantlets can be subcultured using two-node cuttings to obtain taller plants within a shorter time before hardening. Breeder tubers weighing 50-200 g were harvested from hardened, potted plants 4-5 months after potting. Single node vine cuttings (Plate 35) were also generated from vigorously growing hardened plantlets at 1:4 multiplication ratio and rooted (Plate 36) for further clean seed yam tuber production. Harvested tubers (Plate 37) should be treated with a mixture of insecticide and fungicide solution as described previously and stored in baskets, wooden boxes, or shelves in a well-ventilated container Plate 35. Successfully hardened plantlets in trays."}]},{"head":"Documentation in Breeder seed yam tuber production","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Production and labeling","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Inadequate documentation can cause serious problems between breeder seed suppliers and their clients. A variety name may be wrong, or the quality may not be as claimed. These errors quickly bulk up in CTC or the bioreactor system."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The best is to have a documentation gadget for each staff member. These can be notebooks or tabs. Each plant should be traceable on the Excel sheet (Plate 38) to a member of staff responsible for its micropropagation, hardening, potting or storage. There should be a locational reference on the shelf (e.g., TIBS 3, Shelf 1 row 2 is handled by Mr. 'X'. The number of subcultures from each plantlet should be recorded to know if and when the propagation ratio starts reducing to replace stocks."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Within each genotype, each plantlet regenerated from a particular meristem should have a unique number. This is because different meristems from the same mother plant can differ in vigor, which can also affect response to thermotherapy, and consequently, the health of the plantlets."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Labeling should be as automated as possible. The use of bar codes linked to Breeder stock mother plants in databases is encouraged. Bar codes (Plate 39) are machine-readable optical labels that contain information about the item to which it is attached. It should include date cultured, unique stock number, and variety name at the minimum. When changing vessels, labeling should be done before putting in plants to be doubly sure. Records should be backed up and saved online where there is less risk of data losses. "}]},{"head":"Plate 39. Downloadable, printable bar code","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Tracking cost of breeder seed production","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Getting breeder planting materials into the hands of end-users usually involves setting prices. Consequently, all costs of production must be tracked and documented. The following aspects are considered:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"1. The cost of the initial stock of plantlets: In the case of nucleus stock plantlet production in vitro, the plantlets are in either CTC or the PF TIBS. Hence the cost per plantlet is required as an input factor."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"2. Cost of the nutrient medium used in the production: The number of plantlets produced is directly proportional to the volume of media consumed by the plantlets at production. Therefore, it is useful to know the cost of the medium per liter to derive the total cost of media for a production cycle or batch."}]},{"head":"Equipment & supplies/consumables:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The items in this category may require splitting over time because much equipment has a lifespan beyond the production cycle. The cost of such items will be based on the expected duration (depreciation value). Otherwise, the cost of the items may spike the production cost of the plantlets. Also, the cost of electricity, water, and laboratory bench space should be added in this category."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"4. Human Resources: The staff involved in the production chain should be included, considering the different cadres and number of hours spent in production."}]},{"head":"Challenges and Mitigation in breeder seed production","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"A major issue with breeder seed production in TC and TIBS is the control of contamination, especially in nucleus stock production, which reduces the quality. To mitigate this, documentation at the point of decision making with respect to clean/unclean stock plants and aseptic techniques in handling them should be strictly adhered to."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The second type of contamination is the presence of off-types, which reduce the genetic integrity as the varieties become mixed-up and are not true-to-type. To avoid this, proper labeling must be done at all stages. The handling of specific varieties should be separated by time and location. For example, if affordable and feasible, a particular day, personnel, culture room or screenhouse should be assigned to a particular variety."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Another challenge is the mismatch in demand and supply, as production is continuous in the laboratory while field planting by users is mostly seasonal. One way to handle this is to maintain only stock plantlets in the laboratory at off-peak demand periods. However, personnel retention is not guaranteed. Breeder seed producers should therefore develop facilities within their systems where microtubers produced from hardened plantlets can be stored until demanded in the cropping season. Research is still needed in seed yam tuber dormancy control beyond the normal 3-4 months."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Sometimes, large volumes are requested by clients within a short period. In this situation, breeder seed producers should establish partnerships to increase their overall capacity such that the responsible laboratory can sub-contract to others to accommodate large orders. YIIFSWA-II project is facilitating the exchange of information on demand for planting materials among NARIS to meet the demands of private seed companies. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Plate 1 . Symptomatic leaves (top) and tubers (bottom) of yam. "},{"text":"Plate 3 . Yam minisetts being treated in insecticide and fungicide solution. The nodes are cultured in agar-solidified, modified Murashige and Skoog (MS) (1962) medium as described by Ng (1992) (Plates 6-8). Constituents of the medium and steps involved are shown in Appendix 3. Appendix 4 shows how to prepare stock solutions of different growth regulators. Adding 1 g of activated charcoal per liter of medium reduced the production of phenolics in the cultures of white yam and enhanced plantlet vigor but was detrimental in water yam. Plate 6. Preparing medium for in vitro culture of single nodes. Weighing medium constituents and pouring into distilled water in a beaker (bottom). "},{"text":"Plate 12 . Sampling for pathogen indexing. Top: Excised leaf samples of meristem-derived, heat-treated plantlets in eppendorf tubes for polymerase chain reaction-based virus indexing. Bottom: Chopping plantlets for bacteria indexing. "},{"text":"Plate 13 . Indexing for endophytes. Top-Right: Bacteriaindexed plantlet returned to liquid medium (Top-Left); Chopped plantlet tissues in petri plate (Right); Bottom: Tissues incubated for bacteria indexing. "},{"text":"4 (26Plate 19 . A): Inner chamber with 3 grooves and connection to middle filter; 5 (B): Basket with 3 rows of small holes for inner plant chamber; 6 (C): Frame with 4 legs, also part of the inner chamber; 7: Lid with 4 flaps and an inner silicon ring. Plate 18: Culture Vessel Components of Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor. Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors 26 Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors arger Plate 19. Automation Components of Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor. a: Pump for nutrient immersion; b: Electric volt; c: Pump for ventilation; d: Timers for setting immersion and ventilation frequencies; e: Locally designed perpetual timer also used for the Plant Form TIBS Breeder Seed Yam Tuber Production using Temporary Immersion Bioreactors arger Plate 19. Automation Components of Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor. a: Pump for nutrient immersion; b: Electric volt; c: Pump for ventilation; d: Timers for setting immersion and ventilation frequencies; e: Locally designed perpetual timer also used for the Plant Form TIBS Automation Components of Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor. a: Pump for nutrient immersion; b: Electric volt; c: Pump for ventilation; d: Timers for setting immersion and ventilation frequencies; e: Locally designed perpetual timer also used for the Plant Form TIBS Plate 20. Connecting the parts. Inserting the silicon ring into the lid to ensure airtightness (Top Left); Silicon tube on the inner chamber to be placed on the bottom of the outer container (Top Right); Bottom left: Fixed connectors into the inlets by inserting clamp on the outer container, putting silicon ring on the clamp from the other side and screwing the nut on the clamp. Bottom Right: Inserting four-legged frame above the basket Plate 23. Addition of new cultures to existing ones on the shelf. Top left: Removal of stopper or binding rubber; Top right: Connecting white tubing to middle filter for immersion and green for ventilation. Bottom left: set up showing air and medium pump connected to tubes; Bottom right: Pumps connected to set timers. Plate 24. One Plant Form vessel containing full-grown yam plantlets "},{"text":"Plate 33 . Addition of autoclaved MS_Agar (Left) and MS_distilled water (right) to the autoclaved substrate in the Laminar flow hood before it solidifies. The substrate to which MS_Agar water has been added is allowed to cool, then the substrates bind together due to the presence of agar in the mixture. One liter of the mixture is used for four ViVipak trays. After cooling and binding of the substrate, MS + distilled water is added (100 ml for each tray). "},{"text":"Plate 38 . Generating bar code. Top: Selection of the Add On Menu, QR code generator, \"open\" and intended \"Ref No\", respectively on the Google documentation sheet; Bottom: Checked \"save as PNG option\", \"Generate QR code\" with new, blue button (Open Folder) leading to the location of the generated code in Google Drive. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Conventional plant TC grows plant tissues in a closed, static, sterile, and laboratory environment. Conventional Plant TC is static in that there is no flow of air or medium, which is mostly semi-solid or liquid. The technology has been used to rapidly propagate disease-free plantlets of yam, cassava, potatoes, bananas, plantain, cocoa, and oil palm, among others, in a procedure known as micropropagation(Ovono et al. 2007; Balogun et al.  2014 a). The technique is independent of climate variations, saves time and space, and has greater outputs of disease-free and elite propagules in addition to safer and quarantined movements of germplasm across  "},{"text":"Up to 786 plantlets produced in Conventional Tissue Culture (CTC) and 2187 in the Plant Form Temporary Immersion Bioreactor System (TIBS) in 57 weeks.         2187 2187       729 786 729786 1 1 2.3 3 5.3 9 28.1 27 64.6 81 148.6 243 341.7  1 12.3 35.3 928.1 2764.6 81148.6 243341.7 1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 19172533414957    CTC TIBS    CTCTIBS Figure 1.        Figure 1.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cleaning the Plant Form bioreactor vessels.  Steps Non-contaminatedvessels Contaminated vessels Steps Non-contaminatedvesselsContaminated vessels   Soak in 2% sodium Soak in 2% sodium 1 • Rinse in hot water hypochlorite (Equivalent to 72% commercial bleach) 1• Rinse in hot waterhypochlorite (Equivalent to 72% commercial bleach)   solution for one hour solution for one hour 2 Dry in oven Dry in oven 2Dry in ovenDry in oven 3 Autoclave TIBS vessel only with medium Autoclave TIBS vessel only with medium 3Autoclave TIBS vessel only with mediumAutoclave TIBS vessel only with medium 4 For autoclaving, wrap filters in foil before putting in plastic For autoclaving, wrap filters in foil before putting in plastic 4For autoclaving, wrap filters in foil before putting in plasticFor autoclaving, wrap filters in foil before putting in plastic 5 Allow to dry Allow to dry 5Allow to dryAllow to dry 6  Dry 6Dry Note: The best is not to use any detergent for the bioreactor, only hot Note: The best is not to use any detergent for the bioreactor, only hot water. If you must, then use a neutral pH detergent. water. If you must, then use a neutral pH detergent.  "}],"sieverID":"e1d517ed-4850-44e7-9eae-2c044dea3530","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086f842955cbaedf1e0e7c18ea4c0752","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d81a63e5-eade-4a15-8398-78d8f7d0932f/retrieve"},"pageCount":56,"title":"Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Kenya's Food System Economic Interdependencies and Policy Opportunities","keywords":["Economic development","Food system","Greenhouse gas emissions","Input-output analysis","Kenya","Sub-Saharan Africa. vii"],"chapters":[{"head":"Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"1 Sources of GHG emissions of the Kenyan economy, 2019 (Gg) Table 3.2"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Allocation of emissions for which there was a one-to-one correspondence between EDGAR database sources and sectors in the I-O.  "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are the main cause of global warming, presenting a significant and shared challenge for humanity in the 21st century. Historically, efforts to address climate change have focused on reducing emissions from high-income countries (HICs) and major middle-income economies like China and India. Currently, many HICs have already reached their peak carbon emissions by adopting cleaner energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and restructuring polluting industries (Sun et al., 2022). In the coming decades, the focus of emission reduction efforts will shift to low-and middleincome countries (LMICs) in less developed regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Most SSA countries are in the early stages of economic development and urbanization, where economic growth and emissions are closely linked. On one hand, population growth, rapid economic expansion, and improving living standards have resulted in a significant energy gap, changes in consumption patterns, and increased demand for food. On the other hand, SSA countries face challenges in reducing emissions in the medium term due to limited budgets and technological capabilities compared to HICs (Pueyo, 2018;Sun et al., 2022). Therefore, it is necessary for them to develop specific lowcarbon strategies, implement strong mitigation measures, and seek international support."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"In this context, LMICs worldwide face common challenges of understanding the impact of climate change on the economy and finding ways to achieve sustainable economic development while reducing GHG emissions. This challenge is particularly urgent for Kenya, a middle-income country, and the largest economy in East Africa. Kenya is experiencing high economic growth while relying heavily on rainfed agriculture, tourism, and natural resources, all of which are vulnerable to climate variability, change, and extreme weather events (Sun et al., 2022). Kenya's GHG emissions have been steadily increasing, averaging 4.4 percent per year between 2001 and 2019, which is almost the same growth rate as its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) during the same period (World Bank, 2023). While industryspecific policies can effectively reduce GHG emissions, they may also increase production costs and potentially hinder economic development to varying degrees. Economic activities are interconnected, and policies targeting one industry can impact the activities of other industries. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the integrated GHG emissions and emission relationships across all industries within a socioeconomic system to support policy formulation."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"This paper aims to enhance understanding of the key drivers of national GHG emissions from the food system in Kenya by analyzing the economic relationships between agricultural production, the food industry, and other sectors of the economy. It also explores opportunities for GHG mitigation actions considering economic development needs."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"To accomplish this goal, we have developed an ecologically extended input-output (EEIO) model that facilitates an integrated analysis of GHG emissions. The EEIO analysis offers a straightforward and robust method for assessing the relationships between economic consumption activities and their environmental impacts. This approach has been extensively employed to examine the upstream factors that drive environmental impacts downstream, particularly in terms of consumption-based drivers and the environmental consequences associated with the goods and services consumed or exported by nations."},{"index":6,"size":222,"text":"For example, Chen and Zhang (2010) composed an inventory of GHG emissions associated with an input-output analysis for the Chinese economy in 2007 to reveal the emission embodiment in final consumption and international trade. Gallardo and Mardones (2013) used information from the inputoutput tables, national accounts, household survey, and environmental pollutant emissions to elaborate an environmentally extended social accounting matrix for Chile to determine the effects of sectoral demand shocks on economic development. Mangır and Şahin (2022) used an environmentally extended global multi-regional input-output analysis to calculate consumption and import based embodied emissions for the year 2015 for 26 sectors of Turkey's economy. Pal et al. (2012) construct an EEIO for the Indian economy in [2006][2007] to show the interrelationships between economic activities and their impact on GHG emissions, depletion of natural resources, and to analyze direct and indirect-induced impacts of growth in sectoral output on GHG emission. A EEIO model is developed by Liu et al. (2019) to investigate integrated GHG emissions and the emission relationships of various industries applied to the case study for the Province of Saskatchewan, Canada, to illustrate the potential benefits of its use in the formulation of industrially related legislation. Su and Thomson (2016)  Section 5 discusses the implications of the results for the reduction of GHG emissions from agriculture in Kenya. The final section concludes."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The environmentally extended input-output (EEIO) model based on the Leontief framework (Leontief, 1936), is a method for evaluating the relationship between economic activities and downstream environmental impacts. The model can be used to identify the economic drivers of any environmental impact, including the emission of pollutants, the degradation or harvest of natural resources, and the loss of biodiversity. In the environmental literature, EEIO is generally used to calculate the hidden, upstream, indirect, or embodied environmental impacts associated with a downstream consumption activity. It has been also used to calculate the amount of embodied environmental impact in goods traded between nations (Kitzes, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The economic accounting balance at the center of the Leontief approach is the starting point for the EEIO model and can be expressed following Chen and Zhang (2010) as"},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"where Y is an n×1 vector of the total output of n sectors or economic activities; A is the n×n matrix of technology coefficients where each element aij is the input from sector i needed to produce one unit of output in sector j. The product of matrix A and the vector of total output (Y) captures the intermediate use of commodities as inputs in the production process; D is the matrix of final demand with columns including final consumption by households, government consumption, gross capital formation, exports, and changes in inventories. Finally, M is a vector of imports. From Eq. 2.1 the following expression is obtained, where I is the identity matrix"},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Equation 2.2 says that the final demand (D) for output of the n activities minus imports (M) of the respective commodities, equals the value-added in the production of those commodities (Gross Output minus intermediate use of output)."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The original Leontief model in Eq. 2.2 is then linked to the environmental analysis of GHG emissions by introducing into the model the direct emissions E d of each activity in the I-O table to obtain the emission flows among different sectors in the entire system, as shown in Eq. 2.3:"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"where ε represents the embodied emission coefficient matrix and A*Y is the value flow matrix from Eq."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"2.1 and 2.2. Assuming the same embodied emission intensity for both the import and domestic product associated with each sector 1 as in Weber et al. (2008), the GHG emission balance can be expressed as"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"From where the vector of embodied emission intensity coefficients is derived:"},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"In Eq. 2.5 ε d is a row vector of direct emission intensity coefficients defined as emissions per unit of output of each sector. The embodied emission coefficient matrix ε can then be used to calculate the GHG emission flows among all sectors (F)."},{"index":10,"size":77,"text":"Matrix G is the matrix of total emission intensities (direct and indirect), with elements gij. As in the original Leontief approach, matrix G is used to obtain demand-driven I-O multipliers to quantify the total impact of changes in exogenous expenditures (private demand, exports, investment emissions across all domestic sectors associated with a unit increase in exogenous demand for the output of sector j. The GHG emissions multiplier, EMj, for sector j can be obtained from matrix G."},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"2.8"},{"index":12,"size":23,"text":"where gij represents the quantity of GHG emissions that sector i needs to generate for sector j to produce 1 unit of output."},{"index":13,"size":73,"text":"The EEIO can be used also to quantify the total environmental impact of changes in demand. In this context, the indirect emission intensity coefficients are used to calculate emissions embodied in private consumption, gross capital formation, or government spending and measure the impact that changes in these variables have on GHG emissions. For example, the emissions embodied in exports (EEX= εX), reflect the amount of GHG emissions generated to produce those exported goods."},{"index":14,"size":38,"text":"Emissions embodied in domestic consumption, EEC (Chen and Zhang, 2010), include direct and indirect emissions from domestic production (EEP=F + E d ), exclude the emission embodied in exports but include the emission embodied in imports (EEM= εM)"},{"index":15,"size":26,"text":"The net embodied emissions of international trade (EEB) can be obtained by combining embodied GHG emissions of domestic production and domestic consumption, (Chen and Zhang, 2010)."},{"index":16,"size":52,"text":"A positive EEB (Eq. 2.9) means a trade surplus of embodied GHG emissions while a negative EEB means that other countries generate part of the emissions needed to satisfy the demand of goods and services in the importing country. Data on GHG emissions were obtained from the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric"},{"index":17,"size":173,"text":"Research (Crippa et al., 2021;and EDGAR, 2022). EDGARv6.0 provides emissions of the three main greenhouse gases including CO 2, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases per sector and country. CO2 emissions include all fossil CO2 sources, such as fossil fuel combustion, non-metallic mineral processes (e.g., cement production), metal (ferrous and non-ferrous) production processes, urea production, agricultural liming, and solvent use. Large-scale biomass burning with Savannah burning, forest fires, and sources and sinks from land-use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) are excluded. 2 Livestock emissions from enteric fermentation were allocated based on AU which directly relates to the animal size or body mass. This approach could be overestimating emissions from camels which are not technically ruminants. A study by Dittmann et al. (2014) shows no significant difference between cattle and camels when methane emission was expressed relative to fiber intake. However, they found that camelids produced less methane expressed based on body mass when compared to literature data on domestic ruminants fed on roughage diets. The represent the AU of dairy cows."},{"index":18,"size":119,"text":"Direct and Indirect N2O Emissions from Managed Soils. They were allocated to crop, and livestock subsectors based on Hergoualc'h et al. ( 2019). These emissions are mostly generated by the use of synthetic fertilizer (urea) and from urine and dung from grazing animals. The first step was to determine nitrogen (N) excreta per animal/year and the use of N from fertilizer. Default values for nitrogen excretion per animal head of the different species in the Africa region were obtained from Jun et al. (2002). This information was used to calculate the total amount of N used by crops and excreted by animals. Emissions were allocated proportionally to the quantities of N deposited on the soil by the different sub-sectors."},{"index":19,"size":34,"text":"Emissions from biomass burning. These are emissions resulting from the burning of crop residues. The information is available from FAO (2022). Crop residues that are burned in Kenya include maize, rice, wheat, and sugarcane."},{"index":20,"size":66,"text":"GHG emissions by sub-sector of the I-O table resulting from the allocation of emissions from the EDGAR dataset are presented in Table 3.3. EDGAR also provides emission grid maps at 0.1 x 0.1-degree resolution at the global level. Data from emission grid maps were obtained for Kenya and aggregated at the county level although the data was not used in the analysis at the national level."},{"index":21,"size":55,"text":"Kenya Population and Housing Census (Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics, 2019a) shows a total population of 16 million heads of cattle and almost 5 million heads of camels, but the camel's body mass is significantly larger than the body mass of indigenous cattle in Kenya resulting in higher AUs per head.   (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"This section provides an overview of the main sources of GHG direct emissions in Kenya based on the results of the EEIO model and presents evidence of the importance of considering the economic links between activities when assessing emissions."}]},{"head":"Direct Emissions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Total direct emissions and total Gross Output disaggregated by sector are shown in Table 4.1. The total direct emissions of the Kenyan economy amounted to 82,514 Gg of CO2eq. The results show that agriculture is by far the largest emitter of GHG, accounting for 50,366 Gg of CO2eq equivalent or 61 percent of total emissions. Within agriculture, 95 percent of total emissions were generated by livestock production, an amount equivalent to 58 percent of Kenya's total direct emissions. Emissions from cattle (beef and dairy) explain about 60 percent of total livestock emissions or equivalently 16 and 12 thousand Gg of CO2eq, respectively. The rest, (24 thousand Gg) is produced by other livestock including, sheep, goats, camels, pigs, and poultry. Most emissions within this group are generated by ruminants (sheep, goats, and camels)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Direct emissions from crops represented only a small fraction of total direct emissions from agriculture. Maize was the crop with the highest levels of direct GHG emissions (1,224 Gg) but this represents only 1.5 percent of total emissions at the national level. Emissions from other crops are in all cases below 1 percent of Kenya's total direct GHG emissions. In a study that examined annual CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions from 59 plots of low-input, rain-fed crop production, across different vegetation types, field types and land classes in western Kenya, Pelster et al. (2015) found that crop GHG emissions were low with no discernable difference between field types, land classes and crop types. On the other hand, they observed high intensity of GHG emissions because of the low yields obtained. Pelster et al. argue that the lack of differences between plots was likely due to the low input rates used."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Manufacturing contributes 16 percent of total GHG emissions in Kenya, one-third of them from the food processing industry. Manufacturing of non-metallic products, an industry that includes the production of cement, glass, and other activities that emit CO2 not only because of energy use but as a byproduct of the production process, is responsible for about 4 percent of total GHG emissions. Only two service activities are important in terms of direct emissions. These are transport and water supply and waste management. These activities generate 10 and 9 percent of the country's total GHG emissions, respectively."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"There are notable variations in the types of emissions produced by agriculture and other sectors (Figure 4.1). In agriculture, CH4 and N2O emissions represent 70 and 27 percent of total emissions, respectively. Direct emissions of CO2 embody 33 percent of emissions from manufacturing, increasing to 60 percent in services. While agriculture accounts for 15 percent of national Gross Output, it contributes with 7 percent of total CO2 emissions, 70 percent of CH4 emissions, and 96 percent of N2O emissions"},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Differences in the mix of GHG emissions across sectors are caused by the specific sources of emissions in each sector. In agriculture, livestock farming, and manure management are the primary sources of emissions. In contrast, most emissions in manufacturing and services are due to the burning of fuels as a source of energy during the production process. The higher incidence of CH4 emissions in manufacturing than in services results from the use of solid fuels in some industries. In addition to fuel combustion, certain industrial procedures, such as the smelting of ferrous metals, and the production of nonmetal mineral products and raw chemicals, can also result in significant CO2 emissions.  (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b).  (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b)."}]},{"head":"Figure 4.2. Contribution of major sectors to emissions of different GHG (percentage)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics (2006Statistics ( , 2022Statistics ( , 2019aStatistics ( , 2019b)). . In sum, results so far show that agriculture is the most important source of GHG emissions in Kenya as it generates more than 60 percent of total emissions while producing 15 percent of the country's Gross Output. It is also the main source of CH4 and N2O emissions, mostly produced by enteric fermentation and manure management from livestock. As shown in Table 4.1, agriculture's CH4"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"emissions measured in CO2eq (35,488 Gg) are larger than the total emissions of all GHG gases from manufacturing and services (31,021 Gg). The food industry, on the other hand, was the largest manufacturing sector in 2019, with a Gross Output of almost 1 billion KSh, followed at a distant second by industries grouped as \"light manufactures\" (textiles, apparel, leather, shoes, wood, paper, and publishing and printing) with total Gross Output of 0.36 billion KSh. Agriculture plus the food industry contribute with 22 percent of Kenya's Gross Output and 66 percent of total GHG emissions."}]},{"head":"Indirect Emissions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The estimation of the EEIO allowed for the calculation of total emission intensity which includes the direct emission intensities of sector j and the indirect emission intensities that result from the use of inputs from other sectors by j. This is the multiplier discussed in Section 2 and represents total emissions across all domestic sectors associated with a unit increase in exogenous demand for the output of sector j. The   For every million KSh of beef and meat of other livestock produced, these sectors generate about 65 tons of CO2eq. Among crops, rice and maize show the highest emission intensity with 20 and 10 tons per million KSh of output, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"It is worth noting that the total emission intensity in manufacturing is much higher than in most agricultural activities except for livestock. This is the result of the relatively high level of indirect emissions generated by manufacturing.   (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b)."}]},{"head":"Embodied Emissions in Final Consumption","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The EEIO model was also used to estimate Kenya's GHG emission embodiments in 2019, that is, the emissions embodied in final goods consumed domestically or exported. Total GHG emissions were allocated to final domestic demand and exports. Final domestic consumption includes rural and urban consumption by households, government consumption, gross fixed capital formation, and changes in inventories. The embodiment results are shown in Table 4.3.  (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b)."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Results show that GHG emissions in Kenya were driven by final domestic consumption. In 2019, total goods consumed by rural households embodied 56,147 Gg of CO2eq emissions equivalent to 55 percent of emissions embodied in total final domestic consumption. Goods consumed by urban households resulted in emissions of 23,282 Gg of CO2eq, which brings emissions embodied in all goods consumed by households to 78 percent of emissions in final domestic demand. Gross capital formation explains only 12 percent of embodied emissions (12,314 Gg of CO2eq). On the other hand, emissions embodied in exports were only 9,352 Gg or about 9 percent of the emissions embodied in final domestic consumption."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"The total GHG emissions embodied in Kenya's trade are shown in Table 4.4. Emissions embodied in imports were calculated using the same approach used for goods produced in Kenya given that no information on emissions generated in the countries of origin of imports was available. The total emissions in exports in 2019 were, as shown before, 9,297 Gg while imports of embodied emissions were three times bigger than emissions in exports (28,187 Gg), making Kenya a net importer of emissions from other countries.  (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b). . (20,983 Gg in a total of 28,187 Gg), but food and agriculture are also net importers of emissions. As shown in Table 4.4, there are only five sub-sectors that have higher values of embodied emissions in exports than in imports, including fruits and vegetables, cut flowers, coffee, tea, and mining. Overall, Kenya is an importer of emissions embodied in agricultural goods and processed food with a trade balance of -2,089 Gg. About half of this trade balance is explained by net imports of emissions embodied in products from the food industry. The remaining half percent results from a similar negative trade balance of emissions in cereals and livestock products."}]},{"head":"Most of the imported emissions are embodied in manufacturing goods","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Results on direct and indirect emissions and embodied emissions in final consumption presented in the previous section are relevant when it comes to analyzing possible paths for reducing GHG emissions from agriculture and the food industry. The main findings are that emissions from livestock account for a large proportion of Kenya's total GHG emissions. These emissions are equivalent to the total emissions of manufacturing and construction while representing almost 85 percent of all emissions from agriculture and the food industry. The results also show that emissions from crops and from food manufacturing represent only 6 and 9 percent of total emissions from agriculture and the food industry, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Adding to this, between 90 and 98 percent of the total emissions from the livestock sector are direct emissions."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"Analyzing GHG mitigation policy impact for multiple industries from both production and consumption sides, Liu et al. (2019) found that direct and indirect emission analysis is essential to support GHG emission reduction policymaking. Their results show that for industries with predominantly direct emissions, Production-Based Policies lead to larger GHG reductions, while Consumption-Based Policies should be considered for those industries that cause indirect emissions that are located at the end of industrial chains. The results in Section 2 on GHG emissions from agriculture and the findings by Liu et al. (2019), seem to suggest that to reduce agricultural GHG emissions in Kenya, policymakers should target the livestock sector with production-based policies. However, according to the actual production condition of the livestock sector in Kenya, CH 4 emissions from enteric fermentation would be hard to regulate and could result in negative impacts on agricultural growth and livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Adaptation, Mitigation, and Intensification","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Thornton and Herrero ( 2010) argue that the greatest potential for reducing livestock GHG emissions in LMICs is through the implementation of different technologies and practices that also contribute to increasing productivity. These include improvements in feed quality, such as the use of improved or cultivated pastures, the use of supplements such as grains that increase the digestibility of the feed consumed, changes in pasture practices and land use, and the change of ruminant breeds."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"The analysis of Thornton and Herrero (2010) shows that although methane gas production per animal consuming improved pastures is higher than that of cattle consuming natural pastures-38.7 compared to 31.2 kg of methane per year, respectively-milk production and live weight gain per animal per day are three times higher. This results in a significant reduction in emission intensity and total methane produced. As a result of these differences, the number of animals needed to meet demand is reduced under the option of improved pastures, in turn reducing pressure on natural resources. The adoption of deep-rooted tropical pastures such as Brachiaria spp. has the additional advantage of sequestering more carbon than natural pastures (see Fisher et al., 1994). According to Thornton and Herrero (2010), this option could result in the use of less land, as well as fewer animals to meet demand, which in turn could translate into more CO2 savings from avoided deforestation."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Another key factor for increasing productivity and reducing GHG emissions is land-use changes to increase carbon sequestration. Thornton and Herrero (2010) discuss two options that are commonly associated with high mitigation potential: carbon sequestration through the restoration of degraded grasslands, and the use of agroforestry practices. They conclude that restoration of degraded grasslands has the greatest potential for mitigation in areas where the magnitude of degradation is considerable, although they note that there may be problems associated with its implementation."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"Next is the agroforestry option, which has the double benefit of improving the quality of livestock diet by the high nutritional value of agroforestry species while increasing the carbon sequestration of the atmosphere. According to Thornton and Herrero (2010), 28 percent of the plausible mitigation potential for this option comes from the possible reduction in the number of livestock (higher productivity) while 72 percent of the mitigation potential results from carbon sequestration. Havlik et al. (2014) found that mitigation policies targeting emissions from land-use change are 5 to 10 times more efficient-measured in \"total abatement calorie cost\"-than policies targeting emissions from livestock only. They conclude that fostering transitions toward more productive livestock production systems in combination with climate policies targeting land-use change appears to be the most efficient lever to deliver desirable climate and food availability outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Finally, Thornton and Herrero (2010) found that the adoption of improved breeds with higher milk production potential and higher body weights results in modest reductions in the amount of CH4 produced per ton of milk. This is because animals of improved breeds have a higher body weight than domestic breeds and therefore, with the same diets, will have higher intakes, which produce more GHGs."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"Emission intensity remains largely unchanged as improved breeds produce more milk and meat per animal, generally the same or more than the amount of GHG emissions they generate (Thornton and Herrero, 2010). While the impact of improved breeds on GHG emissions is modest, the increase in productivity and product quality, in the case of meat, is very significant."},{"index":7,"size":155,"text":"Given the different agroecologies and the livestock systems associated with them, adaptation and mitigation solutions will need to be specific for the different production systems and regions. To increase milk yield, Kenya's Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) 3 plan for the dairy sector identified various practices that consistently lead to significant increases in milk yields, such as adopting specialized dairy breeds, improving feeding and water supply, ensuring animal health through measures like tick control, and managing calf suckling. Particularly, altering feeding management, such as promoting the use of concentrate based on the lactation cycle, has been recognized as a crucial action for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in central Kenya (Mbae et al., 2021). Other suggested measures to improve environmental efficiency include the reduction of energy requirements in dairy cooperatives, addressing loss and waste in milk supply chains, and harmonizing dairy intensification with forest conservation to reduce agricultural expansion-induced forest loss (Mbae et al., 2021)."},{"index":8,"size":97,"text":"Mitigation and adaptation measures in beef production are specific for the different production systems. Mbae et al. (2021) identify three major production systems: extensive grazing systems (both pastoralism and ranching), semi-intensive grazing (agro-pastoralism), and a small intensive (feedlot). The ASALs (Arid and Semi-Arid Lands) of Kenya, with a population of approximately 16 million people, is the primary location for cattle farming. However, these areas are highly susceptible to climate change and variability, resulting in widespread poverty, land degradation, and conflicts. Drought poses the most significant risk in these regions, profoundly impacting livelihoods, the economy, and the environment."},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"Enhancing rangeland management stands out as a highly promising adaptation strategy for the ASAL region, as highlighted by Mbae et al. (2021). The degradation of natural pasture significantly hampers livestock production in these areas, making it imperative to address this limitation. To effectively cope with climate variability and uphold the health of vegetation and land, it is crucial to prioritize livestock mobility and implement sound grazing management practices, as emphasized by Mbae et al. (2021)."},{"index":10,"size":82,"text":"Improved rangeland management has major mitigation co-benefits as it could increase carbon sequestration in soils and vegetation. In pastoralist regions, the achievement of this goal relies on establishing secure land and resource rights, such as communal land tenure, conservancies, and appropriate by-laws. Furthermore, locally tailored institutional arrangements should be developed to align with specific contextual needs and conditions. Other suggested measures for adaptation and mitigation are improved animal health and access to markets, and forage production in ASALs (Mbae et al., 2021)."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"Improved access to markets and better animal health are particularly important for extensive systems, as they could lead to higher cattle off-take rates which implies less animals kept in stock per unit of output produced, reducing the GHG intensity of extensive production systems. Mbae et al. (2021) estimated that increasing the average off-take rate of 11 percent for cattle in Kenya by 10 to 13 percent would decrease GHG emissions per unit of protein produced by 6 percent."},{"index":12,"size":142,"text":"We conclude this section with a brief reference to crop production. As discussed in previous sections, crop production contributes only a small proportion of total GHG emissions in Kenya, partly explained by the low levels of inputs used and its low productivity, which result in high intensity of emissions. Intensification in crop production is not important in terms of GHG mitigation but still key for economic development, food security, and adaptation to climate change. Bryan et al. (2013) identify enhanced soil nutrient management (combinations of inorganic fertilizer, mulching, and manure) as a key win-win strategy in the Kenyan context, increasing yields and revenues while providing a buffer against the negative impacts of climate change. According to Bryan et al., (2013) the benefits in terms of yield improvements far outweigh the costs of purchasing and applying fertilizers and manure in the study sites."}]},{"head":"Scaling up","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"All these mitigation options have associated costs that determine the existence of a gap between what could potentially be achieved, and the mitigation achieved because of adopting these practices. According to Herrero et al. (2016), one option would be to improve the adoption rates of these strategies and other mitigation options, through investments that reduce transaction costs and provide services and incentives to farmers to adopt selected practices. These should be accompanied by GHG efficiency payment systems at the farm gate (such as payment of low emissions premiums per kilogram of animal product produced) and by setting restrictions on carbon emissions for the livestock sector."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"According to Solymosi et al. (2016) silvopastoral systems 4 have shown promise in South America as evidenced by many studies conducted in the region and a series of successful enterprises."},{"index":3,"size":287,"text":"They argue that silvopastoral systems provide the benefits of land-use diversification, and contribute to biodiversity conservation and erosion control while, at the same time, reducing pressure on natural forests. The also offer a more balanced cash flow profile that reduces productive and economic risks and increases the resilience of producers in times of crisis and can make significant contributions in social terms, through job creation and promotion of a processing industry associated with the production of quality wood. Despite all the benefits associated with these systems described in the literature, the level of adoption remains low. Solymosi et al. (2016) admit that silvopastoral systems have been proven to be less profitable than forestry systems while Murgueitio et al. (2016) highlight three main barriers that hinder the multiplication of pastoral-forestry systems: the low availability of capital to invest in land-use changes in small and medium-sized producers; the need for appropriate technical assistance; and labor supply deficits in some regions. Herrero et al. (2016) argue that in many cases there would be a need to implement incentive policies for technology adoption such as GHG efficiency payment systems, establishing restrictions on carbon emissions for the livestock sector. Kaimowitz and Angelsen (2008) have a more pessimistic view of the possibilities of intensification of livestock based on the adoption of improved pastures or silvopastoral systems. They argue that it will be difficult to get farmers to adopt capital-and labor-intensive techniques in areas that still have abundant land and forests. This is because relative price ratios not only suggest that extensive land systems will be more profitable in these circumstances, but local market imperfections may prevent farmers from obtaining enough labor and capital to invest in such techniques, even when they are profitable."},{"index":4,"size":300,"text":"The dairy sub-sector is the best positioned to pursuit intensification and technical change given that it has received significant attention and interventions over the years to enhance productivity, with notable initiatives such as the Small-holder Dairy Project in the late 1990s. Climate-smart technologies for dairy production are well-documented, and the Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP) has provided valuable insights in this area. SDL (Sustainable Dairy Landscapes) has proposed the Dairy NAMA, which emphasizes an innovative financing strategy to attract private sector investment in lowemission and climate-resilient dairy development. This strategy leverages public funds, including technical assistance grants, low-interest loans, and loan guarantees (Mbae et al., 2021). Not all livestock production systems in Kenya can be targeted for intensification. McDermott et al. (2010) argue that sustainable intensification of smallholder livestock systems must be targeted to those sectors and areas most likely to get positive social welfare returns and where natural resource conditions allow for intensification. For McDermott et al., targeting is critical to choosing which systems with livestock can be intensified. Extensive rain-fed systems could intensify with enabling policies and appropriate investments. In more fragile environments, deintensification is required to avoid irreversible damage to ecosystems. This is likely the case of the ASALs regions, which requires a multifaceted approach to improve livelihood options given that the adoption of new technologies and improved productivity cannot play a major role as low population densities and high transport costs may discourage the intensification of livestock production. For example, a study carried out in Kajiado County in the Southern Maasai rangelands of Kenya (Omondi et al., 2012) revealed that access to livestock technologies and services was hampered by institutional, technological, environmental, and economic factors. Inadequate government staff, long distances to service providers, and weak institutional linkages were the most common problems encountered by pastoralists."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Institutional innovations seem to be more important for adaptation and mitigation in beef production."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"As reported by Mbae et al. (2021)  2021) highlight Kenya's undergoing reforms to its legal framework for animal health and livestock marketing through different bills. These reforms aim to align the animal health system with international standards, strengthen livestock marketing, vaccine production, and combat tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis, among other objectives."},{"index":7,"size":178,"text":"To get a sense of the possibilities of intensification of livestock production, Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the distribution of the stock of beef and dairy cattle, sheep and goats, and camels across counties with different proportions of land area in arid and very arid agroecologies. If regions with more than 80 percent of their land under arid and very arid conditions are in most cases fragile agroecologies with small potential for intensification, then 66 percent of beef cattle, 37 percent of dairy, and more than 70 percent of sheep and goats' stock cannot be targets for intensification. Given that sheep, goats, and camels are the dominant species in arid regions, the focus should then be on cattle. The most possibilities for further intensification and productivity growth appear to be in dairy production with 52 percent of its stock in regions with less than 50 percent of arid land. Only 22 percent of the stock of beef cattle is found in these regions while another 12 percent is in regions with 50 to 80 percent of arid agroecologies."},{"index":8,"size":175,"text":"We conclude that because of constraints imposed by agro-ecologies and fragile natural resources, roughly 50 percent of the dairy stock and 22 percent of the beef cattle stock could be, in principle, targets of technology adoption and intensification to accelerate productivity growth and reduce the intensity of GHG emissions. Given the constraints for technology adoption faced by livestock keepers briefly discussed in this section, this could be thought of as a ceiling for livestock intensification. If this is the case, the impact of intensification of livestock production on mitigation of GHG emissions is expected to be very small but still relevant for the development of the dairy sector. The largest mitigation potential in the dairy sector seems to be related to promoting biogas on dairy farms and reducing fossil fuel use in dairy processing enterprises, although these changes are considered part of the changes needed in the energy sector (Mbae, 2021). Presented in this way, the contribution of the dairy sector to the mitigation targets is perceived as \"not significant at national scale\" (Mbae, 2021)."},{"index":9,"size":161,"text":"Finally, it is important to comment on the lack of intensification, low yields and low use of fertilizer in crop production that results in very low GHG emissions, high emission intensity and diminishes the country's capacity to increase resilience and adapt food crops to climate change. A recent study (Nin-Pratt, 2023) investigated the performance of agriculture in Kenya, comparing the total factor productivity (TFP) and technical efficiency of sub-counties in the Central Highlands, Rift Valley, and Western agroecologies. These regions collectively contribute to over two-thirds of Kenya's agricultural output. The study found that efficient sub-counties allocate more land to export and high-value crops, while dedicating a smaller portion to staple crops like maize. Efficient sub-counties also exhibited higher fertilizer and input usage per worker and per hectare of cultivated land and a higher proportion of irrigated land compared to inefficient sub-counties. Consequently, the efficient sub-counties generated approximately three times more output, land productivity, and labor productivity compared to the inefficient sub-counties."},{"index":10,"size":82,"text":"The differences between efficient and inefficient sub-counties can be attributed to the presence of institutional frictions or rigidities that prevent unproductive farmers from exiting the agricultural market, as suggested by Gollin (2021). In a well-functioning market, less effective farmers would typically move out of agriculture and sell or rent their land to more skilled farmers. However, this reallocation process appears to be hindered in Kenya, resulting in a misallocation of labor, capital, and managerial effort, leading to overall inefficiency and reduced productivity."},{"index":11,"size":139,"text":"The presence of \"land market frictions\" has implications for investment and technical change in the agricultural sector and therefore for Kenya's capacity to adapt crop production to climate change and increase food security. Limited access to land discourages investments in agronomic management and efficient fertilizer use. Vulnerable households tend to diversify their income from non-agricultural sources to minimize risks, rather than focusing on intensifying their production. In areas with abundant land, households are more likely to expand production by cultivating more land (extensification) rather than striving to increase productivity. Muraoka et al. (2015) highlight the importance of land rental markets in Kenya as a means for land-constrained rural households to access additional land for cultivation, suggesting that there is untapped potential in land rental markets to promote agricultural production and food security in rural Kenya.   (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"This study contributes to the understanding of key drivers of national GHG emissions from the food system in Kenya using an environmentally extended input-output (EEIO) table. The EEIO is especially suited for this task as it allows the calculation of indirect emissions by sector and of emissions embodied in final goods. Direct emissions of activity j are those generated by j's production process while indirect emissions are those generated by other activities to produce the inputs used by activity j. Emissions embodied in final goods reflect the amount of GHG emissions generated to produce those goods."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Results show that agriculture is by far the largest emitter of direct GHG emissions in Kenya, accounting for 61 percent of total emissions, mostly from enteric fermentation and manure management from livestock production. However, very different picture results when indirect emissions are accounted for."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Indirect emissions represent only 12 percent of total emissions in agriculture, mostly explained by the low level of indirect emissions in livestock (between 90 and 98 percent of livestock emissions were direct emissions). The share of agriculture in overall indirect emissions was 8 percent and only 5 percent for livestock. This brings down the share of agriculture in total emissions (direct plus indirect) to 35 percent."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Still, livestock activities show the highest levels of emission intensity among all sectors. For every million KSh of output produced, beef cattle generate about 65 tons of CO2eq. In comparison, the emission intensity of rice and maize, the crops showing the highest emission intensity, was low compared to that of livestock at only 20 and 10 tons per million KSh of output, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"The measure of embodied emissions in final consumption goods shows that most GHG emissions in Kenya (including emissions embodied in imports) were generated to supply goods to final private consumption. Values of embodied emissions in export and import goods show that Kenya is an importer of emissions embodied in agricultural goods with about half of this trade balance explained by net imports of emissions embodied in products from the food industry. The remaining half percent results from a similar negative trade balance of embodied emissions in cereals and livestock products."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"In this context, to reduce agricultural GHG emissions, Kenya will need to tackle emissions in the livestock sector. Past studies suggest that the greatest potential for reducing livestock GHG emissions is through the implementation of different technologies and practices that also contribute to increasing productivity, including improvements in feed quality, such as the use of improved or cultivated pastures, the use of supplements such as grains that increase the digestibility of the feed consumed, changes in pasture practices and land use, and the change of ruminant breeds."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"The dairy sub-sector is the best positioned among livestock sub-sectors to advance intensification and technical change given that it has received significant attention and interventions over the years to enhance productivity and that climate-smart technologies for dairy production are well-documented. On the other hand, institutional innovations appear to be more important for climate adaptation and mitigation of GHG emissions in beef production, mostly located in the fragile agro-ecology of the ASALs, with efforts directed towards rangeland management, disease control, and livestock marketing at a larger scale."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"Because of constraints imposed by agro-ecologies and fragile natural resources, roughly 50 percent of the dairy stock and 22 percent of the beef cattle stock could be, in principle, targets of technology adoption and intensification to accelerate productivity growth and reduce the intensity of GHG emissions."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"If this is the case, the impact of intensification of livestock production on mitigation of GHG emissions is expected to be very small but still relevant for the development of the dairy sector.  Crippa et al. (2021), EDGAR (2022), and Kiringai et al. (2006)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 4. 2 Figure 4.2 Contribution of major sectors to emissions of different GHG (percentage) 17 Figure 4.3 Direct and indirect GHG emission intensity by sector, 2019 (tons of CO2eq/million KSh) 19 Figure 4.4 Contribution of direct and indirect GHG emissions to total emission intensity (percentage) 20 Figure 5.1 "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 1 . Figure 4.1. Composition of GHG emissions by major sector measured in CO2eq (percentage) "},{"text":" direct and indirect emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O from different sources for the 38 sectors inKenya's   EEIO table are summarized in Figure 4.3.    "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 3 Figure 4.3 Direct and indirect GHG emission intensity by sector, 2019 (tons of CO2eq/million KSh) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 3 Figure 4.3 shows that the livestock sector has the highest total emission intensity among all sectors except for water supply and waste management which shows similar levels of emission intensity. "},{"text":" Figure 4.4 shows the importance of direct and indirect emissions in the different sectors. As noted by Liu et al. (2019), differences in the importance of indirect emissions are closely correlated to the specific characteristics of the production process of each sector. According to Liu et al. (2018), primary activities are more likely to generate direct GHG emissions, while indirect emissions are most likely to happen in manufacturing industries. There are also major differences in the importance of indirect emissions between agricultural activities. For example, direct emissions are high in cereals and livestock production and are relatively low in export crops like coffee and tea, and in intensive activities like vegetables. "},{"text":" , various entities, including government agencies like the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA), NGOs, and county governments, are implementing several initiatives in these areas. Specialized efforts are directed towards rangeland management, disease control, and livestock marketing at a larger scale. Examples cited by Mbae et al. (2021) include the Northern Rangelands Trust and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Additionally, projects such as the \"Restoration of degraded land for food security and poverty reduction in East Africa and the Sahel\" led by the World Agroforestry Centre, focus on restoring degraded lands. Rangeland reseeding technologies have been developed by the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) through various projects. Finally, Mbae et al. ( "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 1 - Figure 5.1-Distribution of the stock of beef and dairy cattle, sheep and goats, and camels across regions with different proportions of land area in arid and very arid agroecologies "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 2 - Figure 5.2-Proportion of county's area under arid/very arid agroecology and proportion of total animal stock of different species by county. "},{"text":"Table 3  .3 Gross Output (million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (CO2eq) in Kenya, by activity, 2019  .3Gross Output (million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (CO2eq) in Kenya, by activity, 2019 Table 4.1 Output (in million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (in Gg of CO2eq) by activity, 2019.  Table 4.1Output (in million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (in Gg of CO2eq) by activity, 2019. Table 4.2 Total direct and indirect emissions by production activity, 2019  Table 4.2Total direct and indirect emissions by production activity, 2019 Table 4.3 Embodied emissions in final consumption, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)  Table 4.3Embodied emissions in final consumption, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq) Table 4.4 Total GHG emissions embodied in international trade, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)  Table 4.4Total GHG emissions embodied in international trade, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)  Figures  Figures Figure 4.1 Composition of GHG emissions by major sector measured in CO2eq (percentage) 17 Figure 4.1Composition of GHG emissions by major sector measured in CO2eq (percentage)17  "},{"text":" used a time-series extended inputoutput dataset to analyze China's carbon emissions embodied in both normal and processing exports at a detailed 135-sector level. Finally, Wang et al. (2018) included abatement cost, emission charge and abatement benefit into an EEIO for China to estimate the environmental efficiency and assess the effects of environmental policies on economy and environment.The study aims to demonstrate the potential advantages of utilizing the EEIO analysis to inform policy formulation. To achieve this, the study calculates both direct and indirect GHG emissions for 38 sectors, estimates emissions associated with domestic consumption (EEC), exports (EEE), and imports  "},{"text":"Table 3  .1 shows GHG emissions for Kenya 2019, by source. .1 shows GHG emissions for Kenya 2019, by source. The original data from Table 3.1 were allocated to the 38 sub-sectors in the I-O table in several The original data from Table 3.1 were allocated to the 38 sub-sectors in the I-O table in several steps. Emissions for which there was a one-to-one correspondence with sub-sectors in the I-O table were steps. Emissions for which there was a one-to-one correspondence with sub-sectors in the I-O table were allocated first as shown in Table 3.2. allocated first as shown in Table 3.2. Use of Fuels, Solid Fuels, Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use, Manufacturing Industries Use of Fuels, Solid Fuels, Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use, Manufacturing Industries and Construction. Allocation of emissions from these sources at the aggregated sectoral level and Construction. Allocation of emissions from these sources at the aggregated sectoral level (Agriculture, Industry, Transport) was based on data from the Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics (Agriculture, Industry, Transport) was based on data from the Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics (2022), Tables 9.3 and 9.11b on Net Domestic Sales of Petroleum Fuels by Consumer Category, 2017- (2022), Tables 9.3 and 9.11b on Net Domestic Sales of Petroleum Fuels by Consumer Category, 2017- 2021, and Physical Energy Use, respectively. Within sectors, emissions were allocated based on the share 2021, and Physical Energy Use, respectively. Within sectors, emissions were allocated based on the share of each sub-sector in Gross Output. of each sub-sector in Gross Output. Urea Application. Allocated across crops based on data on the use of nitrogen per hectare by crop in Urea Application. Allocated across crops based on data on the use of nitrogen per hectare by crop in Kenya, available from Ludemann et al. (2022). Kenya, available from Ludemann et al. (2022). Manure Management, Enteric Fermentation. Allocated to cattle, sheep, goats, and camels, based on the Manure Management, Enteric Fermentation. Allocated to cattle, sheep, goats, and camels, based on the number of heads of each species reported in Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics (2019a). The number of number of heads of each species reported in Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics (2019a). The number of heads was then converted to Tropical Animal Units (AU) defining camels as 1 AU, indigenous cattle as heads was then converted to Tropical Animal Units (AU) defining camels as 1 AU, indigenous cattle as 0.7 AU, sheep and goats as 0.15 AU, pigs as 0.3 AU, and poultry as 0.01 AU, while exotic cattle was 0.7 AU, sheep and goats as 0.15 AU, pigs as 0.3 AU, and poultry as 0.01 AU, while exotic cattle was defined as 2.5 AU using the carcass weight difference between Kenyan and European cattle from FAO defined as 2.5 AU using the carcass weight difference between Kenyan and European cattle from FAO (2022) as a proxy for animal size. 2 AU of indigenous and exotic cattle was increased by 20 percent to (2022) as a proxy for animal size. 2 AU of indigenous and exotic cattle was increased by 20 percent to  "},{"text":"Table 3 .1-Sources of GHG emissions of the Kenyan economy, 2019 (Gg)  IPCC code (1) Name CO2 CH4 N2O IPCC code (1)NameCO2CH4N2O 3.A.2 Manure Management 0 36  3.A.2Manure Management036 3.A.1 Enteric Fermentation 0 1,378  3.A.1Enteric Fermentation01,378 3.C.7 Rice cultivations 0 4  3.C.7Rice cultivations04 3.C.3 Urea application 15 0  3.C.3Urea application150 3.C.6 Indirect N2O Emissions from manure management 0 0 0.0 3.C.6Indirect N2O Emissions from manure management000.0 3.C.5 Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils 0 0  3.C.5Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils00 3.C.4 Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils 0 0 42 3.C.4Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils0042 1.B.1 Solid Fuels 0 356  1.B.1Solid Fuels0356  Petroleum Refining -Manufacture of Solid Fuels    Petroleum Refining -Manufacture of Solid Fuels 1.A.1.bc and Other Energy Industries 91 0  1.A.1.bcand Other Energy Industries910 1.A.1.a Main Activity Electricity and Heat Production 1,281 0  1.A.1.aMain Activity Electricity and Heat Production1,2810 1.B.2 Oil and Natural Gas 0 0  1.B.2Oil and Natural Gas00 2.A.3 Glass Production 2 1  2.A.3Glass Production21 1.A.2 Manufacturing Industries and Construction 3,495 0  1.A.2Manufacturing Industries and Construction3,4950    0  0 2.A.2 Lime production 0 0  2.A.2Lime production00 2.A.1 Cement production 2,320 0  2.A.1Cement production2,3200 3.C.2 Liming 5 0  3.C.2Liming50 2.C Metal Industry 1 0  2.CMetal Industry10 2.D Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use 283 0  2.DNon-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use2830 2.A.4 Other Process Uses of Carbonates 281 0  2.A.4Other Process Uses of Carbonates2810 2.G Other Product Manufacture and Use 0 0  2.GOther Product Manufacture and Use00 1.A.5 Non-Specified 114 0  1.A.5Non-Specified1140 3.C.1 Emissions from biomass burning 788 1  3.C.1Emissions from biomass burning7881  Indirect N2O emissions from the atmospheric    Indirect N2O emissions from the atmospheric 5.A deposition of nitrogen in NOx and NH3 0 0  5.Adeposition of nitrogen in NOx and NH300 1.A.4 Residential and other sectors 49,284 128  1.A.4Residential and other sectors49,284128 1.A.3.d Water-borne Navigation 3 0  1.A.3.dWater-borne Navigation30 1.A.3.a Civil Aviation 61 0  1.A.3.aCivil Aviation610 1.A.3.c Railways 122 0  1.A.3.cRailways1220 1.A.3.b_noRES Road Transportation no resuspension 8,177 1  1.A.3.b_noRES Road Transportation no resuspension8,1771 4.D Wastewater Treatment and Discharge 0 238  4.DWastewater Treatment and Discharge0238 4.A Solid Waste Disposal 0 32  4.ASolid Waste Disposal032 4.C Incineration and Open Burning of Waste 1 0  4.CIncineration and Open Burning of Waste10  Total 66,324 2,175 53 Total66,3242,17553 Source: Crippa et al. (2021), and : EDGAR (2022).    Source: Crippa et al. (2021), and : EDGAR (2022). Note: (1) Code corresponds to IPCC 2006 standard report    Note: (1) Code corresponds to IPCC 2006 standard report  "},{"text":"Table 3 .2-Allocation of emissions for which there was a one-to-one correspondence between EDGAR database sources and sectors in the I-O. Elaborated by authors based onCrippa et al. (2021), EDGAR (2022), andKiringai et al. (2006).  Name Code IPCC name NameCode IPCC name 3 Rice rice Rice cultivations 3 RicericeRice cultivations    Petroleum Refining -Manufacture of Solid Fuels and Other Petroleum Refining -Manufacture of Solid Fuels and Other 22 Petroleum petr Energy Industries 22 PetroleumpetrEnergy Industries 23 Chemical industries chem Metal Industry 23 Chemical industrieschem Metal Industry 25 Nonmetallic products nmet Glass Production 25 Nonmetallic productsnmet Glass Production    Cement production Cement production    Lime production Lime production    Liming Liming  Water supply; sewerage, waste   Water supply; sewerage, waste 28 management wate Wastewater Treatment and Discharge 28managementwateWastewater Treatment and Discharge    Solid Waste Disposal Solid Waste Disposal 29 Electricity supply sele Main Activity Electricity and Heat Production 29 Electricity supplyseleMain Activity Electricity and Heat Production 32 Transport trans Civil Aviation 32 Transporttrans Civil Aviation    Railways Railways    Road Transportation no resuspension Road Transportation no resuspension    Water-borne Navigation Water-borne Navigation Source:    Source:  "},{"text":"Table 3 .3-Gross Output (million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (CO2eq) in Kenya, by activity, 2019 Source: Elaborated by authors based on Crippa et al. (2021), EDGAR (2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics  Gross       Gross Name Output CO2 CH4 N2O CH4eq N2Oeq Total NameOutputCO2CH4N2O CH4eq N2OeqTotal Maize 161,955 741 1 2 32 451 1,224 Maize161,95574112324511,224 Wheat 38,229 49 0 0 2 21 72 Wheat38,229490022172 Rice 9,461 9 4 0 97 8 114 Rice9,461940978114 Cereals, other 41,570 6 0 0 0 78 84 Cereals, other41,57060007884 Roots & tubers 187,211 26 0 0 0 105 132 Roots & tubers187,21126000105132 Pulses & oil crops 127,434 20 0 1 0 235 254 Pulses & oil crops127,43420010235254 Fruits 188,304 26 0 0 0 74 100 Fruits188,3042600074100 Vegetables 199,865 28 0 0 0 45 72 Vegetables199,865280004572 Cut flowers 120,101 20 0 1 0 419 439 Cut flowers120,10120010419439 Sugar cane 88,352 35 0 0 1 39 75 Sugar cane88,352350013975 Coffee 29,617 4 0 0 0 31 35 Coffee29,61740003135 Tea 254,376 35 0 0 0 67 102 Tea254,3763500067102 Crops, other 11,740 2 0 0 0 14 16 Crops, other11,74020001416 Beef 207,105 28 448 16 11,188 4,692 15,908 Beef207,105284481611,1884,69215,908 Milk 358,007 49 302 10 7,538 2,916 10,503 Milk358,00749302107,5382,91610,503 Livestock, other 383,343 52 665 15 16,630 4,554 21,236 Livestock, other383,343526651516,6304,55421,236 Fishing & aquaculture 69,541 9 0 0 0 0 10 Fishing & aquaculture69,5419000010 Forestry & logging 101,939 14 0 0 0 0 14 Forestry & logging101,93914000014 Mining 141,313 278 0 0 0 2 280 Mining141,3132780002280 Food industry 971,056 668 145 0 3,629 0 4,297 Food industry971,05666814503,62904,297 Light manufactures 368,425 254 55 0 1,377 0 1,630 Light manufactures368,4252545501,37701,630 Petroleum 172,909 210 26 0 646 0 856 Petroleum172,9092102606460856 Chemical industries 267,268 184 40 0 999 0 1,183 Chemical industries267,26818440099901,183 Metals and machines 153,572 107 23 0 574 0 680 Metals and machines153,5721072305740680 Nonmetallic products 223,702 2,762 35 0 864 0 3,626 Nonmetallic products223,7022,76235086403,626 Other manufacturing 154,653 106 23 0 578 0 684 Other manufacturing154,6531062305780684 Construction 1,391,357 817 0 0 1 5 824 Construction1,391,3578170015824 Water supply & waste mgt. 116,974 0 271 1 6,763 427 7,190 Water supply & waste mgt.116,974027116,7634277,190 Electricity supply 159,209 1,281 0 0 2 4 1,287 Electricity supply159,2091,28100241,287 Trade 1,601,688 201 0 0 0 0 201 Trade1,601,6882010000201 Accommodation and food services 346,939 87 0 0 0 1 88 Accommodation and food services346,93987000188 Transport 2,082,170 8,364 1 0 35 66 8,465 Transport2,082,1708,3641035668,465 Information and communication 522,622 66 0 0 0 0 66 Information and communication522,62266000066 Financial and insurance activities 924,259 116 0 0 0 0 116 Financial and insurance activities924,2591160000116 Real estate 1,035,989 130 0 0 0 0 130 Real estate1,035,9891300000130 Public administration 847,824 308 0 0 1 2 311 Public administration847,8243080012311 Health & education 967,269 121 0 0 0 0 121 Health & education967,2691210000121 Other services 714,542 90 0 0 0 0 90 Other services714,54290000090 Total 15,741,891 17,303 2,038 48 50,957 14,254 82,514 Total15,741,891 17,303 2,0384850,957 14,25482,514  "},{"text":"Table 4 .1-Output (in million KSh) and direct GHG emissions (in Gg of CO2eq) by activity, 2019. Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics  Gross       Gross Activity output Share CO2 CH4eq N2Oeq CO2eq Share ActivityoutputShareCO2CH4eq N2Oeq CO2eq Share Maize 161,955 1.0 741 32 451 1,224 1.5 Maize161,9551.0741324511,2241.5 Wheat 38,229 0.2 49 2 21 72 0.1 Wheat38,2290.249221720.1 Rice 9,461 0.1 9 97 8 114 0.1 Rice9,4610.199781140.1 Cereals, other 41,570 0.3 6 0 78 84 0.1 Cereals, other41,5700.36078840.1 Roots & tubers 187,211 1.2 26 0 105 132 0.2 Roots & tubers187,2111.22601051320.2 Pulses & oil crops 127,434 0.8 20 0 235 254 0.3 Pulses & oil crops127,4340.82002352540.3 Fruits 188,304 1.2 26 0 74 100 0.1 Fruits188,3041.2260741000.1 Vegetables 199,865 1.3 28 0 45 72 0.1 Vegetables199,8651.328045720.1 Cut flowers 120,101 0.8 20 0 419 439 0.5 Cut flowers120,1010.82004194390.5 Sugar cane 88,352 0.6 35 1 39 75 0.1 Sugar cane88,3520.635139750.1 Coffee 29,617 0.2 4 0 31 35 0.0 Coffee29,6170.24031350.0 Tea 254,376 1.6 35 0 67 102 0.1 Tea254,3761.6350671020.1 Crops, other 11,740 0.1 2 0 14 16 0.0 Crops, other11,7400.12014160.0 Beef 281,660 1.8 28 10,934 4,691 15,653 19.0 Beef281,6601.82810,9344,69115,65319.0 Milk 358,007 2.3 49 9,383 2,925 12,357 15.0 Milk358,0072.3499,3832,92512,35715.0 Livestock, other 308,788 2.0 52 15,039 4,546 19,636 23.8 Livestock, other308,7882.05215,0394,54619,63623.8 Total agriculture 2,406,671 15.3 1,131 35,488 13,747 50,366 61.0 Total agriculture2,406,67115.31,13135,488 13,747 50,36661.0 Forestry, fisheries &        Forestry, fisheries & mining 312,793 2.0 302 0 2 304 0.4 mining312,7932.0302023040.4 Food industry 971,056 6.2 668 3,629 0 4,297 5.2 Food industry971,0566.26683,62904,2975.2 Light manufactures 368,425 2.3 254 1,377 0 1,630 2.0 Light manufactures368,4252.32541,37701,6302.0 Petroleum 172,909 1.1 210 646 0 856 1.0 Petroleum172,9091.121064608561.0 Chemical industries 267,268 1.7 184 999 0 1,183 1.4 Chemical industries267,2681.718499901,1831.4 Metals and machines 153,572 1.0 107 574 0 680 0.8 Metals and machines153,5721.010757406800.8 Nonmetallic products 223,702 1.4 2,762 864 0 3,626 4.4 Nonmetallic products223,7021.42,76286403,6264.4 Other manufacturing 154,653 1.0 106 578 0 684 0.8 Other manufacturing154,6531.010657806840.8 Total manufacturing 2,311,586 14.7 4,290 8,667 0 12,957 15.7 Total manufacturing2,311,58614.74,2908,667012,95715.7 Construction 1,391,357 8.8 817 1 5 824 1.0 Construction1,391,3578.8817158241.0 Water supply and waste        Water supply and waste management 116,974 0.7 0 6,763 427 7,190 8.7 management116,9740.706,7634277,1908.7 Electricity supply 159,209 1.0 1,281 2 4 1,287 1.6 Electricity supply159,2091.01,281241,2871.6 Transport 2,082,170 13.2 8,364 35 66 8,465 10.3 Transport2,082,17013.28,36435668,46510.3 Other services 6,961,131 44.2 1,119 1 2 1,122 1.4 Other services6,961,13144.21,119121,1221.4 Total services 9,319,484 59.2 10,764 6,800 500 18,064 21.9 Total services9,319,48459.210,7646,80050018,06421.9 Total 15,741,891 115 17,303 50,957 14,254 82,514 100 Total15,741,89111517,303 50,957 14,254 82,514100 Source:        Source:  "},{"text":"Contribution of direct and indirect GHG emissions to total emission intensity (percentage) Direct and indirect emission intensities were used to calculate total GHG emissions by sector.Results in Table4.2 show that Kenya's total GHG emissions from production in 2019 were 162,237 Gg of CO2eq, with indirect emissions of 79,723 Gg at a similar level of direct emissions (82,514 Gg), revealing the significance of indirect emissions. However, in the case of agriculture, most emissions are still direct emissions from the livestock sector. whea Maize rice ocer Wheat Rice Cereals, other Roots & tubers Pulses & oil crops Fruits Vegetables Cut flowers Sugar cane Coffee Tea Crops, other Beef Milk Livestock, other Electric equipment and, motor vehicles root poil frui vege cutf suca coff teal ocrp beef milk Direct intensity olvs fish 0% 20% 40% fore mine A. Agriculture food lght petr Indirect intensity chem mach nmet omnf cons 60% Direct intensity Indirect intensity 0% 20% 40% Mining and quarrying Food industry Light manufactures Petroleum Chemical industries Metals and machines Non metallic products Construction Water supply, waste mng. Electricity supply Transport B. Other selected activities Figure 4.4-Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of wate sele trad hote trans ictm fina rees admn hedu osvc 80% 100% 60% 80% 100% Direct intensity Indirect intensity whea Maize rice ocer Wheat Rice Cereals, other Roots & tubers Pulses & oil crops Fruits Vegetables Cut flowers Sugar cane Coffee Tea Crops, other Beef Milk Livestock, other Electric equipment and, motor vehicles root poil frui vege cutf suca coff teal ocrp beef milk Direct intensity olvs fish 0% 20% 40% fore mine A. Agriculture food lght petr Indirect intensity chem mach nmet omnf cons 60% Direct intensity Indirect intensity 0% 20% 40% Mining and quarrying Food industry Light manufactures Petroleum Chemical industries Metals and machines Non metallic products Construction Water supply, waste mng. Electricity supply Transport B. Other selected activities Figure 4.4-Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of wate sele trad hote trans ictm fina rees admn hedu osvc 80% 100% 60% 80% 100% Direct intensity Indirect intensity Statistics (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b). Statistics (2006, 2022, 2019a, 2019b).  "},{"text":"Table 4 .2-Total direct and indirect emissions by production activity, 2019   Direct  Indirect  Total  DirectIndirectTotal  Gg Share Gg Share Gg Share GgShareGgShareGgShare  CO2eq % CO2eq % CO2eq % CO2eq%CO2eq%CO2eq% Maize 1,224 1.5 435 0.5 1,659 1.0 Maize1,2241.54350.51,6591.0 Wheat 72 0.1 19 0.0 91 0.1 Wheat720.1190.0910.1 Rice 114 0.1 84 0.1 197 0.1 Rice1140.1840.11970.1 Cereals, other 84 0.1 34 0.0 118 0.1 Cereals, other840.1340.01180.1 Roots and tubers 132 0.2 221 0.3 353 0.2 Roots and tubers1320.22210.33530.2 Pulses and oil crops 254 0.3 165 0.2 420 0.3 Pulses and oil crops2540.31650.24200.3 Fruits 100 0.1 192 0.2 292 0.2 Fruits1000.11920.22920.2 Vegetables 72 0.1 289 0.4 361 0.2 Vegetables720.12890.43610.2 Cut flowers 439 0.5 347 0.4 786 0.5 Cut flowers4390.53470.47860.5 Sugar cane 75 0.1 159 0.2 233 0.1 Sugar cane750.11590.22330.1 Coffee 35 0.0 70 0.1 105 0.1 Coffee350.0700.11050.1 Tea 102 0.1 348 0.4 450 0.3 Tea1020.13480.44500.3 Crops, other 16 0.0 16 0.0 31 0.0 Crops, other160.0160.0310.0 Beef 15,653 19.0 2,321 2.9 17,974 11.1 Beef15,65319.02,3212.917,97411.1 Milk 12,357 15.0 1,681 2.1 14,037 8.7 Milk12,35715.01,6812.114,0378.7 Livestock, other 19,636 23.8 357 0.4 19,993 12.3 Livestock, other19,63623.83570.419,99312.3 Food industry 4,297 5.2 10,448 13.1 14,745 9.1 Food industry4,2975.210,44813.114,7459.1 Manufacturing 8,660 10.5 16,630 20.9 25,289 15.6 Manufacturing8,66010.516,63020.925,28915.6 Water supply; sewerage, waste       Water supply; sewerage, waste management 7,190 8.7 257 0.3 7,447 4.6 management7,1908.72570.37,4474.6 Electricity supply 1,287 1.6 633 0.8 1,920 1.2 Electricity supply1,2871.66330.81,9201.2 Transport 8465 10.3 6510 8.2 14975 9.2 Transport846510.365108.2149759.2 Other services 1122 1.4 24895 31.2 26017 16.0 Other services11221.42489531.22601716.0 Other 1,127 1.4 13,614 17.1 14,741 9.1 Other1,1271.413,61417.114,7419.1 Total 82,514 100 79,723 100 162,237 100 Total82,51410079,723100162,237100 Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics       Statistics  "},{"text":"Table 4 .3-Embodied emissions in final consumption, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)  Domestic consumption Domestic consumption  "},{"text":"Table 4 .4-Total GHG emissions embodied in international trade, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)   Exports Imports Balance ExportsImportsBalance Maize 90 281 -191 Maize90281-191 Wheat 20 146 -127 Wheat20146-127 Rice 0 296 -296 Rice0296-296 Cereals, other 2 5 -3 Cereals, other25-3 Roots & tubers 0 0 0 Roots & tubers000 Pulses & oil crops 0 1 -1 Pulses & oil crops01-1 Fruits 7 0 7 Fruits707 Vegetables 9 0 9 Vegetables909 Cut flowers 360 0 360 Cut flowers3600360 Sugar cane 5 13 -8 Sugar cane513-8 Coffee 28 2 26 Coffee28226 Tea 51 1 50 Tea51150 Crops, other 6 0 6 Crops, other606 Beef 191 521 -330 Beef191521-330 Milk 63 171 -109 Milk63171-109 Livestock, other 213 583 -369 Livestock, other213583-369 Food industry 643 1,756 -1,113 Food industry6431,756-1,113 Total Agriculture & Food Industry 1,687 3,776 -2,089 Total Agriculture & Food Industry1,6873,776-2,089 Manufacturing & Construction 4,339 20,983 -16,644 Manufacturing & Construction4,33920,983-16,644 Water supply & waste 693 1,390 -697 Water supply & waste6931,390-697 Transport 2,396 1,691 704 Transport2,3961,691704 Other services 182 346 -164 Other services182346-164 Other 55 8 47 Other55847 Total 9,297 28,187 -18,890 Total9,29728,187-18,890 Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Source: Elaborated by author based on Crippa et al., (2021), EDGAR, 2022), and Kenya, National Bureau of Statistics    Statistics  "},{"text":" ).  100%      100% Proportion of total animal stock 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 6% 24% 15% 28%  12% 10% 66% 37% Proportion of total animal stock10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%6%24%15% 28%12% 10%66% 37%  0%      0%    0% 5%-50% 50%-80% more than 80% 0%5%-50%50%-80%more than 80%    Percentage of the area under arid to very arid conditions Percentage of the area under arid to very arid conditions    Beef Dairy Sheep & goats Camels BeefDairySheep & goatsCamels  "},{"text":"Table A1 . Correspondence between sub-sectors of the 2019 I-O table and activities/commodities in the 2003 SAM (continued) Elaborated by authors based onCrippa et al. (2021), EDGAR (2022), andKiringai et al. (2006).   2019     2003   20192003 Activity/Commodity   Code Activities Commodities Description  Activity/CommodityCodeActivitiesCommoditiesDescription Mining and quarrying   mine amine cmine  Mining  Mining and quarryingmineaminecmineMining      ameat cmeat  Meat & dairy  ameatcmeatMeat & dairy      amill cmill  Grain milling  amillcmillGrain milling Food industry    food abake cbake  Sugar & bakery & confectionary Food industryfoodabakecbakeSugar & bakery & confectionary      abevt cbevt  Beverages & tobacco abevtcbevtBeverages & tobacco      aomfd comfd  Other manufactured food aomfdcomfdOther manufactured food      afoot cfoot  Textile & clothing afootcfootTextile & clothing Light manufactures   lght awood cwood  Leather & footwear Light manufactureslghtawoodcwoodLeather & footwear      aprnt cprnt  Wood & paper  aprntcprntWood & paper      apetr cpetr  Printing and publishing apetrcpetrPrinting and publishing Petroleum    petr atext ctext  Petroleum  PetroleumpetratextctextPetroleum Chemical industries   chem achem cchem  Chemicals  Chemical industrieschemachemcchemChemicals Metals and machines   mach amach cmach  Metals and machines Metals and machinesmachamachcmachMetals and machines Non metallic products   nmet anmet cnmet  Non metallic products Non metallic productsnmetanmetcnmetNon metallic products Electric & electronic equipment, motor        Electric & electronic equipment, motor vehicles & other    omnf aoman coman  Other manufactures vehicles & otheromnfaomancomanOther manufactures Construction    cons acons ccons  Construction  ConstructionconsaconscconsConstruction Water supply; sewerage, waste management wate Electricity supply sele Wholesale and retail trade; repairs trad Accommodation and food service activities hote Transport trans Information and communication ictm Financial and insurance activities fina Real estate rees Public administration and defence admn Health & education hedu Other services osvc 0.15 0.03 0.13 0.05 lght 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.02 petr 0.18 0.04 0.19 0.07 chem 0.83 0.16 0.69 0.31 mach 0.35 0.07 0.31 0.12 nmet 0.14 0.03 0.13 0.05 omnf 0.25 0.03 0.15 0.05 cons 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 wate 0.12 0.03 6.52 0.04 sele 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 trad 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Source: food hote 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 awatr aelec atrad ahotl atran acomm afsrv arest aadmn aheal aeduc aosrv 0.07 0.04 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.06 0.22 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.00 cwatr celec ctrad chotl ctran ccomm cfsrv crest cadmn cheal ceduc cosrv 0.08 0.04 0.11 0.41 0.18 0.07 0.11 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.08 0.22 0.26 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.00 Water Electricity Trade Hotels Transport Communication Finance Real estate Adminsitration Health Education Other services 0.08 0.15 0.03 0.37 0.09 0.19 0.53 0.49 0.19 0.41 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.40 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Water supply; sewerage, waste management wate Electricity supply sele Wholesale and retail trade; repairs trad Accommodation and food service activities hote Transport trans Information and communication ictm Financial and insurance activities fina Real estate rees Public administration and defence admn Health & education hedu Other services osvc 0.15 0.03 0.13 0.05 lght 0.06 0.01 0.06 0.02 petr 0.18 0.04 0.19 0.07 chem 0.83 0.16 0.69 0.31 mach 0.35 0.07 0.31 0.12 nmet 0.14 0.03 0.13 0.05 omnf 0.25 0.03 0.15 0.05 cons 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 wate 0.12 0.03 6.52 0.04 sele 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 trad 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Source: food hote 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00awatr aelec atrad ahotl atran acomm afsrv arest aadmn aheal aeduc aosrv 0.07 0.04 0.13 0.16 0.17 0.06 0.22 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.00cwatr celec ctrad chotl ctran ccomm cfsrv crest cadmn cheal ceduc cosrv 0.08 0.04 0.11 0.41 0.18 0.07 0.11 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.000.05 0.03 0.08 0.22 0.26 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.00Water Electricity Trade Hotels Transport Communication Finance Real estate Adminsitration Health Education Other services 0.08 0.15 0.03 0.37 0.09 0.19 0.53 0.49 0.19 0.41 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.40 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 trans 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.10 0.05 0.11 0.13 0.33 trans0.060.020.040.020.100.050.110.130.33 ictm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ictm0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 fina 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 fina0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 rees 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 rees0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 admn 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 admn0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 hedu 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 hedu0.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.00 osvc 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 osvc0.010.010.020.010.020.010.010.000.01  "},{"text":"Table A3 . Embodied emissions in final consumption, 2019 (Gg of CO2eq)     Final Rural Urban  Cap. Inventory FinalRuralUrbanCap.Inventory code Exports Imports domestic HH HH Gov Formation change codeExports ImportsdomesticHHHHGovFormationchange maiz 90 281 1,446 1,013 141 243 33 16 maiz902811,4461,0131412433316 whea 20 146 206 125 19 24 4 33 whea201462061251924433 rice 0 296 409 189 207 11 2 1 rice02964091892071121 ocer 2 5 88 0 0 26 5 57 ocer25880026557 root 0 0 132 96 35 0 0 1 root001329635001 poil 0 1 255 177 75 0 0 2 poil0125517775002 frui 7 0 93 66 26 0 0 1 frui70936626001 vege 9 0 63 33 30 0 0 1 vege90633330001 cutf 360 0 79 0 0 0 0 79 cutf360079000079 suca 5 13 85 0 0 0 0 85 suca51385000085 coff 28 2 10 3 7 0 0 0 coff2821037000 teal 51 1 52 0 0 0 0 52 teal51152000052 ocrp 6 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 ocrp6010000010 beef 191 521 15,849 15,616 11 187 35 0 beef19152115,849 15,61611187350 milk 63 171 10,635 10,510 43 68 13 0 milk6317110,635 10,5104368130 olvs 213 583 21,140 20,725 166 209 40 0 olvs21358321,140 20,725166209400 fish 0 0 10 6 4 0 0 0 fish001064000 fore 0 0 14 12 1 0 1 0 fore0014121010 mine 54 6 233 0 0 0 0 233 mine5462330000233 food 643 1,756 5,647 1,818 3,838 0 0 -9 food6431,7565,6471,8183,83800-9 lght 551 841 1,993 778 1,215 0 0 0 lght5518411,9937781,215000 petr 513 2,873 3,389 426 1,342 0 0 1,621 petr5132,8733,3894261,342001,621 chem 888 3,459 4,142 1,711 2,431 0 0 0 chem8883,4594,1421,7112,431000 mach 1,201 8,756 8,627 72 579 0 7,975 0 mach1,2018,7568,6277257907,9750 nmet 387 1,311 4,786 0 0 0 0 0 nmet3871,3114,78600000 omnf 799 3,740 3,676 31 247 0 3,398 0 omnf7993,7403,6763124703,3980 cons 1 2 825 0 0 21 803 0 cons1282500218030 wate 693 1,390 7,990 402 5,441 2,147 0 0 wate6931,3907,9904025,441 2,14700 sele 139 299 1,474 89 1,385 0 0 0 sele1392991,474891,385000 trad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  trad0000000 hote 0 0 88 29 59 0 0 0 hote00882959000 trans 2,396 1,691 7,795 2,119 5,656 20 0 0 trans2,3961,6917,7952,1195,6562000 ictm 10 4 60 16 44 0 0 0 ictm104601644000 fina 14 24 129 15 114 0 0 0 fina142412915114000 rees 1 6 135 3 129 3 0 0 rees161353129300 admn 1 1 311 1 1 310 0 0 admn113111131000 hedu 0 0 121 9 15 98 0 0 hedu001219159800 osvc 17 11 85 56 22 4 3 0 osvc1711855622430 Total 9,352 28,193 102,083 56,147 23,282 3,372 12,314 2,183 Total9,35228,193102,083 56,147 23,282 3,37212,3142,183 Source: Elaborated by authors based on       Source: Elaborated by authors based on  "}],"sieverID":"fe5e6342-78ed-4dab-9841-5cce39689fe2","abstract":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world. Notices 1 IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results and are circulated in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment. They have not been subject to a formal external review via IFPRI's Publications Review Committee. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by IFPRI. 2 The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the map(s) herein do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) or its partners and contributors. 3 Copyright remains with the authors. The authors are free to proceed, without further IFPRI permission, to publish this paper, or any revised version of it, in outlets such as journals, books, and other publications."}

data/part_3/08c3b607af43a750df22b9b60441792f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08c3b607af43a750df22b9b60441792f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ade4f9ba-1735-4e95-bbe6-251192c63ed0/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"The Rubaya community gene bank","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Functions and activities","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The community gene bank has three roles: conserving seeds of local crops; facilitating training in agricultural techniques; and propagating local varieties that are near extinction or are becoming less available as farmers turn to improved varieties. The community gene bank has begun collecting seeds from farmers in neighbouring villages and regenerating plant material that can be stored in the gene bank. In the beginning, it was confined to three small plots totalling 0.30ha, but it has now expanded to 15 plots (0.85ha) planted with varieties of beans, maize, garden peas, cow peas, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes and sorghum."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Planting takes place at the beginning of each season. With support from the sector agronomist and RAB, farmers are able to monitor crops for pests, diseases and general growth. To ensure high-quality output, they adhere to good agricultural practices. RAB has provided support in the form of mineral fertilizer, which was added to farmyard manure. Normally, farmers have no access to such fertilizer: it is expensive and, therefore, there is no supplier in the area. RAB also offers technical support to farmers planting various varieties of beans and sorghum, including training in planting, weeding, pest and disease management, postharvest handling and storage. Such support is provided not only to the cooperative members but also to other farmers who have consolidated their small properties under RAB's Crop Intensification Program."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In the March-June 2013 planting season, crops grown by the cooperative for regeneration included beans (bush and climbing) in three plots, sorghum in three plots, Irish potato (Mbumbamagara) and sweet potato (Utankubura) in four plots, maize and peas in two plots. The average size of a plot was 0.15ha."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The sweet potato seeds were obtained from farmers, whereas sorghum seeds came from RAB and Irish potato seeds from the local market. After multiplication, the cooperative is planning to make these crop seeds available to other farmers. The community gene bank is playing a key role in the conservation and use of neglected and underused species, such as the local bean varieties, Kachwekano and Kabonobono, which are high yielding, but had been abandoned by farmers because of their susceptibility to disease."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"The major challenge for the gene bank is drought. Lack of rain destroyed the crops in the first growing season, September-December 2012, partly due to late sowing. In addition, gene bank members have to cover operating costs, such as labour, land rental and agricultural inputs. The gene bank has two casual labourers who are paid 1,000 Rwandan francs (RWF) or about US$1.47 a day by the cooperative. They are cooperative members who choose to work seasonally on the common field for this salary. The cooperative hopes to increase its membership and envisions some form of community mobilization."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Similar to other cooperatives in the region, the one managing the community gene bank is governed by a committee composed of the president, vicepresident, secretary, cashier and two advisors democratically elected by the cooperative members. The committee, which is made up of two women and four men, is working on guidelines for its officials. Cooperative members have agreed on a mechanism through which they have access to seeds and planting material in exchange for labour."}]},{"head":"Technical issues and networking","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"High-quality seeds are selected in the field using ribbons attached to healthier plants, a traditional variety-selection method. Once harvested, cooperative workers label the selected seeds of different crops appropriately and store them separately. Currently, there is no formal system for documenting traditional knowledge and associated information about local varieties conserved at the community gene bank. Information concerning varieties, lots, planting dates, weeding dates, fertilizer application and harvesting dates for all varieties is kept in notebooks, carefully differentiated by activity and season. These notebooks are kept by the secretary of the cooperative. Committee members hold monthly meetings to discuss issues, but the chair can call an impromptu meeting in case of an emergency. Minutes are kept by the secretary. The community gene bank receives technical and moral support from RAB and the sector agronomist. Recently, it benefitted from a small grant from Bioversity International to buy shelves, plastic containers, bottles and pesticides."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"The community gene bank collaborates with the Isonga Mw'Isango youth cooperative and is also linked to other farmer and public organizations at the national level, such as Caritas Rwanda, a nongovernmental organization (NGO) working in the agriculture sector, and RAB. Recently, the members of the cooperative visited a community gene bank in Uganda to share experiences and discuss gene bank management issues, including processes for procurement, preservation and storage of bean seed samples. During the visit, farmers from both countries engaged with breeders and other scientists in participatory evaluation of their climate vulnerabilities and coping strategies and, subsequently, determination of the traits desired for adaptation to climate change. They also conducted a participatory evaluation of the seeds in their possession to see which ones have those traits. Last, but not least, they explored a mechanism by which farmers can exchange varieties of seeds."}]},{"head":"Policy environment and prospects","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Rwanda's policy of land consolidation and focussing on one priority crop has had a negative impact on the activities of the gene bank because local varieties of crops cannot be grown freely by farmers. The government distributes seeds (improved varieties) and fertilizer to farmers as part of the crop intensification programme. However, the Rwanda Cooperative Authority provides advice to the cooperative committee members on how to balance between the prescribed varieties and their varieties of choice."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The community gene bank invested RWF 889,000 (about US$1,306) in setting up and maintaining its seed bank. This covered the cost of renting land, purchasing seed and fertilizers and paying for labour. The gene bank cannot operate without outside support because rent for land and the cost of agricultural inputs are high. To make the gene bank financially independent and sustainable, farmers need more financial and technical support so that they can expand their activities and increase production and profits."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Looking to the future, the community gene bank has established connections with RAB at the national level and Uganda's National Agricultural Research Organisation at the regional level to obtain technical support. The cooperative also needs to be strengthened in terms of management."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7cb7cf5a-ba99-4fb7-9e6f-423449fb91dc","abstract":"The Rubaya community gene bank, located in the Rubaya sector of Gicumbi district in Northern Rwanda, is managed by the Kundisuka cooperative. It originated when a farmer by the name of Mpoberabanzi Silas and an agronomist working in the Rubaya sector recognized the need to preserve some of the genetic resources in the area that were being lost (e.g. several varieties of beans, peas, maize, wheat and sorghum).Implementation of the project was supported by the staff of the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB) in cooperation with Bioversity International (Plate 18). The managing cooperative was created in September 2012 and consists of about ten members with Mpoberabanzi Silas as president. The community gene bank's storage facilities were constructed locally with support from Vision 2020's Umurenge Program and the Ministry of Local Government. Their main purpose is to store the region's priority crops (maize, wheat, beans and Irish potatoes), but farmers are free to use the facilities to store and conserve other seeds and planting material.The community gene bank does not yet have a visible role in the community, for example, in seed production or participatory crop improvement, as it is still in its early stages. However, its members' vision is to invest in seed multiplication to make good-quality seeds available to the local community and regional gene banks. This will transform the enterprise into a business-oriented farmer cooperative certified by RAB."}

data/part_3/08ed5f1e8cb7f7f9dfb9fe8ddf4c91f8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08ed5f1e8cb7f7f9dfb9fe8ddf4c91f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1425bda4-7e03-4c1f-a062-e834f560e09c/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Economic valuation of climate induced losses to aquaculture for evaluating climate information services in Bangladesh","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":253,"text":"Globally aquaculture (farming of aquatic animal and plants) continues to dominate aquatic food production systems and fish along with other aquatic foods are among the most traded food commodities (Watkiss,Ventura & Poulain, 2019). The value of aquatic food production through aquaculture alone was $264 billion (Barrange et al. 2018). In 2020, total fisheries and aquaculture production was at an all-time of 214 million tonnes while per-capita aquatic food consumption was 20.2 kg which was double the consumption rate 50 years ago (FAO, 2022). Over 91 % of global aquaculture production (102.9 million tonnes in 2017) is currently produced within the Asian region (Tacon, 2020). Bangladesh has been playing a dominant role in fish production and consumption, reflected by its fifth ranking in terms of aquaculture production (Barrange et al. 2018). Fish and fish-based foods supply 60 percent of the total daily animal protein intake for its population (with a per capita intake of 62.58 gm/day against a targeted 60 gm/day) (Rashid & Zhang, 2019;BBS, 2017), significantly contributing to ensuring nutrition and food security for the vulnerable and marginalized people of the country. Aquaculture and fisheries contribute 25.72 percent to the agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) of Bangladesh (3.50 percent to national GDP), support the livelihoods of more than 12 percent of the population (MoF, 2020, Shamsuzzaman et al., 2020, FRSS, 2017), and provide large export earnings (MoF, 2020). Despite the importance of aquaculture to livelihoods, nutrition, and the economy, very limited importance is attributed to climate challenges in aquaculture compared to crop agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Freshwater aquaculture in Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to climate change, ranking second globally in terms of climate vulnerability (Field et al., 2014, Barange et al., 2018). Both extreme temperature and erratic rainfall events pose substantial risk to aquaculture operations and thus, fish production (Hossain et al., 2021). The frequency and intensity of these climate crises are predicted to increase in the near and distant future due to climate change (EPA, 2021). This scenario calls for mechanisms able to offset the increasing climate risks for aquaculture farmers. Climate information services (CIS) are a potential climate-risk reduction approach that could de-risk the aquaculture sector by supporting fish farmers' climate resilient decision-making and production management processes."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"The optimum water temperature for fish production in Bangladesh ranges from 26 • C to 32 • C (Hossain et al., 2021). However, current maximum (>34 • C on average during April to June) and minimum temperature (<20 • C during December to February) variations, increasing high temperature (32 • C ~ 36 • C) and extreme hot (~40 • C) days is predicted to vary between 3.24 • C and 5.77 • C by the end of the century (Fahad et al., 2017), a rise that will likely push the maximum water temperature to exceed the physiological tolerance level of multiple fish types and increase fish mortality. Besides, a 2 • C temperature increase is expected to decrease freshwater availability (Cisneros et al. 2014), putting further pressure on freshwater fish production. Furthermore, an already-increasing trend of dry spells, erratic rainfall patterns (Khatun et al., 2016;Hossain, 2018) along with future projections reflect continued increase in rainfall variability as well (Caesar et al., 2015;Nowreen et al., 2015;Raihan et al., 2015). A recent study (Fahad et. al., 2023) has indicated that climate change may lead to a fourfold increase in extreme rainfall events. Such a significant escalation could have detrimental effects on aquaculture."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"Variations in both temperature and rainfall could be substantially detrimental to aquaculture production and infrastructure (Islam et al., 2014, Montes et al., 2021, Montes et al., 2022) and inflict heavy losses to aquaculture (Islam, et. al., 2018;Montes et al., 2022). For instance, in 2020 a single flood event in Bangladesh alone caused a loss of around USD 5 million to the aquaculture sector (Saha, 2020;Hossain et al., 2021), while Cyclone Amphan resulted in a loss of approximately USD 30 million to the sector by inundating 180,500 enclosure (TBS, 2020;Hossain et al., 2021). These loss data reflect the consequences of only extreme events like cyclones and/ or severe floods and refer to existing adaptation options (like early warning systems) for reducing the associated risks. However, data on losses induced by climate variability (such as erratic rain, heatwaves, cold spells, etc.) in aquaculture are scarce in the country, making it challenging to economically evaluate climate risk management interventions like CIS for enhanced uptake and scaling."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"Cognizant of the importance of aquaculture in Bangladesh and the risks posed to daily operations by climate variability and extremes, CIS can play a substantial role in facilitating climate-informed operational and/or strategic management decisions. This can help manage the associated risks and consequently reduce correlated losses. For instance, if there is an authentically generated forecast information of very heavy rain during next week and if this information along with actionable advisory services (like protecting the ponds with nets or heightening the pond dikes or harvesting the table size fish early) can be communicated with the fish-farmers with a 5-7 days lead time, they will be able to manage the risks of fish loss and/or pond damage by making management decisions in advance of that specific climatic event."},{"index":6,"size":282,"text":"The National Adaptation Plan of Bangladesh (NAP) 2022 has recognized the need to protect aquaculture from risks posed by both extreme climate and climate variability. Besides, the 2021 IPCC report on climate change stressed the increased likelihood of climate variabilities and extreme events in the South Asian region. Both NAP 2022 and IPCC 2021 highlight the urgency to enhance CIS for risk assessment at scale. CIS has evolved and expanded over the last few decades in Europe and North America, while countries in the global south have tended to be slower to develop and use climate information decision support frameworks and tools (Clements, Ray & Anderson 2013). Lack of awareness of the opportunities along with highlighted economic benefits of CIS is one of the key reasons for their low uptake in the developing world. In addition, a large number of CIS efforts around the world have focused on crop agriculture, and only a limited number of efforts (Hossain et al., 2021;Carlo et al. 2022) have focused on CIS for aquaculture. Consequently, the lack of knowledge about the economic benefits of aquaculture CIS has limited its awareness and uptake in both the public and private sectors. An improved understanding of the economic benefits of aquaculture climate services, therefore, is important for several reasons, including fostering awareness and increasing the use of CIS, enhancing the value and the efficiency of CIS, assessing pricing and charging mechanisms for CIS, justifying investments and/or financing, and helping to form public policy in relation to CIS (WMO 2007;Zillman 2007). Therefore, the specific objective of this study is to assess the climate-induced economic losses in the aquaculture sector, thereby unraveling the potential of CIS in de-risking aquaculture value chains."},{"index":7,"size":145,"text":"Evaluating any CIS for aquaculture requires data that indicates economic loss resulting from climatic stress events. Unfortunately, Bangladesh doesn't have historical data on aquaculture loss and damage due to climate variability and extreme climate events. Only recently, starting from 2019, has the Department of Fisheries begun recording aquaculture losses caused by climatic stresses. This poses a significant hurdle in estimating the economic valuation of climate services. To address this issue, the study explored aquaculture losses in line with climate variabilities as reported in leading national newspapers since 2011, focusing on news about climate-induced loss and damage. Therefore, by using the approach of data scraping from newspaper reports on climate-induced aquaculture loss, this study responds to the need for generating relevant economic loss data and offers the very first endeavor to conduct an economic valuation of the potential benefits of aquaculture CIS in a data-poor environment."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Time series data on climate-induced aquaculture losses (in monetary terms) was extracted from four major English dailies in Bangladesh: The Daily Star, Dhaka Tribune, The Independent, and New Age in order to determine the economic value of CIS. The newspapers were chosen based on several factors, including circulation, a decade-long online presence, regular coverage of aquaculture losses due to climatic events, and credible, evidence-based reporting. As shown in Fig. 1, we used a four-tier methodology: scraping, labeling, extraction, and validation. The method of newspaper scraping for generating data has been already used in previous researches (Sarr et al., 2018;Schnell and Redlich, 2019;O'Halloran et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":218,"text":"In Tagtog, a framework was developed to extract economic losses from articles, categorizing them into \"shrimp,\" \"open water fish and hatcheries,\" or a combined fish category. These articles conveyed losses through metrics such as monetary value, damaged ponds, hectares, and fish tonnage. To get monetary loss when non-monetary terms were reported, an average monetary loss was calculated for particular metrics, such as per pond/enclosure. The articles that only listed non-monetary metrics were then subjected to this average. Estimates based on tons and hectares were also used in monetary conversions. The lowest value was used to avoid double counting for overlapping reports, and only the latest monthly report was retained. Monetary losses were converted to tons employing a specific formula. After determining fish loss, it was aggregated by damage type. If different losses in terms of fish types were reported in multiple articles within a 30-day period for any district, only the most recent report on 'shrimp, open water fish, and hatcheries' was taken into account. The other reports were discarded, presuming that the loss estimate for this aggregated category would sufficiently cover them. Finally, the loss data was validated using the Department of Fisheries' 2019 data, ENACTS-BMD (a composite dataset of satellite and observation) rainfall Data, and maps of floods generated from Sentinel-1 satellite data for specific events. "}]},{"head":"Scraping data on climate-induced aquaculture loss","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Using keywords relating to climatic variability and extremes, such as heat, cold spells, dry spells, heavy rain, cyclones, floods, and fish loss, we scraped online versions of a selection of English dailies from July 2011 to June 2021. A previous study on CIS for aquaculture in Bangladesh (Hossain et al., 2021) provided the basis for these keywords. The relevant articles were extracted with Python 3.6 and SerpAPI 2 (Goldfarb-Tarrant et. al., 2020;Luo et. al., 2020). Utilizing SerpAPI with the specified keywords, a list of  13) 112 ( 36) 119 ( 13) 447 ( 95)"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Note. the number of newspapers scraped and values within parentheses show articles among these which actually contained data about aquaculture loss resulting from climatic events. articles along with their publication dates was generated. However, many were not pertinent to our study. Through iterative keyword refinement, we eventually arrived at three sets (Table 1) that yielded a greater percentage of pertinent articles. Out of 447 articles in total, 95 articles contained physical or economic (or both) loss information. This data was subsequently uploaded to Tagtog 3 for additional processing, namely labeling."}]},{"head":"Labeling the scrapped economic loss data","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A labelling framework in Tagtog was created (Fig. 2) to capture data on economic loss from the articles. The types of events (e.g., floods and high temperatures), location details, loss metrics (e.g., physical loss in tons and economic value in Bangladeshi taka), and fish types were carefully examined in the articles. The three main categories of loss identified were 'Loss to open water fish and hatcheries,' 'Loss to shrimp,' and 'Aggregate loss for all fish types: shrimp, open water fish, and hatcheries. There was also some loss data on fish fry, but it was excluded due to its infrequent mention (fewer than 10 instances) in the articles."}]},{"head":"Data extraction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"After labelling was completed in Tagtog, the data were organized so that each row corresponded to a distinct location, date, and one of the three damage types. If a single article was reported for multiple locations, the losses were divided into separate rows. For validation against the Government of Bangladesh's fiscal year statistics (July to June), the labelled data were aggregated annually, covering the fiscal years from 2011 to 2020, starting in July 2011 and ending in June 2021."}]},{"head":"Approach to avoid double counting","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Events were occasionally repeated in multiple articles or during protracted events. To construct fisheries loss time series, avoiding duplication in reported data was prioritized to avoid double counting. In cases of overlapping loss reports on the same date, in the same district, and for the same fish type, the report with the least loss was retained and the others were discarded. Additionally, within a 30day period, only the most recent report, excluding the others, was utilized for a given district and fish type. This ensured that our loss estimates were on the conservative side, rather than being an overestimation."}]},{"head":"Valuing fish loss","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Articles on fish loss caused by climate were reported in a variety of ways, including monetary value, the number of ponds or enclosures damaged, the affected area (hectare), and the actual amount of fish (ton) lost. To convert non-monetary losses to monetary terms, estimated values per pond/enclosure, per hectare, or per ton were used. For example, if an article reported the total number of impacted ponds as well as the monetary loss for a specific fish type in a given area, the monetary loss per pond/enclosure for that area and fish type was calculated. When multiple articles offered this data, average monetary loss per pond/enclosure for that fish type and that area was calculated. In articles that only listed the number of impacted ponds for that particular area and fish type, this average was then used to calculate financial loss for those articles. Similarly, loss per unit area (hectare) and per ton metrics were employed for monetary conversions. For consistency, data on infrastructure damage, which was present in only four publications, was omitted. The exchange rate used to convert all losses from taka to US dollars was 1 dollar to 94.59 taka (as of October 2022). The steps described here were implemented using R (R Core Team 4.2.1). Refer to Appendix 1′s Fig. A1 for a comprehensive illustration."}]},{"head":"Estimating the quantity of fish loss","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Fish loss is reported in physical quantities (tons) in some articles; in the rest, it is either not reported or reported in terms of monetary value or by using other yardsticks. To estimate fish loss in tons for a particular district and damage type reported in monetary terms, the following formula was utilized:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Loss in tons of i th event = monetary loss as reported for i th observation / average monetary loss per ton for the particular district and the damage type -(1)"},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"If, for the considered district and damage type, there were no data on loss in tons (because no other articles contained information on these), in order to calculate average loss per ton, the average loss per ton for that fish type was used across all districts and then used to calculate an estimate for loss in tons (Please see Appendix A, Fig. A2 for the interpolation method). The figures shown here are thus in no way a very accurate measurement of the loss, but rather an educated, conservative estimate based on interpolation."}]},{"head":"Combining loss data from different types of hazards","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"After estimating and/or interpolating the fish loss information, the total fish loss was aggregated over the types of damage identified in the media. In some articles, loss information was reported for a particular district for the combined category of 'shrimp, open water fish, and hatcheries,' rather than for 'shrimp' or 'open water fish and hatcheries' individually. For a single district, if one article contained loss information for shrimp, open water fish and hatcheries together and another article or multiple articles contained loss information on 'shrimp' and/or 'hatcheries and open water fish' within a span of 30 days, then the latest observation was considered and all other observations were removed. This was based on the assumption that for an event lasting around a month or less, the last article would give the final aggregated loss estimate. Again, if loss information for a single district on a particular date was reported for both \"shrimp, open water fish and hatcheries\" type and either or both of the shrimp and hatcheries types, only the information for \"shrimp, open water fish and hatcheries\" category was considered and the information for the others was discarded. We, therefore, assumed that the loss reported for \"shrimp, open water fish and hatcheries\" together would contain or cover individual loss information for shrimp, open water fish and hatcheries for that day."}]},{"head":"Validation of media derived estimates","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A thorough three-step validation process was applied to the estimated data for the open water fisheries/aquacultures loss."}]},{"head":"Comparison with government statistics","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The Department of Fisheries' official statistics were compared with the scraped 2019 loss data. Since the government did not have a consistent time series available, the authors used the data from 2019 as a benchmark to assess how reliable newspaper reports were as proxies for the losses."}]},{"head":"Verification using ENACTS-BMD Rainfall data","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The ENACTS-BMD dataset, a composite of satellite and observational data covering Bangladesh with a 0.5 • x 0.5 • spatial resolution, was used to verify events of reported floods and heavy rainfall. This dataset, which combines observational data with data from the Climate Hazard Group InfraRed Precipitation (CHIRP) (Acharya, N. et al., 2020), focuses on rainfall in Bangladesh. Floods brought on by outside rainfall or external riverine flows are not taken into consideration in this dataset. To address this limitation, flood maps for particular areas were created. To verify the alignment between reported and recorded rainfall, specific events in two districts, Barishal and Sunamganj, were cross-checked with this dataset."}]},{"head":"Satellite data validation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Sentinel-1 satellite data were utilized to validate the correspondence between flood maps and reported occurrences. Since Sentinel-1′s data for Bangladesh begins in 2017, for mapping only 2019 and 2020 were considered. The algorithm proposed by Thomas et al. (2023) was used to create the flood maps. Two randomly chosen events were investigated: a heavy rainfall event on 26 September 2019 in Fakirhat Upazila, Bagerhat district, and tidal floods in Shyamnagar and Assasuni Upazila of Satkhira due to Cyclone Amphan on 24 May 2020. For the former, flood conditions at five pond locations in Fakirhat Upazila were examined/mapped (Table 2). For the second event, a flood map covering Shyamnagar and Assasuni upazila of Satkhira was generated and investigated. It was reported in  The Independent newspaper that in Satkhira, \"12,257 fish enclosures and ponds have been washed away.\" Consequently, we generated a flood map of this area on the 25th of May 2020 to determine if these areas were actually inundated."}]},{"head":"Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Loss for open water fish and hatcheries","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Physical and monetary loss for hatcheries and open water fish","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The top five districts that experienced greatest loss for hatcheries and open water fish between 2011 and 2020 are Sunamganj, Tangail, Gopalganj, Jamalpur and Satkhira (Table 3). Sunamganj alone faced a total loss of around USD 19.4 million and a quantity of around 14,644 million tons. The second most affected was Tangail with losses valued at around USD 6.3 million, almost three times less than the amount lost for Sunamganj. Gopalganj, Jamalpur and Satkhira incurred losses of around USD 5.3, USD 5.2 and USD 3.9 million, respectively. District-wise yearly loss of fisheries is provided in Appendix B, Table A1."}]},{"head":"Country-wide open water fish and hatcheries loss","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"In 2011, our data suggest that the total loss for open water fisheries and hatcheries in Bangladesh was around USD 3.9 million and 2908 tons. In 2016, this rose to around USD 13.7 million, with fish loss of 9,603 tons. In 2020, the monetary loss increased almost twofold to USD 23.9 million, while the quantity of fish lost rose to 24,892 tons (Fig. 3). It appears that 2020 was a really challenging year for fish losses as the highest amount of recorded loss was found for this year. "}]},{"head":"Loss for shrimp","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monetary loss and loss in tons for shrimp","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Shrimp loss was reported for just three districts where production is most common: Satkhira, Bagerhat and Khulna. Similar to the figures for aquaculture and open water fish loss, data for shrimp loss for 2011 to 2020 were sparse. Satkhira faced the highest loss among all districts for shrimp, with a total loss valued at more than USD 15.7 million and amounting to around 5649 tons of shrimp. After Satkhira, Bagerhat faced the most shrimp loss with around 4,295 tons of shrimp worth around USD 11.9 million. For Khulna, the loss was much less than both Bagerhat and Satkhira, at around 185.4 tons of shrimp worth around USD 0.5 million Table 4."}]},{"head":"National shrimp loss","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Considering the nation-wide aggregate estimate generated for shrimp loss, 2011 was the worst year, with around 5,488 tons of shrimp worth around USD 15.3 million lost (Fig. 4). In the following years up to 2018, yearly losses dropped sharply to less than 170 tons, worth less than USD 500 thousands. However, from 2018 to 2019, monetary losses jumped around eight-fold, from around USD 468 thousands (168 tons) to around USD 3.7 million (1315 tons). As observed above, losses were considerably higher in 2020, with more than 3000 tons of fish lost worth around USD 8.4 million. Fig. 4. Country-wide monetary loss for shrimp."}]},{"head":"Aggregate loss estimates for all fish types (hatcheries, open water fish and","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monetary loss and loss in tons for all fish types","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"We calculated the total loss (monetary loss in USD million and fish loss in tons, within parentheses) is tabulated for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp for different districts from 2011 to 2020 (Table 5). Satkhira appears to have experienced the greatest amount of loss from 2011 to 2020, with a fish loss of around 11,928 tons worth around USD 25.9 million. Next, Sunamganj and Bagerhat experienced monetary losses of USD 19.4 million and around USD 19.2 million respectively. Maulvibazar faced the least amount of loss among all the reported districts, at around 79 tons of fish worth USD 0.1 million."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"Our data suggest that the top five districts (Satkhira, Sunamganj, Bagerhat, Patuakhali, and Khulna), which suffered the most from climate-induced financial losses in the fisheries sector, incurred estimated losses of around USD 25.9 million, USD 19.4 million, USD 19.2 million, USD 12.0 million, and USD 11.2 million, respectively, between 2011 and 2020 (Fig. 5). However, these data should be interpreted carefully, as prior to 2019, few loss data were available for most of the districts. For example, in 2011, loss data were available for only one district, while in 2012, data were available for only two districts, and for 2013, no data were available for any district. In 2020, fish loss was reported in at least 18 districts, indicating more coverage of or focus on the fisheries sector by the print media outlets."}]},{"head":"Country-wide estimate of all damage types","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In 2011, the total estimated hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp loss was 10,755 tons and around USD 24.9 million (Fig. 6). In the following years up to 2019, the yearly loss fluctuated between USD 353 thousands (corresponding to 127 tons) and USD 15.8 million (corresponding to around 11,235 tons). In 2020, total fish loss increased sharply from a value of around USD 15.8 million (11,235 tons) in 2019 to around USD 56.2 million (336,826 tons)."}]},{"head":"Aquaculture loss by climatic events","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Among cyclones, excess rain, floods and tidal surges, flooding appears to have been the most monetarily damaging and regularly occurring event type (at least in terms of being reported in the popular English media) for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp (Table 5). Between 2011 and 2020, floods inflicted an estimated losses of around USD 93.0 million with a quantity of around 53,604 tons of aquaculture production lost. In 2020 alone, flooding alone caused fish loss of around 21,156 tons with a monetary value of around USD 28.5 million. Cyclones were the second most damaging event, with an accumulated fish value loss of around USD 24.8 million and around 12,480 tons of fish products lost. Tidal events were the least damaging of these events and is reported, causing  A2-A6)."}]},{"head":"Validating scraped data","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Validating scraped data using Department of fisheries (DoF) dataset","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":545,"text":"Data collected by DoF for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp from July 2019 to June 2020 shows that the value of loss was USD 166.7 million. The total monetary loss of just shrimp and hatcheries computed for 2019 using scraped newspaper data was USD 15.8 million. As such, these figures estimate that media reports captured only around 9.5 percent of the total monetary loss calculated by DoF. ENACTS-BMD dataset 3.5.2.1. Barishal (for articles published between August 20 and August 28, 2020). Newspapers published on August 28, 2020 (Hossain, 2020) reported flood loss for Barishal. Monthly rainfall anomalies from 2019 to 2021 were plotted to see if the period under investigation was wetter than average. August 2020 appears as a positive anomaly in rainfall, indicating more rainfall than the average August rainfall amount in this location, at the time and in the place when the newspapers indicated flood-induced losses (Fig. 7a). However, May-June 2020 also appears to be above average, as does November 2019. The newspaper article related to this date and district published in New Age on August 28, 2020 was therefore checked. It stated that flooding started on 27 June 2020 and lasted for two months. An excerpt reported, \"Over 72,000 fish farmers have suffered nearly [BDT] 500 crore loss during the flood that continued to wreak havoc in parts of Bangladesh until Thursday, two months after it began in the north on June 27\" (Hossain, E, 2020). To understand whether the loss is due to (1) the timing of the extreme event, (2) the level of precipitation, or (3) a combination of several events, a longer time series from 2011 to 2021 was considered to understand these phenomena (Fig. 7b). These data show more severe monthly anomalies in 2013 and 2015, and more moderate but repeated anomalies in 2016 and 2017. Unfortunately, no articles were found to report on weather-induced aquaculture or fisheries losses for Barishal for 2016 and 2017; however, articles mentioned high rainfall in Bagerhat, close (approximately 40 km distance) to Barishal. If loss was due to the timing of the extreme event, this may indicate that rainfall in August may lead to more loss than rainfall in other months. A positive anomaly in August 2020 (Fig. 7c) might corroborate what newspaper articles indicate. However, this is one of four positive anomalies in August in the past 10 years, with a similar anomaly observed in August 2011 and more severe one in 2016. The scraped articles provide references to flood events in August 2016 and August 2011, supporting the research's newspaper data of flooding in August 2020. Tidal movement can also cause flood in Bangladesh irrespective of rainfall. To ascertain whether this was due to a combination of several events, anomalies from April to August for the years 2011-2021 were also analyzed. Here, 2020 does not appear as one of the worst years, compared with 2013 and 2015. There were no article with fisheries loss data for these two years (2013 and 2015) in August which could be due to the fact that aquaculture loss data was not much reported in newspapers at that time. Thus, it could still be possible that although August 2020 was not one of the worst years, the flood event did occur in the 2020."}]},{"head":"Validating scraped data using","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sunamganj (for articles published during 20-31 July 2019","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"). Sunamganj is located in the the north-east part of Bangladesh. We verified whether the flood event mentioned in an article of The Daily Star (Floods wash away Tk 9 crore fish in Sylhet division, 2019) was detectable using ENACTS-BMD rainfall data. For Sunamganj, the coordinates (longitude 91.4072 • E and latitude 26.0667 • N) were used to examine the monthly ENACTS-BMD rainfall from May to November 2019 (Fig. 8a). Surprisingly, a negative anomaly (Fig. 8b) occurred in July 2019, with a slight positive anomaly taking place in the immediately preceding months. Sunamganj faces monsoon floods, heavy prcipitation events and flash flooding, the latter being caused by heavy rainfall events in the upstream regions of the Indian state of Meghalaya (Collier, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Valildating scraped data using flood maps","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"A flood inundation map of Bagerhat (Fig. 9) shows the base period for flood mapping (20th of December in 2018, which corresponds to the dry period in Bangladesh). The blue patches on the right-hand map shows inundated areas which were without water during the base period. Although not all the ponds were inundated on 29 September 2019, the map shows that many of the surrounding places were in fact inundated. This supports the media observation that \"A sudden drop in the oxygen level has led to the deaths of shrimps in 8,000 enclosures at …\" from the article published in The Daily Star (Low oxygen level killing shrimps, 2019). The flood inundation map for Shyamnagar and Assasuni upazilas of Satkhira map (Fig. 10) shows that areas adjacent to the river boundaries were inundated. This map corroborates the newspaper report of tidal flooding on this day for these areas. From the map, it can be seen that the east part of Shyamnagar and the south part of Assasuni were inundated. The report reads as \"a 40-km of embankment has been damaged while a 10-km stretch has completely been destroyed in Koyra upazila\" and it can also be seen that south-west part of Koyra adjacent to river is submerged corroborating the report."}]},{"head":"Discussion and conclusions","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"Gathering data for different fish types was a challenging task as different newspapers reported loss information for different fish types and it became more challenging as the data was not available for all the years between 2011 and 2020 (from July of 2011 to the June of 2021). However, the novel methodological framework (i.e., scrapping, labelling, extracting and validation) adopted for the study has helped to close this data gap to a certain extent. Results showing flood to be the most damaging risk for the aquaculture sector, followed by cyclones and excessive rain events reflects that the heat wave events relevant news were not reported sufficiently. This may be due to the absence of immediate impacts of heat waves on aquaculture operations unlike heavy rain impacts causing flood and washing away fish enclosures along with fish. It is noteworthy that the fish loss data before 2017 was not regularly available for almost all the districts. There were also very few articles in 2011 that reported on aquaculture losses, which could be due to the lack of coverage of the issue by newspapers at that time. The data from Bengali newspapers also could have been used but this was not considered to avoid further time requirement regarding Bengali data labelling and data analysis. As the data here represent extracted newspaper data from only 4 newspapers, the newspaper data might have missed many real events, which is also evident from our estimate being significantly lower than the national statistics as discussed below."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Using the scraped newspaper data, we estimated that Bangladesh lost at least 7,9981 million tons of fish with a value of around USD 140.1 million between 2011 and 2020. In 2019 alone, the scraped data suggest that monetary loss for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp was around USD 15.8 million while the actual loss reported by government sources was USD 166.7 million. Using the rule of thumb of 10 times the scraped damage value representing true damage, the total monetary loss between 2011 and 2020 is at least USD 1.4 billion. Floods and cyclones have been the most devastating climate events for aqutic food systems, with accumulated estimated damage of around USD 93.0 million and USD 24.8 million respectively between 2011 and 2020. Flood was the most damaging for hatcheries, while cyclone was the most damaging for shrimp."},{"index":3,"size":207,"text":"In recent years, loss in the fisheries sector has increased significantly. In 2019, the monetary loss (according to scraped data) was around USD 15.8 million, which increased more than three-fold to USD 56.2 million in 2020. This sudden sharp increase in loss could be due either to less coverage of fish loss information in the newspapers in 2019, an increase in fish prices, increased loss in recent years, or a combination of all these potential facts. The argument for less coverage is partially supported by the avaiabiltiy of a few articles before 2017 which resulted little information on loss data. In 2020, a sharp increase in loss was witnessed as the southern or coastal districts were hit by Cyclone Amphan. Besides, the Haor region (large, round-shaped floodplain depressions located in the North-Eastern region of Bangladesh) was also the victim of heavy rainfall induced flash floods during 2020 (Bhodra and Islam, 2020). Flooding in July 2019 could have been a flash flood that actually originated from India and was not due to the rainfall event in Sunamganj. This is further corroborated by the fact that there was heavy rainfall and a positive anomaly in June, which might also have had a role in the flooding occuring in July."},{"index":4,"size":189,"text":"Low adaptive capacity of aquatic food systems to cope with this climate risks ultimately induce loss. The shrimp sector was found to be impacted more adversely than hatcheries and open water fisheries. Taking all damage types into consideration, Satkhira, Sunamganj and Bagerhat appear to have suffered the most fish loss. For hatcheries and open water fish alone, Sunamganj, Tangail and Gopalganj hae encountered the highest amount of financial loss, while Satkhira, Bagerhat and Khulna faced the highest loss for shrimp. Comparing monetary loss data for three damage types in 2019 against DoF data for 2019 indicated a large margin of under-reporting by the media; it thus can be said with high confidence that the real historical monetary loss is much higher than the estimated amount, with the alternative interpretation being that the actual losses could be around 10 times that reported in the newspapers. Verification of this rule of thumb would be possible by validating multiple years of loss data. This is left to future studies. For 2019, our estimated loss of USD 15.8 million was only 10.5 percent of the official reported data of around USD 166.7 million."},{"index":5,"size":330,"text":"This study shows how newspaper scraping can be used as a potential source of information for generating data on the historical economic impact of climate on aquatic food systems, in a data-poor environment, although given the poor match between governmental and media reports, it should not be relied upon as an exclusive data source. This method can be replicated in other countries to generate estimated financial loss data for aquaculture where official data or statistics for aquaculture loss are not available or are sparce, although efforts may be required to educate the media as to how to report on and interpret the effects of climatic events on aquatic food systems. The reported economic damage can be considered as potential cost avoided by using CIS for a short lead time (i. e., 5 or 7 days) to deal with varaibiltiy induced risks (Hossain et al., 2021) as well as for a moderate lead time (seasonal) to deal with the extreme events' induces risks. This estimate can be an upper limit of economic value of aquaculture CIS and potentially provide a range of values for different sectors. To underscore the importance of aquaculture CIS, a decision framework (Hossain et al., 2021) for managing temperature and rainfall varaibility induced risks in aquaculture of Bangladesh can be given, This framework is integrated into the existing digital platform (https://www.agvisely.com/about) initiated by CIMMYT for providing climate information services for a range of food systems. This aquaculture decsion framework is able to trigger advisories if the weather forcast exceeds the temeprature and/or rainfall thresholds identified for the selcted fish spcies. This is a live example from south-west and north-east part of the country for managing cliamte idnuced loss and/or damge of fish-farmers by taking pond water quality and/or feed management relevant decsions like feed convertion ratio, application of lime, use of aerator, adding ground water to balance pH, dissolved O2 and water temperature along with reduced disease outbreak and mortality rate, and optimal growth of fish stock."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"If the CIS can offset at least 10 percent of climate-induced damage to aquaculture, and the scraping reports 10 percent of the actual damage, the value of CIS is approximately the same as the scraped monetary value (that is, around USD140 million) in Bangladesh between 2011 and 2020 (USD14 million per year). This demonstrates the potential of CIS in targeting aquatic food systems, indicating that for every additional 10 percent of damage offset, the estimated value of CIS increases by approximately USD 14 million annually."},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":"The study shows that investing in CIS and enabling offsetting actions by different supply chain actors like farmers and hatchery owners can create substantial benefits for the country, catalysing aquaculture growth, enhancing nutritional security and contributing to poverty allevaiation. There is a need for public and private sector attention in utilizing this opportunity. Furthermore, considering the earlier mentioned challenges regarding the availability of climate-induced loss and damage data, this study recommends implementing a broad range of climate literacy programs at the national level. These programs should target not only journalists for better capture and reporting but also extension officers, local service providers, and fish-farmers. This would enable them to identify climateinduced direct and indirect issues, assess associated losses, and report to relevant authorities to receive more appropriate climate advisories for specific risk management. "}]},{"head":"Declaration of competing interest","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.  "}]},{"head":"Table A2","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Monetary loss in USD million and loss in tons by event for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp (loss in quantity in tons, within parentheses).     "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Workflow. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Data labeling framework. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Aggregated estimated monetary and physical losses for the hatchery and open water fish sector in Bangladesh. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Total monetary loss of hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp for different districts from 2011 to 2020. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Bangladesh national estimated monetary and physical loss for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 . Fig. 7. Rainfall anomalies in Barisal. "},{"text":"Fig. 8 . Fig. 8. Rainfall anomalies for a point location in Sunamganj. "},{"text":"Fig. 9 . Fig. 9. Flood inundation map for five pond locations in Bagerhat. "},{"text":"Fig. 10 . Fig. 10. Flood inundation map for Shyamnagar and Assasuni upazilas of Satkhira. "},{"text":"Fig. A1 . Fig. A1. Interpolating monetary damage for a district for any particular fish type. "},{"text":"Fig. A2 . Fig. A2. Interpolating damage data in metric tons for a single district and for a single fish type. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Distribution of scraped articles under different query sets. Keywords The Daily Star New Age Dhaka Tribune The Independent Total KeywordsThe Daily StarNew AgeDhaka TribuneThe IndependentTotal Query 1 (fish loss OR shrimp loss) 114 (23) 54 (9) 72 (32) 32 (7) 240 Query 1 (fish loss OR shrimp loss)114 (23)54 (9)72 (32)32 (7)240 Query 2 (aquaculture OR washed away) 71 (8) 57 (4) 40 (4) 6 (3) 168 Query 2 (aquaculture OR washed away)71 (8)57 (4)40 (4)6 (3)168 Query 3 (fish OR shrimp OR washed away) 39 (2) 0 (0) 0 (0) 81 (3) 39 Query 3 (fish OR shrimp OR washed away)39 (2)0 (0)0 (0)81 (3)39 Total 224 (33) 111 (    Total224 (33)111 (  "},{"text":"Table 2 Five pond locations in Bagerhat district. Upazila/district Pond location     Upazila/districtPond location  Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3 Pond 4 Pond 5 Pond 1Pond 2Pond 3Pond 4Pond 5 Fakirhat upazila, Bagerhat district N 22.75968 N 22.773685 N 22.799685 N 22.683061 N 22.672330 Fakirhat upazila, Bagerhat districtN 22.75968N 22.773685N 22.799685N 22.683061N 22.672330  E 89.694366 E 89.719440 E 89.734670 E 89.721744 E 89.744559 E 89.694366E 89.719440E 89.734670E 89.721744E 89.744559  "},{"text":"Table 3 Total monetary loss estimates for hatcheries and open water fish (in BDT million) and loss in quantity in tons between 2011 and 2020. District Monetary loss (in million USD) Loss in quantity (in tons) DistrictMonetary loss (in million USD)Loss in quantity (in tons) Sunamganj 19.4 14644.0 Sunamganj19.414644.0 Tangail 6.3 10369.4 Tangail6.310369.4 Gopalganj 5.3 3212 Gopalganj5.33212 Jamalpur 5.2 3052.3 Jamalpur5.23052.3 Satkhira 3.9 2907.6 Satkhira3.92907.6 Naogaon 2.6 1983.1 Naogaon2.61983.1 Gaibandha 2.6 2622.4 Gaibandha2.62622.4 Netrakona 2.5 1181.0 Netrakona2.51181.0 Lalmonirhat 1.1 793.2 Lalmonirhat1.1793.2 Munshiganj 0.9 713.9 Munshiganj0.9713.9 Sylhet 0.7 3518.0 Sylhet0.73518.0 Sirajganj 0.3 155.0 Sirajganj0.3155.0 Habiganj 0.2 257.4 Habiganj0.2257.4 Rangpur 0.2 88.0 Rangpur0.288.0 Rajshahi 0.1 53.2 Rajshahi0.153.2 Maulvibazar 0.1 78.5 Maulvibazar0.178.5 Kurigram 0.1 100.3 Kurigram0.1100.3 Khulna 0.0004 0.3 Khulna0.00040.3  "},{"text":"Table 4 Total monetary loss for shrimp (in BDT million) and loss in quantity in tons between 2011 and 2020. District Monetary loss (in million USD) Loss in quantity (in tons) DistrictMonetary loss (in million USD)Loss in quantity (in tons) Satkhira 15.7 5,649.3 Satkhira15.75,649.3 Bagerhat 11.9 4,294.8 Bagerhat11.94,294.8 Khulna 0.5 185.4 Khulna0.5185.4  "},{"text":"Table 5 Monetary loss (in USD million) for all fish types (hatcheries, open water fish, shrimp) and loss in quantity in tons. District Monetary loss (in million USD) Loss in quantity (in tons) DistrictMonetary loss (in million USD)Loss in quantity (in tons) Satkhira 25.9 11,928 Satkhira25.911,928 Sunamganj 19.4 14,645 Sunamganj19.414,645 Bagerhat 19.2 6906 Bagerhat19.26906 Patuakhali 12.0 2136 Patuakhali12.02136 Khulna 11.2 7576 Khulna11.27576 Jessore 9.5 3422 Jessore9.53422 Lalmonirhat 7.6 2718 Lalmonirhat7.62718 Tangail 6.4 10,505 Tangail6.410,505 Jamalpur 6.1 3233 Jamalpur6.13233 Gopalganj 5.3 3212 Gopalganj5.33212 Naogaon 4.7 2743 Naogaon4.72743 Gaibandha 2.7 2668 Gaibandha2.72668 Netrakona 2.5 1181 Netrakona2.51181 Natore 2.2 798 Natore2.2798 Madaripur 2.0 1000 Madaripur2.01000 Munshiganj 0.9 714 Munshiganj0.9714 Kurigram 0.8 366 Kurigram0.8366 Sylhet 0.7 3518 Sylhet0.73518 Sirajganj 0.3 155 Sirajganj0.3155 Habiganj 0.2 257 Habiganj0.2257 Rangpur 0.2 88 Rangpur0.288 Rajshahi 0.1 53 Rajshahi0.153 Barisal 0.1 40 Barisal0.140 Joypurhat 0.1 38 Joypurhat0.138 Maulvibazar 0.1 79 Maulvibazar0.179  "},{"text":"Table A3 Monetary loss in USD million due to flood in different years for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp (loss in quantity in tons, within parentheses). Fish type 2011 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total Fish type20112014201520162017201820192020Total Hatcheries and open water fish 3.9 0.6 1.4 13.7 0.1 NA 8.0 17.3 45.1 Hatcheries and open water fish3.90.61.413.70.1NA8.017.345.1  (2908) (9 6 8) (1078) (9603) (53)  (6299) (18132) (38970) (2908)(9 6 8)(1078)(9603)(53)(6299)(18132)(38970) Shrimp 15.3 NA NA NA NA 0.5 0.1 2.4 18.3 Shrimp15.3NANANANA0.50.12.418.3  (5488)     (1 6 8) (39) (8 7 4) (6570) (5488)(1 6 8)(39)(8 7 4)(6570)  "},{"text":"Table A4 Monetary loss in USD million due to cyclone in different years for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp (loss in quantity in tons, within parentheses). Fish type 2019 2020 Total Fish type20192020Total Hatcheries and open water fish NA 0.0004 (0.32) 0.0004 (0.32) Hatcheries and open water fishNA0.0004 (0.32)0.0004 (0.32) Shrimp 0.4 (134.94) 5.3 (1900.66) 5.7 (2035.6) Shrimp0.4 (134.94)5.3 (1900.66)5.7 (2035.6)  "},{"text":"Table A5 Monetary loss in USD million due to rain in different years for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp (loss in quantity in tons, within parentheses). Fish type 2012 2019 2020 Total Fish type201220192020Total Hatcheries and open water fish NA NA 6.5 6.5 Hatcheries and open water fishNANA6.56.5    (6760.62) (6760.02) (6760.62)(6760.02) Shrimp 0.3 3.2 0.6 4.1 Shrimp0.33.20.64.1  (126.926) (1140.396) (205.2712) (1472.593) (126.926)(1140.396)(205.2712)(1472.593)  "},{"text":"Table A6 Loss due to tidal flood in different years for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp. Fish type 2020 Total Fish type2020Total Shrimp 0.1 (51.58) 0.1 (51.58) Shrimp0.1 (51.58)0.1 (51.58)  "}],"sieverID":"d53cecdf-0e74-4cb5-a7e8-607a7239a5c5","abstract":"Very little research has focused on climate impacts on aquaculture and the potential of climate information services (CIS) for aquaculture to support sustainable development goals 2030 (SDGs). 1 This study represents an effort to bridge this gap by conducting a first ex-ante economic evaluation of CIS for aquaculture in Bangladesh by semi-automating the extraction of data on climate-induced fish losses during 2011 to 2021 from popular online newspaper articles and corroborating them with available government and satellite datasets. During this period, Bangladesh faced an estimated loss of around 140 million USD for hatcheries, open water fish and shrimp. When validated with a year of country-wide official data on climate-induced economic losses to aquaculture, the damage reported from these media sources is approximately 10 percent of actual losses. Given this rule of thumb, the potential economic value of aquacultural CIS could be up to USD14 million a year, if 10 percent of the damage can be offset by appropriate services through a range of multi-sector efforts to establish and extend these services to farmers at scale."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08f98b3a2b8d095c4b4634079c1cbe79","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/078e7036-e428-4222-888b-fc7725ad7608/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Promoting appropriate mechanization options in Ethiopia: Lessons learned and the way forward","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia involves mixed crop-livestock farming systems with maize, wheat, teff and barley as the major food security cereal crops. Faba bean, lentil, common bean and chickpea are key food security pulse crops. Production, post-harvest processing and transportation of these crops rely on human and animal power, and the labour burden is largely placed on women and children. High value crops produced in home gardens also involve high labour input during watering using the bucket system or drag horse. Appropriate mechanization technologies have opened opportunities for reducing the drudgery on smallholder farms in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Since 2016, Africa RISING, together with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), has implemented agricultural mechanization technologies for land preparation and planting, harvesting, post-harvest processing and micro-irrigation. Mechanization technological options have been tested and promoted on smallholder farms in the four regions (Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' [SNNP]) of Ethiopia. These mechanization technologies, powered by low horsepower two-wheel tractors (2WT), include ploughing, planting, harvesting, threshing, shelling, water pumping and transport services."}]},{"head":"Research and scaling approach","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The technologies have been demonstrated and scaled out through individual and youth group service provision models. The service providers received technical and agribusiness training to ensure correct and efficient operation of equipment and proper running of their businesses. Mechanization based on 2WT powered technologies has opened opportunities for employment creation for the rural youth who are organized in groups and are providing different services. Additionally, more employment opportunities have been created by individual service providers who employ the youth at peak periods in the farming calendar. The promotion of these mechanization technologies has succeeded due to strong partnerships with the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Resources (MoALR), agriculture equipment manufacturers and importers in the private sector, and microfinance/leasing companies in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned (2016-2021)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Over the years, the partnership between Africa-RISING in the Ethiopian highlands and CIMMYT has enabled the carrying out of various generic research technologies and scaling out of these technologies in the maize and wheat growing regions of Ethiopia. The followings are some of the major lessons and achievements of this partnership."}]},{"head":"(i) Aligning activities with government agriculture development priorities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The Ethiopian government through the MoALR developed a national mechanization strategy for the country. Consequently, Africa RISING and its partners aligned mechanization projects with the government strategy. Eventually, the MoALR jointly invested in equipment, which has enhanced the scaling out of mechanization services in Ethiopia. Additionally, the MoALR co-invested in capacity development of service providers and frontline staff from the Bureau of Agriculture in different project sites. This partnership has set a strong base for the ongoing scaling out of different mechanization technologies in rural farming communities of Ethiopia and enabled the licensing of 2WT operators who use the official road network when they are conducting their daily businesses."}]},{"head":"(ii) Appropriate niches for different mechanization technologies","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Experience from Ethiopia indicates that appropriate mechanization technologies can be implemented in dryland and irrigated crop and livestock production systems and peri-urban centres. Mechanization services required in each community depend on farmers' needs and the biophysical conditions of the area (e.g. topography and soil types where direct seeding is targeted). Harvesting and threshing services are highly requested by farmers and are lucrative for service providers in the wheat and barley growing communities. Shelling, rather than direct planting, is highly needed in maize growing smallholder farms. Access to reliable water sources and production of high value crops are critical for the provision of water pumping services. Rural communities where different services are required by farmers at different times of the year are ideal for service providers to invest in a wide range of equipment. Additionally, availability of good road network, spare parts, fuel and oil supplies is critical for the sustainability of mechanization businesses. Consequently, needs analysis is a critical first step in the large-scale promotion of appropriate mechanization technologies in rural communities."}]},{"head":"(iii) Characteristics of an ideal service provider","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Selection of service providers is an important first step for the success of scaling out appropriate mechanization technologies in rural communities. An individual who is business-minded, enterprising and prepared to invest financial resources into expanding their businesses is an ideal candidate for service provider. Service providers who invest time in looking for clients, maintaining their equipment, and seeking additional training were effective service providers than those that always sought assistance from the project even after 4-5 years after engaging in mechanization services. Selection of service providers by the community led to challenges when an individual was selected based on their social status in the area."}]},{"head":"(iv) Importance of partnerships","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The importance of partnerships in delivering project outputs in difficult times was demonstrated in 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic began. Partnering with organizations with a similar research and development vision allows leveraging of resources (e.g. human and financial), and more effective use of available financial resources in scaling out of promising technologies in smallholder farming communities. With the active participation of MoALR in the promotion of mechanization technologies, more government departments got involved in mechanization as demonstrated by the involvement of the police and road transport authority in licensing 2WT operators. The ministry involved SMEs in registering the service providers, and the Ministry of Finance exempted imported agriculture equipment from tax."}]},{"head":"(v) Engaging key stakeholders","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The process of bringing stakeholders to participate in the promotion of mechanization technologies is best implemented in a stepwise manner. Roundtable discussions to introduce mechanization technologies forms the initial stage of the process. Exposure and learning visits to project sites was a critical stage of the process as it afforded new stakeholders a chance to see technologies in use and interact with rural communities participating in projects. The private sector stakeholders had an opportunity to identify possible entry points for their own businesses during these learning and exposure visits. Continued participation of potential stakeholders in field days and awareness creation campaigns further enhanced relationship development and securing mechanization business opportunities in the rural farming communities. "}]},{"head":"(vii) Income generation by value chain actors","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Different value chain actors generate income during the promotion of different mechanization technologies in rural communities. Smallholder farmers reduce production costs by mechanizing some of the field operations. Rural entrepreneurs operating as service providers generate income by providing different mechanization services throughout the year. Business opportunities for service providers vary with location and time of the year. During peak harvesting and post-harvest processing (threshing and shelling) stages, service providers generated the highest income compared with other periods of the year. Equipment manufacturers and importers generate income through equipment sales while microfinance/leasing institutions provide loans and equipment to service providers at a given interest rate."}]},{"head":"(viii) Employment creation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Employment opportunities arise at different levels in the process of promoting and utilizing mechanization technologies and services. Service provider get engaged in income generation for their own livelihoods. Additionally, service providers recruit machine operators particularly during the peak seasons such as post-harvest processing. In the private sector, employment opportunities are created in the equipment importing and manufacturing companies when demand for certain machineries has increased. This was demonstrated by Amio Pvt. Ltd., which increased its casual labour force in order to meet equipment demand. Employment opportunities were also created in the aftersales services sector as more machines were acquired by the increased number of service providers in rural farming communities. However, youth employment through service provision of mechanization services must be competitive in order to attracts and retain the youth in agriculture."}]},{"head":"(ix) Access to new equipment, spare parts, repair and maintenance services","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"As service providers get more experience and expand their businesses, availability of farming equipment on the local market in the country is critical. When equipment is not manufactured locally, its importing should be a smooth to allow service providers to get equipment in time for the different peak periods of demand. Delayed access to equipment during peak periods of farm operations can be a major bottleneck in scaling out mechanization technologies. Equipment breakdown during service provision happens and can derail business activities for service providers. Therefore, setting up of a network of spare parts dealers and aftersales services (e.g. fuel and engine oil supply, repair workshops etc.) is important for sustainable scaling out of mechanization technologies. Regular technical backstopping of service providers ensures that rural dealers stock the right spare parts for the equipment providing services to farmers."}]},{"head":"(x) Communication channels","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Information dissemination to achieve different objectives requires the use of various channels that can reach target communities in a country. Experience from Ethiopia indicated that radio and television are quite effective in awareness creation beyond the project sites. Short videos and social media platforms (e.g. Twitter) are important channels when internet connectivity is available. In some rural communities, village meetings convened by traditional leaders were quite effective in advertising mechanization services available from service providers."}]},{"head":"Way forward and opportunities for promoting mechanization technologies","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The Africa RISING project and CIMMYT work closely with government and private sector partners to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. During the implementation of projects, new opportunities for increasing the impact of appropriate mechanization on rural livelihoods were noted. Additionally, the potential for integrating appropriate mechanization with other technologies was also observed in different parts of the Ethiopian highlands. The notable opportunities include:"},{"index":2,"size":375,"text":"• Linking post-harvest appropriate mechanization technologies and improving grain storage technologies need to be explored in communities where crop productivity has improved due to increased precision in inputs use through mechanization. The potential for integrating mechanization and grain storage was evident in the maize growing areas of western Ethiopia. • High soil acidity is one of the major biophysical constraints limiting crop productivity in smallholder farming systems. The recently developed tractor powered lime spreader prototype has the potential of playing a key role in lime application, and hence soil acidity alleviation on smallholder farms. • Some service providers are now aiming at upgrading from the 2WT to low horsepower 4-wheel tractors that can perform the same farm operations as the 2WT. Small horsepower 4-wheel tractors are now available in the market from a few private sector equipment importers in Ethiopia. In addition, some of the tested and validated equipment can now be manufactured locally, and this will help in meeting the increasing demand for it. • Leasing scheme for new equipment acquisition: The leasing scheme for agricultural equipment offers service providers an opportunity to acquire additional equipment and expand mechanization services for rural communities. • Livestock is a key component of mixed smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia. Farmers observed that threshers used for processing wheat and barley often leave the straw of these crops in an appropriate size for livestock feeding at the homestead. Additionally, straw/stover choppers can be integrated with the set of equipment which are being promoted in maize and wheat/barley growing parts of the Ethiopian highlands. • Through the mechanization forum and awareness creation activities conducted during the project, national and international non-governmental organizations are keen to be part of scaling out mechanization technologies in their operational areas. • Recently there are indications that linkages can be created to integrate the current portfolio of appropriate mechanization technologies with private sector companies involved in food processing. Such companies require adequate and reliable supply of raw materials (i.e. grain from smallholder farmers through contract farming arrangements) in order to supply the demand for their products on the food market. Therefore, linking planting, harvesting and post-harvest processing, as well as lime application with food processors can increase the impact of mechanization on the value chain. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( vi) Capacity development of stakeholders Different stakeholders operating along the mechanization value chain require training in order to efficiently deliver their contributions. Repeated technical and agribusiness training conducted during the implementation of projects played a critical role in ensuring efficient delivery of mechanization services. Training of mechanics on repair and servicing of new equipment complimented the training given to service providers in ensuring sustained promotion of mechanization technologies. Twice a year, technical training of new service providers and government frontline staff has sustained the ongoing promotion of mechanization technologies in Ethiopia. One of the major outcomes of the technical training was the ability of service providers to continue providing services during the COVID-19 pandemic when physical technical backstopping was halted due to travel restrictions. "},{"text":" This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. July 2021. The Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program comprises three research for development projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development as part of the U.S. government's Feed the Future initiative. Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The three projects are led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (in West Africa and East and Southern Africa) and the International Livestock Research Institute (in the Ethiopian Highlands). The International Food Policy Research Institute leads an associated project on monitoring, evaluation, and impact assessment. Prepared by Walter Mupangwa (CIMMYT), Rabe Yahaya (CIMMYT), Kindu Mekonnen (ILRI) and Haimanot Seifu (ILRI) Two-wheel tractor powered technologies tested, validated and scaled out in different regions of Ethiopia (photos: CIM-MYT/Mupangwa, Walter) "}],"sieverID":"8676cd3d-ba18-4966-882d-2ae06455236b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0965df428bb6751db066b8895dc6e25a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc444054-c5da-4de0-9666-c1c242a95f65/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Study #2701 Contributing Projects: • P857 -Mainstreaming the use and application of DNA Fingerprinting for plants for tracking crop varieties in Ethiopia • P2087 -Scaling out small-scale mechanization in Ethiopia • P964 -Identify, analyze and map key maize (a)biotic stresses in selected countries in SSA • P834 -Improving Soil Fertility in Ethiopia (ISFM+) • P853 -Sustainable intensification of maize-legume cropping systems for food security in eastern and southern Africa (SIMLESA)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture has adopted conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification as part of its extension package and cascaded it to regional agriculture bureaus for implementation in 2019. A manual that guides the implementation of CA-based sustainable intensification including a gender-oriented participatory extension approach is developed in local language and was distributed to implementing actors."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Despite active participation of Ethiopian NARS partners in the SIMLESA project (2010 -Oct 2019), there was limited knowledge, investment and promotion of CASI (conservation agriculture based sustainable Intensification) at all levels in Ethiopia. A major concern was that the technical and political leaders of the Ministry of Agriculture associated CASI with sole and heavy use of herbicides, manual farming and competition with livestock feed, resulting in CA not getting much attention from decision makers and influential actors, due to the negative discourse. Several well-designed advocacy activities were implemented to change mindsets and promote adoption of CASI by the national extension system."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"The following was achieved: (i) the Ethiopia's Ministry of Agriculture developed a national CASI program and has issued directives to include CASI in the extension package and promote it where it is appropriate; (ii) a critical mass of CASI champions have been established at the federal level, promoting CASI; (iii) integration of programs within the Ministry of Agriculture for CASI scaling has started; (iv) several partners have increased their level of engagement with local governments; (v) strategic partnerships and collaboration with technical and political leaders were established; (vi) enhanced capacity of partners and local community groups in forming coalitions at national, regional and local levels to advance the CASI mainstreaming at different levels."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"39c389e0-d0c2-4701-97d5-487524e71a04","abstract":"Published research evidence were used to develop policy briefs and task forces, to engage policy makers at several levels in a series of workshops and meetings over years. The efforts resulted in the 2019 adoption of conservation agriculture-based sustainable intensification (CASI) as an extension package by the Ministry of Agriculture of Ethiopia, offering significant yield, income and time saving gains to smallholder farmers practising maize-legumes cropping systems, as well as climate change adaptation benefits."}